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Professional career
-------------------
### Detroit Lions (first stint)
Pritchett was selected by the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys "Dallas Cowboys") in the first round (20th overall) of the [1991 NFL draft](/wiki/1991_NFL_draft "1991 NFL draft"), who traded him immediately to the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") in exchange for a second round (\#37\-[Dixon Edwards](/wiki/Dixon_Edwards "Dixon Edwards")), third round (\#64\-[James Richards](/wiki/James_Richards_%28Canadian_football%29 "James Richards (Canadian football)")) and fourth round (\#108\-[Tony Hill](/wiki/Tony_Hill_%28defensive_end%29 "Tony Hill (defensive end)")) selections.{{Cite web \|title\=1991 NFL Draft Listing \|url\=https://www.pro\-football\-reference.com/years/1991/draft.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-07 \|website\=Pro\-Football\-Reference.com \|language\=en}}{{cite web\| url\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1991/04/29/big\-d\-day\-the\-dallas\-cowboys\-went\-on\-the\-attack\-in\-the\-nfl\-draft\-and\-took\-all\-the\-right\-prisoners \| title\=Big D Day \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1891\&dat\=19910422\&id\=wawfAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=n9YEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5602,2330814 \| title\=Cowboys corral Maryland with top pick in NFL draft \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\| url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dallas/cowboys/post/\_/id/4707707/reviewing\-jerrys\-first\-round\-trade\-down\-deals \| title\=Reviewing Jerry's first\-round trade\-down deals \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} As a rookie, he was a backup on a team that went 12\-4 and advanced to the NFC championship game. He collected 20 tackles and 1\.5 sacks.
In [1992](/wiki/1992_NFL_season "1992 NFL season"), he started 15 out of 16 games at [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end "Defensive end") in his second year and registered 38 tackles, 6\.5 sacks (second on the team and career\-high) and one forced fumble. He had 3 tackles and 2 sacks against the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Bengals "Cincinnati Bengals").
In [1993](/wiki/1993_NFL_season "1993 NFL season"), he only started the last five regular season games at [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end "Defensive end") in the team's [3\-4 defense](/wiki/3-4_defense "3-4 defense"), recording 42 tackles (33 solo) and 4 sacks. He had 2 sacks against the [Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/Phoenix_Cardinals "Phoenix Cardinals").
In [1994](/wiki/1994_NFL_season "1994 NFL season"), he missed most of preseason in a contract holdout and did not start the season opener against the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons"). He started 15 out of 16 games, finishing second on the team with 5\.5 sacks and a career\-high 73 tackles. He had 3 sacks in the twelfth game against the [Buffalo Bills](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills "Buffalo Bills").{{cite web\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/25/sports/football\-little\-switch\-pays\-a\-big\-dividend\-for\-lions.html \| title\=Little Switch Pays a Big Dividend for Lions \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} In [1995](/wiki/1995_NFL_season "1995 NFL season"), he was moved back to [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end "Defensive end") switching sides with [Robert Porcher](/wiki/Robert_Porcher "Robert Porcher"), recording 73 tackles (sixth on the team) and 5\.5 sacks (second on the team).
### Jacksonville Jaguars
On March 11, [1995](/wiki/1995_NFL_season "1995 NFL season"), he was signed by the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/Jacksonville_Jaguars "Jacksonville Jaguars") as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") to a four\-year $8\.6 million contract before the start of the franchise's first season, with the intention of playing him at [left defensive tackle](/wiki/Defensive_tackle "Defensive tackle").{{cite web\| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1876\&dat\=19950715\&id\=ueseAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=Yc8EAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4466,2842922 \| title\=All Jaguars reach camp \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} He finished with 101 tackles (third on the team) and 1\.5 sacks.
In [1996](/wiki/1996_NFL_season "1996 NFL season"), he missed three games with a pulled groin, ending a string of 82 consecutive games. He started 4 out of 13 games, backing up most of season [John Jurkovic](/wiki/John_Jurkovic "John Jurkovic") and [Don Davey](/wiki/Don_Davey "Don Davey"), although he saw extensive action in most games. He posted 39 tackles, 2 sacks, 7 quarterback pressures and 2 fumbles recoveries. He had 7 tackles, one sack and one quarterback pressure against the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots "New England Patriots").
In [1997](/wiki/1997_NFL_season "1997 NFL season"), he started five games in place of Jurkovic, who was lost for the year with a broken leg suffered in the fourth game. He set a team record with 3 sacks in a single\-game against the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Bengals "Cincinnati Bengals").{{cite web\| url\=https://www.espn.com/blog/jacksonville\-jaguars/post/\_/id/22446/change\-of\-address\-for\-jacksonville\-now\-its\-sacksonville \| title\=Change of address for Jacksonville: Now it's Sacksonville \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} Pritchett tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee during a one\-on\-one drill on November 4, finishing the season on the [injured reserve list](/wiki/Injured_reserve_list "Injured reserve list").{{cite web\| url\=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1\-57464683/jags\-lose\-pritchett\-boselli\-plans\-early\-return \| title\=Jags Lose Pritchett Boselli Plans Early Return \| publisher\=The Florida Times Union \| author\=Oehser, John \| date\=November 5, 1997 \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/06/sports/transactions\-997900\.html \| title\=Transactions \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} He registered 44 tackles (2 for loss), 3 sacks, 9 quarterback pressures and one fumble recovery
In [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season "1998 NFL season"), he started 9 out of 15 games, after being limited with an hyperextended elbow and a sprained ankle. He collected 37 tackles (4 for loss), 3 sacks and 15 quarterback pressures.
### Detroit Lions (second stint)
On April 23, [1999](/wiki/1999_NFL_season "1999 NFL season"), he was signed as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent "Free agent") by the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions").{{cite web\| url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/24/sports/transactions\-381411\.html \| title\=Transactions \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}} He became a key backup, registering 26 tackles (20 solo).{{cite web\| url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/football/pritchett\-stays\-put\-with\-lions\-1\.408857 \| title\=Pritchett stays put with Lions \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}}
In [2004](/wiki/2004_NFL_season "2004 NFL season"), although he was a third\-string [defensive tackle](/wiki/Defensive_tackle "Defensive tackle"), he was also a part of the kickoff wedge team ([Jared DeVries](/wiki/Jared_DeVries "Jared DeVries"), [Tyrone Hopson](/wiki/Tyrone_Hopson "Tyrone Hopson") and [Cory Schlesinger](/wiki/Cory_Schlesinger "Cory Schlesinger")) that received a [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams "Special teams") recognition from [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today "USA Today")'s "All\-Joe Team".{{cite web\| url\=http://usatoday30\.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/2005\-01\-05\-all\-joe\-team\_x.htm \| title\=All\-Joe members worth their weight in gold \| access\-date\=February 2, 2020}}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Detroit Lions (first stint)",
"Pritchett was selected by the [Dallas Cowboys](/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys \"Dallas Cowboys\") in the first round (20th overall) of the [1991 NFL draft](/wiki/1991_NFL_draft \"1991 NFL draft\"), who traded him immediately to the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") in exchange for a second round (\\#37\\-[Dixon Edwards](/wiki/Dixon_Edwards \"Dixon Edwards\")), third round (\\#64\\-[James Richards](/wiki/James_Richards_%28Canadian_football%29 \"James Richards (Canadian football)\")) and fourth round (\\#108\\-[Tony Hill](/wiki/Tony_Hill_%28defensive_end%29 \"Tony Hill (defensive end)\")) selections.{{Cite web \\|title\\=1991 NFL Draft Listing \\|url\\=https://www.pro\\-football\\-reference.com/years/1991/draft.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-07 \\|website\\=Pro\\-Football\\-Reference.com \\|language\\=en}}{{cite web\\| url\\=https://vault.si.com/vault/1991/04/29/big\\-d\\-day\\-the\\-dallas\\-cowboys\\-went\\-on\\-the\\-attack\\-in\\-the\\-nfl\\-draft\\-and\\-took\\-all\\-the\\-right\\-prisoners \\| title\\=Big D Day \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1891\\&dat\\=19910422\\&id\\=wawfAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=n9YEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5602,2330814 \\| title\\=Cowboys corral Maryland with top pick in NFL draft \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/dallas/cowboys/post/\\_/id/4707707/reviewing\\-jerrys\\-first\\-round\\-trade\\-down\\-deals \\| title\\=Reviewing Jerry's first\\-round trade\\-down deals \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} As a rookie, he was a backup on a team that went 12\\-4 and advanced to the NFC championship game. He collected 20 tackles and 1\\.5 sacks.",
"In [1992](/wiki/1992_NFL_season \"1992 NFL season\"), he started 15 out of 16 games at [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end \"Defensive end\") in his second year and registered 38 tackles, 6\\.5 sacks (second on the team and career\\-high) and one forced fumble. He had 3 tackles and 2 sacks against the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Bengals \"Cincinnati Bengals\").",
"In [1993](/wiki/1993_NFL_season \"1993 NFL season\"), he only started the last five regular season games at [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end \"Defensive end\") in the team's [3\\-4 defense](/wiki/3-4_defense \"3-4 defense\"), recording 42 tackles (33 solo) and 4 sacks. He had 2 sacks against the [Phoenix Cardinals](/wiki/Phoenix_Cardinals \"Phoenix Cardinals\").",
"In [1994](/wiki/1994_NFL_season \"1994 NFL season\"), he missed most of preseason in a contract holdout and did not start the season opener against the [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\"). He started 15 out of 16 games, finishing second on the team with 5\\.5 sacks and a career\\-high 73 tackles. He had 3 sacks in the twelfth game against the [Buffalo Bills](/wiki/Buffalo_Bills \"Buffalo Bills\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/25/sports/football\\-little\\-switch\\-pays\\-a\\-big\\-dividend\\-for\\-lions.html \\| title\\=Little Switch Pays a Big Dividend for Lions \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} In [1995](/wiki/1995_NFL_season \"1995 NFL season\"), he was moved back to [right defensive end](/wiki/Defensive_end \"Defensive end\") switching sides with [Robert Porcher](/wiki/Robert_Porcher \"Robert Porcher\"), recording 73 tackles (sixth on the team) and 5\\.5 sacks (second on the team).",
"### Jacksonville Jaguars",
"On March 11, [1995](/wiki/1995_NFL_season \"1995 NFL season\"), he was signed by the [Jacksonville Jaguars](/wiki/Jacksonville_Jaguars \"Jacksonville Jaguars\") as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") to a four\\-year $8\\.6 million contract before the start of the franchise's first season, with the intention of playing him at [left defensive tackle](/wiki/Defensive_tackle \"Defensive tackle\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1876\\&dat\\=19950715\\&id\\=ueseAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=Yc8EAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4466,2842922 \\| title\\=All Jaguars reach camp \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} He finished with 101 tackles (third on the team) and 1\\.5 sacks.",
"In [1996](/wiki/1996_NFL_season \"1996 NFL season\"), he missed three games with a pulled groin, ending a string of 82 consecutive games. He started 4 out of 13 games, backing up most of season [John Jurkovic](/wiki/John_Jurkovic \"John Jurkovic\") and [Don Davey](/wiki/Don_Davey \"Don Davey\"), although he saw extensive action in most games. He posted 39 tackles, 2 sacks, 7 quarterback pressures and 2 fumbles recoveries. He had 7 tackles, one sack and one quarterback pressure against the [New England Patriots](/wiki/New_England_Patriots \"New England Patriots\").",
"In [1997](/wiki/1997_NFL_season \"1997 NFL season\"), he started five games in place of Jurkovic, who was lost for the year with a broken leg suffered in the fourth game. He set a team record with 3 sacks in a single\\-game against the [Cincinnati Bengals](/wiki/Cincinnati_Bengals \"Cincinnati Bengals\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.espn.com/blog/jacksonville\\-jaguars/post/\\_/id/22446/change\\-of\\-address\\-for\\-jacksonville\\-now\\-its\\-sacksonville \\| title\\=Change of address for Jacksonville: Now it's Sacksonville \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} Pritchett tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee during a one\\-on\\-one drill on November 4, finishing the season on the [injured reserve list](/wiki/Injured_reserve_list \"Injured reserve list\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1\\-57464683/jags\\-lose\\-pritchett\\-boselli\\-plans\\-early\\-return \\| title\\=Jags Lose Pritchett Boselli Plans Early Return \\| publisher\\=The Florida Times Union \\| author\\=Oehser, John \\| date\\=November 5, 1997 \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}}{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/06/sports/transactions\\-997900\\.html \\| title\\=Transactions \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} He registered 44 tackles (2 for loss), 3 sacks, 9 quarterback pressures and one fumble recovery",
"In [1998](/wiki/1998_NFL_season \"1998 NFL season\"), he started 9 out of 15 games, after being limited with an hyperextended elbow and a sprained ankle. He collected 37 tackles (4 for loss), 3 sacks and 15 quarterback pressures.",
"### Detroit Lions (second stint)",
"On April 23, [1999](/wiki/1999_NFL_season \"1999 NFL season\"), he was signed as a [free agent](/wiki/Free_agent \"Free agent\") by the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\").{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/24/sports/transactions\\-381411\\.html \\| title\\=Transactions \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}} He became a key backup, registering 26 tackles (20 solo).{{cite web\\| url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/football/pritchett\\-stays\\-put\\-with\\-lions\\-1\\.408857 \\| title\\=Pritchett stays put with Lions \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}}",
"In [2004](/wiki/2004_NFL_season \"2004 NFL season\"), although he was a third\\-string [defensive tackle](/wiki/Defensive_tackle \"Defensive tackle\"), he was also a part of the kickoff wedge team ([Jared DeVries](/wiki/Jared_DeVries \"Jared DeVries\"), [Tyrone Hopson](/wiki/Tyrone_Hopson \"Tyrone Hopson\") and [Cory Schlesinger](/wiki/Cory_Schlesinger \"Cory Schlesinger\")) that received a [special teams](/wiki/Special_teams \"Special teams\") recognition from [USA Today](/wiki/USA_Today \"USA Today\")'s \"All\\-Joe Team\".{{cite web\\| url\\=http://usatoday30\\.usatoday.com/sports/football/nfl/2005\\-01\\-05\\-all\\-joe\\-team\\_x.htm \\| title\\=All\\-Joe members worth their weight in gold \\| access\\-date\\=February 2, 2020}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
In New York, [Edgar Bergen](/wiki/Edgar_Bergen "Edgar Bergen") does his last radio performance of the season, a doctor's sketch with his puppet, Charlie McCarthy, and his assistant, Julie Patterson ([Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball "Lucille Ball")). After the performance Bergen hosts an engagement party for Julie and his business partner, Jerry Wood. The next day, Bergen and Charlie are set for their summer vacation. Flying in his new aircraft, Bergen gets lost and lands in Wistful Vista, home of [Fibber McGee and Molly](/wiki/Fibber_McGee_and_Molly "Fibber McGee and Molly").
Bergen's almost crash landing interrupts a meeting with Wistful Vista's Chamber of Commerce. Fibber, president, has just proposed the selling of the town's airstrip to Hilary Horton, owner of the Horton Aircraft Factory. The Commerce and townspeople thought Bergen's aircraft was carrying Horton.
Bergen and Charlie are welcomed with Fibber and Molly inviting them to stay at their home. Learning of Fibber's plans, Bergen offers to convince Hilary, his friend, to build his factory at Wistful Vista. Throckmorton P. Gildersleeve ([Harold Peary](/wiki/Harold_Peary "Harold Peary")), secretly working for Ironton Realty, a rival company wanting to purchase Horton's factory, gets a scoop of Fibber and Bergen's plans. He goes to Sam Cudahy ([Charles Halton](/wiki/Charles_Halton "Charles Halton")), owner of Ironton Realty, planning to back out of Cudahy's schemes. Threatened by blackmail, Gildersleeve tricks Fibber into paying for an elaborate luncheon to honor their guest. Gildersleeve's trickery continues when he meets Charlie McCarthy, fed up staying at Wistful Vista and wanting to find a way to leave town. Gildersleeve suggests that Charlie sends a fake telegram to Bergen saying that his former assistant, Julie Patterson ([Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball "Lucille Ball")), is ill. On the day Bergen is to fly Hilary Horton to Wistful Vista, he receives the telegram, thus suddenly changing his plans.
Bergen arrives back in New York, discovering Julie is well. Returning quickly to Wistful Vista with a protesting Julie in tow. Bergen's business partner, Jerry (Lee Bonnell), with his former fiancΓ©e and Julie's replacement, Marge ([Dorothy Lovett](/wiki/Dorothy_Lovett "Dorothy Lovett")), search for Julie. Meanwhile, Fibber, humiliated, resigned from the Chamber of Commerce. His house is also in foreclosure and Cudahy purchased the airstrip.
Charlie confesses to Julie that Gildersleeve suggested sending the fake telegram. Julie then devises a scheme to foil Cudahy into investing in some worthless land belonging to Fibber and for Gildersleeve to trade his land for the airstrip. Bergen successfully convinces Hilary to fly into Wistful Vista. Meanwhile, Jerry and Marge, still searching for Julie, have decided that they are still in love and get married. Back at the McGees', Molly discovers that Julie is in love with Bergen and advises her to "sabotage" him into marriage.
Everyone drives to the airstrip to meet Horton. As Fibber and Molly wait in Bergen's aircraft, he and Julie greet Jerry and Marge, who have just driven into town. When Fibber accidentally takes off, Julie and Bergen follow in another aircraft. Horton's aircraft is also coming and Fibber nearly crashes into him. Bergen climbs aboard the aircraft, and safely lands Fibber and Molly. After returning to the McGee house, Jerry and Marge announce their marriage. At that moment, Horton arrives and informs Bergen that he owns a controlling interest in the Horton company and can build a factory wherever he desires. So, with Fibber's good name restored, Julie embraces Bergen.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In New York, [Edgar Bergen](/wiki/Edgar_Bergen \"Edgar Bergen\") does his last radio performance of the season, a doctor's sketch with his puppet, Charlie McCarthy, and his assistant, Julie Patterson ([Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball \"Lucille Ball\")). After the performance Bergen hosts an engagement party for Julie and his business partner, Jerry Wood. The next day, Bergen and Charlie are set for their summer vacation. Flying in his new aircraft, Bergen gets lost and lands in Wistful Vista, home of [Fibber McGee and Molly](/wiki/Fibber_McGee_and_Molly \"Fibber McGee and Molly\").",
"Bergen's almost crash landing interrupts a meeting with Wistful Vista's Chamber of Commerce. Fibber, president, has just proposed the selling of the town's airstrip to Hilary Horton, owner of the Horton Aircraft Factory. The Commerce and townspeople thought Bergen's aircraft was carrying Horton.",
"Bergen and Charlie are welcomed with Fibber and Molly inviting them to stay at their home. Learning of Fibber's plans, Bergen offers to convince Hilary, his friend, to build his factory at Wistful Vista. Throckmorton P. Gildersleeve ([Harold Peary](/wiki/Harold_Peary \"Harold Peary\")), secretly working for Ironton Realty, a rival company wanting to purchase Horton's factory, gets a scoop of Fibber and Bergen's plans. He goes to Sam Cudahy ([Charles Halton](/wiki/Charles_Halton \"Charles Halton\")), owner of Ironton Realty, planning to back out of Cudahy's schemes. Threatened by blackmail, Gildersleeve tricks Fibber into paying for an elaborate luncheon to honor their guest. Gildersleeve's trickery continues when he meets Charlie McCarthy, fed up staying at Wistful Vista and wanting to find a way to leave town. Gildersleeve suggests that Charlie sends a fake telegram to Bergen saying that his former assistant, Julie Patterson ([Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball \"Lucille Ball\")), is ill. On the day Bergen is to fly Hilary Horton to Wistful Vista, he receives the telegram, thus suddenly changing his plans.",
"Bergen arrives back in New York, discovering Julie is well. Returning quickly to Wistful Vista with a protesting Julie in tow. Bergen's business partner, Jerry (Lee Bonnell), with his former fiancΓ©e and Julie's replacement, Marge ([Dorothy Lovett](/wiki/Dorothy_Lovett \"Dorothy Lovett\")), search for Julie. Meanwhile, Fibber, humiliated, resigned from the Chamber of Commerce. His house is also in foreclosure and Cudahy purchased the airstrip.",
"Charlie confesses to Julie that Gildersleeve suggested sending the fake telegram. Julie then devises a scheme to foil Cudahy into investing in some worthless land belonging to Fibber and for Gildersleeve to trade his land for the airstrip. Bergen successfully convinces Hilary to fly into Wistful Vista. Meanwhile, Jerry and Marge, still searching for Julie, have decided that they are still in love and get married. Back at the McGees', Molly discovers that Julie is in love with Bergen and advises her to \"sabotage\" him into marriage.",
"Everyone drives to the airstrip to meet Horton. As Fibber and Molly wait in Bergen's aircraft, he and Julie greet Jerry and Marge, who have just driven into town. When Fibber accidentally takes off, Julie and Bergen follow in another aircraft. Horton's aircraft is also coming and Fibber nearly crashes into him. Bergen climbs aboard the aircraft, and safely lands Fibber and Molly. After returning to the McGee house, Jerry and Marge announce their marriage. At that moment, Horton arrives and informs Bergen that he owns a controlling interest in the Horton company and can build a factory wherever he desires. So, with Fibber's good name restored, Julie embraces Bergen.",
""
] |
Professional wrestling career
-----------------------------
### Early career (1977β1989\)
A third\-generation wrestler, Taylor was trained by his father Eric Taylor (who held the British Heavy\-Middleweight title for the 14 years 1953β1967\) and grandfather Joe who competed in Wrestling at the 1932 Summer Olympic Games. His brother Steve was also an established TV wrestler. After winning several awards as an [amateur wrestler](/wiki/Amateur_wrestling "Amateur wrestling"), Taylor made his professional debut in 1978 under the [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name "Ring name") Dave "Rocky" Taylor.
Taylor made his TV debut in the early 1980s on *Reslo*, promoter [Orig Williams](/wiki/Orig_Williams "Orig Williams")' Welsh language TV wrestling show for [S4C](/wiki/S4C "S4C"). He eventually joined [All Star Wrestling](/wiki/All_Star_Wrestling "All Star Wrestling"), making his national terrestrial TV debut in 1987 when the company gained a share of ITV's wrestling coverage. In early 1988, he was tangentially involved in the falling out of [Kendo Nagasaki](/wiki/Peter_Thornley "Peter Thornley") and [Rollerball Rocco](/wiki/Mark_Rocco "Mark Rocco") when he and 'Ironfist' Clive Myers faced the duo in a televised contest in Croydon. Taylor was attempting, mid\-match, to unmask Nagasaki and had nearly succeeded when Rocco intervened. Rocco attempted to pull the mask back down, but Taylor forearm\-smashed Rocco, causing the mask to come off in his hands. As Taylor and Myers celebrated, Kendo fled to the dressing room and returned with another mask. Kendo's manager George Gillette blamed Rocco for the unmasking, igniting a major feud that would run on into the early 1990s.{{cite web \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114184647/http://www.kendonagasaki.org/comeback.htm \| url\=http://www.kendonagasaki.org/comeback.htm \| archive\-date\=14 November 2007 \| title\=The Comeback \| access\-date\=18 April 2017 }}
Taylor defeated [Dave Finlay](/wiki/Dave_Finlay "Dave Finlay") for the [All\-Star British Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/British_Heavyweight_Championship%23All_Star_Promotions "British Heavyweight Championship#All Star Promotions") in [King's Lynn](/wiki/King%27s_Lynn "King's Lynn") on 4 June 1991\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestling\-titles.com/europe/uk/bri\-h.html\|title\=British Heavyweight Title\|publisher\=Puroresu Dojo\|access\-date\=17 April 2017}} He held the title for two years before losing to Tony St. Clair on 4 May 1993 in [Croydon](/wiki/Croydon "Croydon"). After St. Clair vacated the title in 1995, Taylor entered a tournament for the belt, and defeated [Marty Jones](/wiki/Marty_Jones "Marty Jones") in the tournament final in August 1995 in Croydon. His second reign lasted until 1996, when he was defeated by Jones in Croydon.
### Catch Wrestling Association (1989β1995\)
In the early 1990s, Taylor began wrestling for the [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association "Catch Wrestling Association"). On 21 December 1991 in [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_%28city%29 "Bremen (city)"), he and [Chris Benoit](/wiki/Chris_Benoit "Chris Benoit") defeated Franz Schumann and Miles Zrno for the [CWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28Germany%29 "CWA World Tag Team Championship (Germany)").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestling\-titles.com/europe/austria/cwa/eu\-cwa\-t.html\|title\=C.W.A. World Tag Team Title\|publisher\=Puroresu Dojo\|access\-date\=17 April 2017}} They vacated the titles in June 1992 after Taylor suffered an injury and Benoit left the CWA to compete in [New Japan Pro\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling "New Japan Pro-Wrestling"). Taylor won the CWA Tag Team Championship on a second occasion on 18 July 1993, [teaming](/wiki/Tag_team "Tag team") with [Mile Zrno](/wiki/Mile_Zrno "Mile Zrno") to defeat Larry Cameron and Mad Bull Buster. Cameron and Buster regained the titles on 24 October 1993 in [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover "Hanover").
### World Championship Wrestling (1995β2000\)
{{See also\|The Blue Bloods}}
In the mid\-1990s, Taylor traveled to the United States of America and joined the [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta "Atlanta")\-based [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling "World Championship Wrestling") promotion. Taylor, renamed *Squire David Taylor*, formed a [stable](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Stable "Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable") with [Lord Steven Regal](/wiki/Darren_Matthews "Darren Matthews") and [Earl Robert Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton "Bobby Eaton") known as [The Blue Bloods](/wiki/The_Blue_Bloods "The Blue Bloods"). After Eaton (an American) left the group, Taylor and Regal [feuded](/wiki/Feud_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Feud (professional wrestling)") with him. Taylor continued to team with Regal until Regal was fired from WCW in 1998\. Taylor would work more singles matches and teamed with [Fit Finlay](/wiki/Fit_Finlay "Fit Finlay") in 1999\. Later that year, Regal returned to WCW after being fired from WWF. Taylor and Regal would leave the promotion in 2000 before WCW was bought by the WWF in March 2001\.
### World Wrestling Federation (2001\)
In 2001, Taylor joined the [World Wrestling Federation](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment "World Wrestling Entertainment") (WWF), acting as a trainer and wrestler in [Ohio Valley Wrestling](/wiki/Ohio_Valley_Wrestling "Ohio Valley Wrestling"), a subsidiary of the WWF. Only working one match where he defeated [Scott Vick](/wiki/Sick_Boy_%28wrestler%29 "Sick Boy (wrestler)") in a dark match for *[WWF Jakked/Metal](/wiki/WWF_Jakked/Metal "WWF Jakked/Metal")* on May 7, 2001\. He worked for Heartland Wrestling Association where he teamed with WCW alumnus [Lash LeRoux](/wiki/Lash_LeRoux "Lash LeRoux"). Taylor eventually left the WWF after unhappiness over having to relocate to [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati"), where the WWF's [Heartland Wrestling Association](/wiki/Heartland_Wrestling_Association "Heartland Wrestling Association") subsidiary was located.
### Independent circuit (2001β2006\)
In May 2002, Taylor, William (formerly Steven) Regal and [Dave Finlay](/wiki/Dave_Finlay "Dave Finlay") opened the Atlantan "Blue Bloods Wrestling Academy", a [professional wrestling school](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23School "Glossary of professional wrestling terms#School").
On 7 April 2004 Taylor made an appearance in [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling "Total Nonstop Action Wrestling") as a mentor/coach of [Team Britain](/wiki/Team_Britain "Team Britain") during the [TNA 2004 America's X\-Cup Tournament](/wiki/TNA_2004_America%27s_X-Cup_Tournament "TNA 2004 America's X-Cup Tournament").
In February 2005, Taylor came back to the UK for three weeks with Brian Dixon's [All Star Wrestling](/wiki/All_Star_Wrestling "All Star Wrestling"), where he responded to some comments made by [Drew McDonald](/wiki/Drew_McDonald_%28wrestler%29 "Drew McDonald (wrestler)").
### World Wrestling Entertainment (2006β2008\)
Taylor was hired by [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment "World Wrestling Entertainment") (WWE) in January 2006 to train wrestling students at [Deep South Wrestling](/wiki/Deep_South_Wrestling "Deep South Wrestling") (DSW) in [McDonough, Georgia](/wiki/McDonough%2C_Georgia "McDonough, Georgia"). On 23 March 2006, Taylor returned to the ring in DSW to once again team with William Regal.
On 20 October 2006 episode of *[SmackDown!](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown "WWE SmackDown")*, Regal announced that Taylor would be joining him on the brand.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/10/21/2086752\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120717023254/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/10/21/2086752\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=17 July 2012\|title\=Smackdown: A\-1 matches better "A\-list" celebs\|date\=2006\-10\-21\|last\=Waldman\|first\=Jon\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} The two debuted the same night, earning a dominating victory over [Scotty 2 Hotty](/wiki/Scotty_2_Hotty "Scotty 2 Hotty") and [Funaki](/wiki/Shoichi_Funaki "Shoichi Funaki"). Though the pair reformed their previous tag team, Regal and Taylor would not reuse the Blue Bloods [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Gimmick (professional wrestling)"), instead portraying themselves as sadistic fighters. The team was quickly put into jeopardy in their second match together when Taylor suffered a torn [meniscus](/wiki/Meniscus_%28anatomy%29 "Meniscus (anatomy)") in his left knee. Taylor took a more relaxed role for a couple of weeks as a corner man for Regal and only wrestled a few short [house show](/wiki/House_show "House show") matches. Taylor would quickly heal from his injury and the pair went on to feud with [Paul London and Brian Kendrick](/wiki/Paul_London_and_Brian_Kendrick "Paul London and Brian Kendrick") in the hunt for the [WWE Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship "WWE Raw Tag Team Championship"). After defeating London and Kendrick on several occasions, they earned a WWE Tag Team Championship match at [Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon_%282006%29 "Armageddon (2006)") in December.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/18/2404878\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120713185017/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/18/2404878\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=13 July 2012\|title\=Smackdown: Batista crowns the King\|date\=2006\-11\-18\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/25/2488695\.html \|url\-status\=usurped \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120713201504/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/25/2488695\.html \|archive\-date\=July 13, 2012 \|title\=Smackdown: A royal thrashing \|date\=November 25, 2006 \|last\=McNamara \|first\=Andy \|access\-date\=17 April 2017 \|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/12/09/2704186\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715230725/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/12/09/2704186\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=15 July 2012\|title\=Smackdown: Deadman plays mind games\|date\=2006\-12\-09\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} The match was changed into a [fatal\-four way](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches "Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches") [ladder match](/wiki/Ladder_match "Ladder match") also involving [MNM](/wiki/MNM_%28wrestling%29 "MNM (wrestling)") and [The Hardys](/wiki/Hardy_Boyz "Hardy Boyz"), and London and Kendrick retained their titles.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2006/12/18/2859158\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120604192955/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2006/12/18/2859158\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=4 June 2012\|title\=Unexpected ladder contest steals Armageddon\|date\=2006\-12\-18\|last\=Elliott\|first\=Brian\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} In a subsequent regular tag rematch on *SmackDown!* Regal and Taylor came up short of winning the titles.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/01/13/3342394\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715044951/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/01/13/3342394\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=15 July 2012\|title\=Smackdown: The last dash to the Rumble\|date\=2007\-01\-13\|last\=Waldman\|first\=Jon\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}}
After [WrestleMania 23](/wiki/WrestleMania_23 "WrestleMania 23"), Regal and Taylor began a feud with [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 "Kane (wrestler)") when after a match between Kane and Taylor, Taylor and Regal attacked Kane.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/07/3944064\.html\|title\=Booker's kingdom continues to crumble\|date\=8 April 2007\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports\|archive\-date\=15 July 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120715134411/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/07/3944064\.html\|url\-status\=usurped}} [The Boogeyman](/wiki/The_Boogeyman_%28wrestler%29 "The Boogeyman (wrestler)") soon joined the feud as Kane's tag team partner, but the feud ended after Kane defeated Regal in a singles match.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/28/4137547\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120630063922/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/28/4137547\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=30 June 2012\|title\=Smackdown: Kennedy and Finlay falter\|date\=2007\-04\-28\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/12/4174912\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120629143624/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/12/4174912\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=29 June 2012\|title\=Smackdown: The title's on the line...\|date\=2007\-05\-12\|last\=Waldman\|first\=Jon\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/19/4193121\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120714233545/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/19/4193121\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=14 July 2012\|title\=Smackdown: Edge addresses the masses\|date\=2007\-05\-19\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} On 25 May edition of *SmackDown!*, Regal and Taylor competed in a number one contenders match for the WWE Tag Team Championship against Kendrick and London which they lost when [Deuce 'n Domino](/wiki/Deuce_%27n_Domino "Deuce 'n Domino") interfered, making both teams the number one contenders.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/26/4210448\.html\|title\=Smackdown: The Animal rises again\|date\=2007\-05\-26\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports\|archive\-date\=4 August 2012\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120804234707/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/26/4210448\.html\|url\-status\=usurped}} This led to a triple threat match the next week on *SmackDown!*, where Deuce 'n Domino retained.{{cite web\|url\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/30/4221678\.html\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120629102424/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/30/4221678\.html\|url\-status\=usurped\|archive\-date\=29 June 2012\|title\=Smackdown: The Animal cuts down Edge\|date\=2007\-05\-30\|last\=McNamara\|first\=Andy\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=SLAM! Sports}} Taylor and Regal's tag team would come to an end on 17 June when Regal was drafted to *Raw* during the [Supplemental Draft](/wiki/WWE_Brand_Extension%23Drafts "WWE Brand Extension#Drafts").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/supplementaldraft07\|title\=2007 Supplemental Draft results\|date\=17 June 2007\|last\=Dee\|first\=Louie\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-20\|publisher\=WWE}}
Following Regal's departure, Taylor was absent from *SmackDown!* for several weeks and began teaming with [Paul Burchill](/wiki/Paul_Burchill "Paul Burchill") at house shows and dark matches. Since then, Taylor had only competed on *SmackDown!* sparingly, competing in a 20\-Man Battle Royal for the then\-vacant [World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_%28WWE%2C_2002%E2%80%932013%29 "World Heavyweight Championship (WWE, 2002β2013)") and losing a match to former rival Kane. Taylor brought [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre "Drew McIntyre") to *SmackDown!* in October 2007 and acted as his mentor, but McIntyre would only make a few appearances before moving to the *Raw* brand in January 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/smackdown/archive/10122007/\|title\=Scottish invasion\|date\=2007\-10\-12\|last\=DiFino\|first\=Lennie\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=WWE}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/smackdown/archive/10192007/\|title\=One of our own\|date\=2007\-10\-19\|first\=Lennie \|last\=DiFino\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=WWE}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/content/media/video/webshows/heat/200801/6002260/heat010408\_\|title\=WWE.com HEAT archives\|date\=2008\-01\-04\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|publisher\=WWE\|archive\-date\=16 March 2009\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316113653/http://www.wwe.com/content/media/video/webshows/heat/200801/6002260/heat010408\_\|url\-status\=dead}} Following McIntyre's move, Taylor went on a leave of absence from WWE television. He was released by WWE on 28 April 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/davetaylorcut\|title\=Dave Taylor released\|publisher\=\[\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\|access\-date\=17 April 2017}}
### Later career (2008β2012, 2017, 2019\)
On 26 and 27 September Taylor took part in the [2008 Ted Petty Invitational](/wiki/Ted_Petty_Invitational%232008_Ted_Petty_Invitational "Ted Petty Invitational#2008 Ted Petty Invitational") held by [IWA Mid\-South](/wiki/IWA_Mid-South "IWA Mid-South") in [Joliet, Illinois](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois "Joliet, Illinois").{{cite web\|url\=http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\.com/index.cgi?board\=IWA\&action\=display\&thread\=4573\|title\=2008 TPI\|publisher\=iwamidsouth.com\|date\=14 July 2008\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131342/http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\.com/index.cgi?board\=IWA\&action\=display\&thread\=4573\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016}} He defeated [Tracy Smothers](/wiki/Tracy_Smothers "Tracy Smothers") in the first round, but lost out to [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Claudio_Castagnoli "Claudio Castagnoli") in the quarter\-finals.
From 27 to 29 March 2009, he competed in [Chikara](/wiki/Chikara_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Chikara (professional wrestling)")'s [King of Trios Tournament](/wiki/King_of_Trios%232009 "King of Trios#2009") as a member of "Team Uppercut", along with Castagnoli and [Bryan Danielson](/wiki/Bryan_Danielson "Bryan Danielson"). The team made it all the way to the finals before losing to "F.I.S.T." of [Gran Akuma](/wiki/Gran_Akuma "Gran Akuma"), [Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28wrestler%29 "Icarus (wrestler)") and [Chuck Taylor](/wiki/Chuck_Taylor_%28wrestler%29 "Chuck Taylor (wrestler)").
On 4 April 2009, Taylor lost a fourway match for the HPW Heavyweight Championship against HPW heavyweight champion Vito "the Violator" Toscani, Anthony Zeus and Eddy De La Combe in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
In March 2010 Taylor received a tryout as an agent for [TNA Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling "Total Nonstop Action Wrestling").
On 2 April 2011, Taylor appeared at the [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor "Ring of Honor") pay\-per\-view [Honor Takes Center Stage](/wiki/Honor_Takes_Center_Stage "Honor Takes Center Stage") as the newest member of [Prince Nana](/wiki/Prince_Nana "Prince Nana")'s [The Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Embassy (professional wrestling)") stable, facing [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana") in a losing effort.{{cite web\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/otherppvs/article\_48974\.shtml\|title\=ROH Internet PPV report 4/2: Caldwell \& Radican's ongoing "virtual\-time" coverage of live ROH PPV from Atlanta\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|last2\=Radican\|first2\= Sean\|date\=2 April 2011\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}
On 9 September 2011, Taylor made his debut for small British promotion New Generation Wrestling (NGW) in a winning effort against [Jack Gallagher](/wiki/Jack_Gallagher_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Gallagher (wrestler)").
Taylor retired from professional wrestling in 2012\. Taylor returned to wrestling for one night only on September 23, 2017 teaming with [Franz Schuhmann](/wiki/Franz_Schuhmann "Franz Schuhmann") against [Salvatore Bellomo](/wiki/Salvatore_Bellomo "Salvatore Bellomo") and [Big Tiger Steele](/wiki/Jeff_Bearden "Jeff Bearden") in a no contest in Bremen, Germany.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=2\&nr\=1452\&page\=4\&year\=2017\&search\=09\.2017\|title\=Cagematch.net}} On December 21, 2019, Taylor returned to Hannover, Germany for European Wrestling Promotion on December 21, 2019 where he fought [Ice Train](/wiki/Ice_Train_%28wrestler%29 "Ice Train (wrestler)") in a no contest.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/en?id\=2\&nr\=1108\&page\=4\&year\=2019\&promotion\=25\|title\=Cagematch.net}}
|
[
"Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------",
"### Early career (1977β1989\\)",
"A third\\-generation wrestler, Taylor was trained by his father Eric Taylor (who held the British Heavy\\-Middleweight title for the 14 years 1953β1967\\) and grandfather Joe who competed in Wrestling at the 1932 Summer Olympic Games. His brother Steve was also an established TV wrestler. After winning several awards as an [amateur wrestler](/wiki/Amateur_wrestling \"Amateur wrestling\"), Taylor made his professional debut in 1978 under the [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name \"Ring name\") Dave \"Rocky\" Taylor.",
"Taylor made his TV debut in the early 1980s on *Reslo*, promoter [Orig Williams](/wiki/Orig_Williams \"Orig Williams\")' Welsh language TV wrestling show for [S4C](/wiki/S4C \"S4C\"). He eventually joined [All Star Wrestling](/wiki/All_Star_Wrestling \"All Star Wrestling\"), making his national terrestrial TV debut in 1987 when the company gained a share of ITV's wrestling coverage. In early 1988, he was tangentially involved in the falling out of [Kendo Nagasaki](/wiki/Peter_Thornley \"Peter Thornley\") and [Rollerball Rocco](/wiki/Mark_Rocco \"Mark Rocco\") when he and 'Ironfist' Clive Myers faced the duo in a televised contest in Croydon. Taylor was attempting, mid\\-match, to unmask Nagasaki and had nearly succeeded when Rocco intervened. Rocco attempted to pull the mask back down, but Taylor forearm\\-smashed Rocco, causing the mask to come off in his hands. As Taylor and Myers celebrated, Kendo fled to the dressing room and returned with another mask. Kendo's manager George Gillette blamed Rocco for the unmasking, igniting a major feud that would run on into the early 1990s.{{cite web \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114184647/http://www.kendonagasaki.org/comeback.htm \\| url\\=http://www.kendonagasaki.org/comeback.htm \\| archive\\-date\\=14 November 2007 \\| title\\=The Comeback \\| access\\-date\\=18 April 2017 }}",
"Taylor defeated [Dave Finlay](/wiki/Dave_Finlay \"Dave Finlay\") for the [All\\-Star British Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/British_Heavyweight_Championship%23All_Star_Promotions \"British Heavyweight Championship#All Star Promotions\") in [King's Lynn](/wiki/King%27s_Lynn \"King's Lynn\") on 4 June 1991\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestling\\-titles.com/europe/uk/bri\\-h.html\\|title\\=British Heavyweight Title\\|publisher\\=Puroresu Dojo\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017}} He held the title for two years before losing to Tony St. Clair on 4 May 1993 in [Croydon](/wiki/Croydon \"Croydon\"). After St. Clair vacated the title in 1995, Taylor entered a tournament for the belt, and defeated [Marty Jones](/wiki/Marty_Jones \"Marty Jones\") in the tournament final in August 1995 in Croydon. His second reign lasted until 1996, when he was defeated by Jones in Croydon.",
"### Catch Wrestling Association (1989β1995\\)",
"In the early 1990s, Taylor began wrestling for the [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") [Catch Wrestling Association](/wiki/Catch_Wrestling_Association \"Catch Wrestling Association\"). On 21 December 1991 in [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen_%28city%29 \"Bremen (city)\"), he and [Chris Benoit](/wiki/Chris_Benoit \"Chris Benoit\") defeated Franz Schumann and Miles Zrno for the [CWA World Tag Team Championship](/wiki/CWA_World_Tag_Team_Championship_%28Germany%29 \"CWA World Tag Team Championship (Germany)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestling\\-titles.com/europe/austria/cwa/eu\\-cwa\\-t.html\\|title\\=C.W.A. World Tag Team Title\\|publisher\\=Puroresu Dojo\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017}} They vacated the titles in June 1992 after Taylor suffered an injury and Benoit left the CWA to compete in [New Japan Pro\\-Wrestling](/wiki/New_Japan_Pro-Wrestling \"New Japan Pro-Wrestling\"). Taylor won the CWA Tag Team Championship on a second occasion on 18 July 1993, [teaming](/wiki/Tag_team \"Tag team\") with [Mile Zrno](/wiki/Mile_Zrno \"Mile Zrno\") to defeat Larry Cameron and Mad Bull Buster. Cameron and Buster regained the titles on 24 October 1993 in [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover \"Hanover\").",
"### World Championship Wrestling (1995β2000\\)",
"{{See also\\|The Blue Bloods}}\nIn the mid\\-1990s, Taylor traveled to the United States of America and joined the [Atlanta](/wiki/Atlanta \"Atlanta\")\\-based [World Championship Wrestling](/wiki/World_Championship_Wrestling \"World Championship Wrestling\") promotion. Taylor, renamed *Squire David Taylor*, formed a [stable](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23Stable \"Glossary of professional wrestling terms#Stable\") with [Lord Steven Regal](/wiki/Darren_Matthews \"Darren Matthews\") and [Earl Robert Eaton](/wiki/Bobby_Eaton \"Bobby Eaton\") known as [The Blue Bloods](/wiki/The_Blue_Bloods \"The Blue Bloods\"). After Eaton (an American) left the group, Taylor and Regal [feuded](/wiki/Feud_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Feud (professional wrestling)\") with him. Taylor continued to team with Regal until Regal was fired from WCW in 1998\\. Taylor would work more singles matches and teamed with [Fit Finlay](/wiki/Fit_Finlay \"Fit Finlay\") in 1999\\. Later that year, Regal returned to WCW after being fired from WWF. Taylor and Regal would leave the promotion in 2000 before WCW was bought by the WWF in March 2001\\.",
"### World Wrestling Federation (2001\\)",
"In 2001, Taylor joined the [World Wrestling Federation](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment \"World Wrestling Entertainment\") (WWF), acting as a trainer and wrestler in [Ohio Valley Wrestling](/wiki/Ohio_Valley_Wrestling \"Ohio Valley Wrestling\"), a subsidiary of the WWF. Only working one match where he defeated [Scott Vick](/wiki/Sick_Boy_%28wrestler%29 \"Sick Boy (wrestler)\") in a dark match for *[WWF Jakked/Metal](/wiki/WWF_Jakked/Metal \"WWF Jakked/Metal\")* on May 7, 2001\\. He worked for Heartland Wrestling Association where he teamed with WCW alumnus [Lash LeRoux](/wiki/Lash_LeRoux \"Lash LeRoux\"). Taylor eventually left the WWF after unhappiness over having to relocate to [Cincinnati, Ohio](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\"), where the WWF's [Heartland Wrestling Association](/wiki/Heartland_Wrestling_Association \"Heartland Wrestling Association\") subsidiary was located.",
"### Independent circuit (2001β2006\\)",
"In May 2002, Taylor, William (formerly Steven) Regal and [Dave Finlay](/wiki/Dave_Finlay \"Dave Finlay\") opened the Atlantan \"Blue Bloods Wrestling Academy\", a [professional wrestling school](/wiki/Glossary_of_professional_wrestling_terms%23School \"Glossary of professional wrestling terms#School\").",
"On 7 April 2004 Taylor made an appearance in [Total Nonstop Action Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling \"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling\") as a mentor/coach of [Team Britain](/wiki/Team_Britain \"Team Britain\") during the [TNA 2004 America's X\\-Cup Tournament](/wiki/TNA_2004_America%27s_X-Cup_Tournament \"TNA 2004 America's X-Cup Tournament\").",
"In February 2005, Taylor came back to the UK for three weeks with Brian Dixon's [All Star Wrestling](/wiki/All_Star_Wrestling \"All Star Wrestling\"), where he responded to some comments made by [Drew McDonald](/wiki/Drew_McDonald_%28wrestler%29 \"Drew McDonald (wrestler)\").",
"### World Wrestling Entertainment (2006β2008\\)",
"Taylor was hired by [World Wrestling Entertainment](/wiki/World_Wrestling_Entertainment \"World Wrestling Entertainment\") (WWE) in January 2006 to train wrestling students at [Deep South Wrestling](/wiki/Deep_South_Wrestling \"Deep South Wrestling\") (DSW) in [McDonough, Georgia](/wiki/McDonough%2C_Georgia \"McDonough, Georgia\"). On 23 March 2006, Taylor returned to the ring in DSW to once again team with William Regal.",
"On 20 October 2006 episode of *[SmackDown!](/wiki/WWE_SmackDown \"WWE SmackDown\")*, Regal announced that Taylor would be joining him on the brand.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/10/21/2086752\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120717023254/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/10/21/2086752\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=17 July 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: A\\-1 matches better \"A\\-list\" celebs\\|date\\=2006\\-10\\-21\\|last\\=Waldman\\|first\\=Jon\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}} The two debuted the same night, earning a dominating victory over [Scotty 2 Hotty](/wiki/Scotty_2_Hotty \"Scotty 2 Hotty\") and [Funaki](/wiki/Shoichi_Funaki \"Shoichi Funaki\"). Though the pair reformed their previous tag team, Regal and Taylor would not reuse the Blue Bloods [gimmick](/wiki/Gimmick_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Gimmick (professional wrestling)\"), instead portraying themselves as sadistic fighters. The team was quickly put into jeopardy in their second match together when Taylor suffered a torn [meniscus](/wiki/Meniscus_%28anatomy%29 \"Meniscus (anatomy)\") in his left knee. Taylor took a more relaxed role for a couple of weeks as a corner man for Regal and only wrestled a few short [house show](/wiki/House_show \"House show\") matches. Taylor would quickly heal from his injury and the pair went on to feud with [Paul London and Brian Kendrick](/wiki/Paul_London_and_Brian_Kendrick \"Paul London and Brian Kendrick\") in the hunt for the [WWE Tag Team Championship](/wiki/WWE_Raw_Tag_Team_Championship \"WWE Raw Tag Team Championship\"). After defeating London and Kendrick on several occasions, they earned a WWE Tag Team Championship match at [Armageddon](/wiki/Armageddon_%282006%29 \"Armageddon (2006)\") in December.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/18/2404878\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120713185017/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/18/2404878\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=13 July 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: Batista crowns the King\\|date\\=2006\\-11\\-18\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/25/2488695\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=usurped \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120713201504/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/11/25/2488695\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=July 13, 2012 \\|title\\=Smackdown: A royal thrashing \\|date\\=November 25, 2006 \\|last\\=McNamara \\|first\\=Andy \\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017 \\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/12/09/2704186\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715230725/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2006/12/09/2704186\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: Deadman plays mind games\\|date\\=2006\\-12\\-09\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}} The match was changed into a [fatal\\-four way](/wiki/Professional_wrestling_match_types%23Basic_non-elimination_matches \"Professional wrestling match types#Basic non-elimination matches\") [ladder match](/wiki/Ladder_match \"Ladder match\") also involving [MNM](/wiki/MNM_%28wrestling%29 \"MNM (wrestling)\") and [The Hardys](/wiki/Hardy_Boyz \"Hardy Boyz\"), and London and Kendrick retained their titles.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2006/12/18/2859158\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120604192955/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/PPVReports/2006/12/18/2859158\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=4 June 2012\\|title\\=Unexpected ladder contest steals Armageddon\\|date\\=2006\\-12\\-18\\|last\\=Elliott\\|first\\=Brian\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}} In a subsequent regular tag rematch on *SmackDown!* Regal and Taylor came up short of winning the titles.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/01/13/3342394\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715044951/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/01/13/3342394\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: The last dash to the Rumble\\|date\\=2007\\-01\\-13\\|last\\=Waldman\\|first\\=Jon\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}",
"After [WrestleMania 23](/wiki/WrestleMania_23 \"WrestleMania 23\"), Regal and Taylor began a feud with [Kane](/wiki/Kane_%28wrestler%29 \"Kane (wrestler)\") when after a match between Kane and Taylor, Taylor and Regal attacked Kane.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/07/3944064\\.html\\|title\\=Booker's kingdom continues to crumble\\|date\\=8 April 2007\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports\\|archive\\-date\\=15 July 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120715134411/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/07/3944064\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped}} [The Boogeyman](/wiki/The_Boogeyman_%28wrestler%29 \"The Boogeyman (wrestler)\") soon joined the feud as Kane's tag team partner, but the feud ended after Kane defeated Regal in a singles match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/28/4137547\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120630063922/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/04/28/4137547\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: Kennedy and Finlay falter\\|date\\=2007\\-04\\-28\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/12/4174912\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120629143624/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/12/4174912\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: The title's on the line...\\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-12\\|last\\=Waldman\\|first\\=Jon\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/19/4193121\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120714233545/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/19/4193121\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: Edge addresses the masses\\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-19\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}} On 25 May edition of *SmackDown!*, Regal and Taylor competed in a number one contenders match for the WWE Tag Team Championship against Kendrick and London which they lost when [Deuce 'n Domino](/wiki/Deuce_%27n_Domino \"Deuce 'n Domino\") interfered, making both teams the number one contenders.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/26/4210448\\.html\\|title\\=Smackdown: The Animal rises again\\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-26\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports\\|archive\\-date\\=4 August 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120804234707/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/26/4210448\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped}} This led to a triple threat match the next week on *SmackDown!*, where Deuce 'n Domino retained.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/30/4221678\\.html\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120629102424/http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Wrestling/2007/05/30/4221678\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=usurped\\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2012\\|title\\=Smackdown: The Animal cuts down Edge\\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-30\\|last\\=McNamara\\|first\\=Andy\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=SLAM! Sports}} Taylor and Regal's tag team would come to an end on 17 June when Regal was drafted to *Raw* during the [Supplemental Draft](/wiki/WWE_Brand_Extension%23Drafts \"WWE Brand Extension#Drafts\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/supplementaldraft07\\|title\\=2007 Supplemental Draft results\\|date\\=17 June 2007\\|last\\=Dee\\|first\\=Louie\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-20\\|publisher\\=WWE}}",
"Following Regal's departure, Taylor was absent from *SmackDown!* for several weeks and began teaming with [Paul Burchill](/wiki/Paul_Burchill \"Paul Burchill\") at house shows and dark matches. Since then, Taylor had only competed on *SmackDown!* sparingly, competing in a 20\\-Man Battle Royal for the then\\-vacant [World Heavyweight Championship](/wiki/World_Heavyweight_Championship_%28WWE%2C_2002%E2%80%932013%29 \"World Heavyweight Championship (WWE, 2002β2013)\") and losing a match to former rival Kane. Taylor brought [Drew McIntyre](/wiki/Drew_McIntyre \"Drew McIntyre\") to *SmackDown!* in October 2007 and acted as his mentor, but McIntyre would only make a few appearances before moving to the *Raw* brand in January 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/smackdown/archive/10122007/\\|title\\=Scottish invasion\\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-12\\|last\\=DiFino\\|first\\=Lennie\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=WWE}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/shows/smackdown/archive/10192007/\\|title\\=One of our own\\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-19\\|first\\=Lennie \\|last\\=DiFino\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=WWE}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/content/media/video/webshows/heat/200801/6002260/heat010408\\_\\|title\\=WWE.com HEAT archives\\|date\\=2008\\-01\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|publisher\\=WWE\\|archive\\-date\\=16 March 2009\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316113653/http://www.wwe.com/content/media/video/webshows/heat/200801/6002260/heat010408\\_\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Following McIntyre's move, Taylor went on a leave of absence from WWE television. He was released by WWE on 28 April 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wwe.com/inside/news/davetaylorcut\\|title\\=Dave Taylor released\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[World Wrestling Entertainment]]\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017}}",
"### Later career (2008β2012, 2017, 2019\\)",
"On 26 and 27 September Taylor took part in the [2008 Ted Petty Invitational](/wiki/Ted_Petty_Invitational%232008_Ted_Petty_Invitational \"Ted Petty Invitational#2008 Ted Petty Invitational\") held by [IWA Mid\\-South](/wiki/IWA_Mid-South \"IWA Mid-South\") in [Joliet, Illinois](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois \"Joliet, Illinois\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\\.com/index.cgi?board\\=IWA\\&action\\=display\\&thread\\=4573\\|title\\=2008 TPI\\|publisher\\=iwamidsouth.com\\|date\\=14 July 2008\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131342/http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\\.com/index.cgi?board\\=IWA\\&action\\=display\\&thread\\=4573\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016}} He defeated [Tracy Smothers](/wiki/Tracy_Smothers \"Tracy Smothers\") in the first round, but lost out to [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Claudio_Castagnoli \"Claudio Castagnoli\") in the quarter\\-finals.",
"From 27 to 29 March 2009, he competed in [Chikara](/wiki/Chikara_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Chikara (professional wrestling)\")'s [King of Trios Tournament](/wiki/King_of_Trios%232009 \"King of Trios#2009\") as a member of \"Team Uppercut\", along with Castagnoli and [Bryan Danielson](/wiki/Bryan_Danielson \"Bryan Danielson\"). The team made it all the way to the finals before losing to \"F.I.S.T.\" of [Gran Akuma](/wiki/Gran_Akuma \"Gran Akuma\"), [Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28wrestler%29 \"Icarus (wrestler)\") and [Chuck Taylor](/wiki/Chuck_Taylor_%28wrestler%29 \"Chuck Taylor (wrestler)\").",
"On 4 April 2009, Taylor lost a fourway match for the HPW Heavyweight Championship against HPW heavyweight champion Vito \"the Violator\" Toscani, Anthony Zeus and Eddy De La Combe in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.",
"In March 2010 Taylor received a tryout as an agent for [TNA Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling \"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling\").",
"On 2 April 2011, Taylor appeared at the [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor \"Ring of Honor\") pay\\-per\\-view [Honor Takes Center Stage](/wiki/Honor_Takes_Center_Stage \"Honor Takes Center Stage\") as the newest member of [Prince Nana](/wiki/Prince_Nana \"Prince Nana\")'s [The Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Embassy (professional wrestling)\") stable, facing [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\") in a losing effort.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/otherppvs/article\\_48974\\.shtml\\|title\\=ROH Internet PPV report 4/2: Caldwell \\& Radican's ongoing \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of live ROH PPV from Atlanta\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|last2\\=Radican\\|first2\\= Sean\\|date\\=2 April 2011\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}",
"On 9 September 2011, Taylor made his debut for small British promotion New Generation Wrestling (NGW) in a winning effort against [Jack Gallagher](/wiki/Jack_Gallagher_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Gallagher (wrestler)\").",
"Taylor retired from professional wrestling in 2012\\. Taylor returned to wrestling for one night only on September 23, 2017 teaming with [Franz Schuhmann](/wiki/Franz_Schuhmann \"Franz Schuhmann\") against [Salvatore Bellomo](/wiki/Salvatore_Bellomo \"Salvatore Bellomo\") and [Big Tiger Steele](/wiki/Jeff_Bearden \"Jeff Bearden\") in a no contest in Bremen, Germany.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=2\\&nr\\=1452\\&page\\=4\\&year\\=2017\\&search\\=09\\.2017\\|title\\=Cagematch.net}} On December 21, 2019, Taylor returned to Hannover, Germany for European Wrestling Promotion on December 21, 2019 where he fought [Ice Train](/wiki/Ice_Train_%28wrestler%29 \"Ice Train (wrestler)\") in a no contest.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/en?id\\=2\\&nr\\=1108\\&page\\=4\\&year\\=2019\\&promotion\\=25\\|title\\=Cagematch.net}}",
""
] |
### Later career (2008β2012, 2017, 2019\)
On 26 and 27 September Taylor took part in the [2008 Ted Petty Invitational](/wiki/Ted_Petty_Invitational%232008_Ted_Petty_Invitational "Ted Petty Invitational#2008 Ted Petty Invitational") held by [IWA Mid\-South](/wiki/IWA_Mid-South "IWA Mid-South") in [Joliet, Illinois](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois "Joliet, Illinois").{{cite web\|url\=http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\.com/index.cgi?board\=IWA\&action\=display\&thread\=4573\|title\=2008 TPI\|publisher\=iwamidsouth.com\|date\=14 July 2008\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131342/http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\.com/index.cgi?board\=IWA\&action\=display\&thread\=4573\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016}} He defeated [Tracy Smothers](/wiki/Tracy_Smothers "Tracy Smothers") in the first round, but lost out to [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Claudio_Castagnoli "Claudio Castagnoli") in the quarter\-finals.
From 27 to 29 March 2009, he competed in [Chikara](/wiki/Chikara_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Chikara (professional wrestling)")'s [King of Trios Tournament](/wiki/King_of_Trios%232009 "King of Trios#2009") as a member of "Team Uppercut", along with Castagnoli and [Bryan Danielson](/wiki/Bryan_Danielson "Bryan Danielson"). The team made it all the way to the finals before losing to "F.I.S.T." of [Gran Akuma](/wiki/Gran_Akuma "Gran Akuma"), [Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28wrestler%29 "Icarus (wrestler)") and [Chuck Taylor](/wiki/Chuck_Taylor_%28wrestler%29 "Chuck Taylor (wrestler)").
On 4 April 2009, Taylor lost a fourway match for the HPW Heavyweight Championship against HPW heavyweight champion Vito "the Violator" Toscani, Anthony Zeus and Eddy De La Combe in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.
In March 2010 Taylor received a tryout as an agent for [TNA Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling "Total Nonstop Action Wrestling").
On 2 April 2011, Taylor appeared at the [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor "Ring of Honor") pay\-per\-view [Honor Takes Center Stage](/wiki/Honor_Takes_Center_Stage "Honor Takes Center Stage") as the newest member of [Prince Nana](/wiki/Prince_Nana "Prince Nana")'s [The Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Embassy (professional wrestling)") stable, facing [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana") in a losing effort.{{cite web\|url\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/otherppvs/article\_48974\.shtml\|title\=ROH Internet PPV report 4/2: Caldwell \& Radican's ongoing "virtual\-time" coverage of live ROH PPV from Atlanta\|last\=Caldwell\|first\=James\|last2\=Radican\|first2\= Sean\|date\=2 April 2011\|access\-date\=17 April 2017\|work\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}
On 9 September 2011, Taylor made his debut for small British promotion New Generation Wrestling (NGW) in a winning effort against [Jack Gallagher](/wiki/Jack_Gallagher_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Gallagher (wrestler)").
Taylor retired from professional wrestling in 2012\. Taylor returned to wrestling for one night only on September 23, 2017 teaming with [Franz Schuhmann](/wiki/Franz_Schuhmann "Franz Schuhmann") against [Salvatore Bellomo](/wiki/Salvatore_Bellomo "Salvatore Bellomo") and [Big Tiger Steele](/wiki/Jeff_Bearden "Jeff Bearden") in a no contest in Bremen, Germany.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\=2\&nr\=1452\&page\=4\&year\=2017\&search\=09\.2017\|title\=Cagematch.net}} On December 21, 2019, Taylor returned to Hannover, Germany for European Wrestling Promotion on December 21, 2019 where he fought [Ice Train](/wiki/Ice_Train_%28wrestler%29 "Ice Train (wrestler)") in a no contest.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.cagematch.net/en?id\=2\&nr\=1108\&page\=4\&year\=2019\&promotion\=25\|title\=Cagematch.net}}
|
[
"### Later career (2008β2012, 2017, 2019\\)",
"On 26 and 27 September Taylor took part in the [2008 Ted Petty Invitational](/wiki/Ted_Petty_Invitational%232008_Ted_Petty_Invitational \"Ted Petty Invitational#2008 Ted Petty Invitational\") held by [IWA Mid\\-South](/wiki/IWA_Mid-South \"IWA Mid-South\") in [Joliet, Illinois](/wiki/Joliet%2C_Illinois \"Joliet, Illinois\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\\.com/index.cgi?board\\=IWA\\&action\\=display\\&thread\\=4573\\|title\\=2008 TPI\\|publisher\\=iwamidsouth.com\\|date\\=14 July 2008\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131342/http://iwamidsouth.proboards19\\.com/index.cgi?board\\=IWA\\&action\\=display\\&thread\\=4573\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016}} He defeated [Tracy Smothers](/wiki/Tracy_Smothers \"Tracy Smothers\") in the first round, but lost out to [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Claudio_Castagnoli \"Claudio Castagnoli\") in the quarter\\-finals.",
"From 27 to 29 March 2009, he competed in [Chikara](/wiki/Chikara_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Chikara (professional wrestling)\")'s [King of Trios Tournament](/wiki/King_of_Trios%232009 \"King of Trios#2009\") as a member of \"Team Uppercut\", along with Castagnoli and [Bryan Danielson](/wiki/Bryan_Danielson \"Bryan Danielson\"). The team made it all the way to the finals before losing to \"F.I.S.T.\" of [Gran Akuma](/wiki/Gran_Akuma \"Gran Akuma\"), [Icarus](/wiki/Icarus_%28wrestler%29 \"Icarus (wrestler)\") and [Chuck Taylor](/wiki/Chuck_Taylor_%28wrestler%29 \"Chuck Taylor (wrestler)\").",
"On 4 April 2009, Taylor lost a fourway match for the HPW Heavyweight Championship against HPW heavyweight champion Vito \"the Violator\" Toscani, Anthony Zeus and Eddy De La Combe in Eindhoven, the Netherlands.",
"In March 2010 Taylor received a tryout as an agent for [TNA Wrestling](/wiki/Total_Nonstop_Action_Wrestling \"Total Nonstop Action Wrestling\").",
"On 2 April 2011, Taylor appeared at the [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor \"Ring of Honor\") pay\\-per\\-view [Honor Takes Center Stage](/wiki/Honor_Takes_Center_Stage \"Honor Takes Center Stage\") as the newest member of [Prince Nana](/wiki/Prince_Nana \"Prince Nana\")'s [The Embassy](/wiki/Embassy_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Embassy (professional wrestling)\") stable, facing [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\") in a losing effort.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://pwtorch.com/artman2/publish/otherppvs/article\\_48974\\.shtml\\|title\\=ROH Internet PPV report 4/2: Caldwell \\& Radican's ongoing \"virtual\\-time\" coverage of live ROH PPV from Atlanta\\|last\\=Caldwell\\|first\\=James\\|last2\\=Radican\\|first2\\= Sean\\|date\\=2 April 2011\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2017\\|work\\=Pro Wrestling Torch}}",
"On 9 September 2011, Taylor made his debut for small British promotion New Generation Wrestling (NGW) in a winning effort against [Jack Gallagher](/wiki/Jack_Gallagher_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Gallagher (wrestler)\").",
"Taylor retired from professional wrestling in 2012\\. Taylor returned to wrestling for one night only on September 23, 2017 teaming with [Franz Schuhmann](/wiki/Franz_Schuhmann \"Franz Schuhmann\") against [Salvatore Bellomo](/wiki/Salvatore_Bellomo \"Salvatore Bellomo\") and [Big Tiger Steele](/wiki/Jeff_Bearden \"Jeff Bearden\") in a no contest in Bremen, Germany.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/?id\\=2\\&nr\\=1452\\&page\\=4\\&year\\=2017\\&search\\=09\\.2017\\|title\\=Cagematch.net}} On December 21, 2019, Taylor returned to Hannover, Germany for European Wrestling Promotion on December 21, 2019 where he fought [Ice Train](/wiki/Ice_Train_%28wrestler%29 \"Ice Train (wrestler)\") in a no contest.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.cagematch.net/en?id\\=2\\&nr\\=1108\\&page\\=4\\&year\\=2019\\&promotion\\=25\\|title\\=Cagematch.net}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
The Goodies have become a rock band called "The Little Laddies", and sing 'Shiny Shoes' and 'on the road', where they are booed and ignored by the general public. However, they are picked up off the street by policemen, who put them to work. Soon tiring of performing for the police, the Goodies discover that punk is the latest [fad](/wiki/Fads_and_trends "Fads and trends"). Bill and Graeme decide to go punk β but Tim prefers to keep his neat and tidy image and his shiny shoes.
A Punk news announcer says, "Right here's the \*bleep\* news. In the festival of Light Rally, Lord Longford made a \*bleep\* statement of the moral decline of this \*honk honk\* country. In support of this, Mary \*honk\* Whitehouse called for less \*cuckoo\* and \*bleep\*. What a pair of \*pop\*. Mr Tim Brooke \*cuckoo\* today stated a protest on behalf of the League of Shiny Shoe Wearers."
A punk interviewer ('Bill Grumpy') interviews Tim about his niceness, saying: "Mr Brooke\-Taylor, let's face it, you are *nice*." to which Tim replied: "Yes." The punk interviewer then asked: "Would you be nice, here, now?" to which Tim replied: "Yes, I would." Surprised, the
Punk interviewer asked: "You mean it honestly wouldn't bother you to be nice in front of millions of people?" to which Tim replied: "No."
The punk interviewer then said: "Well, go ahead then." "Well," said Tim, "it's very, very, very kind of you to have invited me on the programme." The punk interviewer then said with heavy sarcasm: "Oh, very clever!" Tim said enthusiastically: "And I'd like to come on again, please." The punk interviewer, losing patience, says: "You sick little \*bleep\*!" and attacks Tim.
Tim takes the beautiful Caroline Kook out to dinner, but he can't understand what has happened to the restaurant β at lunchtime, that day, it had been an ordinary restaurant β now, at dinnertime, it had changed into a [punk](/wiki/Punk_subculture "Punk subculture") restaurant called "*[Trattoria](/wiki/Trattoria "Trattoria") Punk*". He is so disgusted at what is offered on the restaurant's menu that he can't even say the names out loud (except for [ratatouille](/wiki/Ratatouille "Ratatouille"), which the restaurateur (Graeme) says is off because they've run out of rats). Tim and Caroline finally chooses [spaghetti](/wiki/Spaghetti "Spaghetti"), thinking that this would not be as bad as the rest. However Graeme makes the meal a messy and memorable one for Tim β memorable, that is, for all the wrong reasons.
Tim complains to Caroline Kook about the change to the restaurant, but she starts lecturing him about punk and her job. Caroline has been served with dignity by Graeme, instead of the rough\-handed treatment with food which Graeme has meted out to Tim β so she lacks sympathy for what had happened to Tim. Caroline Kook mentions to Tim that there is to be a Trendsetters Ball. Graeme, who is listening to what she says, looks interested in what he is hearing.
People attending the ball try to outdo each other in punkiness, including Bill (who sings a punk song). Tim wants to go to the ball, but he is told that he looks too nice. Upset, Tim sweeps the Goodies office with a broom and asks a mouse for his opinion. The mouse's response upsets Tim even more and he loses his temper, saying, "You think I'm the ugliest person in the world? Cheeky, bloody mouse!"
Graeme arrives and turns Tim into Punkerella by operating on him. When Tim awakens, following the operation, he can't see where the change has been made β until Graeme tells Tim that he has taken Tim's leg off β following which Tim immediately falls over. Graeme warns Tim that the clip on his leg is not secure and should not be trusted to hold past [midnight](/wiki/Midnight "Midnight"), so his leg might fall off. Graeme then puts a pumpkin, with rats and lizards hanging from it, over Tim's head, and Tim attends the ball.
In his disguise, Tim is an instant success. When he quickly leaves at midnight, during the ball, his [amputated](/wiki/Amputated "Amputated") leg falls off and Tim leaves it behind on the stairs. And so the hunt is on to find the pumpkin\-headed [weirdo](/wiki/Wiktionary:Weirdo "Weirdo") with one leg β with Caroline Kook vowing to marry him when he is found.
After a lengthy search, and after many imposters who deliberately sawed their legs off, the Coroner arrives at the Goodies place. Graeme is about to reveal the owner of the leg in Tim's favour when Bill bursts in dressed as a one\-legged pirate who claims the leg is his. After a pathetic attempt to get the leg on him (and his Parrot), Bill grudgingly calls in Tim to try the leg on. To Bill's amazement, as he had no knowledge Tim's leg was missing, it fits.
As promised, Tim wins the hand of Caroline Kook (the left hand and arm to be exact). Graeme wins the top half and the right hand whilst the lower half goes to Bill. And so the Little Laddies live happily ever after.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The Goodies have become a rock band called \"The Little Laddies\", and sing 'Shiny Shoes' and 'on the road', where they are booed and ignored by the general public. However, they are picked up off the street by policemen, who put them to work. Soon tiring of performing for the police, the Goodies discover that punk is the latest [fad](/wiki/Fads_and_trends \"Fads and trends\"). Bill and Graeme decide to go punk β but Tim prefers to keep his neat and tidy image and his shiny shoes.",
"A Punk news announcer says, \"Right here's the \\*bleep\\* news. In the festival of Light Rally, Lord Longford made a \\*bleep\\* statement of the moral decline of this \\*honk honk\\* country. In support of this, Mary \\*honk\\* Whitehouse called for less \\*cuckoo\\* and \\*bleep\\*. What a pair of \\*pop\\*. Mr Tim Brooke \\*cuckoo\\* today stated a protest on behalf of the League of Shiny Shoe Wearers.\"",
"A punk interviewer ('Bill Grumpy') interviews Tim about his niceness, saying: \"Mr Brooke\\-Taylor, let's face it, you are *nice*.\" to which Tim replied: \"Yes.\" The punk interviewer then asked: \"Would you be nice, here, now?\" to which Tim replied: \"Yes, I would.\" Surprised, the \nPunk interviewer asked: \"You mean it honestly wouldn't bother you to be nice in front of millions of people?\" to which Tim replied: \"No.\"\nThe punk interviewer then said: \"Well, go ahead then.\" \"Well,\" said Tim, \"it's very, very, very kind of you to have invited me on the programme.\" The punk interviewer then said with heavy sarcasm: \"Oh, very clever!\" Tim said enthusiastically: \"And I'd like to come on again, please.\" The punk interviewer, losing patience, says: \"You sick little \\*bleep\\*!\" and attacks Tim.",
"Tim takes the beautiful Caroline Kook out to dinner, but he can't understand what has happened to the restaurant β at lunchtime, that day, it had been an ordinary restaurant β now, at dinnertime, it had changed into a [punk](/wiki/Punk_subculture \"Punk subculture\") restaurant called \"*[Trattoria](/wiki/Trattoria \"Trattoria\") Punk*\". He is so disgusted at what is offered on the restaurant's menu that he can't even say the names out loud (except for [ratatouille](/wiki/Ratatouille \"Ratatouille\"), which the restaurateur (Graeme) says is off because they've run out of rats). Tim and Caroline finally chooses [spaghetti](/wiki/Spaghetti \"Spaghetti\"), thinking that this would not be as bad as the rest. However Graeme makes the meal a messy and memorable one for Tim β memorable, that is, for all the wrong reasons.",
"Tim complains to Caroline Kook about the change to the restaurant, but she starts lecturing him about punk and her job. Caroline has been served with dignity by Graeme, instead of the rough\\-handed treatment with food which Graeme has meted out to Tim β so she lacks sympathy for what had happened to Tim. Caroline Kook mentions to Tim that there is to be a Trendsetters Ball. Graeme, who is listening to what she says, looks interested in what he is hearing.",
"People attending the ball try to outdo each other in punkiness, including Bill (who sings a punk song). Tim wants to go to the ball, but he is told that he looks too nice. Upset, Tim sweeps the Goodies office with a broom and asks a mouse for his opinion. The mouse's response upsets Tim even more and he loses his temper, saying, \"You think I'm the ugliest person in the world? Cheeky, bloody mouse!\"",
"Graeme arrives and turns Tim into Punkerella by operating on him. When Tim awakens, following the operation, he can't see where the change has been made β until Graeme tells Tim that he has taken Tim's leg off β following which Tim immediately falls over. Graeme warns Tim that the clip on his leg is not secure and should not be trusted to hold past [midnight](/wiki/Midnight \"Midnight\"), so his leg might fall off. Graeme then puts a pumpkin, with rats and lizards hanging from it, over Tim's head, and Tim attends the ball.",
"In his disguise, Tim is an instant success. When he quickly leaves at midnight, during the ball, his [amputated](/wiki/Amputated \"Amputated\") leg falls off and Tim leaves it behind on the stairs. And so the hunt is on to find the pumpkin\\-headed [weirdo](/wiki/Wiktionary:Weirdo \"Weirdo\") with one leg β with Caroline Kook vowing to marry him when he is found.",
"After a lengthy search, and after many imposters who deliberately sawed their legs off, the Coroner arrives at the Goodies place. Graeme is about to reveal the owner of the leg in Tim's favour when Bill bursts in dressed as a one\\-legged pirate who claims the leg is his. After a pathetic attempt to get the leg on him (and his Parrot), Bill grudgingly calls in Tim to try the leg on. To Bill's amazement, as he had no knowledge Tim's leg was missing, it fits.",
"As promised, Tim wins the hand of Caroline Kook (the left hand and arm to be exact). Graeme wins the top half and the right hand whilst the lower half goes to Bill. And so the Little Laddies live happily ever after.",
""
] |
Types
-----
### Stokes mortar
[thumb\|upright\|left\|[Wilfred Stokes](/wiki/Wilfred_Stokes "Wilfred Stokes") with example of his WWI mortar and bombs](/wiki/File:WilfredStokeswithMortar.jpg "WilfredStokeswithMortar.jpg")
It was not until the [Stokes mortar](/wiki/Stokes_mortar "Stokes mortar") was devised by Sir [Wilfred Stokes](/wiki/Wilfred_Stokes "Wilfred Stokes") in 1915 during the First World War that the modern mortar transportable by one person was born. In the conditions of [trench warfare](/wiki/Trench_warfare "Trench warfare"), there was a great need for a versatile and easily portable weapon that could be manned by troops under cover in the trenches. Stokes' design was initially rejected in June 1915 because it was unable to use existing stocks of British mortar ammunition, and it took the intervention of [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George "David Lloyd George") (at that time [Minister of Munitions](/wiki/Minister_of_Munitions "Minister of Munitions")) and Lieutenant Colonel J. C. Matheson of the Trench Warfare Supply Department (who reported to Lloyd George) to expedite manufacture of the Stokes mortar. The weapon proved to be extremely useful in the muddy trenches of the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)"), as a mortar round could be aimed to fall directly into [trenches](/wiki/Trench "Trench"), where artillery shells, because of their low angle of flight, could not possibly go.[naval\-military\-press.com](http://www.naval-military-press.com/FMPro?-db=nmp%5fproducts.fp5&-format=nmpweb%2fdetail.htm&-lay=cgi&-sortfield=date&Co=NMP&search=History%20of%20the%20Royal%20Regiment%20of%20Artillery.%20Western%20Front%201914-18&-max=20&-recid=35933&-token.0=3668698&-find=) {{dead link\|date\=November 2017}}
The Stokes mortar was a simple muzzle\-loaded weapon, consisting of a smoothbore metal tube fixed to a base plate (to absorb recoil) with a lightweight [bipod](/wiki/Bipod "Bipod") mount. When a mortar bomb was dropped into the tube, an impact sensitive [primer](/wiki/Percussion_cap%23Primers "Percussion cap#Primers") in the base of the bomb would make contact with a firing pin at the base of the tube and detonate, firing the bomb towards the target. The Stokes mortar could fire as many as 25 bombs per minute and had a maximum range of {{convert\|800\|yd\|abbr\=on}}, firing the original cylindrical unstabilised projectile.{{cite web \|url\=http://riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/mortar/mort7\.htm \|title\=Stokes Mortar \- by WL Ruffell \|access\-date\=2014\-07\-17 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115122833/http://www.riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/mortar/mort7\.htm \|archive\-date\=2015\-01\-15 }}
A modified version of the mortar, which fired a modern [fin\-stabilised](/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer "Vertical stabilizer") streamlined [projectile](/wiki/Projectile "Projectile") and had a booster charge for longer range, was developed after World War I;Ruffell this was in effect a new weapon. By World War II, it could fire as many as 30 bombs per minute and had a range of over {{convert\|2,500\|yd\|abbr\=on}} with some shell types.War Dept. Technical Manual TM9\-2005, Volume 3, Ordnance Materiel β General, Page 17, December 1942 The French developed an improved version of the Stokes mortar as the [Brandt Mle 27](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_27/31 "Brandt Mle 27/31"), further refined as the [Brandt Mle 31](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_27/31 "Brandt Mle 27/31"); this design was widely copied with and without license.{{cite book\|author\=Chris Bishop\|title\=The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=MuGsf0psjvcC\&pg\=PA202\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Sterling Publishing Company\|isbn\=978\-1\-58663\-762\-0\|page\=202\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320071908/http://books.google.com/books?id\=MuGsf0psjvcC\&pg\=PA202\|archive\-date\=2015\-03\-20\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms\_id\=483 \|title\=''Brandt mle 27 (Mortier Brandt de 81 mm modele 27\)'' Infantry Mortar \|website\=Militaryfactory.com \|access\-date\=19 November 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132204/https://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms\_id\=483 \|archive\-date\=1 December 2017 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book\|author\=John Norris\|title\=Infantry Mortars of World War II\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=x4Imr80itp0C\&pg\=PA42\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Osprey Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-84176\-414\-6\|pages\=42β43\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-27\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320035007/http://books.google.com/books?id\=x4Imr80itp0C\&pg\=PA42\|archive\-date\=2015\-03\-20\|url\-status\=live}} These weapons were the prototypes for all subsequent light mortar developments around the world.
### Mortar carrier
[thumb\|left\|The German 60 cm [Karl\-GerΓ€t](/wiki/Karl-Ger%C3%A4t "Karl-GerΓ€t") heavy siege mortar in August 1944](/wiki/File:Karl6.jpg "Karl6.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|right\|Interior of an [Israeli Defence Force](/wiki/Israeli_Defence_Force "Israeli Defence Force") M113 mortar carrier showing the placement of an 81 mm mortar](/wiki/File:M113-mortar-carrier-id2008-5.jpg "M113-mortar-carrier-id2008-5.jpg")
[Mortar carriers](/wiki/Mortar_carrier "Mortar carrier") are vehicles which carry a mortar as a primary weapon. Numerous vehicles have been used to mount mortars, from [improvised civilian trucks](/wiki/Technical_%28vehicle%29 "Technical (vehicle)") used by [insurgents](/wiki/Insurgency "Insurgency"), to modified [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle "Infantry fighting vehicle"), such as variants of the [M3 half\-track](/wiki/M3_half-track "M3 half-track") and [M113 armored personnel carrier](/wiki/M113_armored_personnel_carrier "M113 armored personnel carrier"), to vehicles specifically intended to carry a mortar. Simpler vehicles carry a standard infantry mortar while in more complex vehicles the mortar is fully integrated into the vehicle and cannot be dismounted from the vehicle. Mortar carriers cannot be fired while on the move, and some must be dismounted to fire.
There are numerous [armoured fighting vehicles](/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle "Armoured fighting vehicle") and even [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank "Main battle tank") that can be equipped with a mortar, either outside or inside of the cabin. The Israeli [Merkava](/wiki/Merkava "Merkava") tank uses a {{convert\|60\|mm\|abbr\=on}} mortar as a secondary armament. The [Russian army](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces "Russian Ground Forces") uses the *[2S4 Tyulpan](/wiki/2S4_Tyulpan "2S4 Tyulpan")* self\-propelled {{convert\|240\|mm\|abbr\=on}} heavy mortar which is one of the largest mortars in current use.
### Gun\-mortars
[thumb\|left\|[2B9 Vasilek 82 mm gun mortar](/wiki/2B9_Vasilek "2B9 Vasilek")](/wiki/File:2B9_Vasilek_mortar-4058.JPG "2B9 Vasilek mortar-4058.JPG")
Gun\-mortars are breech\-loaded mortars usually equipped with a [hydraulic recoil mechanism](/wiki/Hydraulic_recoil_mechanism "Hydraulic recoil mechanism"), and sometimes equipped with an [autoloader](/wiki/Autoloader "Autoloader"). They are usually mounted on an armoured vehicle and are capable of both [direct fire](/wiki/Direct_fire "Direct fire") and [indirect fire](/wiki/Indirect_fire "Indirect fire"). The archetypes are the [Brandt Mle CM60A1](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_CM60A1 "Brandt Mle CM60A1") and [Brandt 60 mm LR](/wiki/Brandt_60_mm_LR_Gun-mortar "Brandt 60 mm LR Gun-mortar"), which combine features of modern infantry mortars together with those of modern cannon. Such weapons are most commonly smoothbore, firing fin\-stabilised rounds, using relatively small propellant charges in comparison to projectile weight. While some have been fitted with rifled barrels, such as the [2S31 Vena](/wiki/2S31_Vena "2S31 Vena") and [2S9 Nona](/wiki/2S9_Nona "2S9 Nona"). They have short barrels in comparison to guns and are much more lightly built than guns of a similar calibre β all characteristics of infantry mortars. This produces a hybrid weapon capable of engaging area targets with indirect high\-angle fire, and also specific targets such as vehicles and bunkers with direct fire. Such hybrids are much heavier and more complicated than infantry mortars, superior to [rocket\-propelled grenades](/wiki/Rocket-propelled_grenade "Rocket-propelled grenade") in the anti\-armour and [bunker\-busting](/wiki/Bunker_buster "Bunker buster") role, but have a reduced range compared to modern gun\-[howitzers](/wiki/Howitzer "Howitzer") and inferior anti\-tank capability compared to modern anti\-tank [guided weapons](/wiki/Precision-guided_munition "Precision-guided munition"). However, they do have a niche in, for example, providing a multi\-role anti\-personnel, anti\-armour capability in light mobile formations. Such systems, like the Soviet 120Β mm [2S9 Nona](/wiki/2S9_Nona "2S9 Nona"), are mostly self\-propelled (although a towed variant exists). The [AMOS](/wiki/AMOS "AMOS") (Advanced Mortar System) is an example of an even more advanced gun mortar system. It uses a 120Β mm automatic twin\-barrelled, breech\-loaded mortar turret, which can be mounted on a variety of armoured vehicles and attack boats. A modern example of a gun\-mortar is the [2B9 Vasilek](/wiki/2B9_Vasilek "2B9 Vasilek").
### Spigot mortar
[thumb\|A Blacker Bombard during training](/wiki/File:Blacker_Bombard.jpg "Blacker Bombard.jpg")
A spigot mortar consists mainly of a solid rod or [spigot](/wiki/Ductile_iron_pipe%23Spigot_and_socket "Ductile iron pipe#Spigot and socket"), onto which a hollow tube in the projectile fitsβinverting the normal tube\-mortar arrangement. At the top of the tube in the projectile, a cavity contains [propellant](/wiki/Propellant "Propellant"), such as [cordite](/wiki/Cordite "Cordite"). There is usually a trigger mechanism built into the base of the spigot, with a long firing pin running up the length of the spigot activating a [primer](/wiki/Percussion_cap "Percussion cap") inside the projectile and firing the propellant charge. The advantage of a spigot mortar is that the firing unit (baseplate and spigot) is smaller and lighter than a conventional tube mortar of equivalent payload and range. It is also somewhat simpler to manufacture. Further, most spigot mortars have no barrel in the conventional sense, which means ammunition of almost any weight and diameter can be fired from the same mortar.
The disadvantage is that while most mortar bombs have a streamlined shape towards the back that fits a spigot mortar application well, using that space for the spigot mortar tube takes volume and mass away from the payload of the projectile. If a soldier is carrying only a few projectiles, the projectile weight disadvantage is not significant. However, the weight of a large quantity of the heavier and more complex spigot projectiles offsets the weight saved.
A near\-silent mortar can operate using the spigot principle. Each round has a close\-fitting sliding plug in the tube that fits over the spigot. When the round is fired, the projectile is pushed off the spigot, but before the plug clears the spigot it is caught by a constriction at the base of the tube. This traps the gases from the propelling charge and hence the sound of the firing. After World War II the Belgium Fly\-K silent spigot mortar was accepted into French service as the TN\-8111\.{{citation \|title\=A Second Wind For The Lightweight Infantry Mortar
\|url\=https://www.thinkdefence.co.uk/2021/07/infantry\-platoon\-mortars/ \|website\=thinkdefence.co.uk \|date\=July 19, 2021}}{{citation \|title\=Fly\-K mortar systems β excellent stealth capabilities and tremendous tactical potential
\|url\=https://www.rheinmetall\-defence.com/en/rheinmetall\_defence/public\_relations/news/detail\_1436\.php \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314190930/https://www.rheinmetall\-defence.com/en/rheinmetall\_defence/public\_relations/news/detail\_1436\.php \| archivedate\=2023\-03\-14}}
[thumb\|A [hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 "Hedgehog (weapon)") launcher on display. Note the exposed spigot on the lower left launcher.](/wiki/File:A_hedgehog_launcher_on_display.jpg "A hedgehog launcher on display.jpg")
Spigot mortars generally fell out of favour after World War II and were replaced by smaller conventional mortars. Military applications of spigot mortars include:
* The {{convert\|230\|mm\|abbr\=on}} petard mortar used on the [Churchill AVRE](/wiki/Churchill_tank%23Churchill_AVRE_%28Assault_Vehicle_Royal_Engineers%29 "Churchill tank#Churchill AVRE (Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers)") by Britain in World War II.{{Citation \| url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=gN8DAAAAMBAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA7 \|title\=Tank Hurls Flying Dust Bins and Lays Tracks \| date\= December 1944 \|work\=Popular Mechanics \|page\=7\|publisher\=Hearst Magazines }}
* The [{{convert\|320\|mm\|abbr\=on}} Type 98 mortar](/wiki/320_mm_Type_98_mortar "320 mm Type 98 mortar") used by Japan in World War II to some psychological effect in the battles of [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima "Iwo Jima") and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island")
* The [Blacker Bombard](/wiki/Blacker_Bombard "Blacker Bombard") and [PIAT](/wiki/PIAT "PIAT") anti\-tank launchers used by Britain in World War II.
* The [Hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 "Hedgehog (weapon)") launcher, used from the deck of a ship, used 24 spigot mortars which fired a diamond pattern of anti\-submarine projectiles into the sea ahead of the ship. A sinking projectile detonated if it struck a submarine, and the pattern was such that any submarine partly in the landing zone of the projectiles would be struck one or more times.
Non\-military applications include the use of small\-calibre spigot mortars to launch lightweight, low\-velocity foam dummy targets used for training [retriever](/wiki/Retriever "Retriever") dogs for bird hunting. Simple launchers use a separate small primer cap as the sole propellant (similar or identical to the cartridges used in industrial [nail guns](/wiki/Nail_gun "Nail gun")).
### Improvised
[thumb\|Improvised mortars in Batey ha\-Osef Museum, Tel Aviv, Israel](/wiki/File:Improvised-mortars-batey-haosef-1-1.jpg "Improvised-mortars-batey-haosef-1-1.jpg")
Insurgent groups often use improvised, or "homemade" mortars to attack fortified military installations or terrorise civilians. They are usually constructed from heavy steel piping mounted on a steel frame. These weapons may fire standard mortar rounds, purpose\-made shells, repurposed gas cylinders filled with explosives and shrapnel, or any other type of improvised explosive, incendiary or chemical munitions. These were called "[barrack busters](/wiki/Barrack_buster "Barrack buster")" by the [Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA)](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army "Provisional Irish Republican Army").
#### Syrian civil war
Improvised mortars used by insurgents in the [Syrian civil war](/wiki/Syrian_civil_war "Syrian civil war") are known as [*hell cannons*](/wiki/Improvised_artillery_in_the_Syrian_civil_war "Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war"). Observers have noted that they are "wildly inaccurate" and responsible for hundreds of civilian deaths.{{cite web \|url\=https://news.yahoo.com/syrian\-rebel\-hell\-cannons\-kill\-300\-civilians\-monitoring\-122622024\.html \|title\=Syrian rebel "hell cannons" kill 300 civilians: monitoring group \|publisher\=Reuters \|agency\=\[\[Yahoo! News]] \|author\=Oliver Holmes \|date\=December 12, 2014 \|access\-date\=December 13, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216164955/https://news.yahoo.com/syrian\-rebel\-hell\-cannons\-kill\-300\-civilians\-monitoring\-122622024\.html \|archive\-date\=December 16, 2014 \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Sri Lankan civil war
Improvised mortars used in the [Sri Lankan civil war](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war "Sri Lankan civil war") by the rebel [Tamil Tigers](/wiki/Tamil_Tigers "Tamil Tigers") are known as "Pasilan 2000", also known as a "rocket mortar" or "Arti\-mortar" like the {{convert\|122\|mm\|abbr\=on}} cannon, successor to the **Baba mortar** used by the LTTE for ground operations since the 1980s. As Baba mortar rounds contained tar, they caused a fire when they hit the ground.{{Cite web\|url\=http://pdfs.island.lk/defence/20130621\_147\.html\|title \= Forign1}} The Baba, the prototype mortar, was crude. But with time the weapon has improved.
The Pasilan 2000, the improved version, has been developed with characteristics similar to a rocket launcher. The Pasilan 2000 was a heavy mortar fired from a mobile launcher mounted on a tractor. The shell does not emit constant muzzle flares like [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery") or MBRL. This is ideal for LTTE's camouflage and conceals attacking style. Once a round is fired, forward observers/spies/civilian spotters can correct the fire. The way the tube is installed is similar to the positioning of rocket pods. The length and calibre of the barrel indicate Pasilan 2000 system has common features to the Chinese made Type 82 {{convert\|130\|mm\|abbr\=on}} 30\-tube MLRS (introduced by the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) in the early 1980s) rather than rail\-guided Katyusha variants such as the Qassam Rocket. The warhead weight is {{convert\|70\|kg\|abbr\=on}} and it is filled with TNT. It had a range of {{convert\|15\|to\|25\|km\|abbr\=on}}. The rocket has since then undergone some modifications. The Pasilan 2000 was more lethal than Baba mortar. But it was not heavily used for ground attacks during the [Eelam War IV](/wiki/Eelam_War_IV "Eelam War IV"). {{Cite web\|url\=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2008/02/pasilan\-2000\-used\-by\-ltte.html\|title \= Pasilan 2000 used by the LTTE}} {{Cite web\|url\=https://fdocuments.in/document/dossier\-on\-ltte\-weapons.html\|title \= Dossier on LTTE Weapons β PDF document}}
|
[
"Types\n-----",
"### Stokes mortar",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|[Wilfred Stokes](/wiki/Wilfred_Stokes \"Wilfred Stokes\") with example of his WWI mortar and bombs](/wiki/File:WilfredStokeswithMortar.jpg \"WilfredStokeswithMortar.jpg\")",
"It was not until the [Stokes mortar](/wiki/Stokes_mortar \"Stokes mortar\") was devised by Sir [Wilfred Stokes](/wiki/Wilfred_Stokes \"Wilfred Stokes\") in 1915 during the First World War that the modern mortar transportable by one person was born. In the conditions of [trench warfare](/wiki/Trench_warfare \"Trench warfare\"), there was a great need for a versatile and easily portable weapon that could be manned by troops under cover in the trenches. Stokes' design was initially rejected in June 1915 because it was unable to use existing stocks of British mortar ammunition, and it took the intervention of [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George \"David Lloyd George\") (at that time [Minister of Munitions](/wiki/Minister_of_Munitions \"Minister of Munitions\")) and Lieutenant Colonel J. C. Matheson of the Trench Warfare Supply Department (who reported to Lloyd George) to expedite manufacture of the Stokes mortar. The weapon proved to be extremely useful in the muddy trenches of the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\"), as a mortar round could be aimed to fall directly into [trenches](/wiki/Trench \"Trench\"), where artillery shells, because of their low angle of flight, could not possibly go.[naval\\-military\\-press.com](http://www.naval-military-press.com/FMPro?-db=nmp%5fproducts.fp5&-format=nmpweb%2fdetail.htm&-lay=cgi&-sortfield=date&Co=NMP&search=History%20of%20the%20Royal%20Regiment%20of%20Artillery.%20Western%20Front%201914-18&-max=20&-recid=35933&-token.0=3668698&-find=) {{dead link\\|date\\=November 2017}}",
"The Stokes mortar was a simple muzzle\\-loaded weapon, consisting of a smoothbore metal tube fixed to a base plate (to absorb recoil) with a lightweight [bipod](/wiki/Bipod \"Bipod\") mount. When a mortar bomb was dropped into the tube, an impact sensitive [primer](/wiki/Percussion_cap%23Primers \"Percussion cap#Primers\") in the base of the bomb would make contact with a firing pin at the base of the tube and detonate, firing the bomb towards the target. The Stokes mortar could fire as many as 25 bombs per minute and had a maximum range of {{convert\\|800\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}}, firing the original cylindrical unstabilised projectile.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/mortar/mort7\\.htm \\|title\\=Stokes Mortar \\- by WL Ruffell \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-07\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115122833/http://www.riv.co.nz/rnza/hist/mortar/mort7\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-01\\-15 }}",
"A modified version of the mortar, which fired a modern [fin\\-stabilised](/wiki/Vertical_stabilizer \"Vertical stabilizer\") streamlined [projectile](/wiki/Projectile \"Projectile\") and had a booster charge for longer range, was developed after World War I;Ruffell this was in effect a new weapon. By World War II, it could fire as many as 30 bombs per minute and had a range of over {{convert\\|2,500\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}} with some shell types.War Dept. Technical Manual TM9\\-2005, Volume 3, Ordnance Materiel β General, Page 17, December 1942 The French developed an improved version of the Stokes mortar as the [Brandt Mle 27](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_27/31 \"Brandt Mle 27/31\"), further refined as the [Brandt Mle 31](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_27/31 \"Brandt Mle 27/31\"); this design was widely copied with and without license.{{cite book\\|author\\=Chris Bishop\\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=MuGsf0psjvcC\\&pg\\=PA202\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Sterling Publishing Company\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58663\\-762\\-0\\|page\\=202\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320071908/http://books.google.com/books?id\\=MuGsf0psjvcC\\&pg\\=PA202\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-20\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms\\_id\\=483 \\|title\\=''Brandt mle 27 (Mortier Brandt de 81 mm modele 27\\)'' Infantry Mortar \\|website\\=Militaryfactory.com \\|access\\-date\\=19 November 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201132204/https://www.militaryfactory.com/smallarms/detail.asp?smallarms\\_id\\=483 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book\\|author\\=John Norris\\|title\\=Infantry Mortars of World War II\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=x4Imr80itp0C\\&pg\\=PA42\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Osprey Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-84176\\-414\\-6\\|pages\\=42β43\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-27\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320035007/http://books.google.com/books?id\\=x4Imr80itp0C\\&pg\\=PA42\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-03\\-20\\|url\\-status\\=live}} These weapons were the prototypes for all subsequent light mortar developments around the world.",
"### Mortar carrier",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The German 60 cm [Karl\\-GerΓ€t](/wiki/Karl-Ger%C3%A4t \"Karl-GerΓ€t\") heavy siege mortar in August 1944](/wiki/File:Karl6.jpg \"Karl6.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|right\\|Interior of an [Israeli Defence Force](/wiki/Israeli_Defence_Force \"Israeli Defence Force\") M113 mortar carrier showing the placement of an 81 mm mortar](/wiki/File:M113-mortar-carrier-id2008-5.jpg \"M113-mortar-carrier-id2008-5.jpg\")",
"[Mortar carriers](/wiki/Mortar_carrier \"Mortar carrier\") are vehicles which carry a mortar as a primary weapon. Numerous vehicles have been used to mount mortars, from [improvised civilian trucks](/wiki/Technical_%28vehicle%29 \"Technical (vehicle)\") used by [insurgents](/wiki/Insurgency \"Insurgency\"), to modified [infantry fighting vehicles](/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle \"Infantry fighting vehicle\"), such as variants of the [M3 half\\-track](/wiki/M3_half-track \"M3 half-track\") and [M113 armored personnel carrier](/wiki/M113_armored_personnel_carrier \"M113 armored personnel carrier\"), to vehicles specifically intended to carry a mortar. Simpler vehicles carry a standard infantry mortar while in more complex vehicles the mortar is fully integrated into the vehicle and cannot be dismounted from the vehicle. Mortar carriers cannot be fired while on the move, and some must be dismounted to fire.",
"There are numerous [armoured fighting vehicles](/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle \"Armoured fighting vehicle\") and even [main battle tanks](/wiki/Main_battle_tank \"Main battle tank\") that can be equipped with a mortar, either outside or inside of the cabin. The Israeli [Merkava](/wiki/Merkava \"Merkava\") tank uses a {{convert\\|60\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} mortar as a secondary armament. The [Russian army](/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces \"Russian Ground Forces\") uses the *[2S4 Tyulpan](/wiki/2S4_Tyulpan \"2S4 Tyulpan\")* self\\-propelled {{convert\\|240\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} heavy mortar which is one of the largest mortars in current use.",
"### Gun\\-mortars",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[2B9 Vasilek 82 mm gun mortar](/wiki/2B9_Vasilek \"2B9 Vasilek\")](/wiki/File:2B9_Vasilek_mortar-4058.JPG \"2B9 Vasilek mortar-4058.JPG\")",
"Gun\\-mortars are breech\\-loaded mortars usually equipped with a [hydraulic recoil mechanism](/wiki/Hydraulic_recoil_mechanism \"Hydraulic recoil mechanism\"), and sometimes equipped with an [autoloader](/wiki/Autoloader \"Autoloader\"). They are usually mounted on an armoured vehicle and are capable of both [direct fire](/wiki/Direct_fire \"Direct fire\") and [indirect fire](/wiki/Indirect_fire \"Indirect fire\"). The archetypes are the [Brandt Mle CM60A1](/wiki/Brandt_Mle_CM60A1 \"Brandt Mle CM60A1\") and [Brandt 60 mm LR](/wiki/Brandt_60_mm_LR_Gun-mortar \"Brandt 60 mm LR Gun-mortar\"), which combine features of modern infantry mortars together with those of modern cannon. Such weapons are most commonly smoothbore, firing fin\\-stabilised rounds, using relatively small propellant charges in comparison to projectile weight. While some have been fitted with rifled barrels, such as the [2S31 Vena](/wiki/2S31_Vena \"2S31 Vena\") and [2S9 Nona](/wiki/2S9_Nona \"2S9 Nona\"). They have short barrels in comparison to guns and are much more lightly built than guns of a similar calibre β all characteristics of infantry mortars. This produces a hybrid weapon capable of engaging area targets with indirect high\\-angle fire, and also specific targets such as vehicles and bunkers with direct fire. Such hybrids are much heavier and more complicated than infantry mortars, superior to [rocket\\-propelled grenades](/wiki/Rocket-propelled_grenade \"Rocket-propelled grenade\") in the anti\\-armour and [bunker\\-busting](/wiki/Bunker_buster \"Bunker buster\") role, but have a reduced range compared to modern gun\\-[howitzers](/wiki/Howitzer \"Howitzer\") and inferior anti\\-tank capability compared to modern anti\\-tank [guided weapons](/wiki/Precision-guided_munition \"Precision-guided munition\"). However, they do have a niche in, for example, providing a multi\\-role anti\\-personnel, anti\\-armour capability in light mobile formations. Such systems, like the Soviet 120Β mm [2S9 Nona](/wiki/2S9_Nona \"2S9 Nona\"), are mostly self\\-propelled (although a towed variant exists). The [AMOS](/wiki/AMOS \"AMOS\") (Advanced Mortar System) is an example of an even more advanced gun mortar system. It uses a 120Β mm automatic twin\\-barrelled, breech\\-loaded mortar turret, which can be mounted on a variety of armoured vehicles and attack boats. A modern example of a gun\\-mortar is the [2B9 Vasilek](/wiki/2B9_Vasilek \"2B9 Vasilek\").",
"### Spigot mortar",
"[thumb\\|A Blacker Bombard during training](/wiki/File:Blacker_Bombard.jpg \"Blacker Bombard.jpg\")",
"A spigot mortar consists mainly of a solid rod or [spigot](/wiki/Ductile_iron_pipe%23Spigot_and_socket \"Ductile iron pipe#Spigot and socket\"), onto which a hollow tube in the projectile fitsβinverting the normal tube\\-mortar arrangement. At the top of the tube in the projectile, a cavity contains [propellant](/wiki/Propellant \"Propellant\"), such as [cordite](/wiki/Cordite \"Cordite\"). There is usually a trigger mechanism built into the base of the spigot, with a long firing pin running up the length of the spigot activating a [primer](/wiki/Percussion_cap \"Percussion cap\") inside the projectile and firing the propellant charge. The advantage of a spigot mortar is that the firing unit (baseplate and spigot) is smaller and lighter than a conventional tube mortar of equivalent payload and range. It is also somewhat simpler to manufacture. Further, most spigot mortars have no barrel in the conventional sense, which means ammunition of almost any weight and diameter can be fired from the same mortar.",
"The disadvantage is that while most mortar bombs have a streamlined shape towards the back that fits a spigot mortar application well, using that space for the spigot mortar tube takes volume and mass away from the payload of the projectile. If a soldier is carrying only a few projectiles, the projectile weight disadvantage is not significant. However, the weight of a large quantity of the heavier and more complex spigot projectiles offsets the weight saved.",
"A near\\-silent mortar can operate using the spigot principle. Each round has a close\\-fitting sliding plug in the tube that fits over the spigot. When the round is fired, the projectile is pushed off the spigot, but before the plug clears the spigot it is caught by a constriction at the base of the tube. This traps the gases from the propelling charge and hence the sound of the firing. After World War II the Belgium Fly\\-K silent spigot mortar was accepted into French service as the TN\\-8111\\.{{citation \\|title\\=A Second Wind For The Lightweight Infantry Mortar \n\\|url\\=https://www.thinkdefence.co.uk/2021/07/infantry\\-platoon\\-mortars/ \\|website\\=thinkdefence.co.uk \\|date\\=July 19, 2021}}{{citation \\|title\\=Fly\\-K mortar systems β excellent stealth capabilities and tremendous tactical potential\n\\|url\\=https://www.rheinmetall\\-defence.com/en/rheinmetall\\_defence/public\\_relations/news/detail\\_1436\\.php \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314190930/https://www.rheinmetall\\-defence.com/en/rheinmetall\\_defence/public\\_relations/news/detail\\_1436\\.php \\| archivedate\\=2023\\-03\\-14}}",
"[thumb\\|A [hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 \"Hedgehog (weapon)\") launcher on display. Note the exposed spigot on the lower left launcher.](/wiki/File:A_hedgehog_launcher_on_display.jpg \"A hedgehog launcher on display.jpg\")\nSpigot mortars generally fell out of favour after World War II and were replaced by smaller conventional mortars. Military applications of spigot mortars include:\n* The {{convert\\|230\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} petard mortar used on the [Churchill AVRE](/wiki/Churchill_tank%23Churchill_AVRE_%28Assault_Vehicle_Royal_Engineers%29 \"Churchill tank#Churchill AVRE (Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers)\") by Britain in World War II.{{Citation \\| url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=gN8DAAAAMBAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA7 \\|title\\=Tank Hurls Flying Dust Bins and Lays Tracks \\| date\\= December 1944 \\|work\\=Popular Mechanics \\|page\\=7\\|publisher\\=Hearst Magazines }}\n* The [{{convert\\|320\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} Type 98 mortar](/wiki/320_mm_Type_98_mortar \"320 mm Type 98 mortar\") used by Japan in World War II to some psychological effect in the battles of [Iwo Jima](/wiki/Iwo_Jima \"Iwo Jima\") and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\")\n* The [Blacker Bombard](/wiki/Blacker_Bombard \"Blacker Bombard\") and [PIAT](/wiki/PIAT \"PIAT\") anti\\-tank launchers used by Britain in World War II.\n* The [Hedgehog](/wiki/Hedgehog_%28weapon%29 \"Hedgehog (weapon)\") launcher, used from the deck of a ship, used 24 spigot mortars which fired a diamond pattern of anti\\-submarine projectiles into the sea ahead of the ship. A sinking projectile detonated if it struck a submarine, and the pattern was such that any submarine partly in the landing zone of the projectiles would be struck one or more times.",
"Non\\-military applications include the use of small\\-calibre spigot mortars to launch lightweight, low\\-velocity foam dummy targets used for training [retriever](/wiki/Retriever \"Retriever\") dogs for bird hunting. Simple launchers use a separate small primer cap as the sole propellant (similar or identical to the cartridges used in industrial [nail guns](/wiki/Nail_gun \"Nail gun\")).",
"### Improvised",
"[thumb\\|Improvised mortars in Batey ha\\-Osef Museum, Tel Aviv, Israel](/wiki/File:Improvised-mortars-batey-haosef-1-1.jpg \"Improvised-mortars-batey-haosef-1-1.jpg\")\nInsurgent groups often use improvised, or \"homemade\" mortars to attack fortified military installations or terrorise civilians. They are usually constructed from heavy steel piping mounted on a steel frame. These weapons may fire standard mortar rounds, purpose\\-made shells, repurposed gas cylinders filled with explosives and shrapnel, or any other type of improvised explosive, incendiary or chemical munitions. These were called \"[barrack busters](/wiki/Barrack_buster \"Barrack buster\")\" by the [Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA)](/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army \"Provisional Irish Republican Army\").",
"#### Syrian civil war",
"Improvised mortars used by insurgents in the [Syrian civil war](/wiki/Syrian_civil_war \"Syrian civil war\") are known as [*hell cannons*](/wiki/Improvised_artillery_in_the_Syrian_civil_war \"Improvised artillery in the Syrian civil war\"). Observers have noted that they are \"wildly inaccurate\" and responsible for hundreds of civilian deaths.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://news.yahoo.com/syrian\\-rebel\\-hell\\-cannons\\-kill\\-300\\-civilians\\-monitoring\\-122622024\\.html \\|title\\=Syrian rebel \"hell cannons\" kill 300 civilians: monitoring group \\|publisher\\=Reuters \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Yahoo! News]] \\|author\\=Oliver Holmes \\|date\\=December 12, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=December 13, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216164955/https://news.yahoo.com/syrian\\-rebel\\-hell\\-cannons\\-kill\\-300\\-civilians\\-monitoring\\-122622024\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 16, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Sri Lankan civil war",
"Improvised mortars used in the [Sri Lankan civil war](/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war \"Sri Lankan civil war\") by the rebel [Tamil Tigers](/wiki/Tamil_Tigers \"Tamil Tigers\") are known as \"Pasilan 2000\", also known as a \"rocket mortar\" or \"Arti\\-mortar\" like the {{convert\\|122\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} cannon, successor to the **Baba mortar** used by the LTTE for ground operations since the 1980s. As Baba mortar rounds contained tar, they caused a fire when they hit the ground.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://pdfs.island.lk/defence/20130621\\_147\\.html\\|title \\= Forign1}} The Baba, the prototype mortar, was crude. But with time the weapon has improved.",
"The Pasilan 2000, the improved version, has been developed with characteristics similar to a rocket launcher. The Pasilan 2000 was a heavy mortar fired from a mobile launcher mounted on a tractor. The shell does not emit constant muzzle flares like [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\") or MBRL. This is ideal for LTTE's camouflage and conceals attacking style. Once a round is fired, forward observers/spies/civilian spotters can correct the fire. The way the tube is installed is similar to the positioning of rocket pods. The length and calibre of the barrel indicate Pasilan 2000 system has common features to the Chinese made Type 82 {{convert\\|130\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} 30\\-tube MLRS (introduced by the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA) in the early 1980s) rather than rail\\-guided Katyusha variants such as the Qassam Rocket. The warhead weight is {{convert\\|70\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} and it is filled with TNT. It had a range of {{convert\\|15\\|to\\|25\\|km\\|abbr\\=on}}. The rocket has since then undergone some modifications. The Pasilan 2000 was more lethal than Baba mortar. But it was not heavily used for ground attacks during the [Eelam War IV](/wiki/Eelam_War_IV \"Eelam War IV\"). {{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2008/02/pasilan\\-2000\\-used\\-by\\-ltte.html\\|title \\= Pasilan 2000 used by the LTTE}} {{Cite web\\|url\\=https://fdocuments.in/document/dossier\\-on\\-ltte\\-weapons.html\\|title \\= Dossier on LTTE Weapons β PDF document}}",
""
] |
Linear inequalities of real numbers
-----------------------------------
### Two\-dimensional linear inequalities
[thumb\|{{center\|Graph of linear inequality:
x \+ 3y \< 9}}](/wiki/File:Linearineq1.svg "Linearineq1.svg")
Two\-dimensional linear inequalities are expressions in two variables of the form:
ax \+ by \< c \\text{ and } ax \+ by \\geq c,
where the inequalities may either be strict or not. The solution set of such an inequality can be graphically represented by a half\-plane (all the points on one "side" of a fixed line) in the Euclidean plane.Technically, for this statement to be correct both *a* and *b* can not simultaneously be zero. In that situation, the solution set is either empty or the entire plane. The line that determines the half\-planes (*ax* \+ *by* \= *c*) is not included in the solution set when the inequality is strict. A simple procedure to determine which half\-plane is in the solution set is to calculate the value of *ax* \+ *by* at a point (*x*0, *y*0) which is not on the line and observe whether or not the inequality is satisfied.
For example,{{harvnb\|Angel\|Porter\|1989\|loc\=p. 310}} to draw the solution set of *x* \+ 3*y* \< 9, one first draws the line with equation *x* \+ 3*y* \= 9 as a dotted line, to indicate that the line is not included in the solution set since the inequality is strict. Then, pick a convenient point not on the line, such as (0,0\). Since 0 \+ 3(0\) \= 0 \< 9, this point is in the solution set, so the half\-plane containing this point (the half\-plane "below" the line) is the solution set of this linear inequality.
### Linear inequalities in general dimensions
In **R**n linear inequalities are the expressions that may be written in the form
f(\\bar{x}) \< b or f(\\bar{x}) \\leq b,
where *f* is a [linear form](/wiki/Linear_form "Linear form") (also called a *linear functional*), \\bar{x} \= (x\_1,x\_2,\\ldots,x\_n) and *b* a constant real number.
More concretely, this may be written out as
a\_1 x\_1 \+ a\_2 x\_2 \+ \\cdots \+ a\_n x\_n \< b
or
a\_1 x\_1 \+ a\_2 x\_2 \+ \\cdots \+ a\_n x\_n \\leq b.
Here x\_1, x\_2,...,x\_n are called the unknowns, and a\_{1}, a\_{2},..., a\_{n} are called the coefficients.
Alternatively, these may be written as
g(x) \< 0 \\, or g(x) \\leq 0,
where *g* is an [affine function](/wiki/Affine_function "Affine function").In the 2\-dimensional case, both linear forms and affine functions are historically called *linear functions* because their graphs are lines. In other dimensions, neither type of function has a graph which is a line, so the generalization of linear function in two dimensions to higher dimensions is done by means of algebraic properties and this causes the split into two types of functions. However, the difference between affine functions and linear forms is just the addition of a constant.
That is
a\_0 \+ a\_1 x\_1 \+ a\_2 x\_2 \+ \\cdots \+ a\_n x\_n \< 0
or
a\_0 \+ a\_1 x\_1 \+ a\_2 x\_2 \+ \\cdots \+ a\_n x\_n \\leq 0\.
Note that any inequality containing a "greater than" or a "greater than or equal" sign can be rewritten with a "less than" or "less than or equal" sign, so there is no need to define linear inequalities using those signs.
### Systems of linear inequalities
A system of linear inequalities is a set of linear inequalities in the same variables:
\\begin{alignat}{7}
a\_{11} x\_1 \&\&\\; \+ \\;\&\& a\_{12} x\_2 \&\&\\; \+ \\cdots \+ \\;\&\& a\_{1n} x\_n \&\&\\; \\leq \\;\&\&\& b\_1 \\\\
a\_{21} x\_1 \&\&\\; \+ \\;\&\& a\_{22} x\_2 \&\&\\; \+ \\cdots \+ \\;\&\& a\_{2n} x\_n \&\&\\; \\leq \\;\&\&\& b\_2 \\\\
\\vdots\\;\\;\\; \&\& \&\& \\vdots\\;\\;\\; \&\& \&\& \\vdots\\;\\;\\; \&\& \&\&\& \\;\\vdots \\\\
a\_{m1} x\_1 \&\&\\; \+ \\;\&\& a\_{m2} x\_2 \&\&\\; \+ \\cdots \+ \\;\&\& a\_{mn} x\_n \&\&\\; \\leq \\;\&\&\& b\_m \\\\
\\end{alignat}
Here x\_1,\\ x\_2,...,x\_n are the unknowns, a\_{11},\\ a\_{12},...,\\ a\_{mn} are the coefficients of the system, and b\_1,\\ b\_2,...,b\_m are the constant terms.
This can be concisely written as the [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 "Matrix (mathematics)") inequality
Ax \\leq b,
where *A* is an *m*Γ*n* matrix, *x* is an *n*Γ1 [column vector](/wiki/Column_vector "Column vector") of variables, and *b* is an *m*Γ1 column vector of constants.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2019}}
In the above systems both strict and non\-strict inequalities may be used.
* Not all systems of linear inequalities have solutions.
Variables can be eliminated from systems of linear inequalities using [FourierβMotzkin elimination](/wiki/Fourier%E2%80%93Motzkin_elimination "FourierβMotzkin elimination").{{Cite Gartner Matousek 2006}}
### Applications
#### Polyhedra
The set of solutions of a real linear inequality constitutes a [half\-space](/wiki/Half-space_%28geometry%29 "Half-space (geometry)") of the 'n'\-dimensional real space, one of the two defined by the corresponding linear equation.
The set of solutions of a system of linear inequalities corresponds to the intersection of the half\-spaces defined by individual inequalities. It is a [convex set](/wiki/Convex_set "Convex set"), since the half\-spaces are convex sets, and the intersection of a set of convex sets is also convex. In the non\-[degenerate cases](/wiki/Degenerate_case "Degenerate case") this convex set is a [convex polyhedron](/wiki/Convex_polyhedron "Convex polyhedron") (possibly unbounded, e.g., a half\-space, a slab between two parallel half\-spaces or a [polyhedral cone](/wiki/Polyhedral_cone "Polyhedral cone")). It may also be empty or a convex polyhedron of lower dimension confined to an [affine subspace](/wiki/Affine_subspace "Affine subspace") of the *n*\-dimensional space **R***n*.
#### Linear programming
{{main\|Linear programming}}
A linear programming problem seeks to optimize (find a maximum or minimum value) a function (called the [objective function](/wiki/Loss_function "Loss function")) subject to a number of constraints on the variables which, in general, are linear inequalities.{{harvnb\|Angel\|Porter\|1989\|loc\=p. 373}} The list of constraints is a system of linear inequalities.
|
[
"Linear inequalities of real numbers\n-----------------------------------",
"### Two\\-dimensional linear inequalities",
"[thumb\\|{{center\\|Graph of linear inequality: \n x \\+ 3y \\< 9}}](/wiki/File:Linearineq1.svg \"Linearineq1.svg\")",
"Two\\-dimensional linear inequalities are expressions in two variables of the form:\nax \\+ by \\< c \\\\text{ and } ax \\+ by \\\\geq c,\nwhere the inequalities may either be strict or not. The solution set of such an inequality can be graphically represented by a half\\-plane (all the points on one \"side\" of a fixed line) in the Euclidean plane.Technically, for this statement to be correct both *a* and *b* can not simultaneously be zero. In that situation, the solution set is either empty or the entire plane. The line that determines the half\\-planes (*ax* \\+ *by* \\= *c*) is not included in the solution set when the inequality is strict. A simple procedure to determine which half\\-plane is in the solution set is to calculate the value of *ax* \\+ *by* at a point (*x*0, *y*0) which is not on the line and observe whether or not the inequality is satisfied.",
"For example,{{harvnb\\|Angel\\|Porter\\|1989\\|loc\\=p. 310}} to draw the solution set of *x* \\+ 3*y* \\< 9, one first draws the line with equation *x* \\+ 3*y* \\= 9 as a dotted line, to indicate that the line is not included in the solution set since the inequality is strict. Then, pick a convenient point not on the line, such as (0,0\\). Since 0 \\+ 3(0\\) \\= 0 \\< 9, this point is in the solution set, so the half\\-plane containing this point (the half\\-plane \"below\" the line) is the solution set of this linear inequality.",
"### Linear inequalities in general dimensions",
"In **R**n linear inequalities are the expressions that may be written in the form",
"f(\\\\bar{x}) \\< b or f(\\\\bar{x}) \\\\leq b, \nwhere *f* is a [linear form](/wiki/Linear_form \"Linear form\") (also called a *linear functional*), \\\\bar{x} \\= (x\\_1,x\\_2,\\\\ldots,x\\_n) and *b* a constant real number.\nMore concretely, this may be written out as\na\\_1 x\\_1 \\+ a\\_2 x\\_2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ a\\_n x\\_n \\< b \nor\na\\_1 x\\_1 \\+ a\\_2 x\\_2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ a\\_n x\\_n \\\\leq b.",
"Here x\\_1, x\\_2,...,x\\_n are called the unknowns, and a\\_{1}, a\\_{2},..., a\\_{n} are called the coefficients.",
"Alternatively, these may be written as",
"g(x) \\< 0 \\\\, or g(x) \\\\leq 0, \nwhere *g* is an [affine function](/wiki/Affine_function \"Affine function\").In the 2\\-dimensional case, both linear forms and affine functions are historically called *linear functions* because their graphs are lines. In other dimensions, neither type of function has a graph which is a line, so the generalization of linear function in two dimensions to higher dimensions is done by means of algebraic properties and this causes the split into two types of functions. However, the difference between affine functions and linear forms is just the addition of a constant.\nThat is\n a\\_0 \\+ a\\_1 x\\_1 \\+ a\\_2 x\\_2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ a\\_n x\\_n \\< 0\nor\n a\\_0 \\+ a\\_1 x\\_1 \\+ a\\_2 x\\_2 \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ a\\_n x\\_n \\\\leq 0\\.",
"Note that any inequality containing a \"greater than\" or a \"greater than or equal\" sign can be rewritten with a \"less than\" or \"less than or equal\" sign, so there is no need to define linear inequalities using those signs.",
"### Systems of linear inequalities",
"A system of linear inequalities is a set of linear inequalities in the same variables:",
"\\\\begin{alignat}{7}\na\\_{11} x\\_1 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{12} x\\_2 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{1n} x\\_n \\&\\&\\\\; \\\\leq \\\\;\\&\\&\\& b\\_1 \\\\\\\\\na\\_{21} x\\_1 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{22} x\\_2 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{2n} x\\_n \\&\\&\\\\; \\\\leq \\\\;\\&\\&\\& b\\_2 \\\\\\\\\n\\\\vdots\\\\;\\\\;\\\\; \\&\\& \\&\\& \\\\vdots\\\\;\\\\;\\\\; \\&\\& \\&\\& \\\\vdots\\\\;\\\\;\\\\; \\&\\& \\&\\&\\& \\\\;\\\\vdots \\\\\\\\\na\\_{m1} x\\_1 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{m2} x\\_2 \\&\\&\\\\; \\+ \\\\cdots \\+ \\\\;\\&\\& a\\_{mn} x\\_n \\&\\&\\\\; \\\\leq \\\\;\\&\\&\\& b\\_m \\\\\\\\\n\\\\end{alignat}\nHere x\\_1,\\\\ x\\_2,...,x\\_n are the unknowns, a\\_{11},\\\\ a\\_{12},...,\\\\ a\\_{mn} are the coefficients of the system, and b\\_1,\\\\ b\\_2,...,b\\_m are the constant terms.\nThis can be concisely written as the [matrix](/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29 \"Matrix (mathematics)\") inequality",
"Ax \\\\leq b,\nwhere *A* is an *m*Γ*n* matrix, *x* is an *n*Γ1 [column vector](/wiki/Column_vector \"Column vector\") of variables, and *b* is an *m*Γ1 column vector of constants.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2019}}",
"In the above systems both strict and non\\-strict inequalities may be used.",
"* Not all systems of linear inequalities have solutions.",
"Variables can be eliminated from systems of linear inequalities using [FourierβMotzkin elimination](/wiki/Fourier%E2%80%93Motzkin_elimination \"FourierβMotzkin elimination\").{{Cite Gartner Matousek 2006}}",
"### Applications",
"#### Polyhedra",
"The set of solutions of a real linear inequality constitutes a [half\\-space](/wiki/Half-space_%28geometry%29 \"Half-space (geometry)\") of the 'n'\\-dimensional real space, one of the two defined by the corresponding linear equation.",
"The set of solutions of a system of linear inequalities corresponds to the intersection of the half\\-spaces defined by individual inequalities. It is a [convex set](/wiki/Convex_set \"Convex set\"), since the half\\-spaces are convex sets, and the intersection of a set of convex sets is also convex. In the non\\-[degenerate cases](/wiki/Degenerate_case \"Degenerate case\") this convex set is a [convex polyhedron](/wiki/Convex_polyhedron \"Convex polyhedron\") (possibly unbounded, e.g., a half\\-space, a slab between two parallel half\\-spaces or a [polyhedral cone](/wiki/Polyhedral_cone \"Polyhedral cone\")). It may also be empty or a convex polyhedron of lower dimension confined to an [affine subspace](/wiki/Affine_subspace \"Affine subspace\") of the *n*\\-dimensional space **R***n*.",
"#### Linear programming",
"{{main\\|Linear programming}}",
"A linear programming problem seeks to optimize (find a maximum or minimum value) a function (called the [objective function](/wiki/Loss_function \"Loss function\")) subject to a number of constraints on the variables which, in general, are linear inequalities.{{harvnb\\|Angel\\|Porter\\|1989\\|loc\\=p. 373}} The list of constraints is a system of linear inequalities.",
""
] |
History
-------
Prior to 1947, Vermont law enforcement was county based. Each of the state's fourteen counties had an elected sheriff responsible for providing all law enforcement services to towns in the county without their own police departments. Opposition to establishing a state police force existed, partly based on the state's low crime statistics, a reluctance to add new state spending, and a suspicion of unelected centralized authority.
On the state level, only the Department of Motor Vehicles Highway Patrol provided centralized, statewide law enforcement services. Members of that department patrolled the state's roadways on motorcycles enforcing motor vehicle law and investigating accidents. Infractions not related to use of a highway or the safe operation of a motor vehicle had to be referred to a county authority.
Communication with Highway Patrol members prior to the use of police radios was accomplished through posting of signs in public places. This method of communicating required a strong relationship with the public that was being served. Highway Patrol Officers would call their stations for messages about accidents or the status of motor vehicle complaints when signs were posted. Today this close association with the public would be considered community policing.
The seed of the movement that would become a Department of Public Safety was first planted in 1935 when a special committee was formed to study the feasibility of a statewide police system. The results of this study were positive and support began to grow. The Vermont State [Grange](/wiki/The_National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry "The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry"), at the time a powerful group, and many farmers were among the early supporters of a statewide law enforcement agency. The first bill to establish a Department of Public Safety was introduced in the 1937 biennial session of the [Vermont General Assembly](/wiki/Vermont_General_Assembly "Vermont General Assembly"). It was defeated. The defeat of the original proposal has been attributed to lobbying by the sheriffs who perceived a loss of power and a conservative legislature with a tight hold on the purse strings.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/history.htm\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
The disappearance in 1946 of [Paula Jean Welden](/wiki/Paula_Jean_Welden "Paula Jean Welden"),Dooling, Michael C. Clueless in New England: The Unsolved Disappearances of Paula Welden, Connie Smith, and Katherine Hull. The Carrollton Press, 2010\. an eighteen\-year\-old [Bennington College](/wiki/Bennington_College "Bennington College") student, resulted in changes to the attitudes of many opponents of the formation of a Department of Public Safety. Bennington county officials were unsuccessful in locating the student and were forced to call on state police investigators from Connecticut and New York for assistance. Local investigators and the state police forces from Connecticut and New York were at a loss for clues in the case so the [Governor of Vermont](/wiki/Governor_of_Vermont "Governor of Vermont") called the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") (FBI). The case was never solved. This case, plus [Governor Ernest W. Gibson's](/wiki/Ernest_W._Gibson%2C_Jr. "Ernest W. Gibson, Jr.") efforts ended a decade\-long struggle with the [Vermont General Assembly](/wiki/Vermont_General_Assembly "Vermont General Assembly") passing Act No. 163\. The agency authority was constituted on July 1, 1947, and styled "the Vermont Department of Public Safety."
### Establishing the department
Major General [Merritt A. Edson](/wiki/Merritt_A._Edson "Merritt A. Edson"), a former [U.S. Marine](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") and [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") recipient in World War II, formed the Department of Public Safety and became the first commissioner. The original strength authorized for the department was 169, with 37 civilians and 125 troopers. This class of troopers tallied a total of 606 years of service to the people of Vermont before retiring.
### Establishing uniforms
The Vermont State Police uniform was modeled on the U.S. Marine Corps uniform of the mid\-twentieth century, but adopted Vermont's state colors of green and gold, and remains a lasting legacy of Major General Edson.
Twenty\-seven officers from the Department of Motor Vehicles Highway Patrol were incorporated into the new department. Troopers were outfitted with khaki shirts with contrasting shoulder [passant](/wiki/Shoulder_strap "Shoulder strap"), cuffs, and pocket lapels on [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green "Fern green") and trimmed in [Old Gold](/wiki/Old_Gold "Old Gold") [galloon](/wiki/Galloon "Galloon"). A [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green "Fern green") necktie is worn. A [cloisonnΓ©](/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9 "CloisonnΓ©") [coat of arms of Vermont](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Vermont "Coat of arms of Vermont") in gold and enamel is worn on the shirt collars. Most members of the force wore [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green "Fern green") [breeches](/wiki/Breeches "Breeches") with a single or double [Old Gold](/wiki/Old_Gold "Old Gold") colored leg stripe, wool tunics of the same colors, a black [Sam Browne belt](/wiki/Sam_Browne_belt "Sam Browne belt") and [jackboot](/wiki/Jackboot "Jackboot"). The uniform remains with little modification. The Second World War association of breeches and jackboots with [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism") caused many U.S. state and municipal forces to curtail use of breeches and jackboots except for mounted horse and motor patrols. In Vermont both troopers and game wardens of the state's Department of Fish and Game switched from the breeches and high polished black boots to tailored trousers, retaining the Old Gold leg stripes.
The stripes of senior officers, that rank below lieutenant, are sewn onto the uniform pointing down, or similar to the British military forces and British police forces. This makes the VSP one of few American police departments that do so.
### Initial headquarters
[thumb\|250px\|Redstone, the first headquarters of the Vermont Department of Public Safety.](/wiki/File:VSPredstone.jpg "VSPredstone.jpg")
The first headquarters was established February 9, 1948, at Redstone in the state capital of [Montpelier](/wiki/Montpelier%2C_Vermont "Montpelier, Vermont"). For the price of $25,000, the State bought the building and {{convert\|10\|acre\|m2}} of land. The photo lab was housed in the basement and equipped with state\-of\-the\-art equipment. Housing the photo laboratory in the basement had a number of unanticipated consequences. Spring thaw and heavy rains flooded the cellar and personnel had to wear rubber boots and wade through the runoff.
### Growth and development
The first State Police radio system was completed September 28, 1948\. For the first time, a three\-way radio system allowed stations to talk to each other and to patrol cars. The radio system did eliminate the need to post signs in public places. The year 1949 saw the creation of the [Fire Prevention Division](/wiki/Fire_Prevention_Division "Fire Prevention Division") and the Identification and Records Division. The fleet was enlarged in 1948\. The department purchased 25 Ford sedans, two Pontiac sedans, and one Pontiac coupe for a total price of $14,742\.41\.
The State Police improved police services through training, public relations and safety education. The department became visible through appearances at fairs, in schools and civic gatherings. School safety patrols were started. For many years, end of the year school patrol picnics were a well\-earned treat for the volunteers. Troopers joined these picnics serving hot dogs and ice cream to the students. General Edson resigned in mid\-1951 after four years of valuable service.
A number of changes came to the growing department in the mid\-1950s.
The Field Force Division started using radar as a speed enforcement tool in 1954\. Two bloodhounds joined the force and made contributions in searches and rescues. The Crime Lab began to use color photography as an identification tool. A new radio microwave installation was completed between Headquarters and the Rutland District Office.
The department expanded into the polygraph field at about the same time. The first polygraph instrument was purchased and Trooper Glenn Davis became the state's first licensed polygrapher. Before this the department had to use facilities and examiners in neighboring states. The first year of polygraph operation 115 examinations were requested by law enforcement agencies.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1947\.htm\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
In the 1960s socio\-economic changes took place with long\-term effects on the capacities of law enforcement. The four season recreation industry created economic growth, and resulted in increased out\-of\-state visitors. Labor Day in the 1940s and 50s meant the end of heavy traffic, but during the early 1960s that changed as Vermont became the destination for fall foliage, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling. The departmental strength was 118 State Police and 60 civilians at the beginning of 1960\. The state's population was 389,881\. There were {{convert\|41\.4\|mi\|km}} of Interstate highway compared with {{convert\|320\|mi\|km}} in 1998\.
Between 1960 and 1970 licensed drivers increased by 35%, the number of registered vehicles increased by 51%, and the interstate system was completed with {{convert\|320\|mi\|km}} of divided highway.
The drug culture evolved in the 1960s. The department handled an increased number of complaints involving illegal drugs. By the late 1960s drugs had become a significant Vermont problem. The department and the legislature recognized the growing problem. The Legislature approved a Drug Abuse Control Program. The goal of the program was education, inspection and enforcement. The department conducted 56 drug investigations in 1968\. That number had grown to 374 by 1970\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Also in 1970, the department went on line with the FBI National Crime Information Center. NCIC messages increased from 430 in 1968 to 1,036 in 1970\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Events of the 1960s led to the creation of a number of special teams and programs to meet the diverse needs of the population. A Marine Division was formed and became active in 1960\. By 1966 it had five outboard motor patrol boats and a {{convert\|35\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} cruiser to patrol the State's waterways. A Search and Rescue Team was organized to look for lost persons and conduct rescues in our mountainous terrain.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department grew to 193 State Police and 85 civilians by June 30, 1970\. The early 1970s saw the Crime Lab expanded to offer forensic chemistry. The first civilian, a chemist toxicologist, began to replace sworn police officers in the crime lab. A mobile crime laboratory was constructed to provide forensic services in the field.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department had six undercover officers in the 1970s. Long hair, dirty jeans, and thong sandals provided cover while they worked in narcotic interdiction.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Executive Order Number 35 issued in May, 1971, turned the Pittsford Sanatorium over to the department for use as a law enforcement training facility. A Canine Unit was established to provide patrol dogs. The department had only tracking bloodhounds before this. The Identification and Records Division changed its name to the Vermont Criminal Information Center and became the official state repository for all criminal records, photographs, descriptions, and fingerprints. Capturing of this data was all done manually; not until 1976 was computer equipment purchased which allowed statewide access to the information. Data requests averaged 40 a day in the 70s compared to the current 271,000\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department hired the first two women troopers in 1977\. In 2012 there were a 20 female Vermont State Troopers, encompassing various positions to include BCI, Child Abuse and Neglect investigators, training and recruitment, arson investigator, patrol commander, and patrol Troopers in 1998\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Federal funds allowed for the creation of an Interstate Troop in 1977 to provide the speed enforcement of the {{convert\|55\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} program.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} A fraud unit was established in the 70s to investigate white collar crime.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} A newly constituted scuba dive team recovered drowning victims or evidence.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The Fire Prevention Division was abolished and its functions transferred to the Department of Labor and Industry. An Arson Unit was formed with the responsibility for investigation of all suspicious fires in the State.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
By the end of the decade the Vermont's population had grown to 477,427\. There were 383,108 registered vehicles and 352,715 licensed drivers. Department strength grew to 259 State Police and 120 civilians.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2013}}
Headquarters moved to the Vermont State Office Complex at [Waterbury](/wiki/Waterbury%2C_Vermont "Waterbury, Vermont") from Montpelier in the Spring of 1983\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The Communications Division had designed and installed a statewide microwave and telecommunications system. These services were provided by the department in support of all state agencies.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
In late 1987 the department was selected to administer a drug control and systems improvement grant from the federal government. This grant funded the first multi\-jurisdictional drug task force in Vermont. The State Police transferred the Special Investigations Unit drug investigators into a new task force with a number of local departments supplying full\-time investigators.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
In the 1990s the Department of Public Safety reorganized.
Reorganization resulted in updating of rank of trooper, consolidation and reduction in the number of positions, sworn positions being replaced by civilians and the creation of the Criminal Justice Services Division to replace the State Police Support Services Division. The Vermont Criminal Information Center started the automation of criminal records in 1995\. Records were automated and included all information on file for a person, eliminating the need for manually searching the files.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Technological advances incorporated by the department allowed conversion to infrared driving while intoxicated (DWI) processing equipment, establish a DNA analysis capability in the forensic laboratory and install a computer aided dispatch (CAD) records management system.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1960\.htm\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
### Commissioners
1. Merritt A. Edson 1947β1951, a retired Marine Major General{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/edson/\|title\=Major General Merritt Edson β VSP Archive Center \& Museum Inc\|website\=www.vsparchives.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-11}}
2. William H. Baumann 1951β1965\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/baumann/\|title\=William H. Baumann β VSP Archive Center \& Museum Inc\|website\=www.vsparchives.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-11}} At thirty\-one years old, he became the youngest State Police Commissioner in the nation.
3. E.A. Alexander 1965β1970\. He held the rank of colonel. Alexander was the only appointed Commissioner who had been a Trooper promoted to Commissioner, having begun his career with the Motor Vehicle Highway Patrol in 1929\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/alexander/\|title\=E. A. Alexander β VSP Archive Center \& Museum Inc\|website\=www.vsparchives.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-11}}
4. E.W. Corcoran 1970β1977{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/corcoran/\|title\=E. W. Corcoran β VSP Archive Center \& Museum Inc\|website\=www.vsparchives.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-11}}
5. Francis E. Lynch (1977β1979\){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/lynch/\|title\=Francis E. Lynch β VSP Archive Center \& Museum Inc\|website\=www.vsparchives.org\|access\-date\=2016\-12\-11}}
6. Warren Cone (1979β1980\) and, for a short period of time, former Commissioner Baumann returned to the ranks.
7. Paul R. Philbrook 1980β1984
8. Charles A. Bristow 1984β1985
9. A. James Walton, Jr. 1985β2003
10. Kerry L. Sleeper 2003β2008
11. Thomas R. Tremblay 2008β2011
12. Keith W. Flynn 2011β2017
13. Thomas Anderson 2017β2019{{Cite web\|url\=http://dps.vermont.gov\|title\=Home Page {{!}} Department of Public Safety\|website\=dps.vermont.gov\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-04\-02}}
14. Michael Schirling 2019 β current
### Commanders
1. Colonel Robert Horton
2. Colonel Lane Marshall
3. Colonel John Sinclair
4. Colonel Thomas Powlovich
5. Colonel James W. Baker 2006β2009{{cite news\|last\=Remsen\|first\=Nancy\|date\=June 30, 2009\|title\=State police mark change in command\|pages\=1B\|publisher\=Burlington Free Press\|location\=Burlington, Vermont}}
6. Colonel Thomas L'Esperance 2009β2015
7. Colonel Matthew Birmingham 2015 β current{{Cite web \|url\=http://vsp.vermont.gov/about\_us \|title\=About Us \| Vermont State Police \|access\-date\=June 14, 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708102226/http://vsp.vermont.gov/about\_us \|archive\-date\=July 8, 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|df\=mdy\-all }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Prior to 1947, Vermont law enforcement was county based. Each of the state's fourteen counties had an elected sheriff responsible for providing all law enforcement services to towns in the county without their own police departments. Opposition to establishing a state police force existed, partly based on the state's low crime statistics, a reluctance to add new state spending, and a suspicion of unelected centralized authority.",
"On the state level, only the Department of Motor Vehicles Highway Patrol provided centralized, statewide law enforcement services. Members of that department patrolled the state's roadways on motorcycles enforcing motor vehicle law and investigating accidents. Infractions not related to use of a highway or the safe operation of a motor vehicle had to be referred to a county authority.",
"Communication with Highway Patrol members prior to the use of police radios was accomplished through posting of signs in public places. This method of communicating required a strong relationship with the public that was being served. Highway Patrol Officers would call their stations for messages about accidents or the status of motor vehicle complaints when signs were posted. Today this close association with the public would be considered community policing.",
"The seed of the movement that would become a Department of Public Safety was first planted in 1935 when a special committee was formed to study the feasibility of a statewide police system. The results of this study were positive and support began to grow. The Vermont State [Grange](/wiki/The_National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry \"The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry\"), at the time a powerful group, and many farmers were among the early supporters of a statewide law enforcement agency. The first bill to establish a Department of Public Safety was introduced in the 1937 biennial session of the [Vermont General Assembly](/wiki/Vermont_General_Assembly \"Vermont General Assembly\"). It was defeated. The defeat of the original proposal has been attributed to lobbying by the sheriffs who perceived a loss of power and a conservative legislature with a tight hold on the purse strings.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/history.htm\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
"The disappearance in 1946 of [Paula Jean Welden](/wiki/Paula_Jean_Welden \"Paula Jean Welden\"),Dooling, Michael C. Clueless in New England: The Unsolved Disappearances of Paula Welden, Connie Smith, and Katherine Hull. The Carrollton Press, 2010\\. an eighteen\\-year\\-old [Bennington College](/wiki/Bennington_College \"Bennington College\") student, resulted in changes to the attitudes of many opponents of the formation of a Department of Public Safety. Bennington county officials were unsuccessful in locating the student and were forced to call on state police investigators from Connecticut and New York for assistance. Local investigators and the state police forces from Connecticut and New York were at a loss for clues in the case so the [Governor of Vermont](/wiki/Governor_of_Vermont \"Governor of Vermont\") called the [Federal Bureau of Investigation](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") (FBI). The case was never solved. This case, plus [Governor Ernest W. Gibson's](/wiki/Ernest_W._Gibson%2C_Jr. \"Ernest W. Gibson, Jr.\") efforts ended a decade\\-long struggle with the [Vermont General Assembly](/wiki/Vermont_General_Assembly \"Vermont General Assembly\") passing Act No. 163\\. The agency authority was constituted on July 1, 1947, and styled \"the Vermont Department of Public Safety.\"",
"### Establishing the department",
"Major General [Merritt A. Edson](/wiki/Merritt_A._Edson \"Merritt A. Edson\"), a former [U.S. Marine](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") and [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") recipient in World War II, formed the Department of Public Safety and became the first commissioner. The original strength authorized for the department was 169, with 37 civilians and 125 troopers. This class of troopers tallied a total of 606 years of service to the people of Vermont before retiring.",
"### Establishing uniforms",
"The Vermont State Police uniform was modeled on the U.S. Marine Corps uniform of the mid\\-twentieth century, but adopted Vermont's state colors of green and gold, and remains a lasting legacy of Major General Edson.",
"Twenty\\-seven officers from the Department of Motor Vehicles Highway Patrol were incorporated into the new department. Troopers were outfitted with khaki shirts with contrasting shoulder [passant](/wiki/Shoulder_strap \"Shoulder strap\"), cuffs, and pocket lapels on [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green \"Fern green\") and trimmed in [Old Gold](/wiki/Old_Gold \"Old Gold\") [galloon](/wiki/Galloon \"Galloon\"). A [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green \"Fern green\") necktie is worn. A [cloisonnΓ©](/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9 \"CloisonnΓ©\") [coat of arms of Vermont](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Vermont \"Coat of arms of Vermont\") in gold and enamel is worn on the shirt collars. Most members of the force wore [Fern green](/wiki/Fern_green \"Fern green\") [breeches](/wiki/Breeches \"Breeches\") with a single or double [Old Gold](/wiki/Old_Gold \"Old Gold\") colored leg stripe, wool tunics of the same colors, a black [Sam Browne belt](/wiki/Sam_Browne_belt \"Sam Browne belt\") and [jackboot](/wiki/Jackboot \"Jackboot\"). The uniform remains with little modification. The Second World War association of breeches and jackboots with [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\") caused many U.S. state and municipal forces to curtail use of breeches and jackboots except for mounted horse and motor patrols. In Vermont both troopers and game wardens of the state's Department of Fish and Game switched from the breeches and high polished black boots to tailored trousers, retaining the Old Gold leg stripes.",
"The stripes of senior officers, that rank below lieutenant, are sewn onto the uniform pointing down, or similar to the British military forces and British police forces. This makes the VSP one of few American police departments that do so.",
"### Initial headquarters",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Redstone, the first headquarters of the Vermont Department of Public Safety.](/wiki/File:VSPredstone.jpg \"VSPredstone.jpg\")\nThe first headquarters was established February 9, 1948, at Redstone in the state capital of [Montpelier](/wiki/Montpelier%2C_Vermont \"Montpelier, Vermont\"). For the price of $25,000, the State bought the building and {{convert\\|10\\|acre\\|m2}} of land. The photo lab was housed in the basement and equipped with state\\-of\\-the\\-art equipment. Housing the photo laboratory in the basement had a number of unanticipated consequences. Spring thaw and heavy rains flooded the cellar and personnel had to wear rubber boots and wade through the runoff.",
"### Growth and development",
"The first State Police radio system was completed September 28, 1948\\. For the first time, a three\\-way radio system allowed stations to talk to each other and to patrol cars. The radio system did eliminate the need to post signs in public places. The year 1949 saw the creation of the [Fire Prevention Division](/wiki/Fire_Prevention_Division \"Fire Prevention Division\") and the Identification and Records Division. The fleet was enlarged in 1948\\. The department purchased 25 Ford sedans, two Pontiac sedans, and one Pontiac coupe for a total price of $14,742\\.41\\.",
"The State Police improved police services through training, public relations and safety education. The department became visible through appearances at fairs, in schools and civic gatherings. School safety patrols were started. For many years, end of the year school patrol picnics were a well\\-earned treat for the volunteers. Troopers joined these picnics serving hot dogs and ice cream to the students. General Edson resigned in mid\\-1951 after four years of valuable service.",
"A number of changes came to the growing department in the mid\\-1950s.",
"The Field Force Division started using radar as a speed enforcement tool in 1954\\. Two bloodhounds joined the force and made contributions in searches and rescues. The Crime Lab began to use color photography as an identification tool. A new radio microwave installation was completed between Headquarters and the Rutland District Office.",
"The department expanded into the polygraph field at about the same time. The first polygraph instrument was purchased and Trooper Glenn Davis became the state's first licensed polygrapher. Before this the department had to use facilities and examiners in neighboring states. The first year of polygraph operation 115 examinations were requested by law enforcement agencies.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1947\\.htm\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
"In the 1960s socio\\-economic changes took place with long\\-term effects on the capacities of law enforcement. The four season recreation industry created economic growth, and resulted in increased out\\-of\\-state visitors. Labor Day in the 1940s and 50s meant the end of heavy traffic, but during the early 1960s that changed as Vermont became the destination for fall foliage, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling. The departmental strength was 118 State Police and 60 civilians at the beginning of 1960\\. The state's population was 389,881\\. There were {{convert\\|41\\.4\\|mi\\|km}} of Interstate highway compared with {{convert\\|320\\|mi\\|km}} in 1998\\.",
"Between 1960 and 1970 licensed drivers increased by 35%, the number of registered vehicles increased by 51%, and the interstate system was completed with {{convert\\|320\\|mi\\|km}} of divided highway.",
"The drug culture evolved in the 1960s. The department handled an increased number of complaints involving illegal drugs. By the late 1960s drugs had become a significant Vermont problem. The department and the legislature recognized the growing problem. The Legislature approved a Drug Abuse Control Program. The goal of the program was education, inspection and enforcement. The department conducted 56 drug investigations in 1968\\. That number had grown to 374 by 1970\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Also in 1970, the department went on line with the FBI National Crime Information Center. NCIC messages increased from 430 in 1968 to 1,036 in 1970\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Events of the 1960s led to the creation of a number of special teams and programs to meet the diverse needs of the population. A Marine Division was formed and became active in 1960\\. By 1966 it had five outboard motor patrol boats and a {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} cruiser to patrol the State's waterways. A Search and Rescue Team was organized to look for lost persons and conduct rescues in our mountainous terrain.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department grew to 193 State Police and 85 civilians by June 30, 1970\\. The early 1970s saw the Crime Lab expanded to offer forensic chemistry. The first civilian, a chemist toxicologist, began to replace sworn police officers in the crime lab. A mobile crime laboratory was constructed to provide forensic services in the field.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department had six undercover officers in the 1970s. Long hair, dirty jeans, and thong sandals provided cover while they worked in narcotic interdiction.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Executive Order Number 35 issued in May, 1971, turned the Pittsford Sanatorium over to the department for use as a law enforcement training facility. A Canine Unit was established to provide patrol dogs. The department had only tracking bloodhounds before this. The Identification and Records Division changed its name to the Vermont Criminal Information Center and became the official state repository for all criminal records, photographs, descriptions, and fingerprints. Capturing of this data was all done manually; not until 1976 was computer equipment purchased which allowed statewide access to the information. Data requests averaged 40 a day in the 70s compared to the current 271,000\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department hired the first two women troopers in 1977\\. In 2012 there were a 20 female Vermont State Troopers, encompassing various positions to include BCI, Child Abuse and Neglect investigators, training and recruitment, arson investigator, patrol commander, and patrol Troopers in 1998\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Federal funds allowed for the creation of an Interstate Troop in 1977 to provide the speed enforcement of the {{convert\\|55\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} program.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} A fraud unit was established in the 70s to investigate white collar crime.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} A newly constituted scuba dive team recovered drowning victims or evidence.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The Fire Prevention Division was abolished and its functions transferred to the Department of Labor and Industry. An Arson Unit was formed with the responsibility for investigation of all suspicious fires in the State.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"By the end of the decade the Vermont's population had grown to 477,427\\. There were 383,108 registered vehicles and 352,715 licensed drivers. Department strength grew to 259 State Police and 120 civilians.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2013}}",
"Headquarters moved to the Vermont State Office Complex at [Waterbury](/wiki/Waterbury%2C_Vermont \"Waterbury, Vermont\") from Montpelier in the Spring of 1983\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The Communications Division had designed and installed a statewide microwave and telecommunications system. These services were provided by the department in support of all state agencies.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"In late 1987 the department was selected to administer a drug control and systems improvement grant from the federal government. This grant funded the first multi\\-jurisdictional drug task force in Vermont. The State Police transferred the Special Investigations Unit drug investigators into a new task force with a number of local departments supplying full\\-time investigators.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"In the 1990s the Department of Public Safety reorganized.\nReorganization resulted in updating of rank of trooper, consolidation and reduction in the number of positions, sworn positions being replaced by civilians and the creation of the Criminal Justice Services Division to replace the State Police Support Services Division. The Vermont Criminal Information Center started the automation of criminal records in 1995\\. Records were automated and included all information on file for a person, eliminating the need for manually searching the files.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Technological advances incorporated by the department allowed conversion to infrared driving while intoxicated (DWI) processing equipment, establish a DNA analysis capability in the forensic laboratory and install a computer aided dispatch (CAD) records management system.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1960\\.htm\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
"### Commissioners",
"1. Merritt A. Edson 1947β1951, a retired Marine Major General{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/edson/\\|title\\=Major General Merritt Edson β VSP Archive Center \\& Museum Inc\\|website\\=www.vsparchives.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-11}}\n2. William H. Baumann 1951β1965\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/baumann/\\|title\\=William H. Baumann β VSP Archive Center \\& Museum Inc\\|website\\=www.vsparchives.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-11}} At thirty\\-one years old, he became the youngest State Police Commissioner in the nation.\n3. E.A. Alexander 1965β1970\\. He held the rank of colonel. Alexander was the only appointed Commissioner who had been a Trooper promoted to Commissioner, having begun his career with the Motor Vehicle Highway Patrol in 1929\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/alexander/\\|title\\=E. A. Alexander β VSP Archive Center \\& Museum Inc\\|website\\=www.vsparchives.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-11}}\n4. E.W. Corcoran 1970β1977{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/corcoran/\\|title\\=E. W. Corcoran β VSP Archive Center \\& Museum Inc\\|website\\=www.vsparchives.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-11}}\n5. Francis E. Lynch (1977β1979\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vsparchives.org/commissioners/lynch/\\|title\\=Francis E. Lynch β VSP Archive Center \\& Museum Inc\\|website\\=www.vsparchives.org\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-11}}\n6. Warren Cone (1979β1980\\) and, for a short period of time, former Commissioner Baumann returned to the ranks.\n7. Paul R. Philbrook 1980β1984\n8. Charles A. Bristow 1984β1985\n9. A. James Walton, Jr. 1985β2003\n10. Kerry L. Sleeper 2003β2008\n11. Thomas R. Tremblay 2008β2011\n12. Keith W. Flynn 2011β2017\n13. Thomas Anderson 2017β2019{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://dps.vermont.gov\\|title\\=Home Page {{!}} Department of Public Safety\\|website\\=dps.vermont.gov\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-04\\-02}}\n14. Michael Schirling 2019 β current",
"### Commanders",
"1. Colonel Robert Horton\n2. Colonel Lane Marshall\n3. Colonel John Sinclair\n4. Colonel Thomas Powlovich\n5. Colonel James W. Baker 2006β2009{{cite news\\|last\\=Remsen\\|first\\=Nancy\\|date\\=June 30, 2009\\|title\\=State police mark change in command\\|pages\\=1B\\|publisher\\=Burlington Free Press\\|location\\=Burlington, Vermont}}\n6. Colonel Thomas L'Esperance 2009β2015\n7. Colonel Matthew Birmingham 2015 β current{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://vsp.vermont.gov/about\\_us \\|title\\=About Us \\| Vermont State Police \\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708102226/http://vsp.vermont.gov/about\\_us \\|archive\\-date\\=July 8, 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }}"
] |
### Growth and development
The first State Police radio system was completed September 28, 1948\. For the first time, a three\-way radio system allowed stations to talk to each other and to patrol cars. The radio system did eliminate the need to post signs in public places. The year 1949 saw the creation of the [Fire Prevention Division](/wiki/Fire_Prevention_Division "Fire Prevention Division") and the Identification and Records Division. The fleet was enlarged in 1948\. The department purchased 25 Ford sedans, two Pontiac sedans, and one Pontiac coupe for a total price of $14,742\.41\.
The State Police improved police services through training, public relations and safety education. The department became visible through appearances at fairs, in schools and civic gatherings. School safety patrols were started. For many years, end of the year school patrol picnics were a well\-earned treat for the volunteers. Troopers joined these picnics serving hot dogs and ice cream to the students. General Edson resigned in mid\-1951 after four years of valuable service.
A number of changes came to the growing department in the mid\-1950s.
The Field Force Division started using radar as a speed enforcement tool in 1954\. Two bloodhounds joined the force and made contributions in searches and rescues. The Crime Lab began to use color photography as an identification tool. A new radio microwave installation was completed between Headquarters and the Rutland District Office.
The department expanded into the polygraph field at about the same time. The first polygraph instrument was purchased and Trooper Glenn Davis became the state's first licensed polygrapher. Before this the department had to use facilities and examiners in neighboring states. The first year of polygraph operation 115 examinations were requested by law enforcement agencies.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1947\.htm\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
In the 1960s socio\-economic changes took place with long\-term effects on the capacities of law enforcement. The four season recreation industry created economic growth, and resulted in increased out\-of\-state visitors. Labor Day in the 1940s and 50s meant the end of heavy traffic, but during the early 1960s that changed as Vermont became the destination for fall foliage, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling. The departmental strength was 118 State Police and 60 civilians at the beginning of 1960\. The state's population was 389,881\. There were {{convert\|41\.4\|mi\|km}} of Interstate highway compared with {{convert\|320\|mi\|km}} in 1998\.
Between 1960 and 1970 licensed drivers increased by 35%, the number of registered vehicles increased by 51%, and the interstate system was completed with {{convert\|320\|mi\|km}} of divided highway.
The drug culture evolved in the 1960s. The department handled an increased number of complaints involving illegal drugs. By the late 1960s drugs had become a significant Vermont problem. The department and the legislature recognized the growing problem. The Legislature approved a Drug Abuse Control Program. The goal of the program was education, inspection and enforcement. The department conducted 56 drug investigations in 1968\. That number had grown to 374 by 1970\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Also in 1970, the department went on line with the FBI National Crime Information Center. NCIC messages increased from 430 in 1968 to 1,036 in 1970\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Events of the 1960s led to the creation of a number of special teams and programs to meet the diverse needs of the population. A Marine Division was formed and became active in 1960\. By 1966 it had five outboard motor patrol boats and a {{convert\|35\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} cruiser to patrol the State's waterways. A Search and Rescue Team was organized to look for lost persons and conduct rescues in our mountainous terrain.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department grew to 193 State Police and 85 civilians by June 30, 1970\. The early 1970s saw the Crime Lab expanded to offer forensic chemistry. The first civilian, a chemist toxicologist, began to replace sworn police officers in the crime lab. A mobile crime laboratory was constructed to provide forensic services in the field.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department had six undercover officers in the 1970s. Long hair, dirty jeans, and thong sandals provided cover while they worked in narcotic interdiction.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Executive Order Number 35 issued in May, 1971, turned the Pittsford Sanatorium over to the department for use as a law enforcement training facility. A Canine Unit was established to provide patrol dogs. The department had only tracking bloodhounds before this. The Identification and Records Division changed its name to the Vermont Criminal Information Center and became the official state repository for all criminal records, photographs, descriptions, and fingerprints. Capturing of this data was all done manually; not until 1976 was computer equipment purchased which allowed statewide access to the information. Data requests averaged 40 a day in the 70s compared to the current 271,000\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The department hired the first two women troopers in 1977\. In 2012 there were a 20 female Vermont State Troopers, encompassing various positions to include BCI, Child Abuse and Neglect investigators, training and recruitment, arson investigator, patrol commander, and patrol Troopers in 1998\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Federal funds allowed for the creation of an Interstate Troop in 1977 to provide the speed enforcement of the {{convert\|55\|mi/h\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} program.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} A fraud unit was established in the 70s to investigate white collar crime.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}} A newly constituted scuba dive team recovered drowning victims or evidence.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The Fire Prevention Division was abolished and its functions transferred to the Department of Labor and Industry. An Arson Unit was formed with the responsibility for investigation of all suspicious fires in the State.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
By the end of the decade the Vermont's population had grown to 477,427\. There were 383,108 registered vehicles and 352,715 licensed drivers. Department strength grew to 259 State Police and 120 civilians.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2013}}
Headquarters moved to the Vermont State Office Complex at [Waterbury](/wiki/Waterbury%2C_Vermont "Waterbury, Vermont") from Montpelier in the Spring of 1983\.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
The Communications Division had designed and installed a statewide microwave and telecommunications system. These services were provided by the department in support of all state agencies.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
In late 1987 the department was selected to administer a drug control and systems improvement grant from the federal government. This grant funded the first multi\-jurisdictional drug task force in Vermont. The State Police transferred the Special Investigations Unit drug investigators into a new task force with a number of local departments supplying full\-time investigators.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
In the 1990s the Department of Public Safety reorganized.
Reorganization resulted in updating of rank of trooper, consolidation and reduction in the number of positions, sworn positions being replaced by civilians and the creation of the Criminal Justice Services Division to replace the State Police Support Services Division. The Vermont Criminal Information Center started the automation of criminal records in 1995\. Records were automated and included all information on file for a person, eliminating the need for manually searching the files.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2012}}
Technological advances incorporated by the department allowed conversion to infrared driving while intoxicated (DWI) processing equipment, establish a DNA analysis capability in the forensic laboratory and install a computer aided dispatch (CAD) records management system.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1960\.htm\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
|
[
"### Growth and development",
"The first State Police radio system was completed September 28, 1948\\. For the first time, a three\\-way radio system allowed stations to talk to each other and to patrol cars. The radio system did eliminate the need to post signs in public places. The year 1949 saw the creation of the [Fire Prevention Division](/wiki/Fire_Prevention_Division \"Fire Prevention Division\") and the Identification and Records Division. The fleet was enlarged in 1948\\. The department purchased 25 Ford sedans, two Pontiac sedans, and one Pontiac coupe for a total price of $14,742\\.41\\.",
"The State Police improved police services through training, public relations and safety education. The department became visible through appearances at fairs, in schools and civic gatherings. School safety patrols were started. For many years, end of the year school patrol picnics were a well\\-earned treat for the volunteers. Troopers joined these picnics serving hot dogs and ice cream to the students. General Edson resigned in mid\\-1951 after four years of valuable service.",
"A number of changes came to the growing department in the mid\\-1950s.",
"The Field Force Division started using radar as a speed enforcement tool in 1954\\. Two bloodhounds joined the force and made contributions in searches and rescues. The Crime Lab began to use color photography as an identification tool. A new radio microwave installation was completed between Headquarters and the Rutland District Office.",
"The department expanded into the polygraph field at about the same time. The first polygraph instrument was purchased and Trooper Glenn Davis became the state's first licensed polygrapher. Before this the department had to use facilities and examiners in neighboring states. The first year of polygraph operation 115 examinations were requested by law enforcement agencies.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1947\\.htm\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
"In the 1960s socio\\-economic changes took place with long\\-term effects on the capacities of law enforcement. The four season recreation industry created economic growth, and resulted in increased out\\-of\\-state visitors. Labor Day in the 1940s and 50s meant the end of heavy traffic, but during the early 1960s that changed as Vermont became the destination for fall foliage, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling. The departmental strength was 118 State Police and 60 civilians at the beginning of 1960\\. The state's population was 389,881\\. There were {{convert\\|41\\.4\\|mi\\|km}} of Interstate highway compared with {{convert\\|320\\|mi\\|km}} in 1998\\.",
"Between 1960 and 1970 licensed drivers increased by 35%, the number of registered vehicles increased by 51%, and the interstate system was completed with {{convert\\|320\\|mi\\|km}} of divided highway.",
"The drug culture evolved in the 1960s. The department handled an increased number of complaints involving illegal drugs. By the late 1960s drugs had become a significant Vermont problem. The department and the legislature recognized the growing problem. The Legislature approved a Drug Abuse Control Program. The goal of the program was education, inspection and enforcement. The department conducted 56 drug investigations in 1968\\. That number had grown to 374 by 1970\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Also in 1970, the department went on line with the FBI National Crime Information Center. NCIC messages increased from 430 in 1968 to 1,036 in 1970\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Events of the 1960s led to the creation of a number of special teams and programs to meet the diverse needs of the population. A Marine Division was formed and became active in 1960\\. By 1966 it had five outboard motor patrol boats and a {{convert\\|35\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} cruiser to patrol the State's waterways. A Search and Rescue Team was organized to look for lost persons and conduct rescues in our mountainous terrain.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department grew to 193 State Police and 85 civilians by June 30, 1970\\. The early 1970s saw the Crime Lab expanded to offer forensic chemistry. The first civilian, a chemist toxicologist, began to replace sworn police officers in the crime lab. A mobile crime laboratory was constructed to provide forensic services in the field.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department had six undercover officers in the 1970s. Long hair, dirty jeans, and thong sandals provided cover while they worked in narcotic interdiction.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Executive Order Number 35 issued in May, 1971, turned the Pittsford Sanatorium over to the department for use as a law enforcement training facility. A Canine Unit was established to provide patrol dogs. The department had only tracking bloodhounds before this. The Identification and Records Division changed its name to the Vermont Criminal Information Center and became the official state repository for all criminal records, photographs, descriptions, and fingerprints. Capturing of this data was all done manually; not until 1976 was computer equipment purchased which allowed statewide access to the information. Data requests averaged 40 a day in the 70s compared to the current 271,000\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The department hired the first two women troopers in 1977\\. In 2012 there were a 20 female Vermont State Troopers, encompassing various positions to include BCI, Child Abuse and Neglect investigators, training and recruitment, arson investigator, patrol commander, and patrol Troopers in 1998\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Federal funds allowed for the creation of an Interstate Troop in 1977 to provide the speed enforcement of the {{convert\\|55\\|mi/h\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} program.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} A fraud unit was established in the 70s to investigate white collar crime.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}} A newly constituted scuba dive team recovered drowning victims or evidence.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The Fire Prevention Division was abolished and its functions transferred to the Department of Labor and Industry. An Arson Unit was formed with the responsibility for investigation of all suspicious fires in the State.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"By the end of the decade the Vermont's population had grown to 477,427\\. There were 383,108 registered vehicles and 352,715 licensed drivers. Department strength grew to 259 State Police and 120 civilians.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2013}}",
"Headquarters moved to the Vermont State Office Complex at [Waterbury](/wiki/Waterbury%2C_Vermont \"Waterbury, Vermont\") from Montpelier in the Spring of 1983\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"The Communications Division had designed and installed a statewide microwave and telecommunications system. These services were provided by the department in support of all state agencies.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"In late 1987 the department was selected to administer a drug control and systems improvement grant from the federal government. This grant funded the first multi\\-jurisdictional drug task force in Vermont. The State Police transferred the Special Investigations Unit drug investigators into a new task force with a number of local departments supplying full\\-time investigators.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"In the 1990s the Department of Public Safety reorganized.\nReorganization resulted in updating of rank of trooper, consolidation and reduction in the number of positions, sworn positions being replaced by civilians and the creation of the Criminal Justice Services Division to replace the State Police Support Services Division. The Vermont Criminal Information Center started the automation of criminal records in 1995\\. Records were automated and included all information on file for a person, eliminating the need for manually searching the files.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2012}}",
"Technological advances incorporated by the department allowed conversion to infrared driving while intoxicated (DWI) processing equipment, establish a DNA analysis capability in the forensic laboratory and install a computer aided dispatch (CAD) records management system.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.dps.state.vt.us/vtsp/1960\\.htm\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
""
] |
Rank structure
--------------
The Vermont State Police, as a paramilitary organization, uses a formal rank structure to reflect the member's position and level of responsibility. The uniform and rank structure of the State Police is modeled after that of the United States Marine Corps.
The department has three divisions: Field Force, Support Services and Criminal Division.
Field Force is divided into two troops, A (north) and B (south). Each troop is commanded by a captain. Within each troop are five barracks. Each barracks is commanded by a lieutenant and each barracks has 4 sergeants. Barracks have a varying amount of assigned troops based on patrol area size, call volume and other police coverage. These troopers are the front line uniform troopers that form the backbone of the State Police. They handle a variety of calls, ranging from traffic hazards, disturbances, domestics, traffic stops, 911 emergencies, crashes, assaults, etc. They are typically first on scene for many major incidents and support surrounding police agencies with cases outside of their scope of capabilities. Field Force members are often referred to as the "Tip of the Spear" and are the model law enforcement officers in the State.
Criminal Division is divided into North and South and then four areas across the state: NE, SE, SW, and NW. The north and south are commanded by two captains and the quadrants each are assigned a Lieutenant. Within each area there is a varying amount of Detective Sergeants and Troopers that handle assigned cases. These cases include missing persons, assaults against children, dead bodies, sex assaults, crimes in detention centers, large fraud and misconduct, etc. Within the criminal division are other specialty units such as Major Crimes which handles homicides and police involved shootings, the Narcotics Unit, Technology Unit, and many others.
The Support Services Division is in charge of recruitment, hiring, Standards and training of troopers. This division is headquartered at the Office of Professional Development attached to the Vermont Police Academy in [Pittsford](/wiki/Pittsford%2C_Vermont "Pittsford, Vermont"), commanded by a Major/Captain/Lt/5 Sgts and several troopers. The individuals assigned to this unit work a Monday β Friday schedule.
To be eligible to participate in the promotional process for any rank a member must have received a rating of "meets or exceeds" in overall performance on his/her two most recent performance evaluations; and must have achieved an overall average in the most recent physical fitness evaluation to the extent contractually required unless excused by a medical certificate.
All members begin their service with the state police as probationary Troopers. After one year of service they reach the rank of Trooper and earn their single stripe. Listed below are the various ranks and the insignia that each rank wears.{{cite web\|url\=http://vsp.vermont.gov/about/rank\|title\=Vermont State Police}}
| Rank | Insignia | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") | [center\|50px](/wiki/File:Colonel_Gold-vector.svg "Colonel Gold-vector.svg") | The Director of the Vermont State Police may be promoted to full colonel at the discretion of the Commissioner. |
| [Lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel") | [center\|27px](/wiki/File:US-O5_insignia.svg "US-O5 insignia.svg") | The Director of the Vermont State Police is a lieutenant colonel. The Commissioner of Public Safety makes this appointment for a term of three years. The director may be reappointed at the commissioner's discretion. This rank can also be issued to a deputy director, though actual use of such a position varies and is not always used. |
| Major | [center\|27px](/wiki/File:US-O4_insignia.svg "US-O4 insignia.svg") | Captains may be promoted to major on a case\-by\-case basis when the need arises. Currently the State Police has three majors, each overseeing one of the major divisions of the State Police i.e., Support Services, Field Force and Bureau of Criminal Investigation (BCI). |
| [Captain](/wiki/Police_captain "Police captain") | [center\|25px](/wiki/File:Captain_insignia_gold.svg "Captain insignia gold.svg") | Lieutenants with 6 months of experience at that rank may be considered for promotion to captain. Each troop area is overseen by a captain. There are also a number of captains in staff positions. |
| Lieutenant | [center\|10px](/wiki/File:US-OF1B.svg "US-OF1B.svg") | Sergeants with three years of experience at that level may be considered for promotion to lieutenant. Lieutenants are commissioned officers and the rank generally includes station commanders as well as commanders of other specialized divisions within the State Police. All members hired after January 1, 1998, must possess a bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university to be eligible for a promotion to lieutenant. |
| Senior Sergeant | {{center\|1\=\[\[File:Army\-USA\-OR\-06\.svg\|30px]]}} | Sergeants with 15 years of service are promoted to the rank of Senior Sergeant. |
| [Sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant "Sergeant") | [center\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Sergeant.jpg "VSP Sergeant.jpg") | Troopers are eligible for consideration for promotion to sergeant after a minimum of five years with the department. Sergeants in the State Police are the first\-line supervisors, typically referred to as patrol commanders. Many of the department's detectives also hold the rank of sergeant. All members hired after January 1, 1998, must possess an associate degree from an accredited college or university to be eligible for a promotion to sergeant. |
| [Corporal](/wiki/Corporal "Corporal") | [center\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Corporal.jpg "VSP Corporal.jpg") | Troopers are promoted to corporal upon completion of fifteen years of service. |
| [Trooper](/wiki/Trooper_%28police_rank%29 "Trooper (police rank)") | [center\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Trooper_First_Class.jpg "VSP Trooper First Class.jpg") | Probationary troopers are promoted to the rank of trooper first class after one year of service with the department. |
| [Trooper Probationary](/wiki/Trooper_Probationary "Trooper Probationary") | [center\|50px](/wiki/File:Blank.jpg "Blank.jpg") | Trooper Probationary No rank insignia. This is the entry level rank of all members of the State Police. |
|
[
"Rank structure\n--------------",
"The Vermont State Police, as a paramilitary organization, uses a formal rank structure to reflect the member's position and level of responsibility. The uniform and rank structure of the State Police is modeled after that of the United States Marine Corps.",
"The department has three divisions: Field Force, Support Services and Criminal Division.",
"Field Force is divided into two troops, A (north) and B (south). Each troop is commanded by a captain. Within each troop are five barracks. Each barracks is commanded by a lieutenant and each barracks has 4 sergeants. Barracks have a varying amount of assigned troops based on patrol area size, call volume and other police coverage. These troopers are the front line uniform troopers that form the backbone of the State Police. They handle a variety of calls, ranging from traffic hazards, disturbances, domestics, traffic stops, 911 emergencies, crashes, assaults, etc. They are typically first on scene for many major incidents and support surrounding police agencies with cases outside of their scope of capabilities. Field Force members are often referred to as the \"Tip of the Spear\" and are the model law enforcement officers in the State.",
"Criminal Division is divided into North and South and then four areas across the state: NE, SE, SW, and NW. The north and south are commanded by two captains and the quadrants each are assigned a Lieutenant. Within each area there is a varying amount of Detective Sergeants and Troopers that handle assigned cases. These cases include missing persons, assaults against children, dead bodies, sex assaults, crimes in detention centers, large fraud and misconduct, etc. Within the criminal division are other specialty units such as Major Crimes which handles homicides and police involved shootings, the Narcotics Unit, Technology Unit, and many others.",
"The Support Services Division is in charge of recruitment, hiring, Standards and training of troopers. This division is headquartered at the Office of Professional Development attached to the Vermont Police Academy in [Pittsford](/wiki/Pittsford%2C_Vermont \"Pittsford, Vermont\"), commanded by a Major/Captain/Lt/5 Sgts and several troopers. The individuals assigned to this unit work a Monday β Friday schedule.",
"To be eligible to participate in the promotional process for any rank a member must have received a rating of \"meets or exceeds\" in overall performance on his/her two most recent performance evaluations; and must have achieved an overall average in the most recent physical fitness evaluation to the extent contractually required unless excused by a medical certificate.",
"All members begin their service with the state police as probationary Troopers. After one year of service they reach the rank of Trooper and earn their single stripe. Listed below are the various ranks and the insignia that each rank wears.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://vsp.vermont.gov/about/rank\\|title\\=Vermont State Police}}",
"| Rank | Insignia | |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") | [center\\|50px](/wiki/File:Colonel_Gold-vector.svg \"Colonel Gold-vector.svg\") | The Director of the Vermont State Police may be promoted to full colonel at the discretion of the Commissioner. |\n| [Lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\") | [center\\|27px](/wiki/File:US-O5_insignia.svg \"US-O5 insignia.svg\") | The Director of the Vermont State Police is a lieutenant colonel. The Commissioner of Public Safety makes this appointment for a term of three years. The director may be reappointed at the commissioner's discretion. This rank can also be issued to a deputy director, though actual use of such a position varies and is not always used. |\n| Major | [center\\|27px](/wiki/File:US-O4_insignia.svg \"US-O4 insignia.svg\") | Captains may be promoted to major on a case\\-by\\-case basis when the need arises. Currently the State Police has three majors, each overseeing one of the major divisions of the State Police i.e., Support Services, Field Force and Bureau of Criminal Investigation (BCI). |\n| [Captain](/wiki/Police_captain \"Police captain\") | [center\\|25px](/wiki/File:Captain_insignia_gold.svg \"Captain insignia gold.svg\") | Lieutenants with 6 months of experience at that rank may be considered for promotion to captain. Each troop area is overseen by a captain. There are also a number of captains in staff positions. |\n| Lieutenant | [center\\|10px](/wiki/File:US-OF1B.svg \"US-OF1B.svg\") | Sergeants with three years of experience at that level may be considered for promotion to lieutenant. Lieutenants are commissioned officers and the rank generally includes station commanders as well as commanders of other specialized divisions within the State Police. All members hired after January 1, 1998, must possess a bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university to be eligible for a promotion to lieutenant. |\n| Senior Sergeant | {{center\\|1\\=\\[\\[File:Army\\-USA\\-OR\\-06\\.svg\\|30px]]}} | Sergeants with 15 years of service are promoted to the rank of Senior Sergeant. |\n| [Sergeant](/wiki/Sergeant \"Sergeant\") | [center\\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Sergeant.jpg \"VSP Sergeant.jpg\") | Troopers are eligible for consideration for promotion to sergeant after a minimum of five years with the department. Sergeants in the State Police are the first\\-line supervisors, typically referred to as patrol commanders. Many of the department's detectives also hold the rank of sergeant. All members hired after January 1, 1998, must possess an associate degree from an accredited college or university to be eligible for a promotion to sergeant. |\n| [Corporal](/wiki/Corporal \"Corporal\") | [center\\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Corporal.jpg \"VSP Corporal.jpg\") | Troopers are promoted to corporal upon completion of fifteen years of service. |\n| [Trooper](/wiki/Trooper_%28police_rank%29 \"Trooper (police rank)\") | [center\\|35px](/wiki/File:VSP_Trooper_First_Class.jpg \"VSP Trooper First Class.jpg\") | Probationary troopers are promoted to the rank of trooper first class after one year of service with the department. |\n| [Trooper Probationary](/wiki/Trooper_Probationary \"Trooper Probationary\") | [center\\|50px](/wiki/File:Blank.jpg \"Blank.jpg\") | Trooper Probationary No rank insignia. This is the entry level rank of all members of the State Police. |",
"",
""
] |
History
-------
### Zepter komerc banka a.d. Banja Luka
On 1 March 1999, **Zepter komerc banka a.d.** Banja Luka was founded in Banja Luka.
### Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka
In July 2007, Austrian banking group [Volksbank International](/wiki/Volksbank_Group "Volksbank Group"){{cite web \|title\=Zepter banka od danas zvaniΔno u Volksbank International AG (VBI) grupi \|url\=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/berza/zepter\-banka\-od\-danas\-zvanicno\-u\-volksbank\-international\-ag\-vbi\-grupi/070705127 \|website\=www.klix.ba \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=bs \|date\=5 July 2007 \|quote\=Preuzimanjem Zepter banke Volksbank International AG nastavlja s razvojem poslovnih aktivnosti u BiH, od sada kroz Volksbank BH d.d. sa sjediΕ‘tem u Sarajevu i Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka. UdruΕΎivanje ovih banaka doprinijet Δe boljem kvalitetu usluga i povoljnijim kreditnim aranΕΎmanima.}} paid KM 82\.1 million [BAM](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_convertible_mark "Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark") for the purchase of the shares of Zepter Komerc Banka{{cite web \|title\=Zepter banka prodata za 82,1 milion KM \|url\=https://www.nezavisne.com/ekonomija/privreda/Zepter\-banka\-prodata\-za\-821\-milion\-KM/11611 \|website\=www.nezavisne.com \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=sr \|date\=5 July 2007 \|quote\=Austrijska Volksbank International juΔe je za kupovinu akcija banjaluΔke Zepter komerc banke platila 82,1 miliona KM, Δime je i zvaniΔno postala njen vlasnik.}} from Banja Luka and officially became its owner.
Bank continued to operate within the international Volksbank group under the new name **Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka** (with sister company **Volksbank BH d.d. Sarajevo**).
In 2012, [Sberbank Europe Group](/wiki/Sberbank_Europe_Group "Sberbank Europe Group") from Russia{{cite web \|title\=Volksbank promjenila ime u Sberbank \|url\=https://me.ekapija.com/bs/news/681191/volksbank\-promjenila\-ime\-u\-sberbank \|website\=www.me.ekapija.com \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=sr}} completed its acquisition of 100 percent of [Volksbank International AG](/wiki/Volksbank_Group "Volksbank Group") (VBI), the umbrella institution that owned *Volksbank d.d. BH* in Sarajevo and *Volksbank a.d.* in Banja Luka.
### Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka
At the beginning of 2013, Volksbank banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina were given the new name "Sberbank" \- so former [Austrian banks](/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Austria "List of banks in Austria") became [Russian\-owned banks](/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Russia "List of banks in Russia") in [BiH](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina") and received new corporate names:
* **Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka** {{cite web \|title\=Otvorena prva Sberbank filijala u Banjoj Luci \|url\=https://www.akta.ba/kapital/bankarstvo/25831/otvorena\-prva\-sberbank\-filijala\-u\-banjoj\-luci \|website\=www.akta.ba \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=bs \|date\=22 May 2013 \|quote\=U Banjoj Luci je danas otvorena prva filijala Sberbank. Ova, treΔa po veliΔini evropska banka, posluje u BiH od uspjeΕ‘nog preimenovanja iz Volksbank Banja Luka, 31\.decembra 2012\.}}\- operated until 2022 (purchased by [Nova Banka](/wiki/Nova_Banka_%28Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%29 "Nova Banka (Bosnia and Herzegovina)"); now operates as ATOS BANK) and
* **Sberbank BH d.d. Sarajevo**,{{cite web \|title\=Od danas Sberbank i zvaniΔno u BiH umjesto Volksbank \|url\=https://www.akta.ba/kapital/bankarstvo/11396/od\-danas\-sberbank\-i\-zvanicno\-u\-bih\-umjesto\-volksbank \|website\=www.akta.ba \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=bs \|date\=20 February 2013 \|quote\=Volksbank BH od danas zvaniΔno posluje pod novim nazivom kao Sberbank BH. Sberbank je najveΔa banka u Rusiji, jedna od vodeΔe tri banke u Evropi prema svojoj trenutnoj trΕΎiΕ‘noj vrijednosti i ubraja se meΔu ekonomski najuspjeΕ‘nije finansijske institucije u svijetu.}} which also operated until 2022 (it was bought by the Bosnian [ASA Banka](/wiki/ASA_Banka "ASA Banka")).
When Russia's largest lender Sberbank announced on February 2, 2022 that it was exiting almost all European markets,{{cite web \|title\=Russia's Sberbank sells its subsidiaries in Central and Eastern European markets \|url\=https://n1info.ba/english/news/russias\-sberbank\-sells\-its\-subsidiaries\-in\-central\-and\-eastern\-european\-markets/ \|website\=www.n1info.ba \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=en \|date\=4 November 2021}} blaming a large outflow of cash and threats to its staff and assets following [Russia's invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "Russian invasion of Ukraine") and [international sanctions](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine "International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine") that followed, according to media reports,{{cite news \|title\=Nova banka kupila Sberbanku Banjaluka \|url\=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/nova\-banka\-sberbanka\-bosna\-hercegovina/31732647\.html \|newspaper\=Radio Slobodna Evropa \|publisher\=www.slobodnaevropa.org \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=bs \|date\=2 March 2022}} it was stated that the operation of Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka was also threatened{{cite web \|title\=GuΕΎva ispred Sberbanke u Banjaluci: Ne paniΔimo, doΕ‘li smo po pare FOTO \|url\=https://www.bl\-portal.com/banjaluka/guzva\-ispred\-sberbanke\-u\-banjaluci\-ne\-panicimo\-dosli\-smo\-po\-pare\-foto/ \|website\=www.bl\-portal.com \|access\-date\=25 May 2024 \|language\=sr \|date\=28 February 2022}} due War in Ukraine.
[Banking Agency of Republika Srpska](/wiki/Banking_Agency_of_Republika_Srpska "Banking Agency of Republika Srpska") (ABRS) on 2 March 2022 has announced that the purchase of Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka in RS has been completed by local [Nova Banka](/wiki/Nova_Banka_%28Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%29 "Nova Banka (Bosnia and Herzegovina)"), owned by the company *MG Mind* from [MrkonjiΔ Grad](/wiki/Mrkonji%C4%87_Grad "MrkonjiΔ Grad"), and current name **ATOS BANK** was presented on 23 May 2022\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Zepter komerc banka a.d. Banja Luka",
"On 1 March 1999, **Zepter komerc banka a.d.** Banja Luka was founded in Banja Luka.",
"### Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka",
"In July 2007, Austrian banking group [Volksbank International](/wiki/Volksbank_Group \"Volksbank Group\"){{cite web \\|title\\=Zepter banka od danas zvaniΔno u Volksbank International AG (VBI) grupi \\|url\\=https://www.klix.ba/biznis/berza/zepter\\-banka\\-od\\-danas\\-zvanicno\\-u\\-volksbank\\-international\\-ag\\-vbi\\-grupi/070705127 \\|website\\=www.klix.ba \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=bs \\|date\\=5 July 2007 \\|quote\\=Preuzimanjem Zepter banke Volksbank International AG nastavlja s razvojem poslovnih aktivnosti u BiH, od sada kroz Volksbank BH d.d. sa sjediΕ‘tem u Sarajevu i Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka. UdruΕΎivanje ovih banaka doprinijet Δe boljem kvalitetu usluga i povoljnijim kreditnim aranΕΎmanima.}} paid KM 82\\.1 million [BAM](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_convertible_mark \"Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark\") for the purchase of the shares of Zepter Komerc Banka{{cite web \\|title\\=Zepter banka prodata za 82,1 milion KM \\|url\\=https://www.nezavisne.com/ekonomija/privreda/Zepter\\-banka\\-prodata\\-za\\-821\\-milion\\-KM/11611 \\|website\\=www.nezavisne.com \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=sr \\|date\\=5 July 2007 \\|quote\\=Austrijska Volksbank International juΔe je za kupovinu akcija banjaluΔke Zepter komerc banke platila 82,1 miliona KM, Δime je i zvaniΔno postala njen vlasnik.}} from Banja Luka and officially became its owner.",
"Bank continued to operate within the international Volksbank group under the new name **Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka** (with sister company **Volksbank BH d.d. Sarajevo**).",
"In 2012, [Sberbank Europe Group](/wiki/Sberbank_Europe_Group \"Sberbank Europe Group\") from Russia{{cite web \\|title\\=Volksbank promjenila ime u Sberbank \\|url\\=https://me.ekapija.com/bs/news/681191/volksbank\\-promjenila\\-ime\\-u\\-sberbank \\|website\\=www.me.ekapija.com \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=sr}} completed its acquisition of 100 percent of [Volksbank International AG](/wiki/Volksbank_Group \"Volksbank Group\") (VBI), the umbrella institution that owned *Volksbank d.d. BH* in Sarajevo and *Volksbank a.d.* in Banja Luka.",
"### Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka",
"At the beginning of 2013, Volksbank banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina were given the new name \"Sberbank\" \\- so former [Austrian banks](/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Austria \"List of banks in Austria\") became [Russian\\-owned banks](/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Russia \"List of banks in Russia\") in [BiH](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\") and received new corporate names: \n* **Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka** {{cite web \\|title\\=Otvorena prva Sberbank filijala u Banjoj Luci \\|url\\=https://www.akta.ba/kapital/bankarstvo/25831/otvorena\\-prva\\-sberbank\\-filijala\\-u\\-banjoj\\-luci \\|website\\=www.akta.ba \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=bs \\|date\\=22 May 2013 \\|quote\\=U Banjoj Luci je danas otvorena prva filijala Sberbank. Ova, treΔa po veliΔini evropska banka, posluje u BiH od uspjeΕ‘nog preimenovanja iz Volksbank Banja Luka, 31\\.decembra 2012\\.}}\\- operated until 2022 (purchased by [Nova Banka](/wiki/Nova_Banka_%28Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%29 \"Nova Banka (Bosnia and Herzegovina)\"); now operates as ATOS BANK) and\n* **Sberbank BH d.d. Sarajevo**,{{cite web \\|title\\=Od danas Sberbank i zvaniΔno u BiH umjesto Volksbank \\|url\\=https://www.akta.ba/kapital/bankarstvo/11396/od\\-danas\\-sberbank\\-i\\-zvanicno\\-u\\-bih\\-umjesto\\-volksbank \\|website\\=www.akta.ba \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=bs \\|date\\=20 February 2013 \\|quote\\=Volksbank BH od danas zvaniΔno posluje pod novim nazivom kao Sberbank BH. Sberbank je najveΔa banka u Rusiji, jedna od vodeΔe tri banke u Evropi prema svojoj trenutnoj trΕΎiΕ‘noj vrijednosti i ubraja se meΔu ekonomski najuspjeΕ‘nije finansijske institucije u svijetu.}} which also operated until 2022 (it was bought by the Bosnian [ASA Banka](/wiki/ASA_Banka \"ASA Banka\")).",
"When Russia's largest lender Sberbank announced on February 2, 2022 that it was exiting almost all European markets,{{cite web \\|title\\=Russia's Sberbank sells its subsidiaries in Central and Eastern European markets \\|url\\=https://n1info.ba/english/news/russias\\-sberbank\\-sells\\-its\\-subsidiaries\\-in\\-central\\-and\\-eastern\\-european\\-markets/ \\|website\\=www.n1info.ba \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=4 November 2021}} blaming a large outflow of cash and threats to its staff and assets following [Russia's invasion of Ukraine](/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"Russian invasion of Ukraine\") and [international sanctions](/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine \"International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine\") that followed, according to media reports,{{cite news \\|title\\=Nova banka kupila Sberbanku Banjaluka \\|url\\=https://www.slobodnaevropa.org/a/nova\\-banka\\-sberbanka\\-bosna\\-hercegovina/31732647\\.html \\|newspaper\\=Radio Slobodna Evropa \\|publisher\\=www.slobodnaevropa.org \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=bs \\|date\\=2 March 2022}} it was stated that the operation of Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka was also threatened{{cite web \\|title\\=GuΕΎva ispred Sberbanke u Banjaluci: Ne paniΔimo, doΕ‘li smo po pare FOTO \\|url\\=https://www.bl\\-portal.com/banjaluka/guzva\\-ispred\\-sberbanke\\-u\\-banjaluci\\-ne\\-panicimo\\-dosli\\-smo\\-po\\-pare\\-foto/ \\|website\\=www.bl\\-portal.com \\|access\\-date\\=25 May 2024 \\|language\\=sr \\|date\\=28 February 2022}} due War in Ukraine.",
"[Banking Agency of Republika Srpska](/wiki/Banking_Agency_of_Republika_Srpska \"Banking Agency of Republika Srpska\") (ABRS) on 2 March 2022 has announced that the purchase of Sberbank a.d. Banja Luka in RS has been completed by local [Nova Banka](/wiki/Nova_Banka_%28Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%29 \"Nova Banka (Bosnia and Herzegovina)\"), owned by the company *MG Mind* from [MrkonjiΔ Grad](/wiki/Mrkonji%C4%87_Grad \"MrkonjiΔ Grad\"), and current name **ATOS BANK** was presented on 23 May 2022\\.",
""
] |
Places of interest
------------------
**Patones Arriba** is almost exclusively constructed in [black slate](/wiki/Slate%23Slate_in_buildings "Slate#Slate in buildings") and provides an important source of information for students of [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") and [drystone](/wiki/Drystone "Drystone") architecture.
### General environment
The lower part of the municipality is agricultural, with [cereals](/wiki/Cereal "Cereal"), [vineyards](/wiki/Vineyard "Vineyard") and [olive groves](/wiki/Olive_grove "Olive grove") which stretch up\-hill. The banks of the river Jarama a very attractive arboreal landscape that follows the road to Torrelaguna.
Higher up, [rockroses](/wiki/Rockrose "Rockrose") appear, and the northern and eastern facing slopes are commercial [pine](/wiki/Pine "Pine") forest. Above Patones Arriba, in different areas known as *eras* there are [crop terraces](/wiki/Terrace_%28agriculture%29 "Terrace (agriculture)") once used for growing [rye](/wiki/Rye "Rye"), [pens](/wiki/Pen_%28enclosure%29 "Pen (enclosure)") for holding [livestock](/wiki/Livestock "Livestock") (which were mostly [goats](/wiki/Goats "Goats")) and [sties](/wiki/Sty "Sty") for pigs. All of the *eras* are now abandoned and disused except as marked paths for hill\-walkers. Hunting wild animals is strictly [licensed](/wiki/License "License").
### Ponton De la Oliva
The Ponton de la Oliva is a [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir "Reservoir") now in disuse. It is the last of six reserves along the course of the river [Lozoya](/wiki/Lozoya "Lozoya") and is also its oldest, having been built in 1857 as part of a system of dams and canals supplying drinking water to the capital.
### Canal de CabarrΓΊs
This irrigation channel was constructed between the 16th and 18th centuries. It has a length of 13 kilometers (eight miles), and was the first to be built to irrigate the valley of Uceda from the river Lozoya (and later the Ponton de la Oliva).
Its course runs through the towns of Patones, Torremocha and Torrelaguna. Originally there were six bridges, three aqueducts, eight guardhouses and numerous smaller canals.
It remained in use until the late 19th century, when it was superseded by the more systematic work of the Canal de Isabel II. A 1\.3Β km section remains in operation in Patones which is fed from the Canal de la Parra and Atazar Reservoir. The canal is a Grade 1 (maximum) listed site, with two ancient stone bridges classified at Grade 2 protection. It is also called a canal in Spanish.
### The Ermita de la Virgen de la Oliva
[The Hermitage](/wiki/Hermitage_%28religious_retreat%29 "Hermitage (religious retreat)"), now a ruin under a preservation order, was built for a religious community in about the 12th or 13th century and was attached to the [Cathedral Church of Alcala de Henares](/wiki/Cathedral_of_los_Santos_Ni%C3%B1os_Justo_y_Pastor_de_Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares "Cathedral of los Santos NiΓ±os Justo y Pastor de AlcalΓ‘ de Henares") and now belongs to the successor Diocese of Complutense, based in the same town.
### Cueva del Reguerillo
The cave of Reguerillo is the most important archaeological site in the Comunidad Madrid, in terms of both [scientific interest](/wiki/Speleology "Speleology") and for recreational [caving](/wiki/Caving "Caving").
Unfortunately, although it has been declared a monument of national interest since 1944, easy access to the cave and its close proximity to the city of Madrid made the cave a recreation center for many groups who were lacking the necessary knowledge and respect for such a site, and the cave became contaminated with trash and graffiti. Accordingly, since 2008 it has been closed to the public by the Directorate General for Heritage in the Community of Madrid, in order to allow the scientific community to perform archaeological and paleontological studies.
It contains three levels of varying difficulty between 78m and 9810m depth. Detailed information can be obtained from the [Spanish Wikipedia article](/wiki/Cueva_del_Reguerillo "Cueva del Reguerillo").
In 1974 a 2nd\-century [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") [Druid](/wiki/Druid "Druid") encampment was also found nearby.
|
[
"Places of interest\n------------------",
"**Patones Arriba** is almost exclusively constructed in [black slate](/wiki/Slate%23Slate_in_buildings \"Slate#Slate in buildings\") and provides an important source of information for students of [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") and [drystone](/wiki/Drystone \"Drystone\") architecture.",
"### General environment",
"The lower part of the municipality is agricultural, with [cereals](/wiki/Cereal \"Cereal\"), [vineyards](/wiki/Vineyard \"Vineyard\") and [olive groves](/wiki/Olive_grove \"Olive grove\") which stretch up\\-hill. The banks of the river Jarama a very attractive arboreal landscape that follows the road to Torrelaguna.",
"Higher up, [rockroses](/wiki/Rockrose \"Rockrose\") appear, and the northern and eastern facing slopes are commercial [pine](/wiki/Pine \"Pine\") forest. Above Patones Arriba, in different areas known as *eras* there are [crop terraces](/wiki/Terrace_%28agriculture%29 \"Terrace (agriculture)\") once used for growing [rye](/wiki/Rye \"Rye\"), [pens](/wiki/Pen_%28enclosure%29 \"Pen (enclosure)\") for holding [livestock](/wiki/Livestock \"Livestock\") (which were mostly [goats](/wiki/Goats \"Goats\")) and [sties](/wiki/Sty \"Sty\") for pigs. All of the *eras* are now abandoned and disused except as marked paths for hill\\-walkers. Hunting wild animals is strictly [licensed](/wiki/License \"License\").",
"### Ponton De la Oliva",
"The Ponton de la Oliva is a [reservoir](/wiki/Reservoir \"Reservoir\") now in disuse. It is the last of six reserves along the course of the river [Lozoya](/wiki/Lozoya \"Lozoya\") and is also its oldest, having been built in 1857 as part of a system of dams and canals supplying drinking water to the capital.",
"### Canal de CabarrΓΊs",
"This irrigation channel was constructed between the 16th and 18th centuries. It has a length of 13 kilometers (eight miles), and was the first to be built to irrigate the valley of Uceda from the river Lozoya (and later the Ponton de la Oliva).",
"Its course runs through the towns of Patones, Torremocha and Torrelaguna. Originally there were six bridges, three aqueducts, eight guardhouses and numerous smaller canals.",
"It remained in use until the late 19th century, when it was superseded by the more systematic work of the Canal de Isabel II. A 1\\.3Β km section remains in operation in Patones which is fed from the Canal de la Parra and Atazar Reservoir. The canal is a Grade 1 (maximum) listed site, with two ancient stone bridges classified at Grade 2 protection. It is also called a canal in Spanish.",
"### The Ermita de la Virgen de la Oliva",
"[The Hermitage](/wiki/Hermitage_%28religious_retreat%29 \"Hermitage (religious retreat)\"), now a ruin under a preservation order, was built for a religious community in about the 12th or 13th century and was attached to the [Cathedral Church of Alcala de Henares](/wiki/Cathedral_of_los_Santos_Ni%C3%B1os_Justo_y_Pastor_de_Alcal%C3%A1_de_Henares \"Cathedral of los Santos NiΓ±os Justo y Pastor de AlcalΓ‘ de Henares\") and now belongs to the successor Diocese of Complutense, based in the same town.",
"### Cueva del Reguerillo",
"The cave of Reguerillo is the most important archaeological site in the Comunidad Madrid, in terms of both [scientific interest](/wiki/Speleology \"Speleology\") and for recreational [caving](/wiki/Caving \"Caving\").",
"Unfortunately, although it has been declared a monument of national interest since 1944, easy access to the cave and its close proximity to the city of Madrid made the cave a recreation center for many groups who were lacking the necessary knowledge and respect for such a site, and the cave became contaminated with trash and graffiti. Accordingly, since 2008 it has been closed to the public by the Directorate General for Heritage in the Community of Madrid, in order to allow the scientific community to perform archaeological and paleontological studies.",
"It contains three levels of varying difficulty between 78m and 9810m depth. Detailed information can be obtained from the [Spanish Wikipedia article](/wiki/Cueva_del_Reguerillo \"Cueva del Reguerillo\").",
"In 1974 a 2nd\\-century [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") [Druid](/wiki/Druid \"Druid\") encampment was also found nearby.",
""
] |
History
-------
[right\|thumb\|upright\=2\|A similar 6\-inch gun that was mounted at [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton "Fort Lytton").](/wiki/File:Armstrong_disappearing_gun_at_Fort_Lytton%2C_Brisbane_01.jpg "Armstrong disappearing gun at Fort Lytton, Brisbane 01.jpg")
In 1879 the steamship βHavilahβ landed three 4\.6 tonne, 68\-pounder cannon as part of Wollongong Harbour defences against the threat of possible Russian attack. The cannon were designed to fire a shell weighing {{convert\|68\|lb\|kg\|abbr\=on}} up to 1\.60Β km. They lay unused by the harbour for 18 months without mountings and ammunition. They were finally placed as an inner defense battery by the local volunteer artillery group in 1880\. Endeavour Drive now covers the original position.
However, by the mid\-1880s it became obvious that enemy cruisers could bombard the port out of range of these obsolete guns.
In 1890 a larger and more modern [6\-inch gun](/wiki/BL_6-inch_gun_Mk_V "BL 6-inch gun Mk V") was positioned in a concrete pit near the summit of Flagstaff Hill. Underground rooms protected the ammunition and the gunners. By 1893 further fortifications were completed on [Smith's Hill](/wiki/Smiths_Hill_Fort "Smiths Hill Fort") west of Harbour.
Constructed between 1890 and 1891, the fort was built with a [disappearing gun](/wiki/Disappearing_gun "Disappearing gun") emplacement. The fort was dug\-out of the hill using face brick walls and then earth was placed over the tunnels. The gun was commissioned and first fired in 1892\. The gun emplacement was provided with two range finder positions.
The [Wollongong Head Lighthouse](/wiki/Wollongong_Head_Lighthouse "Wollongong Head Lighthouse") was constructed near the fort in 1938\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\=2\\|A similar 6\\-inch gun that was mounted at [Fort Lytton](/wiki/Fort_Lytton \"Fort Lytton\").](/wiki/File:Armstrong_disappearing_gun_at_Fort_Lytton%2C_Brisbane_01.jpg \"Armstrong disappearing gun at Fort Lytton, Brisbane 01.jpg\")",
"In 1879 the steamship βHavilahβ landed three 4\\.6 tonne, 68\\-pounder cannon as part of Wollongong Harbour defences against the threat of possible Russian attack. The cannon were designed to fire a shell weighing {{convert\\|68\\|lb\\|kg\\|abbr\\=on}} up to 1\\.60Β km. They lay unused by the harbour for 18 months without mountings and ammunition. They were finally placed as an inner defense battery by the local volunteer artillery group in 1880\\. Endeavour Drive now covers the original position.",
"However, by the mid\\-1880s it became obvious that enemy cruisers could bombard the port out of range of these obsolete guns.",
"In 1890 a larger and more modern [6\\-inch gun](/wiki/BL_6-inch_gun_Mk_V \"BL 6-inch gun Mk V\") was positioned in a concrete pit near the summit of Flagstaff Hill. Underground rooms protected the ammunition and the gunners. By 1893 further fortifications were completed on [Smith's Hill](/wiki/Smiths_Hill_Fort \"Smiths Hill Fort\") west of Harbour.",
"Constructed between 1890 and 1891, the fort was built with a [disappearing gun](/wiki/Disappearing_gun \"Disappearing gun\") emplacement. The fort was dug\\-out of the hill using face brick walls and then earth was placed over the tunnels. The gun was commissioned and first fired in 1892\\. The gun emplacement was provided with two range finder positions.",
"The [Wollongong Head Lighthouse](/wiki/Wollongong_Head_Lighthouse \"Wollongong Head Lighthouse\") was constructed near the fort in 1938\\.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
Blackwell turned professional on 26 June 2009, having had no [amateur](/wiki/Amateur_boxing "Amateur boxing") experience and spending his teenage years in the sport as a [white\-collar boxer](/wiki/White-collar_boxer "White-collar boxer").Beck, Neil (26 September 2013\). ["Spot the difference after boxer Nick Blackwell's defeat in Ukraine"](http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Spot-difference-boxer-Nick-Blackwell-s-defeat/story-19849911-detail/story.html){{dead link\|date\=February 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}. *[The Bath Chronicle](/wiki/Bath_Chronicle "Bath Chronicle")*. [Local World](/wiki/Local_World "Local World"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\.["Nick Blackwell \- Middleweight boxer"](http://chiacharge.co.uk/blog/2014/04/nick-blackwell-middleweight-boxer/). Chia Charge. 22 April 2014\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\.Barnes, Dan (21 November 2015\). ["British champ Nick Blackwell eyes up some down time in Cornwall"](http://www.wiltshiretimes.co.uk/news/14043165.BOXING__Surf___s_up_for_British_champ____Bang_Bang___/). *[Wiltshire Times](/wiki/Wiltshire_Times "Wiltshire Times")*. [Newsquest](/wiki/Newsquest "Newsquest"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\. He won his first regional title on 20 November 2010, scoring a ten\-round [unanimous decision](/wiki/Unanimous_decision "Unanimous decision") against Harry Matthews to become the youngest ever [English](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control "British Boxing Board of Control") [middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight "Middleweight") champion at twenty years old.["Boxer Nick Blackwell makes history with title victory"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/9215611.stm). *[BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport "BBC Sport")*. [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"). 22 November 2010\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\. On 18 June 2011, Blackwell challenged [Martin Murray](/wiki/Martin_Murray_%28boxer%29 "Martin Murray (boxer)") for his [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_Boxing_Council "Commonwealth Boxing Council") middleweight title, as well as the vacant [British](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control "British Boxing Board of Control") middleweight title. Murray handed Blackwell his first career defeat when the latter was [pulled out by his corner](/wiki/Referee_technical_decision "Referee technical decision") at the end of round five.ESPN staff (18 June 2011\). ["Murray claims British title with impressive win"](http://en.espn.co.uk/boxing/sport/story/96992.html). [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN "ESPN"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\. A successful defence of the English middleweight title came on 3 March 2012, with Blackwell [stopping](/wiki/Technical_knockout "Technical knockout") Martin Concepcion in four rounds.Houlihan, Owen (4 March 2012\). ["Boxing: Brilliant Blackwell retains English title in style"](http://www.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/sport/9568748.BOXING__Brilliant_Blackwell_retains_English_title_in_style/). *This Is Wiltshire*. [Newsquest](/wiki/Newsquest "Newsquest"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\.
On 15 December 2012, Blackwell received a second opportunity at the Commonwealth title, this time against defending champion [Billy Joe Saunders](/wiki/Billy_Joe_Saunders "Billy Joe Saunders"); the vacant British title was also on the line. This turned out to be a tough outing for Saunders, as Blackwell forced him to go the full twelve rounds. Saunders nonetheless won a unanimous decision on the judges' scorecards, handing Blackwell his second career defeat.Davies, Gareth A (28 November 2014\). ["Billy Joe Saunders vs Chris Eubank Jnr β where the fight will be won and lost"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/boxing/11262056/Billy-Joe-Saunders-vs-Chris-Eubank-Jnr-where-the-fight-will-be-won-and-lost.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph "The Daily Telegraph")*. [Telegraph Media Group](/wiki/Telegraph_Media_Group "Telegraph Media Group"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\. Blackwell travelled to Ukraine on 21 September 2013 to fight for the vacant [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association "World Boxing Association") Continental (Europe) middleweight title, but lost a twelve\-round unanimous decision to [Max Bursak](/wiki/Max_Bursak "Max Bursak"). During the fight, Blackwell scored a knockdown in the fourth round, and the result was seen by some observers as controversial.
Having begun training with former middleweight world title challenger [Gary Lockett](/wiki/Gary_Lockett "Gary Lockett"), Blackwell made a third attempt at the vacant British title on 30 May 2015 against [John Ryder](/wiki/John_Ryder_%28boxer%29 "John Ryder (boxer)"). Blackwell achieved his most significant win, on a prominent stage at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena "The O2 Arena") in London, by stopping Ryder in seven rounds to become the British middleweight champion.["Nick Blackwell wins British middleweight title with stoppage victory over John Ryder"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/20876/9870349/nick-blackwell-wins-british-middleweight-title-with-stoppage-victory-over-john-ryder). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Sky (United Kingdom)"). 30 May 2015\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\. Two successful title defences were made in the remainder of 2015, against [Damon Jones](/wiki/Damon_Jones_%28boxer%29 "Damon Jones (boxer)") on 25 July (sixth\-round stoppage), and [Jack Arnfield](/wiki/Jack_Arnfield "Jack Arnfield") on 14 November (unanimous decision).["Nick Blackwell and Hughie Fury win in Derby"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/12183/9925229/wins-for-nick-blackwell-and-hughie-fury-in-derby). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Sky (United Kingdom)"). 26 July 2015\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\.["Nick Blackwell beats Jack Arnfield to retain British title"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/boxing/34827468). *[BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport "BBC Sport")*. [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC"). 15 November 2015\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\.
### Blackwell vs. Eubank Jr. match and retirement
In his third title defence on 26 March 2016 at [Wembley Arena](/wiki/Wembley_Arena "Wembley Arena"), which would have won him the [Lonsdale Belt](/wiki/Lonsdale_Belt "Lonsdale Belt") outright, Blackwell lost to [Chris Eubank Jr.](/wiki/Chris_Eubank_Jr. "Chris Eubank Jr.") In a fast\-paced fight, Eubank Jr. dominated the action using hard [hooks](/wiki/Hook_%28boxing%29 "Hook (boxing)") and [uppercuts](/wiki/Uppercut "Uppercut"), which eventually led to a bloody nose and a large swelling above Blackwell's left eye. Following the mid\-way point and in the corner between rounds, [Chris Eubank Sr.](/wiki/Chris_Eubank_Sr. "Chris Eubank Sr.") was heard to instruct his son to refrain from punching Blackwell in the head.
In the tenth round the referee summoned the ringside doctor to assess Blackwell, who in turn deemed him unable to continue due to the swelling on his head obstructing his vision, therefore handing Eubank Jr. the victory and title. Some minutes after the fight was stopped, Blackwell was given oxygen and taken out of the arena by stretcher.["Nick Blackwell taken to hospital after Chris Eubank Jr wins British title"](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/mar/27/nick-blackwell-chris-eubank-jnr-hospital). *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*. [Guardian Media Group](/wiki/Guardian_Media_Group "Guardian Media Group"). 27 March 2016\. Retrieved 27 March 2016\. He was later taken to [St Mary's Hospital](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London "St Mary's Hospital, London") with bleeding of the skull (outside the brain) and placed in a medically\-[induced coma](/wiki/Induced_coma "Induced coma"), but an operation was not deemed necessary.Vulliamy, Elsa (27 March 2016\). ["Nick Blackwell in induced coma after losing fight to Chris Eubank Jr"](https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/boxing/nick-blackwell-hospitalised-after-losing-fight-to-chris-eubank-jr-a6954816.html). *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")*. Retrieved 27 March 2016\. The following weekend, he was brought out of the coma.Dooley, Terence (4 April 2016\). ["Nick Blackwell Wins Biggest Fight To Date \- Wakes From Coma"](http://www.boxingscene.com/nick-blackwell-wins-biggest-fight-date-wakes-from-coma--103075). BoxingScene. Retrieved 4 April 2016\. In April 2016, Blackwell announced his retirement from boxing via [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter"), but expressed his desire to be involved in the sport in some capacity.Lustig, Nick (18 April 2016\). ["Nick Blackwell says he is 'very lucky' after avoiding serious head injuries"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/12183/10248061/nick-blackwell-says-he-is-very-lucky-after-avoiding-serious-head-injuries). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports "Sky Sports")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Sky (United Kingdom)"). Retrieved 19 April 2016\.Blackwell, Nick (18 April 2016 my friends and family and self through that again but I'll still be involved"]. [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter"). Retrieved 19 April 2016\.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"Blackwell turned professional on 26 June 2009, having had no [amateur](/wiki/Amateur_boxing \"Amateur boxing\") experience and spending his teenage years in the sport as a [white\\-collar boxer](/wiki/White-collar_boxer \"White-collar boxer\").Beck, Neil (26 September 2013\\). [\"Spot the difference after boxer Nick Blackwell's defeat in Ukraine\"](http://www.bathchronicle.co.uk/Spot-difference-boxer-Nick-Blackwell-s-defeat/story-19849911-detail/story.html){{dead link\\|date\\=February 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}. *[The Bath Chronicle](/wiki/Bath_Chronicle \"Bath Chronicle\")*. [Local World](/wiki/Local_World \"Local World\"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\\.[\"Nick Blackwell \\- Middleweight boxer\"](http://chiacharge.co.uk/blog/2014/04/nick-blackwell-middleweight-boxer/). Chia Charge. 22 April 2014\\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\\.Barnes, Dan (21 November 2015\\). [\"British champ Nick Blackwell eyes up some down time in Cornwall\"](http://www.wiltshiretimes.co.uk/news/14043165.BOXING__Surf___s_up_for_British_champ____Bang_Bang___/). *[Wiltshire Times](/wiki/Wiltshire_Times \"Wiltshire Times\")*. [Newsquest](/wiki/Newsquest \"Newsquest\"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\\. He won his first regional title on 20 November 2010, scoring a ten\\-round [unanimous decision](/wiki/Unanimous_decision \"Unanimous decision\") against Harry Matthews to become the youngest ever [English](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control \"British Boxing Board of Control\") [middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight \"Middleweight\") champion at twenty years old.[\"Boxer Nick Blackwell makes history with title victory\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/boxing/9215611.stm). *[BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport \"BBC Sport\")*. [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\"). 22 November 2010\\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\\. On 18 June 2011, Blackwell challenged [Martin Murray](/wiki/Martin_Murray_%28boxer%29 \"Martin Murray (boxer)\") for his [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_Boxing_Council \"Commonwealth Boxing Council\") middleweight title, as well as the vacant [British](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control \"British Boxing Board of Control\") middleweight title. Murray handed Blackwell his first career defeat when the latter was [pulled out by his corner](/wiki/Referee_technical_decision \"Referee technical decision\") at the end of round five.ESPN staff (18 June 2011\\). [\"Murray claims British title with impressive win\"](http://en.espn.co.uk/boxing/sport/story/96992.html). [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN \"ESPN\"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\\. A successful defence of the English middleweight title came on 3 March 2012, with Blackwell [stopping](/wiki/Technical_knockout \"Technical knockout\") Martin Concepcion in four rounds.Houlihan, Owen (4 March 2012\\). [\"Boxing: Brilliant Blackwell retains English title in style\"](http://www.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/sport/9568748.BOXING__Brilliant_Blackwell_retains_English_title_in_style/). *This Is Wiltshire*. [Newsquest](/wiki/Newsquest \"Newsquest\"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\\.",
"On 15 December 2012, Blackwell received a second opportunity at the Commonwealth title, this time against defending champion [Billy Joe Saunders](/wiki/Billy_Joe_Saunders \"Billy Joe Saunders\"); the vacant British title was also on the line. This turned out to be a tough outing for Saunders, as Blackwell forced him to go the full twelve rounds. Saunders nonetheless won a unanimous decision on the judges' scorecards, handing Blackwell his second career defeat.Davies, Gareth A (28 November 2014\\). [\"Billy Joe Saunders vs Chris Eubank Jnr β where the fight will be won and lost\"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/boxing/11262056/Billy-Joe-Saunders-vs-Chris-Eubank-Jnr-where-the-fight-will-be-won-and-lost.html). *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph \"The Daily Telegraph\")*. [Telegraph Media Group](/wiki/Telegraph_Media_Group \"Telegraph Media Group\"). Retrieved 3 March 2016\\. Blackwell travelled to Ukraine on 21 September 2013 to fight for the vacant [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association \"World Boxing Association\") Continental (Europe) middleweight title, but lost a twelve\\-round unanimous decision to [Max Bursak](/wiki/Max_Bursak \"Max Bursak\"). During the fight, Blackwell scored a knockdown in the fourth round, and the result was seen by some observers as controversial.",
"Having begun training with former middleweight world title challenger [Gary Lockett](/wiki/Gary_Lockett \"Gary Lockett\"), Blackwell made a third attempt at the vacant British title on 30 May 2015 against [John Ryder](/wiki/John_Ryder_%28boxer%29 \"John Ryder (boxer)\"). Blackwell achieved his most significant win, on a prominent stage at [The O2 Arena](/wiki/The_O2_Arena \"The O2 Arena\") in London, by stopping Ryder in seven rounds to become the British middleweight champion.[\"Nick Blackwell wins British middleweight title with stoppage victory over John Ryder\"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/20876/9870349/nick-blackwell-wins-british-middleweight-title-with-stoppage-victory-over-john-ryder). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Sky (United Kingdom)\"). 30 May 2015\\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\\. Two successful title defences were made in the remainder of 2015, against [Damon Jones](/wiki/Damon_Jones_%28boxer%29 \"Damon Jones (boxer)\") on 25 July (sixth\\-round stoppage), and [Jack Arnfield](/wiki/Jack_Arnfield \"Jack Arnfield\") on 14 November (unanimous decision).[\"Nick Blackwell and Hughie Fury win in Derby\"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/12183/9925229/wins-for-nick-blackwell-and-hughie-fury-in-derby). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Sky (United Kingdom)\"). 26 July 2015\\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\\.[\"Nick Blackwell beats Jack Arnfield to retain British title\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/boxing/34827468). *[BBC Sport](/wiki/BBC_Sport \"BBC Sport\")*. [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\"). 15 November 2015\\. Retrieved 3 March 2016\\.",
"### Blackwell vs. Eubank Jr. match and retirement",
"In his third title defence on 26 March 2016 at [Wembley Arena](/wiki/Wembley_Arena \"Wembley Arena\"), which would have won him the [Lonsdale Belt](/wiki/Lonsdale_Belt \"Lonsdale Belt\") outright, Blackwell lost to [Chris Eubank Jr.](/wiki/Chris_Eubank_Jr. \"Chris Eubank Jr.\") In a fast\\-paced fight, Eubank Jr. dominated the action using hard [hooks](/wiki/Hook_%28boxing%29 \"Hook (boxing)\") and [uppercuts](/wiki/Uppercut \"Uppercut\"), which eventually led to a bloody nose and a large swelling above Blackwell's left eye. Following the mid\\-way point and in the corner between rounds, [Chris Eubank Sr.](/wiki/Chris_Eubank_Sr. \"Chris Eubank Sr.\") was heard to instruct his son to refrain from punching Blackwell in the head.",
"In the tenth round the referee summoned the ringside doctor to assess Blackwell, who in turn deemed him unable to continue due to the swelling on his head obstructing his vision, therefore handing Eubank Jr. the victory and title. Some minutes after the fight was stopped, Blackwell was given oxygen and taken out of the arena by stretcher.[\"Nick Blackwell taken to hospital after Chris Eubank Jr wins British title\"](https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/mar/27/nick-blackwell-chris-eubank-jnr-hospital). *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")*. [Guardian Media Group](/wiki/Guardian_Media_Group \"Guardian Media Group\"). 27 March 2016\\. Retrieved 27 March 2016\\. He was later taken to [St Mary's Hospital](/wiki/St_Mary%27s_Hospital%2C_London \"St Mary's Hospital, London\") with bleeding of the skull (outside the brain) and placed in a medically\\-[induced coma](/wiki/Induced_coma \"Induced coma\"), but an operation was not deemed necessary.Vulliamy, Elsa (27 March 2016\\). [\"Nick Blackwell in induced coma after losing fight to Chris Eubank Jr\"](https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/boxing/nick-blackwell-hospitalised-after-losing-fight-to-chris-eubank-jr-a6954816.html). *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*. Retrieved 27 March 2016\\. The following weekend, he was brought out of the coma.Dooley, Terence (4 April 2016\\). [\"Nick Blackwell Wins Biggest Fight To Date \\- Wakes From Coma\"](http://www.boxingscene.com/nick-blackwell-wins-biggest-fight-date-wakes-from-coma--103075). BoxingScene. Retrieved 4 April 2016\\. In April 2016, Blackwell announced his retirement from boxing via [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\"), but expressed his desire to be involved in the sport in some capacity.Lustig, Nick (18 April 2016\\). [\"Nick Blackwell says he is 'very lucky' after avoiding serious head injuries\"](http://www.skysports.com/boxing/news/12183/10248061/nick-blackwell-says-he-is-very-lucky-after-avoiding-serious-head-injuries). *[Sky Sports](/wiki/Sky_Sports \"Sky Sports\")*. [Sky](/wiki/Sky_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Sky (United Kingdom)\"). Retrieved 19 April 2016\\.Blackwell, Nick (18 April 2016 my friends and family and self through that again but I'll still be involved\"]. [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\"). Retrieved 19 April 2016\\.",
""
] |
Religion
--------
Rewalsar is sacred to adherents of three major [Dharma](/wiki/Dharma "Dharma") religions \- [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism"), [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism "Buddhism") and [Sikhism](/wiki/Sikhism "Sikhism").
### Hinduism
Seven lakes associated with the [Pandavas](/wiki/Pandavas "Pandavas") of [Mahabharata](/wiki/Mahabharata "Mahabharata") are located above Rewalsar.{{cite web \| title \= HP Tourism official site \| url \= http://himachaltourism.nic.in/lake.htm \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 \|archiveurl \= https://web.archive.org/web/20060823005637/http://himachaltourism.nic.in/lake.htm \|archivedate \= 23 August 2006}} Also associated with Rewalsar are the legends of Lord [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva") and Lomas Rishi.{{cite web \| title \= Hindu legends about Rawalsar \| url \= http://vegetarian\-restaurants.net/India\-Guide/IndianStates/Himachal\-Pradesh/Himachal\-Pradesh.htm \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }} There is also a famous [Krishna](/wiki/Krishna "Krishna") temple in the town.
The Hindu history of Rewalsar is found in [Skanda Purana](/wiki/Skanda_Purana "Skanda Purana"). A Hindu sage named Lomas was searching for place to worship. He traveled and climbed the top of Drona mountain, from the top saw a lake surrounded by trees, flowers and birds. He decided to meditate at the bank of the lake, written as Hridayeshwar in Skanda Purana. He meditated here, and Lord [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva "Shiva") and Goddesses [Parvati](/wiki/Parvati "Parvati") blessed him by imparting the secrets of this place where all the [Devas](/wiki/Deva_%28Hinduism%29 "Deva (Hinduism)") and Ganas are in the form of flowers, and trees.
### Sikhism
The tenth Guru of Sikhs, [Guru Gobind Singh](/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh "Guru Gobind Singh") visited Rewalsar to consult with kings of the [Hill states](/wiki/Hill_states "Hill states") seeking support against the Mughal Emperor [Aurangzeb](/wiki/Aurangzeb "Aurangzeb"). He stayed at Rewalsar for a month. Raja [Joginder Sen](/wiki/Joginder_Sen "Joginder Sen") of Mandi built a [gurudwara](/wiki/Gurudwara "Gurudwara") at Rewalsar in 1930 to commemorate the Guru's visit.{{cite web \| title \= Guru Gobind Singh's visit to Rawalsar \| url \= http://www.indialine.com/travel/himachalpradesh/rewalsar/ \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }} The place is particularly sacred to [Namdhari](/wiki/Namdhari "Namdhari") Sikhs due to its mention in *[Sau Sakhi](/wiki/Sau_Sakhi "Sau Sakhi")* as a sanctuary.{{cite web\|title\=Sacred to Namdharis \|url\=http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras/gurudwara\-rawalsar\-distt\-mandi.html \|accessdate\=3 September 2006 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103072452/http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras/gurudwara\-rawalsar\-distt\-mandi.html \|archivedate\=3 January 2008 }}
### Tibetan Buddhism
[thumb\|123 ft. (37\.5 m) statue of [Padmasambhava](/wiki/Padmasambhava "Padmasambhava") in mist at Rewalsar.](/wiki/File:Guru_Rinpoche_in_mist_2.jpg "Guru Rinpoche in mist 2.jpg")
The famous Rewalsar Lake, or **Tso Pema** to [Tibetans](/wiki/Tibetans "Tibetans"), is associated with [Padmasambhava](/wiki/Padmasambhava "Padmasambhava") (also known as *Guru Rinpoche*), recognized as a second Buddha. One version of a legend has it that the King Arashadhar of Mandi had Padmasambhava burnt alive after rumours that the Guru had attempted to teach his daughter, Princess [Mandarava](/wiki/Mandarava "Mandarava")
the Dharma, which was not accepted then. The pyre burned for a full week, with great clouds of black smoke arising from it, but after a week, a lake appeared at the spot where he was burnt and Padmasambhava manifested himself as a 16\-year\-old boy from within a [lotus](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera "Nelumbo nucifera") in the middle of the lake, with [Mandarava](/wiki/Mandarava "Mandarava") in his arms. The king, repenting his actions, married his daughter to Padmasambhava. It was from Tso Pema that Padmasambhava went to [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet "Tibet") to reveal [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana "Vajrayana") Buddhism,{{cite web \| title \= One version of the Buddhist legend \| url \= http://www.himachalpradesh.us/mandi/index.php \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }}{{cite web \| url\=http://himachal.nic.in/index1\.php?lang\=1\&dpt\_id\=199\&level\=1\&sublinkid\=12084\&lid\=12476 \| title\=Rewalsar, District Mandi \| publisher\=Himachal Pradesh Government \| accessdate\=29 October 2016}} after Padmasambhava and Mandarava went to Nepal.
Rewalsar is a sacred place for Tibetan Buddhists and there are two Buddhist monasteries; the Drikung Kagyu Monastery and Tso\-Pema Orgyen Heru\-kai Nyingma Monastery.{{cite web \| title \= Buddhist monasteries in Rewalsar \| url \= http://vegetarian\-restaurants.net/India\-Guide/IndianStates/Himachal\-Pradesh/Himachal\-Pradesh.htm \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }} More than 50 nuns also live in the sacred caves, practicing in retreat. Buddhist practitioners are drawn to the Sacred Caves, as are tourists, coming from India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and the west. The present head of the [Drukpa Kagyu](/wiki/Drukpa_Kagyu "Drukpa Kagyu") lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, [Gyalwang Drukpa](/wiki/Gyalwang_Drukpa "Gyalwang Drukpa"), was born here in 1963\.
There is a Colossus (37\.5 m or 123Β ft) of Padmasambhava that was consecrated, blessed and inaugurated by the [14th Dalai Lama](/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama "14th Dalai Lama") of Tibet on 1 April 2012\.
The Tsechu fair was held in Rewalsar in 2004 to commemorate the birthday of Padmasambhava, Guru Rinpoche. The fair was inaugurated by the [14th Dalai Lama](/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama "14th Dalai Lama") and was attended by the [17th Karmapa Orgyen Trinley Dorje](/wiki/Orgyen_Trinley_Dorje "Orgyen Trinley Dorje") along with 50,000 other Buddhist pilgrims.{{cite web \| title \= Article in The Tribune \| url \= http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040302/himachal.htm\#13 \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }} The fair was held after a gap of 12 years.{{cite web \| title \= Article in The Tribune \| url \= http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040229/himachal.htm\#6 \| accessdate \= 3 September 2006 }}
|
[
"Religion\n--------",
"Rewalsar is sacred to adherents of three major [Dharma](/wiki/Dharma \"Dharma\") religions \\- [Hinduism](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\"), [Buddhism](/wiki/Buddhism \"Buddhism\") and [Sikhism](/wiki/Sikhism \"Sikhism\").",
"### Hinduism",
"Seven lakes associated with the [Pandavas](/wiki/Pandavas \"Pandavas\") of [Mahabharata](/wiki/Mahabharata \"Mahabharata\") are located above Rewalsar.{{cite web \\| title \\= HP Tourism official site \\| url \\= http://himachaltourism.nic.in/lake.htm \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 \\|archiveurl \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060823005637/http://himachaltourism.nic.in/lake.htm \\|archivedate \\= 23 August 2006}} Also associated with Rewalsar are the legends of Lord [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\") and Lomas Rishi.{{cite web \\| title \\= Hindu legends about Rawalsar \\| url \\= http://vegetarian\\-restaurants.net/India\\-Guide/IndianStates/Himachal\\-Pradesh/Himachal\\-Pradesh.htm \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }} There is also a famous [Krishna](/wiki/Krishna \"Krishna\") temple in the town.",
"The Hindu history of Rewalsar is found in [Skanda Purana](/wiki/Skanda_Purana \"Skanda Purana\"). A Hindu sage named Lomas was searching for place to worship. He traveled and climbed the top of Drona mountain, from the top saw a lake surrounded by trees, flowers and birds. He decided to meditate at the bank of the lake, written as Hridayeshwar in Skanda Purana. He meditated here, and Lord [Shiva](/wiki/Shiva \"Shiva\") and Goddesses [Parvati](/wiki/Parvati \"Parvati\") blessed him by imparting the secrets of this place where all the [Devas](/wiki/Deva_%28Hinduism%29 \"Deva (Hinduism)\") and Ganas are in the form of flowers, and trees.",
"### Sikhism",
"The tenth Guru of Sikhs, [Guru Gobind Singh](/wiki/Guru_Gobind_Singh \"Guru Gobind Singh\") visited Rewalsar to consult with kings of the [Hill states](/wiki/Hill_states \"Hill states\") seeking support against the Mughal Emperor [Aurangzeb](/wiki/Aurangzeb \"Aurangzeb\"). He stayed at Rewalsar for a month. Raja [Joginder Sen](/wiki/Joginder_Sen \"Joginder Sen\") of Mandi built a [gurudwara](/wiki/Gurudwara \"Gurudwara\") at Rewalsar in 1930 to commemorate the Guru's visit.{{cite web \\| title \\= Guru Gobind Singh's visit to Rawalsar \\| url \\= http://www.indialine.com/travel/himachalpradesh/rewalsar/ \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }} The place is particularly sacred to [Namdhari](/wiki/Namdhari \"Namdhari\") Sikhs due to its mention in *[Sau Sakhi](/wiki/Sau_Sakhi \"Sau Sakhi\")* as a sanctuary.{{cite web\\|title\\=Sacred to Namdharis \\|url\\=http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras/gurudwara\\-rawalsar\\-distt\\-mandi.html \\|accessdate\\=3 September 2006 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103072452/http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/gurudwaras/gurudwara\\-rawalsar\\-distt\\-mandi.html \\|archivedate\\=3 January 2008 }}",
"### Tibetan Buddhism",
"[thumb\\|123 ft. (37\\.5 m) statue of [Padmasambhava](/wiki/Padmasambhava \"Padmasambhava\") in mist at Rewalsar.](/wiki/File:Guru_Rinpoche_in_mist_2.jpg \"Guru Rinpoche in mist 2.jpg\")\nThe famous Rewalsar Lake, or **Tso Pema** to [Tibetans](/wiki/Tibetans \"Tibetans\"), is associated with [Padmasambhava](/wiki/Padmasambhava \"Padmasambhava\") (also known as *Guru Rinpoche*), recognized as a second Buddha. One version of a legend has it that the King Arashadhar of Mandi had Padmasambhava burnt alive after rumours that the Guru had attempted to teach his daughter, Princess [Mandarava](/wiki/Mandarava \"Mandarava\")\nthe Dharma, which was not accepted then. The pyre burned for a full week, with great clouds of black smoke arising from it, but after a week, a lake appeared at the spot where he was burnt and Padmasambhava manifested himself as a 16\\-year\\-old boy from within a [lotus](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera \"Nelumbo nucifera\") in the middle of the lake, with [Mandarava](/wiki/Mandarava \"Mandarava\") in his arms. The king, repenting his actions, married his daughter to Padmasambhava. It was from Tso Pema that Padmasambhava went to [Tibet](/wiki/Tibet \"Tibet\") to reveal [Vajrayana](/wiki/Vajrayana \"Vajrayana\") Buddhism,{{cite web \\| title \\= One version of the Buddhist legend \\| url \\= http://www.himachalpradesh.us/mandi/index.php \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://himachal.nic.in/index1\\.php?lang\\=1\\&dpt\\_id\\=199\\&level\\=1\\&sublinkid\\=12084\\&lid\\=12476 \\| title\\=Rewalsar, District Mandi \\| publisher\\=Himachal Pradesh Government \\| accessdate\\=29 October 2016}} after Padmasambhava and Mandarava went to Nepal.",
"Rewalsar is a sacred place for Tibetan Buddhists and there are two Buddhist monasteries; the Drikung Kagyu Monastery and Tso\\-Pema Orgyen Heru\\-kai Nyingma Monastery.{{cite web \\| title \\= Buddhist monasteries in Rewalsar \\| url \\= http://vegetarian\\-restaurants.net/India\\-Guide/IndianStates/Himachal\\-Pradesh/Himachal\\-Pradesh.htm \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }} More than 50 nuns also live in the sacred caves, practicing in retreat. Buddhist practitioners are drawn to the Sacred Caves, as are tourists, coming from India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and the west. The present head of the [Drukpa Kagyu](/wiki/Drukpa_Kagyu \"Drukpa Kagyu\") lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, [Gyalwang Drukpa](/wiki/Gyalwang_Drukpa \"Gyalwang Drukpa\"), was born here in 1963\\.",
"There is a Colossus (37\\.5 m or 123Β ft) of Padmasambhava that was consecrated, blessed and inaugurated by the [14th Dalai Lama](/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama \"14th Dalai Lama\") of Tibet on 1 April 2012\\.",
"The Tsechu fair was held in Rewalsar in 2004 to commemorate the birthday of Padmasambhava, Guru Rinpoche. The fair was inaugurated by the [14th Dalai Lama](/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama \"14th Dalai Lama\") and was attended by the [17th Karmapa Orgyen Trinley Dorje](/wiki/Orgyen_Trinley_Dorje \"Orgyen Trinley Dorje\") along with 50,000 other Buddhist pilgrims.{{cite web \\| title \\= Article in The Tribune \\| url \\= http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040302/himachal.htm\\#13 \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }} The fair was held after a gap of 12 years.{{cite web \\| title \\= Article in The Tribune \\| url \\= http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040229/himachal.htm\\#6 \\| accessdate \\= 3 September 2006 }}",
""
] |
Remarks
-------
If the operations are associative, each one defines the structure of a monoid on X, and the conditions above are equivalent to the more abstract condition that \\otimes is a monoid homomorphism (X,\\circ)\\times(X,\\circ)\\to(X,\\circ) (or vice versa). An even more abstract way of stating the theorem is: If X is a [monoid object](/wiki/Monoid_object "Monoid object") in the [category of monoids](/wiki/Category_of_monoids "Category of monoids"), then X is in fact a commutative monoid.
It is important that a similar argument does NOT give such a trivial result in the case of monoid objects in the categories of small categories or of groupoids. Instead the notion of group object in the category of [groupoids](/wiki/Groupoid "Groupoid") turns out to be equivalent to the notion of [crossed module](/wiki/Crossed_module "Crossed module"). This leads to the idea of using multiple groupoid objects in homotopy theory.
More generally, the EckmannβHilton argument is a special case of the use of the [interchange law](/wiki/Interchange_law "Interchange law") in the theory of (strict) double and multiple categories. A (strict) [double category](/wiki/Double_category "Double category") is a set, or class, equipped with two category structures, each of which is a morphism for the other structure. If the compositions in the two category structures are written \\circ, \\otimes then the interchange law reads
(a \\circ b) \\otimes (c \\circ d) \= (a \\otimes c) \\circ (b \\otimes d)
whenever both sides are defined. For an example of its use, and some discussion, see the paper of Higgins referenced below. The interchange law implies that a double category contains a family of abelian monoids.
The history in relation to [homotopy groups](/wiki/Homotopy_group "Homotopy group") is interesting. The workers in topology of the early 20th century were aware that the nonabelian [fundamental group](/wiki/Fundamental_group "Fundamental group") was of use in geometry and analysis; that abelian [homology groups](/wiki/Homology_%28mathematics%29 "Homology (mathematics)") could be defined in all dimensions; and that for a connected space, the first homology group was the fundamental group [made abelian](/wiki/Abelianisation "Abelianisation"). So there was a desire to generalise the nonabelian fundamental group to all dimensions.
In 1932, [Eduard Δech](/wiki/Eduard_%C4%8Cech "Eduard Δech") submitted a paper on higher [homotopy groups](/wiki/Homotopy_group "Homotopy group") to the International Congress of Mathematics at ZΓΌrich. However, [Pavel Alexandroff](/wiki/Pavel_Alexandrov "Pavel Alexandrov") and [Heinz Hopf](/wiki/Heinz_Hopf "Heinz Hopf") quickly proved these groups were abelian for n \> 1, and on these grounds persuaded Δech to withdraw his paper, so that only a small paragraph appeared in the *Proceedings*. It is said that [Witold Hurewicz](/wiki/Witold_Hurewicz "Witold Hurewicz") attended this conference, and his first work on higher homotopy groups appeared in 1935\.{{cn\|date\=May 2013}} Thus the dreams of the early topologists have long been regarded as a mirage.{{cn\|date\=May 2013}}
Cubical higher homotopy groupoids are constructed for filtered spaces in the book *[Nonabelian algebraic topology](http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~mas010/nonab-a-t.html)* cited below, which develops basic algebraic topology, including higher analogues to the [SeifertβVan Kampen theorem](/wiki/Seifert%E2%80%93Van_Kampen_theorem "SeifertβVan Kampen theorem"), without using [singular homology](/wiki/Singular_homology "Singular homology") or simplicial approximation.
|
[
"Remarks\n-------",
"If the operations are associative, each one defines the structure of a monoid on X, and the conditions above are equivalent to the more abstract condition that \\\\otimes is a monoid homomorphism (X,\\\\circ)\\\\times(X,\\\\circ)\\\\to(X,\\\\circ) (or vice versa). An even more abstract way of stating the theorem is: If X is a [monoid object](/wiki/Monoid_object \"Monoid object\") in the [category of monoids](/wiki/Category_of_monoids \"Category of monoids\"), then X is in fact a commutative monoid.",
"It is important that a similar argument does NOT give such a trivial result in the case of monoid objects in the categories of small categories or of groupoids. Instead the notion of group object in the category of [groupoids](/wiki/Groupoid \"Groupoid\") turns out to be equivalent to the notion of [crossed module](/wiki/Crossed_module \"Crossed module\"). This leads to the idea of using multiple groupoid objects in homotopy theory.",
"More generally, the EckmannβHilton argument is a special case of the use of the [interchange law](/wiki/Interchange_law \"Interchange law\") in the theory of (strict) double and multiple categories. A (strict) [double category](/wiki/Double_category \"Double category\") is a set, or class, equipped with two category structures, each of which is a morphism for the other structure. If the compositions in the two category structures are written \\\\circ, \\\\otimes then the interchange law reads \n (a \\\\circ b) \\\\otimes (c \\\\circ d) \\= (a \\\\otimes c) \\\\circ (b \\\\otimes d)\nwhenever both sides are defined. For an example of its use, and some discussion, see the paper of Higgins referenced below. The interchange law implies that a double category contains a family of abelian monoids.",
"The history in relation to [homotopy groups](/wiki/Homotopy_group \"Homotopy group\") is interesting. The workers in topology of the early 20th century were aware that the nonabelian [fundamental group](/wiki/Fundamental_group \"Fundamental group\") was of use in geometry and analysis; that abelian [homology groups](/wiki/Homology_%28mathematics%29 \"Homology (mathematics)\") could be defined in all dimensions; and that for a connected space, the first homology group was the fundamental group [made abelian](/wiki/Abelianisation \"Abelianisation\"). So there was a desire to generalise the nonabelian fundamental group to all dimensions.",
"In 1932, [Eduard Δech](/wiki/Eduard_%C4%8Cech \"Eduard Δech\") submitted a paper on higher [homotopy groups](/wiki/Homotopy_group \"Homotopy group\") to the International Congress of Mathematics at ZΓΌrich. However, [Pavel Alexandroff](/wiki/Pavel_Alexandrov \"Pavel Alexandrov\") and [Heinz Hopf](/wiki/Heinz_Hopf \"Heinz Hopf\") quickly proved these groups were abelian for n \\> 1, and on these grounds persuaded Δech to withdraw his paper, so that only a small paragraph appeared in the *Proceedings*. It is said that [Witold Hurewicz](/wiki/Witold_Hurewicz \"Witold Hurewicz\") attended this conference, and his first work on higher homotopy groups appeared in 1935\\.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2013}} Thus the dreams of the early topologists have long been regarded as a mirage.{{cn\\|date\\=May 2013}}",
"Cubical higher homotopy groupoids are constructed for filtered spaces in the book *[Nonabelian algebraic topology](http://pages.bangor.ac.uk/~mas010/nonab-a-t.html)* cited below, which develops basic algebraic topology, including higher analogues to the [SeifertβVan Kampen theorem](/wiki/Seifert%E2%80%93Van_Kampen_theorem \"SeifertβVan Kampen theorem\"), without using [singular homology](/wiki/Singular_homology \"Singular homology\") or simplicial approximation.",
""
] |
Impact
------
In practical terms, the impact of the group can be seen in what and who they published. Self\-subsidizedFunds came largely from JosΓ© Mario's father ("La verΓdica historia") and Ana MarΓa Simo, who was working as a journalist. and publishing with editorial independence, even after they were persuaded to ally themselves with the Writers Union ([UniΓ³n de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_de_Escritores_y_Artistas_de_Cuba "UniΓ³n de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba") \- UNEAC), El Puente introduced dozens of new voices to the literary scene, eventually publishing more than twenty writers and offering more than three dozen books of [poetry](/wiki/Poetry "Poetry"), [theater](/wiki/Theater "Theater"), [fiction](/wiki/Fiction "Fiction"), and [folklore](/wiki/Folklore "Folklore").
Writers who got their start with El Puente include prize\-winning poet and translator [Nancy MorejΓ³n](/wiki/Nancy_Morej%C3%B3n "Nancy MorejΓ³n"), playwright Gerardo Fulleda LeΓ³n, now director of the [Rita Montaner](/wiki/Rita_Montaner "Rita Montaner") theater company in Havana, folklorist [Miguel Barnet](/wiki/Miguel_Barnet "Miguel Barnet"), and playwright and lesbian activist [Ana MarΓa Simo](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Simo "Ana MarΓa Simo").
El Puente's long\-term impact as a movement is more difficult to gauge. Emerging from the euphoria of the revolution, they were seen by some, including themselves, as embodying the post\-revolution generation. Cuban\-Chilean poet [Alberto Baeza Flores](/wiki/Alberto_Baeza_Flores "Alberto Baeza Flores") in particular hailed them as a kind of unifying movement, gathering together "a generation of young writers, which was the first surge in tandem with the Cuban [revolution](/wiki/Revolution "Revolution"), and which is a brilliant and critical generation."Baeza Flores, Alberto (1980\-12\-11\), *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald "Miami Herald")*, in "La verΓdica historΓa".
They deliberately worked in opposition to the previous generations that they saw as excluding and elitist. They were especially determined to assert their intellectual freedom and claim all writing that reflected the gamut of Cuban society, even from writers that left the island. Anthologies, such as *La NovΓsima PoesΓa Cubana* (1962\) edited by Reinaldo Garcia Ramos and [Ana MarΓa Simo](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Simo "Ana MarΓa Simo"), in part expressed this literary ethos that had less to do with rigorous craft or a common style, than fresh points of view.
And while Simo's book of short stories, *Las FΓ‘bulas*, was one of the few ever reviewed, the books regularly found an audience, and some of the other arts communities were also enthusiastic about El Puente. Book covers were designed by young architecture students and visual artists, including Gilberto SeguΓ, David Bigelman and JosΓ© Lorenzo. A collaborative performance with "feeling" [composers](/wiki/Composers "Composers") including {{ill\|Marta ValdΓ©s\|de}}, [Cesar Portillo de la Luz](/wiki/Cesar_Portillo_de_la_Luz "Cesar Portillo de la Luz"), {{ill\|JosΓ© Antonio MΓ©ndez\|de}}, Ela O'Farril, and others at the El Gato Tuerto had fans lined up down the block. They had exchanges of ideas with [playwrights](/wiki/Playwrights "Playwrights") like Eugenio HernΓ‘ndez Espinosa, even though they weren't necessarily published by El Puente.Grant, MarΓa (2002\). "[Nancy MorejΓ³n: Sobre el Puente](http://www.lajiribilla.cu/2002/n78_noviembre/1843_78.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914210953/http://www.lajiribilla.cu/2002/n78\_noviembre/1843\_78\.html \|date\=2007\-09\-14 }}". La Jiribilla. Fragment of "En Los Sitios de Nancy MorejΓ³n", *Opus Habana*, La Habana, vol. VI, no. 1, 2002, pp. 18β19\. Retrieved 2006\-11\-25\. A young [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy "Philosophy") professor, Josefina SuΓ‘rez, also became central to the group, introducing some of her students, like the poet Liliam Moro.
Not everyone agreed that El Puente represented the post\-revolution generation, or that they served any useful purpose at all. At the time, critics such as JesΓΊs DΓaz, for instance, said they did not represent anything except a very small "dissolute" fringe, and charged not only that some of the writing was uneven, but that El Puente was "a politically and aesthetically erroneous phenomenon."DΓaz, JesΓΊs, "[Encuesta](http://archivodeconnie.annaillustration.com/?p=104) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707144140/http://archivodeconnie.annaillustration.com/?p\=104 \|date\=2011\-07\-07 }}". *La Gaceta de Cuba*, no. 50, AprilβSeptember 1966\. A criticism easier to divorce from politics was that JosΓ© Mario used the group, perhaps too frequently, to publish his own poems.
In more recent times, several contemporary researchers in Cuba seem to see its diversity as one of El Puente's greatest contributions.
|
[
"Impact\n------",
"In practical terms, the impact of the group can be seen in what and who they published. Self\\-subsidizedFunds came largely from JosΓ© Mario's father (\"La verΓdica historia\") and Ana MarΓa Simo, who was working as a journalist. and publishing with editorial independence, even after they were persuaded to ally themselves with the Writers Union ([UniΓ³n de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_de_Escritores_y_Artistas_de_Cuba \"UniΓ³n de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba\") \\- UNEAC), El Puente introduced dozens of new voices to the literary scene, eventually publishing more than twenty writers and offering more than three dozen books of [poetry](/wiki/Poetry \"Poetry\"), [theater](/wiki/Theater \"Theater\"), [fiction](/wiki/Fiction \"Fiction\"), and [folklore](/wiki/Folklore \"Folklore\").",
"Writers who got their start with El Puente include prize\\-winning poet and translator [Nancy MorejΓ³n](/wiki/Nancy_Morej%C3%B3n \"Nancy MorejΓ³n\"), playwright Gerardo Fulleda LeΓ³n, now director of the [Rita Montaner](/wiki/Rita_Montaner \"Rita Montaner\") theater company in Havana, folklorist [Miguel Barnet](/wiki/Miguel_Barnet \"Miguel Barnet\"), and playwright and lesbian activist [Ana MarΓa Simo](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Simo \"Ana MarΓa Simo\").",
"El Puente's long\\-term impact as a movement is more difficult to gauge. Emerging from the euphoria of the revolution, they were seen by some, including themselves, as embodying the post\\-revolution generation. Cuban\\-Chilean poet [Alberto Baeza Flores](/wiki/Alberto_Baeza_Flores \"Alberto Baeza Flores\") in particular hailed them as a kind of unifying movement, gathering together \"a generation of young writers, which was the first surge in tandem with the Cuban [revolution](/wiki/Revolution \"Revolution\"), and which is a brilliant and critical generation.\"Baeza Flores, Alberto (1980\\-12\\-11\\), *[Miami Herald](/wiki/Miami_Herald \"Miami Herald\")*, in \"La verΓdica historΓa\".",
"They deliberately worked in opposition to the previous generations that they saw as excluding and elitist. They were especially determined to assert their intellectual freedom and claim all writing that reflected the gamut of Cuban society, even from writers that left the island. Anthologies, such as *La NovΓsima PoesΓa Cubana* (1962\\) edited by Reinaldo Garcia Ramos and [Ana MarΓa Simo](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Simo \"Ana MarΓa Simo\"), in part expressed this literary ethos that had less to do with rigorous craft or a common style, than fresh points of view.",
"And while Simo's book of short stories, *Las FΓ‘bulas*, was one of the few ever reviewed, the books regularly found an audience, and some of the other arts communities were also enthusiastic about El Puente. Book covers were designed by young architecture students and visual artists, including Gilberto SeguΓ, David Bigelman and JosΓ© Lorenzo. A collaborative performance with \"feeling\" [composers](/wiki/Composers \"Composers\") including {{ill\\|Marta ValdΓ©s\\|de}}, [Cesar Portillo de la Luz](/wiki/Cesar_Portillo_de_la_Luz \"Cesar Portillo de la Luz\"), {{ill\\|JosΓ© Antonio MΓ©ndez\\|de}}, Ela O'Farril, and others at the El Gato Tuerto had fans lined up down the block. They had exchanges of ideas with [playwrights](/wiki/Playwrights \"Playwrights\") like Eugenio HernΓ‘ndez Espinosa, even though they weren't necessarily published by El Puente.Grant, MarΓa (2002\\). \"[Nancy MorejΓ³n: Sobre el Puente](http://www.lajiribilla.cu/2002/n78_noviembre/1843_78.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914210953/http://www.lajiribilla.cu/2002/n78\\_noviembre/1843\\_78\\.html \\|date\\=2007\\-09\\-14 }}\". La Jiribilla. Fragment of \"En Los Sitios de Nancy MorejΓ³n\", *Opus Habana*, La Habana, vol. VI, no. 1, 2002, pp. 18β19\\. Retrieved 2006\\-11\\-25\\. A young [philosophy](/wiki/Philosophy \"Philosophy\") professor, Josefina SuΓ‘rez, also became central to the group, introducing some of her students, like the poet Liliam Moro.",
"Not everyone agreed that El Puente represented the post\\-revolution generation, or that they served any useful purpose at all. At the time, critics such as JesΓΊs DΓaz, for instance, said they did not represent anything except a very small \"dissolute\" fringe, and charged not only that some of the writing was uneven, but that El Puente was \"a politically and aesthetically erroneous phenomenon.\"DΓaz, JesΓΊs, \"[Encuesta](http://archivodeconnie.annaillustration.com/?p=104) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707144140/http://archivodeconnie.annaillustration.com/?p\\=104 \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-07 }}\". *La Gaceta de Cuba*, no. 50, AprilβSeptember 1966\\. A criticism easier to divorce from politics was that JosΓ© Mario used the group, perhaps too frequently, to publish his own poems.",
"In more recent times, several contemporary researchers in Cuba seem to see its diversity as one of El Puente's greatest contributions.",
""
] |
Career
------
Morley's first senior management position was as CEO of Barclays Bank (Suisse) SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva "Geneva") from 2002\-2007\. He had spent the previous 8 years at [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch "Merrill Lynch") in London where he was Head of the UK Private Client business and MD of the Ultra High Net Worth business in Europe, Middle East and Africa. He spent a year as MD of [Singer and Friedlander](/wiki/Kaupthing_Singer_%26_Friedlander "Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander") Asset Investment Management before being appointed as CEO of Coutts in May 2009\.
The position of CEO, originally MD, of Coutts \& Co \- which traces its history back to 1692, was originally created for Sir [David Money\-Coutts](/wiki/David_Money-Coutts "David Money-Coutts") who held the post from 1970\-1986\. Previous holders of the position have been: Julian Robarts (1986\-1991\); Ian Farnsworth (1992\-1995\); Hershel Post (1995\-2000\); Andrew Fisher (2000\-2002\); Gordon Pell (2002\-2005\); and Sarah Deaves (2005\-2009\).
In 2009 he joined the Board of Adam \& Company, a private bank headquartered in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"), Scotland and in 2010 he was appointed as Chairman of the Royal Bank of Scotland International business, headquartered in Jersey.
In 2014 he was appointed to the Board of Walpole British Luxury,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thewalpole.co.uk/Michael%20Morley%20board\|title\=Walpole welcomes Coutts CEO Michael Morley to the Board \- Walpole\|publisher\=\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-02\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306193256/http://www.thewalpole.co.uk/Michael%20Morley%20board\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-06\|url\-status\=dead}} a community dedicated to the promotion and development of British Luxury brands around the world.
In 2014 at the Sanya Forum in Huinan, China he was appointed to the China Advisory Council of the Judge Business School, University of Cambridge.{{cite web\|title\=Cambridge Judge underlines China focus at Sanya Forum\|url\=http://insight.jbs.cam.ac.uk/2014/cambridge\-judge\-underlines\-china\-focus\-at\-sanya\-forum/\|website\=University of Cambridge\|publisher\=University of Cambridge}}
In 2015 he was appointed to the Board of the Wealth Management Association which represents the investment community in the UK.
He is an international fellow of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award and a Trustee and Director of the Forces in Mind Trust, a charity dedicated to enabling ex\-service personnel and their families to lead successful civilian lives.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Morley's first senior management position was as CEO of Barclays Bank (Suisse) SA in [Geneva](/wiki/Geneva \"Geneva\") from 2002\\-2007\\. He had spent the previous 8 years at [Merrill Lynch](/wiki/Merrill_Lynch \"Merrill Lynch\") in London where he was Head of the UK Private Client business and MD of the Ultra High Net Worth business in Europe, Middle East and Africa. He spent a year as MD of [Singer and Friedlander](/wiki/Kaupthing_Singer_%26_Friedlander \"Kaupthing Singer & Friedlander\") Asset Investment Management before being appointed as CEO of Coutts in May 2009\\.",
"The position of CEO, originally MD, of Coutts \\& Co \\- which traces its history back to 1692, was originally created for Sir [David Money\\-Coutts](/wiki/David_Money-Coutts \"David Money-Coutts\") who held the post from 1970\\-1986\\. Previous holders of the position have been: Julian Robarts (1986\\-1991\\); Ian Farnsworth (1992\\-1995\\); Hershel Post (1995\\-2000\\); Andrew Fisher (2000\\-2002\\); Gordon Pell (2002\\-2005\\); and Sarah Deaves (2005\\-2009\\).",
"In 2009 he joined the Board of Adam \\& Company, a private bank headquartered in [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), Scotland and in 2010 he was appointed as Chairman of the Royal Bank of Scotland International business, headquartered in Jersey.",
"In 2014 he was appointed to the Board of Walpole British Luxury,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thewalpole.co.uk/Michael%20Morley%20board\\|title\\=Walpole welcomes Coutts CEO Michael Morley to the Board \\- Walpole\\|publisher\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-02\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306193256/http://www.thewalpole.co.uk/Michael%20Morley%20board\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-06\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} a community dedicated to the promotion and development of British Luxury brands around the world.",
"In 2014 at the Sanya Forum in Huinan, China he was appointed to the China Advisory Council of the Judge Business School, University of Cambridge.{{cite web\\|title\\=Cambridge Judge underlines China focus at Sanya Forum\\|url\\=http://insight.jbs.cam.ac.uk/2014/cambridge\\-judge\\-underlines\\-china\\-focus\\-at\\-sanya\\-forum/\\|website\\=University of Cambridge\\|publisher\\=University of Cambridge}}",
"In 2015 he was appointed to the Board of the Wealth Management Association which represents the investment community in the UK.",
"He is an international fellow of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award and a Trustee and Director of the Forces in Mind Trust, a charity dedicated to enabling ex\\-service personnel and their families to lead successful civilian lives.",
""
] |
History
-------
Learn.com was founded by Jim Riley and [Patrick Toomey](/wiki/Patrick_Toomey "Patrick Toomey") in January 1999 as a website that allowed anyone to create and publish [e\-learning](/wiki/E-learning "E-learning") courses or e\-learning sites called LearnCenters. Learn.com became an early example of a website containing [open content](/wiki/Open_content "Open content").
In September 2000, Learn.com introduced the first commercial version of its LearnCenter LMS, with the assistance of co\-founder JW Ray.
In June 2001, Learn.com client [ECOT](/wiki/ECOT "ECOT") became the first electronic charter school in the nation to graduate students.Lager, B: "The Kids that ECOT Taught", page 250\. EOS, 2002
In September 2002, Learn.com acquired Learn2 Corporation, a provider of e\-learning content.
In June 2004, Learn.com acquired Mentor Communications, Inc.
In December 2005, Learn.com introduced LearnCenter X, the [HCM](/wiki/Human_capital_management "Human capital management") industry's first integrated [Talent management](/wiki/Talent_management "Talent management") suite.
In September 2007, Learn.com introduced its WebRoom [web conferencing](/wiki/Web_conferencing "Web conferencing") product.
In June 2009, Learn.com introduced its Learn.com Personal Edition (LPE), a website that allows anyone to take courses and learn/improve skills or create and publish their own courses.
In October 2010, Learn.com was acquired by [Taleo Corporation](/wiki/Taleo_Corporation "Taleo Corporation") (NASDAQ: TLEO), a leader in the on\-demand Talent Management market. In April 2012, Taleo was in turn acquired by Oracle Corporation and Learn.com technology became the foundation for the Oracle Learn Cloud product.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Learn.com was founded by Jim Riley and [Patrick Toomey](/wiki/Patrick_Toomey \"Patrick Toomey\") in January 1999 as a website that allowed anyone to create and publish [e\\-learning](/wiki/E-learning \"E-learning\") courses or e\\-learning sites called LearnCenters. Learn.com became an early example of a website containing [open content](/wiki/Open_content \"Open content\").",
"In September 2000, Learn.com introduced the first commercial version of its LearnCenter LMS, with the assistance of co\\-founder JW Ray.",
"In June 2001, Learn.com client [ECOT](/wiki/ECOT \"ECOT\") became the first electronic charter school in the nation to graduate students.Lager, B: \"The Kids that ECOT Taught\", page 250\\. EOS, 2002",
"In September 2002, Learn.com acquired Learn2 Corporation, a provider of e\\-learning content.",
"In June 2004, Learn.com acquired Mentor Communications, Inc.",
"In December 2005, Learn.com introduced LearnCenter X, the [HCM](/wiki/Human_capital_management \"Human capital management\") industry's first integrated [Talent management](/wiki/Talent_management \"Talent management\") suite.",
"In September 2007, Learn.com introduced its WebRoom [web conferencing](/wiki/Web_conferencing \"Web conferencing\") product.",
"In June 2009, Learn.com introduced its Learn.com Personal Edition (LPE), a website that allows anyone to take courses and learn/improve skills or create and publish their own courses.",
"In October 2010, Learn.com was acquired by [Taleo Corporation](/wiki/Taleo_Corporation \"Taleo Corporation\") (NASDAQ: TLEO), a leader in the on\\-demand Talent Management market. In April 2012, Taleo was in turn acquired by Oracle Corporation and Learn.com technology became the foundation for the Oracle Learn Cloud product.",
""
] |
Marian doctrines
----------------
[Will Durant](/wiki/Will_Durant "Will Durant") says that "\[i]t is remarkable, how much of Roman Catholic tradition and theory survived in Calvin's theology." Calvin's genius was not in creating new ideas but in developing existing thought to its logical conclusion.Durant 465 He borrowed from [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther "Martin Luther"), [Huldrych Zwingli](/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli "Huldrych Zwingli"), [Bucer](/wiki/Bucer "Bucer"), "but most of these Protestant doctrines had come down, in milder form, in Catholic tradition." Calvin gave them stronger interpretation and rejected the Catholic humanism.
The criticism of Calvin on the Catholic Church in general and in regard to Mary in particular, is severe. As in the conflicts with Luther and Zwingli, equally severe Catholic counter\-attacks led later theologians to the observation, that Mary was used by both sides to define theological positions and identity.
To Calvin, Mary is an idol in the Roman Church, and she diminishes the centrality and importance of Jesus. Regarding Marian [relics](/wiki/Relics "Relics"), Calvin commented ironically that since the Roman Catholics believed in the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary "Assumption of Mary"), they have been deprived "of all pretext for manufacturing any relics of her remains, which otherwise might have been sufficiently abundant to fill a whole churchyard."{{Cite book \|last\=Calvin \|first\=Jean \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6ecCAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA248 \|title\=A treatise on relics, newly tr. With an introductory dissertation \[by W.S. KrasiΕski] on the miraculous images, as well as other superstitions of the Roman Catholic and Russo\-Greek Churches \|date\=1870 \|pages\=248 \|language\=en}}
### Perpetual virginity
Calvin argues that in {{bibleverse\|\|Matthew\|1:25\|KJV}} ("\[Joseph] knew her \[Mary] not till she had brought forth her firstborn son") the term "firstborn" and the conjunction "till" do not contradict the doctrine of perpetual virginity, but Matthew does not tell us what happened to Mary afterwards; he wrote: "no just and well\-grounded inference can be drawn from these words of the Evangelist (Matthew), as to what took place after the birth of Christ."{{cite book \|author\=Calvin \|first\=Jean \|title\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Commentary on Matthew 1:25 \|quote\=Let us rest satisfied with this, that no just and well\-grounded inference can be drawn from these words of the Evangelist, as to what took place after the birth of Christ. He is called first\-born; but it is for the sole purpose of informing us that he was born of a virgin. It is said that Joseph ''knew her not till she had brought forth her first\-born son'': but this is limited to that very time. What took place afterwards, the historian does not inform us. Such is well known to have been the practice of the inspired writers. Certainly, no man will ever raise a question on this subject, except from curiosity; and no man will obstinately keep up the argument, except from an extreme fondness for disputation. \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07 \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\.ix.xv.html\#ix.xv\-p72\.1}}
At the same time, Calvin argues that the claims that Mary took a vow of perpetual virginity in {{bibleverse\|\|Luke\|1:34\|KJV}} ("How shall this be, since I know not a man?") is "unfounded and altogether absurd," and moreover he says that, had she taken such a vow, "\[s]he would, in that case, have committed treachery by allowing herself to be united to a husband, and would have poured contempt on the holy covenant of marriage...."{{cite book \|author\=Calvin \|first\=Jean \|title\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Commentary on Luke 1:34 \|quote\=The conjecture which some have drawn from these words \['How shall this be, since I know not a man?'], that she had formed a vow of perpetual virginity, is unfounded and altogether absurd. She would, in that case, have committed treachery by allowing herself to be united to a husband, and would have poured contempt on the holy covenant of marriage; which could not have been done without mockery of God. Although the Papists have exercised barbarous tyranny on this subject, yet they have never proceeded so far as to allow the wife to form a vow of continence at her own pleasure. Besides, it is an idle and unfounded supposition that a monastic life existed among the Jews. \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07 \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\.ix.vii.html\#ix.vii\-p6\.1}} Although Algermissen suggests that Calvin believed that Mary in this verse looked into the future and recognized, that in light of this special grace, any contact with a man would be excluded for her,Algermissen, p. 641\. this interpretation takes an objection Calvin is refuting in his commentary and makes it his own position.{{cite book \|author\=Calvin \|first\=Jean \|title\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Commentary on Luke 1:34 \|quote\=We must reply, however, to another objection, that the virgin refers to the future, and so declares that she will have no intercourse with a man. \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07 \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\.ix.vii.html\#ix.vii\-p6\.1}}
### Mother of God
Calvin believed that Mary was, theologically speaking, rightly qualified as "the mother of God". In his letter of 27 September 1552 to the French Church in London, where some had denied this, he answered: "there may have been somewhat of ignorance in their reproving the way of speaking of the Virgin Mary as the mother of God, and together with ignorance, it is possible that there may have been rashness and too much forwardness, for, as the old proverb says, The most ignorant are ever the boldest."
But in the same letter Calvin rejected the use of "mother of God" as common title which could be used to designate Mary in any sermons. He wrote: "I cannot think such language either right, or becoming, or suitable. ... To call the Virgin Mary the mother of God can only serve to confirm the ignorant in their superstitions."{{Cite book \|last\=Calvin \|first\=John \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5PNJAwAAQBAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA362 \|title\=Letters of John Calvin \|date\=2007\-02\-01 \|publisher\=Wipf and Stock Publishers \|isbn\=978\-1\-55635\-246\-1 \|language\=en}}
Calvin's view on this subject can also be found in Calvin's commentary on {{bibleverse\|\|Luke\|1:43}} for support. In this verse, in which [Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_%28Biblical_person%29 "Elizabeth (Biblical person)") greeted Mary as "mother of my Lord," Calvin takes note of the divinity often associated with the title Lord, saying: "\[Elizabeth] calls Mary *the mother of her Lord*. This denotes a unity of person in the two natures of Christ; as if she had said, that he who was begotten a mortal man in the womb of Mary is, at the same time, the eternal God.... This name *Lord* strictly belongs to the Son of God 'manifested in the flesh,' (1 Timothy 3:16,) who has received from the Father all power, and has been appointed the highest ruler of heaven and earth, that by his agency God may govern all things."{{cite book \|author\=Calvin \|first\=John \|title\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \|volume\=1 \|chapter\=Commentary on Luke 1:43 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07 \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\.ix.viii.html\#ix.viii\-p22}} Proponents of this view of Calvin's mariology point out that Calvin's objection to the title "mother of God" had to do with the "superstition" of the "ignorant," presumably a reference to Marian veneration. He does not state that Mary cannot in any sense be called the "mother of God."
Opponents of this view state that Calvin's comments on Mary as the mother of Elizabeth's Lord may be understood to mean that, in Calvin's view, Mary was mother of the Lord only while he was on earth. Proponents of this view have cited Calvin's commentary on {{bibleverse\|\|John\|19:26}}, from which it has been argued that Calvin considered the mother\-son relationship between Mary and Jesus to have ceased at Jesus' death. In this scheme, Christ, as he was dying on the cross, appointed his disciple John to take his place as Mary's son, so that he himself might henceforth take his rightful place at the Father's right hand in heaven. Upon Christ's words to his mother concerning John, "Woman, behold thy son!" Calvin comments, "Some think that He does not call her 'mother' but only 'woman' so as not to inflict a deeper wound of sorrow on her heart. I do not reject this; but another conjecture is no less probable, that Christ wanted to show that now that He has completed the course of human life, He puts off the condition in which He has lived and enters into the heavenly kingdom where He will rule over angels and men. For we know that Christ's custom always was to recall believers from looking at the flesh. This was especially necessary at His death."{{cite book\| author\=Calvin \|title\=Commentary on John \|volume\=2 \|chapter\=John 19:26 \|chapter\-url\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom35\.ix.vi.html\#ix.viii\-p22 \|access\-date\=2009\-01\-07}}
### Immaculate Conception
John Calvin believed in the doctrine of original sin as well as the doctrine of [headship](/wiki/Headship "Headship"), found in [Romans 5:12\-21](http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%205:12-21&version=47). Considering he believed in both of these doctrines most reformed theologians agree that John Calvin did not accept the doctrine of [Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception "Immaculate Conception"), considering it conflicted with the aforementioned doctrines and with [Romans 3:23](http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%203:23;&version=47;) that all have sinned.John Calvin, Works, Serm. de la proph. de Christ: op 35, p. 686\.
Taking into account Calvin's belief in headship, this means that Mary could have original sin and not pass it on to Jesus, considering the male is the one who passes on original sin in the doctrine of headship. Since Jesus was conceived by God himself and not by a human man, original sin was not passed on. Said Calvin: "We condemn those who affirm that a man once justified cannot sin. ... As to the special privilege of the Virgin Mary, when they produce the celestial diploma we shall believe what they say."John Calvin, Antidote to the Canons of the Council of Trent, Canon 23\.
### Salvation
Calvin's [soteriology](/wiki/Soteriology "Soteriology") was grounded in the belief that Christ alone is sufficient for salvation. He regarded any opposition to this doctrine as "pure defiance",Pure defiance and consequently denied any notion of Mary as a participant in the mystery of salvation. He rejected the Roman Catholic belief that Mary acts as a mediator between man and God as idolatry, since only Christ can fulfill this role.Quant a L'intercession de la vierge Marie et des Saincts trespasses, revenez tousiours a ce principe, que cw n'est pas point a nous faire des Advocats in Paradies, mais a dieu, lequel a ordinne Jesus Christ un seul piur tous, Ep 1438, Vol 14, p. 21\. Calvin forbade prayers and supplications to Mary for the same reason, further arguing that praying to the dead is not a practice supported by Scripture.Algermissen 1988, p. 640\.
Calvin held that God's salvation or damnation of an individual seals his fate eternally,Durant, p. 462\. rejecting the concept of eventual salvation through suffering in [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory "Purgatory"). He regarded the Catholic belief that Mary can intercede on behalf of the dead to be "nothing but blasphemy" ("exsecrabilis blasphemia"), on the basis that only God has the authority to determine the amount of grace given to each individual in his divine will. He therefore did not condone praying to Mary for the salvation of dead sinners, as their eternal fate was already sealed long before creation.
### Fullness of grace
The fullness of grace is therefore rejected as well, since the *plenitude de grace* is Christ only. On this point he coincides with Roman Catholic teaching, which sees only in Christ absolute fullness of grace, while the graces of Mary are seen as a gift of God attributed to her.She indeed is the Virgin Mary, Mother of God, Theotokos!Algermissen 1988, p. 641\. On the other hand, Calvin called Mary a treasure of grace,thre sorie de grace because, Mary preserved in her heart not only for her own use but for the use of all things entrusted to her. She preserved things in her heart, not just for herself, but for all of us. "She has preserved in her heart the teachings which open the heavenly gates and lead to Christ".John Calvin, Calvini Opera Harmonie Evangelique, Ser IX, op 46, p. 309\. God wanted to determine the time in which they would be revealed.Algermissen 1988, p. 642\.
### Advocate
Calvin considered himself a real follower of Mary, because he freed her from what he saw as undeserved honour. Calvin stated that Mary cannot be the advocate of the faithful since she needs God's grace as much as any other human beingJohn Calvin, Calvini Opera Serm, de la proph, de Christ: op 35, p. 686\.
|
[
"Marian doctrines\n----------------",
"[Will Durant](/wiki/Will_Durant \"Will Durant\") says that \"\\[i]t is remarkable, how much of Roman Catholic tradition and theory survived in Calvin's theology.\" Calvin's genius was not in creating new ideas but in developing existing thought to its logical conclusion.Durant 465 He borrowed from [Martin Luther](/wiki/Martin_Luther \"Martin Luther\"), [Huldrych Zwingli](/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli \"Huldrych Zwingli\"), [Bucer](/wiki/Bucer \"Bucer\"), \"but most of these Protestant doctrines had come down, in milder form, in Catholic tradition.\" Calvin gave them stronger interpretation and rejected the Catholic humanism.",
"The criticism of Calvin on the Catholic Church in general and in regard to Mary in particular, is severe. As in the conflicts with Luther and Zwingli, equally severe Catholic counter\\-attacks led later theologians to the observation, that Mary was used by both sides to define theological positions and identity.",
"To Calvin, Mary is an idol in the Roman Church, and she diminishes the centrality and importance of Jesus. Regarding Marian [relics](/wiki/Relics \"Relics\"), Calvin commented ironically that since the Roman Catholics believed in the [Assumption of Mary](/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary \"Assumption of Mary\"), they have been deprived \"of all pretext for manufacturing any relics of her remains, which otherwise might have been sufficiently abundant to fill a whole churchyard.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Calvin \\|first\\=Jean \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6ecCAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA248 \\|title\\=A treatise on relics, newly tr. With an introductory dissertation \\[by W.S. KrasiΕski] on the miraculous images, as well as other superstitions of the Roman Catholic and Russo\\-Greek Churches \\|date\\=1870 \\|pages\\=248 \\|language\\=en}}",
"### Perpetual virginity",
"Calvin argues that in {{bibleverse\\|\\|Matthew\\|1:25\\|KJV}} (\"\\[Joseph] knew her \\[Mary] not till she had brought forth her firstborn son\") the term \"firstborn\" and the conjunction \"till\" do not contradict the doctrine of perpetual virginity, but Matthew does not tell us what happened to Mary afterwards; he wrote: \"no just and well\\-grounded inference can be drawn from these words of the Evangelist (Matthew), as to what took place after the birth of Christ.\"{{cite book \\|author\\=Calvin \\|first\\=Jean \\|title\\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Commentary on Matthew 1:25 \\|quote\\=Let us rest satisfied with this, that no just and well\\-grounded inference can be drawn from these words of the Evangelist, as to what took place after the birth of Christ. He is called first\\-born; but it is for the sole purpose of informing us that he was born of a virgin. It is said that Joseph ''knew her not till she had brought forth her first\\-born son'': but this is limited to that very time. What took place afterwards, the historian does not inform us. Such is well known to have been the practice of the inspired writers. Certainly, no man will ever raise a question on this subject, except from curiosity; and no man will obstinately keep up the argument, except from an extreme fondness for disputation. \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\\.ix.xv.html\\#ix.xv\\-p72\\.1}}",
"At the same time, Calvin argues that the claims that Mary took a vow of perpetual virginity in {{bibleverse\\|\\|Luke\\|1:34\\|KJV}} (\"How shall this be, since I know not a man?\") is \"unfounded and altogether absurd,\" and moreover he says that, had she taken such a vow, \"\\[s]he would, in that case, have committed treachery by allowing herself to be united to a husband, and would have poured contempt on the holy covenant of marriage....\"{{cite book \\|author\\=Calvin \\|first\\=Jean \\|title\\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Commentary on Luke 1:34 \\|quote\\=The conjecture which some have drawn from these words \\['How shall this be, since I know not a man?'], that she had formed a vow of perpetual virginity, is unfounded and altogether absurd. She would, in that case, have committed treachery by allowing herself to be united to a husband, and would have poured contempt on the holy covenant of marriage; which could not have been done without mockery of God. Although the Papists have exercised barbarous tyranny on this subject, yet they have never proceeded so far as to allow the wife to form a vow of continence at her own pleasure. Besides, it is an idle and unfounded supposition that a monastic life existed among the Jews. \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\\.ix.vii.html\\#ix.vii\\-p6\\.1}} Although Algermissen suggests that Calvin believed that Mary in this verse looked into the future and recognized, that in light of this special grace, any contact with a man would be excluded for her,Algermissen, p. 641\\. this interpretation takes an objection Calvin is refuting in his commentary and makes it his own position.{{cite book \\|author\\=Calvin \\|first\\=Jean \\|title\\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Commentary on Luke 1:34 \\|quote\\=We must reply, however, to another objection, that the virgin refers to the future, and so declares that she will have no intercourse with a man. \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\\.ix.vii.html\\#ix.vii\\-p6\\.1}}",
"### Mother of God",
"Calvin believed that Mary was, theologically speaking, rightly qualified as \"the mother of God\". In his letter of 27 September 1552 to the French Church in London, where some had denied this, he answered: \"there may have been somewhat of ignorance in their reproving the way of speaking of the Virgin Mary as the mother of God, and together with ignorance, it is possible that there may have been rashness and too much forwardness, for, as the old proverb says, The most ignorant are ever the boldest.\"",
"But in the same letter Calvin rejected the use of \"mother of God\" as common title which could be used to designate Mary in any sermons. He wrote: \"I cannot think such language either right, or becoming, or suitable. ... To call the Virgin Mary the mother of God can only serve to confirm the ignorant in their superstitions.\"{{Cite book \\|last\\=Calvin \\|first\\=John \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5PNJAwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA362 \\|title\\=Letters of John Calvin \\|date\\=2007\\-02\\-01 \\|publisher\\=Wipf and Stock Publishers \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55635\\-246\\-1 \\|language\\=en}}",
"Calvin's view on this subject can also be found in Calvin's commentary on {{bibleverse\\|\\|Luke\\|1:43}} for support. In this verse, in which [Elizabeth](/wiki/Elizabeth_%28Biblical_person%29 \"Elizabeth (Biblical person)\") greeted Mary as \"mother of my Lord,\" Calvin takes note of the divinity often associated with the title Lord, saying: \"\\[Elizabeth] calls Mary *the mother of her Lord*. This denotes a unity of person in the two natures of Christ; as if she had said, that he who was begotten a mortal man in the womb of Mary is, at the same time, the eternal God.... This name *Lord* strictly belongs to the Son of God 'manifested in the flesh,' (1 Timothy 3:16,) who has received from the Father all power, and has been appointed the highest ruler of heaven and earth, that by his agency God may govern all things.\"{{cite book \\|author\\=Calvin \\|first\\=John \\|title\\=Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\=Commentary on Luke 1:43 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom31\\.ix.viii.html\\#ix.viii\\-p22}} Proponents of this view of Calvin's mariology point out that Calvin's objection to the title \"mother of God\" had to do with the \"superstition\" of the \"ignorant,\" presumably a reference to Marian veneration. He does not state that Mary cannot in any sense be called the \"mother of God.\"",
"Opponents of this view state that Calvin's comments on Mary as the mother of Elizabeth's Lord may be understood to mean that, in Calvin's view, Mary was mother of the Lord only while he was on earth. Proponents of this view have cited Calvin's commentary on {{bibleverse\\|\\|John\\|19:26}}, from which it has been argued that Calvin considered the mother\\-son relationship between Mary and Jesus to have ceased at Jesus' death. In this scheme, Christ, as he was dying on the cross, appointed his disciple John to take his place as Mary's son, so that he himself might henceforth take his rightful place at the Father's right hand in heaven. Upon Christ's words to his mother concerning John, \"Woman, behold thy son!\" Calvin comments, \"Some think that He does not call her 'mother' but only 'woman' so as not to inflict a deeper wound of sorrow on her heart. I do not reject this; but another conjecture is no less probable, that Christ wanted to show that now that He has completed the course of human life, He puts off the condition in which He has lived and enters into the heavenly kingdom where He will rule over angels and men. For we know that Christ's custom always was to recall believers from looking at the flesh. This was especially necessary at His death.\"{{cite book\\| author\\=Calvin \\|title\\=Commentary on John \\|volume\\=2 \\|chapter\\=John 19:26 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom35\\.ix.vi.html\\#ix.viii\\-p22 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-01\\-07}}",
"### Immaculate Conception",
"John Calvin believed in the doctrine of original sin as well as the doctrine of [headship](/wiki/Headship \"Headship\"), found in [Romans 5:12\\-21](http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%205:12-21&version=47). Considering he believed in both of these doctrines most reformed theologians agree that John Calvin did not accept the doctrine of [Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception \"Immaculate Conception\"), considering it conflicted with the aforementioned doctrines and with [Romans 3:23](http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%203:23;&version=47;) that all have sinned.John Calvin, Works, Serm. de la proph. de Christ: op 35, p. 686\\.",
"Taking into account Calvin's belief in headship, this means that Mary could have original sin and not pass it on to Jesus, considering the male is the one who passes on original sin in the doctrine of headship. Since Jesus was conceived by God himself and not by a human man, original sin was not passed on. Said Calvin: \"We condemn those who affirm that a man once justified cannot sin. ... As to the special privilege of the Virgin Mary, when they produce the celestial diploma we shall believe what they say.\"John Calvin, Antidote to the Canons of the Council of Trent, Canon 23\\.",
"### Salvation",
"Calvin's [soteriology](/wiki/Soteriology \"Soteriology\") was grounded in the belief that Christ alone is sufficient for salvation. He regarded any opposition to this doctrine as \"pure defiance\",Pure defiance and consequently denied any notion of Mary as a participant in the mystery of salvation. He rejected the Roman Catholic belief that Mary acts as a mediator between man and God as idolatry, since only Christ can fulfill this role.Quant a L'intercession de la vierge Marie et des Saincts trespasses, revenez tousiours a ce principe, que cw n'est pas point a nous faire des Advocats in Paradies, mais a dieu, lequel a ordinne Jesus Christ un seul piur tous, Ep 1438, Vol 14, p. 21\\. Calvin forbade prayers and supplications to Mary for the same reason, further arguing that praying to the dead is not a practice supported by Scripture.Algermissen 1988, p. 640\\.",
"Calvin held that God's salvation or damnation of an individual seals his fate eternally,Durant, p. 462\\. rejecting the concept of eventual salvation through suffering in [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory \"Purgatory\"). He regarded the Catholic belief that Mary can intercede on behalf of the dead to be \"nothing but blasphemy\" (\"exsecrabilis blasphemia\"), on the basis that only God has the authority to determine the amount of grace given to each individual in his divine will. He therefore did not condone praying to Mary for the salvation of dead sinners, as their eternal fate was already sealed long before creation.",
"### Fullness of grace",
"The fullness of grace is therefore rejected as well, since the *plenitude de grace* is Christ only. On this point he coincides with Roman Catholic teaching, which sees only in Christ absolute fullness of grace, while the graces of Mary are seen as a gift of God attributed to her.She indeed is the Virgin Mary, Mother of God, Theotokos!Algermissen 1988, p. 641\\. On the other hand, Calvin called Mary a treasure of grace,thre sorie de grace because, Mary preserved in her heart not only for her own use but for the use of all things entrusted to her. She preserved things in her heart, not just for herself, but for all of us. \"She has preserved in her heart the teachings which open the heavenly gates and lead to Christ\".John Calvin, Calvini Opera Harmonie Evangelique, Ser IX, op 46, p. 309\\. God wanted to determine the time in which they would be revealed.Algermissen 1988, p. 642\\.",
"### Advocate",
"Calvin considered himself a real follower of Mary, because he freed her from what he saw as undeserved honour. Calvin stated that Mary cannot be the advocate of the faithful since she needs God's grace as much as any other human beingJohn Calvin, Calvini Opera Serm, de la proph, de Christ: op 35, p. 686\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 16th century
After the [Croatian Parliament](/wiki/Croatian_Parliament "Croatian Parliament") elected the [Austrian Habsburgs](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") as [kings of Croatia](/wiki/Kings_of_Croatia "Kings of Croatia") in 1526,{{sfn\|Fine\|1994\|p\=595}} [Ferdinand I](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor") promised the Croatian Parliament that he would give them 200 cavalrymen and 200 infantrymen, and that he would pay for another 800 cavalrymen who would be commanded by the Croatians. Soon the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") founded another captaincy in [BihaΔ](/wiki/Biha%C4%87 "BihaΔ"). In the short term, all this was ineffective, as in 1529 the Ottomans swept through the area, captured [Buda](/wiki/Buda "Buda") and besieged [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), wreaking havoc throughout the Croatian border areas.
The Habsburgs aimed at holding the Ottoman forces on Hungarian and Croatian territory before they could reach Austria, but did not have a clear defense plan. In the 1530s, significant reinforcements were sent only to the most important forts on the border with the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn\|PΓ‘lffy\|2012\|p\=38}} In the 1540s and following the Ottoman campaign of 1552, several conferences were held in which a new defense strategy was adopted. Separate defense zones were to be established in parts of Hungary and Croatia around the border forts. Austrian and Bohemian provinces were obligated to help finance this new system, beginning in the 1550s.{{sfn\|PΓ‘lffy\|2012\|pp\=40β41}} At the end of the 1560s, the new border system consisted of around 100β120 forts and extended from the [Adriatic Sea](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea "Adriatic Sea") to [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania "Transylvania"). It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies ({{lang\|de\|Grenzgeneralat}}):
1. The Croatian and Adriatic Border Fortress Captain Generalcy ({{lang\|de\|kroatische und Meergrenze}}), centred initially in [BihaΔ](/wiki/Biha%C4%87 "BihaΔ"), and from 1579 in [Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac "Karlovac");
2. The Slavonian or Wendish Captain Generalcy ({{lang\|de\|slawonische/windische Grenze}}), centred in [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin "VaraΕΎdin"), after 1578 known as the Wendish\-BajcsavΓ‘r Captain Generalcy;
3. The Kanizsa Captain Generalcy ({{lang\|de\|kanischarische Grenze}}), centred in [Kanizsa](/wiki/Nagykanizsa "Nagykanizsa"). Renamed the Captain Generalcy across from Kanizsa ({{lang\|de\|gegenΓΌber von Kanischa liegende Grenze}}) following the loss of Kanizsa in 1600;
4. The GyΓΆr Captain Generalcy ({{lang\|de\|Raaber/raaberische Grenze}}), protecting Vienna;
5. The Captain Generalcy Defending the Mining Towns ({{lang\|de\|bergstΓ€dtische Grenze}}), centred in [LΓ©va](/wiki/L%C3%A9va "LΓ©va"), and in [ΓrsekΓΊjvΓ‘r](/wiki/%C3%89rsek%C3%BAjv%C3%A1r "ΓrsekΓΊjvΓ‘r") after 1589;
6. The [Upper Hungary](/wiki/Upper_Hungary "Upper Hungary") or Kassa Captain Generalcy ({{lang\|de\|oberungarische Grenze}}), centred in [Kassa](/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice "KoΕ‘ice").{{sfn\|PΓ‘lffy\|2012\|pp\=43β44}}
In addition, there were four District Captain Generalcies ({{lang\|de\|Kreisgeneralat}}).{{sfn\|PΓ‘lffy\|2012\|pp\=45β46}}
From the 1530s, immigration to the Military Frontier began to include a large number of [Martolos](/wiki/Martolos "Martolos"), Vlach military colonists and other irregulars who were part of the Ottoman military system, they were mostly Christians and some were Muslims.{{cite book\|first\=Catherine Wendy\|last\=Bracewell\|date\=2011\|title\=The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth\-Century Adriatic\|pages\=27β31\|publisher\=\[\[Cornell University Press]]\|isbn\=978\-0801477096}}
The new military expenditures became a considerable concern, and the Congress of [Inner Austrian](/wiki/Inner_Austria "Inner Austria") lands in [Bruck an der Mur](/wiki/Bruck_an_der_Mur "Bruck an der Mur") in 1578 defined the obligations of each land in covering the military expenses and defined the priorities in improving the defensive strategy. It was determined that the [Duchy of Styria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Styria "Duchy of Styria") will finance the Slavonian and Hungarian Frontiers, and the [Duchy of Carniola](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carniola "Duchy of Carniola") will finance the Croatian Frontier. The [Duchy of Carinthia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carinthia "Duchy of Carinthia") put their finances at the disposal of Styria and Carniola, to direct the money where needed.{{sfn\|Ε tefanec\|2011\|pp\=349, 355β356}} In the 2nd half of the 16th century, there were around 20,000 troops stationed in Hungarian and Croatian border forts.{{sfn\|PΓ‘lffy\|2012\|p\=52}}
By the end of the 16th century Slavicized Vlachs, other [Vlachs](/wiki/Vlachs "Vlachs") and [Serbs](/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs "Great Migrations of the Serbs") flee from Ottoman territory to Military Frontier and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia"). At the same time the Croatian Military Frontier became known as the {{lang\|de\|cat\=no\|\[\[Karlovac]] generalate}}, and from the 1630s the Upper Slavonian Military Frontier was known as the [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin "VaraΕΎdin") {{lang\|de\|generalat}}. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the military administration of the Frontier was moved away from the Croatian [ban](/wiki/Ban_%28title%29 "Ban (title)") and the [Sabor](/wiki/Sabor "Sabor") (Parliament) and instead instated in the high command of [Archduke Charles](/wiki/Charles_II%2C_Archduke_of_Austria "Charles II, Archduke of Austria") and the [War Council](/wiki/War_Council_%28Austria%29 "War Council (Austria)") in [Graz](/wiki/Graz "Graz").{{citation needed\|date\=July 2015}}
### 17th century
Despite the financial support of the Inner Austrian nobility, the financing of the Military Frontier was not efficient enough. The military leadership in Graz decided to try solutions other than mercenary units. In the 1630s the Imperial Court decided to give land and certain privileges to immigrants into the Frontier (the [uskok](/wiki/Uskok "Uskok") guerrillas as well as refugees from Ottoman\-controlled lands) at the area of [Ε½umberak](/wiki/%C5%BDumberak "Ε½umberak"). In return they would serve in the Imperial army. The remaining local population was also encouraged to remain by receiving the status of free peasants (rather than [serfs](/wiki/Serf "Serf")) and other privileges. These new units were organized into ten or more *[voivodeships](/wiki/Voivodeship "Voivodeship")* per each captaincy.
In 1627, the Military Frontier was removed from the control of the Croatian Sabor and put under direct rule of the Habsburg military. It would have complete civilian and military authority over it until abolition of the Military Frontiers.{{cite book\|author\=Aleksa Djilas\|title\=The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 1919β1953\|url\=https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil\_0\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=1991\|publisher\=Harvard University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-674\-16698\-1\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil\_0/page/11 11]β}} In November 1630, [Emperor Ferdinand II](/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_II "Emperor Ferdinand II") proclaimed the so\-called *[Statuta Valachorum](/wiki/Statuta_Valachorum "Statuta Valachorum")* ("Vlach Statute"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.skdprosvjeta.com/page.php?id\=33\|title\=Statuta Valachorum (prevod)\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-23\|archive\-date\=2021\-11\-22\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122183531/http://www.skdprosvjeta.com/page.php?id\=33\|url\-status\=dead}} {{better source needed\|date\=June 2015}} which regulated the status of so\-called Vlach settlers (which included [Croats](/wiki/Croats "Croats"), [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs") and [Vlachs](/wiki/Vlachs "Vlachs")) from the Ottoman Empire with regard to military command, their obligations, and rights to internal self\-administration. Over time, the population of the Frontier (as it was then) became mixed between the autochthonous [Croats](/wiki/Croats "Croats") and Croatian serfs who had fled the Ottoman territories, and the numerous minority of the [Serb](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs") and [Vlach](/wiki/Vlachs "Vlachs") (who were later assimilated into [Croats](/wiki/Croats "Croats") and [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs")) refugees who strove to expand their rights as a major contributor in the defense of the land. By creating the new military class in the Frontier, the territory of the Frontier eventually became fully detached from the Croatian Parliament and the [ban](/wiki/Ban_%28title%29 "Ban (title)"). As freedom of faith was granted to them, they preserved their Orthodox faith in spite of their living in a Catholic country. Eventually, the whole male population of the Military Frontier became professional soldiers who served the Empire on several fronts and through many European wars, even after the relaxation of the Ottoman threat.
[thumb\|*Migration of the Serbs* (*Seoba Srba*), by [Paja JovanoviΔ](/wiki/Paja_Jovanovi%C4%87 "Paja JovanoviΔ"), portrays Serbian Patriarch [Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ](/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87 "Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ"), surrounded by soldiers, flocks of sheep and women with babies, leading some 36,000 families from his seat in [PeΔ](/wiki/Pe%C4%87 "PeΔ"), to what is now Vojvodina in 1690, after the failure of a Serb revolt.](/wiki/File:Serbmigra.jpg "Serbmigra.jpg")
During the 17th century territory of the Military Frontier was expanded towards the East and new sections were created. By then, it stretched from Croatia in the west to eastern [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania "Transylvania") in the east and included parts of present\-day [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia"), [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia "Serbia"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary").Historical Atlas of Central Europe, Paul Robert Magocsi, p. 34 The area was settled primarily with Croatian, Serbian and German colonists (known as *grenzer* and *graniΔari*) who, in return for land grants, served in the military units defending the empire against Ottomans. The majority of immigrants were Serbs, and some were ethnic Croats, mainly from Bosnia.{{sfn\|Jelavich\|1983\|p\=145}} A [large migration of Serbs](/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs "Great Migrations of the Serbs") to Habsburg lands was undertaken by Patriarch [Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ](/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87 "Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ").{{sfn\|Jelavich\|1983\|p\=145}} The large community of Serbs concentrated in Banat, southern Hungary, and the Military Frontier included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.{{sfn\|Jelavich\|1983\|p\=145}}
The 17th century was a relatively peaceful period, during which only smaller raids were made from the [Province of Bosnia](/wiki/Eyalet_of_Bosnia "Eyalet of Bosnia"). After the Ottoman army was repelled at the [Battle of Vienna](/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna "Battle of Vienna") in 1683, the [Great Turkish War](/wiki/Great_Turkish_War "Great Turkish War") ended with much of the former Croatian lands under Habsburg control. Despite this, the Frontier system was retained, and expanded onto former Ottoman territories in [Lika](/wiki/Lika "Lika"), [Kordun](/wiki/Kordun "Kordun"), [Banija](/wiki/Banija "Banija"), lower [Slavonia](/wiki/Slavonia "Slavonia"), [Syrmia](/wiki/Srem_%28region%29 "Srem (region)"), [BaΔka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka "BaΔka"), [Banat](/wiki/Banat "Banat"), [PomoriΕ‘je](/wiki/Pomori%C5%A1je "PomoriΕ‘je"), and [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania "Transylvania"). The Habsburg Empire valued the ability to centrally control the area and to draft cheap and numerous army units.
After the [Treaty of Karlowitz](/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz "Treaty of Karlowitz") of 1699, the [Seressaner](/wiki/Seressaner "Seressaner") troops were established with both military and police duties. They were not paid, but were exempted from taxes. Over the following century, each regiment had one section of Seressaners that organized border patrols towards Bosnia, particularly on difficult terrain, and stopped incursions of bandits.
Orthodox Christians who settled Military Frontier from the Ottoman Empire were called in sources as "Vlachs schismatics" and Vlachs or [Uskoks](/wiki/Uskoks "Uskoks"), other names which are mentioned are "Valachi seu Rasciani"
"Valachi seu Serviani", "Valachi seu Graeci", Vlachs or [Morlachs](/wiki/Morlachs "Morlachs"), "Illirica gens graeci ritus" and "homines Ritus Ruthenici seu Graeci". During the 17th and first half of the 18th century Catholic natives and Catholics immigrated from Bosnia and [Kingdom of Croatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_%28Habsburg%29 "Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)") also converted to Orthodoxy. Most documents state that the Vlachs arriving "from Turkey" or "from Bosnia", ie the [Bosnia Eyalet](/wiki/Bosnia_Eyalet "Bosnia Eyalet").Zlatko KudeliΔ, 2010, ΔaploviΔeva povijest MarΔanske biskupije, <https://hrcak.srce.hr/56775> \#page\=137\-138
### 18th century
When in 1699 and 1718 the lands of Croatia and Hungary returned, which was previously occupied by the Ottomans, the vast majority of that area became the Military Frontier. Throughout the entire region of this frontier various ethnic groups were settled including Croats, Serbs, Albanians and others which were also all together called Vlachs.Ilona CzamaΕska; (2015\) *The Vlachs β several research problems* p. 13; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I, <https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/bp/article/view/3895/0>
From 1718 to 1739 the Military Frontier also included the Habsburg\-controlled northern parts of present\-day [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina "Bosnia and Herzegovina").{{cite book\|author\= Plamen Mitev\|title\= Empires and Peninsulas: Southeastern Europe Between Karlowitz and the Peace of Adrianople, 1699β1829\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=Cz7pbGvCqhwC\&pg\=PA171\|year\= 2010\|publisher\= LIT Verlag MΓΌnster\|isbn\= 978\-3\-643\-10611\-7\|pages\= 171β}} In the mid\-18th century the Frontier was once again reorganized and modelled after the Imperial army and its regular regiments. In 1737 the Vlach Statute was formally abolished. All previous captaincies and voivodships were discarded, and the area was instead subdivided into general\-commands, regiments and companies:
{{div col\|colwidth\=20em}}
* [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin "VaraΕΎdin") general command
+ [KriΕΎevci](/wiki/Kri%C5%BEevci%2C_Croatia "KriΕΎevci, Croatia") regiment
+ [ΔurΔevac](/wiki/%C4%90ur%C4%91evac "ΔurΔevac") regiment
* [Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac "Karlovac") general command
+ [Lika](/wiki/Lika "Lika") regiment
+ [OtoΔac](/wiki/Oto%C4%8Dac "OtoΔac") regiment
+ [Ogulin](/wiki/Ogulin "Ogulin") regiment
+ [Slunj](/wiki/Slunj "Slunj") regiment
* [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb") general command
+ [Glina](/wiki/Glina%2C_Croatia "Glina, Croatia") regiment
+ [Petrinja](/wiki/Petrinja "Petrinja") regiment
* [Slavonia](/wiki/Slavonia "Slavonia") general command
+ [GradiΕ‘ka](/wiki/Nova_Gradi%C5%A1ka "Nova GradiΕ‘ka") regiment
+ [Brod](/wiki/Slavonski_Brod "Slavonski Brod") regiment
+ [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin "Petrovaradin") regiment
* [Banat](/wiki/Banat "Banat") general command
+ Serb (Illyrian) section
+ German section
+ Romanian (Vlach) section
{{div col end}}
[thumb\|Various Frontier troops, 1756](/wiki/File:Kraji%C5%A1nici%2C_1756._g.jpg "KrajiΕ‘nici, 1756. g.jpg")
After 1767, every twelfth inhabitant of the Military Frontier was a soldier β in contrast to every 62nd inhabitant in the rest of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Frontier soldiers became a professional military, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present\-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, BaΔka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some [Germans](/wiki/Ethnic_German "Ethnic German"), [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people"), [Magyars](/wiki/Magyars "Magyars") and [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks "Slovaks") also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire β [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs "Czechs"), [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks "Slovaks"), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians "Ukrainians"), [Rusyns](/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyns "Pannonian Rusyns") and others.
In 1783 the Croatian and Slavonian frontiers came under the unified control of the Croatian General Command headquartered in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb").{{sfn\|Fine\|2005\|p\=370\-371}}Karl Kaser: *Freier Bauer und Soldat: die Militarisierung der agrarischen Gesellschaft and der kroatisch\-slowanischen MilitΓ€rgrenze (1535β1881\),* BΓΆhlau Verlag Wien, 1997, p. 369Gunther Erich Rothenberg: *The Military Border in Croatia, 1740β1881: a study of an imperial institution,* University of Chicago Press, 1966, p. 63
The [Serbian Free Corps](/wiki/Serbian_Free_Corps "Serbian Free Corps") of 5,000 soldiers had been established in Banat, composed of refugees who had fled earlier conflicts in the Ottoman Empire.{{cite book\|author\= Paul W. Schroeder\|title\= The Transformation of European Politics, 1763β1848\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=BS2z3iGPCigC\&pg\=PA59\|year\= 1996\|publisher\= Oxford University Press\|isbn\= 978\-0\-19\-820654\-5\|pages\= 58β59}} The Corps would fight for the liberation of Serbia and for unification under Habsburg rule. Several *[freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps "Freikorps")* operated along the Habsburg\-Ottoman frontier.{{cite book\|title\= Glasnik Srpskoga uΔenog druΕ‘tva\|volume\= 20\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=RkwBAAAAMAAJ\&pg\=PA69\|year\= 1866\|pages\= 69β\|last1\= DruΕ‘tvo\|first1\= Srpsko UΔeno}} The Austrians used the Corps in two failed attempts to seize Belgrade, in late 1787 and in early 1788\.
Serbia was subsequently liberated, and organized into [a Habsburg protectorate](/wiki/Habsburg-occupied_Serbia_%281788%E2%80%9392%29 "Habsburg-occupied Serbia (1788β92)"). On 8 October 1789 [Ernst Gideon von Laudon](/wiki/Ernst_Gideon_von_Laudon "Ernst Gideon von Laudon") [took over Belgrade](/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_%281789%29 "Siege of Belgrade (1789)"). Austrian forces occupied Serbia, and many Serbs fought in the Habsburg free corps, gaining organizational and military skills.{{cite book\|author\= R. S. Alexander\|title\= Europe's Uncertain Path 1814β1914: State Formation and Civil Society\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-XzKVba8xN8C\&pg\=PA19\|date\= 30 January 2012\|publisher\= John Wiley \& Sons\|isbn\= 978\-1\-4051\-0052\-6\|pages\= 19β}} By 1791, however, the Austrians were forced into withdrawal across the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") and [Sava](/wiki/Sava "Sava") rivers, joined by thousands of Serb families who feared Ottoman persecution. The [Treaty of Sistova](/wiki/Treaty_of_Sistova "Treaty of Sistova") (1791\) ended the [Austro\-Turkish War of 1787](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281787%E2%80%9391%29 "Austro-Turkish War (1787β91)").
In 1787 the civil administration became separate from the military, but this was reversed in 1800\.
### 19th century
By the end of the 18th century, it had already become apparent for some time that the Ottomans [were on the decline](/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire "Decline of the Ottoman Empire") and were not likely to attempt any further invasions north of the Sava River. The Military Frontier thus began to outlive its usefulness. In 1848, [Josip JelaΔiΔ](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Josip JelaΔiΔ"), [Ban of Croatia](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia "Ban of Croatia"), became the commander of the Military Frontier. He pressed for the unification of Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, and the Croatian\-Slavonian Frontier. Although he did not have the power to abolish it, he secured approval for reforms and in 1848 the Military Frontier sent representatives to the Croatian Sabor,Tanner, Marcus (2001\). *Croatia : A Nation Forged in War* (2nd ed.). New Haven; London: Yale University Press, p. 86\-87 however, this was revoked in the 1850s.Tanner, (2001\). *Croatia*, p. 104 From 1850 the Frontier, Croatia and Slavonia formally constituted a single land, but with separate administration and representation.{{sfn\|Horvat\|1906\|pp\=157}} The whole area of Military Frontier was under military administration. All population, regardless of age and sex, belonged to the army and was subject to austrian military legislation.{{sfn\|Valentic\|1978\|pp\=53}} The Main Command had its headquarters in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb "Zagreb"), but remained directly subordinate to the Ministry of War in Vienna.
[400px\|thumb\|center\|Map of the Military Frontier in the middle of the 19th century (marked with a red outline)](/wiki/File:Militargrenze%2C_Wojwodowena_und_Banat.jpg "Militargrenze, Wojwodowena und Banat.jpg")
The Croatian Parliament made numerous pleas to demilitarize the Frontier after the Turkish wars subsided. The demilitarization began in 1869 and on 8 August 1873, under [Franz Joseph](/wiki/Franz_Joseph "Franz Joseph"), the [Banat Frontier](/wiki/Banat_Military_Frontier "Banat Military Frontier") was abolished and incorporated into the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary"), while part of the [Croatian Frontier](/wiki/Croatian_Military_Frontier "Croatian Military Frontier") (KriΕΎevci and ΔurΔevac regiments) was already incorporated into [Croatia\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia "Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia") on 1 August 1871\. The decree in which the rest of the Croatian and [Slavonian](/wiki/Slavonian_Military_Frontier "Slavonian Military Frontier") frontiers were incorporated into Croatia\-Slavonia was proclaimed on 15 July 1881, while incorporation began on 1 August 1881, when [Ban of Croatia](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia "Ban of Croatia") [Ladislav PejaΔeviΔ](/wiki/Ladislav_Peja%C4%8Devi%C4%87 "Ladislav PejaΔeviΔ") took over from the Zagreb General Command.{{sfn\|Horvat\|1906\|pp\=289β290}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 16th century",
"After the [Croatian Parliament](/wiki/Croatian_Parliament \"Croatian Parliament\") elected the [Austrian Habsburgs](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") as [kings of Croatia](/wiki/Kings_of_Croatia \"Kings of Croatia\") in 1526,{{sfn\\|Fine\\|1994\\|p\\=595}} [Ferdinand I](/wiki/Ferdinand_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor\") promised the Croatian Parliament that he would give them 200 cavalrymen and 200 infantrymen, and that he would pay for another 800 cavalrymen who would be commanded by the Croatians. Soon the [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") founded another captaincy in [BihaΔ](/wiki/Biha%C4%87 \"BihaΔ\"). In the short term, all this was ineffective, as in 1529 the Ottomans swept through the area, captured [Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\") and besieged [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), wreaking havoc throughout the Croatian border areas.",
"The Habsburgs aimed at holding the Ottoman forces on Hungarian and Croatian territory before they could reach Austria, but did not have a clear defense plan. In the 1530s, significant reinforcements were sent only to the most important forts on the border with the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn\\|PΓ‘lffy\\|2012\\|p\\=38}} In the 1540s and following the Ottoman campaign of 1552, several conferences were held in which a new defense strategy was adopted. Separate defense zones were to be established in parts of Hungary and Croatia around the border forts. Austrian and Bohemian provinces were obligated to help finance this new system, beginning in the 1550s.{{sfn\\|PΓ‘lffy\\|2012\\|pp\\=40β41}} At the end of the 1560s, the new border system consisted of around 100β120 forts and extended from the [Adriatic Sea](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea \"Adriatic Sea\") to [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania \"Transylvania\"). It was organized into six Border Fortress Captain Generalcies ({{lang\\|de\\|Grenzgeneralat}}):",
"1. The Croatian and Adriatic Border Fortress Captain Generalcy ({{lang\\|de\\|kroatische und Meergrenze}}), centred initially in [BihaΔ](/wiki/Biha%C4%87 \"BihaΔ\"), and from 1579 in [Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac \"Karlovac\");\n2. The Slavonian or Wendish Captain Generalcy ({{lang\\|de\\|slawonische/windische Grenze}}), centred in [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin \"VaraΕΎdin\"), after 1578 known as the Wendish\\-BajcsavΓ‘r Captain Generalcy;\n3. The Kanizsa Captain Generalcy ({{lang\\|de\\|kanischarische Grenze}}), centred in [Kanizsa](/wiki/Nagykanizsa \"Nagykanizsa\"). Renamed the Captain Generalcy across from Kanizsa ({{lang\\|de\\|gegenΓΌber von Kanischa liegende Grenze}}) following the loss of Kanizsa in 1600;\n4. The GyΓΆr Captain Generalcy ({{lang\\|de\\|Raaber/raaberische Grenze}}), protecting Vienna;\n5. The Captain Generalcy Defending the Mining Towns ({{lang\\|de\\|bergstΓ€dtische Grenze}}), centred in [LΓ©va](/wiki/L%C3%A9va \"LΓ©va\"), and in [ΓrsekΓΊjvΓ‘r](/wiki/%C3%89rsek%C3%BAjv%C3%A1r \"ΓrsekΓΊjvΓ‘r\") after 1589;\n6. The [Upper Hungary](/wiki/Upper_Hungary \"Upper Hungary\") or Kassa Captain Generalcy ({{lang\\|de\\|oberungarische Grenze}}), centred in [Kassa](/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice \"KoΕ‘ice\").{{sfn\\|PΓ‘lffy\\|2012\\|pp\\=43β44}}",
"In addition, there were four District Captain Generalcies ({{lang\\|de\\|Kreisgeneralat}}).{{sfn\\|PΓ‘lffy\\|2012\\|pp\\=45β46}}",
"From the 1530s, immigration to the Military Frontier began to include a large number of [Martolos](/wiki/Martolos \"Martolos\"), Vlach military colonists and other irregulars who were part of the Ottoman military system, they were mostly Christians and some were Muslims.{{cite book\\|first\\=Catherine Wendy\\|last\\=Bracewell\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=The Uskoks of Senj: Piracy, Banditry, and Holy War in the Sixteenth\\-Century Adriatic\\|pages\\=27β31\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cornell University Press]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0801477096}}",
"The new military expenditures became a considerable concern, and the Congress of [Inner Austrian](/wiki/Inner_Austria \"Inner Austria\") lands in [Bruck an der Mur](/wiki/Bruck_an_der_Mur \"Bruck an der Mur\") in 1578 defined the obligations of each land in covering the military expenses and defined the priorities in improving the defensive strategy. It was determined that the [Duchy of Styria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Styria \"Duchy of Styria\") will finance the Slavonian and Hungarian Frontiers, and the [Duchy of Carniola](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carniola \"Duchy of Carniola\") will finance the Croatian Frontier. The [Duchy of Carinthia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Carinthia \"Duchy of Carinthia\") put their finances at the disposal of Styria and Carniola, to direct the money where needed.{{sfn\\|Ε tefanec\\|2011\\|pp\\=349, 355β356}} In the 2nd half of the 16th century, there were around 20,000 troops stationed in Hungarian and Croatian border forts.{{sfn\\|PΓ‘lffy\\|2012\\|p\\=52}}",
"By the end of the 16th century Slavicized Vlachs, other [Vlachs](/wiki/Vlachs \"Vlachs\") and [Serbs](/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs \"Great Migrations of the Serbs\") flee from Ottoman territory to Military Frontier and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\"). At the same time the Croatian Military Frontier became known as the {{lang\\|de\\|cat\\=no\\|\\[\\[Karlovac]] generalate}}, and from the 1630s the Upper Slavonian Military Frontier was known as the [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin \"VaraΕΎdin\") {{lang\\|de\\|generalat}}. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the military administration of the Frontier was moved away from the Croatian [ban](/wiki/Ban_%28title%29 \"Ban (title)\") and the [Sabor](/wiki/Sabor \"Sabor\") (Parliament) and instead instated in the high command of [Archduke Charles](/wiki/Charles_II%2C_Archduke_of_Austria \"Charles II, Archduke of Austria\") and the [War Council](/wiki/War_Council_%28Austria%29 \"War Council (Austria)\") in [Graz](/wiki/Graz \"Graz\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=July 2015}}",
"### 17th century",
"Despite the financial support of the Inner Austrian nobility, the financing of the Military Frontier was not efficient enough. The military leadership in Graz decided to try solutions other than mercenary units. In the 1630s the Imperial Court decided to give land and certain privileges to immigrants into the Frontier (the [uskok](/wiki/Uskok \"Uskok\") guerrillas as well as refugees from Ottoman\\-controlled lands) at the area of [Ε½umberak](/wiki/%C5%BDumberak \"Ε½umberak\"). In return they would serve in the Imperial army. The remaining local population was also encouraged to remain by receiving the status of free peasants (rather than [serfs](/wiki/Serf \"Serf\")) and other privileges. These new units were organized into ten or more *[voivodeships](/wiki/Voivodeship \"Voivodeship\")* per each captaincy.",
"In 1627, the Military Frontier was removed from the control of the Croatian Sabor and put under direct rule of the Habsburg military. It would have complete civilian and military authority over it until abolition of the Military Frontiers.{{cite book\\|author\\=Aleksa Djilas\\|title\\=The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 1919β1953\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil\\_0\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=1991\\|publisher\\=Harvard University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-674\\-16698\\-1\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/contestedcountry00djil\\_0/page/11 11]β}} In November 1630, [Emperor Ferdinand II](/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_II \"Emperor Ferdinand II\") proclaimed the so\\-called *[Statuta Valachorum](/wiki/Statuta_Valachorum \"Statuta Valachorum\")* (\"Vlach Statute\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.skdprosvjeta.com/page.php?id\\=33\\|title\\=Statuta Valachorum (prevod)\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-23\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-22\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122183531/http://www.skdprosvjeta.com/page.php?id\\=33\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} {{better source needed\\|date\\=June 2015}} which regulated the status of so\\-called Vlach settlers (which included [Croats](/wiki/Croats \"Croats\"), [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\") and [Vlachs](/wiki/Vlachs \"Vlachs\")) from the Ottoman Empire with regard to military command, their obligations, and rights to internal self\\-administration. Over time, the population of the Frontier (as it was then) became mixed between the autochthonous [Croats](/wiki/Croats \"Croats\") and Croatian serfs who had fled the Ottoman territories, and the numerous minority of the [Serb](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\") and [Vlach](/wiki/Vlachs \"Vlachs\") (who were later assimilated into [Croats](/wiki/Croats \"Croats\") and [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\")) refugees who strove to expand their rights as a major contributor in the defense of the land. By creating the new military class in the Frontier, the territory of the Frontier eventually became fully detached from the Croatian Parliament and the [ban](/wiki/Ban_%28title%29 \"Ban (title)\"). As freedom of faith was granted to them, they preserved their Orthodox faith in spite of their living in a Catholic country. Eventually, the whole male population of the Military Frontier became professional soldiers who served the Empire on several fronts and through many European wars, even after the relaxation of the Ottoman threat.",
"[thumb\\|*Migration of the Serbs* (*Seoba Srba*), by [Paja JovanoviΔ](/wiki/Paja_Jovanovi%C4%87 \"Paja JovanoviΔ\"), portrays Serbian Patriarch [Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ](/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87 \"Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ\"), surrounded by soldiers, flocks of sheep and women with babies, leading some 36,000 families from his seat in [PeΔ](/wiki/Pe%C4%87 \"PeΔ\"), to what is now Vojvodina in 1690, after the failure of a Serb revolt.](/wiki/File:Serbmigra.jpg \"Serbmigra.jpg\")\nDuring the 17th century territory of the Military Frontier was expanded towards the East and new sections were created. By then, it stretched from Croatia in the west to eastern [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania \"Transylvania\") in the east and included parts of present\\-day [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\"), [Serbia](/wiki/Serbia \"Serbia\"), [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\") and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\").Historical Atlas of Central Europe, Paul Robert Magocsi, p. 34 The area was settled primarily with Croatian, Serbian and German colonists (known as *grenzer* and *graniΔari*) who, in return for land grants, served in the military units defending the empire against Ottomans. The majority of immigrants were Serbs, and some were ethnic Croats, mainly from Bosnia.{{sfn\\|Jelavich\\|1983\\|p\\=145}} A [large migration of Serbs](/wiki/Great_Migrations_of_the_Serbs \"Great Migrations of the Serbs\") to Habsburg lands was undertaken by Patriarch [Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ](/wiki/Arsenije_III_%C4%8Carnojevi%C4%87 \"Arsenije III ΔarnojeviΔ\").{{sfn\\|Jelavich\\|1983\\|p\\=145}} The large community of Serbs concentrated in Banat, southern Hungary, and the Military Frontier included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees who were peasants.{{sfn\\|Jelavich\\|1983\\|p\\=145}}",
"The 17th century was a relatively peaceful period, during which only smaller raids were made from the [Province of Bosnia](/wiki/Eyalet_of_Bosnia \"Eyalet of Bosnia\"). After the Ottoman army was repelled at the [Battle of Vienna](/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna \"Battle of Vienna\") in 1683, the [Great Turkish War](/wiki/Great_Turkish_War \"Great Turkish War\") ended with much of the former Croatian lands under Habsburg control. Despite this, the Frontier system was retained, and expanded onto former Ottoman territories in [Lika](/wiki/Lika \"Lika\"), [Kordun](/wiki/Kordun \"Kordun\"), [Banija](/wiki/Banija \"Banija\"), lower [Slavonia](/wiki/Slavonia \"Slavonia\"), [Syrmia](/wiki/Srem_%28region%29 \"Srem (region)\"), [BaΔka](/wiki/Ba%C4%8Dka \"BaΔka\"), [Banat](/wiki/Banat \"Banat\"), [PomoriΕ‘je](/wiki/Pomori%C5%A1je \"PomoriΕ‘je\"), and [Transylvania](/wiki/Transylvania \"Transylvania\"). The Habsburg Empire valued the ability to centrally control the area and to draft cheap and numerous army units.",
"After the [Treaty of Karlowitz](/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz \"Treaty of Karlowitz\") of 1699, the [Seressaner](/wiki/Seressaner \"Seressaner\") troops were established with both military and police duties. They were not paid, but were exempted from taxes. Over the following century, each regiment had one section of Seressaners that organized border patrols towards Bosnia, particularly on difficult terrain, and stopped incursions of bandits.",
"Orthodox Christians who settled Military Frontier from the Ottoman Empire were called in sources as \"Vlachs schismatics\" and Vlachs or [Uskoks](/wiki/Uskoks \"Uskoks\"), other names which are mentioned are \"Valachi seu Rasciani\" \n\"Valachi seu Serviani\", \"Valachi seu Graeci\", Vlachs or [Morlachs](/wiki/Morlachs \"Morlachs\"), \"Illirica gens graeci ritus\" and \"homines Ritus Ruthenici seu Graeci\". During the 17th and first half of the 18th century Catholic natives and Catholics immigrated from Bosnia and [Kingdom of Croatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_%28Habsburg%29 \"Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)\") also converted to Orthodoxy. Most documents state that the Vlachs arriving \"from Turkey\" or \"from Bosnia\", ie the [Bosnia Eyalet](/wiki/Bosnia_Eyalet \"Bosnia Eyalet\").Zlatko KudeliΔ, 2010, ΔaploviΔeva povijest MarΔanske biskupije, <https://hrcak.srce.hr/56775> \\#page\\=137\\-138",
"### 18th century",
"When in 1699 and 1718 the lands of Croatia and Hungary returned, which was previously occupied by the Ottomans, the vast majority of that area became the Military Frontier. Throughout the entire region of this frontier various ethnic groups were settled including Croats, Serbs, Albanians and others which were also all together called Vlachs.Ilona CzamaΕska; (2015\\) *The Vlachs β several research problems* p. 13; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I, <https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/bp/article/view/3895/0> \nFrom 1718 to 1739 the Military Frontier also included the Habsburg\\-controlled northern parts of present\\-day [Bosnia and Herzegovina](/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina \"Bosnia and Herzegovina\").{{cite book\\|author\\= Plamen Mitev\\|title\\= Empires and Peninsulas: Southeastern Europe Between Karlowitz and the Peace of Adrianople, 1699β1829\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Cz7pbGvCqhwC\\&pg\\=PA171\\|year\\= 2010\\|publisher\\= LIT Verlag MΓΌnster\\|isbn\\= 978\\-3\\-643\\-10611\\-7\\|pages\\= 171β}} In the mid\\-18th century the Frontier was once again reorganized and modelled after the Imperial army and its regular regiments. In 1737 the Vlach Statute was formally abolished. All previous captaincies and voivodships were discarded, and the area was instead subdivided into general\\-commands, regiments and companies:",
"{{div col\\|colwidth\\=20em}}\n* [VaraΕΎdin](/wiki/Vara%C5%BEdin \"VaraΕΎdin\") general command\n\t+ [KriΕΎevci](/wiki/Kri%C5%BEevci%2C_Croatia \"KriΕΎevci, Croatia\") regiment\n\t+ [ΔurΔevac](/wiki/%C4%90ur%C4%91evac \"ΔurΔevac\") regiment\n* [Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac \"Karlovac\") general command\n\t+ [Lika](/wiki/Lika \"Lika\") regiment\n\t+ [OtoΔac](/wiki/Oto%C4%8Dac \"OtoΔac\") regiment\n\t+ [Ogulin](/wiki/Ogulin \"Ogulin\") regiment\n\t+ [Slunj](/wiki/Slunj \"Slunj\") regiment\n* [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\") general command\n\t+ [Glina](/wiki/Glina%2C_Croatia \"Glina, Croatia\") regiment\n\t+ [Petrinja](/wiki/Petrinja \"Petrinja\") regiment\n* [Slavonia](/wiki/Slavonia \"Slavonia\") general command\n\t+ [GradiΕ‘ka](/wiki/Nova_Gradi%C5%A1ka \"Nova GradiΕ‘ka\") regiment\n\t+ [Brod](/wiki/Slavonski_Brod \"Slavonski Brod\") regiment\n\t+ [Petrovaradin](/wiki/Petrovaradin \"Petrovaradin\") regiment\n* [Banat](/wiki/Banat \"Banat\") general command\n\t+ Serb (Illyrian) section\n\t+ German section\n\t+ Romanian (Vlach) section\n\t{{div col end}}\n\t[thumb\\|Various Frontier troops, 1756](/wiki/File:Kraji%C5%A1nici%2C_1756._g.jpg \"KrajiΕ‘nici, 1756. g.jpg\")\n\tAfter 1767, every twelfth inhabitant of the Military Frontier was a soldier β in contrast to every 62nd inhabitant in the rest of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Frontier soldiers became a professional military, ready to move to all European battlefields. Due to further immigration of refugees from the Ottoman domain, and to the expansion of the territory to places previously controlled by the Ottomans, the population of the Frontier became even more mixed. There were still many autochthonous Serbs and Croats in Slavonia and in parts of present\\-day Vojvodina (in Syrmia, BaΔka and Banat). However, at this time they became outnumbered by the Serb, Croat and Vlach refugees/immigrants. Some [Germans](/wiki/Ethnic_German \"Ethnic German\"), [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\"), [Magyars](/wiki/Magyars \"Magyars\") and [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks \"Slovaks\") also came to the Frontier, mostly as administrative personnel, and a number of other settlers and military personnel arrived from other parts of the Habsburg Empire β [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs \"Czechs\"), [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks \"Slovaks\"), [Ukrainians](/wiki/Ukrainians \"Ukrainians\"), [Rusyns](/wiki/Pannonian_Rusyns \"Pannonian Rusyns\") and others.",
"In 1783 the Croatian and Slavonian frontiers came under the unified control of the Croatian General Command headquartered in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\").{{sfn\\|Fine\\|2005\\|p\\=370\\-371}}Karl Kaser: *Freier Bauer und Soldat: die Militarisierung der agrarischen Gesellschaft and der kroatisch\\-slowanischen MilitΓ€rgrenze (1535β1881\\),* BΓΆhlau Verlag Wien, 1997, p. 369Gunther Erich Rothenberg: *The Military Border in Croatia, 1740β1881: a study of an imperial institution,* University of Chicago Press, 1966, p. 63",
"The [Serbian Free Corps](/wiki/Serbian_Free_Corps \"Serbian Free Corps\") of 5,000 soldiers had been established in Banat, composed of refugees who had fled earlier conflicts in the Ottoman Empire.{{cite book\\|author\\= Paul W. Schroeder\\|title\\= The Transformation of European Politics, 1763β1848\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BS2z3iGPCigC\\&pg\\=PA59\\|year\\= 1996\\|publisher\\= Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-19\\-820654\\-5\\|pages\\= 58β59}} The Corps would fight for the liberation of Serbia and for unification under Habsburg rule. Several *[freikorps](/wiki/Freikorps \"Freikorps\")* operated along the Habsburg\\-Ottoman frontier.{{cite book\\|title\\= Glasnik Srpskoga uΔenog druΕ‘tva\\|volume\\= 20\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RkwBAAAAMAAJ\\&pg\\=PA69\\|year\\= 1866\\|pages\\= 69β\\|last1\\= DruΕ‘tvo\\|first1\\= Srpsko UΔeno}} The Austrians used the Corps in two failed attempts to seize Belgrade, in late 1787 and in early 1788\\.",
"Serbia was subsequently liberated, and organized into [a Habsburg protectorate](/wiki/Habsburg-occupied_Serbia_%281788%E2%80%9392%29 \"Habsburg-occupied Serbia (1788β92)\"). On 8 October 1789 [Ernst Gideon von Laudon](/wiki/Ernst_Gideon_von_Laudon \"Ernst Gideon von Laudon\") [took over Belgrade](/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_%281789%29 \"Siege of Belgrade (1789)\"). Austrian forces occupied Serbia, and many Serbs fought in the Habsburg free corps, gaining organizational and military skills.{{cite book\\|author\\= R. S. Alexander\\|title\\= Europe's Uncertain Path 1814β1914: State Formation and Civil Society\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-XzKVba8xN8C\\&pg\\=PA19\\|date\\= 30 January 2012\\|publisher\\= John Wiley \\& Sons\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1\\-4051\\-0052\\-6\\|pages\\= 19β}} By 1791, however, the Austrians were forced into withdrawal across the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") and [Sava](/wiki/Sava \"Sava\") rivers, joined by thousands of Serb families who feared Ottoman persecution. The [Treaty of Sistova](/wiki/Treaty_of_Sistova \"Treaty of Sistova\") (1791\\) ended the [Austro\\-Turkish War of 1787](/wiki/Austro-Turkish_War_%281787%E2%80%9391%29 \"Austro-Turkish War (1787β91)\").",
"In 1787 the civil administration became separate from the military, but this was reversed in 1800\\.",
"### 19th century",
"By the end of the 18th century, it had already become apparent for some time that the Ottomans [were on the decline](/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire \"Decline of the Ottoman Empire\") and were not likely to attempt any further invasions north of the Sava River. The Military Frontier thus began to outlive its usefulness. In 1848, [Josip JelaΔiΔ](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Josip JelaΔiΔ\"), [Ban of Croatia](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia \"Ban of Croatia\"), became the commander of the Military Frontier. He pressed for the unification of Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, and the Croatian\\-Slavonian Frontier. Although he did not have the power to abolish it, he secured approval for reforms and in 1848 the Military Frontier sent representatives to the Croatian Sabor,Tanner, Marcus (2001\\). *Croatia : A Nation Forged in War* (2nd ed.). New Haven; London: Yale University Press, p. 86\\-87 however, this was revoked in the 1850s.Tanner, (2001\\). *Croatia*, p. 104 From 1850 the Frontier, Croatia and Slavonia formally constituted a single land, but with separate administration and representation.{{sfn\\|Horvat\\|1906\\|pp\\=157}} The whole area of Military Frontier was under military administration. All population, regardless of age and sex, belonged to the army and was subject to austrian military legislation.{{sfn\\|Valentic\\|1978\\|pp\\=53}} The Main Command had its headquarters in [Zagreb](/wiki/Zagreb \"Zagreb\"), but remained directly subordinate to the Ministry of War in Vienna.\n [400px\\|thumb\\|center\\|Map of the Military Frontier in the middle of the 19th century (marked with a red outline)](/wiki/File:Militargrenze%2C_Wojwodowena_und_Banat.jpg \"Militargrenze, Wojwodowena und Banat.jpg\")\nThe Croatian Parliament made numerous pleas to demilitarize the Frontier after the Turkish wars subsided. The demilitarization began in 1869 and on 8 August 1873, under [Franz Joseph](/wiki/Franz_Joseph \"Franz Joseph\"), the [Banat Frontier](/wiki/Banat_Military_Frontier \"Banat Military Frontier\") was abolished and incorporated into the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\"), while part of the [Croatian Frontier](/wiki/Croatian_Military_Frontier \"Croatian Military Frontier\") (KriΕΎevci and ΔurΔevac regiments) was already incorporated into [Croatia\\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia \"Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia\") on 1 August 1871\\. The decree in which the rest of the Croatian and [Slavonian](/wiki/Slavonian_Military_Frontier \"Slavonian Military Frontier\") frontiers were incorporated into Croatia\\-Slavonia was proclaimed on 15 July 1881, while incorporation began on 1 August 1881, when [Ban of Croatia](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia \"Ban of Croatia\") [Ladislav PejaΔeviΔ](/wiki/Ladislav_Peja%C4%8Devi%C4%87 \"Ladislav PejaΔeviΔ\") took over from the Zagreb General Command.{{sfn\\|Horvat\\|1906\\|pp\\=289β290}}",
""
] |
Career in Australia
-------------------
In England he adopted a new identity, joining the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") under the name William Alonzo Campbell, and in 1848 was shipped to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales"), as part of a convict guard.British Army Regimental Muster Rolls and Pay Lists (WO12\), PRO Reel 3704 (Vol. 2876\), Reel 3705 (Vols. 2877 and 2879\) and Reel 3706, via Australian Joint Copying Project, National Library of Australia. During the voyage he dedicated an ode to a fellow passenger, the pioneer photographer George Cherry, signing himself "a [Knight Templar](/wiki/Knights_Templar_%28Freemasonry%29 "Knights Templar (Freemasonry)"), [XIth Foot](/wiki/Devonshire_Regiment "Devonshire Regiment") (late the Bard of New Brunswick)".Candice Bruce, "George Cherry", in *The Dictionary of Australian Artists: Painters, Sketchers, Photographers and Engravers to 1870*, ed. Joan Kerr, Melbourne: OUP, 1992, 146β7; also online at Design \& Art Australia Online. The original poem is held among Cherry family papers, Sydney. William's life in New South Wales was peripatetic and varied: teacher at remote country schools, journalist, gold\-digger, manager of a sheep and cattle run on the remote [Castlereagh River](/wiki/Castlereagh_River "Castlereagh River"), soup kitchen attendant in the slums of Sydney, police spy and settler.See Vening for further details.
On 13 January 1851, at the Scotch Church in [Bowenfels](/wiki/Bowenfels%2C_New_South_Wales "Bowenfels, New South Wales"), New South Wales, William married again, this time to Charlotte Crawford, schoolteacher and governess, who had arrived in Sydney in 1849 as matron to a shipload of [Irish Famine orphan girls](/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Great_Irish_Famine "Legacy of the Great Irish Famine"). In the absence of any New Brunswick divorce record, it seems likely that this marriage was bigamous.
The family lived in genteel poverty, battling for food and shelter. At [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales "Bathurst, New South Wales"), New South Wales, William wrote verse epics and reminiscences of New Brunswick for the [*Free Press*](/wiki/The_Bathurst_Free_Press_and_Mining_Journal "The Bathurst Free Press and Mining Journal") newspaper as "William M. Leggett, M.A." and in Sydney he wrote newspaper verse as "A Knight Templar XIth Foot". By the early 1850s he had styled himself William Montague Clarence Campbell and by that name (or variants) he was known for the rest of his days, but for literary purposes he favoured pseudonyms. In [Henry Parkes](/wiki/Henry_Parkes "Henry Parkes")' Sydney\-based *[Empire](/wiki/Empire_%28newspaper%29 "Empire (newspaper)")* newspaper he advocated constitutional reform and Australian independence as "Alonzo". He wrote whimsical scraps for the *Times* of [Singleton](/wiki/Singleton%2C_New_South_Wales "Singleton, New South Wales"), New South Wales, as the "Man of the Caves, O.N.P." ("One of Nature's Peers") from his hermitage in the nearby Wombo (or Wambo) Mountains, and acted as the paper's [Muswellbrook](/wiki/Muswellbrook%2C_New_South_Wales "Muswellbrook, New South Wales") correspondent. Back in Sydney in 1864 he established the Woollahra Academy β grand in name only β and as "The Woollahra Hermit" wrote verse and essays for the *[Illustrated Sydney News](/wiki/Illustrated_Sydney_News "Illustrated Sydney News")*. There too he advertised a threepenny weekly, the *Woollahra Hermit's Own*, and embarked on his never\-published epic poem "Individuality; or, a Historical Sketch of the Mind of an Honest Man, struggling to surmount Religious, Political and Literary Obstacles".A "Literary Prospectus" is online via National Library of Australia.
In the anti\-Irish hysteria following [Henry James O'Farrell](/wiki/Henry_O%27Farrell "Henry O'Farrell")'s attempt on the life of royal visitor [Prince Alfred](/wiki/Alfred%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha "Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha") at Clontarf, Sydney, in 1868, William was recruited by the Parkes government to spy on supposed [Fenians](/wiki/Fenian "Fenian") in the streets and pubs of [Glebe](/wiki/Glebe%2C_New_South_Wales "Glebe, New South Wales"),Correspondence, NSWSA: NRS 906, 4/768, Special bundles \[Colonial Secretary]. after which he contributed verse and stories to the virulently anti\-Catholic *Australian Protestant Banner* as Campbell, "W.M.C.C." and "Clarence" of the "Theological Observatory".
Towards the end of 1868 William was given charge of the government school at [Eurobodalla](/wiki/Eurobodalla_Shire "Eurobodalla Shire"), on the south coast of New South Wales, arriving there a few months after the death of poet [Charles Harpur](/wiki/Charles_Harpur "Charles Harpur"). He penned nature verse like "A Night\-Visit to the Oaks at Eurobodalla", and an ode over Harpur's grave on the hill at Euroma. He sent graphic accounts to the Sydney papers describing the floods on the [Tuross River](/wiki/Tuross_River "Tuross River"), relating how he and his son had fought through the waters to the assistance of Harpur's widow Mary.
Then in 1870, at Runnymede (now called Runnyford) on the banks of the [Buckenbowra River](/wiki/Buckenbowra_River "Buckenbowra River") inland from [Batemans Bay](/wiki/Batemans_Bay "Batemans Bay"), William set up a provisional schoolCorrespondence, NSWSA: NRS 2621, 1/775 and 1/812 (Eurobodalla) and NRS 2621, 1/853, 1/883, 1/917, 1/951 and 1/976 (Runnymede). and, with the aid of sons Rodolph (born 1854\) and Alpheus (born 1858\), hacked a farm out of the tall timber up the river. He called the place Lordsland. He continued to send verse to newspapers, corresponded with pioneer geologist [William Branwhite Clarke](/wiki/William_Branwhite_Clarke "William Branwhite Clarke"), and sent cranky letters to *The Australian Freemason* on what he took to be the godless science of [Thomas Huxley](/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley "Thomas Henry Huxley").
|
[
"Career in Australia\n-------------------",
"In England he adopted a new identity, joining the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") under the name William Alonzo Campbell, and in 1848 was shipped to [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"), [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\"), as part of a convict guard.British Army Regimental Muster Rolls and Pay Lists (WO12\\), PRO Reel 3704 (Vol. 2876\\), Reel 3705 (Vols. 2877 and 2879\\) and Reel 3706, via Australian Joint Copying Project, National Library of Australia. During the voyage he dedicated an ode to a fellow passenger, the pioneer photographer George Cherry, signing himself \"a [Knight Templar](/wiki/Knights_Templar_%28Freemasonry%29 \"Knights Templar (Freemasonry)\"), [XIth Foot](/wiki/Devonshire_Regiment \"Devonshire Regiment\") (late the Bard of New Brunswick)\".Candice Bruce, \"George Cherry\", in *The Dictionary of Australian Artists: Painters, Sketchers, Photographers and Engravers to 1870*, ed. Joan Kerr, Melbourne: OUP, 1992, 146β7; also online at Design \\& Art Australia Online. The original poem is held among Cherry family papers, Sydney. William's life in New South Wales was peripatetic and varied: teacher at remote country schools, journalist, gold\\-digger, manager of a sheep and cattle run on the remote [Castlereagh River](/wiki/Castlereagh_River \"Castlereagh River\"), soup kitchen attendant in the slums of Sydney, police spy and settler.See Vening for further details.",
"On 13 January 1851, at the Scotch Church in [Bowenfels](/wiki/Bowenfels%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bowenfels, New South Wales\"), New South Wales, William married again, this time to Charlotte Crawford, schoolteacher and governess, who had arrived in Sydney in 1849 as matron to a shipload of [Irish Famine orphan girls](/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Great_Irish_Famine \"Legacy of the Great Irish Famine\"). In the absence of any New Brunswick divorce record, it seems likely that this marriage was bigamous.",
"The family lived in genteel poverty, battling for food and shelter. At [Bathurst](/wiki/Bathurst%2C_New_South_Wales \"Bathurst, New South Wales\"), New South Wales, William wrote verse epics and reminiscences of New Brunswick for the [*Free Press*](/wiki/The_Bathurst_Free_Press_and_Mining_Journal \"The Bathurst Free Press and Mining Journal\") newspaper as \"William M. Leggett, M.A.\" and in Sydney he wrote newspaper verse as \"A Knight Templar XIth Foot\". By the early 1850s he had styled himself William Montague Clarence Campbell and by that name (or variants) he was known for the rest of his days, but for literary purposes he favoured pseudonyms. In [Henry Parkes](/wiki/Henry_Parkes \"Henry Parkes\")' Sydney\\-based *[Empire](/wiki/Empire_%28newspaper%29 \"Empire (newspaper)\")* newspaper he advocated constitutional reform and Australian independence as \"Alonzo\". He wrote whimsical scraps for the *Times* of [Singleton](/wiki/Singleton%2C_New_South_Wales \"Singleton, New South Wales\"), New South Wales, as the \"Man of the Caves, O.N.P.\" (\"One of Nature's Peers\") from his hermitage in the nearby Wombo (or Wambo) Mountains, and acted as the paper's [Muswellbrook](/wiki/Muswellbrook%2C_New_South_Wales \"Muswellbrook, New South Wales\") correspondent. Back in Sydney in 1864 he established the Woollahra Academy β grand in name only β and as \"The Woollahra Hermit\" wrote verse and essays for the *[Illustrated Sydney News](/wiki/Illustrated_Sydney_News \"Illustrated Sydney News\")*. There too he advertised a threepenny weekly, the *Woollahra Hermit's Own*, and embarked on his never\\-published epic poem \"Individuality; or, a Historical Sketch of the Mind of an Honest Man, struggling to surmount Religious, Political and Literary Obstacles\".A \"Literary Prospectus\" is online via National Library of Australia.",
"In the anti\\-Irish hysteria following [Henry James O'Farrell](/wiki/Henry_O%27Farrell \"Henry O'Farrell\")'s attempt on the life of royal visitor [Prince Alfred](/wiki/Alfred%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha \"Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\") at Clontarf, Sydney, in 1868, William was recruited by the Parkes government to spy on supposed [Fenians](/wiki/Fenian \"Fenian\") in the streets and pubs of [Glebe](/wiki/Glebe%2C_New_South_Wales \"Glebe, New South Wales\"),Correspondence, NSWSA: NRS 906, 4/768, Special bundles \\[Colonial Secretary]. after which he contributed verse and stories to the virulently anti\\-Catholic *Australian Protestant Banner* as Campbell, \"W.M.C.C.\" and \"Clarence\" of the \"Theological Observatory\".",
"Towards the end of 1868 William was given charge of the government school at [Eurobodalla](/wiki/Eurobodalla_Shire \"Eurobodalla Shire\"), on the south coast of New South Wales, arriving there a few months after the death of poet [Charles Harpur](/wiki/Charles_Harpur \"Charles Harpur\"). He penned nature verse like \"A Night\\-Visit to the Oaks at Eurobodalla\", and an ode over Harpur's grave on the hill at Euroma. He sent graphic accounts to the Sydney papers describing the floods on the [Tuross River](/wiki/Tuross_River \"Tuross River\"), relating how he and his son had fought through the waters to the assistance of Harpur's widow Mary.",
"Then in 1870, at Runnymede (now called Runnyford) on the banks of the [Buckenbowra River](/wiki/Buckenbowra_River \"Buckenbowra River\") inland from [Batemans Bay](/wiki/Batemans_Bay \"Batemans Bay\"), William set up a provisional schoolCorrespondence, NSWSA: NRS 2621, 1/775 and 1/812 (Eurobodalla) and NRS 2621, 1/853, 1/883, 1/917, 1/951 and 1/976 (Runnymede). and, with the aid of sons Rodolph (born 1854\\) and Alpheus (born 1858\\), hacked a farm out of the tall timber up the river. He called the place Lordsland. He continued to send verse to newspapers, corresponded with pioneer geologist [William Branwhite Clarke](/wiki/William_Branwhite_Clarke \"William Branwhite Clarke\"), and sent cranky letters to *The Australian Freemason* on what he took to be the godless science of [Thomas Huxley](/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley \"Thomas Henry Huxley\").",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Freddy's ice skating with the animals on the bean farm is interrupted by a request from Mr. Boomschmidt, the circus owner, to find a kidnapped Martian. "Mr. Boom", already anticipating that Freddy will solve the case with his detective skills, muses that the Martians could use a more interesting activity than being a circus [sideshow](/wiki/Sideshow "Sideshow"). Since they are fast and accurate throwers, the pig suggests a baseball team.
The immediate problem is finding the missing Martian, Squeak\-squeak. A suspect is the criminal Anderson, whom Freddy has thwarted before, and who loiters around the circus. Since Freddy must remain unknown during his investigation, he dons the disguise of an old baseball coach named Henry Arquebus with glasses, an [overcoat](/wiki/Overcoat "Overcoat"), and large beard, and moves to town. He cautiously lures Anderson into friendship. Freddy is puzzled when the Martians, at first eager for his help, now refuse to discuss Squeak\-Squeak. Mr. Boom is certain they are in trouble, and encourages Freddy to investigate, anyhow.
The Martians are enthusiastic about baseball, especially after learning that the purpose of baseball is not, as they thought, to hit the batter and knock him unconscious. Practice begins on a muddy bean farm field. There are four Martians; most of the rest of the team are circus animals.
Freddy sets the [robin](/wiki/American_robin "American robin") Mr. J. J. Pomeroy, the head of the A.B.I. (Animal Bureau of Investigation), to watch the Martians and Anderson. Apparently unrelatedly, his rich friend Mrs. Church asks Freddy to investigate a burglary by a ghost in her house. Since the stolen necklace is [costume jewelry](/wiki/Costume_jewelry "Costume jewelry") worth only 25 cents, Freddy suggests a reward for "one third the value".
The team practices for a month, and spectators watch. Freddy (in his disguise as Mr. Arquebus) tells the Martians to swing at every pitch, no matter how wild. Freddy will not explain the reason for this, but apparently it has to do with the trick planned for the manager of the Tushville baseball team, Mr. Kurtz, who used professionals the previous year in an amateur game.
Despite being somewhat frightened, Freddy and Jinx the cat stake out Mrs. Church's house at night to confront the ghost. The burglar ghost proves human, but it escapes; and as no entry footprints could be found in the snow, Freddy and Mrs. Church still can not figure out how the burglar could have gotten in.
The first practice game draws many spectators, and Kurtz reckons that the game against his Tushville team will get a thousand paying tickets. He offers Mr. Boom a deal where the winner takes two\-thirds of the receipts. The strange Martian pitching proves effective, but at bat, Freddy has them swing at any pitch. The other team members do the hitting and scoring. In the end, the Martians lose, 8β6\.
Anderson returns the stolen necklace to Mrs. Church, claiming he is acting for another. (He is shocked and angered by the 10Β’ reward, as he thought the necklace was genuine.) As his house is watched by the A.B.I, Freddy knows there is not another person, that Anderson is the thief, and that furthermore his main motive was to make Mrs. Church think her house is haunted, so that he could buy it cheaply and sell it at a higher price. When Freddy notices house paint on the Martian's flying saucer, he deduces that Anderson holds Squeak\-squeak prisoner, and is forcing the Martians to help him steal; that it is with the help of the flying saucer that Anderson has entered houses undetected. An investigation of Anderson's house shows that Squeak\-squeak was moved, and a telephone conversation between Anderson and an accomplice is overheard, during which Anderson calls the accomplice "Herb". Squeak\-squeak is not there, but they find jewelry from other recent robberies.
The game with Tushville starts reasonably, for example with an elephant sliding into third base ("...when an elephant slides, something has to go.") With the elephant on third, Freddy reveals his plan, telling the two\-foot Martians not to swing at anything. With the [strike zone](/wiki/Strike_zone "Strike zone") reduced to eight inches, the Martians [walk](/wiki/Base_on_balls "Base on balls") every time at bat. They take the lead until the crook Anderson whispers something to them. The Martians disobey coach Freddy, start swinging, and lose the game.
Mrs. Peppercorn β from whom Freddy is renting in town β cheers him with her improved version of a [Longfellow](/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow") poem, for example changing:
"As a feather is wafted downward / From an eagle in his flight." to
"As a brick comes hurtling downward / From a rooftop, in a fight."
The poet\-pig is not enormously impressed, but is shaken out of his funk and soon wonders if coach Kurtz is Anderson's accomplice; a telephone call proved that his name is Herb. Anderson approaches "Mr. Arquebus", asking help with a burglary. Since Freddy will be able to get proof, he agrees. When the flying saucer drops Anderson in a wealthy home, Freddy leaves and calls the police. Knowing where to look for Squeak\-squeak the Martian allows Freddy to infiltrate Kurtz's house in yet another disguise, this time as an Irish widow. However, the Martian is securely locked away. With the help of a group of [wasps](/wiki/Wasp "Wasp"), Freddy captures the Kurtzes, but when Anderson arrives with the police, the lawmen are unable to make sense of the confusion. They decide to lock everybody in the basement so that they can go see the baseball game. Mr. Boom finally arrives and frees all of them right in the middle of the game. The Martians can now play ball without fear, and they begin walking again, but Anderson has not given up. Mr. Boom is so tired from sawing through the basement door that he cannot play, and Freddy takes his place, pulling off his disguise as the crowd cheers. Anderson attempts to sabotage the game by blinding the batters with a mirror, but his plan fails and he is captured and sent to jail. Freddy and the Martians finally win the game, 12β11\.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Freddy's ice skating with the animals on the bean farm is interrupted by a request from Mr. Boomschmidt, the circus owner, to find a kidnapped Martian. \"Mr. Boom\", already anticipating that Freddy will solve the case with his detective skills, muses that the Martians could use a more interesting activity than being a circus [sideshow](/wiki/Sideshow \"Sideshow\"). Since they are fast and accurate throwers, the pig suggests a baseball team.",
"The immediate problem is finding the missing Martian, Squeak\\-squeak. A suspect is the criminal Anderson, whom Freddy has thwarted before, and who loiters around the circus. Since Freddy must remain unknown during his investigation, he dons the disguise of an old baseball coach named Henry Arquebus with glasses, an [overcoat](/wiki/Overcoat \"Overcoat\"), and large beard, and moves to town. He cautiously lures Anderson into friendship. Freddy is puzzled when the Martians, at first eager for his help, now refuse to discuss Squeak\\-Squeak. Mr. Boom is certain they are in trouble, and encourages Freddy to investigate, anyhow.",
"The Martians are enthusiastic about baseball, especially after learning that the purpose of baseball is not, as they thought, to hit the batter and knock him unconscious. Practice begins on a muddy bean farm field. There are four Martians; most of the rest of the team are circus animals.",
"Freddy sets the [robin](/wiki/American_robin \"American robin\") Mr. J. J. Pomeroy, the head of the A.B.I. (Animal Bureau of Investigation), to watch the Martians and Anderson. Apparently unrelatedly, his rich friend Mrs. Church asks Freddy to investigate a burglary by a ghost in her house. Since the stolen necklace is [costume jewelry](/wiki/Costume_jewelry \"Costume jewelry\") worth only 25 cents, Freddy suggests a reward for \"one third the value\".",
"The team practices for a month, and spectators watch. Freddy (in his disguise as Mr. Arquebus) tells the Martians to swing at every pitch, no matter how wild. Freddy will not explain the reason for this, but apparently it has to do with the trick planned for the manager of the Tushville baseball team, Mr. Kurtz, who used professionals the previous year in an amateur game.",
"Despite being somewhat frightened, Freddy and Jinx the cat stake out Mrs. Church's house at night to confront the ghost. The burglar ghost proves human, but it escapes; and as no entry footprints could be found in the snow, Freddy and Mrs. Church still can not figure out how the burglar could have gotten in.",
"The first practice game draws many spectators, and Kurtz reckons that the game against his Tushville team will get a thousand paying tickets. He offers Mr. Boom a deal where the winner takes two\\-thirds of the receipts. The strange Martian pitching proves effective, but at bat, Freddy has them swing at any pitch. The other team members do the hitting and scoring. In the end, the Martians lose, 8β6\\.",
"Anderson returns the stolen necklace to Mrs. Church, claiming he is acting for another. (He is shocked and angered by the 10Β’ reward, as he thought the necklace was genuine.) As his house is watched by the A.B.I, Freddy knows there is not another person, that Anderson is the thief, and that furthermore his main motive was to make Mrs. Church think her house is haunted, so that he could buy it cheaply and sell it at a higher price. When Freddy notices house paint on the Martian's flying saucer, he deduces that Anderson holds Squeak\\-squeak prisoner, and is forcing the Martians to help him steal; that it is with the help of the flying saucer that Anderson has entered houses undetected. An investigation of Anderson's house shows that Squeak\\-squeak was moved, and a telephone conversation between Anderson and an accomplice is overheard, during which Anderson calls the accomplice \"Herb\". Squeak\\-squeak is not there, but they find jewelry from other recent robberies.",
"The game with Tushville starts reasonably, for example with an elephant sliding into third base (\"...when an elephant slides, something has to go.\") With the elephant on third, Freddy reveals his plan, telling the two\\-foot Martians not to swing at anything. With the [strike zone](/wiki/Strike_zone \"Strike zone\") reduced to eight inches, the Martians [walk](/wiki/Base_on_balls \"Base on balls\") every time at bat. They take the lead until the crook Anderson whispers something to them. The Martians disobey coach Freddy, start swinging, and lose the game.",
"Mrs. Peppercorn β from whom Freddy is renting in town β cheers him with her improved version of a [Longfellow](/wiki/Henry_Wadsworth_Longfellow \"Henry Wadsworth Longfellow\") poem, for example changing:",
"\"As a feather is wafted downward / From an eagle in his flight.\" to\n\"As a brick comes hurtling downward / From a rooftop, in a fight.\"\nThe poet\\-pig is not enormously impressed, but is shaken out of his funk and soon wonders if coach Kurtz is Anderson's accomplice; a telephone call proved that his name is Herb. Anderson approaches \"Mr. Arquebus\", asking help with a burglary. Since Freddy will be able to get proof, he agrees. When the flying saucer drops Anderson in a wealthy home, Freddy leaves and calls the police. Knowing where to look for Squeak\\-squeak the Martian allows Freddy to infiltrate Kurtz's house in yet another disguise, this time as an Irish widow. However, the Martian is securely locked away. With the help of a group of [wasps](/wiki/Wasp \"Wasp\"), Freddy captures the Kurtzes, but when Anderson arrives with the police, the lawmen are unable to make sense of the confusion. They decide to lock everybody in the basement so that they can go see the baseball game. Mr. Boom finally arrives and frees all of them right in the middle of the game. The Martians can now play ball without fear, and they begin walking again, but Anderson has not given up. Mr. Boom is so tired from sawing through the basement door that he cannot play, and Freddy takes his place, pulling off his disguise as the crowd cheers. Anderson attempts to sabotage the game by blinding the batters with a mirror, but his plan fails and he is captured and sent to jail. Freddy and the Martians finally win the game, 12β11\\.",
""
] |
Early years: Walter Hines Page 1886β95
--------------------------------------
Rice founded *The Forum* as a wedding gift to his wife Julia Hyneman Barnett. A German immigrant musician, Rice had enrolled at Columbia University School of Law in 1878, and after graduating in 1880, became the librarian of Columbiaβs new School of Political Science. From 1884, he taught classes in the law school, but after he began to practice law, he resigned from teaching. As a lawyer specializing in monopolies and patents, he began to invest in the railroad industry, and then the Electric Storage Battery Company, of which he became president in 1897\.
Rice was also a writer. In 1875, he released "What is Music?", a slim volume that analysed various theories of music from across the globe, and attempted to create a cosmical theory of music based upon current knowledge. "By listening to a great composition," he wrote, "our mind undergoes the same process \- first the mood, then the sentiment, then the definite thought. This order is characteristic of the perception of the beautiful in nature."
An infrequent contributor to the journal, Isaac Rice chose topics that were nonetheless eclectic. They include:
1. July 1892: *The Consumer*{{cite journal\|title\=The Consumer by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, July 1892}}
2. October 1893: *Public Business and the Right to Steal*{{cite journal\|title\=Public Business and the Right to Steal by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, October 1893}}
3. August 1894: *Legalized Plunder of Railroad Properties: The Remedy*{{cite journal\|title\=Legalized Plunder of Railroad Properties: the Remedy by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, August 1894}}
4. March 1912: *Every Man is His Own Banker*{{cite journal\|title\=Every Man His Own Banker by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, Friday, March 1st, 1912}}
In its first year, the magazine had survived on a subscription circulation of around 2,000\. Walter Hines Page joined the journal the following year as the new business manager, and quickly transformed its scope and ambition. Throwing himself and his personality into the work, he became critical of board members who thought that it was beneath the dignity of the journal to directly solicit manuscripts from major writers focused on contemporary issues. Page recruited a slew of celebrity experts and well known authorities β including Congressmen β in order to attract more readers. Their work, focused on national and international events, added a large degree of timeliness to its content.{{According to whom\|date\=August 2015}}
Above all, Page was concerned with the state of the nation in the post Civil War period β the political landscape was dominated by the "[boss system](/wiki/Boss_system "Boss system")" of party political patronage, with underqualified and corrupt candidates elected to serve the local financial and industrial interests. He held hope that [Grover Cleveland](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland "Grover Cleveland") would signal a reformation of that system into a higher state of honesty, frugality, and sound financial policy, yet he was disappointed by Cleveland himself, who he saw as "plodding," "unimaginative," and "unaware of the forces changing the nation."
Page relinquished the editorship in 1895, over a squabble regarding control, and was hired by Houghton, Mifflin and Company, the publishers of *Atlantic Monthly*. A few months later he left, believing he was inadequately paid, and after a brief period working at the Harper Publishing House, he formed Doubleday, Page and Company, publishers of a new periodical, *[The World's Work](/wiki/The_World%27s_Work "The World's Work")*.
### Joseph Mayer Rice and educational reform
At various points in its history, *The Forum* concerned itself with issues surrounding the education system in America, specifically the curriculum. From January through October 1888, *The Forum* ran a symposium series entitled βWhat Shall the Public Schools Teachβ, which included contributions from William T. Harris and Lester Frank Ward. Along with Rice, Ward became a major figure{{According to whom\|date\=August 2015}} in the Progressive Education movement.
*The Forum* made its definitive statement of the education system in 1891β93 when it published a series of incisive muckraking articles by Joseph Mayer Rice. From 1888 to 1890 Rice had studied psychology and pedagogy in the German Universities of Jena and Leipzig, and had studied under Wilhelm Rein, an influential educational theorist. Rein proposed a philosophy of education that placed greater emphasis on the building of moral character over the consumption of facts.
Rice came to write for *The Forum* due to Page's interest in Rice's ideas about pedagogy, and the journal sponsored him as he conducted a six\-month tour of thirty\-six cities in the United States. He visited six to eight urban public elementary schools in each city, and spent the school hours of every day observing classroom events. He talked with approximately twelve hundred teachers, met with school officials and school board members, interviewed parents, and visited twenty teacher\-training institutions.
Rice devoted the summer of 1892 to the analysis of data from his survey of schools. From October 1892 through June 1893, *The Forum* published a series of nine articles by Rice, where he reported tedious, pedantic teaching in traditionally structured schools, unassisted superintendents responsible for the supervision of hundreds of teachers, and board of education reports portraying deplorable conditions of schools. As anticipated by Page, Rice's study generated outraged reactions among a public that heretofore had assumed a fully functioning and effective educational system. Rice's articles earned him a reputation (not a pleasant one among many professional educators) for bringing the topic of schooling into the public's eye, and, in effect, introducing muckraking to the field of education.
The nine articles that Rice wrote for *The Forum* chart an exhaustive tour of public schools from the East Coast to the Midwest taken from December 1891 through first half of 1892\. His criticisms mobilised parents against corrupt politicians, particularly after the articles were published in a collection called *The Public School System of the United States*,{{cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/publicschoolsys00riceuoft\|title\=The public\-school system of the United States\|first\=Joseph Mayer\|last\=Rice\|date\=19 April 1969\|publisher\=New York : Arno Press and the New York Times\|via\=Internet Archive}} which incorporated the original tour with a second survey undertaken in the spring of 1894, mainly of schools that had reformed their curriculum. "It is indeed incomprehensible," he wrote, "that so many loving mothers...are willing without hesitation to resign the fate of their little ones to the tender mercies of ward politicians, who in many instances have no scruples in placing the children in class\-rooms the atmosphere of which is not fit for human beings to breathe, and in charge of teachers who treat them with a degree of severity that borders on barbarism."
The articles published by Rice in this time include:
1. December 1891: *Need School be a Blight to Child Life?*{{cite journal\|title\=Need School be a Blight to Child Life? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1891}}
2. October 1892: *Our Public School System: Evils in Baltimore*{{cite journal\|title\=Our Public\-School System: Evils in Baltimore by J.M. Rice, The Forum, October 1892}}
3. November 1892: *Our Public School System: Schools of Buffalo and Cincinnati*{{cite journal\|title\=Our Public\-School System by J.M. Rice, The Forum, November 1892}}
4. December 1892: *The Public Schools of St. Louis and Indianapolis*{{cite journal\|title\=The Public Schools of St. Louis and Indianapolis by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1892}}
5. January 1893: *The Public School System of New York City*{{cite journal\|title\=The Public\-School System of New York City by J.M. Rice, The Forum, January 1893}}
6. February 1893: *The Public Schools of Boston*{{cite journal\|title\=The Public Schools of Boston by Dr. J.M. Rice, The Forum, February 1893}}
7. June 1893: *Our Public School System: A Summary*{{cite journal\|title\=Our Public School System: A Summary by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1893}}
8. December 1893: *A Plan to Free the Schools From Politics*{{cite journal\|title\=A Plan to Free the Schools from Politics by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1893}}
Rice returned to the University of Jena in the summer of 1893, returning the following year. Upon his return, he was determined to further document his conviction that a Progressive education was beneficial for students. He embarked on another Forum\-sponsored tour in 1895, armed with a survey which he administered to nearly 33,000 young students. In particular, Rice found no link between the time spent on spelling drills and students' performance on spelling tests. His study was far ahead of its time,{{According to whom\|date\=August 2015}} both in the subject of pedagogy and overall methodology.
Articles referring to this later study include:
1. June 1895: *A Rational Correlation of School Studies*{{cite journal\|title\=A Rational Correlation of School Studies by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1895}}
2. August 1895: *Substitution of Teacher for Text\-Book*{{cite journal\|title\=Substitution of Teacher for Text\-Book by J.M. Rice, The Forum, August 1895}}
3. December 1896: *How Shall the Child be Taught? Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform*{{cite journal\|title\=How Shall the Child be Taught? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1896}}
4. January 1896: *How Shall the Child be Taught? The Essentials in Elementary Education*{{cite journal\|title\=How Shall the Child be Taught? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, January 1897}}
5. August 1897: *The Futility of the Spelling Grind I*{{cite journal\|title\=The Futility of the Spelling Grind\-\-\-I by J.M. Rice, The Forum, April 1897}}
6. June 1897: *The Futility of the Spelling Grind II*{{cite journal\|title\=The Futility of the Spelling Grind\-\-\-II by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1897}}
### American imperialism
From 1898 to 1900, *The Forum* analysed the implications of the United States' flirtation with imperialism in Guam, the Philippines, China and Puerto Rico. Several of the articles paid reference to the "[Open Door Policies](/wiki/Open_Door_Policy "Open Door Policy")" of U.S. Secretary of State John Hay. Composed in 1899, the policy allowed multiple imperial powers to access China without committing to direct control, as was the case with Great Britain in India. Though treaties made after 1900 refer to the open door, competition for access to China continued. The term is now more commonly associated with the historian [William Appleman Williams](/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams "William Appleman Williams"), who used it to refer to U.S. economic imperialism in the developing world.
Articles on these issues include:
1. January 1898: *China, and the Chinese Railway Concessions*{{cite journal\|title\=China, and Chinese Railway Concessions by Clarence Cary, The Forum, January 1898}} by Clarence Cary
2. March 1898: *The Duty of Annexing Hawaii*{{cite journal\|title\=The Duty of Annexing Hawaii by Senator John T. Morgan, The Forum, March 1898}} by Senator [John T. Morgan](/wiki/John_Tyler_Morgan "John Tyler Morgan")
3. June 1898: *The War for Cuba*{{cite journal\|title\=The War for Cuba by Joseph Edgar Chamberlin, The Forum, June 1898}} by Joseph Edgar Chamberlain
4. July 1898: *The Philippine Islands*{{cite journal\|title\=The Philippine Islands by Frank F. Hilder, The Forum, July 1898}} by Frank F. Hilder
5. November 1898: *Shall we Keep the Philippines?*{{cite journal\|title\=Shall We Keep the Philippines? by Charles Denby, The Forum, November 1898}} by Charles Demby
6. February 1899: *Coaling Stations for the Navy*{{cite journal\|title\=Coaling\-Stations for the Navy by R.B. Bradford, The Forum, February 1899}} by R.B.Bradford
7. April 1899: *American Opportunities in China*{{cite journal\|title\=American Opportunities in China by Gilbert Reid, The Forum, April 1899}} by Gilbert Reid
8. November 1899: *How Shall Puerto Rico be Governed?*{{cite journal\|title\=How Shall Puerto Rico be Governed? by H.K. Carroll, The Forum, November 1899}} by H. K. Carrol
### Lynching
Lynching of Black Americans was an issue that was discussed several times, though *The Forum* never took a definitive line for or against the practice.
In November 1893, Walter Hines Page wrote in "The Last Hold of the Southern Bully"{{cite journal\|title\=The Last Hold of the Southern Bully by Walter H. Page, The Forum, November 1893}} that lynching was a social crime unheard of during the era of slavery, and was something that society should be spared from, due to its inflammable nature. Using the example of a sexual offense committed by a black man on a white woman, Page asked why black offenders were dealt with so severely when similar crimes committed by white men against black women were regarded as venial offenses. The answer was to build a social and political alliance between state conventions, ecclesiastical organisations and the media to defeat the evil practice. "It is the vast majority of good men, law\-loving men who make up these organisations, and it is they who must defend themselves from the dangerous savagery of the smaller number who regard it as a manly thing to take the law into their own hands."
Other writers took differing stances on the issue. Atticus G. Heygood, a noted Methodist scholar, supporter of emancipation and author of *Our Brother in Black: His Freedom and His Future* (1881\), contributed "The Black Shadow on the South",{{cite journal\|title\=The Black Shadow in the South by Atticus G. Haygood, The Forum, October 1893}} in which he stated that the most alarming fact about lynching was that the practice had ceased to alarm the public. "In a civilised society...lynching is a crime against God and man...lynching is anarchy." On the other side of the issue, Chas Smith asked in October 1893: "Have American Negroes too Much Liberty?"{{cite journal\|title\=Have American Negroes too Much Liberty? by Chas. H. Smith, The Forum, October 1893}}
Other articles to discuss lynching and violence against Blacks include:
1. November 1893: *Negro Outrage No Excuse For Lynching*{{cite journal\|title\=Negro Outrage no Excuse for Lynching by L.E. Bleckley, The Forum, November 1893}} by L. E. Bleckley
2. September 1894: *The Lessons of Recent Civil Disorders*{{cite journal\|title\=The Lessons of Recent Civil Disorders by Thomas M. Cooley, The Forum, September 1894}} by Thomas M. Cooley
3. January 1899: *The Race War in North Carolina*{{cite journal\|title\=The Race War in North Carolina by Henry Litchfield West, The Forum, January 1899}}
4. December 1926: Symposium: Is Lynching Ever Defensible? I. *The Motives of Judge Lynch]*{{cite journal\|title\=Is Lynching Ever Defensible? by George W. Chamlee, The Forum, December 1926}} by George W. Chamlee
II. *The Mind of the Lynching Mob*{{cite journal\|title\=Is Lynching Ever Defensible? by John P. Fort, The Forum, December 1926}} by John P. Fort
|
[
"Early years: Walter Hines Page 1886β95\n--------------------------------------",
"Rice founded *The Forum* as a wedding gift to his wife Julia Hyneman Barnett. A German immigrant musician, Rice had enrolled at Columbia University School of Law in 1878, and after graduating in 1880, became the librarian of Columbiaβs new School of Political Science. From 1884, he taught classes in the law school, but after he began to practice law, he resigned from teaching. As a lawyer specializing in monopolies and patents, he began to invest in the railroad industry, and then the Electric Storage Battery Company, of which he became president in 1897\\.",
"Rice was also a writer. In 1875, he released \"What is Music?\", a slim volume that analysed various theories of music from across the globe, and attempted to create a cosmical theory of music based upon current knowledge. \"By listening to a great composition,\" he wrote, \"our mind undergoes the same process \\- first the mood, then the sentiment, then the definite thought. This order is characteristic of the perception of the beautiful in nature.\"",
"An infrequent contributor to the journal, Isaac Rice chose topics that were nonetheless eclectic. They include:\n1. July 1892: *The Consumer*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Consumer by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, July 1892}}\n2. October 1893: *Public Business and the Right to Steal*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Public Business and the Right to Steal by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, October 1893}}\n3. August 1894: *Legalized Plunder of Railroad Properties: The Remedy*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Legalized Plunder of Railroad Properties: the Remedy by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, August 1894}}\n4. March 1912: *Every Man is His Own Banker*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Every Man His Own Banker by Isaac L. Rice, The Forum, Friday, March 1st, 1912}}",
"In its first year, the magazine had survived on a subscription circulation of around 2,000\\. Walter Hines Page joined the journal the following year as the new business manager, and quickly transformed its scope and ambition. Throwing himself and his personality into the work, he became critical of board members who thought that it was beneath the dignity of the journal to directly solicit manuscripts from major writers focused on contemporary issues. Page recruited a slew of celebrity experts and well known authorities β including Congressmen β in order to attract more readers. Their work, focused on national and international events, added a large degree of timeliness to its content.{{According to whom\\|date\\=August 2015}}",
"Above all, Page was concerned with the state of the nation in the post Civil War period β the political landscape was dominated by the \"[boss system](/wiki/Boss_system \"Boss system\")\" of party political patronage, with underqualified and corrupt candidates elected to serve the local financial and industrial interests. He held hope that [Grover Cleveland](/wiki/Grover_Cleveland \"Grover Cleveland\") would signal a reformation of that system into a higher state of honesty, frugality, and sound financial policy, yet he was disappointed by Cleveland himself, who he saw as \"plodding,\" \"unimaginative,\" and \"unaware of the forces changing the nation.\"",
"Page relinquished the editorship in 1895, over a squabble regarding control, and was hired by Houghton, Mifflin and Company, the publishers of *Atlantic Monthly*. A few months later he left, believing he was inadequately paid, and after a brief period working at the Harper Publishing House, he formed Doubleday, Page and Company, publishers of a new periodical, *[The World's Work](/wiki/The_World%27s_Work \"The World's Work\")*.",
"### Joseph Mayer Rice and educational reform",
"At various points in its history, *The Forum* concerned itself with issues surrounding the education system in America, specifically the curriculum. From January through October 1888, *The Forum* ran a symposium series entitled βWhat Shall the Public Schools Teachβ, which included contributions from William T. Harris and Lester Frank Ward. Along with Rice, Ward became a major figure{{According to whom\\|date\\=August 2015}} in the Progressive Education movement.",
"*The Forum* made its definitive statement of the education system in 1891β93 when it published a series of incisive muckraking articles by Joseph Mayer Rice. From 1888 to 1890 Rice had studied psychology and pedagogy in the German Universities of Jena and Leipzig, and had studied under Wilhelm Rein, an influential educational theorist. Rein proposed a philosophy of education that placed greater emphasis on the building of moral character over the consumption of facts.",
"Rice came to write for *The Forum* due to Page's interest in Rice's ideas about pedagogy, and the journal sponsored him as he conducted a six\\-month tour of thirty\\-six cities in the United States. He visited six to eight urban public elementary schools in each city, and spent the school hours of every day observing classroom events. He talked with approximately twelve hundred teachers, met with school officials and school board members, interviewed parents, and visited twenty teacher\\-training institutions.",
"Rice devoted the summer of 1892 to the analysis of data from his survey of schools. From October 1892 through June 1893, *The Forum* published a series of nine articles by Rice, where he reported tedious, pedantic teaching in traditionally structured schools, unassisted superintendents responsible for the supervision of hundreds of teachers, and board of education reports portraying deplorable conditions of schools. As anticipated by Page, Rice's study generated outraged reactions among a public that heretofore had assumed a fully functioning and effective educational system. Rice's articles earned him a reputation (not a pleasant one among many professional educators) for bringing the topic of schooling into the public's eye, and, in effect, introducing muckraking to the field of education.",
"The nine articles that Rice wrote for *The Forum* chart an exhaustive tour of public schools from the East Coast to the Midwest taken from December 1891 through first half of 1892\\. His criticisms mobilised parents against corrupt politicians, particularly after the articles were published in a collection called *The Public School System of the United States*,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/publicschoolsys00riceuoft\\|title\\=The public\\-school system of the United States\\|first\\=Joseph Mayer\\|last\\=Rice\\|date\\=19 April 1969\\|publisher\\=New York : Arno Press and the New York Times\\|via\\=Internet Archive}} which incorporated the original tour with a second survey undertaken in the spring of 1894, mainly of schools that had reformed their curriculum. \"It is indeed incomprehensible,\" he wrote, \"that so many loving mothers...are willing without hesitation to resign the fate of their little ones to the tender mercies of ward politicians, who in many instances have no scruples in placing the children in class\\-rooms the atmosphere of which is not fit for human beings to breathe, and in charge of teachers who treat them with a degree of severity that borders on barbarism.\"",
"The articles published by Rice in this time include:\n1. December 1891: *Need School be a Blight to Child Life?*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Need School be a Blight to Child Life? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1891}}\n2. October 1892: *Our Public School System: Evils in Baltimore*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Our Public\\-School System: Evils in Baltimore by J.M. Rice, The Forum, October 1892}}\n3. November 1892: *Our Public School System: Schools of Buffalo and Cincinnati*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Our Public\\-School System by J.M. Rice, The Forum, November 1892}}\n4. December 1892: *The Public Schools of St. Louis and Indianapolis*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Public Schools of St. Louis and Indianapolis by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1892}}\n5. January 1893: *The Public School System of New York City*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Public\\-School System of New York City by J.M. Rice, The Forum, January 1893}}\n6. February 1893: *The Public Schools of Boston*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Public Schools of Boston by Dr. J.M. Rice, The Forum, February 1893}}\n7. June 1893: *Our Public School System: A Summary*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Our Public School System: A Summary by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1893}}\n8. December 1893: *A Plan to Free the Schools From Politics*{{cite journal\\|title\\=A Plan to Free the Schools from Politics by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1893}}",
"Rice returned to the University of Jena in the summer of 1893, returning the following year. Upon his return, he was determined to further document his conviction that a Progressive education was beneficial for students. He embarked on another Forum\\-sponsored tour in 1895, armed with a survey which he administered to nearly 33,000 young students. In particular, Rice found no link between the time spent on spelling drills and students' performance on spelling tests. His study was far ahead of its time,{{According to whom\\|date\\=August 2015}} both in the subject of pedagogy and overall methodology.",
"Articles referring to this later study include:\n1. June 1895: *A Rational Correlation of School Studies*{{cite journal\\|title\\=A Rational Correlation of School Studies by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1895}}\n2. August 1895: *Substitution of Teacher for Text\\-Book*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Substitution of Teacher for Text\\-Book by J.M. Rice, The Forum, August 1895}}\n3. December 1896: *How Shall the Child be Taught? Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform*{{cite journal\\|title\\=How Shall the Child be Taught? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, December 1896}}\n4. January 1896: *How Shall the Child be Taught? The Essentials in Elementary Education*{{cite journal\\|title\\=How Shall the Child be Taught? by J.M. Rice, The Forum, January 1897}}\n5. August 1897: *The Futility of the Spelling Grind I*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Futility of the Spelling Grind\\-\\-\\-I by J.M. Rice, The Forum, April 1897}}\n6. June 1897: *The Futility of the Spelling Grind II*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Futility of the Spelling Grind\\-\\-\\-II by J.M. Rice, The Forum, June 1897}}",
"### American imperialism",
"From 1898 to 1900, *The Forum* analysed the implications of the United States' flirtation with imperialism in Guam, the Philippines, China and Puerto Rico. Several of the articles paid reference to the \"[Open Door Policies](/wiki/Open_Door_Policy \"Open Door Policy\")\" of U.S. Secretary of State John Hay. Composed in 1899, the policy allowed multiple imperial powers to access China without committing to direct control, as was the case with Great Britain in India. Though treaties made after 1900 refer to the open door, competition for access to China continued. The term is now more commonly associated with the historian [William Appleman Williams](/wiki/William_Appleman_Williams \"William Appleman Williams\"), who used it to refer to U.S. economic imperialism in the developing world.",
"Articles on these issues include:\n1. January 1898: *China, and the Chinese Railway Concessions*{{cite journal\\|title\\=China, and Chinese Railway Concessions by Clarence Cary, The Forum, January 1898}} by Clarence Cary\n2. March 1898: *The Duty of Annexing Hawaii*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Duty of Annexing Hawaii by Senator John T. Morgan, The Forum, March 1898}} by Senator [John T. Morgan](/wiki/John_Tyler_Morgan \"John Tyler Morgan\")\n3. June 1898: *The War for Cuba*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The War for Cuba by Joseph Edgar Chamberlin, The Forum, June 1898}} by Joseph Edgar Chamberlain\n4. July 1898: *The Philippine Islands*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Philippine Islands by Frank F. Hilder, The Forum, July 1898}} by Frank F. Hilder\n5. November 1898: *Shall we Keep the Philippines?*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Shall We Keep the Philippines? by Charles Denby, The Forum, November 1898}} by Charles Demby\n6. February 1899: *Coaling Stations for the Navy*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Coaling\\-Stations for the Navy by R.B. Bradford, The Forum, February 1899}} by R.B.Bradford\n7. April 1899: *American Opportunities in China*{{cite journal\\|title\\=American Opportunities in China by Gilbert Reid, The Forum, April 1899}} by Gilbert Reid\n8. November 1899: *How Shall Puerto Rico be Governed?*{{cite journal\\|title\\=How Shall Puerto Rico be Governed? by H.K. Carroll, The Forum, November 1899}} by H. K. Carrol",
"### Lynching",
"Lynching of Black Americans was an issue that was discussed several times, though *The Forum* never took a definitive line for or against the practice.",
"In November 1893, Walter Hines Page wrote in \"The Last Hold of the Southern Bully\"{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Last Hold of the Southern Bully by Walter H. Page, The Forum, November 1893}} that lynching was a social crime unheard of during the era of slavery, and was something that society should be spared from, due to its inflammable nature. Using the example of a sexual offense committed by a black man on a white woman, Page asked why black offenders were dealt with so severely when similar crimes committed by white men against black women were regarded as venial offenses. The answer was to build a social and political alliance between state conventions, ecclesiastical organisations and the media to defeat the evil practice. \"It is the vast majority of good men, law\\-loving men who make up these organisations, and it is they who must defend themselves from the dangerous savagery of the smaller number who regard it as a manly thing to take the law into their own hands.\"",
"Other writers took differing stances on the issue. Atticus G. Heygood, a noted Methodist scholar, supporter of emancipation and author of *Our Brother in Black: His Freedom and His Future* (1881\\), contributed \"The Black Shadow on the South\",{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Black Shadow in the South by Atticus G. Haygood, The Forum, October 1893}} in which he stated that the most alarming fact about lynching was that the practice had ceased to alarm the public. \"In a civilised society...lynching is a crime against God and man...lynching is anarchy.\" On the other side of the issue, Chas Smith asked in October 1893: \"Have American Negroes too Much Liberty?\"{{cite journal\\|title\\=Have American Negroes too Much Liberty? by Chas. H. Smith, The Forum, October 1893}}",
"Other articles to discuss lynching and violence against Blacks include:\n1. November 1893: *Negro Outrage No Excuse For Lynching*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Negro Outrage no Excuse for Lynching by L.E. Bleckley, The Forum, November 1893}} by L. E. Bleckley\n2. September 1894: *The Lessons of Recent Civil Disorders*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Lessons of Recent Civil Disorders by Thomas M. Cooley, The Forum, September 1894}} by Thomas M. Cooley\n3. January 1899: *The Race War in North Carolina*{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Race War in North Carolina by Henry Litchfield West, The Forum, January 1899}}\n4. December 1926: Symposium: Is Lynching Ever Defensible? I. *The Motives of Judge Lynch]*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Is Lynching Ever Defensible? by George W. Chamlee, The Forum, December 1926}} by George W. Chamlee\nII. *The Mind of the Lynching Mob*{{cite journal\\|title\\=Is Lynching Ever Defensible? by John P. Fort, The Forum, December 1926}} by John P. Fort",
""
] |
Plot
----
Two months after the second\-season finale, Betty returns to New York after a cross\-country solo trip across the United States. It is revealed that she rejected both Gio and Henry in favor of working on herself and her career. Back at home, Betty announces her new goals: to get more responsibilities at work, to not get involve with romantic entanglements, and to get her own apartment in Manhattan.
Betty returns to *Mode* ready to get to work, but discovers Wilhelmina has made many changes, changing the office to be more cold and severe. Marc and Amanda welcome her back but Wilhelmina informs Betty that she will be joining Daniel at "Player", a [young men's magazine](/wiki/Lads_mag "Lads mag"). Player is a much more boorish and casual workplace, with Daniel Jr. frequently pulling pranks and the articles focused only on shallow topics. Nevertheless, Betty gets assigned to head up the magazine's Harley motorcycle event and has to take over when Daniel. Jr. sprays Silly String on a model. Betty has to take the model's place and Daniel Jr. sprays her with Silly String, causing Betty to crash in a spectacularly embarrassing fashion. Marc and Amanda take pleasure in Betty's humiliation.
Betty goes apartment\-hunting with Christina and finds a perfect apartment, but someone else takes the lease. The real estate agent convinces Betty to taking another unit in the building sight unseen, which turns out to be a filthy mess. Betty's family surprises her by fixing up the apartment and she is delighted with her new space. Betty also meets her new neighbor, Jesse, who is an attractive musician.
Ignacio has a new job at Flushing Burger, where his boss is Kimmie Keegan, Betty's high school bully. When Kimmie learns Ignacio is Betty's father, she starts treating him harshly. When Betty and Hilda confront Kimmie, the three get into a food fight. Betty later apologizes to Kimmie, who surprises her by admitting she is jealous of Betty's loving family, great job and city apartment. Kimmie gives Ignacio his job back and promises to treat him fairly.
Meanwhile, Claire's new magazine *Hot Flash* causes a rift between Claire and Wilhelmina. Wilhelmina asks Alexis for an increased budget to promote to relaunch of *Mode*, but Alexis informs her that finances are already focused on promoting *Hot Flash*'s debut cover in Times Square. Wilhelmina plots to get increase *Mode*'s budget and invites Alexis to join her in promoting *Mode* on *[Live with Regis \& Kelly](/wiki/Live_with_Regis_%26_Kelly "Live with Regis & Kelly")*. The interview takes a turn when the hosts mock *Hot Flash* and they read an article that trashes Alexis' appearance and discusses how she demoted Daniel.
Embarrassed, Alexis gives *Hot Flash*'s Times Square spot to *Mode*. At a family dinner, Claire confronts Alexis for falling for Wilhelmina's tricks while Daniel Jr. acts up. Daniel sends him to his room and complains about Daniel Jr.'s bad behavior. Claire tells Daniel that parenting is not easy but he will need to do what is best for his son. Daniel makes up with his son and vows to enroll him in school so he can have a normal life. Claire is informed that *Hot Flash* will be downsized and she reminds Alexis that Wilhelmina is pushing the Meades away from each other and eventually Wilhelmina will push Alexis out too.
Nevertheless, *Mode* keeps the Times Square spot and Wilhelmina and Marc congratulate themselves on a job well done.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Two months after the second\\-season finale, Betty returns to New York after a cross\\-country solo trip across the United States. It is revealed that she rejected both Gio and Henry in favor of working on herself and her career. Back at home, Betty announces her new goals: to get more responsibilities at work, to not get involve with romantic entanglements, and to get her own apartment in Manhattan.",
"Betty returns to *Mode* ready to get to work, but discovers Wilhelmina has made many changes, changing the office to be more cold and severe. Marc and Amanda welcome her back but Wilhelmina informs Betty that she will be joining Daniel at \"Player\", a [young men's magazine](/wiki/Lads_mag \"Lads mag\"). Player is a much more boorish and casual workplace, with Daniel Jr. frequently pulling pranks and the articles focused only on shallow topics. Nevertheless, Betty gets assigned to head up the magazine's Harley motorcycle event and has to take over when Daniel. Jr. sprays Silly String on a model. Betty has to take the model's place and Daniel Jr. sprays her with Silly String, causing Betty to crash in a spectacularly embarrassing fashion. Marc and Amanda take pleasure in Betty's humiliation.",
"Betty goes apartment\\-hunting with Christina and finds a perfect apartment, but someone else takes the lease. The real estate agent convinces Betty to taking another unit in the building sight unseen, which turns out to be a filthy mess. Betty's family surprises her by fixing up the apartment and she is delighted with her new space. Betty also meets her new neighbor, Jesse, who is an attractive musician.",
"Ignacio has a new job at Flushing Burger, where his boss is Kimmie Keegan, Betty's high school bully. When Kimmie learns Ignacio is Betty's father, she starts treating him harshly. When Betty and Hilda confront Kimmie, the three get into a food fight. Betty later apologizes to Kimmie, who surprises her by admitting she is jealous of Betty's loving family, great job and city apartment. Kimmie gives Ignacio his job back and promises to treat him fairly.",
"Meanwhile, Claire's new magazine *Hot Flash* causes a rift between Claire and Wilhelmina. Wilhelmina asks Alexis for an increased budget to promote to relaunch of *Mode*, but Alexis informs her that finances are already focused on promoting *Hot Flash*'s debut cover in Times Square. Wilhelmina plots to get increase *Mode*'s budget and invites Alexis to join her in promoting *Mode* on *[Live with Regis \\& Kelly](/wiki/Live_with_Regis_%26_Kelly \"Live with Regis & Kelly\")*. The interview takes a turn when the hosts mock *Hot Flash* and they read an article that trashes Alexis' appearance and discusses how she demoted Daniel.",
"Embarrassed, Alexis gives *Hot Flash*'s Times Square spot to *Mode*. At a family dinner, Claire confronts Alexis for falling for Wilhelmina's tricks while Daniel Jr. acts up. Daniel sends him to his room and complains about Daniel Jr.'s bad behavior. Claire tells Daniel that parenting is not easy but he will need to do what is best for his son. Daniel makes up with his son and vows to enroll him in school so he can have a normal life. Claire is informed that *Hot Flash* will be downsized and she reminds Alexis that Wilhelmina is pushing the Meades away from each other and eventually Wilhelmina will push Alexis out too.",
"Nevertheless, *Mode* keeps the Times Square spot and Wilhelmina and Marc congratulate themselves on a job well done.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{More citations needed section\|date\=April 2024}}
{{Bronze Age}}
See the article on [chronology of the ancient Near East](/wiki/Chronology_of_the_ancient_Near_East "Chronology of the ancient Near East") for a discussion regarding the accuracy and resolution of dates for events of the 2nd millennium BC in the Near East.
### Middle Bronze Age
Spending much of their energies in trying to recuperate from the chaotic situation that existed at the turn of the millennium, the most powerful civilizations of the time, [Egypt](/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt "History of ancient Egypt") and [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia"), turned their attention to more modest goals. The [Pharaohs](/wiki/List_of_pharaohs "List of pharaohs") of the [Middle Kingdom of Egypt](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt "Middle Kingdom of Egypt") and their contemporary [Kings of Babylon](/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Babylon "List of kings of Babylon"), of [Amorite](/wiki/Amorite "Amorite") origin, brought governance that was largely popular and approved of among their subjects, and favoured elegant art and architecture. Farther east, the [Indus Valley civilization](/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization "Indus Valley civilization") was in a period of decline, possibly as a result of intense, ruinous flooding.
Egypt and Babylonia's military tactics were still based on foot soldiers transporting their equipment on [donkeys](/wiki/Donkey "Donkey"). Combined with a weak economy and difficulty in maintaining order, this was a fragile situation that crumbled under the pressure of external forces they could not oppose.
#### Unrest of the 16th century
About a century before the middle of the millennium, bands of [Indo\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans "Proto-Indo-Europeans") invaders came from the [Central Asian](/wiki/Central_Asia "Central Asia") plains and swept through [Western Asia](/wiki/Western_Asia "Western Asia") and [Northeast Africa](/wiki/Northeast_Africa "Northeast Africa"). They were riding fast two\-wheeled [chariots](/wiki/Chariot "Chariot") powered by [horses](/wiki/Horse "Horse"), a system of weaponry developed earlier in the context of plains warfare. This tool of war was unknown among the classical civilizations. Egypt and Babylonia's foot soldiers were unable to defend against the invaders: in [1630 BC](/wiki/1630_BC "1630 BC"), the [Hyksos](/wiki/Hyksos "Hyksos") swept into the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta "Nile Delta"), and in [1595 BC](/wiki/1595_BC "1595 BC"), the [Hittites](/wiki/Hittites "Hittites") swept into [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia").
### Late Bronze Age
The people in place were quick to adapt to the new tactics, and a new international situation resulted from the change. Though during most of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC several regional powers competed relentlessly for hegemony, many developments occurred: there was new emphasis on grandiose architecture, new clothing fashions, vivid diplomatic correspondence on [clay tablets](/wiki/Clay_tablet "Clay tablet"), renewed economic exchanges, and the [New Kingdom](/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt "New Kingdom of Egypt") of Egypt played the role of the main [superpower](/wiki/Superpower "Superpower"). Among the great states of the time, only [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon") refrained from taking part in battles, mainly due to its new position as the world's religious and intellectual capital.
The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") civilization at its final period of time, displayed all its characteristic social traits: low level of urbanization, small cities centered on temples or royal palaces, strict separation of classes between an illiterate mass of peasants and craftsmen, and a powerful military [elite](/wiki/Elite "Elite"), knowledge of writing and education reserved to a tiny minority of [scribes](/wiki/Scribe "Scribe"), and pronounced [aristocratic](/wiki/Aristocracy "Aristocracy") life.
Near the end of the 2nd millennium BC, new waves of [barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian "Barbarian"), this time riding on horseback, wholly destroyed the Bronze Age world, and were to be followed by waves of social changes that marked the beginning of different times. Also contributing to the changes were the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples "Sea Peoples"), ship\-faring raiders of the Mediterranean.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=April 2024}}\n{{Bronze Age}}",
"See the article on [chronology of the ancient Near East](/wiki/Chronology_of_the_ancient_Near_East \"Chronology of the ancient Near East\") for a discussion regarding the accuracy and resolution of dates for events of the 2nd millennium BC in the Near East.",
"### Middle Bronze Age",
"Spending much of their energies in trying to recuperate from the chaotic situation that existed at the turn of the millennium, the most powerful civilizations of the time, [Egypt](/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt \"History of ancient Egypt\") and [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\"), turned their attention to more modest goals. The [Pharaohs](/wiki/List_of_pharaohs \"List of pharaohs\") of the [Middle Kingdom of Egypt](/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"Middle Kingdom of Egypt\") and their contemporary [Kings of Babylon](/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Babylon \"List of kings of Babylon\"), of [Amorite](/wiki/Amorite \"Amorite\") origin, brought governance that was largely popular and approved of among their subjects, and favoured elegant art and architecture. Farther east, the [Indus Valley civilization](/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization \"Indus Valley civilization\") was in a period of decline, possibly as a result of intense, ruinous flooding.",
"Egypt and Babylonia's military tactics were still based on foot soldiers transporting their equipment on [donkeys](/wiki/Donkey \"Donkey\"). Combined with a weak economy and difficulty in maintaining order, this was a fragile situation that crumbled under the pressure of external forces they could not oppose.",
"#### Unrest of the 16th century",
"About a century before the middle of the millennium, bands of [Indo\\-European](/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans \"Proto-Indo-Europeans\") invaders came from the [Central Asian](/wiki/Central_Asia \"Central Asia\") plains and swept through [Western Asia](/wiki/Western_Asia \"Western Asia\") and [Northeast Africa](/wiki/Northeast_Africa \"Northeast Africa\"). They were riding fast two\\-wheeled [chariots](/wiki/Chariot \"Chariot\") powered by [horses](/wiki/Horse \"Horse\"), a system of weaponry developed earlier in the context of plains warfare. This tool of war was unknown among the classical civilizations. Egypt and Babylonia's foot soldiers were unable to defend against the invaders: in [1630 BC](/wiki/1630_BC \"1630 BC\"), the [Hyksos](/wiki/Hyksos \"Hyksos\") swept into the [Nile Delta](/wiki/Nile_Delta \"Nile Delta\"), and in [1595 BC](/wiki/1595_BC \"1595 BC\"), the [Hittites](/wiki/Hittites \"Hittites\") swept into [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\").",
"### Late Bronze Age",
"The people in place were quick to adapt to the new tactics, and a new international situation resulted from the change. Though during most of the second half of the 2nd millennium BC several regional powers competed relentlessly for hegemony, many developments occurred: there was new emphasis on grandiose architecture, new clothing fashions, vivid diplomatic correspondence on [clay tablets](/wiki/Clay_tablet \"Clay tablet\"), renewed economic exchanges, and the [New Kingdom](/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt \"New Kingdom of Egypt\") of Egypt played the role of the main [superpower](/wiki/Superpower \"Superpower\"). Among the great states of the time, only [Babylon](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\") refrained from taking part in battles, mainly due to its new position as the world's religious and intellectual capital.",
"The [Bronze Age](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") civilization at its final period of time, displayed all its characteristic social traits: low level of urbanization, small cities centered on temples or royal palaces, strict separation of classes between an illiterate mass of peasants and craftsmen, and a powerful military [elite](/wiki/Elite \"Elite\"), knowledge of writing and education reserved to a tiny minority of [scribes](/wiki/Scribe \"Scribe\"), and pronounced [aristocratic](/wiki/Aristocracy \"Aristocracy\") life.",
"Near the end of the 2nd millennium BC, new waves of [barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian \"Barbarian\"), this time riding on horseback, wholly destroyed the Bronze Age world, and were to be followed by waves of social changes that marked the beginning of different times. Also contributing to the changes were the [Sea Peoples](/wiki/Sea_Peoples \"Sea Peoples\"), ship\\-faring raiders of the Mediterranean.",
""
] |
History
-------
The club has had several restructurings since its formation in 1922\.
### Juan Aurich (1922β1992\)
{{Infobox football club
\|clubname \= Juan Aurich
\|image \= \[\[Image:Club Juan Aurich.svg\|200px\|logo]]
\|fullname \= Club Deportivo Juan Aurich
\|nickname \= ''El CiclΓ³n del Norte'' (The Northern Cyclone)
\|founded \={{Start date and age\|1922\|09\|03}}{{cite web\|last\=Quispe\|first\=Juan\|title\=Familia Aurich\|url\=http://dechalaca.com/informes/curiosidades/familia\-aurich\|work\=dechalaca.com\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es}}
\|dissolved \= 1992
\|ground \= \[\[Estadio ElΓas Aguirre]],
\[\[Chiclayo]], Peru
}}
The first incarnation of the football club was founded by a group of workers of the *[hacienda](/wiki/Hacienda "Hacienda")* BatΓ‘n Grande on 3 September 1922 as **Club Deportivo Juan Aurich**, after the owner of the *hacienda*, Juan Aurich Pastor. The club played two spells in the first division (Primera DivisiΓ³n), the first between 1967 and 1983 and the second between 1988 and 1991\. They dissolved shortly after losing their place in the top flight ([1991 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1991_Torneo_Descentralizado "1991 Torneo Descentralizado")).
#### Honours
* **[Primera DivisiΓ³n](/wiki/Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n_Peruana "Primera DivisiΓ³n Peruana"):**
+ **Runners\-up (1\):** [1968](/wiki/1968_Torneo_Descentralizado "1968 Torneo Descentralizado")
### Aurich\-CaΓ±aΓ±a
{{Infobox football club
\|clubname \= Aurich\-CaΓ±aΓ±a
\|image \= \[\[Image:Aurich\-CaΓ±aΓ±a.jpg\|100px\|logo]]
\|fullname \= Club Social Deportivo Juan Aurich\-CaΓ±aΓ±a
\|nickname \= El CiclΓ³n Gallero
\|founded \= 1992
\|dissolved \= 2003
\|ground \= \[\[Estadio ElΓas Aguirre]],
\[\[Chiclayo]]
\|capacity \= 25,000
\|chrtitle \=
\|chairman \=
\|mgrtitle \=
\|manager \=
\|league \=
\|season \=
\|position \=
\|pattern\_la1\=\_red\_2
\|pattern\_b1\=\_red
\|pattern\_ra1\=\_red\_3
\|leftarm1\=FF0000
\|body1\=FF0000
\|rightarm1\=FF0000
\|shorts1\=FFFFFF
\|socks1\=FF0000
\|pattern\_la2\=
\|pattern\_b2\=
\|pattern\_ra2\=
\|leftarm2\=FFFFFF
\|body2\=FFFFFF
\|rightarm2\=FFFFFF
\|shorts2\=FFFFFF
\|socks2\=FF0000
\|}}
Following their relegation at the end of the [1991 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1991_Torneo_Descentralizado "1991 Torneo Descentralizado"), a new football club was formed, albeit a merge, between the remaining Juan Aurich club and [Deportivo CaΓ±aΓ±a](/wiki/Deportivo_Ca%C3%B1a%C3%B1a "Deportivo CaΓ±aΓ±a"). This merged clubβled by manager [Horacioa Baldessari](/wiki/Horacio_Ra%C3%BAl_Baldessari "Horacio RaΓΊl Baldessari") won the [1993 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1993_Copa_Per%C3%BA "1993 Copa PerΓΊ") and gained promotion to [1994 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1994_Torneo_Descentralizado "1994 Torneo Descentralizado") when they defeated [FBC Aurora](/wiki/FBC_Aurora "FBC Aurora"), [UniΓ³n Juventud](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Juventud "UniΓ³n Juventud"), [Deportivo Garcilaso](/wiki/Deportivo_Garcilaso "Deportivo Garcilaso"), and [Colegio Nacional Iquitos](/wiki/Colegio_Nacional_Iquitos "Colegio Nacional Iquitos") in the final group. They held a brief spell there between 1994 and 1996 until their relegation at the end of the [1996 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1996_Torneo_Descentralizado "1996 Torneo Descentralizado") season, when they were relegated to the [Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA "Copa PerΓΊ").
#### National
* **[Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA "Copa PerΓΊ"): 1**
[1993](/wiki/1993_Copa_Per%C3%BA "1993 Copa PerΓΊ")
### Juan Aurich (1996β2004\)
A new reincarnation of Juan Aurich was formed as **Juan Aurich de Chiclayo** shortly after [AurichβCaΓ±aΓ±a](/wiki/Aurich%E2%80%93Ca%C3%B1a%C3%B1a "AurichβCaΓ±aΓ±a") was relegated; their nickname was *El CiclΓ³n del Norte* (The Northern Cyclone). The new Juan Aurich achieved promotion through the [1997 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA "1997 Copa PerΓΊ") and played from 1998 until 2002 when they were relegated. The third Juan Aurich football club achieved promotion in 1997 by winning the [1997 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA "1997 Copa PerΓΊ"). This spell in the first division lasted from 1998 to 2002\.{{cite web\|last\=Quispe\|first\=Juan\|title\=Familia Aurich\|url\=http://dechalaca.com/informes/curiosidades/familia\-aurich\|work\=dechalaca.com\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es}} Due to the financial strain created by playing in the top flight, Juan Aurich de Chiclayo also folded as its predecessors.
#### Honours
* **[Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA "Copa PerΓΊ")**
+ **Winners (1\)**: [1997](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA "1997 Copa PerΓΊ")
* **[Liga Departamental de Lambayeque](/wiki/Ligas_Departamentales_del_Peru "Ligas Departamentales del Peru")**
+ **Winners (1\)**: 1997
* **[Liga Distrital de Chiclayo](/wiki/Ligas_Distritales_del_Peru "Ligas Distritales del Peru")**
+ **Winners (1\)**: 1997
### Foundation and promotion
In November 2004, Juan Merino Aurich took control of the waning football club Mariscal Nieto of the [La Victoria district](/wiki/La_Victoria_District%2C_Chiclayo "La Victoria District, Chiclayo") of the [Chiclayo Province](/wiki/Chiclayo_Province "Chiclayo Province"). Merino converted the club to Juan Aurich de La Victoria and founded the current incarnation of Juan Aurich on 28 January 2005\. In 2006, they finished first in the regional stage of the [2006 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/2006_Copa_Per%C3%BA "2006 Copa PerΓΊ") advanced to the national stage of the tournament. They overcame their rivals in the Round of 16 and the quarter\-finals but fell to [Hijos de Acosvinchos](/wiki/Hijos_de_Acosvinchos "Hijos de Acosvinchos") in the semifinals. The following season they again reached the regional stage of the [2007 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/2007_Copa_Per%C3%BA "2007 Copa PerΓΊ") and finished first. This time, however, they achieved promotion to the [2008 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2008_Torneo_Descentralizado "2008 Torneo Descentralizado") by advancing to and winning the finals. Baldessari, as in 1993, led the team and defeated [Sport Γguila](/wiki/Sport_%C3%81guila "Sport Γguila") in the finals in a penalty shootout.
### First seasons of professional football
Their first season in the first division was not remarkable. In the Torneo Apertura, they finished eighth and in the Torneo Clausura they finished twelfth. Consequently, the club finished twelfth on the aggregate table and tied on points with [AtlΓ©tico Minero](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Minero "AtlΓ©tico Minero"), which finished thirteenth. The two teams played an extra match to determine the relegated team.{{cite web\|date\=14 December 2008\|title\=Juan Aurich y AtlΓ©tico Minero jugarΓ‘n un partido extra para definir la baja\|url\=http://elcomercio.pe/ediciononline/html/2008\-12\-14/juan\-aurich\-y\-atletico\-minero\-jugaran\-partido\-extra\-definir\-baja.html\|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|work\=elcomercio.pe\|language\=es\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054811/http://elcomercio.pe/ediciononline/html/2008\-12\-14/juan\-aurich\-y\-atletico\-minero\-jugaran\-partido\-extra\-definir\-baja.html}} Juan Aurich defeated AtlΓ©tico Minero 2β1 and remained in the first division.
In the [2009 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2009_Torneo_Descentralizado "2009 Torneo Descentralizado"), the club made a huge improvement with manager [Franco Navarro](/wiki/Franco_Navarro "Franco Navarro"). They finished first in the first stage of the season and were one of the favorites to reach the finals. As leading team of the first stage, they started first in their group of the second stage. However, in October, two months before the end of the season, the club and Navarro terminated the manager's contract.{{cite web\|last\=Castro\|first\=Roberto\|title\=Franco Navarro renunciΓ³ intempestivamente a la direcciΓ³n tΓ©cnica de Juan Aurich\|url\=http://dechalaca.com/copaperu/livenews\-2009/franco\-navarro\-renuncio\-intempestivamente\-a\-la\-direccion\-tecnica\-de\-juan\-aurich\-por\-desavenencias\-co\|work\=dechalaca.com\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es\|date\=3 October 2009}} The club hired [Luis Fernando SuΓ‘rez](/wiki/Luis_Fernando_Su%C3%A1rez "Luis Fernando SuΓ‘rez") to finish coaching what was left of the season.{{cite web\|title\=Vocean a Luis SuΓ‘rez como el prΓ³ximo tΓ©cnico de la selecciΓ³n\|url\=http://depor.pe/noticia/353915/luis\-suarez\-buscare\-titulo\-aurich\|work\=depor.pe\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es\|date\=12 October 2009}} [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima "Alianza Lima"), which was second of the group at the start of second stage, surpassed Juan Aurich and failed to advance to the finals. At the end of the season the club finished third on the aggregate table, qualifying for the [2010 Copa Libertadores](/wiki/2010_Copa_Libertadores "2010 Copa Libertadores").
The club continued with SuΓ‘rez into the 2010 season, which began on a high note after they eliminated [Estudiantes Tecos](/wiki/Estudiantes_Tecos "Estudiantes Tecos") in the first stage of the [2010 Copa Libertadores](/wiki/2010_Copa_Libertadores "2010 Copa Libertadores"). They advanced to Group 3 of the competition with Copa Libertadores defending champions [Estudiantes de La Plata](/wiki/Estudiantes_de_La_Plata "Estudiantes de La Plata"), [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima "Alianza Lima"), and [BolΓvar](/wiki/Club_Bol%C3%ADvar "Club BolΓvar"). They did not advance to the following stage as they finished third behind Estudiantes and Alianza Lima. In the [2010 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2010_Torneo_Descentralizado "2010 Torneo Descentralizado") the club's performance suffered which led to SuΓ‘rez's exit from the club but they managed to obtain the last berth to the [2011 Copa Sudamericana](/wiki/2011_Copa_Sudamericana "2011 Copa Sudamericana") under [Juan Reynoso](/wiki/Juan_Reynoso_Guzm%C3%A1n "Juan Reynoso GuzmΓ‘n").{{cite web\|title\=Reynoso sobre su llegada al Aurich: "Me agradΓ³ el proyecto"\|url\=http://depor.pe/noticia/625399/confirmado\-juan\-reynoso\-nuevo\-tecnico\-aurich\|work\=depor.pe\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es}}{{cite web\|title\=Luis SuΓ‘rez dejΓ³ de ser tΓ©cnico de Juan Aurich\|url\=http://depor.pe/noticia/624685/luis\-suarez\-dejo\-tecnico\-aurich\|work\=depor.pe\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es}} In mid\-2010 he became [Anonymous Society](/wiki/S.A._%28corporation%29 "S.A. (corporation)").
### First professional title
The following season they achieved their greatest success yet. The club started by hiring Colombian [Diego UmaΓ±a](/wiki/Diego_Uma%C3%B1a "Diego UmaΓ±a") after Reynoso resigned from the managing position.{{cite web\|title\=Diego UmaΓ±a es nuevo tΓ©cnico del Juan Aurich\|url\=http://www.peru.com/futbol/primera20110106/134201/Diego\-Umana\-es\-nuevo\-tecnico\-del\-Juan\-Aurich\|work\=peru.com\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110042248/http://www.peru.com/futbol/primera20110106/134201/Diego\-Umana\-es\-nuevo\-tecnico\-del\-Juan\-Aurich\|archive\-date\=10 January 2011}}{{cite web\|title\=Se cansΓ³ de las 'mecidas': Reynoso renunciΓ³ al Juan Aurich\|url\=http://depor.pe/noticia/691548/se\-canso\-mecidas\-reynoso\-se\-fue\-juan\-aurich\|work\=depor.pe\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es\|date\=30 December 2010}} Under UmaΓ±a's direction, they returned as contenders for the title and successfully reached the finals of the [2011 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2011_Torneo_Descentralizado "2011 Torneo Descentralizado"). They lost the first leg at home 1β2 against [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima "Alianza Lima") and were in danger of losing the chance to win their first professional championship. Surprisingly, in the second leg they held their own against Alianza at the [Estadio Alejandro Villanueva](/wiki/Estadio_Alejandro_Villanueva "Estadio Alejandro Villanueva") and achieved a narrow 1β0 win with a memorable goal from [Ysrael ZΓΊΓ±iga](/wiki/Ysrael_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga "Ysrael ZΓΊΓ±iga") in the second half.{{cite news\|title\=HabrΓ‘ tercer partido: Aurich venciΓ³ 1\-0 a Alianza en Matute\|url\=http://elcomercio.pe/deportes/1346492/noticia\-minuto\-minuto\-alianza\-lima\-choca\-juan\-aurich\-titulo\-nacional\|work\=elcomercio.pe\|access\-date\=26 July 2013\|language\=es\|date\=11 December 2011}} As both teams had won a match of the finals, a third leg was forced to be played in the [Estadio Nacional](/wiki/Estadio_Nacional_%28Lima%29 "Estadio Nacional (Lima)"). A scoreless draw at the Nacional led to a penalty shootout. The final score of the shootout was 3β1 in favor of Juan Aurich. They were the first club outside the [Lima Region](/wiki/Lima_Region "Lima Region") to win the Torneo Descentralizado since [FBC Melgar](/wiki/FBC_Melgar "FBC Melgar") in 1981\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The club has had several restructurings since its formation in 1922\\.",
"### Juan Aurich (1922β1992\\)",
"{{Infobox football club \n\\|clubname \\= Juan Aurich \n\\|image \\= \\[\\[Image:Club Juan Aurich.svg\\|200px\\|logo]]\n\\|fullname \\= Club Deportivo Juan Aurich\n\\|nickname \\= ''El CiclΓ³n del Norte'' (The Northern Cyclone) \n\\|founded \\={{Start date and age\\|1922\\|09\\|03}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Quispe\\|first\\=Juan\\|title\\=Familia Aurich\\|url\\=http://dechalaca.com/informes/curiosidades/familia\\-aurich\\|work\\=dechalaca.com\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es}} \n\\|dissolved \\= 1992\n\\|ground \\= \\[\\[Estadio ElΓas Aguirre]], \n\\[\\[Chiclayo]], Peru\n}}\nThe first incarnation of the football club was founded by a group of workers of the *[hacienda](/wiki/Hacienda \"Hacienda\")* BatΓ‘n Grande on 3 September 1922 as **Club Deportivo Juan Aurich**, after the owner of the *hacienda*, Juan Aurich Pastor. The club played two spells in the first division (Primera DivisiΓ³n), the first between 1967 and 1983 and the second between 1988 and 1991\\. They dissolved shortly after losing their place in the top flight ([1991 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1991_Torneo_Descentralizado \"1991 Torneo Descentralizado\")).",
"#### Honours",
"* **[Primera DivisiΓ³n](/wiki/Primera_Divisi%C3%B3n_Peruana \"Primera DivisiΓ³n Peruana\"):**\n\t+ **Runners\\-up (1\\):** [1968](/wiki/1968_Torneo_Descentralizado \"1968 Torneo Descentralizado\")",
"### Aurich\\-CaΓ±aΓ±a",
"{{Infobox football club\n\\|clubname \\= Aurich\\-CaΓ±aΓ±a\n\\|image \\= \\[\\[Image:Aurich\\-CaΓ±aΓ±a.jpg\\|100px\\|logo]]\n\\|fullname \\= Club Social Deportivo Juan Aurich\\-CaΓ±aΓ±a\n\\|nickname \\= El CiclΓ³n Gallero\n\\|founded \\= 1992\n\\|dissolved \\= 2003\n\\|ground \\= \\[\\[Estadio ElΓas Aguirre]], \n\\[\\[Chiclayo]]\n\\|capacity \\= 25,000\n\\|chrtitle \\= \n\\|chairman \\= \n\\|mgrtitle \\= \n\\|manager \\= \n\\|league \\= \n\\|season \\= \n\\|position \\= \n\\|pattern\\_la1\\=\\_red\\_2\n\\|pattern\\_b1\\=\\_red\n\\|pattern\\_ra1\\=\\_red\\_3\n\\|leftarm1\\=FF0000\n\\|body1\\=FF0000\n\\|rightarm1\\=FF0000\n\\|shorts1\\=FFFFFF\n\\|socks1\\=FF0000\n\\|pattern\\_la2\\=\n\\|pattern\\_b2\\=\n\\|pattern\\_ra2\\=\n\\|leftarm2\\=FFFFFF\n\\|body2\\=FFFFFF\n\\|rightarm2\\=FFFFFF\n\\|shorts2\\=FFFFFF\n\\|socks2\\=FF0000\n\\|}}\nFollowing their relegation at the end of the [1991 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1991_Torneo_Descentralizado \"1991 Torneo Descentralizado\"), a new football club was formed, albeit a merge, between the remaining Juan Aurich club and [Deportivo CaΓ±aΓ±a](/wiki/Deportivo_Ca%C3%B1a%C3%B1a \"Deportivo CaΓ±aΓ±a\"). This merged clubβled by manager [Horacioa Baldessari](/wiki/Horacio_Ra%C3%BAl_Baldessari \"Horacio RaΓΊl Baldessari\") won the [1993 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1993_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"1993 Copa PerΓΊ\") and gained promotion to [1994 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1994_Torneo_Descentralizado \"1994 Torneo Descentralizado\") when they defeated [FBC Aurora](/wiki/FBC_Aurora \"FBC Aurora\"), [UniΓ³n Juventud](/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Juventud \"UniΓ³n Juventud\"), [Deportivo Garcilaso](/wiki/Deportivo_Garcilaso \"Deportivo Garcilaso\"), and [Colegio Nacional Iquitos](/wiki/Colegio_Nacional_Iquitos \"Colegio Nacional Iquitos\") in the final group. They held a brief spell there between 1994 and 1996 until their relegation at the end of the [1996 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/1996_Torneo_Descentralizado \"1996 Torneo Descentralizado\") season, when they were relegated to the [Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA \"Copa PerΓΊ\").",
"#### National",
"* **[Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA \"Copa PerΓΊ\"): 1**",
"[1993](/wiki/1993_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"1993 Copa PerΓΊ\")\n### Juan Aurich (1996β2004\\)",
"A new reincarnation of Juan Aurich was formed as **Juan Aurich de Chiclayo** shortly after [AurichβCaΓ±aΓ±a](/wiki/Aurich%E2%80%93Ca%C3%B1a%C3%B1a \"AurichβCaΓ±aΓ±a\") was relegated; their nickname was *El CiclΓ³n del Norte* (The Northern Cyclone). The new Juan Aurich achieved promotion through the [1997 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"1997 Copa PerΓΊ\") and played from 1998 until 2002 when they were relegated. The third Juan Aurich football club achieved promotion in 1997 by winning the [1997 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"1997 Copa PerΓΊ\"). This spell in the first division lasted from 1998 to 2002\\.{{cite web\\|last\\=Quispe\\|first\\=Juan\\|title\\=Familia Aurich\\|url\\=http://dechalaca.com/informes/curiosidades/familia\\-aurich\\|work\\=dechalaca.com\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es}} Due to the financial strain created by playing in the top flight, Juan Aurich de Chiclayo also folded as its predecessors.",
"#### Honours",
"* **[Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/Copa_Per%C3%BA \"Copa PerΓΊ\")**\n\t+ **Winners (1\\)**: [1997](/wiki/1997_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"1997 Copa PerΓΊ\")\n* **[Liga Departamental de Lambayeque](/wiki/Ligas_Departamentales_del_Peru \"Ligas Departamentales del Peru\")**\n\t+ **Winners (1\\)**: 1997\n* **[Liga Distrital de Chiclayo](/wiki/Ligas_Distritales_del_Peru \"Ligas Distritales del Peru\")**\n\t+ **Winners (1\\)**: 1997",
"### Foundation and promotion",
"In November 2004, Juan Merino Aurich took control of the waning football club Mariscal Nieto of the [La Victoria district](/wiki/La_Victoria_District%2C_Chiclayo \"La Victoria District, Chiclayo\") of the [Chiclayo Province](/wiki/Chiclayo_Province \"Chiclayo Province\"). Merino converted the club to Juan Aurich de La Victoria and founded the current incarnation of Juan Aurich on 28 January 2005\\. In 2006, they finished first in the regional stage of the [2006 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/2006_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"2006 Copa PerΓΊ\") advanced to the national stage of the tournament. They overcame their rivals in the Round of 16 and the quarter\\-finals but fell to [Hijos de Acosvinchos](/wiki/Hijos_de_Acosvinchos \"Hijos de Acosvinchos\") in the semifinals. The following season they again reached the regional stage of the [2007 Copa PerΓΊ](/wiki/2007_Copa_Per%C3%BA \"2007 Copa PerΓΊ\") and finished first. This time, however, they achieved promotion to the [2008 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2008_Torneo_Descentralizado \"2008 Torneo Descentralizado\") by advancing to and winning the finals. Baldessari, as in 1993, led the team and defeated [Sport Γguila](/wiki/Sport_%C3%81guila \"Sport Γguila\") in the finals in a penalty shootout.",
"### First seasons of professional football",
"Their first season in the first division was not remarkable. In the Torneo Apertura, they finished eighth and in the Torneo Clausura they finished twelfth. Consequently, the club finished twelfth on the aggregate table and tied on points with [AtlΓ©tico Minero](/wiki/Atl%C3%A9tico_Minero \"AtlΓ©tico Minero\"), which finished thirteenth. The two teams played an extra match to determine the relegated team.{{cite web\\|date\\=14 December 2008\\|title\\=Juan Aurich y AtlΓ©tico Minero jugarΓ‘n un partido extra para definir la baja\\|url\\=http://elcomercio.pe/ediciononline/html/2008\\-12\\-14/juan\\-aurich\\-y\\-atletico\\-minero\\-jugaran\\-partido\\-extra\\-definir\\-baja.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|work\\=elcomercio.pe\\|language\\=es\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054811/http://elcomercio.pe/ediciononline/html/2008\\-12\\-14/juan\\-aurich\\-y\\-atletico\\-minero\\-jugaran\\-partido\\-extra\\-definir\\-baja.html}} Juan Aurich defeated AtlΓ©tico Minero 2β1 and remained in the first division.",
"In the [2009 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2009_Torneo_Descentralizado \"2009 Torneo Descentralizado\"), the club made a huge improvement with manager [Franco Navarro](/wiki/Franco_Navarro \"Franco Navarro\"). They finished first in the first stage of the season and were one of the favorites to reach the finals. As leading team of the first stage, they started first in their group of the second stage. However, in October, two months before the end of the season, the club and Navarro terminated the manager's contract.{{cite web\\|last\\=Castro\\|first\\=Roberto\\|title\\=Franco Navarro renunciΓ³ intempestivamente a la direcciΓ³n tΓ©cnica de Juan Aurich\\|url\\=http://dechalaca.com/copaperu/livenews\\-2009/franco\\-navarro\\-renuncio\\-intempestivamente\\-a\\-la\\-direccion\\-tecnica\\-de\\-juan\\-aurich\\-por\\-desavenencias\\-co\\|work\\=dechalaca.com\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=3 October 2009}} The club hired [Luis Fernando SuΓ‘rez](/wiki/Luis_Fernando_Su%C3%A1rez \"Luis Fernando SuΓ‘rez\") to finish coaching what was left of the season.{{cite web\\|title\\=Vocean a Luis SuΓ‘rez como el prΓ³ximo tΓ©cnico de la selecciΓ³n\\|url\\=http://depor.pe/noticia/353915/luis\\-suarez\\-buscare\\-titulo\\-aurich\\|work\\=depor.pe\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=12 October 2009}} [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima \"Alianza Lima\"), which was second of the group at the start of second stage, surpassed Juan Aurich and failed to advance to the finals. At the end of the season the club finished third on the aggregate table, qualifying for the [2010 Copa Libertadores](/wiki/2010_Copa_Libertadores \"2010 Copa Libertadores\").",
"The club continued with SuΓ‘rez into the 2010 season, which began on a high note after they eliminated [Estudiantes Tecos](/wiki/Estudiantes_Tecos \"Estudiantes Tecos\") in the first stage of the [2010 Copa Libertadores](/wiki/2010_Copa_Libertadores \"2010 Copa Libertadores\"). They advanced to Group 3 of the competition with Copa Libertadores defending champions [Estudiantes de La Plata](/wiki/Estudiantes_de_La_Plata \"Estudiantes de La Plata\"), [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima \"Alianza Lima\"), and [BolΓvar](/wiki/Club_Bol%C3%ADvar \"Club BolΓvar\"). They did not advance to the following stage as they finished third behind Estudiantes and Alianza Lima. In the [2010 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2010_Torneo_Descentralizado \"2010 Torneo Descentralizado\") the club's performance suffered which led to SuΓ‘rez's exit from the club but they managed to obtain the last berth to the [2011 Copa Sudamericana](/wiki/2011_Copa_Sudamericana \"2011 Copa Sudamericana\") under [Juan Reynoso](/wiki/Juan_Reynoso_Guzm%C3%A1n \"Juan Reynoso GuzmΓ‘n\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Reynoso sobre su llegada al Aurich: \"Me agradΓ³ el proyecto\"\\|url\\=http://depor.pe/noticia/625399/confirmado\\-juan\\-reynoso\\-nuevo\\-tecnico\\-aurich\\|work\\=depor.pe\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Luis SuΓ‘rez dejΓ³ de ser tΓ©cnico de Juan Aurich\\|url\\=http://depor.pe/noticia/624685/luis\\-suarez\\-dejo\\-tecnico\\-aurich\\|work\\=depor.pe\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es}} In mid\\-2010 he became [Anonymous Society](/wiki/S.A._%28corporation%29 \"S.A. (corporation)\").",
"### First professional title",
"The following season they achieved their greatest success yet. The club started by hiring Colombian [Diego UmaΓ±a](/wiki/Diego_Uma%C3%B1a \"Diego UmaΓ±a\") after Reynoso resigned from the managing position.{{cite web\\|title\\=Diego UmaΓ±a es nuevo tΓ©cnico del Juan Aurich\\|url\\=http://www.peru.com/futbol/primera20110106/134201/Diego\\-Umana\\-es\\-nuevo\\-tecnico\\-del\\-Juan\\-Aurich\\|work\\=peru.com\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110042248/http://www.peru.com/futbol/primera20110106/134201/Diego\\-Umana\\-es\\-nuevo\\-tecnico\\-del\\-Juan\\-Aurich\\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2011}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Se cansΓ³ de las 'mecidas': Reynoso renunciΓ³ al Juan Aurich\\|url\\=http://depor.pe/noticia/691548/se\\-canso\\-mecidas\\-reynoso\\-se\\-fue\\-juan\\-aurich\\|work\\=depor.pe\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=30 December 2010}} Under UmaΓ±a's direction, they returned as contenders for the title and successfully reached the finals of the [2011 Torneo Descentralizado](/wiki/2011_Torneo_Descentralizado \"2011 Torneo Descentralizado\"). They lost the first leg at home 1β2 against [Alianza Lima](/wiki/Alianza_Lima \"Alianza Lima\") and were in danger of losing the chance to win their first professional championship. Surprisingly, in the second leg they held their own against Alianza at the [Estadio Alejandro Villanueva](/wiki/Estadio_Alejandro_Villanueva \"Estadio Alejandro Villanueva\") and achieved a narrow 1β0 win with a memorable goal from [Ysrael ZΓΊΓ±iga](/wiki/Ysrael_Z%C3%BA%C3%B1iga \"Ysrael ZΓΊΓ±iga\") in the second half.{{cite news\\|title\\=HabrΓ‘ tercer partido: Aurich venciΓ³ 1\\-0 a Alianza en Matute\\|url\\=http://elcomercio.pe/deportes/1346492/noticia\\-minuto\\-minuto\\-alianza\\-lima\\-choca\\-juan\\-aurich\\-titulo\\-nacional\\|work\\=elcomercio.pe\\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2013\\|language\\=es\\|date\\=11 December 2011}} As both teams had won a match of the finals, a third leg was forced to be played in the [Estadio Nacional](/wiki/Estadio_Nacional_%28Lima%29 \"Estadio Nacional (Lima)\"). A scoreless draw at the Nacional led to a penalty shootout. The final score of the shootout was 3β1 in favor of Juan Aurich. They were the first club outside the [Lima Region](/wiki/Lima_Region \"Lima Region\") to win the Torneo Descentralizado since [FBC Melgar](/wiki/FBC_Melgar \"FBC Melgar\") in 1981\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 19th century
[thumb\|left\|Iron gateway marking establishment of Dublin Zoo on 10 May 1830](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_marking_10_May_1830.jpg "Dublin Zoo marking 10 May 1830.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Original zoo lodge, built in 1833\.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_house.jpg "Dublin Zoo house.jpg")
The [Royal Zoological Society of Dublin](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_Ireland "Zoological Society of Ireland") was established at a meeting held at the [Rotunda Hospital](/wiki/Rotunda_Hospital "Rotunda Hospital") on 10 May 1830 and the zoo, then called the Zoological Gardens Dublin, was opened to the public on 1 September 1831\. The animals, 46 mammals and 72 birds,{{cite book\|last\=Kilfeather\|first\=SiobhΓ‘n Marie\|title\=Dublin: a cultural history\|location\=New York\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-518201\-9\|page\=116}} were donated by [London Zoo](/wiki/London_Zoo "London Zoo") and Royal [Menagerie](/wiki/Menagerie "Menagerie") of the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London").{{cite web
\|url\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/59/About\-Us.aspx \|title\=About Dublin Zoo \|publisher\=Dublin Zoo \|access\-date\=20 December 2011}}
Initially, the entrance fee was one [shilling](/wiki/Shilling_%28British_coin%29 "Shilling (British coin)").{{Cite book \|title\=Zoo and Aquarium History Ancient Animal Collections to Conservation Centers \|publisher\=CRC Press \|date\=8 July 2022 \|isbn\=9781000585384 \|editor\-last\=Kisling \|editor\-first\=Vernon N. \|edition\=2nd \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1201/9781003282488}} What made Dublin Zoo very different from some of its contemporaries was a decision to reduce the charge to one [penny](/wiki/Penny_%28Irish_pre-decimal_coin%29 "Penny (Irish pre-decimal coin)") on Sundays.{{Cite news \|title\=How Dublin zoo has morphed \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/how\-dublin\-zoo\-has\-morphed\-1\.746058 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-28 \|newspaper\=The Irish Times \|language\=en}} This choice made the Zoo popular among the less wealthy.*The Messenger*. June 2011\. p. 16\.
In 1833, the original cottage\-style entrance lodge to the zoo was built at a cost of Β£30 and in early days also housed staff. The thatch\-roofed building is still visible to the right of the current entrance.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.familyfun.ie/dublin\-zoo/\|title\=History of Dublin Zoo\|work\=Family Fun\|date\=17 February 2011\|access\-date\=20 December 2011}} In 1838, to celebrate the coronation of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria"), the zoo held an open day β 20,000 people visited, which is still the highest number of visitors in one day.
In 1844 the zoo received its first [giraffe](/wiki/Giraffe "Giraffe"), and in 1855 it bought its first pair of [lions](/wiki/Lion "Lion") which bred for the first time in 1857\. After leaving office, President of the United States [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant "Ulysses S. Grant") was among the celebrities who came to see Dublin's world\-famous lions in the 19th century. Reptiles got their own house in 1876 and the first tearooms were built in 1898\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/142/Zoo\-History.aspx \|title\=Zoo History \|work\=dublinzoo.ie \|publisher\=Dublin Zoo \|access\-date\=5 August 2012}}
### 20th century
[thumb\|Charlie Flood, son of Christopher Flood, two longtime Dublin Zoo employees, with a lion cub c. 1936](/wiki/File:Just_a_pussy_cat_%286174143285%29.jpg "Just a pussy cat (6174143285).jpg")
[thumb\|Squirrel sculpture marking 150th anniversary of Dublin Zoo in 1980, unveiled by [President Patrick Hillery](/wiki/Patrick_Hillery "Patrick Hillery").](/wiki/File:Squirrel_sculpture_marking_150th_anniversary_of_Dublin_Zoo.jpg "Squirrel sculpture marking 150th anniversary of Dublin Zoo.jpg")
Zoo employee Christopher Flood's son Jack stayed in the zoo during the 1916 Easter Rising to care for the animals with two other young keepers, dealing with food shortages for the animals amongst other problems. He died shortly after from the Spanish flu in his twenties.
On 17 June 1903, an [elephant](/wiki/Elephant "Elephant") named Sita killed her keeper while he nursed her injured foot. She was put down by members of the [Royal Irish Constabulary](/wiki/Royal_Irish_Constabulary "Royal Irish Constabulary"). Times of trouble and war also caused problems for the zoo. Meat ran out during the [Easter Rising](/wiki/Easter_Rising "Easter Rising") of 1916\. In order to keep the lions and [tigers](/wiki/Tiger "Tiger") alive, some of the other animals in the zoo were killed. A lion named Slats was born in the zoo on 20 March 1919 and was one of many lions filmed by the [Metro\-Goldwyn\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer") film studio in 1928 to be used as their mascot [Leo](/wiki/Leo_the_Lion_%28MGM%29 "Leo the Lion (MGM)").{{cite book \|last1\=De Courcy \|first1\=Catherine \|title\=Dublin Zoo : An Illustrated History \|date\=2019 \|publisher\=Mabel Wray Press \|isbn\=9781999726607}}
Between 1989 and 1990 the financial situation at the zoo became so serious that the council considered closing it. The Government then gave it a meaningful annual grant in line with what happens in other European countries.*The Messenger*. June 2011\. p. 17\. Thirteen hectares ({{convert\|13\|ha\|acre\|disp\=output only}}) of land surrounding the lake in the grounds of [Γras an UachtarΓ‘in](/wiki/%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in "Γras an UachtarΓ‘in") were added in 1997\. This made a profound improvement in the amount of space available for the animals.
### 21st century
In 2002, a twenty\-eight\-year\-old hippo named Linda was thrown a tennis ball by a visitor. While she caught the ball, it became lodged in her intestines and she died soon after.{{cite news \|last1\=Kearns \|first1\=Martha \|title\=Hippo couldn't stomach killer tennis ball \|url\=https://www.independent.ie/irish\-news/hippo\-couldnt\-stomach\-killer\-tennis\-ball\-26034240\.html \|publisher\=Irish Independent}}
In 2005, the Kaziranga Forest Trail was opened. It is now home to eleven Asian elephants; Bernhardine, Yasmin, Asha and Anak, the four mature females. Kavi, Ashoka and Samiya the five\-year\-old calves, and the newest additions, Zinda, Avani, Kabir and Sanjay.
In 2009, the African Savannah was opened in the African Plains section of the zoo. It is now home to species such as the giraffe, zebra, ostrich, scimitar\-horned oryx, and southern white rhino.
In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0113/breaking37\.html\|newspaper\= \[\[The Irish Times]]\|title\= We're all going to the zoo, zoo, zoo \| date\=1 January 2011}} In 2015, Dublin Zoo was the third most popular visitor attraction in Ireland with 1,105,005 visitors.{{cite web \|url\=https://yourdaysout.com/news/irelands\-top\-visitor\-attractions\-revealed\-1539 \|title\=Ireland's top visitor attractions revealed \|date\=1 August 2016 \|website\=Your Days Out}}
The year 2015 also saw the death of the well\-known and loved silverback [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla "Western lowland gorilla") Harry. During his life at Dublin Zoo, Harry produced many offspring; thus contributing greatly to the conservation of his species.
The documentary TV series *The Zoo* produced by Moondance Productions is filmed almost entirely on location at Dublin Zoo, and began broadcast on [TV3](/wiki/TV3_Ireland "TV3 Ireland") in 2010,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.iftn.ie/broadcast/news/?act1\=record\&only\=1\&aid\=73\&rid\=4282879\&tpl\=archnews\&force\=1\|title \= Moondance \& TV3 Go Wild at 'The Zoo' \| the Irish Film \& Television Network}} before moving to [RTΓ One](/wiki/RT%C3%89_One "RTΓ One") in Ireland in 2011\. It is also broadcast on [VRT](/wiki/Vlaamse_Radio-_en_Televisieomroeporganisatie "Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie") in Belgium since 2011 and on [Discovery Animal Planet](/wiki/Animal_Planet_%28UK_TV_channel%29 "Animal Planet (UK TV channel)") in the UK since 2012\.
In November 2020 during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the public donated over 2 million [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro") in two days to the zoo to support it.
In [Seanad Γireann](/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann "Seanad Γireann") in July 2022, [Annie Hoey](/wiki/Annie_Hoey "Annie Hoey") reported allegations from whistleblowers of the mistreatment since 2016 of terminally ill animals, including Harry the [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla "Gorilla"), and of the escape or loss since 2019 of two [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque "Celebes crested macaque"), a [white\-collared mangabey](/wiki/White-collared_mangabey "White-collared mangabey"), and a [citron\-crested cockatoo](/wiki/Citron-crested_cockatoo "Citron-crested cockatoo").{{cite news \|last1\=O'Reilly \|first1\=Alison \|title\=Senator raises serious concerns of animal abuse at Dublin Zoo \|url\=https://www.fm104\.ie/news/fm104\-news/senator\-raises\-serious\-concerns\-of\-animal\-abuse\-at\-dublin\-zoo/ \|access\-date\=14 July 2022 \|work\=FM104 \|date\=14 July 2022 \|language\=en}} The zoo said it "vehemently disputes" the allegations.{{cite news \|last1\=Burns \|first1\=Sarah \|last2\=Wilson \|first2\=Jade \|title\=Dublin Zoo disputes allegations in Seanad about animal welfare \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/politics/2022/07/14/dublin\-zoo\-disputes\-allegations\-in\-seanad\-about\-animal\-welfare/ \|access\-date\=14 July 2022 \|newspaper\=The Irish Times \|date\=14 July 2022 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 19th century",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Iron gateway marking establishment of Dublin Zoo on 10 May 1830](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_marking_10_May_1830.jpg \"Dublin Zoo marking 10 May 1830.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Original zoo lodge, built in 1833\\.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_house.jpg \"Dublin Zoo house.jpg\")\nThe [Royal Zoological Society of Dublin](/wiki/Zoological_Society_of_Ireland \"Zoological Society of Ireland\") was established at a meeting held at the [Rotunda Hospital](/wiki/Rotunda_Hospital \"Rotunda Hospital\") on 10 May 1830 and the zoo, then called the Zoological Gardens Dublin, was opened to the public on 1 September 1831\\. The animals, 46 mammals and 72 birds,{{cite book\\|last\\=Kilfeather\\|first\\=SiobhΓ‘n Marie\\|title\\=Dublin: a cultural history\\|location\\=New York\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-518201\\-9\\|page\\=116}} were donated by [London Zoo](/wiki/London_Zoo \"London Zoo\") and Royal [Menagerie](/wiki/Menagerie \"Menagerie\") of the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\").{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/59/About\\-Us.aspx \\|title\\=About Dublin Zoo \\|publisher\\=Dublin Zoo \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2011}}",
"Initially, the entrance fee was one [shilling](/wiki/Shilling_%28British_coin%29 \"Shilling (British coin)\").{{Cite book \\|title\\=Zoo and Aquarium History Ancient Animal Collections to Conservation Centers \\|publisher\\=CRC Press \\|date\\=8 July 2022 \\|isbn\\=9781000585384 \\|editor\\-last\\=Kisling \\|editor\\-first\\=Vernon N. \\|edition\\=2nd \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1201/9781003282488}} What made Dublin Zoo very different from some of its contemporaries was a decision to reduce the charge to one [penny](/wiki/Penny_%28Irish_pre-decimal_coin%29 \"Penny (Irish pre-decimal coin)\") on Sundays.{{Cite news \\|title\\=How Dublin zoo has morphed \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/how\\-dublin\\-zoo\\-has\\-morphed\\-1\\.746058 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-28 \\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times \\|language\\=en}} This choice made the Zoo popular among the less wealthy.*The Messenger*. June 2011\\. p. 16\\.",
"In 1833, the original cottage\\-style entrance lodge to the zoo was built at a cost of Β£30 and in early days also housed staff. The thatch\\-roofed building is still visible to the right of the current entrance.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.familyfun.ie/dublin\\-zoo/\\|title\\=History of Dublin Zoo\\|work\\=Family Fun\\|date\\=17 February 2011\\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2011}} In 1838, to celebrate the coronation of [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\"), the zoo held an open day β 20,000 people visited, which is still the highest number of visitors in one day.",
"In 1844 the zoo received its first [giraffe](/wiki/Giraffe \"Giraffe\"), and in 1855 it bought its first pair of [lions](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\") which bred for the first time in 1857\\. After leaving office, President of the United States [Ulysses S. Grant](/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant \"Ulysses S. Grant\") was among the celebrities who came to see Dublin's world\\-famous lions in the 19th century. Reptiles got their own house in 1876 and the first tearooms were built in 1898\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/142/Zoo\\-History.aspx \\|title\\=Zoo History \\|work\\=dublinzoo.ie \\|publisher\\=Dublin Zoo \\|access\\-date\\=5 August 2012}}",
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|Charlie Flood, son of Christopher Flood, two longtime Dublin Zoo employees, with a lion cub c. 1936](/wiki/File:Just_a_pussy_cat_%286174143285%29.jpg \"Just a pussy cat (6174143285).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Squirrel sculpture marking 150th anniversary of Dublin Zoo in 1980, unveiled by [President Patrick Hillery](/wiki/Patrick_Hillery \"Patrick Hillery\").](/wiki/File:Squirrel_sculpture_marking_150th_anniversary_of_Dublin_Zoo.jpg \"Squirrel sculpture marking 150th anniversary of Dublin Zoo.jpg\")\nZoo employee Christopher Flood's son Jack stayed in the zoo during the 1916 Easter Rising to care for the animals with two other young keepers, dealing with food shortages for the animals amongst other problems. He died shortly after from the Spanish flu in his twenties.",
"On 17 June 1903, an [elephant](/wiki/Elephant \"Elephant\") named Sita killed her keeper while he nursed her injured foot. She was put down by members of the [Royal Irish Constabulary](/wiki/Royal_Irish_Constabulary \"Royal Irish Constabulary\"). Times of trouble and war also caused problems for the zoo. Meat ran out during the [Easter Rising](/wiki/Easter_Rising \"Easter Rising\") of 1916\\. In order to keep the lions and [tigers](/wiki/Tiger \"Tiger\") alive, some of the other animals in the zoo were killed. A lion named Slats was born in the zoo on 20 March 1919 and was one of many lions filmed by the [Metro\\-Goldwyn\\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer \"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\") film studio in 1928 to be used as their mascot [Leo](/wiki/Leo_the_Lion_%28MGM%29 \"Leo the Lion (MGM)\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=De Courcy \\|first1\\=Catherine \\|title\\=Dublin Zoo : An Illustrated History \\|date\\=2019 \\|publisher\\=Mabel Wray Press \\|isbn\\=9781999726607}}",
"Between 1989 and 1990 the financial situation at the zoo became so serious that the council considered closing it. The Government then gave it a meaningful annual grant in line with what happens in other European countries.*The Messenger*. June 2011\\. p. 17\\. Thirteen hectares ({{convert\\|13\\|ha\\|acre\\|disp\\=output only}}) of land surrounding the lake in the grounds of [Γras an UachtarΓ‘in](/wiki/%C3%81ras_an_Uachtar%C3%A1in \"Γras an UachtarΓ‘in\") were added in 1997\\. This made a profound improvement in the amount of space available for the animals.",
"### 21st century",
"In 2002, a twenty\\-eight\\-year\\-old hippo named Linda was thrown a tennis ball by a visitor. While she caught the ball, it became lodged in her intestines and she died soon after.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Kearns \\|first1\\=Martha \\|title\\=Hippo couldn't stomach killer tennis ball \\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/irish\\-news/hippo\\-couldnt\\-stomach\\-killer\\-tennis\\-ball\\-26034240\\.html \\|publisher\\=Irish Independent}}",
"In 2005, the Kaziranga Forest Trail was opened. It is now home to eleven Asian elephants; Bernhardine, Yasmin, Asha and Anak, the four mature females. Kavi, Ashoka and Samiya the five\\-year\\-old calves, and the newest additions, Zinda, Avani, Kabir and Sanjay.",
"In 2009, the African Savannah was opened in the African Plains section of the zoo. It is now home to species such as the giraffe, zebra, ostrich, scimitar\\-horned oryx, and southern white rhino.",
"In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0113/breaking37\\.html\\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Irish Times]]\\|title\\= We're all going to the zoo, zoo, zoo \\| date\\=1 January 2011}} In 2015, Dublin Zoo was the third most popular visitor attraction in Ireland with 1,105,005 visitors.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://yourdaysout.com/news/irelands\\-top\\-visitor\\-attractions\\-revealed\\-1539 \\|title\\=Ireland's top visitor attractions revealed \\|date\\=1 August 2016 \\|website\\=Your Days Out}}\nThe year 2015 also saw the death of the well\\-known and loved silverback [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla \"Western lowland gorilla\") Harry. During his life at Dublin Zoo, Harry produced many offspring; thus contributing greatly to the conservation of his species.",
"The documentary TV series *The Zoo* produced by Moondance Productions is filmed almost entirely on location at Dublin Zoo, and began broadcast on [TV3](/wiki/TV3_Ireland \"TV3 Ireland\") in 2010,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iftn.ie/broadcast/news/?act1\\=record\\&only\\=1\\&aid\\=73\\&rid\\=4282879\\&tpl\\=archnews\\&force\\=1\\|title \\= Moondance \\& TV3 Go Wild at 'The Zoo' \\| the Irish Film \\& Television Network}} before moving to [RTΓ One](/wiki/RT%C3%89_One \"RTΓ One\") in Ireland in 2011\\. It is also broadcast on [VRT](/wiki/Vlaamse_Radio-_en_Televisieomroeporganisatie \"Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie\") in Belgium since 2011 and on [Discovery Animal Planet](/wiki/Animal_Planet_%28UK_TV_channel%29 \"Animal Planet (UK TV channel)\") in the UK since 2012\\.",
"In November 2020 during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the public donated over 2 million [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") in two days to the zoo to support it.",
"In [Seanad Γireann](/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann \"Seanad Γireann\") in July 2022, [Annie Hoey](/wiki/Annie_Hoey \"Annie Hoey\") reported allegations from whistleblowers of the mistreatment since 2016 of terminally ill animals, including Harry the [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla \"Gorilla\"), and of the escape or loss since 2019 of two [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque \"Celebes crested macaque\"), a [white\\-collared mangabey](/wiki/White-collared_mangabey \"White-collared mangabey\"), and a [citron\\-crested cockatoo](/wiki/Citron-crested_cockatoo \"Citron-crested cockatoo\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=O'Reilly \\|first1\\=Alison \\|title\\=Senator raises serious concerns of animal abuse at Dublin Zoo \\|url\\=https://www.fm104\\.ie/news/fm104\\-news/senator\\-raises\\-serious\\-concerns\\-of\\-animal\\-abuse\\-at\\-dublin\\-zoo/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2022 \\|work\\=FM104 \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|language\\=en}} The zoo said it \"vehemently disputes\" the allegations.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Burns \\|first1\\=Sarah \\|last2\\=Wilson \\|first2\\=Jade \\|title\\=Dublin Zoo disputes allegations in Seanad about animal welfare \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/politics/2022/07/14/dublin\\-zoo\\-disputes\\-allegations\\-in\\-seanad\\-about\\-animal\\-welfare/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2022 \\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
### 21st century
In 2002, a twenty\-eight\-year\-old hippo named Linda was thrown a tennis ball by a visitor. While she caught the ball, it became lodged in her intestines and she died soon after.{{cite news \|last1\=Kearns \|first1\=Martha \|title\=Hippo couldn't stomach killer tennis ball \|url\=https://www.independent.ie/irish\-news/hippo\-couldnt\-stomach\-killer\-tennis\-ball\-26034240\.html \|publisher\=Irish Independent}}
In 2005, the Kaziranga Forest Trail was opened. It is now home to eleven Asian elephants; Bernhardine, Yasmin, Asha and Anak, the four mature females. Kavi, Ashoka and Samiya the five\-year\-old calves, and the newest additions, Zinda, Avani, Kabir and Sanjay.
In 2009, the African Savannah was opened in the African Plains section of the zoo. It is now home to species such as the giraffe, zebra, ostrich, scimitar\-horned oryx, and southern white rhino.
In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0113/breaking37\.html\|newspaper\= \[\[The Irish Times]]\|title\= We're all going to the zoo, zoo, zoo \| date\=1 January 2011}} In 2015, Dublin Zoo was the third most popular visitor attraction in Ireland with 1,105,005 visitors.{{cite web \|url\=https://yourdaysout.com/news/irelands\-top\-visitor\-attractions\-revealed\-1539 \|title\=Ireland's top visitor attractions revealed \|date\=1 August 2016 \|website\=Your Days Out}}
The year 2015 also saw the death of the well\-known and loved silverback [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla "Western lowland gorilla") Harry. During his life at Dublin Zoo, Harry produced many offspring; thus contributing greatly to the conservation of his species.
The documentary TV series *The Zoo* produced by Moondance Productions is filmed almost entirely on location at Dublin Zoo, and began broadcast on [TV3](/wiki/TV3_Ireland "TV3 Ireland") in 2010,{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.iftn.ie/broadcast/news/?act1\=record\&only\=1\&aid\=73\&rid\=4282879\&tpl\=archnews\&force\=1\|title \= Moondance \& TV3 Go Wild at 'The Zoo' \| the Irish Film \& Television Network}} before moving to [RTΓ One](/wiki/RT%C3%89_One "RTΓ One") in Ireland in 2011\. It is also broadcast on [VRT](/wiki/Vlaamse_Radio-_en_Televisieomroeporganisatie "Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie") in Belgium since 2011 and on [Discovery Animal Planet](/wiki/Animal_Planet_%28UK_TV_channel%29 "Animal Planet (UK TV channel)") in the UK since 2012\.
In November 2020 during the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the public donated over 2 million [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro") in two days to the zoo to support it.
In [Seanad Γireann](/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann "Seanad Γireann") in July 2022, [Annie Hoey](/wiki/Annie_Hoey "Annie Hoey") reported allegations from whistleblowers of the mistreatment since 2016 of terminally ill animals, including Harry the [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla "Gorilla"), and of the escape or loss since 2019 of two [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque "Celebes crested macaque"), a [white\-collared mangabey](/wiki/White-collared_mangabey "White-collared mangabey"), and a [citron\-crested cockatoo](/wiki/Citron-crested_cockatoo "Citron-crested cockatoo").{{cite news \|last1\=O'Reilly \|first1\=Alison \|title\=Senator raises serious concerns of animal abuse at Dublin Zoo \|url\=https://www.fm104\.ie/news/fm104\-news/senator\-raises\-serious\-concerns\-of\-animal\-abuse\-at\-dublin\-zoo/ \|access\-date\=14 July 2022 \|work\=FM104 \|date\=14 July 2022 \|language\=en}} The zoo said it "vehemently disputes" the allegations.{{cite news \|last1\=Burns \|first1\=Sarah \|last2\=Wilson \|first2\=Jade \|title\=Dublin Zoo disputes allegations in Seanad about animal welfare \|url\=https://www.irishtimes.com/politics/2022/07/14/dublin\-zoo\-disputes\-allegations\-in\-seanad\-about\-animal\-welfare/ \|access\-date\=14 July 2022 \|newspaper\=The Irish Times \|date\=14 July 2022 \|language\=en}}
|
[
"### 21st century",
"In 2002, a twenty\\-eight\\-year\\-old hippo named Linda was thrown a tennis ball by a visitor. While she caught the ball, it became lodged in her intestines and she died soon after.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Kearns \\|first1\\=Martha \\|title\\=Hippo couldn't stomach killer tennis ball \\|url\\=https://www.independent.ie/irish\\-news/hippo\\-couldnt\\-stomach\\-killer\\-tennis\\-ball\\-26034240\\.html \\|publisher\\=Irish Independent}}",
"In 2005, the Kaziranga Forest Trail was opened. It is now home to eleven Asian elephants; Bernhardine, Yasmin, Asha and Anak, the four mature females. Kavi, Ashoka and Samiya the five\\-year\\-old calves, and the newest additions, Zinda, Avani, Kabir and Sanjay.",
"In 2009, the African Savannah was opened in the African Plains section of the zoo. It is now home to species such as the giraffe, zebra, ostrich, scimitar\\-horned oryx, and southern white rhino.",
"In 2010, Dublin Zoo received 963,053 visitors.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0113/breaking37\\.html\\|newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Irish Times]]\\|title\\= We're all going to the zoo, zoo, zoo \\| date\\=1 January 2011}} In 2015, Dublin Zoo was the third most popular visitor attraction in Ireland with 1,105,005 visitors.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://yourdaysout.com/news/irelands\\-top\\-visitor\\-attractions\\-revealed\\-1539 \\|title\\=Ireland's top visitor attractions revealed \\|date\\=1 August 2016 \\|website\\=Your Days Out}}\nThe year 2015 also saw the death of the well\\-known and loved silverback [western lowland gorilla](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla \"Western lowland gorilla\") Harry. During his life at Dublin Zoo, Harry produced many offspring; thus contributing greatly to the conservation of his species.",
"The documentary TV series *The Zoo* produced by Moondance Productions is filmed almost entirely on location at Dublin Zoo, and began broadcast on [TV3](/wiki/TV3_Ireland \"TV3 Ireland\") in 2010,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.iftn.ie/broadcast/news/?act1\\=record\\&only\\=1\\&aid\\=73\\&rid\\=4282879\\&tpl\\=archnews\\&force\\=1\\|title \\= Moondance \\& TV3 Go Wild at 'The Zoo' \\| the Irish Film \\& Television Network}} before moving to [RTΓ One](/wiki/RT%C3%89_One \"RTΓ One\") in Ireland in 2011\\. It is also broadcast on [VRT](/wiki/Vlaamse_Radio-_en_Televisieomroeporganisatie \"Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie\") in Belgium since 2011 and on [Discovery Animal Planet](/wiki/Animal_Planet_%28UK_TV_channel%29 \"Animal Planet (UK TV channel)\") in the UK since 2012\\.",
"In November 2020 during the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the public donated over 2 million [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") in two days to the zoo to support it.",
"In [Seanad Γireann](/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann \"Seanad Γireann\") in July 2022, [Annie Hoey](/wiki/Annie_Hoey \"Annie Hoey\") reported allegations from whistleblowers of the mistreatment since 2016 of terminally ill animals, including Harry the [gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla \"Gorilla\"), and of the escape or loss since 2019 of two [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque \"Celebes crested macaque\"), a [white\\-collared mangabey](/wiki/White-collared_mangabey \"White-collared mangabey\"), and a [citron\\-crested cockatoo](/wiki/Citron-crested_cockatoo \"Citron-crested cockatoo\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=O'Reilly \\|first1\\=Alison \\|title\\=Senator raises serious concerns of animal abuse at Dublin Zoo \\|url\\=https://www.fm104\\.ie/news/fm104\\-news/senator\\-raises\\-serious\\-concerns\\-of\\-animal\\-abuse\\-at\\-dublin\\-zoo/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2022 \\|work\\=FM104 \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|language\\=en}} The zoo said it \"vehemently disputes\" the allegations.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Burns \\|first1\\=Sarah \\|last2\\=Wilson \\|first2\\=Jade \\|title\\=Dublin Zoo disputes allegations in Seanad about animal welfare \\|url\\=https://www.irishtimes.com/politics/2022/07/14/dublin\\-zoo\\-disputes\\-allegations\\-in\\-seanad\\-about\\-animal\\-welfare/ \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2022 \\|newspaper\\=The Irish Times \\|date\\=14 July 2022 \\|language\\=en}}",
""
] |
Animals and exhibits
--------------------
As the result of protests against the standard of animal housing and welfare, led by former keeper Brendan Price, a "Plan for the Future of Dublin Zoo" was prepared by the Zoological Society of Ireland and the [Office of Public Works](/wiki/Office_of_Public_Works "Office of Public Works"). In 1994 it was presented to [Minister of Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance "Minister of Finance") [Bertie Ahern](/wiki/Bertie_Ahern "Bertie Ahern"). The government granted the zoo [IRΒ£](/wiki/Irish_pound "Irish pound")15 million (β¬28 million, adjusted to 2017 inflation levels) for improvements. Themed areas were decided on and the first, World of Primates, opened to the public in 1996\. The latest, African Plains, opened in 2001\.
### African Plains
[thumb\|The African Savanna houses multiple animals similar to natural habitats where animals coexist.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_%287054451849%29.jpg "Dublin Zoo (7054451849).jpg")
African Plains is an Africa\-themed area that covers 13 hectares and was opened in 2001\. The main exhibit in African Plains is the "African Savanna", which houses [ostriches](/wiki/Ostrich "Ostrich"), [scimitar\-horned oryx](/wiki/Scimitar-horned_oryx "Scimitar-horned oryx"), [southern white rhinoceros](/wiki/Southern_white_rhinoceros "Southern white rhinoceros"), [Rothschild's giraffes](/wiki/Rothschild%27s_giraffe "Rothschild's giraffe") and [Grant's zebras](/wiki/Grant%27s_zebra "Grant's zebra"), all of which share a large, outdoor paddock. Gorilla Rainforest, an exhibit opened in 2012, houses a troop of [western lowland gorillas](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla "Western lowland gorilla"): a silverback male named Bangui, two adult females named Kafi and Vana, and two young females named Asali and Kambiri, both of which were born in 2011 and 2019 respectively.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/27/Gorilla\-Rainforest.aspx \|title\=Gorilla Rainforest \|access\-date\=30 March 2017 \|website\=Dublin Zoo}}
Other animals displayed in the African Plains area include [chimpanzees](/wiki/Chimpanzee "Chimpanzee"), [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus "Hippopotamus"), [sooty mangabeys](/wiki/Sooty_mangabey "Sooty mangabey"), [African spurred tortoises](/wiki/African_spurred_tortoise "African spurred tortoise"), [Abyssinian ground hornbills](/wiki/Abyssinian_ground_hornbill "Abyssinian ground hornbill"), [red river hogs](/wiki/Red_river_hog "Red river hog"), [okapis](/wiki/Okapi "Okapi"), [eastern bongo](/wiki/Bongo_%28antelope%29 "Bongo (antelope)") and a new [Cheetah](/wiki/Cheetah "Cheetah"). The area also features an Africa\-themed restaurant (named the Nakuru Restaurant) and a gift shop. The zoo's last African lion died in 2012, so the zoo later received three Asiatic lions. A baby scimitar\-horned oryx was born in December 2016\.
### Wolves in the Woods
Wolves in the Woods is an exhibition housing [grey wolves](/wiki/Wolf "Wolf").
### Himalayan Hills
[thumb\|[Red panda](/wiki/Red_panda "Red panda") (*Ailurus fulgens*).](/wiki/File:Red_Panda_Dublin_Zoo_March_2007.jpg "Red Panda Dublin Zoo March 2007.jpg")
Themed after a Nepalese village, Himalayan Hills houses two species that inhabit the [Himalayas](/wiki/Himalayas "Himalayas"), the [snow leopard](/wiki/Snow_leopard "Snow leopard") and the [Red panda](/wiki/Red_panda "Red panda").
### Zoorassic World (reptiles)
Dublin Zoo's Reptile House was opened in 1876\. In July 2017 Zoorassic World was opened as the new home for the reptiles of the zoo, located in Roberts House.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/News/66\-178/Zoorassic\-World.aspx\|title \= Our News}} Also included is a [T.Rex](/wiki/T.Rex "T.Rex") fossil replica.
### Asian Forests
[thumb\|[Asiatic lions](/wiki/Asiatic_lion "Asiatic lion") bonding through grooming.](/wiki/File:Dublin_zoo%2C_Ireland_%2833713157944%29.jpg "Dublin zoo, Ireland (33713157944).jpg")
Asian Forests was originally opened in 1998, under the name "World of Cats". The exhibit consists of four enclosures, one housing [Asiatic lions](/wiki/Asiatic_lion "Asiatic lion") and designed to resemble the [Gir forest](/wiki/Gir_Forest_National_Park "Gir Forest National Park") in [India](/wiki/India "India"), the second housing [Sulawesi crested macaques](/wiki/Sulawesi_crested_macaque "Sulawesi crested macaque") designed to look like the rainforests in [Sulawesi](/wiki/Sulawesi "Sulawesi"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia"), the third housing [Amur tigers](/wiki/Amur_tiger "Amur tiger") designed to resemble the forests of [Amur](/wiki/Amur "Amur") in [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), [China](/wiki/China "China") and [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea") and the fourth housing [dholes](/wiki/Dhole "Dhole") designed to imitate the [Indian](/wiki/India "India") and [South Asian](/wiki/South_Asian "South Asian") forests.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/162/Asian\-Forests.aspx \|title\=Asian Forests \|access\-date\=30 March 2017 \|website\=Dublin Zoo}}
### The Kaziranga Forest Trail
[thumb\|right\|Yasmin, an Asian elephant in the Kaziranga Forest Trail.](/wiki/File:Yasmin_elephant_drinking_Dublin_Zoo_2007.JPG "Yasmin elephant drinking Dublin Zoo 2007.JPG")
Opened in June 2007, the Kaziranga Forest Trail is Dublin Zoo's [Asian elephant](/wiki/Asian_elephant "Asian elephant") enclosure and is named after the [Kaziranga National Park](/wiki/Kaziranga_National_Park "Kaziranga National Park") in India. The zoo is home to 11 elephants, including two adult females named Bernhardine and Yasmin, two younger females named Asha (Bernhardine's daughter) and Anak (Yasmin's daughter) and a bull named Upali. Upali left in 2019 for [Le Pal](/wiki/Le_Pal "Le Pal") zoo in France.
The enclosure features a waterfall and two pools for the elephants, as well as sheltered viewing areas and a children's playground for visitors, and the elephants share their enclosure with a breeding pair of [blackbuck](/wiki/Blackbuck "Blackbuck"). It is also home to two young male elephants named Kavi and Ashoka who were born on 17 July and 19 August 2014 and a young female Samiya who was born on 17 September 2014\. The Kaziranga Forest Trail most recently became home to two female calves, Zinda born on 19 September 2016 and Avani born on 13 March 2017 and two male calves, Kabir, born on 15 May 2017 and Sanjay, born on 10 February 2018\.
### South American House
Dublin Zoo's South American House has various species from Central and South America, including [golden lion tamarins](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin "Golden lion tamarin"), [Goeldi's marmosets](/wiki/Goeldi%27s_marmoset "Goeldi's marmoset"), [Linnaeus's two\-toed sloths](/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth "Linnaeus's two-toed sloth"), [squirrel monkeys](/wiki/Squirrel_monkey "Squirrel monkey"), [military macaws](/wiki/Military_macaw "Military macaw"), [white\-faced sakis](/wiki/White-faced_saki "White-faced saki"), [painted wood turtles](/wiki/Painted_wood_turtle "Painted wood turtle") and [pygmy marmosets](/wiki/Pygmy_marmoset "Pygmy marmoset").
### World of Primates
The World of Primates houses contain various species of [apes](/wiki/Ape "Ape") and monkeys. The exhibit opened to the public in 1996\. The area comprises a string of man\-made islands in a natural lake. The islands range in size from 15 to 30 square metres and are linked by wooden bridges to sleeping quarters on the lake shore.
Some of the islands have climbing frames available for all the animals present in this location. Areas of each island have been sectioned off with hot\-wire to facilitate the growth of vegetation and give each island a more natural appearance. On some islands, areas of foraging substrate, such as bark, have been provided to facilitate scatter feeding.
The provision of large viewing windows in the sleeping quarters gives the public access to what is generally an off\-show area in many zoos. However, there are areas where the animals can hide from the public in order to receive privacy.
[thumb\|A [Bornean orangutan](/wiki/Bornean_orangutan "Bornean orangutan"), one of the various species from the World of Primates houses in Dublin Zoo.](/wiki/File:Dublin_zoo_Orangutang_2011.jpg "Dublin zoo Orangutang 2011.jpg")
The islands mentioned above are inhabited by [siamangs](/wiki/Siamang "Siamang"), [red ruffed lemurs](/wiki/Red_ruffed_lemur "Red ruffed lemur"), [ring\-tailed lemurs](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur "Ring-tailed lemur"), [spider monkeys](/wiki/Spider_monkey "Spider monkey"), and [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque "Celebes crested macaque"). Each species has unlimited access to its outdoor enclosures both day and night all year round. The zoo has succeeded in breeding the primates on these islands. The Celebes crested macaque group have done exceptionally well since their introduction to the island, and success has also been achieved with the [lemurs](/wiki/Lemur "Lemur") and [siamangs](/wiki/Siamang "Siamang").
In early 2008, an [orangutan](/wiki/Orangutan "Orangutan") escaped her enclosure.[News story on RTE website](http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/0403/zoo.html) She had escaped for an hour and was on top of the [Sumatran tiger](/wiki/Sumatran_tiger "Sumatran tiger") night house before a group of school children alerted staff. That same year, an orangutan named Jorong was seen rescuing an injured [moorhen](/wiki/Moorhen "Moorhen") chick from a pond, "patiently coaxing the bird ashore with a leaf before gently lifting it onto grass"; the rescue became known to the wider public in June 2011, when a four\-minute video of the event was posted to [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube").{{cite news\| url\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0615/breaking32\.html \| title\= Orang\-utan rescues chick at Dublin Zoo \| date\= 15 June 2011 \| newspaper\= \[\[The Irish Times]] \| access\-date\=10 February 2012\| author\= Eoin Burke\-Kennedy}}
### Family Farm
[thumb\|Pygmy goats being fed at the Family Farm.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_%287054045159%29.jpg "Dublin Zoo (7054045159).jpg")
Family Farm (formerly known as City Farm) originally opened in 1999, and re\-developed in 2010\. The area is designed to teach the public about modern Irish farming, and is a joint venture between Dublin Zoo and Agri Aware, a charitable trust that works to improve the image and understanding of Ireland's farming and food industry amongst the general public.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/about/about.html \|title\=About Family Farm \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-09 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130412223842/http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/about/about.html \|archive\-date\=12 April 2013 }}
Domestic livestock kept in Family Farm include [Greyface Dartmoor](/wiki/Greyface_Dartmoor "Greyface Dartmoor") sheep, [Cheviot sheep](/wiki/Cheviot_sheep "Cheviot sheep"), pygmy goats, [Tamworth pigs](/wiki/Tamworth_pig "Tamworth pig") named Rose and Ginger, [Australorp chickens](/wiki/Australorp "Australorp"), [call ducks](/wiki/Call_duck "Call duck"), [Indian Runner ducks](/wiki/Indian_Runner_duck "Indian Runner duck"), [Simmental cows](/wiki/Simmental_cattle "Simmental cattle"), a white rabbit named Roger and a [Holstein Friesian](/wiki/Holstein_Friesian "Holstein Friesian") cow named Bella.{{cite web\|url\=http://thefamilyfarm.ie/discover/animals.html/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130413012200/http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/discover/animals.html \|title\=Meet the animals \|archive\-date\=13 April 2013 }}
### Sea Lion Cove
President of Ireland [Michael D. Higgins](/wiki/Michael_D._Higgins "Michael D. Higgins") opened the new Sea Lion Cove habitat in June 2015\. Sea Lion Cove is home to the colony of [California sea lions](/wiki/California_sea_lion "California sea lion"), three females Cassie, Florence and Seanna and one male Nico. The new saltwater habitat is the biggest and most exciting development undertaken by Dublin Zoo in recent years. It is inspired by the natural environment of the California sea lions and it includes a state\-of\-the\-art water filtration plant.{{cite news\| url\= http://www.evoke.ie/events/sea\-lion\-cove\-at\-dublin\-zoo/ \|work\=evoke.ie \| title\=Michael D. Higgins opens the Sea Lion Cove at Dublin Zoo\| date\= 9 June 2015}}
### Nocturnal House
A nocturnal house opened in July 2023 near Sea Lion cove, to accommodate nocturnal [Aye\-Aye](/wiki/Aye-aye "Aye-aye") lemurs, transferred from Bristol Zoo. Aye\-Aye are endangered on the IUCN red list.{{Cite web \|last\=Vince \|first\=Emma \|date\=2023\-07\-25 \|title\=Just Aye\-Aye\-rrived! New Species at Dublin Zoo \|url\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/animals/just\-aye\-aye\-rrived\-new\-species\-at\-dublin\-zoo/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-21 \|website\=Dublin Zoo \|language\=en\-GB}}
### Other animals
Other animals in Dublin Zoo's collection that are not part of a specific themed area include, [Chilean flamingos](/wiki/Chilean_flamingo "Chilean flamingo"), [meerkats](/wiki/Meerkat "Meerkat"), [red pandas](/wiki/Red_panda "Red panda"), [South American tapirs](/wiki/South_American_tapir "South American tapir"), [little egrets](/wiki/Little_egret "Little egret") and [waldrapp ibises](/wiki/Waldrapp_ibis "Waldrapp ibis").
|
[
"Animals and exhibits\n--------------------",
"As the result of protests against the standard of animal housing and welfare, led by former keeper Brendan Price, a \"Plan for the Future of Dublin Zoo\" was prepared by the Zoological Society of Ireland and the [Office of Public Works](/wiki/Office_of_Public_Works \"Office of Public Works\"). In 1994 it was presented to [Minister of Finance](/wiki/Minister_of_Finance \"Minister of Finance\") [Bertie Ahern](/wiki/Bertie_Ahern \"Bertie Ahern\"). The government granted the zoo [IRΒ£](/wiki/Irish_pound \"Irish pound\")15 million (β¬28 million, adjusted to 2017 inflation levels) for improvements. Themed areas were decided on and the first, World of Primates, opened to the public in 1996\\. The latest, African Plains, opened in 2001\\.",
"### African Plains",
"[thumb\\|The African Savanna houses multiple animals similar to natural habitats where animals coexist.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_%287054451849%29.jpg \"Dublin Zoo (7054451849).jpg\")\nAfrican Plains is an Africa\\-themed area that covers 13 hectares and was opened in 2001\\. The main exhibit in African Plains is the \"African Savanna\", which houses [ostriches](/wiki/Ostrich \"Ostrich\"), [scimitar\\-horned oryx](/wiki/Scimitar-horned_oryx \"Scimitar-horned oryx\"), [southern white rhinoceros](/wiki/Southern_white_rhinoceros \"Southern white rhinoceros\"), [Rothschild's giraffes](/wiki/Rothschild%27s_giraffe \"Rothschild's giraffe\") and [Grant's zebras](/wiki/Grant%27s_zebra \"Grant's zebra\"), all of which share a large, outdoor paddock. Gorilla Rainforest, an exhibit opened in 2012, houses a troop of [western lowland gorillas](/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla \"Western lowland gorilla\"): a silverback male named Bangui, two adult females named Kafi and Vana, and two young females named Asali and Kambiri, both of which were born in 2011 and 2019 respectively.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/27/Gorilla\\-Rainforest.aspx \\|title\\=Gorilla Rainforest \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2017 \\|website\\=Dublin Zoo}}",
"Other animals displayed in the African Plains area include [chimpanzees](/wiki/Chimpanzee \"Chimpanzee\"), [hippopotamus](/wiki/Hippopotamus \"Hippopotamus\"), [sooty mangabeys](/wiki/Sooty_mangabey \"Sooty mangabey\"), [African spurred tortoises](/wiki/African_spurred_tortoise \"African spurred tortoise\"), [Abyssinian ground hornbills](/wiki/Abyssinian_ground_hornbill \"Abyssinian ground hornbill\"), [red river hogs](/wiki/Red_river_hog \"Red river hog\"), [okapis](/wiki/Okapi \"Okapi\"), [eastern bongo](/wiki/Bongo_%28antelope%29 \"Bongo (antelope)\") and a new [Cheetah](/wiki/Cheetah \"Cheetah\"). The area also features an Africa\\-themed restaurant (named the Nakuru Restaurant) and a gift shop. The zoo's last African lion died in 2012, so the zoo later received three Asiatic lions. A baby scimitar\\-horned oryx was born in December 2016\\.",
"### Wolves in the Woods",
"Wolves in the Woods is an exhibition housing [grey wolves](/wiki/Wolf \"Wolf\").",
"### Himalayan Hills",
"[thumb\\|[Red panda](/wiki/Red_panda \"Red panda\") (*Ailurus fulgens*).](/wiki/File:Red_Panda_Dublin_Zoo_March_2007.jpg \"Red Panda Dublin Zoo March 2007.jpg\")\nThemed after a Nepalese village, Himalayan Hills houses two species that inhabit the [Himalayas](/wiki/Himalayas \"Himalayas\"), the [snow leopard](/wiki/Snow_leopard \"Snow leopard\") and the [Red panda](/wiki/Red_panda \"Red panda\").",
"### Zoorassic World (reptiles)",
"Dublin Zoo's Reptile House was opened in 1876\\. In July 2017 Zoorassic World was opened as the new home for the reptiles of the zoo, located in Roberts House.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/News/66\\-178/Zoorassic\\-World.aspx\\|title \\= Our News}} Also included is a [T.Rex](/wiki/T.Rex \"T.Rex\") fossil replica.",
"### Asian Forests",
"[thumb\\|[Asiatic lions](/wiki/Asiatic_lion \"Asiatic lion\") bonding through grooming.](/wiki/File:Dublin_zoo%2C_Ireland_%2833713157944%29.jpg \"Dublin zoo, Ireland (33713157944).jpg\")\nAsian Forests was originally opened in 1998, under the name \"World of Cats\". The exhibit consists of four enclosures, one housing [Asiatic lions](/wiki/Asiatic_lion \"Asiatic lion\") and designed to resemble the [Gir forest](/wiki/Gir_Forest_National_Park \"Gir Forest National Park\") in [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), the second housing [Sulawesi crested macaques](/wiki/Sulawesi_crested_macaque \"Sulawesi crested macaque\") designed to look like the rainforests in [Sulawesi](/wiki/Sulawesi \"Sulawesi\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\"), the third housing [Amur tigers](/wiki/Amur_tiger \"Amur tiger\") designed to resemble the forests of [Amur](/wiki/Amur \"Amur\") in [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\") and [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea \"North Korea\") and the fourth housing [dholes](/wiki/Dhole \"Dhole\") designed to imitate the [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") and [South Asian](/wiki/South_Asian \"South Asian\") forests.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dublinzoo.ie/162/Asian\\-Forests.aspx \\|title\\=Asian Forests \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2017 \\|website\\=Dublin Zoo}}",
"### The Kaziranga Forest Trail",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Yasmin, an Asian elephant in the Kaziranga Forest Trail.](/wiki/File:Yasmin_elephant_drinking_Dublin_Zoo_2007.JPG \"Yasmin elephant drinking Dublin Zoo 2007.JPG\")\nOpened in June 2007, the Kaziranga Forest Trail is Dublin Zoo's [Asian elephant](/wiki/Asian_elephant \"Asian elephant\") enclosure and is named after the [Kaziranga National Park](/wiki/Kaziranga_National_Park \"Kaziranga National Park\") in India. The zoo is home to 11 elephants, including two adult females named Bernhardine and Yasmin, two younger females named Asha (Bernhardine's daughter) and Anak (Yasmin's daughter) and a bull named Upali. Upali left in 2019 for [Le Pal](/wiki/Le_Pal \"Le Pal\") zoo in France.",
"The enclosure features a waterfall and two pools for the elephants, as well as sheltered viewing areas and a children's playground for visitors, and the elephants share their enclosure with a breeding pair of [blackbuck](/wiki/Blackbuck \"Blackbuck\"). It is also home to two young male elephants named Kavi and Ashoka who were born on 17 July and 19 August 2014 and a young female Samiya who was born on 17 September 2014\\. The Kaziranga Forest Trail most recently became home to two female calves, Zinda born on 19 September 2016 and Avani born on 13 March 2017 and two male calves, Kabir, born on 15 May 2017 and Sanjay, born on 10 February 2018\\.",
"### South American House",
"Dublin Zoo's South American House has various species from Central and South America, including [golden lion tamarins](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin \"Golden lion tamarin\"), [Goeldi's marmosets](/wiki/Goeldi%27s_marmoset \"Goeldi's marmoset\"), [Linnaeus's two\\-toed sloths](/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth \"Linnaeus's two-toed sloth\"), [squirrel monkeys](/wiki/Squirrel_monkey \"Squirrel monkey\"), [military macaws](/wiki/Military_macaw \"Military macaw\"), [white\\-faced sakis](/wiki/White-faced_saki \"White-faced saki\"), [painted wood turtles](/wiki/Painted_wood_turtle \"Painted wood turtle\") and [pygmy marmosets](/wiki/Pygmy_marmoset \"Pygmy marmoset\").",
"### World of Primates",
"The World of Primates houses contain various species of [apes](/wiki/Ape \"Ape\") and monkeys. The exhibit opened to the public in 1996\\. The area comprises a string of man\\-made islands in a natural lake. The islands range in size from 15 to 30 square metres and are linked by wooden bridges to sleeping quarters on the lake shore.",
"Some of the islands have climbing frames available for all the animals present in this location. Areas of each island have been sectioned off with hot\\-wire to facilitate the growth of vegetation and give each island a more natural appearance. On some islands, areas of foraging substrate, such as bark, have been provided to facilitate scatter feeding.",
"The provision of large viewing windows in the sleeping quarters gives the public access to what is generally an off\\-show area in many zoos. However, there are areas where the animals can hide from the public in order to receive privacy.",
"[thumb\\|A [Bornean orangutan](/wiki/Bornean_orangutan \"Bornean orangutan\"), one of the various species from the World of Primates houses in Dublin Zoo.](/wiki/File:Dublin_zoo_Orangutang_2011.jpg \"Dublin zoo Orangutang 2011.jpg\")\nThe islands mentioned above are inhabited by [siamangs](/wiki/Siamang \"Siamang\"), [red ruffed lemurs](/wiki/Red_ruffed_lemur \"Red ruffed lemur\"), [ring\\-tailed lemurs](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur \"Ring-tailed lemur\"), [spider monkeys](/wiki/Spider_monkey \"Spider monkey\"), and [Celebes crested macaques](/wiki/Celebes_crested_macaque \"Celebes crested macaque\"). Each species has unlimited access to its outdoor enclosures both day and night all year round. The zoo has succeeded in breeding the primates on these islands. The Celebes crested macaque group have done exceptionally well since their introduction to the island, and success has also been achieved with the [lemurs](/wiki/Lemur \"Lemur\") and [siamangs](/wiki/Siamang \"Siamang\").",
"In early 2008, an [orangutan](/wiki/Orangutan \"Orangutan\") escaped her enclosure.[News story on RTE website](http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/0403/zoo.html) She had escaped for an hour and was on top of the [Sumatran tiger](/wiki/Sumatran_tiger \"Sumatran tiger\") night house before a group of school children alerted staff. That same year, an orangutan named Jorong was seen rescuing an injured [moorhen](/wiki/Moorhen \"Moorhen\") chick from a pond, \"patiently coaxing the bird ashore with a leaf before gently lifting it onto grass\"; the rescue became known to the wider public in June 2011, when a four\\-minute video of the event was posted to [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\").{{cite news\\| url\\= https://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0615/breaking32\\.html \\| title\\= Orang\\-utan rescues chick at Dublin Zoo \\| date\\= 15 June 2011 \\| newspaper\\= \\[\\[The Irish Times]] \\| access\\-date\\=10 February 2012\\| author\\= Eoin Burke\\-Kennedy}}",
"### Family Farm",
"[thumb\\|Pygmy goats being fed at the Family Farm.](/wiki/File:Dublin_Zoo_%287054045159%29.jpg \"Dublin Zoo (7054045159).jpg\")\nFamily Farm (formerly known as City Farm) originally opened in 1999, and re\\-developed in 2010\\. The area is designed to teach the public about modern Irish farming, and is a joint venture between Dublin Zoo and Agri Aware, a charitable trust that works to improve the image and understanding of Ireland's farming and food industry amongst the general public.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/about/about.html \\|title\\=About Family Farm \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130412223842/http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/about/about.html \\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2013 }}",
"Domestic livestock kept in Family Farm include [Greyface Dartmoor](/wiki/Greyface_Dartmoor \"Greyface Dartmoor\") sheep, [Cheviot sheep](/wiki/Cheviot_sheep \"Cheviot sheep\"), pygmy goats, [Tamworth pigs](/wiki/Tamworth_pig \"Tamworth pig\") named Rose and Ginger, [Australorp chickens](/wiki/Australorp \"Australorp\"), [call ducks](/wiki/Call_duck \"Call duck\"), [Indian Runner ducks](/wiki/Indian_Runner_duck \"Indian Runner duck\"), [Simmental cows](/wiki/Simmental_cattle \"Simmental cattle\"), a white rabbit named Roger and a [Holstein Friesian](/wiki/Holstein_Friesian \"Holstein Friesian\") cow named Bella.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://thefamilyfarm.ie/discover/animals.html/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130413012200/http://www.thefamilyfarm.ie/discover/animals.html \\|title\\=Meet the animals \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2013 }}",
"### Sea Lion Cove",
"President of Ireland [Michael D. Higgins](/wiki/Michael_D._Higgins \"Michael D. Higgins\") opened the new Sea Lion Cove habitat in June 2015\\. Sea Lion Cove is home to the colony of [California sea lions](/wiki/California_sea_lion \"California sea lion\"), three females Cassie, Florence and Seanna and one male Nico. The new saltwater habitat is the biggest and most exciting development undertaken by Dublin Zoo in recent years. It is inspired by the natural environment of the California sea lions and it includes a state\\-of\\-the\\-art water filtration plant.{{cite news\\| url\\= http://www.evoke.ie/events/sea\\-lion\\-cove\\-at\\-dublin\\-zoo/ \\|work\\=evoke.ie \\| title\\=Michael D. Higgins opens the Sea Lion Cove at Dublin Zoo\\| date\\= 9 June 2015}}",
"### Nocturnal House",
"A nocturnal house opened in July 2023 near Sea Lion cove, to accommodate nocturnal [Aye\\-Aye](/wiki/Aye-aye \"Aye-aye\") lemurs, transferred from Bristol Zoo. Aye\\-Aye are endangered on the IUCN red list.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Vince \\|first\\=Emma \\|date\\=2023\\-07\\-25 \\|title\\=Just Aye\\-Aye\\-rrived! New Species at Dublin Zoo \\|url\\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/animals/just\\-aye\\-aye\\-rrived\\-new\\-species\\-at\\-dublin\\-zoo/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-21 \\|website\\=Dublin Zoo \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"### Other animals",
"Other animals in Dublin Zoo's collection that are not part of a specific themed area include, [Chilean flamingos](/wiki/Chilean_flamingo \"Chilean flamingo\"), [meerkats](/wiki/Meerkat \"Meerkat\"), [red pandas](/wiki/Red_panda \"Red panda\"), [South American tapirs](/wiki/South_American_tapir \"South American tapir\"), [little egrets](/wiki/Little_egret \"Little egret\") and [waldrapp ibises](/wiki/Waldrapp_ibis \"Waldrapp ibis\").",
""
] |
Conservation
------------
[thumb\|Seanna had recently given birth to a male Californian sea lion pup, just one of the many breeding programs at the zoo.](/wiki/File:Sea_Lions_At_Dublin_Zoo_%28Ireland%29_%287890723616%29.jpg "Sea Lions At Dublin Zoo (Ireland) (7890723616).jpg")
The zoo is part of a worldwide programme to breed endangered species. It is a member of the [European Endangered Species Programme](/wiki/European_Endangered_Species_Programme "European Endangered Species Programme") (EEP), which helps the conservation of endangered species in Europe. Each species supervised by the EEP has a single coordinator that is responsible for the building of breeding groups with the aim of obtaining a genetically balanced population. In November 2023 the Zoo opened the National Centre for Species Survival in partnership with the IUCN, in the renovated Society House, beside the Meerkat Restaurant.{{Cite web \|last\=Vince \|first\=Emma \|date\=2023\-11\-07 \|title\=Dublin Zoo Launches National Centre for Species Survival in Historic Society House \|url\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/conservation/dublin\-zoo\-launches\-national\-centre\-for\-species\-survival\-in\-historic\-society\-house/ \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-21 \|website\=Dublin Zoo \|language\=en\-GB}}
Dublin Zoo manages the EEP for the [golden lion tamarin](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin "Golden lion tamarin") and the [Moluccan cockatoo](/wiki/Moluccan_cockatoo "Moluccan cockatoo"). It also houses members of the species [Goeldi's monkey](/wiki/Goeldi%27s_marmoset "Goeldi's marmoset") and the [white\-faced saki](/wiki/White-faced_saki "White-faced saki") which are part of EEPs coordinated by other zoos. The focus is on conservation, which includes breeding and protecting endangered species, as well as research, study and education.
### Rodrigues fruit bats
[Rodrigues fruit bats](/wiki/Rodrigues_flying_fox "Rodrigues flying fox") are one of Dublin Zoo's endangered species. Fruit bats, as their name suggests, feed on fruit and because of that are very important to the [rainforest](/wiki/Rainforest "Rainforest"). Bats cannot digest the seeds and pips of the fruit that they eat and so the seeds leave the bat's digestive system "wrapped" in fertilizer. Without bats, many rainforest trees would not be able to sow their own seeds.
Dublin Zoo has recently completed a larger [Asian elephant](/wiki/Asian_elephant "Asian elephant") enclosure (complete with Asian rainforest) and the Nesbit House (bat house) has been demolished. The Rodrigues fruit bats are now in the Roberts House (or bird house), which is located beside the [ring\-tailed lemurs](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur "Ring-tailed lemur").
### Golden lion tamarins
This tiny monkey, named for the long gold\-coloured hair around its head which resembles a lion's mane, is one of the rarest primates in the world. [Golden lion tamarins](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin "Golden lion tamarin"), like many of the other tamarins found in South America, are threatened with extinction in their natural habitat. Dublin Zoo is involved in the international breeding programme and helps to fund researchers who study tamarins in Brazil.
The forests that golden lion tamarins need in order to survive are cut down for timber and to make room for cattle ranches, farms and urbanization. Sometimes very small areas or 'pockets' of forest are left but these are too small for the tamarins to survive in. In the past, tamarins were collected for sale to the pet trade or for use in research laboratories. The golden lion tamarins are located in the South American house.
### Moluccan cockatoos
Dublin Zoo holds the European [studbook](/wiki/Breed_registry "Breed registry") for [Moluccan cockatoos](/wiki/Moluccan_cockatoo "Moluccan cockatoo"). A studbook is a record of all the individuals of a particular species that are held in zoos in a region. It contains information such as the sex of the animal, how old it is and who its parents were. This information is then used to decide which birds should be paired with which to get the best [genetic mix](/wiki/Genetics "Genetics"). This ensures that the captive population stays as genetically healthy as possible. Moluccan cockatoos are handsome birds, white\-with\-a\-hint\-of\-pink feathers and a pink colour on the crest. This cockatoo is on the endangered species list.
|
[
"Conservation\n------------",
"[thumb\\|Seanna had recently given birth to a male Californian sea lion pup, just one of the many breeding programs at the zoo.](/wiki/File:Sea_Lions_At_Dublin_Zoo_%28Ireland%29_%287890723616%29.jpg \"Sea Lions At Dublin Zoo (Ireland) (7890723616).jpg\")\nThe zoo is part of a worldwide programme to breed endangered species. It is a member of the [European Endangered Species Programme](/wiki/European_Endangered_Species_Programme \"European Endangered Species Programme\") (EEP), which helps the conservation of endangered species in Europe. Each species supervised by the EEP has a single coordinator that is responsible for the building of breeding groups with the aim of obtaining a genetically balanced population. In November 2023 the Zoo opened the National Centre for Species Survival in partnership with the IUCN, in the renovated Society House, beside the Meerkat Restaurant.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Vince \\|first\\=Emma \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-07 \\|title\\=Dublin Zoo Launches National Centre for Species Survival in Historic Society House \\|url\\=https://www.dublinzoo.ie/conservation/dublin\\-zoo\\-launches\\-national\\-centre\\-for\\-species\\-survival\\-in\\-historic\\-society\\-house/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-21 \\|website\\=Dublin Zoo \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"Dublin Zoo manages the EEP for the [golden lion tamarin](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin \"Golden lion tamarin\") and the [Moluccan cockatoo](/wiki/Moluccan_cockatoo \"Moluccan cockatoo\"). It also houses members of the species [Goeldi's monkey](/wiki/Goeldi%27s_marmoset \"Goeldi's marmoset\") and the [white\\-faced saki](/wiki/White-faced_saki \"White-faced saki\") which are part of EEPs coordinated by other zoos. The focus is on conservation, which includes breeding and protecting endangered species, as well as research, study and education.",
"### Rodrigues fruit bats",
"[Rodrigues fruit bats](/wiki/Rodrigues_flying_fox \"Rodrigues flying fox\") are one of Dublin Zoo's endangered species. Fruit bats, as their name suggests, feed on fruit and because of that are very important to the [rainforest](/wiki/Rainforest \"Rainforest\"). Bats cannot digest the seeds and pips of the fruit that they eat and so the seeds leave the bat's digestive system \"wrapped\" in fertilizer. Without bats, many rainforest trees would not be able to sow their own seeds.",
"Dublin Zoo has recently completed a larger [Asian elephant](/wiki/Asian_elephant \"Asian elephant\") enclosure (complete with Asian rainforest) and the Nesbit House (bat house) has been demolished. The Rodrigues fruit bats are now in the Roberts House (or bird house), which is located beside the [ring\\-tailed lemurs](/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur \"Ring-tailed lemur\").",
"### Golden lion tamarins",
"This tiny monkey, named for the long gold\\-coloured hair around its head which resembles a lion's mane, is one of the rarest primates in the world. [Golden lion tamarins](/wiki/Golden_lion_tamarin \"Golden lion tamarin\"), like many of the other tamarins found in South America, are threatened with extinction in their natural habitat. Dublin Zoo is involved in the international breeding programme and helps to fund researchers who study tamarins in Brazil.",
"The forests that golden lion tamarins need in order to survive are cut down for timber and to make room for cattle ranches, farms and urbanization. Sometimes very small areas or 'pockets' of forest are left but these are too small for the tamarins to survive in. In the past, tamarins were collected for sale to the pet trade or for use in research laboratories. The golden lion tamarins are located in the South American house.",
"### Moluccan cockatoos",
"Dublin Zoo holds the European [studbook](/wiki/Breed_registry \"Breed registry\") for [Moluccan cockatoos](/wiki/Moluccan_cockatoo \"Moluccan cockatoo\"). A studbook is a record of all the individuals of a particular species that are held in zoos in a region. It contains information such as the sex of the animal, how old it is and who its parents were. This information is then used to decide which birds should be paired with which to get the best [genetic mix](/wiki/Genetics \"Genetics\"). This ensures that the captive population stays as genetically healthy as possible. Moluccan cockatoos are handsome birds, white\\-with\\-a\\-hint\\-of\\-pink feathers and a pink colour on the crest. This cockatoo is on the endangered species list.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Creation
[thumb\|Philip Morris](/wiki/File:Philip_Morris_tobacconist.jpg "Philip Morris tobacconist.jpg")
The company's namesake [Philip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_%28tobacconist%29 "Philip Morris (tobacconist)") was born in [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel "Whitechapel"), United Kingdom in 1835, the son of a recent immigrant from Germany who had taken the name Bernard Morris.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post\-magazine/article/1600207/six\-degrees\|title\=Six degrees\|website\=scmp.com\|date\=September 28, 2014\|access\-date\=April 10, 2018}} In 1847, the family opened a shop in [London](/wiki/London "London"). Philip Morris cigarettes were first made in 1854, known as "Philip Morris English Ovals," a non\-filter brand of oval\-shaped cigarettes that were manufactured in very limited quantities until discontinuation in 2017\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|title\=Our History β Altria: 1800β1900\|publisher\=altria.com\|access\-date\=November 10, 2020\|archive\-date\=February 11, 2013\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211233000/http://www.altria.com:80/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Early years
In 1902, Philip Morris \& Co. Ltd. was [incorporated](/wiki/Incorporation_%28business%29 "Incorporation (business)") in New York City. George J. Whelan bought the American division of the company in 1919 and created Philip Morris \& Co. Ltd., Inc., along with fellow shareholders Reuben M. Ellis and Leonard B. McKitterick.{{cite web\|last1\=Martin\|first1\=Jonathan\|last2\=Shelton\|first2\=Pamela L.\|title\=Philip Morris Companies Inc\|url\=https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/documentstore/n/z/m/m//nzmm0177/nzmm0177\.pdf\|website\=Industry Documents Digital Library\|publisher\=University of California, San Francisco\|access\-date\=July 24, 2015}}
In 1929, the company made its first cigarettes in Richmond, Virginia, using an existing factory the company purchased. In 1933, this factory was racially [integrated](/wiki/Racial_integration "Racial integration") more than 30 years before the law required it. In 1938, the company offered [preferred stock](/wiki/Preferred_stock "Preferred stock") to ordinary buyers.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|title\=Our History β Altria: 1900β1950\|publisher\=altria.com\|access\-date\=September 16, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|archive\-date\=September 21, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
[thumb\|Philip Morris advertisement, portrayed by [Johnny Roventini](/wiki/Johnny_Roventini "Johnny Roventini")](/wiki/File:Philip_Morris_Ads.JPG "Philip Morris Ads.JPG")
In 1924, Philip Morris began advertising Marlboros specifically to women. The cigarettes had "new cork\-tip filters housed in a flip\-top box with a red roof design."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|title\=Our History β Altria: 1951β2000\|publisher\=altria.com\|access\-date\=September 16, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|archive\-date\=September 21, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Radio and television sponsorship
In 1933, the company and its advertising agency, [Milton Biow](/wiki/Milton_Biow "Milton Biow"), searched for a "living trademark" to represent their brand, and chose [Johnny Roventini](/wiki/Johnny_Roventini "Johnny Roventini"), a [midget](/wiki/Midget "Midget") [bellhop](/wiki/Bellhop "Bellhop") at the [Hotel New Yorker](/wiki/Hotel_New_Yorker "Hotel New Yorker"). Roventini called out the catchphrase "Call for Philip Morris!" in live appearances, and on the radio. The Philip Morris\-backed radio programs, including, *[It Pays to Be Ignorant](/wiki/It_Pays_to_Be_Ignorant "It Pays to Be Ignorant")*, *[The Kate Smith Hour](/wiki/The_Kate_Smith_Hour "The Kate Smith Hour")* and *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28American_franchise%29 "This Is Your Life (American franchise)")*, all began with the phrase "Johnny presents", and Roventini's "Call for Philip Morris!"{{cite book \|last1\=Cross \|first1\=Mary \|title\=A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th\-Century Consumer Culture \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Greenwood Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-31481\-0 \|access\-date\=September 4, 2020 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica00cros/page/87/ \|pages\=87β88}}
From 1951 to 1955, Philip Morris sponsored the CBS sitcom *[I Love Lucy](/wiki/I_Love_Lucy "I Love Lucy")*, with [Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball "Lucille Ball") and [Desi Arnaz](/wiki/Desi_Arnaz "Desi Arnaz") pitching the product often, and Philip Morris controlling the content of the program. In 1955, Philip Morris became an alternate sponsor with [Procter \& Gamble](/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble "Procter & Gamble"), eventually bowing out altogether by the end of that year.
### Acquisitions
In 1970, Philip Morris made the first of several acquisitions with the purchase of [Miller Brewing Company](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company "Miller Brewing Company"). In 1985, Philip Morris Companies Inc. became a [holding company](/wiki/Holding_company "Holding company") and the parent of Philip Morris Inc. and bought [General Foods](/wiki/General_Foods "General Foods"). The acquisition of [Kraft Foods](/wiki/Kraft_Foods "Kraft Foods") came in 1988, after which Kraft and General Foods became Kraft General Foods.
Although it had begun investing in the homebuilder by 1969, Philip Morris purchased Southern California's Mission Viejo Company in its entirety for $52 million during 1972\. Philip Morris continued to hold on to this investment until 1997, finally selling the division off to J.F. Shea Company.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1997\-aug\-02\-mn\-18701\-story.html\|title\=Philip Morris Agrees to Sell Mission Viejo Co.\|date\=August 2, 1997\|website\=Los Angeles Times}}
In the 1970s, in response to smokers' health concerns, Philip Morris introduced the "Light" cigarette β which was later found to be no safer than any others.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.cancer.gov/about\-cancer/causes\-prevention/risk/tobacco/light\-cigarettes\-fact\-sheet\=top\_nav \|title\="Light" Cigarettes and Cancer Risk\|publisher\=National Cancer Institute\|access\-date\=May 20, 2016}}
In 1976, Marlboro became the leading brand in the U.S.; Morris operated as the largest seller of tobacco in the U.S. and the second\-largest in the world.
In 2001, Kraft Foods launched an initial public offering (IPO) for 11\.1% of the company that took in $8\.7 billion, making it the second\-largest IPO in American history at the time.{{cite magazine\| url\=http://business.time.com/2012/02/02/the\-11\-largest\-ipos\-in\-u\-s\-history/slide/kraft\-foods/ \| magazine\=Time \| title\=The 11 Largest Ipos In U.S. History \| date\=February 2, 2012}}
In 2002, Miller Brewing and South African Breweries became [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller "SABMiller"), the second\-largest maker of [beer](/wiki/Beer "Beer") in the world, though Philip Morris kept an interest in the merged company.
### Altria
On January 27, 2003, Philip Morris Companies Inc. changed its name to Altria Group, Inc.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|title\=Our History β Altria: 2001βPresent\|publisher\=altria.com\|access\-date\=September 16, 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\_Altria/At\_A\_Glance/Our\_History/default.aspx?src\=top\_nav\|archive\-date\=September 21, 2017\|url\-status\=dead}} Even under this new name, Altria continues to own 100% of Philip Morris USA (abbreviated PM USA).
In the fall of 2003, Philip Morris USA moved its headquarters from [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") to Richmond, Virginia. On March 30, 2007, the remaining 88\.9% stake in Kraft Foods was spun off to shareholders.[http://investor.altria.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\=80855\&p\=irol\-faq\_kraft\_tkd](http://investor.altria.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=80855&p=irol-faq_kraft_tkd) {{dead link\|date\=September 2021}} [Philip Morris International](/wiki/Philip_Morris_International "Philip Morris International") was split from Philip Morris USA in March 2008\. This has caused a drop in the needed cigarette production due to no need for export product. Philip Morris shut down its [Concord, North Carolina](/wiki/Concord%2C_North_Carolina "Concord, North Carolina"), manufacturing facility in 2010 and moved all domestic production to Richmond, which now contains the largest Philip Morris plant in the world, producing 146 billion cigarettes in 2010\.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1136/tobaccocontrol\-2011\-050338 \|pmid\=22345227 \|title\=The history of the discovery of the cigaretteβlung cancer link: Evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll \|journal\=Tobacco Control \|volume\=21 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=87β91 \|year\=2012 \|last1\=Proctor \|first1\=Robert N. \|doi\-access\=free }}
In 2010, the FDA banned the use of "Light" for ventilated cigarettes because it misrepresented the products as a healthier cigarette, and Philip Morris switched to using colors to brand them to circumvent the rule.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ibtimes.com/cigarette\-companies\-sidestep\-light\-ban\-colored\-packaging\-long\-history\-deception\-1125385\|title\=Cigarette Companies Sidestep 'Light' Ban With Colored Packaging: 'A Long History Of Deception'\=International Business Times \| website\=\[\[International Business Times]] \|access\-date\=May 20, 2016\|date\=March 14, 2013 }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Creation",
"[thumb\\|Philip Morris](/wiki/File:Philip_Morris_tobacconist.jpg \"Philip Morris tobacconist.jpg\")\nThe company's namesake [Philip Morris](/wiki/Philip_Morris_%28tobacconist%29 \"Philip Morris (tobacconist)\") was born in [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel \"Whitechapel\"), United Kingdom in 1835, the son of a recent immigrant from Germany who had taken the name Bernard Morris.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post\\-magazine/article/1600207/six\\-degrees\\|title\\=Six degrees\\|website\\=scmp.com\\|date\\=September 28, 2014\\|access\\-date\\=April 10, 2018}} In 1847, the family opened a shop in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). Philip Morris cigarettes were first made in 1854, known as \"Philip Morris English Ovals,\" a non\\-filter brand of oval\\-shaped cigarettes that were manufactured in very limited quantities until discontinuation in 2017\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|title\\=Our History β Altria: 1800β1900\\|publisher\\=altria.com\\|access\\-date\\=November 10, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2013\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211233000/http://www.altria.com:80/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Early years",
"In 1902, Philip Morris \\& Co. Ltd. was [incorporated](/wiki/Incorporation_%28business%29 \"Incorporation (business)\") in New York City. George J. Whelan bought the American division of the company in 1919 and created Philip Morris \\& Co. Ltd., Inc., along with fellow shareholders Reuben M. Ellis and Leonard B. McKitterick.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Martin\\|first1\\=Jonathan\\|last2\\=Shelton\\|first2\\=Pamela L.\\|title\\=Philip Morris Companies Inc\\|url\\=https://industrydocuments.library.ucsf.edu/documentstore/n/z/m/m//nzmm0177/nzmm0177\\.pdf\\|website\\=Industry Documents Digital Library\\|publisher\\=University of California, San Francisco\\|access\\-date\\=July 24, 2015}}",
"In 1929, the company made its first cigarettes in Richmond, Virginia, using an existing factory the company purchased. In 1933, this factory was racially [integrated](/wiki/Racial_integration \"Racial integration\") more than 30 years before the law required it. In 1938, the company offered [preferred stock](/wiki/Preferred_stock \"Preferred stock\") to ordinary buyers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|title\\=Our History β Altria: 1900β1950\\|publisher\\=altria.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|archive\\-date\\=September 21, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"[thumb\\|Philip Morris advertisement, portrayed by [Johnny Roventini](/wiki/Johnny_Roventini \"Johnny Roventini\")](/wiki/File:Philip_Morris_Ads.JPG \"Philip Morris Ads.JPG\")",
"In 1924, Philip Morris began advertising Marlboros specifically to women. The cigarettes had \"new cork\\-tip filters housed in a flip\\-top box with a red roof design.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|title\\=Our History β Altria: 1951β2000\\|publisher\\=altria.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|archive\\-date\\=September 21, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\n### Radio and television sponsorship",
"In 1933, the company and its advertising agency, [Milton Biow](/wiki/Milton_Biow \"Milton Biow\"), searched for a \"living trademark\" to represent their brand, and chose [Johnny Roventini](/wiki/Johnny_Roventini \"Johnny Roventini\"), a [midget](/wiki/Midget \"Midget\") [bellhop](/wiki/Bellhop \"Bellhop\") at the [Hotel New Yorker](/wiki/Hotel_New_Yorker \"Hotel New Yorker\"). Roventini called out the catchphrase \"Call for Philip Morris!\" in live appearances, and on the radio. The Philip Morris\\-backed radio programs, including, *[It Pays to Be Ignorant](/wiki/It_Pays_to_Be_Ignorant \"It Pays to Be Ignorant\")*, *[The Kate Smith Hour](/wiki/The_Kate_Smith_Hour \"The Kate Smith Hour\")* and *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28American_franchise%29 \"This Is Your Life (American franchise)\")*, all began with the phrase \"Johnny presents\", and Roventini's \"Call for Philip Morris!\"{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cross \\|first1\\=Mary \\|title\\=A Century of American Icons: 100 Products and Slogans from the 20th\\-Century Consumer Culture \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-31481\\-0 \\|access\\-date\\=September 4, 2020 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/centuryofamerica00cros/page/87/ \\|pages\\=87β88}}",
"From 1951 to 1955, Philip Morris sponsored the CBS sitcom *[I Love Lucy](/wiki/I_Love_Lucy \"I Love Lucy\")*, with [Lucille Ball](/wiki/Lucille_Ball \"Lucille Ball\") and [Desi Arnaz](/wiki/Desi_Arnaz \"Desi Arnaz\") pitching the product often, and Philip Morris controlling the content of the program. In 1955, Philip Morris became an alternate sponsor with [Procter \\& Gamble](/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble \"Procter & Gamble\"), eventually bowing out altogether by the end of that year.",
"### Acquisitions",
"In 1970, Philip Morris made the first of several acquisitions with the purchase of [Miller Brewing Company](/wiki/Miller_Brewing_Company \"Miller Brewing Company\"). In 1985, Philip Morris Companies Inc. became a [holding company](/wiki/Holding_company \"Holding company\") and the parent of Philip Morris Inc. and bought [General Foods](/wiki/General_Foods \"General Foods\"). The acquisition of [Kraft Foods](/wiki/Kraft_Foods \"Kraft Foods\") came in 1988, after which Kraft and General Foods became Kraft General Foods.",
"Although it had begun investing in the homebuilder by 1969, Philip Morris purchased Southern California's Mission Viejo Company in its entirety for $52 million during 1972\\. Philip Morris continued to hold on to this investment until 1997, finally selling the division off to J.F. Shea Company.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1997\\-aug\\-02\\-mn\\-18701\\-story.html\\|title\\=Philip Morris Agrees to Sell Mission Viejo Co.\\|date\\=August 2, 1997\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times}}",
"In the 1970s, in response to smokers' health concerns, Philip Morris introduced the \"Light\" cigarette β which was later found to be no safer than any others.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cancer.gov/about\\-cancer/causes\\-prevention/risk/tobacco/light\\-cigarettes\\-fact\\-sheet\\=top\\_nav \\|title\\=\"Light\" Cigarettes and Cancer Risk\\|publisher\\=National Cancer Institute\\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2016}}",
"In 1976, Marlboro became the leading brand in the U.S.; Morris operated as the largest seller of tobacco in the U.S. and the second\\-largest in the world.",
"In 2001, Kraft Foods launched an initial public offering (IPO) for 11\\.1% of the company that took in $8\\.7 billion, making it the second\\-largest IPO in American history at the time.{{cite magazine\\| url\\=http://business.time.com/2012/02/02/the\\-11\\-largest\\-ipos\\-in\\-u\\-s\\-history/slide/kraft\\-foods/ \\| magazine\\=Time \\| title\\=The 11 Largest Ipos In U.S. History \\| date\\=February 2, 2012}}",
"In 2002, Miller Brewing and South African Breweries became [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller \"SABMiller\"), the second\\-largest maker of [beer](/wiki/Beer \"Beer\") in the world, though Philip Morris kept an interest in the merged company.",
"### Altria",
"On January 27, 2003, Philip Morris Companies Inc. changed its name to Altria Group, Inc.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|title\\=Our History β Altria: 2001βPresent\\|publisher\\=altria.com\\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921095854/http://www.altria.com/en/cms/About\\_Altria/At\\_A\\_Glance/Our\\_History/default.aspx?src\\=top\\_nav\\|archive\\-date\\=September 21, 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Even under this new name, Altria continues to own 100% of Philip Morris USA (abbreviated PM USA).",
"In the fall of 2003, Philip Morris USA moved its headquarters from [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") to Richmond, Virginia. On March 30, 2007, the remaining 88\\.9% stake in Kraft Foods was spun off to shareholders.[http://investor.altria.com/phoenix.zhtml?c\\=80855\\&p\\=irol\\-faq\\_kraft\\_tkd](http://investor.altria.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=80855&p=irol-faq_kraft_tkd) {{dead link\\|date\\=September 2021}} [Philip Morris International](/wiki/Philip_Morris_International \"Philip Morris International\") was split from Philip Morris USA in March 2008\\. This has caused a drop in the needed cigarette production due to no need for export product. Philip Morris shut down its [Concord, North Carolina](/wiki/Concord%2C_North_Carolina \"Concord, North Carolina\"), manufacturing facility in 2010 and moved all domestic production to Richmond, which now contains the largest Philip Morris plant in the world, producing 146 billion cigarettes in 2010\\.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/tobaccocontrol\\-2011\\-050338 \\|pmid\\=22345227 \\|title\\=The history of the discovery of the cigaretteβlung cancer link: Evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll \\|journal\\=Tobacco Control \\|volume\\=21 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=87β91 \\|year\\=2012 \\|last1\\=Proctor \\|first1\\=Robert N. \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"In 2010, the FDA banned the use of \"Light\" for ventilated cigarettes because it misrepresented the products as a healthier cigarette, and Philip Morris switched to using colors to brand them to circumvent the rule.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ibtimes.com/cigarette\\-companies\\-sidestep\\-light\\-ban\\-colored\\-packaging\\-long\\-history\\-deception\\-1125385\\|title\\=Cigarette Companies Sidestep 'Light' Ban With Colored Packaging: 'A Long History Of Deception'\\=International Business Times \\| website\\=\\[\\[International Business Times]] \\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2016\\|date\\=March 14, 2013 }}",
""
] |
Direct taxation
---------------
Almost at the beginning of the age of parliamentary taxation, one of the older sources of revenue ceased, popular opinion having forced [King Edward I](/wiki/Edward_I_of_England "Edward I of England") to issue in 1290 the [Edict of Expulsion](/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion "Edict of Expulsion") which required the Jews to leave the kingdom. It is probable however that owing to the exactions practised on them, Jewish usurers had become progressively less profitable to the Exchequer. Certainly, the kingdom's general resources had so increased that their contribution became less important.
{{anchor\|Fifteenth}}The first effects of parliamentary influence on the fiscal system were the abandonment of tallages on towns and the decline of scutage. Taxes on movables were assessed more systematically so that instead of using varying charges, ranging from one\-fourth to one\-fortieth, on different classes of goods, the tax was imposed at fixed rates of one\-fifteenth on counties and one\-tenth on towns (the "fifteenth and tenth" tax). Commissioners were appointed for each county to ensure stricter assessment and were supplied with special instructions as to taxable and exempt goods. This tax remained in force from 1290 to 1334, albeit the proportions imposed varied over time (e.g. an eighth and a fifth were granted to the king by Parliament in 1297, and a tenth and a sixth in 1322\).
A more general influence was the growing national economy which led to greater activity on the part of the king as administrator which, in turn, increased the state's need for revenue. Although constitutionally the king was expected to live off his revenues, the force of events made this increasingly impracticable. Therefore, from being uncertain and indirect, taxation, especially that on movables, became certain and direct, absorbing older forms over time. Under medieval conditions, the collection of a general property tax presented serious difficulties in that, unsurprisingly, each local and borough authority tried to keep assessments as low as possible.
England in the 14th century was not ripe for a system that was found hard to make effective even in more advanced societies. Hence, from 1334 onward, the following method of apportionment was employed, i.e. a fifteenth and tenth was taken as affording a definite sum measured by the yield on the ancient valuation. As this gave between Β£38,000 and Β£39,000 in the aggregate, the fifteenth and tenth became for the future practically a fiscal expression for a sum of about Β£39,000, the total to be divided or apportioned between the several counties, cities and boroughs according to their former payments. This settlement, which remained in force for centuries and affected all later direct taxes, had the great advantages of certainty and adaptability. The inhabitants of any particular town knew their total liability and could distribute it amongst themselves in the manner most convenient to themselves. From the royal standpoint, the arrangement was also satisfactory, for the fifteenth and tenth could be multiplied (e.g. in 1352 three\-tenths and fifteenths were voted for three years), and supplied a stable revenue for the service of the kingdom. Moreover, the power of regulating the policy of the crown by the bestowal or refusal of grants was naturally agreeable to parliament. Thus, all sections of the nation united in support of the system established in 1334, just before the opening of the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War "Hundred Years' War"), in connection with which it was particularly serviceable.
### Poll tax
Akin to the aboveβat any rate in its nature as a direct impostβwas the poll or capitation tax.{{efn\|A poll tax is a tax of a portioned, fixed amount applied to an individual in accordance with the census (as opposed to a percentage of income). Head taxes were important sources of revenue for many governments from ancient times until the 19th century. The word poll is an English word that once meant "head"βand still does, in some specialised contextsβhence the name poll tax for a per\-person tax.}} Financial pressure at the close of [Edward III's](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England "Edward III of England") reign (1377\) led to the adoption of a tax of fourpence per head on all persons in the kingdom, with [mendicants](/wiki/Mendicants "Mendicants") and persons under fourteen years being exempt. This "tallage of groats", which seems to be derived by analogy from the hearth money for [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence "Peter's Pence"), was followed by the graduated poll taxes of 1379 and 1380, the former ranging in scale from ten [marks](/wiki/Mark_%28money%29 "Mark (money)") (Β£6 13s. 4d.) imposed on royal dukes and viscounts, to six marks on earls, bishops and abbots down to three on barons and to the groat or fourpence on all other persons over sixteen years of age.
It proved to be unproductive, only half the estimated yield of Β£50,000 being obtained. Indeed, the tax of 1380 varied within narrower limitsβfrom twenty [shillings](/wiki/Shilling "Shilling") to four[pence](/wiki/Pence "Pence") (or sixty [groats](/wiki/Groat_%28coin%29 "Groat (coin)") to three), with the proviso that the strong should aid the weak. However, this particular tax is chiefly memorable as the occasion that may have been the real causes of the great [Peasants' Revolt](/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt "Peasants' Revolt") of 1381\.
This unlucky association sealed the fate of the poll tax as a fiscal expedient. It was abandoned, with one exception, for nearly three hundred years, its occasional employment in the 17th century not resulting in its permanent revival. Apart from special circumstances, it is plain that the fifteenth and tenth was better suited than the poll tax for the purpose of English finance.
The machinery for collection was ready for the former, while special agents had to gather the latter, even from the poorest classes. In fact, the episode of the poll taxes may be regarded as a fortunately unsuccessful attempt to relieve the propertied classes at the expense of the peasants and poorer burghers. Failure in this respect helped in the maintenance of the settlement of direct taxation devised in 1334\.
|
[
"Direct taxation\n---------------",
"Almost at the beginning of the age of parliamentary taxation, one of the older sources of revenue ceased, popular opinion having forced [King Edward I](/wiki/Edward_I_of_England \"Edward I of England\") to issue in 1290 the [Edict of Expulsion](/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion \"Edict of Expulsion\") which required the Jews to leave the kingdom. It is probable however that owing to the exactions practised on them, Jewish usurers had become progressively less profitable to the Exchequer. Certainly, the kingdom's general resources had so increased that their contribution became less important.",
"{{anchor\\|Fifteenth}}The first effects of parliamentary influence on the fiscal system were the abandonment of tallages on towns and the decline of scutage. Taxes on movables were assessed more systematically so that instead of using varying charges, ranging from one\\-fourth to one\\-fortieth, on different classes of goods, the tax was imposed at fixed rates of one\\-fifteenth on counties and one\\-tenth on towns (the \"fifteenth and tenth\" tax). Commissioners were appointed for each county to ensure stricter assessment and were supplied with special instructions as to taxable and exempt goods. This tax remained in force from 1290 to 1334, albeit the proportions imposed varied over time (e.g. an eighth and a fifth were granted to the king by Parliament in 1297, and a tenth and a sixth in 1322\\).",
"A more general influence was the growing national economy which led to greater activity on the part of the king as administrator which, in turn, increased the state's need for revenue. Although constitutionally the king was expected to live off his revenues, the force of events made this increasingly impracticable. Therefore, from being uncertain and indirect, taxation, especially that on movables, became certain and direct, absorbing older forms over time. Under medieval conditions, the collection of a general property tax presented serious difficulties in that, unsurprisingly, each local and borough authority tried to keep assessments as low as possible.",
"England in the 14th century was not ripe for a system that was found hard to make effective even in more advanced societies. Hence, from 1334 onward, the following method of apportionment was employed, i.e. a fifteenth and tenth was taken as affording a definite sum measured by the yield on the ancient valuation. As this gave between Β£38,000 and Β£39,000 in the aggregate, the fifteenth and tenth became for the future practically a fiscal expression for a sum of about Β£39,000, the total to be divided or apportioned between the several counties, cities and boroughs according to their former payments. This settlement, which remained in force for centuries and affected all later direct taxes, had the great advantages of certainty and adaptability. The inhabitants of any particular town knew their total liability and could distribute it amongst themselves in the manner most convenient to themselves. From the royal standpoint, the arrangement was also satisfactory, for the fifteenth and tenth could be multiplied (e.g. in 1352 three\\-tenths and fifteenths were voted for three years), and supplied a stable revenue for the service of the kingdom. Moreover, the power of regulating the policy of the crown by the bestowal or refusal of grants was naturally agreeable to parliament. Thus, all sections of the nation united in support of the system established in 1334, just before the opening of the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War \"Hundred Years' War\"), in connection with which it was particularly serviceable.",
"### Poll tax",
"Akin to the aboveβat any rate in its nature as a direct impostβwas the poll or capitation tax.{{efn\\|A poll tax is a tax of a portioned, fixed amount applied to an individual in accordance with the census (as opposed to a percentage of income). Head taxes were important sources of revenue for many governments from ancient times until the 19th century. The word poll is an English word that once meant \"head\"βand still does, in some specialised contextsβhence the name poll tax for a per\\-person tax.}} Financial pressure at the close of [Edward III's](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England \"Edward III of England\") reign (1377\\) led to the adoption of a tax of fourpence per head on all persons in the kingdom, with [mendicants](/wiki/Mendicants \"Mendicants\") and persons under fourteen years being exempt. This \"tallage of groats\", which seems to be derived by analogy from the hearth money for [Peter's Pence](/wiki/Peter%27s_Pence \"Peter's Pence\"), was followed by the graduated poll taxes of 1379 and 1380, the former ranging in scale from ten [marks](/wiki/Mark_%28money%29 \"Mark (money)\") (Β£6 13s. 4d.) imposed on royal dukes and viscounts, to six marks on earls, bishops and abbots down to three on barons and to the groat or fourpence on all other persons over sixteen years of age.",
"It proved to be unproductive, only half the estimated yield of Β£50,000 being obtained. Indeed, the tax of 1380 varied within narrower limitsβfrom twenty [shillings](/wiki/Shilling \"Shilling\") to four[pence](/wiki/Pence \"Pence\") (or sixty [groats](/wiki/Groat_%28coin%29 \"Groat (coin)\") to three), with the proviso that the strong should aid the weak. However, this particular tax is chiefly memorable as the occasion that may have been the real causes of the great [Peasants' Revolt](/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt \"Peasants' Revolt\") of 1381\\.",
"This unlucky association sealed the fate of the poll tax as a fiscal expedient. It was abandoned, with one exception, for nearly three hundred years, its occasional employment in the 17th century not resulting in its permanent revival. Apart from special circumstances, it is plain that the fifteenth and tenth was better suited than the poll tax for the purpose of English finance.\nThe machinery for collection was ready for the former, while special agents had to gather the latter, even from the poorest classes. In fact, the episode of the poll taxes may be regarded as a fortunately unsuccessful attempt to relieve the propertied classes at the expense of the peasants and poorer burghers. Failure in this respect helped in the maintenance of the settlement of direct taxation devised in 1334\\.",
""
] |
Indirect taxation
-----------------
Parallel with the evolution of direct taxation, but decidedly lagging behind, is the progress of indirect taxation. As already mentioned, the right of levying dues on goods entering or leaving English ports belonged from very early times to the king. Whether this power was, in its origin, due to the protection afforded to traders and thus a kind of insurance, or the result of the royal prerogative of pre\-emption is immaterial for finance. What is established is that the prisage of wine or levy of one cask in ten, and the taking of one\-fifteenth or one\-tenth of other commodities was in force. Attempts to impose additional dues were forbidden by Article 41 of Magna Carta which recognized the ancient and just customs.
One of the earliest effects of parliamentary influence is manifested in the establishment of duties on wool, woolfells and leather by the first parliament of Edward I. After efforts by the king to gather increased duties, the [Confirmation of the Charter](/wiki/Confirmation_of_Charters "Confirmation of Charters") (1297\) forbade any increases on the amounts fixed in 1275, which were henceforth known as the ancient customs.
Another attempt was made to obtain a higher scale of duties by arrangement with merchants. Foreign traders consented to the royal proposals, which comprised duties on wine, wool, hides and wax, plus a general tax of 1{{frac\|1\|4}}% on all imports and exports. Thus, in addition to the old custom of half a mark (6s. 8d.) per sack of wool and each three hundred woolfells, as well as one mark (13s. 4d.) per last or load of leather, foreign merchants paid an extra duty (or surtax) of 50% and also 2s. per tun of wine, the so\-called [butlerage](/wiki/Butlerage "Butlerage").
The privileges laid down in the [Carta Mercatoria](/wiki/Carta_Mercatoria "Carta Mercatoria") (1303\) were probably granted conditionally on the acceptance of these enhanced dues. English merchants, however, successfully resisted them so that the old prisage of wine remained unchanged, at least for them. Despite parliamentary opposition on the ground that they amounted to an infringement of the Great Charter, the new customs remained in force. After being suspended in 1311, they were revived in 1322, confirmed by royal authority in 1328, and finally sanctioned by parliament in the [Statute of the Staple](/wiki/Statute_of_the_Staple "Statute of the Staple") (1353\). They therefore formed part of the permanent crown revenues from the ports and, together with other, older, customs, became the basis for further development.
Just as the old direct taxes were supplemented by, and then absorbed into, the general taxation on movables, so customs, in the strict sense, were followed by subsidies or parliamentary grants. One great source of English wealth in the 14th century was the export of a peculiarly fine wool. Thus, the political circumstances of Edward III's time suggested its manipulation for purposes of both policy and revenue. Sometimes in order to influence the towns of [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders"), the export of wool was absolutely prohibited; at others, varying export duties were imposed not only on wool, but also skins and leather. In the reign's early years, these were settled in agreement with merchant classes.
These subsidies were first imposed in 1340, being henceforward granted despite frequent complaints. Thus, in 1348, Parliament objected to an export duty of Β£2 per sack on wool on the ground that it was in fact a tax on landowners who, as a consequence, received lower prices for their wool. Bargains between the king and merchants were forbidden and were therefore brought under parliamentary control by statutes passed in 1362 and 1371\. In 1347, besides special duties on wool, imposts on wine and general goods were increased by agreement at a charge of 2s. per tun on the former and 2{{frac\|1\|2}}% on the latter. Indeed, between 1371 and 1376, these were established as grants under the names [Tunnage](/wiki/Tonnage "Tonnage") and [Poundage](/wiki/Poundage "Poundage"), older dues being left intact.
|
[
"Indirect taxation\n-----------------",
"Parallel with the evolution of direct taxation, but decidedly lagging behind, is the progress of indirect taxation. As already mentioned, the right of levying dues on goods entering or leaving English ports belonged from very early times to the king. Whether this power was, in its origin, due to the protection afforded to traders and thus a kind of insurance, or the result of the royal prerogative of pre\\-emption is immaterial for finance. What is established is that the prisage of wine or levy of one cask in ten, and the taking of one\\-fifteenth or one\\-tenth of other commodities was in force. Attempts to impose additional dues were forbidden by Article 41 of Magna Carta which recognized the ancient and just customs.",
"One of the earliest effects of parliamentary influence is manifested in the establishment of duties on wool, woolfells and leather by the first parliament of Edward I. After efforts by the king to gather increased duties, the [Confirmation of the Charter](/wiki/Confirmation_of_Charters \"Confirmation of Charters\") (1297\\) forbade any increases on the amounts fixed in 1275, which were henceforth known as the ancient customs.",
"Another attempt was made to obtain a higher scale of duties by arrangement with merchants. Foreign traders consented to the royal proposals, which comprised duties on wine, wool, hides and wax, plus a general tax of 1{{frac\\|1\\|4}}% on all imports and exports. Thus, in addition to the old custom of half a mark (6s. 8d.) per sack of wool and each three hundred woolfells, as well as one mark (13s. 4d.) per last or load of leather, foreign merchants paid an extra duty (or surtax) of 50% and also 2s. per tun of wine, the so\\-called [butlerage](/wiki/Butlerage \"Butlerage\").",
"The privileges laid down in the [Carta Mercatoria](/wiki/Carta_Mercatoria \"Carta Mercatoria\") (1303\\) were probably granted conditionally on the acceptance of these enhanced dues. English merchants, however, successfully resisted them so that the old prisage of wine remained unchanged, at least for them. Despite parliamentary opposition on the ground that they amounted to an infringement of the Great Charter, the new customs remained in force. After being suspended in 1311, they were revived in 1322, confirmed by royal authority in 1328, and finally sanctioned by parliament in the [Statute of the Staple](/wiki/Statute_of_the_Staple \"Statute of the Staple\") (1353\\). They therefore formed part of the permanent crown revenues from the ports and, together with other, older, customs, became the basis for further development.",
"Just as the old direct taxes were supplemented by, and then absorbed into, the general taxation on movables, so customs, in the strict sense, were followed by subsidies or parliamentary grants. One great source of English wealth in the 14th century was the export of a peculiarly fine wool. Thus, the political circumstances of Edward III's time suggested its manipulation for purposes of both policy and revenue. Sometimes in order to influence the towns of [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"), the export of wool was absolutely prohibited; at others, varying export duties were imposed not only on wool, but also skins and leather. In the reign's early years, these were settled in agreement with merchant classes.",
"These subsidies were first imposed in 1340, being henceforward granted despite frequent complaints. Thus, in 1348, Parliament objected to an export duty of Β£2 per sack on wool on the ground that it was in fact a tax on landowners who, as a consequence, received lower prices for their wool. Bargains between the king and merchants were forbidden and were therefore brought under parliamentary control by statutes passed in 1362 and 1371\\. In 1347, besides special duties on wool, imposts on wine and general goods were increased by agreement at a charge of 2s. per tun on the former and 2{{frac\\|1\\|2}}% on the latter. Indeed, between 1371 and 1376, these were established as grants under the names [Tunnage](/wiki/Tonnage \"Tonnage\") and [Poundage](/wiki/Poundage \"Poundage\"), older dues being left intact.",
""
] |
Further forms of tax raising
----------------------------
{{anchor\|Subsidy (English tax)}}
The [Lancastrian](/wiki/House_of_Lancaster "House of Lancaster") era, extending over two\-thirds of the 15th century (1399β1471\), is noticeable for introducing new forms of direct taxation. The standard tax, the fifteenth and tenth, was failing to meet changing conditions in that, as towns decayed, further allowances had to be given amounting to over 15% (Β£6,000\), which, with other deductions, lowered the yield from fifteenths and tenths to Β£31,000\. To supplement this, a 5% land tax affecting only large land owners was introduced in 1404, a lower rate of 1{{frac\|2\|3}}% being applied to the less wealthy in 1411\. A house tax made its appearance in 1428 while taxes on knights' fees and other freeholds were also tried. In 1435 and 1450, a graduated income tax was employed. The minimum rate, 2{{frac\|1\|2}}%, applied to incomes under Β£100 (or under Β£20 in the tax of 1450\) rising to 10% on higher incomes, thus evidencing the need for greater revenue. At this time, such methods showed a disposition to adopt foreign models, particularly those of France and [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy").
As to indirect taxation, receipts at first seemed to decline so that subsidies were granted for specified fixed terms, albeit that the victory of [Agincourt](/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt "Battle of Agincourt") gained a life grant for [Henry V](/wiki/Henry_V_of_England "Henry V of England"). After the enthronement of [Edward IV](/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England "Edward IV of England"), however, the tenth was literally taken up and voted (1472\) by Parliament as a special military provision only. However, it failed to raise the necessary revenue, thus forcing the King to fall back on older forms of grant.
Extra taxes on aliens were levied under both Lancastrian and [Yorkist](/wiki/Yorkist "Yorkist") rulers but with little profit. The most original contribution of Edward IV's reign to fiscal policy was that of benevolences or payments by wealthy subjects of sums requested by the king. Voluntary in form, these were, in fact, compulsory, and later became one of the great grievances against which Parliament had to struggle.
Broader financial issues marked the [Tudor period](/wiki/Tudor_period "Tudor period") as the era of national monarchies arrived, necessitating the maintenance of greater military and naval forces, as well as more costly machineries of administration. Both external and fiscal policy were affected by the set of ideas that developed into [mercantilism](/wiki/Mercantilism "Mercantilism") while the state of finance reflected the monarch's personal character, particularly in the 16th century, so that decided contrasts could be found. For example, [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England "Henry VII of England") carried his desire to replenish the royal treasury depleted by the [Wars of the Roses](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses "Wars of the Roses") to the point of establishing a "reign of fiscal terror",Starkey, David. Henry, Virtuous Prince. London, 2008, chapter 16\. Biography of Henry VII \& VIII through the rigid enforcement of feudal incidents rather than appeals for parliamentary aids, and the establishment of a system of "[Chamber Finance](/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_Chamber "Treasurer of the Chamber")"Richardson, W.C., Tudor Chamber Administration 1485\-1547, Baton Rouge Louisiana, 1952 run by the staff of his [Privy Chamber](/wiki/Privy_Chamber "Privy Chamber") mirroring the functioning of the slow and inefficient [Exchequer](/wiki/Exchequer "Exchequer"). He was followed by the lavish prodigality of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England") while Elizabeth's financial policy was very different from that of either. In addition, the desire for a vigorous foreign policy, the hope of encouraging native industry and the sentiment of retaliation against the trade regulations of other countries interfered with the strict aim of earlier times, namely the obtaining of the largest possible yields.
The whole public economy was regarded as existing only for the furtherance of national power. It is this more complex policy together with new influences such as the discovery of [America](/wiki/Americas "Americas"), the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") and the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation "Reformation") that gives special interest to the financial problems of the sixteenth century.
The first head of public income at the disposal of the sovereign was that of the crown lands. Although these were diminished over time by grants to the King's relatives and favourites, they were simultaneously built up via resumptions and forfeitures. On the whole, though, losses and gains were thought to be in balance by the close of the 14th century. Crown lands were, however, an inelastic form of revenue, and their great impoverishmentβbegun in the 15th century by the Lancastrian kings, (in particular, [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England "Henry VI of England"))βwas caused through expenditure pressures, profligacy and wholesale plunder by officials.
Edward IV failed to capitalise on the many forfeited estates reverting to the crown during the Wars of the Roses of the 15th century, so that the main opportunity for aggrandizement was afforded by the dissolution of the monasteries and guilds under Henry VIII. As a result, the great mass of property passing into royal possession was in part assigned to nobles and officials, the remainder being distributed during his children's reigns. Thus, the dwindling importance of land and rents to the public revenue continued. Similarly, feudal dues also became subordinate notwithstanding occasional attempts rigorously to enforce them. The degree of personal monarchy exercised by the Tudors, depending as it did on popular support, therefore tended to encourage the collection of dues other than taxation. Similarly restrained was the use of the old right of [purveyance](/wiki/Purveyance "Purveyance"), finally abolished in 1660\.
In the 16th century, the obtaining of additional revenue from crown lands and the royal prerogative was exploited to the full. These were now, however, far less profitable, the prevailing political and social conditions increasingly pointing to the need for direct taxation to become the principal source of revenue raising. Among the many calls for further revenue, the chief included the need to maintain the ever\-expanding machinery of state and price rises caused by growing supplies of precious metals, the effects of which extended into the 17th century.
One form of direct taxation remained from Edward III's reign. Fifteenths and tenths continued to be voted in while attempts to introduce new methods failed. In 1488 a military grant framed on the model of the abortive tax of 1472 yielded only a little over one third of the estimate (Β£27,000 out of Β£75,000\), the unsatisfactory result preventing further experiments during Henry VII's reign. The foreign policy of Henry VIII, particularly his French expedition with its enormous outlay, accounts for the graduated capitation tax of 1513, which, despite anticipation, yielded even less than the tax of 1488 (Β£50,000 instead of Β£160,000\). But these failures cleared the way for a more effective form of direct impost, a general tax (1514\) on land and goods which was at first modest: 2{{frac\|1\|2}}%. However, it was soon raised to 4s. in the pound on land and 2s. 8d. in the pound on goods, a scale evidently devised with reference to the older fifteenth and tenth, which henceforth became subordinate.
The subsidy became the established mode of grant under both [Tudors](/wiki/Tudors "Tudors") and [Stuarts](/wiki/Stuarts "Stuarts"), though by degrees it underwent a change similar to that of its predecessor. Under the taxing statutes, elaborate provisions were made for its assessment and collection in order to secure the greatest possible return. However, old habits proved too strong and the subsidy "slipped into the same groove as that of the fifteenth and tenth, in practice becoming a grant of about the same amount as the yield of the preceding subsidy" (Dowell).
As a result, each subsidy was approximately Β£100,000 in the middle of the 16th century, but had fallen to only Β£80,000 by its close. The parallel vote of the clergy in convocation (which, after 1533, was confirmed by Parliament) amounted to Β£20,000\. Usually, Parliament voted a number of fifteenths and tenths plus subsidies, e.g. Elizabeth's first Parliament voted her two fifteenths and tenths plus a subsidy, or, taking the usual values, Β£160,000\. At times of war, such as the attempted invasion by the Spanish Armada, however, votes were enlarged by granting further fifteenths, tenths and subsidies. The history of the subsidy is instructive as regards its tendency to become inelastic over time, approximating to a fixed sum only. Thus, it followed the path of later medieval taxation forming theβalbeit undesignedβmodel for subsequent land and property taxes.
Under the Tudors, port dutiesβthe subsidies on wool, hides and leather, plus tunnage at 3s., and poundage at 5%βwere granted to each sovereign for life. These, together with the hereditary customs, supplied considerable revenue for crown's use and no better indication of the increased power and popularity of the monarchy can be found than during this era, the contrast with the suspicious, grudging attitudes of the [Plantagenet](/wiki/Plantagenet "Plantagenet") and Lancastrian parliaments signifying a change in the national sentiment. However, increasing the duty on [Malmsey](/wiki/Malvasia "Malvasia") wine (1490\) had a retaliatory rather than a fiscal aim, being directed against the [Venetians](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice") who had previously imposed restrictions on English trade. For the same reason, increases were later imposed on French wine in particular.
Although restrictions on imports and exports as well as hostile measures against foreign merchants were matters of economic rather than financial policy, they had the indirect effect of increasing the control exercised at the ports. However, the loss of [Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") (1558\) dislocated the system of [the staple](/wiki/The_staple "The staple") by cutting off a vital centre of customs revenue. It may also have contributed to the changed method of valuing duty. Thus, in 1558, fixed valuations were, for the first time, substituted and set down in a book of rates. More stringent reforms and regulations followed, in particular against smuggling and fraud by corrupt officials. Despite such reforms, however, the cost of collection remained unduly high throughout the Tudor period.
As in the 14th century, the subsidy had followed both old and new customs. Similarly in the 16th century, impositions levied by royal prerogative also supplemented the parliamentary subsidy, although their principal employment occurred during the following century. A further, significant indication of the future of indirect taxation was furnished by grants of monopolies to inventors, producers and traders. When these affected important commodities, they operated in the same way as taxes farmed out to collectors and, although crown profits therefrom were small, they effectively enhanced prices and excited discontent, promise of redress finally taking place after the hostile debate of 1601\.
It may fairly be said that one of the greatest struggles between the Stuart kings and Parliament centred round financial policy. It is beyond dispute that taxation was one sphere of conflict and, from the accession of [James I](/wiki/James_I_of_England "James I of England") (1603\) to the start of the Civil War (1642\), the legal basis of indirect taxation was tested for port duties in the [Case of Impositions](/wiki/Case_of_Impositions "Case of Impositions") (the John Bates case), whilst that of direct taxation was considered in the even more famous [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money "Ship Money") case, forever associated with [John Hampden](/wiki/John_Hampden "John Hampden"). Similarly, Parliament also debated impositions, monopolies, votes of subsidies and the proper application of funds therefrom as well as other related matters. Despite this, however, the overall system showed signs of expanding and adapting to the growing needs of the state.
The direct grants of the parliaments of James I far exceeded those of earlier reignsβfor example, in 1606 fifteenths and tenths, three lay and four clerical subsidiesβalthough efforts to extend other sources of revenue by exercising the royal prerogative naturally reacted on this spirit of liberality. The last fifteenth and tenth was voted in 1624, from which date this old\-established form disappeared leaving the subsidy only. In spite of Charles I's high\-handed policy, five subsidies were voted after the [Petition of Right](/wiki/Petition_of_Right "Petition of Right") had been accepted, and even the [Long Parliament](/wiki/Long_Parliament "Long Parliament") made similar grants. At or near the outbreak of the Civil War, it also granted the king a graduated capitation tax.
Other modes of direct taxation were used without parliamentary sanction. The collection of antiquated feudal dues was enforced through the special courts (particularly the [Star Chamber](/wiki/Star_Chamber "Star Chamber")) with a rigour long unknown. James had tried the French device of a tariff of honours and he and his son both employed the benevolence until the Petition of Right made such a levy illegal. But by far the most serious innovation was the collection of [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money "Ship Money"), a course forced on Charles by his determination to rule without Parliament. These writs embodied the ultimate expression of the ingenuity of the King's advisers in the invention of means to enable him to do so. The first writs secured over Β£100,000, and were followed by five further issues (1634β1639\) bringing in an average return of Β£200,000 or about three lay subsidies. Like the benevolence, Ship Money was declared to be illegal (1641\).
The contest respecting monopolies settled by Elizabeth's withdrawal was revived under James, finally being stopped by the [Statute of Monopolies](/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies "Statute of Monopolies") (1624\) which declared such grants to be utterly void. Certain exceptions (as in the case of the soapboiles) permitted the raising of revenue by what was, in fact, a rudimentary excise and plans for a general excise were also discussed, especially as a substitute for feudal dues, though these were not reduced in practice. In the early part of the 17th century, customs steadily increased from Β£127,000 in 1604 to nearly Β£500,000 in 1641 due to the growth of English trade, the adoption of new books of ratesβ1608 and 1635βthe fixing of higher valuations and also the inclusion of new commodities, in particular, wine, currants (the subject of controversy in Bates' case) tobacco and sugar.
One development was the adoption of the farming system on a larger scale, an evident imitation from France. Distinctions were made between the great, the petty and the sugar farms, and opportunities for gain were afforded to the relevant officials. Constitutionally, the life grant of subsidies, voted in accordance with Tudor usage to James, was withheld from Charles by Parliament because of his overbearing policies. However, between 1628 and 1640, all customs revenue was raised by the use of the prerogative only, an avenue that was finally closed by The Tunnage and Poundage Act 1641 which made such extra\-parliamentary customs illegal.
In short, financial progress from the Conquest to the crisis of the [Great Rebellion](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms "Wars of the Three Kingdoms") was marked by an almost complete shift of revenue\-raising methods. The King had ceased to maintain himself and the royal demesne and the prerogative rights included in feudalism had become totally subordinate, being replaced by direct and indirect taxation.
|
[
"Further forms of tax raising\n----------------------------",
"{{anchor\\|Subsidy (English tax)}}\nThe [Lancastrian](/wiki/House_of_Lancaster \"House of Lancaster\") era, extending over two\\-thirds of the 15th century (1399β1471\\), is noticeable for introducing new forms of direct taxation. The standard tax, the fifteenth and tenth, was failing to meet changing conditions in that, as towns decayed, further allowances had to be given amounting to over 15% (Β£6,000\\), which, with other deductions, lowered the yield from fifteenths and tenths to Β£31,000\\. To supplement this, a 5% land tax affecting only large land owners was introduced in 1404, a lower rate of 1{{frac\\|2\\|3}}% being applied to the less wealthy in 1411\\. A house tax made its appearance in 1428 while taxes on knights' fees and other freeholds were also tried. In 1435 and 1450, a graduated income tax was employed. The minimum rate, 2{{frac\\|1\\|2}}%, applied to incomes under Β£100 (or under Β£20 in the tax of 1450\\) rising to 10% on higher incomes, thus evidencing the need for greater revenue. At this time, such methods showed a disposition to adopt foreign models, particularly those of France and [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\").",
"As to indirect taxation, receipts at first seemed to decline so that subsidies were granted for specified fixed terms, albeit that the victory of [Agincourt](/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt \"Battle of Agincourt\") gained a life grant for [Henry V](/wiki/Henry_V_of_England \"Henry V of England\"). After the enthronement of [Edward IV](/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England \"Edward IV of England\"), however, the tenth was literally taken up and voted (1472\\) by Parliament as a special military provision only. However, it failed to raise the necessary revenue, thus forcing the King to fall back on older forms of grant.",
"Extra taxes on aliens were levied under both Lancastrian and [Yorkist](/wiki/Yorkist \"Yorkist\") rulers but with little profit. The most original contribution of Edward IV's reign to fiscal policy was that of benevolences or payments by wealthy subjects of sums requested by the king. Voluntary in form, these were, in fact, compulsory, and later became one of the great grievances against which Parliament had to struggle.",
"Broader financial issues marked the [Tudor period](/wiki/Tudor_period \"Tudor period\") as the era of national monarchies arrived, necessitating the maintenance of greater military and naval forces, as well as more costly machineries of administration. Both external and fiscal policy were affected by the set of ideas that developed into [mercantilism](/wiki/Mercantilism \"Mercantilism\") while the state of finance reflected the monarch's personal character, particularly in the 16th century, so that decided contrasts could be found. For example, [Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England \"Henry VII of England\") carried his desire to replenish the royal treasury depleted by the [Wars of the Roses](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses \"Wars of the Roses\") to the point of establishing a \"reign of fiscal terror\",Starkey, David. Henry, Virtuous Prince. London, 2008, chapter 16\\. Biography of Henry VII \\& VIII through the rigid enforcement of feudal incidents rather than appeals for parliamentary aids, and the establishment of a system of \"[Chamber Finance](/wiki/Treasurer_of_the_Chamber \"Treasurer of the Chamber\")\"Richardson, W.C., Tudor Chamber Administration 1485\\-1547, Baton Rouge Louisiana, 1952 run by the staff of his [Privy Chamber](/wiki/Privy_Chamber \"Privy Chamber\") mirroring the functioning of the slow and inefficient [Exchequer](/wiki/Exchequer \"Exchequer\"). He was followed by the lavish prodigality of [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\") while Elizabeth's financial policy was very different from that of either. In addition, the desire for a vigorous foreign policy, the hope of encouraging native industry and the sentiment of retaliation against the trade regulations of other countries interfered with the strict aim of earlier times, namely the obtaining of the largest possible yields.",
"The whole public economy was regarded as existing only for the furtherance of national power. It is this more complex policy together with new influences such as the discovery of [America](/wiki/Americas \"Americas\"), the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") and the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation \"Reformation\") that gives special interest to the financial problems of the sixteenth century.",
"The first head of public income at the disposal of the sovereign was that of the crown lands. Although these were diminished over time by grants to the King's relatives and favourites, they were simultaneously built up via resumptions and forfeitures. On the whole, though, losses and gains were thought to be in balance by the close of the 14th century. Crown lands were, however, an inelastic form of revenue, and their great impoverishmentβbegun in the 15th century by the Lancastrian kings, (in particular, [Henry VI](/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England \"Henry VI of England\"))βwas caused through expenditure pressures, profligacy and wholesale plunder by officials.",
"Edward IV failed to capitalise on the many forfeited estates reverting to the crown during the Wars of the Roses of the 15th century, so that the main opportunity for aggrandizement was afforded by the dissolution of the monasteries and guilds under Henry VIII. As a result, the great mass of property passing into royal possession was in part assigned to nobles and officials, the remainder being distributed during his children's reigns. Thus, the dwindling importance of land and rents to the public revenue continued. Similarly, feudal dues also became subordinate notwithstanding occasional attempts rigorously to enforce them. The degree of personal monarchy exercised by the Tudors, depending as it did on popular support, therefore tended to encourage the collection of dues other than taxation. Similarly restrained was the use of the old right of [purveyance](/wiki/Purveyance \"Purveyance\"), finally abolished in 1660\\.",
"In the 16th century, the obtaining of additional revenue from crown lands and the royal prerogative was exploited to the full. These were now, however, far less profitable, the prevailing political and social conditions increasingly pointing to the need for direct taxation to become the principal source of revenue raising. Among the many calls for further revenue, the chief included the need to maintain the ever\\-expanding machinery of state and price rises caused by growing supplies of precious metals, the effects of which extended into the 17th century.",
"One form of direct taxation remained from Edward III's reign. Fifteenths and tenths continued to be voted in while attempts to introduce new methods failed. In 1488 a military grant framed on the model of the abortive tax of 1472 yielded only a little over one third of the estimate (Β£27,000 out of Β£75,000\\), the unsatisfactory result preventing further experiments during Henry VII's reign. The foreign policy of Henry VIII, particularly his French expedition with its enormous outlay, accounts for the graduated capitation tax of 1513, which, despite anticipation, yielded even less than the tax of 1488 (Β£50,000 instead of Β£160,000\\). But these failures cleared the way for a more effective form of direct impost, a general tax (1514\\) on land and goods which was at first modest: 2{{frac\\|1\\|2}}%. However, it was soon raised to 4s. in the pound on land and 2s. 8d. in the pound on goods, a scale evidently devised with reference to the older fifteenth and tenth, which henceforth became subordinate.",
"The subsidy became the established mode of grant under both [Tudors](/wiki/Tudors \"Tudors\") and [Stuarts](/wiki/Stuarts \"Stuarts\"), though by degrees it underwent a change similar to that of its predecessor. Under the taxing statutes, elaborate provisions were made for its assessment and collection in order to secure the greatest possible return. However, old habits proved too strong and the subsidy \"slipped into the same groove as that of the fifteenth and tenth, in practice becoming a grant of about the same amount as the yield of the preceding subsidy\" (Dowell).",
"As a result, each subsidy was approximately Β£100,000 in the middle of the 16th century, but had fallen to only Β£80,000 by its close. The parallel vote of the clergy in convocation (which, after 1533, was confirmed by Parliament) amounted to Β£20,000\\. Usually, Parliament voted a number of fifteenths and tenths plus subsidies, e.g. Elizabeth's first Parliament voted her two fifteenths and tenths plus a subsidy, or, taking the usual values, Β£160,000\\. At times of war, such as the attempted invasion by the Spanish Armada, however, votes were enlarged by granting further fifteenths, tenths and subsidies. The history of the subsidy is instructive as regards its tendency to become inelastic over time, approximating to a fixed sum only. Thus, it followed the path of later medieval taxation forming theβalbeit undesignedβmodel for subsequent land and property taxes.",
"Under the Tudors, port dutiesβthe subsidies on wool, hides and leather, plus tunnage at 3s., and poundage at 5%βwere granted to each sovereign for life. These, together with the hereditary customs, supplied considerable revenue for crown's use and no better indication of the increased power and popularity of the monarchy can be found than during this era, the contrast with the suspicious, grudging attitudes of the [Plantagenet](/wiki/Plantagenet \"Plantagenet\") and Lancastrian parliaments signifying a change in the national sentiment. However, increasing the duty on [Malmsey](/wiki/Malvasia \"Malvasia\") wine (1490\\) had a retaliatory rather than a fiscal aim, being directed against the [Venetians](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\") who had previously imposed restrictions on English trade. For the same reason, increases were later imposed on French wine in particular.",
"Although restrictions on imports and exports as well as hostile measures against foreign merchants were matters of economic rather than financial policy, they had the indirect effect of increasing the control exercised at the ports. However, the loss of [Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") (1558\\) dislocated the system of [the staple](/wiki/The_staple \"The staple\") by cutting off a vital centre of customs revenue. It may also have contributed to the changed method of valuing duty. Thus, in 1558, fixed valuations were, for the first time, substituted and set down in a book of rates. More stringent reforms and regulations followed, in particular against smuggling and fraud by corrupt officials. Despite such reforms, however, the cost of collection remained unduly high throughout the Tudor period.",
"As in the 14th century, the subsidy had followed both old and new customs. Similarly in the 16th century, impositions levied by royal prerogative also supplemented the parliamentary subsidy, although their principal employment occurred during the following century. A further, significant indication of the future of indirect taxation was furnished by grants of monopolies to inventors, producers and traders. When these affected important commodities, they operated in the same way as taxes farmed out to collectors and, although crown profits therefrom were small, they effectively enhanced prices and excited discontent, promise of redress finally taking place after the hostile debate of 1601\\.",
"It may fairly be said that one of the greatest struggles between the Stuart kings and Parliament centred round financial policy. It is beyond dispute that taxation was one sphere of conflict and, from the accession of [James I](/wiki/James_I_of_England \"James I of England\") (1603\\) to the start of the Civil War (1642\\), the legal basis of indirect taxation was tested for port duties in the [Case of Impositions](/wiki/Case_of_Impositions \"Case of Impositions\") (the John Bates case), whilst that of direct taxation was considered in the even more famous [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money \"Ship Money\") case, forever associated with [John Hampden](/wiki/John_Hampden \"John Hampden\"). Similarly, Parliament also debated impositions, monopolies, votes of subsidies and the proper application of funds therefrom as well as other related matters. Despite this, however, the overall system showed signs of expanding and adapting to the growing needs of the state.",
"The direct grants of the parliaments of James I far exceeded those of earlier reignsβfor example, in 1606 fifteenths and tenths, three lay and four clerical subsidiesβalthough efforts to extend other sources of revenue by exercising the royal prerogative naturally reacted on this spirit of liberality. The last fifteenth and tenth was voted in 1624, from which date this old\\-established form disappeared leaving the subsidy only. In spite of Charles I's high\\-handed policy, five subsidies were voted after the [Petition of Right](/wiki/Petition_of_Right \"Petition of Right\") had been accepted, and even the [Long Parliament](/wiki/Long_Parliament \"Long Parliament\") made similar grants. At or near the outbreak of the Civil War, it also granted the king a graduated capitation tax.",
"Other modes of direct taxation were used without parliamentary sanction. The collection of antiquated feudal dues was enforced through the special courts (particularly the [Star Chamber](/wiki/Star_Chamber \"Star Chamber\")) with a rigour long unknown. James had tried the French device of a tariff of honours and he and his son both employed the benevolence until the Petition of Right made such a levy illegal. But by far the most serious innovation was the collection of [Ship Money](/wiki/Ship_Money \"Ship Money\"), a course forced on Charles by his determination to rule without Parliament. These writs embodied the ultimate expression of the ingenuity of the King's advisers in the invention of means to enable him to do so. The first writs secured over Β£100,000, and were followed by five further issues (1634β1639\\) bringing in an average return of Β£200,000 or about three lay subsidies. Like the benevolence, Ship Money was declared to be illegal (1641\\).",
"The contest respecting monopolies settled by Elizabeth's withdrawal was revived under James, finally being stopped by the [Statute of Monopolies](/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies \"Statute of Monopolies\") (1624\\) which declared such grants to be utterly void. Certain exceptions (as in the case of the soapboiles) permitted the raising of revenue by what was, in fact, a rudimentary excise and plans for a general excise were also discussed, especially as a substitute for feudal dues, though these were not reduced in practice. In the early part of the 17th century, customs steadily increased from Β£127,000 in 1604 to nearly Β£500,000 in 1641 due to the growth of English trade, the adoption of new books of ratesβ1608 and 1635βthe fixing of higher valuations and also the inclusion of new commodities, in particular, wine, currants (the subject of controversy in Bates' case) tobacco and sugar.",
"One development was the adoption of the farming system on a larger scale, an evident imitation from France. Distinctions were made between the great, the petty and the sugar farms, and opportunities for gain were afforded to the relevant officials. Constitutionally, the life grant of subsidies, voted in accordance with Tudor usage to James, was withheld from Charles by Parliament because of his overbearing policies. However, between 1628 and 1640, all customs revenue was raised by the use of the prerogative only, an avenue that was finally closed by The Tunnage and Poundage Act 1641 which made such extra\\-parliamentary customs illegal.",
"In short, financial progress from the Conquest to the crisis of the [Great Rebellion](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms \"Wars of the Three Kingdoms\") was marked by an almost complete shift of revenue\\-raising methods. The King had ceased to maintain himself and the royal demesne and the prerogative rights included in feudalism had become totally subordinate, being replaced by direct and indirect taxation.",
""
] |
The Restoration and beyond
--------------------------
[300px\|thumb\|right\|'The free\-born Briton or a perspective of taxation', a satirical print of 1786: an angry [John Bull](/wiki/John_Bull "John Bull") carries a double [yoke](/wiki/Carrying_pole "Carrying pole") loaded up with items subject to taxes, customs, excise or stamp duties. The land he walks on is taxed, as is the nearby house, while the church proffers parochial taxes and state taxes.](/wiki/File:The_free-born_Briton_or_a_perspective_of_taxation_%28BM_1868%2C0808.5468%29.jpg "The free-born Briton or a perspective of taxation (BM 1868,0808.5468).jpg")
A complete reconstruction of the revenue system became necessary during the Restoration. The feudal tenures and dues, with the prerogative rights of purveyance and pre\-emption, could not be restored and careful inquiry showed that whilst, before the Civil War, the king's annual revenue amounted to just under Β£900,000, the needs of the restored monarchy would now be about Β£1,200,000 per annum. The commons therefore set about raising such a sum, an hereditary excise on beer and ale being voted in as compensation for the loss of old, feudal dues, whilst temporary excises on spirits, vinegar, coffee, chocolate and tea were put in place.
All differences between old and new customs and subsidies had disappeared under the Commonwealth. The General or Great Statute (1660\) provided a scale of duties, 5% on imports and exports, with special duties on wines and woollen cloths accompanied by a new book of rates. A house tax levied after the French pattern on each hearth, was introduced and established in 1662\. Poll taxes were used as an extraordinary resource, as were the last subsidies, voted in 1663, and then forever abandoned. Licences on retailers and fees on law proceedings were further aids to revenue, which, in the later years of [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England "Charles II of England"), and in the short reign of his successor, was kept up to the level of increasing expenditure, but only with difficulty.
The Commonwealth assessments were revived on several occasions, indirect taxation being made more rigorous by the imposition of extra duties on brandy, tobacco and sugar as well as French linens and silks. One major development was the placing of customs (1670\) and excise (1683\) in the hands of special commissioners, as opposed to the former system of farming them out to private collectors. This more modern approach was further evidenced by the greater care taken with customs' administration. Amongst expert officials [Dudley North](/wiki/Dudley_North_%28economist%29 "Dudley North (economist)"), was the most distinguished commissioner of customs. In this period, too, the beginning of the public debt may be found in the [Stop of the Exchequer](/wiki/Stop_of_the_Exchequer "Stop of the Exchequer") of 1672, and its indefinite deferral of what had originally been short\-term financed obligations due to bankers.
The [Revolution of 1688](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution "Glorious Revolution") may be regarded in both constitutional and financial terms as the completion of the work of the [Long Parliament](/wiki/Long_Parliament "Long Parliament"). In the latter respect its chief effects were:
1. The transfer of the administration of finances from the king's nominees to officials under parliamentary control
2. The consequent application of revenue to the purposes designated by parliamentary appropriation
3. The rapid expansion of various forms of revenue, particularly indirect taxation
4. The rise and growth of the national debt, combined with the creation of an effective banking system. (The greater part of the 18th century was occupied with the working out of these results.)
The government of [William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England "William III of England") faced the expense of war whilst simultaneously needing to allay discontent at home. As a preliminary to settling the necessary revenue, a return was prepared, showing tax receipts of Β£1,100,000 and Β£1,800,000 during peace and wartime respectively. Parliament believed that Β£1,200,000 per annum would suffice for the kingdom's ordinary requirements but nevertheless introduced the [Civil List](/wiki/Civil_List "Civil List"), assigning Β£600,000 for certain fixed payments, leaving the remainder for other state needs. As "hearth money" had proved extremely unpopular, it was abolished, despite its yield of Β£170,000\. Additionally, further excise duties were voted in for the duration of William and Mary's lifetimes, plus further customs duties, albeit that the latter were for a limited term only. However, these revenues were still totally insufficient to meet the pressures of war and new taxes were therefore created, older forms being revived.
A series of poll and capitation taxes was imposed between 1689 and 1698 which were thereafter abandoned, being as unpopular as 'hearth money'. In 1688, monthly assessment were introduced, followed by income tax, followed by twelve\-monthly assessments in 1690 and 1691\. The way was thus prepared for the property tax of 1692, imposing a rate of 4s. in the pound on real estate, offices and personal property. However, the old difficulties of collection turned it mainly into a land tax, by which name it became generally known. The 4s. rate brought in Β£1,922,712, a return which declined in later years. To meet the shortfall, therefore, a fixed quota of nearly half a million (a 1s. rate) was adopted in 1697, the amount being apportioned in specified sums to towns and counties, its framework remaining substantially the same until 1798, the year of Pitt's redemption scheme. In 1696, houses were taxed at 2s. each, higher rates being applied to extra windows. Thus, the beginning of the [window tax](/wiki/Window_tax "Window tax"), licences on pedlars and a temporary tax on company stocks completed these imposts.
Following Holland's example, stamp duties were adopted in 1694, being extended in 1698 and large amounts were added to the excise. Breweries and distilleries were placed under charge and important commodities such as salt, coal, malt, leather and glass were included as taxable articles, the two latter being later removed. Similarly, customs rates were also increased. In 1698 the general 5% duty was raised to 10%. French goods became liable to surtaxes, first at 25%, then 50%, whilst goods from other countries were charged at a lesser amount. Moreover, spirits, wines, tea and coffee were taxed at special rates.
[thumb\|[Kingdom of England](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England "Kingdom of England") [Exchequer](/wiki/Exchequer "Exchequer") note\-5 Pounds (1697\), issued during the reign of William III](/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_England_Exchequer_note-5_Pounds_%281697%29.jpg "Kingdom of England Exchequer note-5 Pounds (1697).jpg")
The expansion of the fiscal system may be best realised from the fact that, during the comparatively short reign of William III (1689β1702\), the land tax produced Β£19,200,000, customs raising Β£13,296,000, and excise Β£13,650,000, or approximately Β£46 million when added together. In the last year of the reign, returns from these taxes were respectivelyβland tax (at 2s.), Β£990,000, customs Β£1,540,000, excise Β£986,000, or a total exceeding Β£3\.5 million. The removal of regular export duty applied to domestic woollen manufactures and corn only, both cases additionally being due to special reasons of policy.
Quite as remarkable as the growth of revenue was the sudden appearance of public loans. In earlier periods, a ruler accumulated treasure (Henry VII left Β£1,800,000\) or pledged jewels or customs revenue or, occasionally, his friends to repay his loans. Edward III's dealings with [Florentine](/wiki/Florence "Florence") bankers are well known, but it was only after the Revolution that the two conditions essential for a permanent, public debt were realized:
1. The responsibility of the government to the people
2. An effective market for [floating capital](/wiki/Floating_capital "Floating capital").
At the close of war in 1697, a debt of Β£21\.5 million had been incurred, of which over Β£16 million was still owed at William III's death. Connected with the public debt at that time was the foundation of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England "Bank of England") which increasingly became the agent for dealing with the state's revenue and expenditure, although the Exchequer continued to exist until 1834 as a real, albeit antiquated, institution.
Thus it is clear that, by the end of the 17th century, new influences dating from the Civil War brought into being all elements of the modern financial system. Expenditure, revenue, borrowing and loans essentially developed into their present\-day form. Increases in amounts plus procedural refinements combined with improved views on public policy were the only changes that occurred thereafter.
Broadly speaking, the 18th and 19th centuries exhibit several distinct financial periods. During the 90 years from the death of William III (1702\) to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War with France (1793\), there were four wars covering nearly 35 years. The long, peaceful administration of [Walpole](/wiki/Robert_Walpole "Robert Walpole") can be contrasted with the shorter intervals of peace following each contest. From the beginning of the war with the French Republic to the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo") there was an almost unbroken twenty years of war. The following forty years' peace ended with the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") (1854β56\), whilst a further forty years' peace ended with the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War "Second Boer War") (1899β1902\). During this time, the older form of mercantilism gave way to protectionism which, in turn, led to the gradual adoption of free trade. During each period of war, taxation (particularly indirect taxation) and debt increased. Financial reform was synonymous with peace and, among the great financial ministers, [Walpole](/wiki/Robert_Walpole "Robert Walpole"), the [younger Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger"), [Peel](/wiki/Robert_Peel "Robert Peel") and [Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone "William Ewart Gladstone") were conspicuous, while [Huskisson](/wiki/William_Huskisson "William Huskisson")'s services in the kindred field of economic policy deserve special notice.
By taking the several great heads of revenue in order, it is comparatively easy to understand the nature of the progress made in subsequent years.
1. The land tax, established on a definite basis in 1692, was the great 18th century form of direct taxation. Varying in rate from 1s. (in 1731\) to 4s. (in most war years), Pitt, in 1798, converted it into a redeemable charge on the lands of each parish, thus reducing it from Β£1,911,000 in 1798 to Β£730,000 in 1907β1908\. Moreover, major increases in other heads impaired its fiscal value.
2. Excise duty grew rapidly in the 18th century. Most articles of common consumption were permanently taxed, although Adam Smith unreservedly condemned those on soap, salt, candles and leather. In 1739, excise duties brought in Β£3 million, a sum that subsequently rose to Β£10 million, continued expansion being due both to the wider area covered and the country's increasing consumption.
3. Customs were equally serviceable, increased duties being even more considerable. The general 10% rate of 1698 became 15% in 1704, a fourth 5% was imposed in 1748 and, in 1759, general duties were raised to 25%. Coincidentally, customs duties on special articles such as tea were also increased. Indeed, the [American War of Independence](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War") produced a further 10% increase plus special extra duties on tobacco and sugar. Indeed, by 1784 customs revenue had risen to over Β£3 million.
However, two further matters must be taken into account:
4. The extreme rigour of duties and prohibitions aimed chiefly against French trade; and
5. The absence of care in estimating the point of maximum productiveness for each duty.
[Swift's](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift "Jonathan Swift") famous saying that, in the arithmetic of customs, two and two sometimes made only one, is well exemplified in England at this time. Smugglers were responsible for the loss of much of the country's foreign trade revenue despite the fact that efforts at reform were not altogether wanting. Walpole made several useful adjustments by abolishing general duties on exports plus several on imported raw materials such as silk, beaver, indigo and colonial timber. His most ambitious scheme for the warehousing of wine and tobacco in order to relieve exporters failed, however, because of the popular belief that it was the forerunner of a general excise. Nevertheless, his reduction of land tax together with his earlier funding plan deserve notice, as does his determination to preserve peace, which was also assisted by his fiscal reforms.
[Pitt's](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger "William Pitt the Younger") administration from 1783 to 1792 marks another period of improvement. The consolidation of the customs laws (1787\), the reduction of tea duty to nearly one\-tenth of its former amount, the conclusion of a liberal commercial treaty with France and the attempted trade arrangement with [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") tend to show that Pitt would have anticipated many of the free trade measures of later years had it been his lot to enjoy ten more years of peaceful administration.
One financial problem which excited interest and even alarm, however, was the rapidly increasing public debt. Each war gave rise to greater additions whilst intervals of peace showed little diminution, its amount rising from Β£16 million in 1702 to Β£53 million at the time of the [Treaty of Utrecht](/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht "Treaty of Utrecht") (1713\). In 1748 it reached Β£78 million and, at the close of the Seven Years' War, it stood at Β£137 million, only to exceed Β£238 million by the time the American colonies became independent. Apprehension of [national bankruptcy](/wiki/National_bankruptcy "National bankruptcy") led to the adoption of the device of a sinking fund but, in this instance, Pitt's usual sagacity failed him. The influence of [Richard Price](/wiki/Richard_Price "Richard Price")'s theory induced the policy of assigning special sums for debt reduction without regard to the fundamental need to maintain a real surplus.
|
[
"The Restoration and beyond\n--------------------------",
"[300px\\|thumb\\|right\\|'The free\\-born Briton or a perspective of taxation', a satirical print of 1786: an angry [John Bull](/wiki/John_Bull \"John Bull\") carries a double [yoke](/wiki/Carrying_pole \"Carrying pole\") loaded up with items subject to taxes, customs, excise or stamp duties. The land he walks on is taxed, as is the nearby house, while the church proffers parochial taxes and state taxes.](/wiki/File:The_free-born_Briton_or_a_perspective_of_taxation_%28BM_1868%2C0808.5468%29.jpg \"The free-born Briton or a perspective of taxation (BM 1868,0808.5468).jpg\")\nA complete reconstruction of the revenue system became necessary during the Restoration. The feudal tenures and dues, with the prerogative rights of purveyance and pre\\-emption, could not be restored and careful inquiry showed that whilst, before the Civil War, the king's annual revenue amounted to just under Β£900,000, the needs of the restored monarchy would now be about Β£1,200,000 per annum. The commons therefore set about raising such a sum, an hereditary excise on beer and ale being voted in as compensation for the loss of old, feudal dues, whilst temporary excises on spirits, vinegar, coffee, chocolate and tea were put in place.",
"All differences between old and new customs and subsidies had disappeared under the Commonwealth. The General or Great Statute (1660\\) provided a scale of duties, 5% on imports and exports, with special duties on wines and woollen cloths accompanied by a new book of rates. A house tax levied after the French pattern on each hearth, was introduced and established in 1662\\. Poll taxes were used as an extraordinary resource, as were the last subsidies, voted in 1663, and then forever abandoned. Licences on retailers and fees on law proceedings were further aids to revenue, which, in the later years of [Charles II](/wiki/Charles_II_of_England \"Charles II of England\"), and in the short reign of his successor, was kept up to the level of increasing expenditure, but only with difficulty.",
"The Commonwealth assessments were revived on several occasions, indirect taxation being made more rigorous by the imposition of extra duties on brandy, tobacco and sugar as well as French linens and silks. One major development was the placing of customs (1670\\) and excise (1683\\) in the hands of special commissioners, as opposed to the former system of farming them out to private collectors. This more modern approach was further evidenced by the greater care taken with customs' administration. Amongst expert officials [Dudley North](/wiki/Dudley_North_%28economist%29 \"Dudley North (economist)\"), was the most distinguished commissioner of customs. In this period, too, the beginning of the public debt may be found in the [Stop of the Exchequer](/wiki/Stop_of_the_Exchequer \"Stop of the Exchequer\") of 1672, and its indefinite deferral of what had originally been short\\-term financed obligations due to bankers.",
"The [Revolution of 1688](/wiki/Glorious_Revolution \"Glorious Revolution\") may be regarded in both constitutional and financial terms as the completion of the work of the [Long Parliament](/wiki/Long_Parliament \"Long Parliament\"). In the latter respect its chief effects were:\n1. The transfer of the administration of finances from the king's nominees to officials under parliamentary control\n2. The consequent application of revenue to the purposes designated by parliamentary appropriation\n3. The rapid expansion of various forms of revenue, particularly indirect taxation\n4. The rise and growth of the national debt, combined with the creation of an effective banking system. (The greater part of the 18th century was occupied with the working out of these results.)",
"The government of [William III](/wiki/William_III_of_England \"William III of England\") faced the expense of war whilst simultaneously needing to allay discontent at home. As a preliminary to settling the necessary revenue, a return was prepared, showing tax receipts of Β£1,100,000 and Β£1,800,000 during peace and wartime respectively. Parliament believed that Β£1,200,000 per annum would suffice for the kingdom's ordinary requirements but nevertheless introduced the [Civil List](/wiki/Civil_List \"Civil List\"), assigning Β£600,000 for certain fixed payments, leaving the remainder for other state needs. As \"hearth money\" had proved extremely unpopular, it was abolished, despite its yield of Β£170,000\\. Additionally, further excise duties were voted in for the duration of William and Mary's lifetimes, plus further customs duties, albeit that the latter were for a limited term only. However, these revenues were still totally insufficient to meet the pressures of war and new taxes were therefore created, older forms being revived.",
"A series of poll and capitation taxes was imposed between 1689 and 1698 which were thereafter abandoned, being as unpopular as 'hearth money'. In 1688, monthly assessment were introduced, followed by income tax, followed by twelve\\-monthly assessments in 1690 and 1691\\. The way was thus prepared for the property tax of 1692, imposing a rate of 4s. in the pound on real estate, offices and personal property. However, the old difficulties of collection turned it mainly into a land tax, by which name it became generally known. The 4s. rate brought in Β£1,922,712, a return which declined in later years. To meet the shortfall, therefore, a fixed quota of nearly half a million (a 1s. rate) was adopted in 1697, the amount being apportioned in specified sums to towns and counties, its framework remaining substantially the same until 1798, the year of Pitt's redemption scheme. In 1696, houses were taxed at 2s. each, higher rates being applied to extra windows. Thus, the beginning of the [window tax](/wiki/Window_tax \"Window tax\"), licences on pedlars and a temporary tax on company stocks completed these imposts.",
"Following Holland's example, stamp duties were adopted in 1694, being extended in 1698 and large amounts were added to the excise. Breweries and distilleries were placed under charge and important commodities such as salt, coal, malt, leather and glass were included as taxable articles, the two latter being later removed. Similarly, customs rates were also increased. In 1698 the general 5% duty was raised to 10%. French goods became liable to surtaxes, first at 25%, then 50%, whilst goods from other countries were charged at a lesser amount. Moreover, spirits, wines, tea and coffee were taxed at special rates.\n[thumb\\|[Kingdom of England](/wiki/Kingdom_of_England \"Kingdom of England\") [Exchequer](/wiki/Exchequer \"Exchequer\") note\\-5 Pounds (1697\\), issued during the reign of William III](/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_England_Exchequer_note-5_Pounds_%281697%29.jpg \"Kingdom of England Exchequer note-5 Pounds (1697).jpg\")\nThe expansion of the fiscal system may be best realised from the fact that, during the comparatively short reign of William III (1689β1702\\), the land tax produced Β£19,200,000, customs raising Β£13,296,000, and excise Β£13,650,000, or approximately Β£46 million when added together. In the last year of the reign, returns from these taxes were respectivelyβland tax (at 2s.), Β£990,000, customs Β£1,540,000, excise Β£986,000, or a total exceeding Β£3\\.5 million. The removal of regular export duty applied to domestic woollen manufactures and corn only, both cases additionally being due to special reasons of policy.",
"Quite as remarkable as the growth of revenue was the sudden appearance of public loans. In earlier periods, a ruler accumulated treasure (Henry VII left Β£1,800,000\\) or pledged jewels or customs revenue or, occasionally, his friends to repay his loans. Edward III's dealings with [Florentine](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") bankers are well known, but it was only after the Revolution that the two conditions essential for a permanent, public debt were realized:\n1. The responsibility of the government to the people\n2. An effective market for [floating capital](/wiki/Floating_capital \"Floating capital\").",
"At the close of war in 1697, a debt of Β£21\\.5 million had been incurred, of which over Β£16 million was still owed at William III's death. Connected with the public debt at that time was the foundation of the [Bank of England](/wiki/Bank_of_England \"Bank of England\") which increasingly became the agent for dealing with the state's revenue and expenditure, although the Exchequer continued to exist until 1834 as a real, albeit antiquated, institution.\nThus it is clear that, by the end of the 17th century, new influences dating from the Civil War brought into being all elements of the modern financial system. Expenditure, revenue, borrowing and loans essentially developed into their present\\-day form. Increases in amounts plus procedural refinements combined with improved views on public policy were the only changes that occurred thereafter.",
"Broadly speaking, the 18th and 19th centuries exhibit several distinct financial periods. During the 90 years from the death of William III (1702\\) to the outbreak of the Revolutionary War with France (1793\\), there were four wars covering nearly 35 years. The long, peaceful administration of [Walpole](/wiki/Robert_Walpole \"Robert Walpole\") can be contrasted with the shorter intervals of peace following each contest. From the beginning of the war with the French Republic to the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\") there was an almost unbroken twenty years of war. The following forty years' peace ended with the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") (1854β56\\), whilst a further forty years' peace ended with the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War \"Second Boer War\") (1899β1902\\). During this time, the older form of mercantilism gave way to protectionism which, in turn, led to the gradual adoption of free trade. During each period of war, taxation (particularly indirect taxation) and debt increased. Financial reform was synonymous with peace and, among the great financial ministers, [Walpole](/wiki/Robert_Walpole \"Robert Walpole\"), the [younger Pitt](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\"), [Peel](/wiki/Robert_Peel \"Robert Peel\") and [Gladstone](/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone \"William Ewart Gladstone\") were conspicuous, while [Huskisson](/wiki/William_Huskisson \"William Huskisson\")'s services in the kindred field of economic policy deserve special notice.",
"By taking the several great heads of revenue in order, it is comparatively easy to understand the nature of the progress made in subsequent years. \n1. The land tax, established on a definite basis in 1692, was the great 18th century form of direct taxation. Varying in rate from 1s. (in 1731\\) to 4s. (in most war years), Pitt, in 1798, converted it into a redeemable charge on the lands of each parish, thus reducing it from Β£1,911,000 in 1798 to Β£730,000 in 1907β1908\\. Moreover, major increases in other heads impaired its fiscal value.\n2. Excise duty grew rapidly in the 18th century. Most articles of common consumption were permanently taxed, although Adam Smith unreservedly condemned those on soap, salt, candles and leather. In 1739, excise duties brought in Β£3 million, a sum that subsequently rose to Β£10 million, continued expansion being due both to the wider area covered and the country's increasing consumption.\n3. Customs were equally serviceable, increased duties being even more considerable. The general 10% rate of 1698 became 15% in 1704, a fourth 5% was imposed in 1748 and, in 1759, general duties were raised to 25%. Coincidentally, customs duties on special articles such as tea were also increased. Indeed, the [American War of Independence](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\") produced a further 10% increase plus special extra duties on tobacco and sugar. Indeed, by 1784 customs revenue had risen to over Β£3 million.\nHowever, two further matters must be taken into account:\n4. The extreme rigour of duties and prohibitions aimed chiefly against French trade; and\n5. The absence of care in estimating the point of maximum productiveness for each duty.",
"[Swift's](/wiki/Jonathan_Swift \"Jonathan Swift\") famous saying that, in the arithmetic of customs, two and two sometimes made only one, is well exemplified in England at this time. Smugglers were responsible for the loss of much of the country's foreign trade revenue despite the fact that efforts at reform were not altogether wanting. Walpole made several useful adjustments by abolishing general duties on exports plus several on imported raw materials such as silk, beaver, indigo and colonial timber. His most ambitious scheme for the warehousing of wine and tobacco in order to relieve exporters failed, however, because of the popular belief that it was the forerunner of a general excise. Nevertheless, his reduction of land tax together with his earlier funding plan deserve notice, as does his determination to preserve peace, which was also assisted by his fiscal reforms.",
"[Pitt's](/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger \"William Pitt the Younger\") administration from 1783 to 1792 marks another period of improvement. The consolidation of the customs laws (1787\\), the reduction of tea duty to nearly one\\-tenth of its former amount, the conclusion of a liberal commercial treaty with France and the attempted trade arrangement with [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") tend to show that Pitt would have anticipated many of the free trade measures of later years had it been his lot to enjoy ten more years of peaceful administration.",
"One financial problem which excited interest and even alarm, however, was the rapidly increasing public debt. Each war gave rise to greater additions whilst intervals of peace showed little diminution, its amount rising from Β£16 million in 1702 to Β£53 million at the time of the [Treaty of Utrecht](/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht \"Treaty of Utrecht\") (1713\\). In 1748 it reached Β£78 million and, at the close of the Seven Years' War, it stood at Β£137 million, only to exceed Β£238 million by the time the American colonies became independent. Apprehension of [national bankruptcy](/wiki/National_bankruptcy \"National bankruptcy\") led to the adoption of the device of a sinking fund but, in this instance, Pitt's usual sagacity failed him. The influence of [Richard Price](/wiki/Richard_Price \"Richard Price\")'s theory induced the policy of assigning special sums for debt reduction without regard to the fundamental need to maintain a real surplus.",
""
] |
Income tax
----------
The revolutionary and [Napoleonic wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_wars "Napoleonic wars") mark an important stage in English finance. The national resources were strained to the utmost, and the whip and spur of taxation was used on all classes. In the earlier years of struggle, the expedient of borrowing enabled the government to avoid the more oppressive forms of charge but, as time passed, every possible expedient was brought into play. The class of taxes organized during peacetime had been those on houses, carriages, servants, horses, plate, etc., these being raised by successive steps of 10% each until, in 1798, their total charge was increased threefoldβfour or fivefold for the richβunder the plan of a "triple assessment".
The comparative failure of this scheme (which did not produce the estimated yield of Β£4\.5 million) prepared the way for the most important development of allβthe introduction of [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax "Income tax") in 1798\. Though a development of the triple assessment, income tax was also connected with the permanent settlement of land tax as a redeemable charge. Indeed, it is possible to trace the progress of direct taxation from the scutage of Norman times through to the fifteenth and tenth, the Tudor subsidies, the Commonwealth monthly assessments and the 18th century land tax, to the income tax as applied by Pitt which, after an interval of disuse, was revived by Peel in 1842\. However, its immediate yield was rather less than was expectedβΒ£6 million out of Β£7\.5 million. Nevertheless, by altering the mode of assessment from that of a general declaration to returns under several schedules, the tax became, at first 5%, and afterwards at 10%, the most valuable part of the revenue. In 1815 it contributed 22% of total receiptsβi.e. Β£14,600 million out of Β£67 millionβand, had it been employed at the beginning of the war, it would almost certainly have obviated much of the government's financial difficulties.
The window tax, which continued throughout the 18th century, had been supplemented during the American War by a tax on inhabited houses (one of Adam Smith's suggestions). Again, probate duty had been gradually raised during the 18th century, the legacy duty being introduced in 1780, which was moderate and did not affect land. Though direct and quasi\-direct taxes had been dramatically increased, their growth was eclipsed by that of excise and customs. With each succeeding year of war, further articles attracted duty whilst tax rates were raised.
The maxim, said to have guided financiers in other countries, to the effect that wherever you see an object, tax it, fairly expressed the guiding policy of the early 19th century. Eatables, liquors, the materials of industry, manufactures, and commercial transactions had in to pay toll in almost all their forms. For example, salt attracted 15s. per bushel, sugar 30s. per cwt., beer 10s. per barrel (with 4s. 5d. per bushel on malt plus a hop duty), tea 96% *[ad valorem](/wiki/Ad_valorem "Ad valorem")*. Timber, cotton, raw silk, hemp and bar iron were also taxed as were leather, soap, glass, candles, paper and starch.
Despite the need for revenue, many customs duties were framed on protection thereby producing relatively small returns. For example, import duty on salt in 1815 produced Β£547, as against Β£1,616,124 from excise; pill\-boxes brought in 18s. 10d., saltpetre 2d., with 1d. for the war duties. The course of war taxation was marked by varied experiments. Duties were raised, lowered and raised again, or given some new form in an effort to raise more revenue. Some duties, i.e. that on gloves, were abandoned as unproductive but the conclusion is irresistible in that the financial system generally suffered from over\-complication and absence of principle. In the period of his peace administration, Pitt was prepared to follow the teaching of *[The Wealth of Nations](/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations "The Wealth of Nations")*. However, the strain of war forced him and his successors to employ whatever heads of taxation were likely to bring in funds without violating popular prejudices. Along with taxation, debt increased. For the first ten years additions averaged Β£27,000,000 per annum, bringing the total to over Β£500,000,000\.
By the close of the war in 1815, the total reached over Β£875 million, somewhat smaller annual increases resulting from the adoption of more effective taxes, particularly income tax. Increasing trade levels also helped and the import of articles such as tea advanced in proportion with the growing population. Thus, tea duty of 96% yielded no less than Β£3,591,000 in 1815\. It is, however, true that by that time, the tax system had reached its limit. Further extension (except by direct property confiscation) was hardly possible so that the war closed victoriously at the moment when prolongation seemed unendurable.
A particular aspect of the English financial system is its relation to the organization of the finance of territories connected with the English crown. The Exchequer may be plausibly held to have been derived from Normandy, and wherever territory came under English rule the methods familiar at home seem to have been adopted. With the loss of the French possessions the older cases of the kind disappeared. Ireland, however, had its own exchequer, and Scotland remained a distinct kingdom. The 18th century introduced a remarkable change. One of the aims of the union with Scotland was to secure freedom of commerce throughout Great Britain, and the two revenue systems were amalgamated. Scotland was assigned a very moderate share of the land tax (under one\-fortieth), and was exempted from certain stamp duties. The attempt to apply selected forms of taxation custom duties (1764\), stamp duties (1765\), and finally the effort to collect the tea duty (1773\) to the American colonies are indications of a movement towards what would now be called imperialist finance.
The complete plan of federation for the British empire, outlined by Adam Smith, is avowedly actuated by financial considerations. Notwithstanding the failure of this movement in the case of the colonies, the close of the century saw it successful in respect to Ireland, though separate financial departments were retained until after the close of the Napoleonic War and some fiscal differences still remain. By the consolidation of the English and Irish exchequers and the passage from war to peace, the years between 1815 and 1820 may be said to mark a distinct step in the financial development of the country. The connected change in the Bank of England by the resumption of special payments supports this view. Moreover, the political conditions in their influence on finance were undergoing a revolution. The landed interest, though powerful at the moment, had henceforth to face the rivalry of the wealthy manufacturing communities of the north of England, and it may be added that the influence of theoretic discussion was likely to be felt in the treatment of the financial policy of the nation. Canons as to the proper system of administration, taxation and borrowing come to be noticed by statesmen and officials.
These influences may be followed out in their working by observing the chief lines of adjustment and modification that followed the conclusion of peace. Relieved from the extraordinary outlay of the preceding years, the government felt bound to propose reductions. With commendable prudence it was resolved to retain the income\-tax at 5% (one\-half of the former rate), and to join with this reduction the removal of some war duties on malt and spirits. Popular feeling against direct taxation was so strong that the income\-tax had to be surrendered in toto, a course which seriously embarrassed the finances of the following years. For over twenty five years the income\-tax remained in abeyance, to the great detriment of the revenue system. Its revival by Peel (1842\), intended as a temporary expedient, proved its services as a permanent tax; it has continued and expanded considerably since. Both the excise and customs at the close of the war were marked by some of the worst defects of a vicious kind of taxation. The former had the evil effect of restricting the progress of industry and hampering invention.
The raw materials and the auxiliary substances of industry were in many cases raised in price. The duties on salt and glass specially illustrated the bad results of the excise. New processes were hindered and routine made compulsory. The customs duties were still more restrictive of trade; as they practically excluded foreign manufactures, and were both costly and in many instances unproductive of revenue. As [George Richardson Porter](/wiki/George_Richardson_Porter "George Richardson Porter") showed in *Progress of the Nation* (1851\), the really profitable customs taxes were few in number. Less than a score of articles contributed more than 95% the revenue from import duties. The duties on transactions, levied chiefly by stamps, were ill\-graded and lacking in comprehensiveness.
From the standpoint of equity the ground for criticism was equally plain. The great weight of taxation fell on the poorer classes. The owners of land escaped giving any return for the property that they held under the state, and other persons were not taxed in proportion to their abilities, which had been long recognized as the proper criterion.
The grievance as to distribution has been modified, if not removed, by the great development of:
1. The income\-tax
2. The death or inheritance duties.
Beginning at the rate of 7d. per pound (1842β1854\), the income\-tax was raised to 1s. 4d. for the Crimean War, and then continued at varying rates reduced to 2d. in 1874, it rose to 5d., then in 1894 to 8d., and by 1909 appeared to be fixed as a minimum at 1s., or 5% on income from property. The yield per penny on has risen almost uninterruptedly. From Β£710,000 in 1842, it now exceeds Β£2,800,000, though the exemptions and abatements are much more extensive. In fact, all incomes of Β£3 per week are absolutely free (Β£160 per annum is the precise exemption limit), and an income of Β£400 derived from personal exertion pays less than 5{{frac\|1\|2}}d. per pound, or 2{{frac\|1\|4}}%. The great productiveness of the tax is equally remarkable. From Β£5,600,000 in 1843 (with a rate of 7d.) the return rose to Β£32,380,000 in 1907β1908, having been at the maximum of Β£38,800,000 in 1902β1903, with a tax rate of 6{{frac\|1\|4}}%. The income\-tax thus supplies about one\-fifth of the total revenue, or one\-fourth of that obtained by taxation.
Several fundamental questions of finance are connected with the taxation of income and have been dealt with by English practice. Small incomes claim lenient treatment; and, as mentioned above, this leniency means in England complete freedom. Again, earned incomes appear to represent lower ability to pay than unearned ones. Long refused on practical grounds (as by Gladstone and Lowe), the concession of an abatement of 25% on earned incomes of Β£2,000 and under was granted in 1907\. The question whether savings should be exempt from taxation as income has (with the exception of life insurance premiums) been decided in the negative. Allowances for depreciation and cost of repairs are partially recognized.
Far more important than these special problems is the general one of increased tax rates on large incomes. Up to 1908\-1909 the tax above the abatement limit of Β£700 remained strictly proportional but opinion showed a decided tendency in favour of extra rates or a [supertax](/wiki/Supertax "Supertax") on incomes above an assigned amount (e.g. Β£5,000\), and this was included in the budget of 1909β1910\.
|
[
"Income tax\n----------",
"The revolutionary and [Napoleonic wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_wars \"Napoleonic wars\") mark an important stage in English finance. The national resources were strained to the utmost, and the whip and spur of taxation was used on all classes. In the earlier years of struggle, the expedient of borrowing enabled the government to avoid the more oppressive forms of charge but, as time passed, every possible expedient was brought into play. The class of taxes organized during peacetime had been those on houses, carriages, servants, horses, plate, etc., these being raised by successive steps of 10% each until, in 1798, their total charge was increased threefoldβfour or fivefold for the richβunder the plan of a \"triple assessment\".",
"The comparative failure of this scheme (which did not produce the estimated yield of Β£4\\.5 million) prepared the way for the most important development of allβthe introduction of [income tax](/wiki/Income_tax \"Income tax\") in 1798\\. Though a development of the triple assessment, income tax was also connected with the permanent settlement of land tax as a redeemable charge. Indeed, it is possible to trace the progress of direct taxation from the scutage of Norman times through to the fifteenth and tenth, the Tudor subsidies, the Commonwealth monthly assessments and the 18th century land tax, to the income tax as applied by Pitt which, after an interval of disuse, was revived by Peel in 1842\\. However, its immediate yield was rather less than was expectedβΒ£6 million out of Β£7\\.5 million. Nevertheless, by altering the mode of assessment from that of a general declaration to returns under several schedules, the tax became, at first 5%, and afterwards at 10%, the most valuable part of the revenue. In 1815 it contributed 22% of total receiptsβi.e. Β£14,600 million out of Β£67 millionβand, had it been employed at the beginning of the war, it would almost certainly have obviated much of the government's financial difficulties.",
"The window tax, which continued throughout the 18th century, had been supplemented during the American War by a tax on inhabited houses (one of Adam Smith's suggestions). Again, probate duty had been gradually raised during the 18th century, the legacy duty being introduced in 1780, which was moderate and did not affect land. Though direct and quasi\\-direct taxes had been dramatically increased, their growth was eclipsed by that of excise and customs. With each succeeding year of war, further articles attracted duty whilst tax rates were raised.",
"The maxim, said to have guided financiers in other countries, to the effect that wherever you see an object, tax it, fairly expressed the guiding policy of the early 19th century. Eatables, liquors, the materials of industry, manufactures, and commercial transactions had in to pay toll in almost all their forms. For example, salt attracted 15s. per bushel, sugar 30s. per cwt., beer 10s. per barrel (with 4s. 5d. per bushel on malt plus a hop duty), tea 96% *[ad valorem](/wiki/Ad_valorem \"Ad valorem\")*. Timber, cotton, raw silk, hemp and bar iron were also taxed as were leather, soap, glass, candles, paper and starch.",
"Despite the need for revenue, many customs duties were framed on protection thereby producing relatively small returns. For example, import duty on salt in 1815 produced Β£547, as against Β£1,616,124 from excise; pill\\-boxes brought in 18s. 10d., saltpetre 2d., with 1d. for the war duties. The course of war taxation was marked by varied experiments. Duties were raised, lowered and raised again, or given some new form in an effort to raise more revenue. Some duties, i.e. that on gloves, were abandoned as unproductive but the conclusion is irresistible in that the financial system generally suffered from over\\-complication and absence of principle. In the period of his peace administration, Pitt was prepared to follow the teaching of *[The Wealth of Nations](/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations \"The Wealth of Nations\")*. However, the strain of war forced him and his successors to employ whatever heads of taxation were likely to bring in funds without violating popular prejudices. Along with taxation, debt increased. For the first ten years additions averaged Β£27,000,000 per annum, bringing the total to over Β£500,000,000\\.",
"By the close of the war in 1815, the total reached over Β£875 million, somewhat smaller annual increases resulting from the adoption of more effective taxes, particularly income tax. Increasing trade levels also helped and the import of articles such as tea advanced in proportion with the growing population. Thus, tea duty of 96% yielded no less than Β£3,591,000 in 1815\\. It is, however, true that by that time, the tax system had reached its limit. Further extension (except by direct property confiscation) was hardly possible so that the war closed victoriously at the moment when prolongation seemed unendurable.",
"A particular aspect of the English financial system is its relation to the organization of the finance of territories connected with the English crown. The Exchequer may be plausibly held to have been derived from Normandy, and wherever territory came under English rule the methods familiar at home seem to have been adopted. With the loss of the French possessions the older cases of the kind disappeared. Ireland, however, had its own exchequer, and Scotland remained a distinct kingdom. The 18th century introduced a remarkable change. One of the aims of the union with Scotland was to secure freedom of commerce throughout Great Britain, and the two revenue systems were amalgamated. Scotland was assigned a very moderate share of the land tax (under one\\-fortieth), and was exempted from certain stamp duties. The attempt to apply selected forms of taxation custom duties (1764\\), stamp duties (1765\\), and finally the effort to collect the tea duty (1773\\) to the American colonies are indications of a movement towards what would now be called imperialist finance.",
"The complete plan of federation for the British empire, outlined by Adam Smith, is avowedly actuated by financial considerations. Notwithstanding the failure of this movement in the case of the colonies, the close of the century saw it successful in respect to Ireland, though separate financial departments were retained until after the close of the Napoleonic War and some fiscal differences still remain. By the consolidation of the English and Irish exchequers and the passage from war to peace, the years between 1815 and 1820 may be said to mark a distinct step in the financial development of the country. The connected change in the Bank of England by the resumption of special payments supports this view. Moreover, the political conditions in their influence on finance were undergoing a revolution. The landed interest, though powerful at the moment, had henceforth to face the rivalry of the wealthy manufacturing communities of the north of England, and it may be added that the influence of theoretic discussion was likely to be felt in the treatment of the financial policy of the nation. Canons as to the proper system of administration, taxation and borrowing come to be noticed by statesmen and officials.",
"These influences may be followed out in their working by observing the chief lines of adjustment and modification that followed the conclusion of peace. Relieved from the extraordinary outlay of the preceding years, the government felt bound to propose reductions. With commendable prudence it was resolved to retain the income\\-tax at 5% (one\\-half of the former rate), and to join with this reduction the removal of some war duties on malt and spirits. Popular feeling against direct taxation was so strong that the income\\-tax had to be surrendered in toto, a course which seriously embarrassed the finances of the following years. For over twenty five years the income\\-tax remained in abeyance, to the great detriment of the revenue system. Its revival by Peel (1842\\), intended as a temporary expedient, proved its services as a permanent tax; it has continued and expanded considerably since. Both the excise and customs at the close of the war were marked by some of the worst defects of a vicious kind of taxation. The former had the evil effect of restricting the progress of industry and hampering invention.",
"The raw materials and the auxiliary substances of industry were in many cases raised in price. The duties on salt and glass specially illustrated the bad results of the excise. New processes were hindered and routine made compulsory. The customs duties were still more restrictive of trade; as they practically excluded foreign manufactures, and were both costly and in many instances unproductive of revenue. As [George Richardson Porter](/wiki/George_Richardson_Porter \"George Richardson Porter\") showed in *Progress of the Nation* (1851\\), the really profitable customs taxes were few in number. Less than a score of articles contributed more than 95% the revenue from import duties. The duties on transactions, levied chiefly by stamps, were ill\\-graded and lacking in comprehensiveness.",
"From the standpoint of equity the ground for criticism was equally plain. The great weight of taxation fell on the poorer classes. The owners of land escaped giving any return for the property that they held under the state, and other persons were not taxed in proportion to their abilities, which had been long recognized as the proper criterion.",
"The grievance as to distribution has been modified, if not removed, by the great development of:\n1. The income\\-tax\n2. The death or inheritance duties.",
"Beginning at the rate of 7d. per pound (1842β1854\\), the income\\-tax was raised to 1s. 4d. for the Crimean War, and then continued at varying rates reduced to 2d. in 1874, it rose to 5d., then in 1894 to 8d., and by 1909 appeared to be fixed as a minimum at 1s., or 5% on income from property. The yield per penny on has risen almost uninterruptedly. From Β£710,000 in 1842, it now exceeds Β£2,800,000, though the exemptions and abatements are much more extensive. In fact, all incomes of Β£3 per week are absolutely free (Β£160 per annum is the precise exemption limit), and an income of Β£400 derived from personal exertion pays less than 5{{frac\\|1\\|2}}d. per pound, or 2{{frac\\|1\\|4}}%. The great productiveness of the tax is equally remarkable. From Β£5,600,000 in 1843 (with a rate of 7d.) the return rose to Β£32,380,000 in 1907β1908, having been at the maximum of Β£38,800,000 in 1902β1903, with a tax rate of 6{{frac\\|1\\|4}}%. The income\\-tax thus supplies about one\\-fifth of the total revenue, or one\\-fourth of that obtained by taxation.",
"Several fundamental questions of finance are connected with the taxation of income and have been dealt with by English practice. Small incomes claim lenient treatment; and, as mentioned above, this leniency means in England complete freedom. Again, earned incomes appear to represent lower ability to pay than unearned ones. Long refused on practical grounds (as by Gladstone and Lowe), the concession of an abatement of 25% on earned incomes of Β£2,000 and under was granted in 1907\\. The question whether savings should be exempt from taxation as income has (with the exception of life insurance premiums) been decided in the negative. Allowances for depreciation and cost of repairs are partially recognized.",
"Far more important than these special problems is the general one of increased tax rates on large incomes. Up to 1908\\-1909 the tax above the abatement limit of Β£700 remained strictly proportional but opinion showed a decided tendency in favour of extra rates or a [supertax](/wiki/Supertax \"Supertax\") on incomes above an assigned amount (e.g. Β£5,000\\), and this was included in the budget of 1909β1910\\.",
""
] |
Estate duty
-----------
In close relation with the income\-tax is the [estate duty](/wiki/Inheritance_Tax_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)"), with its adjuncts of legacy and succession duties. After Pitt's failure to carry the succession duty in 1796, no change was made until Gladstone's introduction in 1853 of a duty on land and settled property parallel to the legacy duty on free personality. Apart from certain minor alterations, the really vital change was the extension in 1894 of the old probate duty into a comprehensive impost applicable to all the possessions of a deceased person. This Inheritance Tax (to give it its scientific title) operates as a complementary property tax, and is thus an addition to the contribution from incomes derived from large properties.
By graduation the charges on large estates in 1908\-1909 (before the proposal for further increase in 1909β1910\) came to 10% on Β£1,000,000, and reached the maximum of 15% at Β£3,500,000\. From the several forms of the inheritance taxes the national revenue gained Β£14,500,000, with Β£4{{frac\|1\|2}} million as a supplementary yield for local finance.
The expansion of direct taxation is evident on comparing 1840 with 1908\. In the former year the probate and legacy duties brought in about one million pounds; the other direct taxes; even including the house duty, did not raise the total to Β£3,000,000\. In 1908 the direct taxation of property and income supplied Β£51,500,000, or one\-third of the total receipts as against less than one\-twentieth in 1840\.
But though this wider employment of direct taxation a characteristic of European finance generally reduced the relative position of the taxation of commodities, there was a growth in the absolute amount obtained from this category of duties. There were also considerable alterations, the result of changes in the views respecting fiscal policy. At the close of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") the excise duties were at first retained, and even in some cases increased. After some years, reforms began. The following articles amongst others were freed from charge: salt (1825\); leather and candles (1830\); glass (1845\); soap (1853\); and paper (1860\). The guiding principles were:
1. The removal of raw materials from the list of goods liable to excise
2. The limitation of the excise to a small number of productive articles
3. The placing of the greater part (practically nearly the whole) of this form of taxation on alcoholic drinks
Apart from breweries and distilleries, the excise had little field for its work. The large revenue of Β£35,700,000 in 1907\-1908 was derived one\-half from spirits (Β£17,700,000\), over one\-third from beer, while most of the remainder was obtained from business taxation in the form of licences, the raising of which was one of the features of the budget in 1909\. As a feeder of the revenue the excise might be regarded as, equal to the income\-tax, but less to be relied on in times of depression.
Valuable as were the reforms of the excise after 1820, they were insignificant as compared with the changes in the customs. The particular circumstances of English political life have led to perhaps undue emphasis being placed on this particular branch of financial development. Between 1820 and 1860 the customs system was transformed from a highly complicated arrangement of duties, pressing with severity on nearly all foreign imports, into a simple and easily understood set of charges on certain specially selected commodities. All favours or preferences to home or colonial producers disappeared.
Expressed in financial terms, all duties were imposed for revenue only, and estimated in reference to their productiveness. An assimilation between the excise and customs rates necessarily followed. The stages of the development under the guidance of Huskisson, Peel, and Gladstone are commonly regarded as part of the movement for Free Trade but the financial working of the alteration is understood only by remembering that the duties removed by tens or by hundreds were quite trivial in yield, and did not involve any serious loss to the revenue.
Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the English customs of the 19th century was the steadiness of the receipts. In spite of trade depressions, discussion was likely to be felt in the treatment of the financial policy of the nation. Canons as to the proper system of administration, taxation and borrowing come to be noticed by statesmen and officials.
The exemption of raw materials and food; the absence of duties on imported, as on home manufactures; the selection of a small number of articles for duty; the rather rigorous treatment of spirits and tobacco, were the salient marks of the English fiscal system which grew up in the 19th century. The part of the system most criticised was the very narrow list of dutiable articles. Why, it was asked, should a choice be made of certain objects for the purpose of imposing heavy taxation on them?
The answer has been that they were taken as typical of consumption in general and were easily supervised for taxation. Moreover, the [sumptuary](/wiki/Sumptuary_laws "Sumptuary laws") element is introduced by the policy of putting exceptionally heavy duties on spirits and tobacco, with lighter charges on the less expensive wines and beers.
Facility of collection and distribution of taxation over a larger class appear to be the grounds for the inclusion of the tea and coffee duties, which are further supported by the need for obtaining a contribution of, roughly speaking, over half the tax revenue by duties on commodities. The last consideration led, at the beginning of the 20th century, to the sugar tax and the temporary duties on imported corn and exported coal.
As a support to the great divisions of income\-tax, death duties, excise and customs, the stamps, fees and miscellaneous taxes are of decided service. A return of Β£9,000,000 was secured by stamp duties. So\-called [non\-tax revenue](/wiki/Non-tax_revenue "Non-tax revenue") largely increased, owing to the extension of the postal and telegraphic services. The real gain was not so great, as out of gross receipts of Β£22,000,000 over Β£17,500,000 is absorbed in expenses, while the carriage of ordinary letters seems to be the only profitable part of these services. Crown lands and rights (such as vintage charges) were of even less financial value.
|
[
"Estate duty\n-----------",
"In close relation with the income\\-tax is the [estate duty](/wiki/Inheritance_Tax_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)\"), with its adjuncts of legacy and succession duties. After Pitt's failure to carry the succession duty in 1796, no change was made until Gladstone's introduction in 1853 of a duty on land and settled property parallel to the legacy duty on free personality. Apart from certain minor alterations, the really vital change was the extension in 1894 of the old probate duty into a comprehensive impost applicable to all the possessions of a deceased person. This Inheritance Tax (to give it its scientific title) operates as a complementary property tax, and is thus an addition to the contribution from incomes derived from large properties.",
"By graduation the charges on large estates in 1908\\-1909 (before the proposal for further increase in 1909β1910\\) came to 10% on Β£1,000,000, and reached the maximum of 15% at Β£3,500,000\\. From the several forms of the inheritance taxes the national revenue gained Β£14,500,000, with Β£4{{frac\\|1\\|2}} million as a supplementary yield for local finance.",
"The expansion of direct taxation is evident on comparing 1840 with 1908\\. In the former year the probate and legacy duties brought in about one million pounds; the other direct taxes; even including the house duty, did not raise the total to Β£3,000,000\\. In 1908 the direct taxation of property and income supplied Β£51,500,000, or one\\-third of the total receipts as against less than one\\-twentieth in 1840\\.",
"But though this wider employment of direct taxation a characteristic of European finance generally reduced the relative position of the taxation of commodities, there was a growth in the absolute amount obtained from this category of duties. There were also considerable alterations, the result of changes in the views respecting fiscal policy. At the close of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") the excise duties were at first retained, and even in some cases increased. After some years, reforms began. The following articles amongst others were freed from charge: salt (1825\\); leather and candles (1830\\); glass (1845\\); soap (1853\\); and paper (1860\\). The guiding principles were: \n1. The removal of raw materials from the list of goods liable to excise\n2. The limitation of the excise to a small number of productive articles\n3. The placing of the greater part (practically nearly the whole) of this form of taxation on alcoholic drinks",
"Apart from breweries and distilleries, the excise had little field for its work. The large revenue of Β£35,700,000 in 1907\\-1908 was derived one\\-half from spirits (Β£17,700,000\\), over one\\-third from beer, while most of the remainder was obtained from business taxation in the form of licences, the raising of which was one of the features of the budget in 1909\\. As a feeder of the revenue the excise might be regarded as, equal to the income\\-tax, but less to be relied on in times of depression.",
"Valuable as were the reforms of the excise after 1820, they were insignificant as compared with the changes in the customs. The particular circumstances of English political life have led to perhaps undue emphasis being placed on this particular branch of financial development. Between 1820 and 1860 the customs system was transformed from a highly complicated arrangement of duties, pressing with severity on nearly all foreign imports, into a simple and easily understood set of charges on certain specially selected commodities. All favours or preferences to home or colonial producers disappeared.",
"Expressed in financial terms, all duties were imposed for revenue only, and estimated in reference to their productiveness. An assimilation between the excise and customs rates necessarily followed. The stages of the development under the guidance of Huskisson, Peel, and Gladstone are commonly regarded as part of the movement for Free Trade but the financial working of the alteration is understood only by remembering that the duties removed by tens or by hundreds were quite trivial in yield, and did not involve any serious loss to the revenue.",
"Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the English customs of the 19th century was the steadiness of the receipts. In spite of trade depressions, discussion was likely to be felt in the treatment of the financial policy of the nation. Canons as to the proper system of administration, taxation and borrowing come to be noticed by statesmen and officials.",
"The exemption of raw materials and food; the absence of duties on imported, as on home manufactures; the selection of a small number of articles for duty; the rather rigorous treatment of spirits and tobacco, were the salient marks of the English fiscal system which grew up in the 19th century. The part of the system most criticised was the very narrow list of dutiable articles. Why, it was asked, should a choice be made of certain objects for the purpose of imposing heavy taxation on them?",
"The answer has been that they were taken as typical of consumption in general and were easily supervised for taxation. Moreover, the [sumptuary](/wiki/Sumptuary_laws \"Sumptuary laws\") element is introduced by the policy of putting exceptionally heavy duties on spirits and tobacco, with lighter charges on the less expensive wines and beers.",
"Facility of collection and distribution of taxation over a larger class appear to be the grounds for the inclusion of the tea and coffee duties, which are further supported by the need for obtaining a contribution of, roughly speaking, over half the tax revenue by duties on commodities. The last consideration led, at the beginning of the 20th century, to the sugar tax and the temporary duties on imported corn and exported coal.",
"As a support to the great divisions of income\\-tax, death duties, excise and customs, the stamps, fees and miscellaneous taxes are of decided service. A return of Β£9,000,000 was secured by stamp duties. So\\-called [non\\-tax revenue](/wiki/Non-tax_revenue \"Non-tax revenue\") largely increased, owing to the extension of the postal and telegraphic services. The real gain was not so great, as out of gross receipts of Β£22,000,000 over Β£17,500,000 is absorbed in expenses, while the carriage of ordinary letters seems to be the only profitable part of these services. Crown lands and rights (such as vintage charges) were of even less financial value.",
""
] |
Career
------
[thumb\|right\|RodrΓguez in his BRM P133 during the [1968 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1968_German_Grand_Prix "1968 German Grand Prix").](/wiki/Image:Rodriguez%2C_Pedro_-_BRM_1968.jpg "Rodriguez, Pedro - BRM 1968.jpg")
RodrΓguez began racing with bicycles at eight years old.Kettlewell, Mike. "Rodriguez: The young lions of Mexico", in Ward, Ian, general editor. *The World of Automobiles* (London: Orbis, 1974\), Volume 16, p. 1915\. He was a class winner in the Mexican Championship by 1950\. He started racing a {{convert\|125\|cc\|abbr\=on}} [Adler](/wiki/Adler_%28automobile%29 "Adler (automobile)") [motorcycle](/wiki/Motorcycle "Motorcycle"), winning Mexico's national championship in 1952 and 1954\.Kettlewell, p. 1915\. In 1952, he entered a rally in a Ford, but achieved little. He returned to racing full\-time in 1955, at 15, entering a [Jaguar XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 "Jaguar XK120") or [Porsche 1600S](/wiki/Porsche_1600 "Porsche 1600") in local contests.
At the end of 1957, RodrΓguez (who had been driving a [Chevrolet Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 "Chevrolet Corvette (C1)") in Mexico) and his brother entered the Nassau Speed Week competition, where the wild\-driving elder brother wrecked his [Ferrari](/wiki/Ferrari "Ferrari") [500 TR](/wiki/Ferrari_Monza%23500_TR "Ferrari Monza#500 TR").
The 18\-year\-old RodrΓguez shared a 500 TR at [Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "24 Hours of Le Mans"), entered by U.S. importer [Luigi Chinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Chinetti "Luigi Chinetti"), with [JosΓ© Behra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Behra "JosΓ© Behra"), brother of [Jean Behra](/wiki/Jean_Behra "Jean Behra"), as his co\-driver; the car did not finish, after a radiator hose puncture. RodrΓguez came back every year to Le Mans, fourteen times in total, and won in [1968](/wiki/1968_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "1968 24 Hours of Le Mans"), co\-driving with Belgian [Lucien Bianchi](/wiki/Lucien_Bianchi "Lucien Bianchi"), sharing a [Ford GT40](/wiki/Ford_GT40 "Ford GT40") for the [JW](/wiki/John_Wyer "John Wyer")β[Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_Oil "Gulf Oil") team.
At the Reims 12\-hours in 1958, RodrΓguez and Behra placed second in class (eighth overall) in their [Porsche Carrera](/wiki/Porsche_Carrera "Porsche Carrera"), while RodrΓguez came second in a [Ferrari 250 TR](/wiki/Ferrari_250_TR "Ferrari 250 TR") at Nassau at the end of the season.
RodrΓguez went to Europe to race starting in 1959, sharing a Porsche 1600 S with Leo Levine at the [NurbΓΌrgring 1000 km](/wiki/1000_km_of_N%C3%BCrburgring "1000 km of NΓΌrburgring"), which came in second in class (thirteenth overall). He shared a {{convert\|750\|cc\|abbr\=on}} [O.S.C.A.](/wiki/O.S.C.A. "O.S.C.A.") with his brother for Le Mans, which broke.
At Cuba's 1960 Liberty Grand Prix, RodrΓguez's 250TR followed [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss "Stirling Moss")'s winning [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati "Maserati") [*Tipo* 61](/wiki/Maserati_Tipo_61 "Maserati Tipo 61") home, in second. At [Sebring](/wiki/1960_Sebring_12-Hours "1960 Sebring 12-Hours"), his [Dino 196 S](/wiki/Dino_%28automobile%29%23Dino_196_S "Dino (automobile)#Dino 196 S") failed to finish.Kettlewell, p. 1915, calls it a Dino 196S. RodrΓguez claimed seventh at the 1960 [Targa Florio](/wiki/Targa_Florio "Targa Florio"), again in the 196 S, which spent time off the pavement as well as on. He retired from that year's NΓΌrburgring 1000Β km, and from Le Mans.
In 1961, RodrΓguez entered [Formula Junior](/wiki/Formula_Junior "Formula Junior"). He returned also to Sebring, sharing a 250TR with his brother which suffered electrical trouble and came third. The duo also failed to finish that year's Targa Florio or NΓΌrburgring 1000Β km, but did win the Paris 1000Β km. An ongoing duel with the works Ferraris at Le Mans, which ultimately resulted in engine failure only two hours from the end, attracted the attention of [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari "Enzo Ferrari"), who offered them [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One "Formula One") rides with [his team](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari"). Pedro declined, having "a motor business in Mexico City to run".
Despite his refusal, RodrΓguez kept racing, and in 1962 entered at Sebring, the NΓΌrburgring, and Le Mans, but failed to finish each time. He won at [Bridgehampton](/wiki/Bridgehampton_Race_Circuit "Bridgehampton Race Circuit"), in a [Ferrari 330 TRI/LM](/wiki/Ferrari_330_TRI/LM "Ferrari 330 TRI/LM"), and shared a [250 GTO](/wiki/Ferrari_250_GTO "Ferrari 250 GTO") with his brother to win the Paris 1000Β km, the second year in a row.
After Ferrari refused to enter the 1962 [Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1962_Mexican_Grand_Prix "1962 Mexican Grand Prix"), the first to be held in Mexico, RodrΓguez and his younger brother both found rides of their own. After his brother was killed in a horrific accident in practice, RodrΓguez withdrew. He considered retiring from racing. However, in 1963 he won the [Daytona](/wiki/Daytona_International_Speedway "Daytona International Speedway") [Continental](/wiki/Daytona_Continental "Daytona Continental") in a 250GTO entered by [North American Racing Team](/wiki/North_American_Racing_Team "North American Racing Team"). He came third at Sebring, sharing a 330TR/LM with [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill "Graham Hill").Kettlewell, pp.1915β1916\. He failed to qualify at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1963_Indianapolis_500 "1963 Indianapolis 500"), in an [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin "Aston Martin")\-powered [Cooper T54](/wiki/Cooper_T54 "Cooper T54"), but took part in his first [Grand Prix](/wiki/Formula_One "Formula One") in the [works Lotus](/wiki/Team_Lotus "Team Lotus") at [Watkins Glen](/wiki/Watkins_Glen_International "Watkins Glen International") and [Magdalena Mixhuca](/wiki/Aut%C3%B3dromo_Hermanos_Rodr%C3%ADguez "AutΓ³dromo Hermanos RodrΓguez"). RodrΓguez failed to finish both times.Kettlewell, p. 1916\.
Also in 1963, driving for Kjell Qvale Racing, he won his second USRRC ( FIA Group 7 cars) event in the Huffaker chassis\#2 Mk8 GENIE/Chevrolet, then went on to win again in their chassis\#3 Mk8 GENIE/Ford
For 1964, he again won the Daytona Continental, as well as the sports car Canadian Grand Prix, was second at the Paris 1000Β km, and third in the Bahamas Tourist Trophy. In single\-seater racing, he recorded a sixth in the [Ferrari 156](/wiki/Ferrari_156 "Ferrari 156") at [Mexico](/wiki/1964_Mexican_Grand_Prix "1964 Mexican Grand Prix").
In 1965, his [Lotus 33](/wiki/Lotus_33 "Lotus 33")\-Climax was fourth at the *[Daily Express](/wiki/Daily_Express "Daily Express")* [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit") Trophy, fifth at the [U.S. Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_United_States_Grand_Prix "1965 United States Grand Prix") and seventh in the [Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix "1965 Mexican Grand Prix") in a Ferrari. He won the Rheims 12\-Hours in a [Ferrari 365 P2](/wiki/Ferrari_365_P2 "Ferrari 365 P2") he shared with [Jean Guichet](/wiki/Jean_Guichet "Jean Guichet"), and scored a third at the Canadian Sports Car Grand Prix.
He drove again for Lotus in four events in 1966, retiring on every occasion. He also deputised for [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark "Jim Clark") in the [Formula Two](/wiki/Formula_Two "Formula Two") event at Rouen.
At the start of the [1967 season](/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season "1967 Formula One season"), RodrΓguez won for the first time in only his ninth Grand Prix, at [Kyalami](/wiki/1967_South_African_Grand_Prix "1967 South African Grand Prix").{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/561/\| title \= 1967 South African Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128220657/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/561/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} This was the first ever Grand Prix win for a Mexican driver. Cooper manager [Roy Salvadori](/wiki/Roy_Salvadori "Roy Salvadori") allowed RodrΓguez to drive the practice car, over the objections of teammate [Jochen Rindt](/wiki/Jochen_Rindt "Jochen Rindt"), who had demanded RodrΓguez's car, with strong support from Rindt's close friend [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart "Jackie Stewart").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2022}} RodrΓguez's smooth, consistent driving earned him victory after [Denny Hulme](/wiki/Denny_Hulme "Denny Hulme") had had a lengthy [pit stop](/wiki/Pit_stop "Pit stop") and local [privateer](/wiki/Privateer_%28motorsport%29 "Privateer (motorsport)") [John Love](/wiki/John_Love_%28racing_driver%29 "John Love (racing driver)")'s Tasman Cooper needed a late fuel stop. Rindt, by contrast, retired the other Cooper\-Maserati after 38 laps. RodrΓguez drove a controlled season in 1967 as No. 2 to Rindt. Though usually slower than his teammate, he built up experience in the older and heavier [T81](/wiki/Cooper_T81 "Cooper T81"), while Rindt was given the improved [T81B](/wiki/Cooper_T81B "Cooper T81B") and later the brand new [T86](/wiki/Cooper_T86 "Cooper T86"). *Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, pp. 389 \& 395\.{{clarify\|date\=December 2012}} A mid\-season accident in a [Protos](/wiki/Protos_%28constructor%29 "Protos (constructor)")\-Ford, at the Formula Two event at Enna, sidelined him for three Grand Prix. RodrΓguez was only marginally slower than Rindt in the [Dutch Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Dutch_Grand_Prix "1967 Dutch Grand Prix"),{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/563/\| title \= 1967 Dutch Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128233150/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/563 \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} also the only other race in the season where the Coopers were competitive.
His performance at [Zandvoort](/wiki/Circuit_Park_Zandvoort "Circuit Park Zandvoort") earned RodrΓguez a better drive with [BRM](/wiki/British_Racing_Motors "British Racing Motors") in [1968](/wiki/1968_Formula_One_season "1968 Formula One season").{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/553/ \|title \= 1968 Dutch Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129010941/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/553/ \|archive\-date\=29 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez proved himself excellent in the wet at Zandvoort and [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen-Les-Essarts "Rouen-Les-Essarts") where he got his only [fastest lap](/wiki/Fastest_lap "Fastest lap") in F1 during the [French GP](/wiki/1968_French_Grand_Prix "1968 French Grand Prix").{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/560/\| title \=1968 French Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128212959/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/560/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} Lack of power meant he had to settle for second behind [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren "Bruce McLaren") during the [Belgian GP](/wiki/1968_Belgian_Grand_Prix "1968 Belgian Grand Prix") at [Francorchamps](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps").{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/552/ \|title\=1968 Belgian Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128232045/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/552/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}}[Klaus Ewald](http://www.klaus-ewald.de/pedro1.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719052501/http://www.klaus\-ewald.de/pedro1\.htm \|date\=19 July 2011 }} .
The [BRM P133](/wiki/BRM_P133 "BRM P133") faded through the year from lack of testing time after the death of [Mike Spence](/wiki/Mike_Spence "Mike Spence"), whom the team's owners favoured.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2012}} Nevertheless, RodrΓguez led the [Spanish Grand Prix](/wiki/1968_Spanish_Grand_Prix "1968 Spanish Grand Prix") from [Chris Amon](/wiki/Chris_Amon "Chris Amon") for 28 laps until he made a mistake and spun off.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/550/\| title \= 1968 Spanish Grand Prix\|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128235724/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/550/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} At the end of the year, despite RodrΓguez's good performances, BRM team manager [Louis Stanley](/wiki/Louis_Stanley "Louis Stanley") released RodrΓguez to the [Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell "Reg Parnell") BRM privateer team.
The [Reg Parnell Racing](/wiki/Reg_Parnell_Racing "Reg Parnell Racing") BRMs proved to have hopeless engines, and after [Monaco](/wiki/1969_Monaco_Grand_Prix "1969 Monaco Grand Prix"),{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1969/539/\| title \= 1969 Monaco Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128234007/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1969/539/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez left and signed for [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari") for the remainder of the [1969](/wiki/1969_Formula_One_season "1969 Formula One season") Grand Prix and sports car series.
[thumb\|right\|250px\|Pedro RodrΓguez second place, 20 June 1971 [North Holland, Zandvoort](/wiki/1971_Dutch_Grand_Prix "1971 Dutch Grand Prix"). This would be the last podium for RodrΓguez who would die 21 days later.](/wiki/File:Pedro_Rodriguez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_924-6667.jpg "Pedro Rodriguez, Bestanddeelnr 924-6667.jpg")
Reentering F1 in the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_British_Grand_Prix "1969 British Grand Prix"),{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1969/542/\| title \= 1969 British Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129003807/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1969/542/\= \|archive\-date\=29 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez matched teammate Amon's pace in practice and led Amon by a whisker in the race. The uncompetitive [312s](/wiki/Ferrari_312 "Ferrari 312") ran midfield until RodrΓguez's car broke and Amon's engine blew for the second race in a row. Given the hopelessness of the 312 V12, the frustration of his drivers, and the slow progress with getting the new flat\-12 F1 car ready, [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari "Enzo Ferrari") would rather have run two Italian drivers for the rest of the season, but the Brambilla brothers, [Vittorio](/wiki/Vittorio_Brambilla "Vittorio Brambilla") and [Ernesto](/wiki/Ernesto_Brambilla "Ernesto Brambilla"), proved too slow. So, Ferrari ran RodrΓguez in the last four races of the season, in NART American racing colours for the North American races, but still, effectively, as a Ferrari works team. All in all, RodrΓguez managed a fourth place in 1968;{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/559/\| title \= 1968 Mexican Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128235101/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1968/559/ \|archive\-date\=28 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} sixth in 1964,{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1964/606/\| title \= 1964 Mexican Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102052155/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1964/606/ \|archive\-date\=2 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} 1967{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/570/\| title \= 1967 Mexican Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129005917/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1967/570/ \|archive\-date\=29 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} and 1970;{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/535/\| title \= 1970 Mexican Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127013611/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/535/ \|archive\-date\=27 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} and seventh in 1965{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1965/597/\| title \= 1965 Mexican Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129010606/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1965/597/ \|archive\-date\=29 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}} and 1969; while retiring in 1963 and 1966; in his eight home races in Mexico, but Ferrari didn't offer him a ride for 1970\.
BRM only offered him a ride in [1970](/wiki/1970_Formula_One_season "1970 Formula One season") after [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees "John Surtees") decided to leave to set up his own team at the last minute. For most of 1970, Stanley clearly favoured [Jackie Oliver](/wiki/Jackie_Oliver "Jackie Oliver") as number one driver, perhaps partly in response to Stewart's opinion of RodrΓguez and possibly because of his "old\-boys' club" of Englishmen at the team.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2012}} At [Francorchamps](/wiki/1970_Belgian_Grand_Prix "1970 Belgian Grand Prix"), RodrΓguez won with his [BRM P153](/wiki/BRM_P153 "BRM P153") over the new [March](/wiki/March_Engineering "March Engineering") of Chris Amon by just 1\.1 seconds and with an average speed of 149\.94 [mph](/wiki/Miles_per_hour "Miles per hour") (241\.31 [km/h](/wiki/Km/h "Km/h")), then the highest average speed in the history of F1,*Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, p. 503 [Jean\-Pierre Beltoise](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Beltoise "Jean-Pierre Beltoise") got the third place in a Matra.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/528/\| title \=1970 Belgian Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126045113/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/528/ \|archive\-date\=26 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}}
The power of the V12 engines was particularly suited to the fast circuits with few really slow corners, such as Francorchamps, [Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza "Autodromo Nazionale Monza"), and to a degree [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch "Brands Hatch") and the [NΓΌrburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "NΓΌrburgring"), and that was usually the case with the BRM, [Matra](/wiki/Equipe_Matra_Sports "Equipe Matra Sports"), and [Weslake](/wiki/Weslake "Weslake") engined cars. A strong drive at [Circuit Mont\-Tremblant](/wiki/1970_Canadian_Grand_Prix "1970 Canadian Grand Prix") saw him finish 4th. Only the need to pit in the last laps for fuel robbed him of a victory at [Watkins Glen](/wiki/1970_United_States_Grand_Prix "1970 United States Grand Prix"), the highest paying event of the year at the time (US$50,000\).*Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, p. 521{{clarify\|date\=December 2012}}The winner was [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi "Emerson Fittipaldi"), who won his first race in F1\.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/534/\| title \= 1970 United States Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126044914/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1970/534/ \|archive\-date\=26 January 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}}
After many years racing for Ferrari in the [World Championship of Makes](/wiki/World_Championship_of_Makes "World Championship of Makes") for sports cars, he signed for JW\-Gulf\-[Porsche](/wiki/Porsche_in_motorsport "Porsche in motorsport") in [1970](/wiki/1970_World_Sportscar_Championship_season "1970 World Sportscar Championship season") and over the next two years won eight races driving a [Porsche 917](/wiki/Porsche_917 "Porsche 917"), contributing to Porsche winning in the World Sportscar Championship.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.porsche917\.com.ar/xhistoria1970\_1\.htm\|title\=Porsche 917 \- History}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.porsche917\.com.ar/xhistoria1971\_1\.htm\|title\=Porsche 917 \- History}}
RodrΓguez developed into one of the sport's great all\-rounders, racing [CanAm](/wiki/Can-Am_Challenge_Cup "Can-Am Challenge Cup"), [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR"), [rallies](/wiki/Rallying "Rallying") and even becoming North American [Ice Racing](/wiki/Ice_Racing "Ice Racing") champion in 1970, invited by the Alaska Sports Car Club from [Anchorage](/wiki/Anchorage "Anchorage"), the race was in [Sand Lake](/wiki/Sand_Lake_%28Anchorage%29 "Sand Lake (Anchorage)").
RodrΓguez debuted in NASCAR at [Trenton Speedway](/wiki/Trenton_Speedway "Trenton Speedway") in 1959, finishing 6th. At the 1963 [Firecracker 400](/wiki/Firecracker_400 "Firecracker 400") he qualified 9th but retired after an engine failure. The Mexican finished 5th in the 1965 [World 600](/wiki/Coca-Cola_600 "Coca-Cola 600"), his best result. At the [1971 Daytona 500](/wiki/1971_Daytona_500 "1971 Daytona 500") he finished 13th. His last NASCAR race was [Miller High Life 500](/wiki/Miller_High_Life_500_%28Ontario%29 "Miller High Life 500 (Ontario)"), where he retired early with electrical issues{{cite web\|title\=NASCAR driving career statistics\|url\=http://www.racing\-reference.info/driver/Pedro\_Rodriguez\|publisher\=Racing Reference\|access\-date\=29 September 2011}}
RodrΓguez drove a Ferrari 312 P CoupΓ© in the CanAm round of [Bridgehampton](/wiki/Bridgehampton_Race_Circuit "Bridgehampton Race Circuit") in 1969, finishing 5th. In 1970 he finished 3rd at [Riverside](/wiki/Riverside_International_Raceway "Riverside International Raceway") and 5th at [Laguna Seca Raceway](/wiki/Laguna_Seca_Raceway "Laguna Seca Raceway") with a factory [BRM P154](/wiki/BRM_P154 "BRM P154").
The [1971 Formula One season](/wiki/1971_Formula_One_season "1971 Formula One season") could have seen him as a championship contender, with a [BRM P160](/wiki/BRM_P160 "BRM P160") being prepared by [Tony Southgate](/wiki/Tony_Southgate "Tony Southgate"), and for once BRM had consistently good engines. BRM, however, was overextended, trying to run three, and later four, cars. RodrΓguez challenged [Jacky Ickx](/wiki/Jacky_Ickx "Jacky Ickx") in the rain during the [Dutch Grand Prix](/wiki/1971_Dutch_Grand_Prix "1971 Dutch Grand Prix"), and only just failed to win.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr201\.html \|title \= Dutch GP, 1971 \|website\=grandprix.com\|access\-date\=16 January 2022}}{{cite web\| url \= http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1971/517/\| title \= 1971 Dutch Grand Prix \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301192316/http://www.formula1\.com/results/season/1971/517/ \|archive\-date\=1 March 2010 \|website\=formula1\.com \|access\-date\=16 January 2022}}
[thumb\|300px\|The [Ford GT40](/wiki/Ford_GT40 "Ford GT40") in which RodrΓguez and [Lucien Bianchi](/wiki/Lucien_Bianchi "Lucien Bianchi") won the [1968 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/1968_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "1968 24 Hours of Le Mans")](/wiki/File:1968_Ford_GT40_Mk_I_%2814288662849%29.jpg "1968 Ford GT40 Mk I (14288662849).jpg")
|
[
"Career\n------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|RodrΓguez in his BRM P133 during the [1968 German Grand Prix](/wiki/1968_German_Grand_Prix \"1968 German Grand Prix\").](/wiki/Image:Rodriguez%2C_Pedro_-_BRM_1968.jpg \"Rodriguez, Pedro - BRM 1968.jpg\")\nRodrΓguez began racing with bicycles at eight years old.Kettlewell, Mike. \"Rodriguez: The young lions of Mexico\", in Ward, Ian, general editor. *The World of Automobiles* (London: Orbis, 1974\\), Volume 16, p. 1915\\. He was a class winner in the Mexican Championship by 1950\\. He started racing a {{convert\\|125\\|cc\\|abbr\\=on}} [Adler](/wiki/Adler_%28automobile%29 \"Adler (automobile)\") [motorcycle](/wiki/Motorcycle \"Motorcycle\"), winning Mexico's national championship in 1952 and 1954\\.Kettlewell, p. 1915\\. In 1952, he entered a rally in a Ford, but achieved little. He returned to racing full\\-time in 1955, at 15, entering a [Jaguar XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 \"Jaguar XK120\") or [Porsche 1600S](/wiki/Porsche_1600 \"Porsche 1600\") in local contests.",
"At the end of 1957, RodrΓguez (who had been driving a [Chevrolet Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 \"Chevrolet Corvette (C1)\") in Mexico) and his brother entered the Nassau Speed Week competition, where the wild\\-driving elder brother wrecked his [Ferrari](/wiki/Ferrari \"Ferrari\") [500 TR](/wiki/Ferrari_Monza%23500_TR \"Ferrari Monza#500 TR\").",
"The 18\\-year\\-old RodrΓguez shared a 500 TR at [Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 Hours of Le Mans\"), entered by U.S. importer [Luigi Chinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Chinetti \"Luigi Chinetti\"), with [JosΓ© Behra](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Behra \"JosΓ© Behra\"), brother of [Jean Behra](/wiki/Jean_Behra \"Jean Behra\"), as his co\\-driver; the car did not finish, after a radiator hose puncture. RodrΓguez came back every year to Le Mans, fourteen times in total, and won in [1968](/wiki/1968_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"1968 24 Hours of Le Mans\"), co\\-driving with Belgian [Lucien Bianchi](/wiki/Lucien_Bianchi \"Lucien Bianchi\"), sharing a [Ford GT40](/wiki/Ford_GT40 \"Ford GT40\") for the [JW](/wiki/John_Wyer \"John Wyer\")β[Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_Oil \"Gulf Oil\") team.",
"At the Reims 12\\-hours in 1958, RodrΓguez and Behra placed second in class (eighth overall) in their [Porsche Carrera](/wiki/Porsche_Carrera \"Porsche Carrera\"), while RodrΓguez came second in a [Ferrari 250 TR](/wiki/Ferrari_250_TR \"Ferrari 250 TR\") at Nassau at the end of the season.",
"RodrΓguez went to Europe to race starting in 1959, sharing a Porsche 1600 S with Leo Levine at the [NurbΓΌrgring 1000 km](/wiki/1000_km_of_N%C3%BCrburgring \"1000 km of NΓΌrburgring\"), which came in second in class (thirteenth overall). He shared a {{convert\\|750\\|cc\\|abbr\\=on}} [O.S.C.A.](/wiki/O.S.C.A. \"O.S.C.A.\") with his brother for Le Mans, which broke.",
"At Cuba's 1960 Liberty Grand Prix, RodrΓguez's 250TR followed [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss \"Stirling Moss\")'s winning [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati \"Maserati\") [*Tipo* 61](/wiki/Maserati_Tipo_61 \"Maserati Tipo 61\") home, in second. At [Sebring](/wiki/1960_Sebring_12-Hours \"1960 Sebring 12-Hours\"), his [Dino 196 S](/wiki/Dino_%28automobile%29%23Dino_196_S \"Dino (automobile)#Dino 196 S\") failed to finish.Kettlewell, p. 1915, calls it a Dino 196S. RodrΓguez claimed seventh at the 1960 [Targa Florio](/wiki/Targa_Florio \"Targa Florio\"), again in the 196 S, which spent time off the pavement as well as on. He retired from that year's NΓΌrburgring 1000Β km, and from Le Mans.",
"In 1961, RodrΓguez entered [Formula Junior](/wiki/Formula_Junior \"Formula Junior\"). He returned also to Sebring, sharing a 250TR with his brother which suffered electrical trouble and came third. The duo also failed to finish that year's Targa Florio or NΓΌrburgring 1000Β km, but did win the Paris 1000Β km. An ongoing duel with the works Ferraris at Le Mans, which ultimately resulted in engine failure only two hours from the end, attracted the attention of [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari \"Enzo Ferrari\"), who offered them [Formula One](/wiki/Formula_One \"Formula One\") rides with [his team](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\"). Pedro declined, having \"a motor business in Mexico City to run\".",
"Despite his refusal, RodrΓguez kept racing, and in 1962 entered at Sebring, the NΓΌrburgring, and Le Mans, but failed to finish each time. He won at [Bridgehampton](/wiki/Bridgehampton_Race_Circuit \"Bridgehampton Race Circuit\"), in a [Ferrari 330 TRI/LM](/wiki/Ferrari_330_TRI/LM \"Ferrari 330 TRI/LM\"), and shared a [250 GTO](/wiki/Ferrari_250_GTO \"Ferrari 250 GTO\") with his brother to win the Paris 1000Β km, the second year in a row.",
"After Ferrari refused to enter the 1962 [Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1962_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"1962 Mexican Grand Prix\"), the first to be held in Mexico, RodrΓguez and his younger brother both found rides of their own. After his brother was killed in a horrific accident in practice, RodrΓguez withdrew. He considered retiring from racing. However, in 1963 he won the [Daytona](/wiki/Daytona_International_Speedway \"Daytona International Speedway\") [Continental](/wiki/Daytona_Continental \"Daytona Continental\") in a 250GTO entered by [North American Racing Team](/wiki/North_American_Racing_Team \"North American Racing Team\"). He came third at Sebring, sharing a 330TR/LM with [Graham Hill](/wiki/Graham_Hill \"Graham Hill\").Kettlewell, pp.1915β1916\\. He failed to qualify at [Indianapolis](/wiki/1963_Indianapolis_500 \"1963 Indianapolis 500\"), in an [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin \"Aston Martin\")\\-powered [Cooper T54](/wiki/Cooper_T54 \"Cooper T54\"), but took part in his first [Grand Prix](/wiki/Formula_One \"Formula One\") in the [works Lotus](/wiki/Team_Lotus \"Team Lotus\") at [Watkins Glen](/wiki/Watkins_Glen_International \"Watkins Glen International\") and [Magdalena Mixhuca](/wiki/Aut%C3%B3dromo_Hermanos_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"AutΓ³dromo Hermanos RodrΓguez\"). RodrΓguez failed to finish both times.Kettlewell, p. 1916\\.",
"Also in 1963, driving for Kjell Qvale Racing, he won his second USRRC ( FIA Group 7 cars) event in the Huffaker chassis\\#2 Mk8 GENIE/Chevrolet, then went on to win again in their chassis\\#3 Mk8 GENIE/Ford",
"For 1964, he again won the Daytona Continental, as well as the sports car Canadian Grand Prix, was second at the Paris 1000Β km, and third in the Bahamas Tourist Trophy. In single\\-seater racing, he recorded a sixth in the [Ferrari 156](/wiki/Ferrari_156 \"Ferrari 156\") at [Mexico](/wiki/1964_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"1964 Mexican Grand Prix\").",
"In 1965, his [Lotus 33](/wiki/Lotus_33 \"Lotus 33\")\\-Climax was fourth at the *[Daily Express](/wiki/Daily_Express \"Daily Express\")* [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\") Trophy, fifth at the [U.S. Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_United_States_Grand_Prix \"1965 United States Grand Prix\") and seventh in the [Mexican Grand Prix](/wiki/1965_Mexican_Grand_Prix \"1965 Mexican Grand Prix\") in a Ferrari. He won the Rheims 12\\-Hours in a [Ferrari 365 P2](/wiki/Ferrari_365_P2 \"Ferrari 365 P2\") he shared with [Jean Guichet](/wiki/Jean_Guichet \"Jean Guichet\"), and scored a third at the Canadian Sports Car Grand Prix.",
"He drove again for Lotus in four events in 1966, retiring on every occasion. He also deputised for [Jim Clark](/wiki/Jim_Clark \"Jim Clark\") in the [Formula Two](/wiki/Formula_Two \"Formula Two\") event at Rouen.\nAt the start of the [1967 season](/wiki/1967_Formula_One_season \"1967 Formula One season\"), RodrΓguez won for the first time in only his ninth Grand Prix, at [Kyalami](/wiki/1967_South_African_Grand_Prix \"1967 South African Grand Prix\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/561/\\| title \\= 1967 South African Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128220657/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/561/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} This was the first ever Grand Prix win for a Mexican driver. Cooper manager [Roy Salvadori](/wiki/Roy_Salvadori \"Roy Salvadori\") allowed RodrΓguez to drive the practice car, over the objections of teammate [Jochen Rindt](/wiki/Jochen_Rindt \"Jochen Rindt\"), who had demanded RodrΓguez's car, with strong support from Rindt's close friend [Jackie Stewart](/wiki/Jackie_Stewart \"Jackie Stewart\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2022}} RodrΓguez's smooth, consistent driving earned him victory after [Denny Hulme](/wiki/Denny_Hulme \"Denny Hulme\") had had a lengthy [pit stop](/wiki/Pit_stop \"Pit stop\") and local [privateer](/wiki/Privateer_%28motorsport%29 \"Privateer (motorsport)\") [John Love](/wiki/John_Love_%28racing_driver%29 \"John Love (racing driver)\")'s Tasman Cooper needed a late fuel stop. Rindt, by contrast, retired the other Cooper\\-Maserati after 38 laps. RodrΓguez drove a controlled season in 1967 as No. 2 to Rindt. Though usually slower than his teammate, he built up experience in the older and heavier [T81](/wiki/Cooper_T81 \"Cooper T81\"), while Rindt was given the improved [T81B](/wiki/Cooper_T81B \"Cooper T81B\") and later the brand new [T86](/wiki/Cooper_T86 \"Cooper T86\"). *Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, pp. 389 \\& 395\\.{{clarify\\|date\\=December 2012}} A mid\\-season accident in a [Protos](/wiki/Protos_%28constructor%29 \"Protos (constructor)\")\\-Ford, at the Formula Two event at Enna, sidelined him for three Grand Prix. RodrΓguez was only marginally slower than Rindt in the [Dutch Grand Prix](/wiki/1967_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"1967 Dutch Grand Prix\"),{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/563/\\| title \\= 1967 Dutch Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128233150/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/563 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} also the only other race in the season where the Coopers were competitive.",
"His performance at [Zandvoort](/wiki/Circuit_Park_Zandvoort \"Circuit Park Zandvoort\") earned RodrΓguez a better drive with [BRM](/wiki/British_Racing_Motors \"British Racing Motors\") in [1968](/wiki/1968_Formula_One_season \"1968 Formula One season\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/553/ \\|title \\= 1968 Dutch Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129010941/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/553/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez proved himself excellent in the wet at Zandvoort and [Rouen](/wiki/Rouen-Les-Essarts \"Rouen-Les-Essarts\") where he got his only [fastest lap](/wiki/Fastest_lap \"Fastest lap\") in F1 during the [French GP](/wiki/1968_French_Grand_Prix \"1968 French Grand Prix\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/560/\\| title \\=1968 French Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128212959/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/560/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} Lack of power meant he had to settle for second behind [Bruce McLaren](/wiki/Bruce_McLaren \"Bruce McLaren\") during the [Belgian GP](/wiki/1968_Belgian_Grand_Prix \"1968 Belgian Grand Prix\") at [Francorchamps](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\").{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/552/ \\|title\\=1968 Belgian Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128232045/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/552/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}}[Klaus Ewald](http://www.klaus-ewald.de/pedro1.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719052501/http://www.klaus\\-ewald.de/pedro1\\.htm \\|date\\=19 July 2011 }} .",
"The [BRM P133](/wiki/BRM_P133 \"BRM P133\") faded through the year from lack of testing time after the death of [Mike Spence](/wiki/Mike_Spence \"Mike Spence\"), whom the team's owners favoured.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2012}} Nevertheless, RodrΓguez led the [Spanish Grand Prix](/wiki/1968_Spanish_Grand_Prix \"1968 Spanish Grand Prix\") from [Chris Amon](/wiki/Chris_Amon \"Chris Amon\") for 28 laps until he made a mistake and spun off.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/550/\\| title \\= 1968 Spanish Grand Prix\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128235724/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/550/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} At the end of the year, despite RodrΓguez's good performances, BRM team manager [Louis Stanley](/wiki/Louis_Stanley \"Louis Stanley\") released RodrΓguez to the [Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell \"Reg Parnell\") BRM privateer team.",
"The [Reg Parnell Racing](/wiki/Reg_Parnell_Racing \"Reg Parnell Racing\") BRMs proved to have hopeless engines, and after [Monaco](/wiki/1969_Monaco_Grand_Prix \"1969 Monaco Grand Prix\"),{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1969/539/\\| title \\= 1969 Monaco Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128234007/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1969/539/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez left and signed for [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\") for the remainder of the [1969](/wiki/1969_Formula_One_season \"1969 Formula One season\") Grand Prix and sports car series.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\|Pedro RodrΓguez second place, 20 June 1971 [North Holland, Zandvoort](/wiki/1971_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"1971 Dutch Grand Prix\"). This would be the last podium for RodrΓguez who would die 21 days later.](/wiki/File:Pedro_Rodriguez%2C_Bestanddeelnr_924-6667.jpg \"Pedro Rodriguez, Bestanddeelnr 924-6667.jpg\")",
"Reentering F1 in the [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1969_British_Grand_Prix \"1969 British Grand Prix\"),{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1969/542/\\| title \\= 1969 British Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129003807/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1969/542/\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} RodrΓguez matched teammate Amon's pace in practice and led Amon by a whisker in the race. The uncompetitive [312s](/wiki/Ferrari_312 \"Ferrari 312\") ran midfield until RodrΓguez's car broke and Amon's engine blew for the second race in a row. Given the hopelessness of the 312 V12, the frustration of his drivers, and the slow progress with getting the new flat\\-12 F1 car ready, [Enzo Ferrari](/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari \"Enzo Ferrari\") would rather have run two Italian drivers for the rest of the season, but the Brambilla brothers, [Vittorio](/wiki/Vittorio_Brambilla \"Vittorio Brambilla\") and [Ernesto](/wiki/Ernesto_Brambilla \"Ernesto Brambilla\"), proved too slow. So, Ferrari ran RodrΓguez in the last four races of the season, in NART American racing colours for the North American races, but still, effectively, as a Ferrari works team. All in all, RodrΓguez managed a fourth place in 1968;{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/559/\\| title \\= 1968 Mexican Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128235101/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1968/559/ \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} sixth in 1964,{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1964/606/\\| title \\= 1964 Mexican Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102052155/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1964/606/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} 1967{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/570/\\| title \\= 1967 Mexican Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129005917/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1967/570/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} and 1970;{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/535/\\| title \\= 1970 Mexican Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127013611/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/535/ \\|archive\\-date\\=27 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} and seventh in 1965{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1965/597/\\| title \\= 1965 Mexican Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129010606/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1965/597/ \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}} and 1969; while retiring in 1963 and 1966; in his eight home races in Mexico, but Ferrari didn't offer him a ride for 1970\\.",
"BRM only offered him a ride in [1970](/wiki/1970_Formula_One_season \"1970 Formula One season\") after [John Surtees](/wiki/John_Surtees \"John Surtees\") decided to leave to set up his own team at the last minute. For most of 1970, Stanley clearly favoured [Jackie Oliver](/wiki/Jackie_Oliver \"Jackie Oliver\") as number one driver, perhaps partly in response to Stewart's opinion of RodrΓguez and possibly because of his \"old\\-boys' club\" of Englishmen at the team.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2012}} At [Francorchamps](/wiki/1970_Belgian_Grand_Prix \"1970 Belgian Grand Prix\"), RodrΓguez won with his [BRM P153](/wiki/BRM_P153 \"BRM P153\") over the new [March](/wiki/March_Engineering \"March Engineering\") of Chris Amon by just 1\\.1 seconds and with an average speed of 149\\.94 [mph](/wiki/Miles_per_hour \"Miles per hour\") (241\\.31 [km/h](/wiki/Km/h \"Km/h\")), then the highest average speed in the history of F1,*Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, p. 503 [Jean\\-Pierre Beltoise](/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Beltoise \"Jean-Pierre Beltoise\") got the third place in a Matra.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/528/\\| title \\=1970 Belgian Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126045113/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/528/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}}",
"The power of the V12 engines was particularly suited to the fast circuits with few really slow corners, such as Francorchamps, [Monza](/wiki/Autodromo_Nazionale_Monza \"Autodromo Nazionale Monza\"), and to a degree [Brands Hatch](/wiki/Brands_Hatch \"Brands Hatch\") and the [NΓΌrburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"NΓΌrburgring\"), and that was usually the case with the BRM, [Matra](/wiki/Equipe_Matra_Sports \"Equipe Matra Sports\"), and [Weslake](/wiki/Weslake \"Weslake\") engined cars. A strong drive at [Circuit Mont\\-Tremblant](/wiki/1970_Canadian_Grand_Prix \"1970 Canadian Grand Prix\") saw him finish 4th. Only the need to pit in the last laps for fuel robbed him of a victory at [Watkins Glen](/wiki/1970_United_States_Grand_Prix \"1970 United States Grand Prix\"), the highest paying event of the year at the time (US$50,000\\).*Los Hermanos RodrΓguez*. 2006, p. 521{{clarify\\|date\\=December 2012}}The winner was [Emerson Fittipaldi](/wiki/Emerson_Fittipaldi \"Emerson Fittipaldi\"), who won his first race in F1\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/534/\\| title \\= 1970 United States Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126044914/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1970/534/ \\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}}",
"After many years racing for Ferrari in the [World Championship of Makes](/wiki/World_Championship_of_Makes \"World Championship of Makes\") for sports cars, he signed for JW\\-Gulf\\-[Porsche](/wiki/Porsche_in_motorsport \"Porsche in motorsport\") in [1970](/wiki/1970_World_Sportscar_Championship_season \"1970 World Sportscar Championship season\") and over the next two years won eight races driving a [Porsche 917](/wiki/Porsche_917 \"Porsche 917\"), contributing to Porsche winning in the World Sportscar Championship.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.porsche917\\.com.ar/xhistoria1970\\_1\\.htm\\|title\\=Porsche 917 \\- History}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.porsche917\\.com.ar/xhistoria1971\\_1\\.htm\\|title\\=Porsche 917 \\- History}}",
"RodrΓguez developed into one of the sport's great all\\-rounders, racing [CanAm](/wiki/Can-Am_Challenge_Cup \"Can-Am Challenge Cup\"), [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\"), [rallies](/wiki/Rallying \"Rallying\") and even becoming North American [Ice Racing](/wiki/Ice_Racing \"Ice Racing\") champion in 1970, invited by the Alaska Sports Car Club from [Anchorage](/wiki/Anchorage \"Anchorage\"), the race was in [Sand Lake](/wiki/Sand_Lake_%28Anchorage%29 \"Sand Lake (Anchorage)\").",
"RodrΓguez debuted in NASCAR at [Trenton Speedway](/wiki/Trenton_Speedway \"Trenton Speedway\") in 1959, finishing 6th. At the 1963 [Firecracker 400](/wiki/Firecracker_400 \"Firecracker 400\") he qualified 9th but retired after an engine failure. The Mexican finished 5th in the 1965 [World 600](/wiki/Coca-Cola_600 \"Coca-Cola 600\"), his best result. At the [1971 Daytona 500](/wiki/1971_Daytona_500 \"1971 Daytona 500\") he finished 13th. His last NASCAR race was [Miller High Life 500](/wiki/Miller_High_Life_500_%28Ontario%29 \"Miller High Life 500 (Ontario)\"), where he retired early with electrical issues{{cite web\\|title\\=NASCAR driving career statistics\\|url\\=http://www.racing\\-reference.info/driver/Pedro\\_Rodriguez\\|publisher\\=Racing Reference\\|access\\-date\\=29 September 2011}}",
"RodrΓguez drove a Ferrari 312 P CoupΓ© in the CanAm round of [Bridgehampton](/wiki/Bridgehampton_Race_Circuit \"Bridgehampton Race Circuit\") in 1969, finishing 5th. In 1970 he finished 3rd at [Riverside](/wiki/Riverside_International_Raceway \"Riverside International Raceway\") and 5th at [Laguna Seca Raceway](/wiki/Laguna_Seca_Raceway \"Laguna Seca Raceway\") with a factory [BRM P154](/wiki/BRM_P154 \"BRM P154\").",
"The [1971 Formula One season](/wiki/1971_Formula_One_season \"1971 Formula One season\") could have seen him as a championship contender, with a [BRM P160](/wiki/BRM_P160 \"BRM P160\") being prepared by [Tony Southgate](/wiki/Tony_Southgate \"Tony Southgate\"), and for once BRM had consistently good engines. BRM, however, was overextended, trying to run three, and later four, cars. RodrΓguez challenged [Jacky Ickx](/wiki/Jacky_Ickx \"Jacky Ickx\") in the rain during the [Dutch Grand Prix](/wiki/1971_Dutch_Grand_Prix \"1971 Dutch Grand Prix\"), and only just failed to win.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.grandprix.com/gpe/rr201\\.html \\|title \\= Dutch GP, 1971 \\|website\\=grandprix.com\\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}}{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1971/517/\\| title \\= 1971 Dutch Grand Prix \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301192316/http://www.formula1\\.com/results/season/1971/517/ \\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2010 \\|website\\=formula1\\.com \\|access\\-date\\=16 January 2022}}\n[thumb\\|300px\\|The [Ford GT40](/wiki/Ford_GT40 \"Ford GT40\") in which RodrΓguez and [Lucien Bianchi](/wiki/Lucien_Bianchi \"Lucien Bianchi\") won the [1968 24 Hours of Le Mans](/wiki/1968_24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"1968 24 Hours of Le Mans\")](/wiki/File:1968_Ford_GT40_Mk_I_%2814288662849%29.jpg \"1968 Ford GT40 Mk I (14288662849).jpg\")",
""
] |
Work
----
{{external media \| width \= 210px \| float \= right \| headerimage \=
\| video1 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Y5kSoOPAe24 2008 MacArthur Fellow: Peter Pronovost], \[\[MacArthur Foundation]] on YouTube, 2:14{{cite web \| title \=2008 MacArthur Fellow: Peter Pronovost \| publisher \=\[\[MacArthur Foundation]] \| date \= September 22, 2008 \| url \=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Y5kSoOPAe24 \| accessdate \=January 26, 2015 }}
\| video2 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=963Mg7TYMH0 Believing and Belonging \- Peter Pronovost \- TEDx Beacon Street Salon], \[\[TED conference\|TEDx]] on YouTube, 14:01{{cite web \| title \=TEDxBeaconStreetSalon \| publisher \=\[\[TED (conference)]] \| date \= March 17, 2016 \| url \=https://www.ted.com/tedx/events/16436 \| accessdate \=October 5, 2016 }}
\| video3 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=S2x2yofovCM Pronovost checklist], CurrentMedicine.TV on YouTube, 11:40{{cite web \| title \=Pronovost checklist \| publisher \=CurrentMedicine.TV \| date \= July 24, 2011 \| url \=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=S2x2yofovCM \| accessdate \=January 26, 2015 }}
\| video4 \= \[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OtogOqmtGLc The Patient Promise, Peter Pronovost], 7:31, Johns Hopkins Medicine
}}
In 2003 he founded the Quality and Safety Research Group. Pronovost has published over 800 articles and chapters on patient safety and advises the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization") on improving patient safety through WHO's World Alliance for Patient Safety.{{cite web
\| title \= Peter Pronovost recognised by Time Magazine
\| work \= World Health Organization
\| publisher \= \[\[World Health Organization]]
\| date \=
\| url \=https://www.who.int/patientsafety/news/pronovost\_time\_100\_list/en/index.html
\| archive\-url \=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514174354/http://www.who.int/patientsafety/news/pronovost\_time\_100\_list/en/index.html
\| url\-status \=dead
\| archive\-date \=May 14, 2008
\| accessdate \= 2008\-05\-14}}
He started studying hospital\-acquired infections in 2001, concluding that a simple 5 item check\-list protocol would greatly reduce infections when inserting a [central venous catheter](/wiki/Central_venous_catheter "Central venous catheter");{{cite news
\| last \= Brody
\| first \= Jane E.
\| title \= A Basic Hospital To\-Do List Saves Lives
\| work \=\[\[The New York Times]]
\| date \= 2008\-01\-22
\| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/22/health/22brod.html?pagewanted\=print
\| accessdate \= 2009\-01\-08 }}
Doctors should:
1. Wash their hands with soap.
2. Clean the patient's skin with chlorhexidine antiseptic.
3. Put sterile drapes over the entire patient.
4. Wear a sterile mask, hat, gown and gloves.
5. Put a sterile dressing over the catheter site.
In the Keystone Initiative, a 2003 study by a collection of Michigan hospitals and health organizations, the median rate of infections at a typical ICU dropped from 2\.7 per 1,000 patients to zero after three months.{{citation
\| title \= Keystone Initiavites
\| url \= http://www.beaumont.edu/quality/keystone\-initiatives
\| accessdate \= 2013\-04\-15}} The Keystone Initiative published its results in the December, 2006 *[New England Journal of Medicine](/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine "New England Journal of Medicine")*.{{cite journal
\|vauthors\=Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, etal \| title \= An intervention to decrease catheter\-related bloodstream infections in the ICU
\| journal \= N. Engl. J. Med.
\| volume \= 355
\| issue \= 26
\| pages \= 2725β32
\|date\=December 2006
\| pmid \= 17192537
\| doi \= 10\.1056/NEJMoa061115
\| url \= http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/355/26/2725\| doi\-access \= free
}} In the first three months of the project, the infection rate in Michigan's ICUs decreased by sixty\-six per cent. In the Initiative's first eighteen months, they estimated that 1500 lives and $100 million were saved. These results were sustained for almost four years.
Several reasons may explain why a simple checklist protocol is not more widely adapted:{{cite news
\| last \= Goldsmith
\| first \= Marshall
\| title \= Preparing Your Professional Checklist
\| work \= \[\[Business Week]]
\| publisher \=
\| date \= 2008\-01\-15
\| url \= http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008\-01\-15/preparing\-your\-professional\-checklistbusinessweek\-business\-news\-stock\-market\-and\-financial\-advice
\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120817063216/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008\-01\-15/preparing\-your\-professional\-checklistbusinessweek\-business\-news\-stock\-market\-and\-financial\-advice
\| url\-status \= dead
\| archive\-date \= August 17, 2012
\| accessdate \= 2013\-06\-12}}
* Many physicians do not like being monitored by nurses or otherwise being forced to follow a checklist;
* A wish to avoid standardized tasks and bureaucracy; and
* A focus by researchers on "more exciting" issues such as disease biology and new treatment therapies.
According to Pronovost,
The fundamental problem with the quality of American medicine is that weβve failed to view delivery of health care as a science. The tasks of medical science fall into three buckets. One is understanding disease biology. One is finding effective therapies. And one is ensuring those therapies are delivered effectively. That third bucket has been almost totally ignored by research funders, government, and academia. Itβs viewed as the art of medicine. Thatβs a mistake, a huge mistake. And from a taxpayerβs perspective itβs outrageous.
### Recent work
In 2013, Pronovost co\-founded Doctella, a startup that provides surgical checklists for patients to improve patient engagement, patient safety, and lead to better health outcomes.[Doctella.com](http://www.doctella.com)
Also in 2013, Pronovost advocated for a system of alcohol and drug testing for doctors in a Journal of the American Medical Association article.{{cite journal\|last1\=Cuong Pham\|first1\=Julius\|last2\=Pronovost\|first2\=Peter J.\|last3\=Skipper\|first3\=Gregory E\|title\=Identification of Physician Impairment\|journal\=Journal of the American Medical Association\|date\=May 22, 2013\|volume\=309\|issue\=20\|pages\=2101β2\|doi\=10\.1001/jama.2013\.4635\|pmid\=23629590}}{{cite web\|last1\=Gantz\|first1\=Sarah\|title\=Johns Hopkins researchers say drug testing needed for doctors\|url\=http://www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/news/2013/05/07/johns\-hopkins\-researchers\-say\-drug.html\|publisher\=Baltimore Business Journal\|accessdate\=April 9, 2016\|date\=May 7, 2013}}
He has participated in an online course, or [MOOC](/wiki/MOOC "MOOC"), from Johns Hopkins provided via [Coursera](/wiki/Coursera "Coursera").{{cite web\|title\=The Science of Safety in Healthcare\|url\=https://www.coursera.org/course/healthcaresafety\|website\=Coursera\|publisher\=Johns Hopkins School of Nursing\|accessdate\=April 8, 2016}}
In January 2018, he announced that he would be taking a position at United HealthCare. Shortly after taking the position he was promoted to Chief Medical Officer. Within weeks of taking this position, his departure from the position and the company was confirmed, although no reason was given.
In October 2018, he joined [University Hospitals](/wiki/University_Hospitals "University Hospitals") as Chief Quality and Clinical Transformation Officer, adding value across the entire health system.{{cite web\|title\=University Hospitals names Dr. Peter J. Pronovost chief clinical transformation officer\|url\=https://www.crainscleveland.com/health\-care/university\-hospitals\-names\-dr\-peter\-j\-pronovost\-chief\-clinical\-transformation\-officer\|website\=Crain's Cleveland\|date\=29 October 2018\|accessdate\=October 29, 2018}}
In 2020, Pronovost and colleagues at University Hospitals introduced an estimate that defects in value contribute to over $1 trillion in wasteful spending.Pronovost PJ, Urwin JW, Beck E, et al. Making a Dent in the Trillion\-Dollar Problem: Toward Zero Defects. NEJM Catalyst, 2021;2(1\). doi:10\.1056/CAT.19\.1064 Pronovost, along with [William Padula](/wiki/William_Padula "William Padula"), David Dietz and Hanke Zheng further developed the framework for specialty care to illustrate that by investing in centers of excellence, health systems would otherwise spend pennies on the dollar over wasteful spending on value defects.Dietz DW, Padula WV, Zheng H, Pronovost PJ. Costs of Defects in Surgical Care: A Call to Eliminate Defects in Value. NEJM Catalyst, 3 November 2021; doi: 10\.1056/CAT.21\.0305
|
[
"Work\n----",
"{{external media \\| width \\= 210px \\| float \\= right \\| headerimage \\=\n \\| video1 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Y5kSoOPAe24 2008 MacArthur Fellow: Peter Pronovost], \\[\\[MacArthur Foundation]] on YouTube, 2:14{{cite web \\| title \\=2008 MacArthur Fellow: Peter Pronovost \\| publisher \\=\\[\\[MacArthur Foundation]] \\| date \\= September 22, 2008 \\| url \\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Y5kSoOPAe24 \\| accessdate \\=January 26, 2015 }}\n\\| video2 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=963Mg7TYMH0 Believing and Belonging \\- Peter Pronovost \\- TEDx Beacon Street Salon], \\[\\[TED conference\\|TEDx]] on YouTube, 14:01{{cite web \\| title \\=TEDxBeaconStreetSalon \\| publisher \\=\\[\\[TED (conference)]] \\| date \\= March 17, 2016 \\| url \\=https://www.ted.com/tedx/events/16436 \\| accessdate \\=October 5, 2016 }}\n \\| video3 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=S2x2yofovCM Pronovost checklist], CurrentMedicine.TV on YouTube, 11:40{{cite web \\| title \\=Pronovost checklist \\| publisher \\=CurrentMedicine.TV \\| date \\= July 24, 2011 \\| url \\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=S2x2yofovCM \\| accessdate \\=January 26, 2015 }}\n \\| video4 \\= \\[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OtogOqmtGLc The Patient Promise, Peter Pronovost], 7:31, Johns Hopkins Medicine\n }}\nIn 2003 he founded the Quality and Safety Research Group. Pronovost has published over 800 articles and chapters on patient safety and advises the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\") on improving patient safety through WHO's World Alliance for Patient Safety.{{cite web\n \\| title \\= Peter Pronovost recognised by Time Magazine\n \\| work \\= World Health Organization\n \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[World Health Organization]]\n \\| date \\=\n \\| url \\=https://www.who.int/patientsafety/news/pronovost\\_time\\_100\\_list/en/index.html\n \\| archive\\-url \\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514174354/http://www.who.int/patientsafety/news/pronovost\\_time\\_100\\_list/en/index.html\n \\| url\\-status \\=dead\n \\| archive\\-date \\=May 14, 2008\n \\| accessdate \\= 2008\\-05\\-14}}",
"",
"He started studying hospital\\-acquired infections in 2001, concluding that a simple 5 item check\\-list protocol would greatly reduce infections when inserting a [central venous catheter](/wiki/Central_venous_catheter \"Central venous catheter\");{{cite news\n \\| last \\= Brody\n \\| first \\= Jane E.\n \\| title \\= A Basic Hospital To\\-Do List Saves Lives\n \\| work \\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\n \\| date \\= 2008\\-01\\-22\n \\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/22/health/22brod.html?pagewanted\\=print\n \\| accessdate \\= 2009\\-01\\-08 }}",
"",
"Doctors should: \n1. Wash their hands with soap.\n2. Clean the patient's skin with chlorhexidine antiseptic.\n3. Put sterile drapes over the entire patient.\n4. Wear a sterile mask, hat, gown and gloves.\n5. Put a sterile dressing over the catheter site.",
"In the Keystone Initiative, a 2003 study by a collection of Michigan hospitals and health organizations, the median rate of infections at a typical ICU dropped from 2\\.7 per 1,000 patients to zero after three months.{{citation \n \\| title \\= Keystone Initiavites\n \\| url \\= http://www.beaumont.edu/quality/keystone\\-initiatives\n \\| accessdate \\= 2013\\-04\\-15}} The Keystone Initiative published its results in the December, 2006 *[New England Journal of Medicine](/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine \"New England Journal of Medicine\")*.{{cite journal \n \\|vauthors\\=Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, etal \\| title \\= An intervention to decrease catheter\\-related bloodstream infections in the ICU\n \\| journal \\= N. Engl. J. Med.\n \\| volume \\= 355\n \\| issue \\= 26\n \\| pages \\= 2725β32\n \\|date\\=December 2006\n \\| pmid \\= 17192537\n \\| doi \\= 10\\.1056/NEJMoa061115\n \\| url \\= http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/355/26/2725\\| doi\\-access \\= free\n }} In the first three months of the project, the infection rate in Michigan's ICUs decreased by sixty\\-six per cent. In the Initiative's first eighteen months, they estimated that 1500 lives and $100 million were saved. These results were sustained for almost four years.",
"Several reasons may explain why a simple checklist protocol is not more widely adapted:{{cite news\n \\| last \\= Goldsmith\n \\| first \\= Marshall\n \\| title \\= Preparing Your Professional Checklist\n \\| work \\= \\[\\[Business Week]]\n \\| publisher \\=\n \\| date \\= 2008\\-01\\-15\n \\| url \\= http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008\\-01\\-15/preparing\\-your\\-professional\\-checklistbusinessweek\\-business\\-news\\-stock\\-market\\-and\\-financial\\-advice\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120817063216/http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2008\\-01\\-15/preparing\\-your\\-professional\\-checklistbusinessweek\\-business\\-news\\-stock\\-market\\-and\\-financial\\-advice\n \\| url\\-status \\= dead\n \\| archive\\-date \\= August 17, 2012\n \\| accessdate \\= 2013\\-06\\-12}}\n* Many physicians do not like being monitored by nurses or otherwise being forced to follow a checklist;\n* A wish to avoid standardized tasks and bureaucracy; and\n* A focus by researchers on \"more exciting\" issues such as disease biology and new treatment therapies.",
"According to Pronovost,\nThe fundamental problem with the quality of American medicine is that weβve failed to view delivery of health care as a science. The tasks of medical science fall into three buckets. One is understanding disease biology. One is finding effective therapies. And one is ensuring those therapies are delivered effectively. That third bucket has been almost totally ignored by research funders, government, and academia. Itβs viewed as the art of medicine. Thatβs a mistake, a huge mistake. And from a taxpayerβs perspective itβs outrageous.",
"### Recent work",
"In 2013, Pronovost co\\-founded Doctella, a startup that provides surgical checklists for patients to improve patient engagement, patient safety, and lead to better health outcomes.[Doctella.com](http://www.doctella.com)",
"Also in 2013, Pronovost advocated for a system of alcohol and drug testing for doctors in a Journal of the American Medical Association article.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Cuong Pham\\|first1\\=Julius\\|last2\\=Pronovost\\|first2\\=Peter J.\\|last3\\=Skipper\\|first3\\=Gregory E\\|title\\=Identification of Physician Impairment\\|journal\\=Journal of the American Medical Association\\|date\\=May 22, 2013\\|volume\\=309\\|issue\\=20\\|pages\\=2101β2\\|doi\\=10\\.1001/jama.2013\\.4635\\|pmid\\=23629590}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gantz\\|first1\\=Sarah\\|title\\=Johns Hopkins researchers say drug testing needed for doctors\\|url\\=http://www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/news/2013/05/07/johns\\-hopkins\\-researchers\\-say\\-drug.html\\|publisher\\=Baltimore Business Journal\\|accessdate\\=April 9, 2016\\|date\\=May 7, 2013}}",
"He has participated in an online course, or [MOOC](/wiki/MOOC \"MOOC\"), from Johns Hopkins provided via [Coursera](/wiki/Coursera \"Coursera\").{{cite web\\|title\\=The Science of Safety in Healthcare\\|url\\=https://www.coursera.org/course/healthcaresafety\\|website\\=Coursera\\|publisher\\=Johns Hopkins School of Nursing\\|accessdate\\=April 8, 2016}}",
"In January 2018, he announced that he would be taking a position at United HealthCare. Shortly after taking the position he was promoted to Chief Medical Officer. Within weeks of taking this position, his departure from the position and the company was confirmed, although no reason was given.",
"In October 2018, he joined [University Hospitals](/wiki/University_Hospitals \"University Hospitals\") as Chief Quality and Clinical Transformation Officer, adding value across the entire health system.{{cite web\\|title\\=University Hospitals names Dr. Peter J. Pronovost chief clinical transformation officer\\|url\\=https://www.crainscleveland.com/health\\-care/university\\-hospitals\\-names\\-dr\\-peter\\-j\\-pronovost\\-chief\\-clinical\\-transformation\\-officer\\|website\\=Crain's Cleveland\\|date\\=29 October 2018\\|accessdate\\=October 29, 2018}}",
"In 2020, Pronovost and colleagues at University Hospitals introduced an estimate that defects in value contribute to over $1 trillion in wasteful spending.Pronovost PJ, Urwin JW, Beck E, et al. Making a Dent in the Trillion\\-Dollar Problem: Toward Zero Defects. NEJM Catalyst, 2021;2(1\\). doi:10\\.1056/CAT.19\\.1064 Pronovost, along with [William Padula](/wiki/William_Padula \"William Padula\"), David Dietz and Hanke Zheng further developed the framework for specialty care to illustrate that by investing in centers of excellence, health systems would otherwise spend pennies on the dollar over wasteful spending on value defects.Dietz DW, Padula WV, Zheng H, Pronovost PJ. Costs of Defects in Surgical Care: A Call to Eliminate Defects in Value. NEJM Catalyst, 3 November 2021; doi: 10\\.1056/CAT.21\\.0305",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### KERA
Douridas attended North Texas State University (now the [University of North Texas](/wiki/University_of_North_Texas "University of North Texas")) on a theater scholarship where he became involved in campus radio station [KNTU\-FM](/wiki/KNTU "KNTU"). While there, he hosted a freeform morning radio show called *The Morning Exchange*, mixing blues, bluegrass, reggae, Motown, classical, jazz, and progressive pop. While still in college, Douridas was hired by [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas "Dallas, Texas"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"), public radio station [KERA](/wiki/KERA_%28FM%29 "KERA (FM)"), beginning as a weekend classical music host and later promoted as host of the stations *All Night Jazz* program. In 1987, the station transformed into an all eclectic format,{{Cite web \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RC4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=bach\+to\+basie\+denberg\&pg\=PA3 \|page\=3\|title \= Texas Monthly\|website\=Books.google.com\|date \= July 1989}} with Douridas hosting the innovative evening show, *90\.1 at Night*. While there, he created a series called *Sound Sessions*, live radio sessions featuring Dallas area bands. This show gave a platform, recording resources, and eventually compilation CD exposure to bands such as the [Dixie Chicks](/wiki/Dixie_Chicks "Dixie Chicks"). At the time the only other broadcasts that featured local bands were on [KDGE](/wiki/KDGE "KDGE").
### KCRW
In the 1990s, Chris Douridas became known as the host of [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW "KCRW")'s daily three\-hour new music program, [Morning Becomes Eclectic](/wiki/Morning_Becomes_Eclectic "Morning Becomes Eclectic"), bringing a personal character to the show. He was also the station's music director at the time.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\-Other\-Documments/LA\-Radio\-Guide/LA\-Radio\-Guide\-1995\-03\-04\.pdf \|title\=Los Angeles Radio Guide\|website\=Americanradiohistory.com\|date\=1995\-03\-04\|access\-date\=2023\-07\-17}} When he went independent of KCRW in 1998, he maintained a link to the station by presenting a two\-hour program called "[Ground Zero](/wiki/Ground_zero "Ground zero")", which was renamed "New Ground" after the [9/11 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks"). Later, the show was extended to three hours.
Perhaps Douridas' greatest contribution to the station was his hiring of most of the on air staff including [Liza Richardson](/wiki/Liza_Richardson "Liza Richardson") (a former colleague at Dallas' KERA), [Jason Bentley](/wiki/Jason_Bentley "Jason Bentley") (formerly of KXLU, and current music director/host of "Morning Becomes Eclectic"), [Garth Trinidad](/wiki/Garth_Trinidad "Garth Trinidad"), Anne Litt, [Gary Calamar](/wiki/Gary_Calamar "Gary Calamar"), Kevin Ponthier (a former colleague at his college station, KNTU), and Tricia Halloran. Halloran recently left the station and is a Hum in Santa Monica, CA staff music supervisor.
### Eclectic24
On Labor Day, September 7, 2009, KCRW launched Eclectic24,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.kcrw.com/\|title\=KCRW 89\.9FM \| Music, NPR News, Culture Los Angeles\|website\=Kcrw.com\|access\-date\=17 July 2023}} an online 24\-hour music channel. Created and curated by Douridas, who has programmed the channel since its inception, the concept features a continuous original mix of its unique eclectic programming, including many exclusive live tracks captured from on\-air performances first broadcast on its flagship daily music program [Morning Becomes Eclectic](/wiki/Morning_Becomes_Eclectic "Morning Becomes Eclectic") and other programs.
On the occasion of the 2016 [Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival](/wiki/Coachella_Valley_Music_and_Arts_Festival "Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival"), the channel staged an All\-Coachella programming event on April 14β17, 21\-24\. The concept was further explored on Tuesday, May 24, 2016 in celebration of the 75th birthday of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan "Bob Dylan"). A Day of Dylan featured original Dylan masters, covers of and by Dylan, songs about Dylan, and interview clips.
### Soundtrack work
Douridas has carved an extensive career in film music supervision producing the soundtracks of such films as *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 "American Beauty (1999 film)")*, *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 "Shrek 2")*, *[As Good as It Gets](/wiki/As_Good_as_It_Gets "As Good as It Gets")* and the [Austin Powers](/wiki/Austin_Powers_%28film_series%29 "Austin Powers (film series)") trilogy. His work on 1999's *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 "American Beauty (1999 film)")* and 2004's *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 "Shrek 2")* brought him Grammy nominations.
### DreamWorks
In the late 1990s, Douridas was an A\&R executive for [DreamWorks Records](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records "DreamWorks Records"), the label started by [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen "David Geffen"), [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin "Mo Ostin") and [Lenny Waronker](/wiki/Lenny_Waronker "Lenny Waronker"). While there, he brought in the bands [the Eels](/wiki/The_Eels "The Eels") and [Propellerheads](/wiki/Propellerheads "Propellerheads"), and produced the Grammy nominated soundtracks for *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 "American Beauty (1999 film)")* and *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 "Shrek 2")*.
### Independent A\&R
In November 2006, Douridas came across an import release from an artist named [Oren Lavie](/wiki/Oren_Lavie "Oren Lavie").{{Cite web \|title\=OREN LAVIE'S DEBUT VIDEO SINGLE "HER MORNING ELEGANCE" UNVEILED EXCLUSIVELY AS ITUNES 'VIDEO OF THE WEEK' JANUARY 20 {{!}} Mitch Schneider Organization \|url\=http://www.msopr.com/press\-releases/oren\-lavie%E2%80%99s\-debut\-video\-single\-%E2%80%9Cher\-morning\-elegance%E2%80%9D\-unveiled\-exclusively\-as\-itunes\-%E2%80%98video\-of\-the\-week%E2%80%99\-january\-20/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-18 \|website\=Msopr.com}} After a long distance correspondence, the two decided to partner on releasing his album [The Opposite Side of the Sea](/wiki/The_Opposite_Side_of_the_Sea "The Opposite Side of the Sea") in the US. In May 2008, "[Her Morning Elegance](/wiki/Her_Morning_Elegance "Her Morning Elegance")", the album's first single, was unveiled in a commercial for Chevy Malibu,Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/EgNQ2tns0Gs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20110913134348/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgNQ2tns0Gs){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=EgNQ2tns0Gs\| title \= Chevy Mailbu TV ad ('Her Morning Elegance' by Oren Lavie) \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} and, again in January 2009, in a celebrated stop motion music video Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/2_HXUhShhmY){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20090131030605/http://www.youtube.com:80/watch?v=2_HXUhShhmY){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=2\_HXUhShhmY\| title \= Her Morning Elegance / Oren Lavie \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} that was subsequently nominated for [Grammy Award for Best Music Video](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Music_Video "Grammy Award for Best Music Video") and viewed over 30mm times. Lavie also contributed an original song for the 2008 [Andrew Adamson](/wiki/Andrew_Adamson "Andrew Adamson") film, *[The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:Prince_Caspian_%28soundtrack%29 "Prince Caspian (soundtrack)")*, which Douridas was consulting on.
In 2015, Douridas embarked on a joint publishing venture with Mothership Publishing, the publishing arm of [Anti\-](/wiki/ANTI- "ANTI-")[Epitaph Records](/wiki/Epitaph_Records "Epitaph Records"), headed by publishing icon Lionel Conway and [Brett Gurewitz](/wiki/Brett_Gurewitz "Brett Gurewitz"). The first signing under this new partnership is with Canadian troubadour [Andy Shauf](/wiki/Andy_Shauf "Andy Shauf").{{Cite web\|url\=http://hitsdailydouble.com/news\&id\=297624\|title \= Pub Crawling: Tunesmiths on a Tear Edition\|website\=Hitsdailydouble.com}}
### School Night
While attending a wrap party for his latest film project at a venue called Bardot, upstairs from the [Avalon Hollywood](/wiki/Avalon_Hollywood "Avalon Hollywood") on [Vine Street](/wiki/Vine_Street "Vine Street"), Douridas was invited to come back to DJ and curate an evening at the venue. A few months later, on April 12, 2010, he hosted the first in a weekly series described as a 'new Monday night [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles "Hollywood, Los Angeles") party'. The inaugural evening featured live performances from [Dawes](/wiki/Dawes_%28band%29 "Dawes (band)"), [The Like](/wiki/The_Like "The Like") and a DJ set from fellow [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW "KCRW") host Anne Litt. Week two featured the debuts of new projects from [Chrissie Hynde](/wiki/Chrissie_Hynde "Chrissie Hynde") and [Brett Dennen](/wiki/Brett_Dennen "Brett Dennen"). In its first year, the series was named "America's Best Party" by [Paper Magazine](/wiki/Paper_Magazine "Paper Magazine").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.papermag.com/2010/10/and\_the\_envelope\_please\_the\_wi.php \|title\=PAPERMAG: And the Envelope Please... The Winners of Last Night's Sixth Annual Nightlife Awards \|access\-date\=2013\-07\-11 \|archive\-date\=2013\-08\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806041904/http://www.papermag.com/2010/10/and\_the\_envelope\_please\_the\_wi.php \|url\-status\=dead }} Since then, School Night, named for the excuse colleagues gave for not being able to attend the late night weeknight event, has become a launch pad for new artist projects. The night is produced in collaboration with LA promoter Matt Goldman. To date, the series has featured the US debuts of [London Grammar](/wiki/London_Grammar "London Grammar"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.laweekly.com/slideshow/london\-grammar\-bardot\-39948887/\#1 \|title\=London Grammar @ Bardot \- Los Angeles \- Slideshows \|website\=Laweekly.com \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712024117/http://www.laweekly.com/slideshow/london\-grammar\-bardot\-39948887/ \|archive\-date\=2013\-07\-12}} [Michael Kiwanuka](/wiki/Michael_Kiwanuka "Michael Kiwanuka"), [Chet Faker](/wiki/Chet_Faker "Chet Faker"), [Liam Bailey](/wiki/Liam_Bailey "Liam Bailey"), and [Katy B](/wiki/Katy_B "Katy B"), among others, and the LA debuts of [Years and Years](/wiki/Years_%26_Years "Years & Years"), [James Bay (singer)](/wiki/James_Bay_%28singer%29 "James Bay (singer)"), [The Naked and Famous](/wiki/The_Naked_and_Famous "The Naked and Famous"), [Two Door Cinema Club](/wiki/Two_Door_Cinema_Club "Two Door Cinema Club"), [Wolf Alice](/wiki/Wolf_Alice "Wolf Alice"), [Alt\-J](/wiki/Alt-J "Alt-J"), [Twin Shadow](/wiki/Twin_Shadow "Twin Shadow"), [Frances (musician)](/wiki/Frances_%28musician%29 "Frances (musician)"), [Maximum Balloon](/wiki/Maximum_Balloon "Maximum Balloon"), [Tom Odell](/wiki/Tom_Odell "Tom Odell"), [Villagers](/wiki/Villagers_%28band%29 "Villagers (band)"), and [MNDR](/wiki/MNDR "MNDR"). Additionally, the night often hosts surprise appearances from iconic artists as well, with past appearances by [Moby](/wiki/Moby "Moby"), [Ben Folds](/wiki/Ben_Folds "Ben Folds"), [Chrissie Hynde](/wiki/Chrissie_Hynde "Chrissie Hynde"), [Miguel (singer)](/wiki/Miguel_%28singer%29 "Miguel (singer)"), [Florence and the Machine](/wiki/Florence_and_the_Machine "Florence and the Machine"), [Daniel Lanois](/wiki/Daniel_Lanois "Daniel Lanois"), [Brett Dennen](/wiki/Brett_Dennen "Brett Dennen"), [Vanessa Carlton](/wiki/Vanessa_Carlton "Vanessa Carlton") with [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks "Stevie Nicks"), [Lucinda Williams](/wiki/Lucinda_Williams "Lucinda Williams"), [Rickie Lee Jones](/wiki/Rickie_Lee_Jones "Rickie Lee Jones"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music\_blog/2011/06/rickie\-lee\-jones\-at\-bardot\-in\-hollywood.html\|title \= Rickie Lee Jones drops by School Night at Bardot in Hollywood\|date \= 28 June 2011\|website\=Latimesblogs.latimes.com}} [Neil Finn](/wiki/Neil_Finn "Neil Finn"), [Matisyahu](/wiki/Matisyahu "Matisyahu") and [Kimbra](/wiki/Kimbra "Kimbra").
A monthly event dubbed School Night NYC was launched at The Bowery Hotel in 2010\. In July 2013, Douridas announced a weekly series would start September 8, 2013 at [Brooklyn Bowl](/wiki/Brooklyn_Bowl "Brooklyn Bowl"), in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 "New York (state)"). The New York event moved to Baby's All Right in Brooklyn in June 2016\.
In 2020, in response to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), School Night temporarily rebranded into a virtual concert series under the name Home School.
### Actor
Douridas' began his career as an actor in Texas. While in high school, he was a national champion at the 1980 National Forensics Competition. At North Texas State University, he was a theater major and scholarship recipient. In the late 1980s, Douridas appeared on stage at the Dallas Theater Center, Stage \#1, and Dallas Repertory Theater. Film acting credits include the 1984 [television movie](/wiki/Television_movie "Television movie") *[The Jesse Owens Story](/wiki/The_Jesse_Owens_Story "The Jesse Owens Story")*, which was Douridas' first film role, a 1986 episode of *[Dalton's Code of Vengeance](/wiki/Code_of_Vengeance "Code of Vengeance")*, *[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2](/wiki/The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_2 "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2")*, *[Waterworld](/wiki/Waterworld "Waterworld")*, and Wim Wenders' 1997 film *[The End of Violence](/wiki/The_End_of_Violence "The End of Violence")*. Television roles include appearances on *[Party of Five](/wiki/Party_of_Five "Party of Five")* and *[Ellen](/wiki/Ellen_%28TV_series%29 "Ellen (TV series)")*.
### Television work
Douridas hosted the inaugural season of *[Sessions at West 54th](/wiki/Sessions_at_West_54th "Sessions at West 54th")*, a live interview and performance series on [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service "Public Broadcasting Service"). The first season featured sessions with [Beck](/wiki/Beck "Beck"), [Fiona Apple](/wiki/Fiona_Apple "Fiona Apple"), [Philip Glass](/wiki/Philip_Glass "Philip Glass"), [Ani DiFranco](/wiki/Ani_DiFranco "Ani DiFranco"), [Yo Yo Ma](/wiki/Yo_Yo_Ma "Yo Yo Ma"), [SinΓ©ad O'Connor](/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_O%27Connor "SinΓ©ad O'Connor"), [Patti Smith](/wiki/Patti_Smith "Patti Smith"), [Sonic Youth](/wiki/Sonic_Youth "Sonic Youth"), and [David Byrne](/wiki/David_Byrne "David Byrne"), among others. Douridas brought in renowned documentarian [D.A. Pennebaker](/wiki/D.A._Pennebaker "D.A. Pennebaker") to shoot the accompanying interview segments for each of the first season's performances.
### Online: AOL and iTunes
Douridas was Vice President of Music for [America Online](/wiki/America_Online "America Online"), overseeing the popular Radio@AOL service, a network of 125 original online radio stations. This service was created by [Spinner.com](/wiki/Spinner.com "Spinner.com"), a project spearheaded by Josh Felser and Jim Van Huysse. Felser lured Douridas from DreamWorks. While at AOL, Douridas launched the online interview and performance series "[Sessions@AOL](/wiki/Sessions%40AOL "Sessions@AOL")", which he hosted and produced.
Following his work with AOL, Douridas was hired by Apple's [Steve Jobs](/wiki/Steve_Jobs "Steve Jobs") to be a creative consultant for the launch of the [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes "ITunes") music store, creating and producing the [iTunes Originals](/wiki/ITunes_Originals "ITunes Originals") series and [iTunes Essentials](/wiki/ITunes_Essentials "ITunes Essentials"), a popular lifestyle playlist series.
### Personal life
Douridas was born in [Columbus](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio").
In January 2006, Douridas and a friend were arrested at the [Circle Bar](/wiki/Circle_Bar "Circle Bar") in Santa Monica after a witness accused them of trying to drug and kidnap a female patron, who was underage and at the bar using her cousin's identification.{{cite web\|title\=Radio's Chris Douridas Arrested\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2006\-jan\-14\-me\-kcrw14\-story.html\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=14 January 2006 }} The girl was taken to a local hospital and later released. The Los Angeles County District Attorney awaited toxicology results before deciding whether to file charges. No charges were ever filed following the toxicology results and an investigation.{{cite web\|title\=A Shadow Hangs Over His Days\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2006\-mar\-13\-et\-douridas13\-story.html\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=13 March 2006 }}{{cite web\|title\=Public Radio Host Faces Drug, Not Sex, Charge\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2006\-jun\-27\-me\-douridas27\-story.html\|website\=Los Angeles Times\|date\=27 June 2006 }} In an article in the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")*, Douridas's ex\-wife Mieke Kramer said Douridas was having a drink at the bar when he noticed a girl whom heβd met that evening was becoming ill. Seeing no one else moving to assist her, Douridas took it upon himself to help her outside to get fresh air, she said. She described him as "the kind of person who pulls over when he sees someoneβs car is broken down. This is a case of good intentions misinterpreted and an example of why people don't help each other anymore." Douridas maintained his innocence throughout the proceedings, as did his longtime workplace, KCRW, who "could have easily distanced itself from Douridas by placing him on administrative leave... stood staunchly behind Douridas from the moment of his arrest." Douridas was released on $1 million bail. After a five\-month investigation, no charges related to the woman were ever filed.
On April 30, 2006, Douridas' only daughter died in a drowning accident while having a seizure while bathing in the bathtub at her family's home in [South Pasadena](/wiki/South_Pasadena%2C_California "South Pasadena, California"). She was 14 years old.{{Cite web\|url\=http://inthebeginningtherewasgenesis.blogspot.com/2011/01/inspiration\-and\-love\-behind\-it\-all.html\|title \= Blogger\|website\=Inthebeginningthereweasgenesis.blogspot.com}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### KERA",
"Douridas attended North Texas State University (now the [University of North Texas](/wiki/University_of_North_Texas \"University of North Texas\")) on a theater scholarship where he became involved in campus radio station [KNTU\\-FM](/wiki/KNTU \"KNTU\"). While there, he hosted a freeform morning radio show called *The Morning Exchange*, mixing blues, bluegrass, reggae, Motown, classical, jazz, and progressive pop. While still in college, Douridas was hired by [Dallas](/wiki/Dallas%2C_Texas \"Dallas, Texas\"), [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"), public radio station [KERA](/wiki/KERA_%28FM%29 \"KERA (FM)\"), beginning as a weekend classical music host and later promoted as host of the stations *All Night Jazz* program. In 1987, the station transformed into an all eclectic format,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RC4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=bach\\+to\\+basie\\+denberg\\&pg\\=PA3 \\|page\\=3\\|title \\= Texas Monthly\\|website\\=Books.google.com\\|date \\= July 1989}} with Douridas hosting the innovative evening show, *90\\.1 at Night*. While there, he created a series called *Sound Sessions*, live radio sessions featuring Dallas area bands. This show gave a platform, recording resources, and eventually compilation CD exposure to bands such as the [Dixie Chicks](/wiki/Dixie_Chicks \"Dixie Chicks\"). At the time the only other broadcasts that featured local bands were on [KDGE](/wiki/KDGE \"KDGE\").",
"### KCRW",
"In the 1990s, Chris Douridas became known as the host of [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW \"KCRW\")'s daily three\\-hour new music program, [Morning Becomes Eclectic](/wiki/Morning_Becomes_Eclectic \"Morning Becomes Eclectic\"), bringing a personal character to the show. He was also the station's music director at the time.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive\\-Other\\-Documments/LA\\-Radio\\-Guide/LA\\-Radio\\-Guide\\-1995\\-03\\-04\\.pdf \\|title\\=Los Angeles Radio Guide\\|website\\=Americanradiohistory.com\\|date\\=1995\\-03\\-04\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-17}} When he went independent of KCRW in 1998, he maintained a link to the station by presenting a two\\-hour program called \"[Ground Zero](/wiki/Ground_zero \"Ground zero\")\", which was renamed \"New Ground\" after the [9/11 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\"). Later, the show was extended to three hours.",
"Perhaps Douridas' greatest contribution to the station was his hiring of most of the on air staff including [Liza Richardson](/wiki/Liza_Richardson \"Liza Richardson\") (a former colleague at Dallas' KERA), [Jason Bentley](/wiki/Jason_Bentley \"Jason Bentley\") (formerly of KXLU, and current music director/host of \"Morning Becomes Eclectic\"), [Garth Trinidad](/wiki/Garth_Trinidad \"Garth Trinidad\"), Anne Litt, [Gary Calamar](/wiki/Gary_Calamar \"Gary Calamar\"), Kevin Ponthier (a former colleague at his college station, KNTU), and Tricia Halloran. Halloran recently left the station and is a Hum in Santa Monica, CA staff music supervisor.",
"### Eclectic24",
"On Labor Day, September 7, 2009, KCRW launched Eclectic24,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.kcrw.com/\\|title\\=KCRW 89\\.9FM \\| Music, NPR News, Culture Los Angeles\\|website\\=Kcrw.com\\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2023}} an online 24\\-hour music channel. Created and curated by Douridas, who has programmed the channel since its inception, the concept features a continuous original mix of its unique eclectic programming, including many exclusive live tracks captured from on\\-air performances first broadcast on its flagship daily music program [Morning Becomes Eclectic](/wiki/Morning_Becomes_Eclectic \"Morning Becomes Eclectic\") and other programs.",
"On the occasion of the 2016 [Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival](/wiki/Coachella_Valley_Music_and_Arts_Festival \"Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival\"), the channel staged an All\\-Coachella programming event on April 14β17, 21\\-24\\. The concept was further explored on Tuesday, May 24, 2016 in celebration of the 75th birthday of [Bob Dylan](/wiki/Bob_Dylan \"Bob Dylan\"). A Day of Dylan featured original Dylan masters, covers of and by Dylan, songs about Dylan, and interview clips.",
"### Soundtrack work",
"Douridas has carved an extensive career in film music supervision producing the soundtracks of such films as *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 \"American Beauty (1999 film)\")*, *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 \"Shrek 2\")*, *[As Good as It Gets](/wiki/As_Good_as_It_Gets \"As Good as It Gets\")* and the [Austin Powers](/wiki/Austin_Powers_%28film_series%29 \"Austin Powers (film series)\") trilogy. His work on 1999's *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 \"American Beauty (1999 film)\")* and 2004's *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 \"Shrek 2\")* brought him Grammy nominations.",
"### DreamWorks",
"In the late 1990s, Douridas was an A\\&R executive for [DreamWorks Records](/wiki/DreamWorks_Records \"DreamWorks Records\"), the label started by [David Geffen](/wiki/David_Geffen \"David Geffen\"), [Mo Ostin](/wiki/Mo_Ostin \"Mo Ostin\") and [Lenny Waronker](/wiki/Lenny_Waronker \"Lenny Waronker\"). While there, he brought in the bands [the Eels](/wiki/The_Eels \"The Eels\") and [Propellerheads](/wiki/Propellerheads \"Propellerheads\"), and produced the Grammy nominated soundtracks for *[American Beauty](/wiki/American_Beauty_%281999_film%29 \"American Beauty (1999 film)\")* and *[Shrek 2](/wiki/Shrek_2 \"Shrek 2\")*.",
"### Independent A\\&R",
"In November 2006, Douridas came across an import release from an artist named [Oren Lavie](/wiki/Oren_Lavie \"Oren Lavie\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=OREN LAVIE'S DEBUT VIDEO SINGLE \"HER MORNING ELEGANCE\" UNVEILED EXCLUSIVELY AS ITUNES 'VIDEO OF THE WEEK' JANUARY 20 {{!}} Mitch Schneider Organization \\|url\\=http://www.msopr.com/press\\-releases/oren\\-lavie%E2%80%99s\\-debut\\-video\\-single\\-%E2%80%9Cher\\-morning\\-elegance%E2%80%9D\\-unveiled\\-exclusively\\-as\\-itunes\\-%E2%80%98video\\-of\\-the\\-week%E2%80%99\\-january\\-20/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-18 \\|website\\=Msopr.com}} After a long distance correspondence, the two decided to partner on releasing his album [The Opposite Side of the Sea](/wiki/The_Opposite_Side_of_the_Sea \"The Opposite Side of the Sea\") in the US. In May 2008, \"[Her Morning Elegance](/wiki/Her_Morning_Elegance \"Her Morning Elegance\")\", the album's first single, was unveiled in a commercial for Chevy Malibu,Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/EgNQ2tns0Gs){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20110913134348/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgNQ2tns0Gs){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=EgNQ2tns0Gs\\| title \\= Chevy Mailbu TV ad ('Her Morning Elegance' by Oren Lavie) \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} and, again in January 2009, in a celebrated stop motion music video Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/2_HXUhShhmY){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20090131030605/http://www.youtube.com:80/watch?v=2_HXUhShhmY){{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=2\\_HXUhShhmY\\| title \\= Her Morning Elegance / Oren Lavie \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} that was subsequently nominated for [Grammy Award for Best Music Video](/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Best_Music_Video \"Grammy Award for Best Music Video\") and viewed over 30mm times. Lavie also contributed an original song for the 2008 [Andrew Adamson](/wiki/Andrew_Adamson \"Andrew Adamson\") film, *[The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian](/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia:Prince_Caspian_%28soundtrack%29 \"Prince Caspian (soundtrack)\")*, which Douridas was consulting on.",
"In 2015, Douridas embarked on a joint publishing venture with Mothership Publishing, the publishing arm of [Anti\\-](/wiki/ANTI- \"ANTI-\")[Epitaph Records](/wiki/Epitaph_Records \"Epitaph Records\"), headed by publishing icon Lionel Conway and [Brett Gurewitz](/wiki/Brett_Gurewitz \"Brett Gurewitz\"). The first signing under this new partnership is with Canadian troubadour [Andy Shauf](/wiki/Andy_Shauf \"Andy Shauf\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://hitsdailydouble.com/news\\&id\\=297624\\|title \\= Pub Crawling: Tunesmiths on a Tear Edition\\|website\\=Hitsdailydouble.com}}",
"### School Night",
"While attending a wrap party for his latest film project at a venue called Bardot, upstairs from the [Avalon Hollywood](/wiki/Avalon_Hollywood \"Avalon Hollywood\") on [Vine Street](/wiki/Vine_Street \"Vine Street\"), Douridas was invited to come back to DJ and curate an evening at the venue. A few months later, on April 12, 2010, he hosted the first in a weekly series described as a 'new Monday night [Hollywood](/wiki/Hollywood%2C_Los_Angeles \"Hollywood, Los Angeles\") party'. The inaugural evening featured live performances from [Dawes](/wiki/Dawes_%28band%29 \"Dawes (band)\"), [The Like](/wiki/The_Like \"The Like\") and a DJ set from fellow [KCRW](/wiki/KCRW \"KCRW\") host Anne Litt. Week two featured the debuts of new projects from [Chrissie Hynde](/wiki/Chrissie_Hynde \"Chrissie Hynde\") and [Brett Dennen](/wiki/Brett_Dennen \"Brett Dennen\"). In its first year, the series was named \"America's Best Party\" by [Paper Magazine](/wiki/Paper_Magazine \"Paper Magazine\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.papermag.com/2010/10/and\\_the\\_envelope\\_please\\_the\\_wi.php \\|title\\=PAPERMAG: And the Envelope Please... The Winners of Last Night's Sixth Annual Nightlife Awards \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-08\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806041904/http://www.papermag.com/2010/10/and\\_the\\_envelope\\_please\\_the\\_wi.php \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Since then, School Night, named for the excuse colleagues gave for not being able to attend the late night weeknight event, has become a launch pad for new artist projects. The night is produced in collaboration with LA promoter Matt Goldman. To date, the series has featured the US debuts of [London Grammar](/wiki/London_Grammar \"London Grammar\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.laweekly.com/slideshow/london\\-grammar\\-bardot\\-39948887/\\#1 \\|title\\=London Grammar @ Bardot \\- Los Angeles \\- Slideshows \\|website\\=Laweekly.com \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712024117/http://www.laweekly.com/slideshow/london\\-grammar\\-bardot\\-39948887/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-07\\-12}} [Michael Kiwanuka](/wiki/Michael_Kiwanuka \"Michael Kiwanuka\"), [Chet Faker](/wiki/Chet_Faker \"Chet Faker\"), [Liam Bailey](/wiki/Liam_Bailey \"Liam Bailey\"), and [Katy B](/wiki/Katy_B \"Katy B\"), among others, and the LA debuts of [Years and Years](/wiki/Years_%26_Years \"Years & Years\"), [James Bay (singer)](/wiki/James_Bay_%28singer%29 \"James Bay (singer)\"), [The Naked and Famous](/wiki/The_Naked_and_Famous \"The Naked and Famous\"), [Two Door Cinema Club](/wiki/Two_Door_Cinema_Club \"Two Door Cinema Club\"), [Wolf Alice](/wiki/Wolf_Alice \"Wolf Alice\"), [Alt\\-J](/wiki/Alt-J \"Alt-J\"), [Twin Shadow](/wiki/Twin_Shadow \"Twin Shadow\"), [Frances (musician)](/wiki/Frances_%28musician%29 \"Frances (musician)\"), [Maximum Balloon](/wiki/Maximum_Balloon \"Maximum Balloon\"), [Tom Odell](/wiki/Tom_Odell \"Tom Odell\"), [Villagers](/wiki/Villagers_%28band%29 \"Villagers (band)\"), and [MNDR](/wiki/MNDR \"MNDR\"). Additionally, the night often hosts surprise appearances from iconic artists as well, with past appearances by [Moby](/wiki/Moby \"Moby\"), [Ben Folds](/wiki/Ben_Folds \"Ben Folds\"), [Chrissie Hynde](/wiki/Chrissie_Hynde \"Chrissie Hynde\"), [Miguel (singer)](/wiki/Miguel_%28singer%29 \"Miguel (singer)\"), [Florence and the Machine](/wiki/Florence_and_the_Machine \"Florence and the Machine\"), [Daniel Lanois](/wiki/Daniel_Lanois \"Daniel Lanois\"), [Brett Dennen](/wiki/Brett_Dennen \"Brett Dennen\"), [Vanessa Carlton](/wiki/Vanessa_Carlton \"Vanessa Carlton\") with [Stevie Nicks](/wiki/Stevie_Nicks \"Stevie Nicks\"), [Lucinda Williams](/wiki/Lucinda_Williams \"Lucinda Williams\"), [Rickie Lee Jones](/wiki/Rickie_Lee_Jones \"Rickie Lee Jones\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/music\\_blog/2011/06/rickie\\-lee\\-jones\\-at\\-bardot\\-in\\-hollywood.html\\|title \\= Rickie Lee Jones drops by School Night at Bardot in Hollywood\\|date \\= 28 June 2011\\|website\\=Latimesblogs.latimes.com}} [Neil Finn](/wiki/Neil_Finn \"Neil Finn\"), [Matisyahu](/wiki/Matisyahu \"Matisyahu\") and [Kimbra](/wiki/Kimbra \"Kimbra\").",
"A monthly event dubbed School Night NYC was launched at The Bowery Hotel in 2010\\. In July 2013, Douridas announced a weekly series would start September 8, 2013 at [Brooklyn Bowl](/wiki/Brooklyn_Bowl \"Brooklyn Bowl\"), in [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), [New York](/wiki/New_York_%28state%29 \"New York (state)\"). The New York event moved to Baby's All Right in Brooklyn in June 2016\\.",
"In 2020, in response to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), School Night temporarily rebranded into a virtual concert series under the name Home School.",
"### Actor",
"Douridas' began his career as an actor in Texas. While in high school, he was a national champion at the 1980 National Forensics Competition. At North Texas State University, he was a theater major and scholarship recipient. In the late 1980s, Douridas appeared on stage at the Dallas Theater Center, Stage \\#1, and Dallas Repertory Theater. Film acting credits include the 1984 [television movie](/wiki/Television_movie \"Television movie\") *[The Jesse Owens Story](/wiki/The_Jesse_Owens_Story \"The Jesse Owens Story\")*, which was Douridas' first film role, a 1986 episode of *[Dalton's Code of Vengeance](/wiki/Code_of_Vengeance \"Code of Vengeance\")*, *[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2](/wiki/The_Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre_2 \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2\")*, *[Waterworld](/wiki/Waterworld \"Waterworld\")*, and Wim Wenders' 1997 film *[The End of Violence](/wiki/The_End_of_Violence \"The End of Violence\")*. Television roles include appearances on *[Party of Five](/wiki/Party_of_Five \"Party of Five\")* and *[Ellen](/wiki/Ellen_%28TV_series%29 \"Ellen (TV series)\")*.",
"### Television work",
"Douridas hosted the inaugural season of *[Sessions at West 54th](/wiki/Sessions_at_West_54th \"Sessions at West 54th\")*, a live interview and performance series on [PBS](/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service \"Public Broadcasting Service\"). The first season featured sessions with [Beck](/wiki/Beck \"Beck\"), [Fiona Apple](/wiki/Fiona_Apple \"Fiona Apple\"), [Philip Glass](/wiki/Philip_Glass \"Philip Glass\"), [Ani DiFranco](/wiki/Ani_DiFranco \"Ani DiFranco\"), [Yo Yo Ma](/wiki/Yo_Yo_Ma \"Yo Yo Ma\"), [SinΓ©ad O'Connor](/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad_O%27Connor \"SinΓ©ad O'Connor\"), [Patti Smith](/wiki/Patti_Smith \"Patti Smith\"), [Sonic Youth](/wiki/Sonic_Youth \"Sonic Youth\"), and [David Byrne](/wiki/David_Byrne \"David Byrne\"), among others. Douridas brought in renowned documentarian [D.A. Pennebaker](/wiki/D.A._Pennebaker \"D.A. Pennebaker\") to shoot the accompanying interview segments for each of the first season's performances.",
"### Online: AOL and iTunes",
"Douridas was Vice President of Music for [America Online](/wiki/America_Online \"America Online\"), overseeing the popular Radio@AOL service, a network of 125 original online radio stations. This service was created by [Spinner.com](/wiki/Spinner.com \"Spinner.com\"), a project spearheaded by Josh Felser and Jim Van Huysse. Felser lured Douridas from DreamWorks. While at AOL, Douridas launched the online interview and performance series \"[Sessions@AOL](/wiki/Sessions%40AOL \"Sessions@AOL\")\", which he hosted and produced.",
"Following his work with AOL, Douridas was hired by Apple's [Steve Jobs](/wiki/Steve_Jobs \"Steve Jobs\") to be a creative consultant for the launch of the [iTunes](/wiki/ITunes \"ITunes\") music store, creating and producing the [iTunes Originals](/wiki/ITunes_Originals \"ITunes Originals\") series and [iTunes Essentials](/wiki/ITunes_Essentials \"ITunes Essentials\"), a popular lifestyle playlist series.",
"### Personal life",
"Douridas was born in [Columbus](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\"), [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\").",
"In January 2006, Douridas and a friend were arrested at the [Circle Bar](/wiki/Circle_Bar \"Circle Bar\") in Santa Monica after a witness accused them of trying to drug and kidnap a female patron, who was underage and at the bar using her cousin's identification.{{cite web\\|title\\=Radio's Chris Douridas Arrested\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2006\\-jan\\-14\\-me\\-kcrw14\\-story.html\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=14 January 2006 }} The girl was taken to a local hospital and later released. The Los Angeles County District Attorney awaited toxicology results before deciding whether to file charges. No charges were ever filed following the toxicology results and an investigation.{{cite web\\|title\\=A Shadow Hangs Over His Days\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2006\\-mar\\-13\\-et\\-douridas13\\-story.html\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=13 March 2006 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Public Radio Host Faces Drug, Not Sex, Charge\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2006\\-jun\\-27\\-me\\-douridas27\\-story.html\\|website\\=Los Angeles Times\\|date\\=27 June 2006 }} In an article in the *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")*, Douridas's ex\\-wife Mieke Kramer said Douridas was having a drink at the bar when he noticed a girl whom heβd met that evening was becoming ill. Seeing no one else moving to assist her, Douridas took it upon himself to help her outside to get fresh air, she said. She described him as \"the kind of person who pulls over when he sees someoneβs car is broken down. This is a case of good intentions misinterpreted and an example of why people don't help each other anymore.\" Douridas maintained his innocence throughout the proceedings, as did his longtime workplace, KCRW, who \"could have easily distanced itself from Douridas by placing him on administrative leave... stood staunchly behind Douridas from the moment of his arrest.\" Douridas was released on $1 million bail. After a five\\-month investigation, no charges related to the woman were ever filed.",
"On April 30, 2006, Douridas' only daughter died in a drowning accident while having a seizure while bathing in the bathtub at her family's home in [South Pasadena](/wiki/South_Pasadena%2C_California \"South Pasadena, California\"). She was 14 years old.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://inthebeginningtherewasgenesis.blogspot.com/2011/01/inspiration\\-and\\-love\\-behind\\-it\\-all.html\\|title \\= Blogger\\|website\\=Inthebeginningthereweasgenesis.blogspot.com}}",
""
] |
Operational history
-------------------
### World War II
After she conducted her [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") out of [Great Sound Bay](/wiki/Great_Sound_Bay "Great Sound Bay"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda"), *Walton* underwent post\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard "Boston Navy Yard"). The new destroyer escort subsequently sailed for [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia "Hampton Roads, Virginia"), and arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") on 15 November. While in that vicinity, she served as a [school ship](/wiki/School_ship "School ship"), training nucleus crews for the other destroyer escorts then entering the fleet.
When [Escort Division 85](/wiki/Escort_Division_85 "Escort Division 85") was established, *Walton* was assigned to it and sailed for the Pacific. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") on 7 December and arrived at [Bora Bora](/wiki/Bora_Bora "Bora Bora"), in the [Society Islands](/wiki/Society_Islands "Society Islands"), on 22 December. From there the destroyer escort pushed on for [Port Purvis](/wiki/Purvis_Bay "Purvis Bay") on [Florida Island](/wiki/Nggela_Islands "Nggela Islands") in the [Solomons](/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands"), and moved thence to [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor "Seeadler Harbor"), [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island"), in the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands "Admiralty Islands"). While at Manus, the ship underwent repairs and alterations. During that refit, her after 40 millimeter twin Bofors mount was replaced by a quadruple\-mount Bofors, a necessary augmentation of the ship's [anti\-aircraft battery](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_battery "Anti-aircraft battery") that reflected the growing concern over the destructive attacks of Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze").
*Walton* began her first active wartime duty at [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura "Jayapura") late in January of the following year. On 21 January 1945, the destroyer escort departed that port, bound for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") as part of the escort for a large convoy of merchantmen slow fleet auxiliaries, and amphibious vessels. Informed that those sea lanes had been, of late, patrolled by Japanese [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") and that enemy planes might be encountered, *Walton* and her fellow escorts alertly screened the important convoy bound for the [Allies'](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") westernmost outpost. After a 10\-day voyage, the convoy arrived safely at its destination, [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 "Leyte (island)"), on the last day of the month.
During February, March, and April, *Walton* escorted convoys between Hollandia and [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf "Lingayen Gulf"), Philippines. She also made runs between Leyte and [Kossol Roads](/wiki/Kossol_Roads "Kossol Roads"), in the [Palaus](/wiki/Palau "Palau"), as well as trips to [Mangarin Bay](/wiki/Mangarin_Bay "Mangarin Bay"), [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro "Mindoro"), Philippines. During the later part of April the destroyer escort patrolled the waters between [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island "Homonhon Island") and [Dinagat](/wiki/Dinagat_Island "Dinagat Island"), at the mouth of Leyte Gulf.
In May, *Walton* visited [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"), Leyte, and Hollandia, before CortDiv 85 received orders to sail for [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay "Subic Bay") to relieve another division of destroyer escorts that had been conducting antisubmarine sweeps along the west coast of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon "Luzon"). Those patrols had been instituted primarily to interdict the flow of enemy submarines from bases in China, [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), or the Japanese home islands themselves. Secondarily, *Walton* and her [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") were to train British and American submarines prior to their departure for extended war patrols and to escort them to and from a release point where they were starting or finishing such patrols.
During the course of those ensuing duties, *Walton* escorted {{USS\|Brill\|SS\-330\|6}} to [Cape Calavite](/wiki/Cape_Calavite "Cape Calavite"), Mindoro, where the fleet submarine torpedoed a beached and abandoned Japanese [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)"). *Walton* salvaged all equipment of worth from the erstwhile enemy vessel and then stood off while *Brill* completed the demolition work with three torpedoes. On 28 July, *Walton* departed Subic Bay in company with {{USS\|Rolf\|DE\-362\|6}} and later rendezvoused with {{USS\|Douglas A. Munro\|DE\-422\|6}} to form a hunter\-killer group on the eastern coast of Luzon, off Casiguran Bay. They swept northeast of Luzon and across the convoy lane between Leyte and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"), without success, before *Walton* was relieved by {{USS\|Johnnie Hutchins}} off [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri "Aparri").
*Walton* spent the remainder of August at Subic Bay and was there when hostilities with Japan ceased in mid\-month. As the fleet moved northward to Japanese waters to commence the occupation of the former enemy's homeland, its necessary train followed. *Walton* escorted {{USS\|Chepachet\|AO\-78\|6}} to a point where the oiler rendezvoused with a fast carrier task group at the end of August, before the destroyer escort put into Buckner Bay, anchoring there on 2 September 1945 β the day of [Japan's formal surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan").
*Walton* later departed Okinawa to escort hospital ship {{USS\|Mercy\|AH\-8\|6}} to Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Incheon "Incheon")), [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"). En route, the ships kept a vigilant lookout for stray [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"); and *Walton* exploded 11 of them as the ships passed through the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea "Yellow Sea"). Arriving at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen "Jinsen") on 8 September, *Mercy* soon commenced taking care of the many Allied prisoners of war and internees from a camp near the Korean port. *Walton* consequently found employment as a river pilot ship, leading vessels which did not have adequate anchorage or area charts β a necessary precaution due to the many narrow and shallow passages in the waters off Jinsen. On 26 September, while engaged in that duty, *Walton* suffered damage when an [LCT](/wiki/Landing_craft_tank "Landing craft tank") β under tow by {{USS\|LST\-557}} β collided with her port bow, opening a large hole and breaking several frames above the waterline.
Repaired alongside {{USS\|Jason\|ARH\-1\|6}}, *Walton* subsequently escorted {{USS\|Geneva\|APA\-86\|6}} to [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts "Taku Forts"), China. Once there, the attack transport embarked internees from camps in North China and sailed from that port for the Shantung peninsula and South China. *Walton* stood by while *Geneva* embarked former civilian internees at [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao"), and she accompanied the transport on a voyage to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). While en route, on 10 and 11 October, the ships rode out the outer edge of a typhoon swirling its way up the China coast. *Walton* β although buffeted by {{convert\|30\|and\|40\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} waves and winds clocked at over {{convert\|60\|kn\|km/h}} β sustained no material damage.
Arriving at Hong Kong on 13 October, *Walton* remained at that port until 4 November when she weighed anchor for [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), China β where her namesake had served in the late 1930s β and escorted the stores issue ship {{USS\|Iolanda\|AKS\-14\|6}} to that port. *Walton* next returned to Jinsen, hunting for and sinking stray mines while acting as an escort.
At Jinsen on 20 November, *Walton* received the long\-awaited homeward\-bound orders and, in company with {{USS\|Pratt\|DE\-363\|6}}, sailed for Okinawa. There, the two destroyer escorts embarked passengers β taking part in a phase of the Operation "Magic Carpet", the return home of discharge\-bound veterans. On 25 November, they set out for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands"), on the first leg of their voyage to the west coast of the United States. Arriving at [San Pedro, California](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California "San Pedro, California"), nine days before Christmas of 1945, *Walton* subsequently shifted to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") where she was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 31 May 1946\.
### Korean War and fate
The destroyer escort remained inactive until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"). Recommissioned at San Diego on 26 January 1951 *Walton* operated off the coast of California, training and assisting in the training of submarines and sonar teams, into the spring of the next year.
The destroyer escort β her homeport officially changed from San Diego to Pearl Harbor on 4 November 1951; she departed San Diego on 19 April 1952, bound for the Far East, in company with destroyer escorts {{USS\|Currier\|DE\-700\|6}} and {{USS\|Marsh\|DE\-699\|6}}. {{USS\|McCoy Reynolds\|DE\-440\|6}} rendezvoused with those three ships at Pearl Harbor to complete CortDiv 92\. *Walton* arrived off [Hungnam](/wiki/Hungnam "Hungnam") on 17 May and immediately assumed patrol and blockade duties off the Korean coast.
Over the next four months, Walton worked jointly with the naval units of other [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") nations β Great Britain, Thailand, Colombia, and the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea "Republic of Korea"). During her patrols, the destroyer escort fired over 2,000 rounds of {{convert\|5\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} ammunition at shore targets, provided close gunfire support for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping "Minesweeping") operations; worked in conjunction with carrier strikes on coastal targets, and, during the latter operations, rescued a ditched Navy pilot. On one occasion, the ship sent a raiding party to reconnoiter a harbor on the far northern coast of Korea. Enemy machine guns opened up on the party, but a heavy fusillade from *Walton*{{'}}s small boat silenced the gunners.
During that Far Eastern deployment, *Walton* also engaged in patrolling the [Formosa Strait](/wiki/Formosa_Strait "Formosa Strait") to keep [Communist China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China") from attacking [Nationalist China](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") on the island of [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa "Formosa"). Besides the ship's active patrol and combat operations, she participated in hunter\-killer evolutions in waters south of Japan. As a result of her Korean service in 1952, *Walton* received the Korean service Medal with one engagement star, the UN Service Medal, and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation.
Returning to Pearl Harbor on 29 August, *Walton* underwent a shipyard availability during September and, over the ensuing months, conducted a regular schedule of training operations in the Hawaiian operating area. After a major overhaul at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* got underway on 9 May 1953 sailing, via [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll"), to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East"). Subsequently, based at [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo "United States Fleet Activities Sasebo"), Japan, *Walton* operated briefly out of [Pusan](/wiki/Pusan "Pusan"), South Korea, and then patrolled near [Cheju Do](/wiki/Jeju-do "Jeju-do"), an island off the southern coast of South Korea. In July, she made a passage to [Beppu](/wiki/Beppu "Beppu"), Japan, for a period of repairs alongside a tender, before she operated as a screening vessel with [Task Force 77](/wiki/Task_Force_77_%28United_States_Navy%29 "Task Force 77 (United States Navy)"). She returned to Pusan soon thereafter, before resuming her patrols out of Sasebo to the eastern coast of South Korea.
Even after the signing of the armistice on 27 July brought an uneasy peace to the Korean peninsula, there was still work for *Walton* in Far Eastern waters. The ship participated in port visit to Hong Kong; underwent upkeep in Subic Bay, Philippines visited [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka"), Sasebo, and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe "Kobe"), Japan, and operated in Korean waters again that November before sailing as part of a simulated convoy screen and reaching Pearl Harbor on 11 December 1953\.
*Walton* remained in Hawaiian waters into the summer of 1954, conducting a varying slate of operations that included exercises in gunnery communications engineering, antisubmarine warfare navigation, and tacticsβbroken from time to time by the usual upkeep and maintenance periods in port. She also participated in a hunter\-killer exercise in May that helped to evaluate killer submarines. Departing Pearl Harbor on 15 June, *Walton* began her third deployment to the Western Pacific (WestPac). On 9 July, she relieved the seaplane tender {{USS\|Orca\|AVP\-49\|6}} as station ship at Hong Kong and, outside a brief period of upkeep at Subic Bay, performed station ship duties at the British Crown Colony into the autumn. During the deployment, the ship sortied twice to evade typhoons swirling their way toward Hong Kong β [typhoon Ida](/wiki/Typhoon_Ida_%281954%29 "Typhoon Ida (1954)") from 28 to 30 August and [typhoon Pamela](/wiki/Typhoon_Pamela "Typhoon Pamela") from 5 to 7 November.
*Walton* departed Hong Kong on 8 November and proceeded back to Pearl Harbor, via the Philippines, [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") and Midway, having to dodge two more typhoons (Ruby and Sally) while en route. The destroyer escort then spent the period from late November 1954 to early May 1955 in the Hawaiian Islands, training and undergoing needed upkeep.
On 11 May 1955, *Walton* set sail for the [Marianas](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands"), on the first leg of her fourth WestPac voyage. While operating under the operational aegis of the Commander, Naval forces, Marianas, *Walton* carried out surveillance operations at [Bikar Atoll](/wiki/Bikar_Atoll "Bikar Atoll"), [Erikub Atoll](/wiki/Erikub_Atoll "Erikub Atoll"), [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein"), [Rongerik Atoll](/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll "Rongerik Atoll"), and [Ailinglaplap Atoll](/wiki/Ailinglaplap_Atoll "Ailinglaplap Atoll"). In June and July, *Walton* alternated making surveillance voyages to the places mentioned above with performing duties as search and rescue (SAR) ship operating out of Guam.
During the latter part of July, *Walton* visited the northern Marianas, the [Bonin](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands") and [Volcano Islands](/wiki/Volcano_Islands "Volcano Islands") and Yokosuka, before she resumed SAR duties at Guam. She divided September between surveillance in the western Carolines and SAR at Guam before sailing on 22 September for Pearl Harbor. She arrived home, via Kwajalein, on 1 October.
*Walton* subsequently conducted two more WestPac deployments out of Pearl Harbor. During the fifth deployment, the ship visited [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), the [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States "Federated Malay States"); Hong Kong; Kobe, Japan; the Marianas; and [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae "Chinhae"), Korea; where she, in company with {{USS\|Bream\|SS\-243\|6}} and units of the [ROK Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy "Republic of Korea Navy"), trained in antisubmarine warfare. Later, while en route from Japanese waters to [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung"), Taiwan, in company with {{USS\|Foss\|DE\-59\|6}}, *Walton* conducted an unsuccessful search for an American plane that had ditched in the ocean. The two destroyer escorts sighted nothing during the two\-day quest.
During the ship's sixth WestPac deployment, in 1957 the ship conducted five surveillance cruises in the Bonins, the Carolines, and the northern Mariana Islands. Also β in company with her sister ship {{USS\|McGinty\|DE\-365\|6}} β she visited [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville"), Australia β via Subic Bay and Manus β arriving "down under" on 19 August 1957\. After five days of hearty Australian hospitality, the two escort vessels set out for [Pago Pago](/wiki/Pago_Pago "Pago Pago"), [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa "Samoa"), on the first leg of their voyage back to Pearl Harbor where they arrived on 5 November.
Following a three\-month overhaul at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, *Walton* conducted underway training evolutions and type training in the Hawaiian Islands through the spring of 1958\. Ultimately, on 30 June 1958, was reassigned to Reserve CortRon 1, Reserve CortDiv 12\. With her home port officially changed to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), *Walton* underwent a brief availability alongside {{USS\|Bryce Canyon\|AD\-36\|6}} at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California "Long Beach, California") before she pushed on for her ultimate destination β San Francisco. She arrived at her new home port on 20 July.
*Walton*{{'}}s mission was now to train Naval Reserve personnel. Over the next three years, she operated out of San Francisco on reserve training cruises that took the ship to such places as [MazatlΓ‘n](/wiki/Mazatl%C3%A1n "MazatlΓ‘n"), Mexico, San Diego and [Treasure Island, California](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_California "Treasure Island, California"); Pearl Harbor, [Drake's Bay](/wiki/Drake%27s_Bay "Drake's Bay"), California; [Monterey, California](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California "Monterey, California"); and [Esquimalt, British Columbia](/wiki/Esquimalt%2C_British_Columbia "Esquimalt, British Columbia"). During the many two\-week reserve cruises she conducted a variety of operations including "live" antisubmarine warfare training and gunnery exercises, highline transfers, general quarters drills, and underway refuelings in order to bring reservists up to date on latest methods and equipment. During that time, *Walton* won the [Battle Efficiency "E"](/wiki/Battle_Effectiveness_Award "Battle Effectiveness Award") for Reserve CortRon 1 in 1959 and 1960\.
While at Long Beach on 1 October 1961, *Walton* received word that, in the words of her command history "her shuttling about the west coast was ended for the time being." With her selected reserve crew of 70 men the destroyer escort was recalled to active duty as part of the overall buildup of military force ordered by President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") to meet the communist threat in Berlin and, possibly, elsewhere.
Again homeported at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* departed the west coast on 23 October for the Hawaiian Islands. She arrived eight days later and immediately commenced underway training evolutions. She later underwent a two\-week availability alongside {{USS\|Hamul\|AD\-20\|6}} before she resumed underway training. On 4 December, the ship entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to commence an overhaul that lasted through the end of the year 1961\.
After further underway training evolutions in Hawaiian waters, *Walton* departed Pearl Harbor on 22 January 1962, bound for the Marianas, on the first leg of her seventh WestPac deployment. After stopping for a day at Guam, she arrived in Subic Bay on 6 February. Nine days later, she got underway for [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang "Da Nang"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"). *Walton* arrived off Da Nang on 17 February and immediately began patrols in company with units of the small [South Vietnamese Navy](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Navy "South Vietnamese Navy"). Returning to Subic Bay briefly toward the middle of March, and after visiting Manila and Hong Kong, the destroyer escort resumed patrols off the coastline of South Vietnam, operating from Da Nang. For the remainder of her tour, the destroyer escort was almost constantly on the move, shifting to Subic Bay and Yokosuka; and patrolling the strait of Korea, before she returned via Yokosuka to Pearl Harbor on 5 June.
Following a brief stint of local operations out of Pearl Harbor, *Walton* sailed for the west coast on 11 July 1962\. Arriving at San Francisco on 1 August, she soon resumed her Naval Reserve training role. For the next five years, *Walton* operated off the west coast training reservists. Ultimately decommissioned on 20 September 1968, *Walton* was struck from the Navy List on 23 September 1968 and was sunk as a target on 7 August 1969\.
|
[
"Operational history\n-------------------",
"### World War II",
"After she conducted her [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") out of [Great Sound Bay](/wiki/Great_Sound_Bay \"Great Sound Bay\"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\"), *Walton* underwent post\\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard \"Boston Navy Yard\"). The new destroyer escort subsequently sailed for [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia \"Hampton Roads, Virginia\"), and arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") on 15 November. While in that vicinity, she served as a [school ship](/wiki/School_ship \"School ship\"), training nucleus crews for the other destroyer escorts then entering the fleet.",
"When [Escort Division 85](/wiki/Escort_Division_85 \"Escort Division 85\") was established, *Walton* was assigned to it and sailed for the Pacific. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 7 December and arrived at [Bora Bora](/wiki/Bora_Bora \"Bora Bora\"), in the [Society Islands](/wiki/Society_Islands \"Society Islands\"), on 22 December. From there the destroyer escort pushed on for [Port Purvis](/wiki/Purvis_Bay \"Purvis Bay\") on [Florida Island](/wiki/Nggela_Islands \"Nggela Islands\") in the [Solomons](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"), and moved thence to [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor \"Seeadler Harbor\"), [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\"), in the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\"). While at Manus, the ship underwent repairs and alterations. During that refit, her after 40 millimeter twin Bofors mount was replaced by a quadruple\\-mount Bofors, a necessary augmentation of the ship's [anti\\-aircraft battery](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_battery \"Anti-aircraft battery\") that reflected the growing concern over the destructive attacks of Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\").",
"*Walton* began her first active wartime duty at [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura \"Jayapura\") late in January of the following year. On 21 January 1945, the destroyer escort departed that port, bound for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") as part of the escort for a large convoy of merchantmen slow fleet auxiliaries, and amphibious vessels. Informed that those sea lanes had been, of late, patrolled by Japanese [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") and that enemy planes might be encountered, *Walton* and her fellow escorts alertly screened the important convoy bound for the [Allies'](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") westernmost outpost. After a 10\\-day voyage, the convoy arrived safely at its destination, [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 \"Leyte (island)\"), on the last day of the month.",
"During February, March, and April, *Walton* escorted convoys between Hollandia and [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf \"Lingayen Gulf\"), Philippines. She also made runs between Leyte and [Kossol Roads](/wiki/Kossol_Roads \"Kossol Roads\"), in the [Palaus](/wiki/Palau \"Palau\"), as well as trips to [Mangarin Bay](/wiki/Mangarin_Bay \"Mangarin Bay\"), [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\"), Philippines. During the later part of April the destroyer escort patrolled the waters between [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island \"Homonhon Island\") and [Dinagat](/wiki/Dinagat_Island \"Dinagat Island\"), at the mouth of Leyte Gulf.",
"In May, *Walton* visited [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"), Leyte, and Hollandia, before CortDiv 85 received orders to sail for [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay \"Subic Bay\") to relieve another division of destroyer escorts that had been conducting antisubmarine sweeps along the west coast of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\"). Those patrols had been instituted primarily to interdict the flow of enemy submarines from bases in China, [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), or the Japanese home islands themselves. Secondarily, *Walton* and her [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") were to train British and American submarines prior to their departure for extended war patrols and to escort them to and from a release point where they were starting or finishing such patrols.",
"During the course of those ensuing duties, *Walton* escorted {{USS\\|Brill\\|SS\\-330\\|6}} to [Cape Calavite](/wiki/Cape_Calavite \"Cape Calavite\"), Mindoro, where the fleet submarine torpedoed a beached and abandoned Japanese [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\"). *Walton* salvaged all equipment of worth from the erstwhile enemy vessel and then stood off while *Brill* completed the demolition work with three torpedoes. On 28 July, *Walton* departed Subic Bay in company with {{USS\\|Rolf\\|DE\\-362\\|6}} and later rendezvoused with {{USS\\|Douglas A. Munro\\|DE\\-422\\|6}} to form a hunter\\-killer group on the eastern coast of Luzon, off Casiguran Bay. They swept northeast of Luzon and across the convoy lane between Leyte and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), without success, before *Walton* was relieved by {{USS\\|Johnnie Hutchins}} off [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri \"Aparri\").",
"*Walton* spent the remainder of August at Subic Bay and was there when hostilities with Japan ceased in mid\\-month. As the fleet moved northward to Japanese waters to commence the occupation of the former enemy's homeland, its necessary train followed. *Walton* escorted {{USS\\|Chepachet\\|AO\\-78\\|6}} to a point where the oiler rendezvoused with a fast carrier task group at the end of August, before the destroyer escort put into Buckner Bay, anchoring there on 2 September 1945 β the day of [Japan's formal surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\").",
"*Walton* later departed Okinawa to escort hospital ship {{USS\\|Mercy\\|AH\\-8\\|6}} to Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Incheon \"Incheon\")), [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"). En route, the ships kept a vigilant lookout for stray [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"); and *Walton* exploded 11 of them as the ships passed through the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea \"Yellow Sea\"). Arriving at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen \"Jinsen\") on 8 September, *Mercy* soon commenced taking care of the many Allied prisoners of war and internees from a camp near the Korean port. *Walton* consequently found employment as a river pilot ship, leading vessels which did not have adequate anchorage or area charts β a necessary precaution due to the many narrow and shallow passages in the waters off Jinsen. On 26 September, while engaged in that duty, *Walton* suffered damage when an [LCT](/wiki/Landing_craft_tank \"Landing craft tank\") β under tow by {{USS\\|LST\\-557}} β collided with her port bow, opening a large hole and breaking several frames above the waterline.",
"Repaired alongside {{USS\\|Jason\\|ARH\\-1\\|6}}, *Walton* subsequently escorted {{USS\\|Geneva\\|APA\\-86\\|6}} to [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts \"Taku Forts\"), China. Once there, the attack transport embarked internees from camps in North China and sailed from that port for the Shantung peninsula and South China. *Walton* stood by while *Geneva* embarked former civilian internees at [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\"), and she accompanied the transport on a voyage to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). While en route, on 10 and 11 October, the ships rode out the outer edge of a typhoon swirling its way up the China coast. *Walton* β although buffeted by {{convert\\|30\\|and\\|40\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} waves and winds clocked at over {{convert\\|60\\|kn\\|km/h}} β sustained no material damage.",
"Arriving at Hong Kong on 13 October, *Walton* remained at that port until 4 November when she weighed anchor for [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), China β where her namesake had served in the late 1930s β and escorted the stores issue ship {{USS\\|Iolanda\\|AKS\\-14\\|6}} to that port. *Walton* next returned to Jinsen, hunting for and sinking stray mines while acting as an escort.",
"At Jinsen on 20 November, *Walton* received the long\\-awaited homeward\\-bound orders and, in company with {{USS\\|Pratt\\|DE\\-363\\|6}}, sailed for Okinawa. There, the two destroyer escorts embarked passengers β taking part in a phase of the Operation \"Magic Carpet\", the return home of discharge\\-bound veterans. On 25 November, they set out for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands \"Hawaiian Islands\"), on the first leg of their voyage to the west coast of the United States. Arriving at [San Pedro, California](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California \"San Pedro, California\"), nine days before Christmas of 1945, *Walton* subsequently shifted to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") where she was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 31 May 1946\\.",
"### Korean War and fate",
"The destroyer escort remained inactive until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). Recommissioned at San Diego on 26 January 1951 *Walton* operated off the coast of California, training and assisting in the training of submarines and sonar teams, into the spring of the next year.",
"The destroyer escort β her homeport officially changed from San Diego to Pearl Harbor on 4 November 1951; she departed San Diego on 19 April 1952, bound for the Far East, in company with destroyer escorts {{USS\\|Currier\\|DE\\-700\\|6}} and {{USS\\|Marsh\\|DE\\-699\\|6}}. {{USS\\|McCoy Reynolds\\|DE\\-440\\|6}} rendezvoused with those three ships at Pearl Harbor to complete CortDiv 92\\. *Walton* arrived off [Hungnam](/wiki/Hungnam \"Hungnam\") on 17 May and immediately assumed patrol and blockade duties off the Korean coast.",
"Over the next four months, Walton worked jointly with the naval units of other [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") nations β Great Britain, Thailand, Colombia, and the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea \"Republic of Korea\"). During her patrols, the destroyer escort fired over 2,000 rounds of {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} ammunition at shore targets, provided close gunfire support for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping \"Minesweeping\") operations; worked in conjunction with carrier strikes on coastal targets, and, during the latter operations, rescued a ditched Navy pilot. On one occasion, the ship sent a raiding party to reconnoiter a harbor on the far northern coast of Korea. Enemy machine guns opened up on the party, but a heavy fusillade from *Walton*{{'}}s small boat silenced the gunners.",
"During that Far Eastern deployment, *Walton* also engaged in patrolling the [Formosa Strait](/wiki/Formosa_Strait \"Formosa Strait\") to keep [Communist China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") from attacking [Nationalist China](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") on the island of [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa \"Formosa\"). Besides the ship's active patrol and combat operations, she participated in hunter\\-killer evolutions in waters south of Japan. As a result of her Korean service in 1952, *Walton* received the Korean service Medal with one engagement star, the UN Service Medal, and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation.",
"Returning to Pearl Harbor on 29 August, *Walton* underwent a shipyard availability during September and, over the ensuing months, conducted a regular schedule of training operations in the Hawaiian operating area. After a major overhaul at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* got underway on 9 May 1953 sailing, via [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\"), to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\"). Subsequently, based at [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo \"United States Fleet Activities Sasebo\"), Japan, *Walton* operated briefly out of [Pusan](/wiki/Pusan \"Pusan\"), South Korea, and then patrolled near [Cheju Do](/wiki/Jeju-do \"Jeju-do\"), an island off the southern coast of South Korea. In July, she made a passage to [Beppu](/wiki/Beppu \"Beppu\"), Japan, for a period of repairs alongside a tender, before she operated as a screening vessel with [Task Force 77](/wiki/Task_Force_77_%28United_States_Navy%29 \"Task Force 77 (United States Navy)\"). She returned to Pusan soon thereafter, before resuming her patrols out of Sasebo to the eastern coast of South Korea.",
"Even after the signing of the armistice on 27 July brought an uneasy peace to the Korean peninsula, there was still work for *Walton* in Far Eastern waters. The ship participated in port visit to Hong Kong; underwent upkeep in Subic Bay, Philippines visited [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\"), Sasebo, and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe \"Kobe\"), Japan, and operated in Korean waters again that November before sailing as part of a simulated convoy screen and reaching Pearl Harbor on 11 December 1953\\.",
"*Walton* remained in Hawaiian waters into the summer of 1954, conducting a varying slate of operations that included exercises in gunnery communications engineering, antisubmarine warfare navigation, and tacticsβbroken from time to time by the usual upkeep and maintenance periods in port. She also participated in a hunter\\-killer exercise in May that helped to evaluate killer submarines. Departing Pearl Harbor on 15 June, *Walton* began her third deployment to the Western Pacific (WestPac). On 9 July, she relieved the seaplane tender {{USS\\|Orca\\|AVP\\-49\\|6}} as station ship at Hong Kong and, outside a brief period of upkeep at Subic Bay, performed station ship duties at the British Crown Colony into the autumn. During the deployment, the ship sortied twice to evade typhoons swirling their way toward Hong Kong β [typhoon Ida](/wiki/Typhoon_Ida_%281954%29 \"Typhoon Ida (1954)\") from 28 to 30 August and [typhoon Pamela](/wiki/Typhoon_Pamela \"Typhoon Pamela\") from 5 to 7 November.",
"*Walton* departed Hong Kong on 8 November and proceeded back to Pearl Harbor, via the Philippines, [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") and Midway, having to dodge two more typhoons (Ruby and Sally) while en route. The destroyer escort then spent the period from late November 1954 to early May 1955 in the Hawaiian Islands, training and undergoing needed upkeep.",
"On 11 May 1955, *Walton* set sail for the [Marianas](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"), on the first leg of her fourth WestPac voyage. While operating under the operational aegis of the Commander, Naval forces, Marianas, *Walton* carried out surveillance operations at [Bikar Atoll](/wiki/Bikar_Atoll \"Bikar Atoll\"), [Erikub Atoll](/wiki/Erikub_Atoll \"Erikub Atoll\"), [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\"), [Rongerik Atoll](/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll \"Rongerik Atoll\"), and [Ailinglaplap Atoll](/wiki/Ailinglaplap_Atoll \"Ailinglaplap Atoll\"). In June and July, *Walton* alternated making surveillance voyages to the places mentioned above with performing duties as search and rescue (SAR) ship operating out of Guam.",
"During the latter part of July, *Walton* visited the northern Marianas, the [Bonin](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\") and [Volcano Islands](/wiki/Volcano_Islands \"Volcano Islands\") and Yokosuka, before she resumed SAR duties at Guam. She divided September between surveillance in the western Carolines and SAR at Guam before sailing on 22 September for Pearl Harbor. She arrived home, via Kwajalein, on 1 October.",
"*Walton* subsequently conducted two more WestPac deployments out of Pearl Harbor. During the fifth deployment, the ship visited [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), the [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States \"Federated Malay States\"); Hong Kong; Kobe, Japan; the Marianas; and [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae \"Chinhae\"), Korea; where she, in company with {{USS\\|Bream\\|SS\\-243\\|6}} and units of the [ROK Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy \"Republic of Korea Navy\"), trained in antisubmarine warfare. Later, while en route from Japanese waters to [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\"), Taiwan, in company with {{USS\\|Foss\\|DE\\-59\\|6}}, *Walton* conducted an unsuccessful search for an American plane that had ditched in the ocean. The two destroyer escorts sighted nothing during the two\\-day quest.",
"During the ship's sixth WestPac deployment, in 1957 the ship conducted five surveillance cruises in the Bonins, the Carolines, and the northern Mariana Islands. Also β in company with her sister ship {{USS\\|McGinty\\|DE\\-365\\|6}} β she visited [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\"), Australia β via Subic Bay and Manus β arriving \"down under\" on 19 August 1957\\. After five days of hearty Australian hospitality, the two escort vessels set out for [Pago Pago](/wiki/Pago_Pago \"Pago Pago\"), [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa \"Samoa\"), on the first leg of their voyage back to Pearl Harbor where they arrived on 5 November.",
"Following a three\\-month overhaul at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, *Walton* conducted underway training evolutions and type training in the Hawaiian Islands through the spring of 1958\\. Ultimately, on 30 June 1958, was reassigned to Reserve CortRon 1, Reserve CortDiv 12\\. With her home port officially changed to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), *Walton* underwent a brief availability alongside {{USS\\|Bryce Canyon\\|AD\\-36\\|6}} at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California \"Long Beach, California\") before she pushed on for her ultimate destination β San Francisco. She arrived at her new home port on 20 July.",
"*Walton*{{'}}s mission was now to train Naval Reserve personnel. Over the next three years, she operated out of San Francisco on reserve training cruises that took the ship to such places as [MazatlΓ‘n](/wiki/Mazatl%C3%A1n \"MazatlΓ‘n\"), Mexico, San Diego and [Treasure Island, California](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_California \"Treasure Island, California\"); Pearl Harbor, [Drake's Bay](/wiki/Drake%27s_Bay \"Drake's Bay\"), California; [Monterey, California](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California \"Monterey, California\"); and [Esquimalt, British Columbia](/wiki/Esquimalt%2C_British_Columbia \"Esquimalt, British Columbia\"). During the many two\\-week reserve cruises she conducted a variety of operations including \"live\" antisubmarine warfare training and gunnery exercises, highline transfers, general quarters drills, and underway refuelings in order to bring reservists up to date on latest methods and equipment. During that time, *Walton* won the [Battle Efficiency \"E\"](/wiki/Battle_Effectiveness_Award \"Battle Effectiveness Award\") for Reserve CortRon 1 in 1959 and 1960\\.",
"While at Long Beach on 1 October 1961, *Walton* received word that, in the words of her command history \"her shuttling about the west coast was ended for the time being.\" With her selected reserve crew of 70 men the destroyer escort was recalled to active duty as part of the overall buildup of military force ordered by President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") to meet the communist threat in Berlin and, possibly, elsewhere.",
"Again homeported at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* departed the west coast on 23 October for the Hawaiian Islands. She arrived eight days later and immediately commenced underway training evolutions. She later underwent a two\\-week availability alongside {{USS\\|Hamul\\|AD\\-20\\|6}} before she resumed underway training. On 4 December, the ship entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to commence an overhaul that lasted through the end of the year 1961\\.",
"After further underway training evolutions in Hawaiian waters, *Walton* departed Pearl Harbor on 22 January 1962, bound for the Marianas, on the first leg of her seventh WestPac deployment. After stopping for a day at Guam, she arrived in Subic Bay on 6 February. Nine days later, she got underway for [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang \"Da Nang\"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"). *Walton* arrived off Da Nang on 17 February and immediately began patrols in company with units of the small [South Vietnamese Navy](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Navy \"South Vietnamese Navy\"). Returning to Subic Bay briefly toward the middle of March, and after visiting Manila and Hong Kong, the destroyer escort resumed patrols off the coastline of South Vietnam, operating from Da Nang. For the remainder of her tour, the destroyer escort was almost constantly on the move, shifting to Subic Bay and Yokosuka; and patrolling the strait of Korea, before she returned via Yokosuka to Pearl Harbor on 5 June.",
"Following a brief stint of local operations out of Pearl Harbor, *Walton* sailed for the west coast on 11 July 1962\\. Arriving at San Francisco on 1 August, she soon resumed her Naval Reserve training role. For the next five years, *Walton* operated off the west coast training reservists. Ultimately decommissioned on 20 September 1968, *Walton* was struck from the Navy List on 23 September 1968 and was sunk as a target on 7 August 1969\\.",
""
] |
### World War II
After she conducted her [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise "Shakedown cruise") out of [Great Sound Bay](/wiki/Great_Sound_Bay "Great Sound Bay"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda"), *Walton* underwent post\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard "Boston Navy Yard"). The new destroyer escort subsequently sailed for [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia "Hampton Roads, Virginia"), and arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") on 15 November. While in that vicinity, she served as a [school ship](/wiki/School_ship "School ship"), training nucleus crews for the other destroyer escorts then entering the fleet.
When [Escort Division 85](/wiki/Escort_Division_85 "Escort Division 85") was established, *Walton* was assigned to it and sailed for the Pacific. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") on 7 December and arrived at [Bora Bora](/wiki/Bora_Bora "Bora Bora"), in the [Society Islands](/wiki/Society_Islands "Society Islands"), on 22 December. From there the destroyer escort pushed on for [Port Purvis](/wiki/Purvis_Bay "Purvis Bay") on [Florida Island](/wiki/Nggela_Islands "Nggela Islands") in the [Solomons](/wiki/Solomon_Islands "Solomon Islands"), and moved thence to [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor "Seeadler Harbor"), [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island "Manus Island"), in the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands "Admiralty Islands"). While at Manus, the ship underwent repairs and alterations. During that refit, her after 40 millimeter twin Bofors mount was replaced by a quadruple\-mount Bofors, a necessary augmentation of the ship's [anti\-aircraft battery](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_battery "Anti-aircraft battery") that reflected the growing concern over the destructive attacks of Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze").
*Walton* began her first active wartime duty at [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura "Jayapura") late in January of the following year. On 21 January 1945, the destroyer escort departed that port, bound for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") as part of the escort for a large convoy of merchantmen slow fleet auxiliaries, and amphibious vessels. Informed that those sea lanes had been, of late, patrolled by Japanese [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") and that enemy planes might be encountered, *Walton* and her fellow escorts alertly screened the important convoy bound for the [Allies'](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") westernmost outpost. After a 10\-day voyage, the convoy arrived safely at its destination, [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 "San Pedro Bay (Philippines)"), [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 "Leyte (island)"), on the last day of the month.
During February, March, and April, *Walton* escorted convoys between Hollandia and [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf "Lingayen Gulf"), Philippines. She also made runs between Leyte and [Kossol Roads](/wiki/Kossol_Roads "Kossol Roads"), in the [Palaus](/wiki/Palau "Palau"), as well as trips to [Mangarin Bay](/wiki/Mangarin_Bay "Mangarin Bay"), [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro "Mindoro"), Philippines. During the later part of April the destroyer escort patrolled the waters between [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island "Homonhon Island") and [Dinagat](/wiki/Dinagat_Island "Dinagat Island"), at the mouth of Leyte Gulf.
In May, *Walton* visited [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"), Leyte, and Hollandia, before CortDiv 85 received orders to sail for [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay "Subic Bay") to relieve another division of destroyer escorts that had been conducting antisubmarine sweeps along the west coast of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon "Luzon"). Those patrols had been instituted primarily to interdict the flow of enemy submarines from bases in China, [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan"), or the Japanese home islands themselves. Secondarily, *Walton* and her [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship "Sister ship") were to train British and American submarines prior to their departure for extended war patrols and to escort them to and from a release point where they were starting or finishing such patrols.
During the course of those ensuing duties, *Walton* escorted {{USS\|Brill\|SS\-330\|6}} to [Cape Calavite](/wiki/Cape_Calavite "Cape Calavite"), Mindoro, where the fleet submarine torpedoed a beached and abandoned Japanese [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)"). *Walton* salvaged all equipment of worth from the erstwhile enemy vessel and then stood off while *Brill* completed the demolition work with three torpedoes. On 28 July, *Walton* departed Subic Bay in company with {{USS\|Rolf\|DE\-362\|6}} and later rendezvoused with {{USS\|Douglas A. Munro\|DE\-422\|6}} to form a hunter\-killer group on the eastern coast of Luzon, off Casiguran Bay. They swept northeast of Luzon and across the convoy lane between Leyte and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"), without success, before *Walton* was relieved by {{USS\|Johnnie Hutchins}} off [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri "Aparri").
*Walton* spent the remainder of August at Subic Bay and was there when hostilities with Japan ceased in mid\-month. As the fleet moved northward to Japanese waters to commence the occupation of the former enemy's homeland, its necessary train followed. *Walton* escorted {{USS\|Chepachet\|AO\-78\|6}} to a point where the oiler rendezvoused with a fast carrier task group at the end of August, before the destroyer escort put into Buckner Bay, anchoring there on 2 September 1945 β the day of [Japan's formal surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan "Surrender of Japan").
*Walton* later departed Okinawa to escort hospital ship {{USS\|Mercy\|AH\-8\|6}} to Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Incheon "Incheon")), [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea"). En route, the ships kept a vigilant lookout for stray [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"); and *Walton* exploded 11 of them as the ships passed through the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea "Yellow Sea"). Arriving at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen "Jinsen") on 8 September, *Mercy* soon commenced taking care of the many Allied prisoners of war and internees from a camp near the Korean port. *Walton* consequently found employment as a river pilot ship, leading vessels which did not have adequate anchorage or area charts β a necessary precaution due to the many narrow and shallow passages in the waters off Jinsen. On 26 September, while engaged in that duty, *Walton* suffered damage when an [LCT](/wiki/Landing_craft_tank "Landing craft tank") β under tow by {{USS\|LST\-557}} β collided with her port bow, opening a large hole and breaking several frames above the waterline.
Repaired alongside {{USS\|Jason\|ARH\-1\|6}}, *Walton* subsequently escorted {{USS\|Geneva\|APA\-86\|6}} to [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts "Taku Forts"), China. Once there, the attack transport embarked internees from camps in North China and sailed from that port for the Shantung peninsula and South China. *Walton* stood by while *Geneva* embarked former civilian internees at [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao "Qingdao"), and she accompanied the transport on a voyage to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"). While en route, on 10 and 11 October, the ships rode out the outer edge of a typhoon swirling its way up the China coast. *Walton* β although buffeted by {{convert\|30\|and\|40\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} waves and winds clocked at over {{convert\|60\|kn\|km/h}} β sustained no material damage.
Arriving at Hong Kong on 13 October, *Walton* remained at that port until 4 November when she weighed anchor for [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), China β where her namesake had served in the late 1930s β and escorted the stores issue ship {{USS\|Iolanda\|AKS\-14\|6}} to that port. *Walton* next returned to Jinsen, hunting for and sinking stray mines while acting as an escort.
At Jinsen on 20 November, *Walton* received the long\-awaited homeward\-bound orders and, in company with {{USS\|Pratt\|DE\-363\|6}}, sailed for Okinawa. There, the two destroyer escorts embarked passengers β taking part in a phase of the Operation "Magic Carpet", the return home of discharge\-bound veterans. On 25 November, they set out for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands"), on the first leg of their voyage to the west coast of the United States. Arriving at [San Pedro, California](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California "San Pedro, California"), nine days before Christmas of 1945, *Walton* subsequently shifted to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California "San Diego, California") where she was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 31 May 1946\.
|
[
"### World War II",
"After she conducted her [shakedown](/wiki/Shakedown_cruise \"Shakedown cruise\") out of [Great Sound Bay](/wiki/Great_Sound_Bay \"Great Sound Bay\"), [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\"), *Walton* underwent post\\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard \"Boston Navy Yard\"). The new destroyer escort subsequently sailed for [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia \"Hampton Roads, Virginia\"), and arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") on 15 November. While in that vicinity, she served as a [school ship](/wiki/School_ship \"School ship\"), training nucleus crews for the other destroyer escorts then entering the fleet.",
"When [Escort Division 85](/wiki/Escort_Division_85 \"Escort Division 85\") was established, *Walton* was assigned to it and sailed for the Pacific. She transited the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") on 7 December and arrived at [Bora Bora](/wiki/Bora_Bora \"Bora Bora\"), in the [Society Islands](/wiki/Society_Islands \"Society Islands\"), on 22 December. From there the destroyer escort pushed on for [Port Purvis](/wiki/Purvis_Bay \"Purvis Bay\") on [Florida Island](/wiki/Nggela_Islands \"Nggela Islands\") in the [Solomons](/wiki/Solomon_Islands \"Solomon Islands\"), and moved thence to [Seeadler Harbor](/wiki/Seeadler_Harbor \"Seeadler Harbor\"), [Manus](/wiki/Manus_Island \"Manus Island\"), in the [Admiralty Islands](/wiki/Admiralty_Islands \"Admiralty Islands\"). While at Manus, the ship underwent repairs and alterations. During that refit, her after 40 millimeter twin Bofors mount was replaced by a quadruple\\-mount Bofors, a necessary augmentation of the ship's [anti\\-aircraft battery](/wiki/Anti-aircraft_battery \"Anti-aircraft battery\") that reflected the growing concern over the destructive attacks of Japanese [kamikaze](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\").",
"*Walton* began her first active wartime duty at [Hollandia](/wiki/Jayapura \"Jayapura\") late in January of the following year. On 21 January 1945, the destroyer escort departed that port, bound for the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") as part of the escort for a large convoy of merchantmen slow fleet auxiliaries, and amphibious vessels. Informed that those sea lanes had been, of late, patrolled by Japanese [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") and that enemy planes might be encountered, *Walton* and her fellow escorts alertly screened the important convoy bound for the [Allies'](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") westernmost outpost. After a 10\\-day voyage, the convoy arrived safely at its destination, [San Pedro Bay](/wiki/San_Pedro_Bay_%28Philippines%29 \"San Pedro Bay (Philippines)\"), [Leyte](/wiki/Leyte_%28island%29 \"Leyte (island)\"), on the last day of the month.",
"During February, March, and April, *Walton* escorted convoys between Hollandia and [Lingayen Gulf](/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf \"Lingayen Gulf\"), Philippines. She also made runs between Leyte and [Kossol Roads](/wiki/Kossol_Roads \"Kossol Roads\"), in the [Palaus](/wiki/Palau \"Palau\"), as well as trips to [Mangarin Bay](/wiki/Mangarin_Bay \"Mangarin Bay\"), [Mindoro](/wiki/Mindoro \"Mindoro\"), Philippines. During the later part of April the destroyer escort patrolled the waters between [Homonhon Island](/wiki/Homonhon_Island \"Homonhon Island\") and [Dinagat](/wiki/Dinagat_Island \"Dinagat Island\"), at the mouth of Leyte Gulf.",
"In May, *Walton* visited [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"), Leyte, and Hollandia, before CortDiv 85 received orders to sail for [Subic Bay](/wiki/Subic_Bay \"Subic Bay\") to relieve another division of destroyer escorts that had been conducting antisubmarine sweeps along the west coast of [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\"). Those patrols had been instituted primarily to interdict the flow of enemy submarines from bases in China, [Formosa](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\"), or the Japanese home islands themselves. Secondarily, *Walton* and her [sister ships](/wiki/Sister_ship \"Sister ship\") were to train British and American submarines prior to their departure for extended war patrols and to escort them to and from a release point where they were starting or finishing such patrols.",
"During the course of those ensuing duties, *Walton* escorted {{USS\\|Brill\\|SS\\-330\\|6}} to [Cape Calavite](/wiki/Cape_Calavite \"Cape Calavite\"), Mindoro, where the fleet submarine torpedoed a beached and abandoned Japanese [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\"). *Walton* salvaged all equipment of worth from the erstwhile enemy vessel and then stood off while *Brill* completed the demolition work with three torpedoes. On 28 July, *Walton* departed Subic Bay in company with {{USS\\|Rolf\\|DE\\-362\\|6}} and later rendezvoused with {{USS\\|Douglas A. Munro\\|DE\\-422\\|6}} to form a hunter\\-killer group on the eastern coast of Luzon, off Casiguran Bay. They swept northeast of Luzon and across the convoy lane between Leyte and [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"), without success, before *Walton* was relieved by {{USS\\|Johnnie Hutchins}} off [Aparri](/wiki/Aparri \"Aparri\").",
"*Walton* spent the remainder of August at Subic Bay and was there when hostilities with Japan ceased in mid\\-month. As the fleet moved northward to Japanese waters to commence the occupation of the former enemy's homeland, its necessary train followed. *Walton* escorted {{USS\\|Chepachet\\|AO\\-78\\|6}} to a point where the oiler rendezvoused with a fast carrier task group at the end of August, before the destroyer escort put into Buckner Bay, anchoring there on 2 September 1945 β the day of [Japan's formal surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan \"Surrender of Japan\").",
"*Walton* later departed Okinawa to escort hospital ship {{USS\\|Mercy\\|AH\\-8\\|6}} to Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Incheon \"Incheon\")), [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\"). En route, the ships kept a vigilant lookout for stray [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"); and *Walton* exploded 11 of them as the ships passed through the [Yellow Sea](/wiki/Yellow_Sea \"Yellow Sea\"). Arriving at [Jinsen](/wiki/Jinsen \"Jinsen\") on 8 September, *Mercy* soon commenced taking care of the many Allied prisoners of war and internees from a camp near the Korean port. *Walton* consequently found employment as a river pilot ship, leading vessels which did not have adequate anchorage or area charts β a necessary precaution due to the many narrow and shallow passages in the waters off Jinsen. On 26 September, while engaged in that duty, *Walton* suffered damage when an [LCT](/wiki/Landing_craft_tank \"Landing craft tank\") β under tow by {{USS\\|LST\\-557}} β collided with her port bow, opening a large hole and breaking several frames above the waterline.",
"Repaired alongside {{USS\\|Jason\\|ARH\\-1\\|6}}, *Walton* subsequently escorted {{USS\\|Geneva\\|APA\\-86\\|6}} to [Taku](/wiki/Taku_Forts \"Taku Forts\"), China. Once there, the attack transport embarked internees from camps in North China and sailed from that port for the Shantung peninsula and South China. *Walton* stood by while *Geneva* embarked former civilian internees at [Qingdao](/wiki/Qingdao \"Qingdao\"), and she accompanied the transport on a voyage to [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"). While en route, on 10 and 11 October, the ships rode out the outer edge of a typhoon swirling its way up the China coast. *Walton* β although buffeted by {{convert\\|30\\|and\\|40\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} waves and winds clocked at over {{convert\\|60\\|kn\\|km/h}} β sustained no material damage.",
"Arriving at Hong Kong on 13 October, *Walton* remained at that port until 4 November when she weighed anchor for [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), China β where her namesake had served in the late 1930s β and escorted the stores issue ship {{USS\\|Iolanda\\|AKS\\-14\\|6}} to that port. *Walton* next returned to Jinsen, hunting for and sinking stray mines while acting as an escort.",
"At Jinsen on 20 November, *Walton* received the long\\-awaited homeward\\-bound orders and, in company with {{USS\\|Pratt\\|DE\\-363\\|6}}, sailed for Okinawa. There, the two destroyer escorts embarked passengers β taking part in a phase of the Operation \"Magic Carpet\", the return home of discharge\\-bound veterans. On 25 November, they set out for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands \"Hawaiian Islands\"), on the first leg of their voyage to the west coast of the United States. Arriving at [San Pedro, California](/wiki/San_Pedro%2C_California \"San Pedro, California\"), nine days before Christmas of 1945, *Walton* subsequently shifted to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego%2C_California \"San Diego, California\") where she was decommissioned and placed in reserve on 31 May 1946\\.",
""
] |
### Korean War and fate
The destroyer escort remained inactive until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War"). Recommissioned at San Diego on 26 January 1951 *Walton* operated off the coast of California, training and assisting in the training of submarines and sonar teams, into the spring of the next year.
The destroyer escort β her homeport officially changed from San Diego to Pearl Harbor on 4 November 1951; she departed San Diego on 19 April 1952, bound for the Far East, in company with destroyer escorts {{USS\|Currier\|DE\-700\|6}} and {{USS\|Marsh\|DE\-699\|6}}. {{USS\|McCoy Reynolds\|DE\-440\|6}} rendezvoused with those three ships at Pearl Harbor to complete CortDiv 92\. *Walton* arrived off [Hungnam](/wiki/Hungnam "Hungnam") on 17 May and immediately assumed patrol and blockade duties off the Korean coast.
Over the next four months, Walton worked jointly with the naval units of other [UN](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") nations β Great Britain, Thailand, Colombia, and the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea "Republic of Korea"). During her patrols, the destroyer escort fired over 2,000 rounds of {{convert\|5\|in\|mm\|adj\=on}} ammunition at shore targets, provided close gunfire support for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping "Minesweeping") operations; worked in conjunction with carrier strikes on coastal targets, and, during the latter operations, rescued a ditched Navy pilot. On one occasion, the ship sent a raiding party to reconnoiter a harbor on the far northern coast of Korea. Enemy machine guns opened up on the party, but a heavy fusillade from *Walton*{{'}}s small boat silenced the gunners.
During that Far Eastern deployment, *Walton* also engaged in patrolling the [Formosa Strait](/wiki/Formosa_Strait "Formosa Strait") to keep [Communist China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China "People's Republic of China") from attacking [Nationalist China](/wiki/Taiwan "Taiwan") on the island of [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa "Formosa"). Besides the ship's active patrol and combat operations, she participated in hunter\-killer evolutions in waters south of Japan. As a result of her Korean service in 1952, *Walton* received the Korean service Medal with one engagement star, the UN Service Medal, and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation.
Returning to Pearl Harbor on 29 August, *Walton* underwent a shipyard availability during September and, over the ensuing months, conducted a regular schedule of training operations in the Hawaiian operating area. After a major overhaul at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* got underway on 9 May 1953 sailing, via [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll"), to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East "Far East"). Subsequently, based at [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo "United States Fleet Activities Sasebo"), Japan, *Walton* operated briefly out of [Pusan](/wiki/Pusan "Pusan"), South Korea, and then patrolled near [Cheju Do](/wiki/Jeju-do "Jeju-do"), an island off the southern coast of South Korea. In July, she made a passage to [Beppu](/wiki/Beppu "Beppu"), Japan, for a period of repairs alongside a tender, before she operated as a screening vessel with [Task Force 77](/wiki/Task_Force_77_%28United_States_Navy%29 "Task Force 77 (United States Navy)"). She returned to Pusan soon thereafter, before resuming her patrols out of Sasebo to the eastern coast of South Korea.
Even after the signing of the armistice on 27 July brought an uneasy peace to the Korean peninsula, there was still work for *Walton* in Far Eastern waters. The ship participated in port visit to Hong Kong; underwent upkeep in Subic Bay, Philippines visited [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka "United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka"), Sasebo, and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe "Kobe"), Japan, and operated in Korean waters again that November before sailing as part of a simulated convoy screen and reaching Pearl Harbor on 11 December 1953\.
*Walton* remained in Hawaiian waters into the summer of 1954, conducting a varying slate of operations that included exercises in gunnery communications engineering, antisubmarine warfare navigation, and tacticsβbroken from time to time by the usual upkeep and maintenance periods in port. She also participated in a hunter\-killer exercise in May that helped to evaluate killer submarines. Departing Pearl Harbor on 15 June, *Walton* began her third deployment to the Western Pacific (WestPac). On 9 July, she relieved the seaplane tender {{USS\|Orca\|AVP\-49\|6}} as station ship at Hong Kong and, outside a brief period of upkeep at Subic Bay, performed station ship duties at the British Crown Colony into the autumn. During the deployment, the ship sortied twice to evade typhoons swirling their way toward Hong Kong β [typhoon Ida](/wiki/Typhoon_Ida_%281954%29 "Typhoon Ida (1954)") from 28 to 30 August and [typhoon Pamela](/wiki/Typhoon_Pamela "Typhoon Pamela") from 5 to 7 November.
*Walton* departed Hong Kong on 8 November and proceeded back to Pearl Harbor, via the Philippines, [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") and Midway, having to dodge two more typhoons (Ruby and Sally) while en route. The destroyer escort then spent the period from late November 1954 to early May 1955 in the Hawaiian Islands, training and undergoing needed upkeep.
On 11 May 1955, *Walton* set sail for the [Marianas](/wiki/Mariana_Islands "Mariana Islands"), on the first leg of her fourth WestPac voyage. While operating under the operational aegis of the Commander, Naval forces, Marianas, *Walton* carried out surveillance operations at [Bikar Atoll](/wiki/Bikar_Atoll "Bikar Atoll"), [Erikub Atoll](/wiki/Erikub_Atoll "Erikub Atoll"), [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein"), [Rongerik Atoll](/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll "Rongerik Atoll"), and [Ailinglaplap Atoll](/wiki/Ailinglaplap_Atoll "Ailinglaplap Atoll"). In June and July, *Walton* alternated making surveillance voyages to the places mentioned above with performing duties as search and rescue (SAR) ship operating out of Guam.
During the latter part of July, *Walton* visited the northern Marianas, the [Bonin](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands") and [Volcano Islands](/wiki/Volcano_Islands "Volcano Islands") and Yokosuka, before she resumed SAR duties at Guam. She divided September between surveillance in the western Carolines and SAR at Guam before sailing on 22 September for Pearl Harbor. She arrived home, via Kwajalein, on 1 October.
*Walton* subsequently conducted two more WestPac deployments out of Pearl Harbor. During the fifth deployment, the ship visited [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"), the [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States "Federated Malay States"); Hong Kong; Kobe, Japan; the Marianas; and [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae "Chinhae"), Korea; where she, in company with {{USS\|Bream\|SS\-243\|6}} and units of the [ROK Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy "Republic of Korea Navy"), trained in antisubmarine warfare. Later, while en route from Japanese waters to [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung"), Taiwan, in company with {{USS\|Foss\|DE\-59\|6}}, *Walton* conducted an unsuccessful search for an American plane that had ditched in the ocean. The two destroyer escorts sighted nothing during the two\-day quest.
During the ship's sixth WestPac deployment, in 1957 the ship conducted five surveillance cruises in the Bonins, the Carolines, and the northern Mariana Islands. Also β in company with her sister ship {{USS\|McGinty\|DE\-365\|6}} β she visited [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville"), Australia β via Subic Bay and Manus β arriving "down under" on 19 August 1957\. After five days of hearty Australian hospitality, the two escort vessels set out for [Pago Pago](/wiki/Pago_Pago "Pago Pago"), [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa "Samoa"), on the first leg of their voyage back to Pearl Harbor where they arrived on 5 November.
Following a three\-month overhaul at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, *Walton* conducted underway training evolutions and type training in the Hawaiian Islands through the spring of 1958\. Ultimately, on 30 June 1958, was reassigned to Reserve CortRon 1, Reserve CortDiv 12\. With her home port officially changed to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California "San Francisco, California"), *Walton* underwent a brief availability alongside {{USS\|Bryce Canyon\|AD\-36\|6}} at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California "Long Beach, California") before she pushed on for her ultimate destination β San Francisco. She arrived at her new home port on 20 July.
*Walton*{{'}}s mission was now to train Naval Reserve personnel. Over the next three years, she operated out of San Francisco on reserve training cruises that took the ship to such places as [MazatlΓ‘n](/wiki/Mazatl%C3%A1n "MazatlΓ‘n"), Mexico, San Diego and [Treasure Island, California](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_California "Treasure Island, California"); Pearl Harbor, [Drake's Bay](/wiki/Drake%27s_Bay "Drake's Bay"), California; [Monterey, California](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California "Monterey, California"); and [Esquimalt, British Columbia](/wiki/Esquimalt%2C_British_Columbia "Esquimalt, British Columbia"). During the many two\-week reserve cruises she conducted a variety of operations including "live" antisubmarine warfare training and gunnery exercises, highline transfers, general quarters drills, and underway refuelings in order to bring reservists up to date on latest methods and equipment. During that time, *Walton* won the [Battle Efficiency "E"](/wiki/Battle_Effectiveness_Award "Battle Effectiveness Award") for Reserve CortRon 1 in 1959 and 1960\.
While at Long Beach on 1 October 1961, *Walton* received word that, in the words of her command history "her shuttling about the west coast was ended for the time being." With her selected reserve crew of 70 men the destroyer escort was recalled to active duty as part of the overall buildup of military force ordered by President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") to meet the communist threat in Berlin and, possibly, elsewhere.
Again homeported at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* departed the west coast on 23 October for the Hawaiian Islands. She arrived eight days later and immediately commenced underway training evolutions. She later underwent a two\-week availability alongside {{USS\|Hamul\|AD\-20\|6}} before she resumed underway training. On 4 December, the ship entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to commence an overhaul that lasted through the end of the year 1961\.
After further underway training evolutions in Hawaiian waters, *Walton* departed Pearl Harbor on 22 January 1962, bound for the Marianas, on the first leg of her seventh WestPac deployment. After stopping for a day at Guam, she arrived in Subic Bay on 6 February. Nine days later, she got underway for [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang "Da Nang"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam "South Vietnam"). *Walton* arrived off Da Nang on 17 February and immediately began patrols in company with units of the small [South Vietnamese Navy](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Navy "South Vietnamese Navy"). Returning to Subic Bay briefly toward the middle of March, and after visiting Manila and Hong Kong, the destroyer escort resumed patrols off the coastline of South Vietnam, operating from Da Nang. For the remainder of her tour, the destroyer escort was almost constantly on the move, shifting to Subic Bay and Yokosuka; and patrolling the strait of Korea, before she returned via Yokosuka to Pearl Harbor on 5 June.
Following a brief stint of local operations out of Pearl Harbor, *Walton* sailed for the west coast on 11 July 1962\. Arriving at San Francisco on 1 August, she soon resumed her Naval Reserve training role. For the next five years, *Walton* operated off the west coast training reservists. Ultimately decommissioned on 20 September 1968, *Walton* was struck from the Navy List on 23 September 1968 and was sunk as a target on 7 August 1969\.
|
[
"### Korean War and fate",
"The destroyer escort remained inactive until the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\"). Recommissioned at San Diego on 26 January 1951 *Walton* operated off the coast of California, training and assisting in the training of submarines and sonar teams, into the spring of the next year.",
"The destroyer escort β her homeport officially changed from San Diego to Pearl Harbor on 4 November 1951; she departed San Diego on 19 April 1952, bound for the Far East, in company with destroyer escorts {{USS\\|Currier\\|DE\\-700\\|6}} and {{USS\\|Marsh\\|DE\\-699\\|6}}. {{USS\\|McCoy Reynolds\\|DE\\-440\\|6}} rendezvoused with those three ships at Pearl Harbor to complete CortDiv 92\\. *Walton* arrived off [Hungnam](/wiki/Hungnam \"Hungnam\") on 17 May and immediately assumed patrol and blockade duties off the Korean coast.",
"Over the next four months, Walton worked jointly with the naval units of other [UN](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") nations β Great Britain, Thailand, Colombia, and the [Republic of Korea](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea \"Republic of Korea\"). During her patrols, the destroyer escort fired over 2,000 rounds of {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|mm\\|adj\\=on}} ammunition at shore targets, provided close gunfire support for [minesweeping](/wiki/Minesweeping \"Minesweeping\") operations; worked in conjunction with carrier strikes on coastal targets, and, during the latter operations, rescued a ditched Navy pilot. On one occasion, the ship sent a raiding party to reconnoiter a harbor on the far northern coast of Korea. Enemy machine guns opened up on the party, but a heavy fusillade from *Walton*{{'}}s small boat silenced the gunners.",
"During that Far Eastern deployment, *Walton* also engaged in patrolling the [Formosa Strait](/wiki/Formosa_Strait \"Formosa Strait\") to keep [Communist China](/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China \"People's Republic of China\") from attacking [Nationalist China](/wiki/Taiwan \"Taiwan\") on the island of [Formosa](/wiki/Formosa \"Formosa\"). Besides the ship's active patrol and combat operations, she participated in hunter\\-killer evolutions in waters south of Japan. As a result of her Korean service in 1952, *Walton* received the Korean service Medal with one engagement star, the UN Service Medal, and the Republic of Korea Presidential Unit Citation.",
"Returning to Pearl Harbor on 29 August, *Walton* underwent a shipyard availability during September and, over the ensuing months, conducted a regular schedule of training operations in the Hawaiian operating area. After a major overhaul at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* got underway on 9 May 1953 sailing, via [Midway](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\"), to the [Far East](/wiki/Far_East \"Far East\"). Subsequently, based at [Sasebo](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Sasebo \"United States Fleet Activities Sasebo\"), Japan, *Walton* operated briefly out of [Pusan](/wiki/Pusan \"Pusan\"), South Korea, and then patrolled near [Cheju Do](/wiki/Jeju-do \"Jeju-do\"), an island off the southern coast of South Korea. In July, she made a passage to [Beppu](/wiki/Beppu \"Beppu\"), Japan, for a period of repairs alongside a tender, before she operated as a screening vessel with [Task Force 77](/wiki/Task_Force_77_%28United_States_Navy%29 \"Task Force 77 (United States Navy)\"). She returned to Pusan soon thereafter, before resuming her patrols out of Sasebo to the eastern coast of South Korea.",
"Even after the signing of the armistice on 27 July brought an uneasy peace to the Korean peninsula, there was still work for *Walton* in Far Eastern waters. The ship participated in port visit to Hong Kong; underwent upkeep in Subic Bay, Philippines visited [Yokosuka](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Activities_Yokosuka \"United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka\"), Sasebo, and [Kobe](/wiki/Kobe \"Kobe\"), Japan, and operated in Korean waters again that November before sailing as part of a simulated convoy screen and reaching Pearl Harbor on 11 December 1953\\.",
"*Walton* remained in Hawaiian waters into the summer of 1954, conducting a varying slate of operations that included exercises in gunnery communications engineering, antisubmarine warfare navigation, and tacticsβbroken from time to time by the usual upkeep and maintenance periods in port. She also participated in a hunter\\-killer exercise in May that helped to evaluate killer submarines. Departing Pearl Harbor on 15 June, *Walton* began her third deployment to the Western Pacific (WestPac). On 9 July, she relieved the seaplane tender {{USS\\|Orca\\|AVP\\-49\\|6}} as station ship at Hong Kong and, outside a brief period of upkeep at Subic Bay, performed station ship duties at the British Crown Colony into the autumn. During the deployment, the ship sortied twice to evade typhoons swirling their way toward Hong Kong β [typhoon Ida](/wiki/Typhoon_Ida_%281954%29 \"Typhoon Ida (1954)\") from 28 to 30 August and [typhoon Pamela](/wiki/Typhoon_Pamela \"Typhoon Pamela\") from 5 to 7 November.",
"*Walton* departed Hong Kong on 8 November and proceeded back to Pearl Harbor, via the Philippines, [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") and Midway, having to dodge two more typhoons (Ruby and Sally) while en route. The destroyer escort then spent the period from late November 1954 to early May 1955 in the Hawaiian Islands, training and undergoing needed upkeep.",
"On 11 May 1955, *Walton* set sail for the [Marianas](/wiki/Mariana_Islands \"Mariana Islands\"), on the first leg of her fourth WestPac voyage. While operating under the operational aegis of the Commander, Naval forces, Marianas, *Walton* carried out surveillance operations at [Bikar Atoll](/wiki/Bikar_Atoll \"Bikar Atoll\"), [Erikub Atoll](/wiki/Erikub_Atoll \"Erikub Atoll\"), [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\"), [Rongerik Atoll](/wiki/Rongerik_Atoll \"Rongerik Atoll\"), and [Ailinglaplap Atoll](/wiki/Ailinglaplap_Atoll \"Ailinglaplap Atoll\"). In June and July, *Walton* alternated making surveillance voyages to the places mentioned above with performing duties as search and rescue (SAR) ship operating out of Guam.",
"During the latter part of July, *Walton* visited the northern Marianas, the [Bonin](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\") and [Volcano Islands](/wiki/Volcano_Islands \"Volcano Islands\") and Yokosuka, before she resumed SAR duties at Guam. She divided September between surveillance in the western Carolines and SAR at Guam before sailing on 22 September for Pearl Harbor. She arrived home, via Kwajalein, on 1 October.",
"*Walton* subsequently conducted two more WestPac deployments out of Pearl Harbor. During the fifth deployment, the ship visited [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\"), the [Federated Malay States](/wiki/Federated_Malay_States \"Federated Malay States\"); Hong Kong; Kobe, Japan; the Marianas; and [Chinhae](/wiki/Chinhae \"Chinhae\"), Korea; where she, in company with {{USS\\|Bream\\|SS\\-243\\|6}} and units of the [ROK Navy](/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Navy \"Republic of Korea Navy\"), trained in antisubmarine warfare. Later, while en route from Japanese waters to [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\"), Taiwan, in company with {{USS\\|Foss\\|DE\\-59\\|6}}, *Walton* conducted an unsuccessful search for an American plane that had ditched in the ocean. The two destroyer escorts sighted nothing during the two\\-day quest.",
"During the ship's sixth WestPac deployment, in 1957 the ship conducted five surveillance cruises in the Bonins, the Carolines, and the northern Mariana Islands. Also β in company with her sister ship {{USS\\|McGinty\\|DE\\-365\\|6}} β she visited [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\"), Australia β via Subic Bay and Manus β arriving \"down under\" on 19 August 1957\\. After five days of hearty Australian hospitality, the two escort vessels set out for [Pago Pago](/wiki/Pago_Pago \"Pago Pago\"), [Samoa](/wiki/Samoa \"Samoa\"), on the first leg of their voyage back to Pearl Harbor where they arrived on 5 November.",
"Following a three\\-month overhaul at the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, *Walton* conducted underway training evolutions and type training in the Hawaiian Islands through the spring of 1958\\. Ultimately, on 30 June 1958, was reassigned to Reserve CortRon 1, Reserve CortDiv 12\\. With her home port officially changed to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California \"San Francisco, California\"), *Walton* underwent a brief availability alongside {{USS\\|Bryce Canyon\\|AD\\-36\\|6}} at [Long Beach](/wiki/Long_Beach%2C_California \"Long Beach, California\") before she pushed on for her ultimate destination β San Francisco. She arrived at her new home port on 20 July.",
"*Walton*{{'}}s mission was now to train Naval Reserve personnel. Over the next three years, she operated out of San Francisco on reserve training cruises that took the ship to such places as [MazatlΓ‘n](/wiki/Mazatl%C3%A1n \"MazatlΓ‘n\"), Mexico, San Diego and [Treasure Island, California](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_California \"Treasure Island, California\"); Pearl Harbor, [Drake's Bay](/wiki/Drake%27s_Bay \"Drake's Bay\"), California; [Monterey, California](/wiki/Monterey%2C_California \"Monterey, California\"); and [Esquimalt, British Columbia](/wiki/Esquimalt%2C_British_Columbia \"Esquimalt, British Columbia\"). During the many two\\-week reserve cruises she conducted a variety of operations including \"live\" antisubmarine warfare training and gunnery exercises, highline transfers, general quarters drills, and underway refuelings in order to bring reservists up to date on latest methods and equipment. During that time, *Walton* won the [Battle Efficiency \"E\"](/wiki/Battle_Effectiveness_Award \"Battle Effectiveness Award\") for Reserve CortRon 1 in 1959 and 1960\\.",
"While at Long Beach on 1 October 1961, *Walton* received word that, in the words of her command history \"her shuttling about the west coast was ended for the time being.\" With her selected reserve crew of 70 men the destroyer escort was recalled to active duty as part of the overall buildup of military force ordered by President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") to meet the communist threat in Berlin and, possibly, elsewhere.",
"Again homeported at Pearl Harbor, *Walton* departed the west coast on 23 October for the Hawaiian Islands. She arrived eight days later and immediately commenced underway training evolutions. She later underwent a two\\-week availability alongside {{USS\\|Hamul\\|AD\\-20\\|6}} before she resumed underway training. On 4 December, the ship entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard to commence an overhaul that lasted through the end of the year 1961\\.",
"After further underway training evolutions in Hawaiian waters, *Walton* departed Pearl Harbor on 22 January 1962, bound for the Marianas, on the first leg of her seventh WestPac deployment. After stopping for a day at Guam, she arrived in Subic Bay on 6 February. Nine days later, she got underway for [Da Nang](/wiki/Da_Nang \"Da Nang\"), [South Vietnam](/wiki/South_Vietnam \"South Vietnam\"). *Walton* arrived off Da Nang on 17 February and immediately began patrols in company with units of the small [South Vietnamese Navy](/wiki/South_Vietnamese_Navy \"South Vietnamese Navy\"). Returning to Subic Bay briefly toward the middle of March, and after visiting Manila and Hong Kong, the destroyer escort resumed patrols off the coastline of South Vietnam, operating from Da Nang. For the remainder of her tour, the destroyer escort was almost constantly on the move, shifting to Subic Bay and Yokosuka; and patrolling the strait of Korea, before she returned via Yokosuka to Pearl Harbor on 5 June.",
"Following a brief stint of local operations out of Pearl Harbor, *Walton* sailed for the west coast on 11 July 1962\\. Arriving at San Francisco on 1 August, she soon resumed her Naval Reserve training role. For the next five years, *Walton* operated off the west coast training reservists. Ultimately decommissioned on 20 September 1968, *Walton* was struck from the Navy List on 23 September 1968 and was sunk as a target on 7 August 1969\\.",
""
] |
Campaign
--------
Most political parties were relatively new but managed to actively mobilise the population,{{citation needed\|date\=April 2020}} with the election coming five years after massive demonstrations for direct elections in the late 1980s [Diretas JΓ‘](/wiki/Diretas_J%C3%A1 "Diretas JΓ‘") movement had called for the end of the military regime. Sarney was barred by the 1988 constitution from running for immediate reelection as a vice president ascending to the office of president counts as a full term.
Twenty\-two candidates entered the race, a record number of candidates in a single presidential election. The 1989 elections were the first in which the president and vice\-president were jointly elected as [running mates](/wiki/Running_mate "Running mate").
Among the twenty\-two candidates, only [Ulysses GuimarΓ£es](/wiki/Ulysses_Guimar%C3%A3es "Ulysses GuimarΓ£es") and [Paulo Maluf](/wiki/Paulo_Maluf "Paulo Maluf") had previously run for the presidency, although [JΓ’nio Quadros](/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros "JΓ’nio Quadros") planned to run but eventually dropped his candidacy. [Aureliano Chaves](/wiki/Aureliano_Chaves "Aureliano Chaves") had also previously served as vice\-president. [Orestes Quercia](/wiki/Orestes_Quercia "Orestes Quercia"), a member of Sarney's [Brazilian Democratic Movement](/wiki/Brazilian_Democratic_Movement "Brazilian Democratic Movement"), led the polls until he decided to drop out of the contest.{{Cite web \|url\=https://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/a\-eleicao\-de\-2018\-sera\-como\-a\-de\-1989\-sim\-e\-nao\-segundo\-o\-ubs/ \|title\=A eleição de 2018 serΓ‘ como a de 1989? Sim e nΓ£o, segundo o UBS \| EXAME \|access\-date\=2018\-10\-28 \|archive\-date\=2018\-10\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028073949/https://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/a\-eleicao\-de\-2018\-sera\-como\-a\-de\-1989\-sim\-e\-nao\-segundo\-o\-ubs/ \|url\-status\=dead }} TV host [Silvio Santos](/wiki/Silvio_Santos "Silvio Santos") announced he would run just 20 days before the election, but his candidacy was mired in uncertainty and eventually revoked by the [Superior Electoral Court](/wiki/Superior_Electoral_Court "Superior Electoral Court") because of a technicality.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/eleicoes/ha\-25\-anos\-silvio\-santos\-tentou\-presidencia\-voce\-votaria,b08df5b2bb568410VgnVCM20000099cceb0aRCRD.html \|website\=Terra \|accessdate\=28 April 2020 \|title\=HΓ‘ 25 anos, Silvio Santos tentou presidΓͺncia; vocΓͺ votaria? \|archive\-date\=30 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830113347/https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/eleicoes/ha\-25\-anos\-silvio\-santos\-tentou\-presidencia\-voce\-votaria,b08df5b2bb568410VgnVCM20000099cceb0aRCRD.html \|url\-status\=live }}
The first round took place on November 15, 1989, the 100th anniversary of the [republican coup](/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_%28Brazil%29 "Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)") which deposed [Pedro II of Brazil](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil "Pedro II of Brazil") and proclaimed the [First Brazilian Republic](/wiki/First_Brazilian_Republic "First Brazilian Republic"). Since no candidate managed to win a majority of votes, a second round was held on December 17, featuring the two top finishers: [Fernando Collor de Mello](/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello "Fernando Collor de Mello") of the [economically liberal](/wiki/Economically_liberal "Economically liberal") [right\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populist "Right-wing populist") [National Reconstruction Party](/wiki/Act_%28Brazil%29 "Act (Brazil)") and [Luiz InΓ‘cio Lula da Silva](/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva "Luiz InΓ‘cio Lula da Silva") of the [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democratic "Social democratic") [left\-wing populist](/wiki/Left-wing_populist "Left-wing populist") [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Brazil%29 "Workers' Party (Brazil)").
Both candidates had a reputation as outsiders. Despite being a charismatic leader, Lula failed to attract the majority of votes from poor, unskilled and semiskilled workers β who would, later on, form the basis of the Workers' Party electorate. These voters predominantly favored Collor, who was associated with the traditional economic elites of [northeastern Brazil](/wiki/Northeastern_Brazil "Northeastern Brazil"). Lula's support was greater among progressive intellectuals, Catholic activists, skilled industrial workers, and the college\-educated middle class of the [South](/wiki/South_Region%2C_Brazil "South Region, Brazil") and [Southeast](/wiki/Southeast_Region%2C_Brazil "Southeast Region, Brazil"), despite himself being a poor immigrant from the Northeast.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2020}}
Collor argued that Lula's plans of aggressive spending on inequality reduction programs would destroy Brazil's then\-fragile economy, harming the poor people he claimed to champion. He also appealed to his young age and distanced himself from the previous military governments, as well as from the newer political elites who had supported the Sarney government and its [Plano Cruzado](/wiki/Plano_Cruzado "Plano Cruzado"), which had failed to stop [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation "Hyperinflation").
After [Leonel Brizola](/wiki/Leonel_Brizola "Leonel Brizola") was defeated in the first round, he supported Lula, with his support being considered crucial to Lula's strong performance in [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul "Rio Grande do Sul") in the second round.Wendy Hunter, *The Transformation of the Workers' Party in Brazil, 1989β2009*. Cambridge University Press, 2010, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-521\-51455\-2}}, page 111
Ultimately, Collor was elected with a six\-point lead. His initial widespread support,{{citation needed\|date\=April 2020}} based on his strong rhetoric against [corruption](/wiki/Corruption "Corruption"),{{citation needed\|date\=April 2020}} quickly vanished{{citation needed\|date\=April 2020}} in the wake of his [1992 impeachment](/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello%23Corruption_charges_and_impeachment "Fernando Collor de Mello#Corruption charges and impeachment") for corruption charges, leading to Collor resigning from office in an unsuccessful attempt to stop the proceedings. Lula would go on to be elected president for the first time in the [2002 elections](/wiki/2002_Brazilian_general_election "2002 Brazilian general election"), win a second term in the [2006 contest](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_presidential_election "2006 Brazilian presidential election") and be elected president for the second time in the [2022 elections](/wiki/2022_Brazilian_presidential_election "2022 Brazilian presidential election"). The Workers' Party also won the presidency twice more with [Dilma Rousseff](/wiki/Dilma_Rousseff "Dilma Rousseff"), a protΓ©gΓ© of Lula, in the [2010](/wiki/2010_Brazilian_presidential_election "2010 Brazilian presidential election") and [2014 elections](/wiki/2014_Brazilian_presidential_election "2014 Brazilian presidential election"). The party would remain in power until her [impeachment in 2016](/wiki/Impeachment_of_Dilma_Rousseff "Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff") and the [2018 election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_presidential_election "2018 Brazilian presidential election") of [right\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populist "Right-wing populist") [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro "Jair Bolsonaro").
|
[
"Campaign\n--------",
"Most political parties were relatively new but managed to actively mobilise the population,{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} with the election coming five years after massive demonstrations for direct elections in the late 1980s [Diretas JΓ‘](/wiki/Diretas_J%C3%A1 \"Diretas JΓ‘\") movement had called for the end of the military regime. Sarney was barred by the 1988 constitution from running for immediate reelection as a vice president ascending to the office of president counts as a full term.",
"Twenty\\-two candidates entered the race, a record number of candidates in a single presidential election. The 1989 elections were the first in which the president and vice\\-president were jointly elected as [running mates](/wiki/Running_mate \"Running mate\").",
"Among the twenty\\-two candidates, only [Ulysses GuimarΓ£es](/wiki/Ulysses_Guimar%C3%A3es \"Ulysses GuimarΓ£es\") and [Paulo Maluf](/wiki/Paulo_Maluf \"Paulo Maluf\") had previously run for the presidency, although [JΓ’nio Quadros](/wiki/J%C3%A2nio_Quadros \"JΓ’nio Quadros\") planned to run but eventually dropped his candidacy. [Aureliano Chaves](/wiki/Aureliano_Chaves \"Aureliano Chaves\") had also previously served as vice\\-president. [Orestes Quercia](/wiki/Orestes_Quercia \"Orestes Quercia\"), a member of Sarney's [Brazilian Democratic Movement](/wiki/Brazilian_Democratic_Movement \"Brazilian Democratic Movement\"), led the polls until he decided to drop out of the contest.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/a\\-eleicao\\-de\\-2018\\-sera\\-como\\-a\\-de\\-1989\\-sim\\-e\\-nao\\-segundo\\-o\\-ubs/ \\|title\\=A eleição de 2018 serΓ‘ como a de 1989? Sim e nΓ£o, segundo o UBS \\| EXAME \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028073949/https://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/a\\-eleicao\\-de\\-2018\\-sera\\-como\\-a\\-de\\-1989\\-sim\\-e\\-nao\\-segundo\\-o\\-ubs/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} TV host [Silvio Santos](/wiki/Silvio_Santos \"Silvio Santos\") announced he would run just 20 days before the election, but his candidacy was mired in uncertainty and eventually revoked by the [Superior Electoral Court](/wiki/Superior_Electoral_Court \"Superior Electoral Court\") because of a technicality.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/eleicoes/ha\\-25\\-anos\\-silvio\\-santos\\-tentou\\-presidencia\\-voce\\-votaria,b08df5b2bb568410VgnVCM20000099cceb0aRCRD.html \\|website\\=Terra \\|accessdate\\=28 April 2020 \\|title\\=HΓ‘ 25 anos, Silvio Santos tentou presidΓͺncia; vocΓͺ votaria? \\|archive\\-date\\=30 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200830113347/https://www.terra.com.br/noticias/eleicoes/ha\\-25\\-anos\\-silvio\\-santos\\-tentou\\-presidencia\\-voce\\-votaria,b08df5b2bb568410VgnVCM20000099cceb0aRCRD.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The first round took place on November 15, 1989, the 100th anniversary of the [republican coup](/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Republic_%28Brazil%29 \"Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)\") which deposed [Pedro II of Brazil](/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil \"Pedro II of Brazil\") and proclaimed the [First Brazilian Republic](/wiki/First_Brazilian_Republic \"First Brazilian Republic\"). Since no candidate managed to win a majority of votes, a second round was held on December 17, featuring the two top finishers: [Fernando Collor de Mello](/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello \"Fernando Collor de Mello\") of the [economically liberal](/wiki/Economically_liberal \"Economically liberal\") [right\\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populist \"Right-wing populist\") [National Reconstruction Party](/wiki/Act_%28Brazil%29 \"Act (Brazil)\") and [Luiz InΓ‘cio Lula da Silva](/wiki/Luiz_In%C3%A1cio_Lula_da_Silva \"Luiz InΓ‘cio Lula da Silva\") of the [social democratic](/wiki/Social_democratic \"Social democratic\") [left\\-wing populist](/wiki/Left-wing_populist \"Left-wing populist\") [Workers' Party](/wiki/Workers%27_Party_%28Brazil%29 \"Workers' Party (Brazil)\").",
"Both candidates had a reputation as outsiders. Despite being a charismatic leader, Lula failed to attract the majority of votes from poor, unskilled and semiskilled workers β who would, later on, form the basis of the Workers' Party electorate. These voters predominantly favored Collor, who was associated with the traditional economic elites of [northeastern Brazil](/wiki/Northeastern_Brazil \"Northeastern Brazil\"). Lula's support was greater among progressive intellectuals, Catholic activists, skilled industrial workers, and the college\\-educated middle class of the [South](/wiki/South_Region%2C_Brazil \"South Region, Brazil\") and [Southeast](/wiki/Southeast_Region%2C_Brazil \"Southeast Region, Brazil\"), despite himself being a poor immigrant from the Northeast.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}}",
"Collor argued that Lula's plans of aggressive spending on inequality reduction programs would destroy Brazil's then\\-fragile economy, harming the poor people he claimed to champion. He also appealed to his young age and distanced himself from the previous military governments, as well as from the newer political elites who had supported the Sarney government and its [Plano Cruzado](/wiki/Plano_Cruzado \"Plano Cruzado\"), which had failed to stop [hyperinflation](/wiki/Hyperinflation \"Hyperinflation\").",
"After [Leonel Brizola](/wiki/Leonel_Brizola \"Leonel Brizola\") was defeated in the first round, he supported Lula, with his support being considered crucial to Lula's strong performance in [Rio Grande do Sul](/wiki/Rio_Grande_do_Sul \"Rio Grande do Sul\") in the second round.Wendy Hunter, *The Transformation of the Workers' Party in Brazil, 1989β2009*. Cambridge University Press, 2010, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-521\\-51455\\-2}}, page 111",
"Ultimately, Collor was elected with a six\\-point lead. His initial widespread support,{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} based on his strong rhetoric against [corruption](/wiki/Corruption \"Corruption\"),{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} quickly vanished{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} in the wake of his [1992 impeachment](/wiki/Fernando_Collor_de_Mello%23Corruption_charges_and_impeachment \"Fernando Collor de Mello#Corruption charges and impeachment\") for corruption charges, leading to Collor resigning from office in an unsuccessful attempt to stop the proceedings. Lula would go on to be elected president for the first time in the [2002 elections](/wiki/2002_Brazilian_general_election \"2002 Brazilian general election\"), win a second term in the [2006 contest](/wiki/2006_Brazilian_presidential_election \"2006 Brazilian presidential election\") and be elected president for the second time in the [2022 elections](/wiki/2022_Brazilian_presidential_election \"2022 Brazilian presidential election\"). The Workers' Party also won the presidency twice more with [Dilma Rousseff](/wiki/Dilma_Rousseff \"Dilma Rousseff\"), a protΓ©gΓ© of Lula, in the [2010](/wiki/2010_Brazilian_presidential_election \"2010 Brazilian presidential election\") and [2014 elections](/wiki/2014_Brazilian_presidential_election \"2014 Brazilian presidential election\"). The party would remain in power until her [impeachment in 2016](/wiki/Impeachment_of_Dilma_Rousseff \"Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff\") and the [2018 election](/wiki/2018_Brazilian_presidential_election \"2018 Brazilian presidential election\") of [right\\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populist \"Right-wing populist\") [Jair Bolsonaro](/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro \"Jair Bolsonaro\").",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1263, Henry of Vilsegg, a *[Dienstmann](/wiki/Dienstmann "Dienstmann")* of the [lords of Hohenegg](/wiki/House_Hohenegg "House Hohenegg"), was mentioned as being at the castle. The Hoheneggs were, in turn, vassals (*[LehnsmΓ€nner](/wiki/Lehnsm%C3%A4nner "LehnsmΓ€nner")*) of the Bishopric of [Kempten](/wiki/Kempten_%28Allg%C3%A4u%29 "Kempten (AllgΓ€u)"). The castle had probably been built by around 1220/30 and is one of the most important examples of [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen "Hohenstaufen") architecture in Tyrol.
The *[ministeriales](/wiki/Ministeriales "Ministeriales")* of Vilsegg were last mentioned in 1314; after that the Hoheneggs themselves occupied the castle.
At the start of the 14th century [Count Meinhard II of Tyrol](/wiki/Meinhard_II "Meinhard II") sought to enlarge his territory at the expense of his neighbours. He also seized several castles belonging to the Hoheneggs, such as the nearby [cave castle of Loch](/wiki/Loch_Castle_%28Pinswang%29 "Loch Castle (Pinswang)") near [Pinswang](/wiki/Pinswang "Pinswang"); however, Vilsegg held this at least until 1408 as a [fief](/wiki/Fief "Fief") of the Bishopric of [Kempten](/wiki/Kempten "Kempten"). Finally the bishopric enfeoffed the [Duke](/wiki/Duke "Duke") of [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") with the castle and lordship, both of which were granted as an *[afterlehen](/wiki/Afterlehen "Afterlehen")* to the Hoheneggs.
In 1671, John Francis, the last of the Hoheneggs, died and the subfief was returned to Austria; the [Roman\-German emperor](/wiki/Roman-German_emperor "Roman-German emperor") was therefore legally a direct vassal of the bishopric in respect of the Barony of Vilsegg. The castle was occupied until at least 1709 by Austrian governors (*Pfleger*), but is shown on a 1774 map as a ruin.
1806 saw its transfer to the [Kingdom of Bavaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria "Kingdom of Bavaria"), but in 1816 the town, castle and barony was finally returned to Austria as a result of the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna").
In 1939, large sections of the walls collapsed during an earthquake (for example the east wall of the bergfried with its [elevated entrance](/wiki/Elevated_entrance "Elevated entrance")). In 1953 the bergfried was made safe by the Austrian Federal Monuments Department. Currently the remaining wall remnants of the *[palas](/wiki/Palas "Palas")* and the castle defences are being uncovered and repaired.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1263, Henry of Vilsegg, a *[Dienstmann](/wiki/Dienstmann \"Dienstmann\")* of the [lords of Hohenegg](/wiki/House_Hohenegg \"House Hohenegg\"), was mentioned as being at the castle. The Hoheneggs were, in turn, vassals (*[LehnsmΓ€nner](/wiki/Lehnsm%C3%A4nner \"LehnsmΓ€nner\")*) of the Bishopric of [Kempten](/wiki/Kempten_%28Allg%C3%A4u%29 \"Kempten (AllgΓ€u)\"). The castle had probably been built by around 1220/30 and is one of the most important examples of [Hohenstaufen](/wiki/Hohenstaufen \"Hohenstaufen\") architecture in Tyrol.",
"The *[ministeriales](/wiki/Ministeriales \"Ministeriales\")* of Vilsegg were last mentioned in 1314; after that the Hoheneggs themselves occupied the castle.",
"At the start of the 14th century [Count Meinhard II of Tyrol](/wiki/Meinhard_II \"Meinhard II\") sought to enlarge his territory at the expense of his neighbours. He also seized several castles belonging to the Hoheneggs, such as the nearby [cave castle of Loch](/wiki/Loch_Castle_%28Pinswang%29 \"Loch Castle (Pinswang)\") near [Pinswang](/wiki/Pinswang \"Pinswang\"); however, Vilsegg held this at least until 1408 as a [fief](/wiki/Fief \"Fief\") of the Bishopric of [Kempten](/wiki/Kempten \"Kempten\"). Finally the bishopric enfeoffed the [Duke](/wiki/Duke \"Duke\") of [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") with the castle and lordship, both of which were granted as an *[afterlehen](/wiki/Afterlehen \"Afterlehen\")* to the Hoheneggs.",
"In 1671, John Francis, the last of the Hoheneggs, died and the subfief was returned to Austria; the [Roman\\-German emperor](/wiki/Roman-German_emperor \"Roman-German emperor\") was therefore legally a direct vassal of the bishopric in respect of the Barony of Vilsegg. The castle was occupied until at least 1709 by Austrian governors (*Pfleger*), but is shown on a 1774 map as a ruin.",
"1806 saw its transfer to the [Kingdom of Bavaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria \"Kingdom of Bavaria\"), but in 1816 the town, castle and barony was finally returned to Austria as a result of the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\").",
"In 1939, large sections of the walls collapsed during an earthquake (for example the east wall of the bergfried with its [elevated entrance](/wiki/Elevated_entrance \"Elevated entrance\")). In 1953 the bergfried was made safe by the Austrian Federal Monuments Department. Currently the remaining wall remnants of the *[palas](/wiki/Palas \"Palas\")* and the castle defences are being uncovered and repaired.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Kedar was born in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra "Nitra"), [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia") to Samuel Kraus and Lydie Jeiteles\-Kraus.Lydie Jeiteles\-Kraus, Eine Prager Liebe (Jerusalem, 1995\). Both his parents were physicians. In 1944β45, his family avoided deportation to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz") by hiding for seven months with [Slovak](/wiki/Slovaks "Slovaks") peasants.See Hani Kedar\-Kehat, My Nitra. A Family's Struggle to Survive in Slovakia. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2015\. He [immigrated to Israel](/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah") with the [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah "Youth Aliyah") in 1949\. His parents arrived about two months later, and after a few months he went to live with them in [Kfar Netter](/wiki/Kfar_Netter "Kfar Netter") in the [Sharon Plain](/wiki/Sharon_Plain "Sharon Plain"). In 1952, he completed elementary school in [Even Yehuda](/wiki/Even_Yehuda "Even Yehuda"), and in 1956 the Fifth Municipal High School in [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv").In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar*, ed. [Iris Shagrir](/wiki/Iris_Shagrir "Iris Shagrir"), [Ronnie Ellenblum](/wiki/Ronnie_Ellenblum "Ronnie Ellenblum") and [Jonathan Riley\-Smith](/wiki/Jonathan_Riley-Smith "Jonathan Riley-Smith"). Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\. 468 introduction, p. x. He earned a [BA](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") in history and sociology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where he continued to graduate studies.In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar* , ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\-Smith. Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\. 468 introduction, p. x.
Kedar wrote his [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts "Master of Arts") thesis under the supervision of [Joshua Prawer](/wiki/Joshua_Prawer "Joshua Prawer") (1964β1965\)."The Jerusalem University awarded 445 academic degrees," [Maβariv](/wiki/Ma%E2%80%99ariv "Maβariv"), 23 June 1966\. And In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar* , ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\-Smith. Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\. 468 introduction, p. x. During the [Lavon Affair](/wiki/Lavon_Affair "Lavon Affair"), he was among the leaders of the "Student Movement for Democracy," that opposed [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion")'s purported [authoritarianism](/wiki/Authoritarianism "Authoritarianism")."Differences of Opinion among Students," Maβariv, 5 February 1961\.
He wrote his [PhD](/wiki/PhD "PhD") thesis on medieval history at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University "Yale University"), under the supervision of [Roberto Sabatino Lopez](/wiki/Roberto_Sabatino_Lopez "Roberto Sabatino Lopez"), submitting his [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation "Dissertation") in 1969\.
Kedar returned to Israel in the same year and joined the faculty of the Hebrew University. In 1976β77 he was a [Humboldt Foundation](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt_Foundation "Alexander von Humboldt Foundation") research fellow at the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica "Monumenta Germaniae Historica"), [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"), in 1981β82 and again in 1997β98 a member of the [Institute for Advanced Study](/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study "Institute for Advanced Study") at [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey"), and in 1983β84 a fellow of the [Israel Institute for Advanced Studies](/wiki/Israel_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies "Israel Institute for Advanced Studies") in Jerusalem. In 1986, he was appointed [full professor](/wiki/Full_professor "Full professor") at Hebrew University.
Until her death in 2015, he was married to Nurith Kenaan\-Kedar, professor of Art History at [Tel Aviv University](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University "Tel Aviv University"), a descendant of the [Shertok family](/wiki/Moshe_Sharett "Moshe Sharett") and granddaughter of Baruch Katinsky, one of the founders of Tel Aviv.
"Baruch (Bendett) Katinsky," in [David Tidhar](/wiki/David_Tidhar "David Tidhar"), [Encyclopedia of the Founders and Builders of Israel](/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Founders_and_Builders_of_Israel "Encyclopedia of the Founders and Builders of Israel"), vol. 3, pp. 1187
8 (in Hebrew); Ziona Rabau, I am a Tel Avivian (Tel Aviv, 1984\), p. 138 (in [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew "Hebrew")).
He has two sons (from a previous marriage), Arnon and Yarden.
[thumb\|350px\|Kedar (standing 3rd from left) with Israeli President [Reuven Rivlin](/wiki/Reuven_Rivlin "Reuven Rivlin") along with current and former presidents of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/File:Presidents_of_the_Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities.jpg "Presidents of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.jpg")
### Activities within the Hebrew University
During 1990β96, Kedar was chair of the Research Students Authority (Section of [Humanities](/wiki/Humanities "Humanities"), [Social Sciences](/wiki/Social_Sciences "Social Sciences"), Law) of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1998β2001, he chaired the university's School of History, which he founded,[Diego Olstein](/wiki/Diego_Olstein "Diego Olstein"), Thinking History Globally (New York, 2015\), p. xiv.; Also in the introduction to In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. and where he introduced inter alia a course in world history compulsory for all incoming history students.the introduction to In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. By teaching this course, [Yuval Noah Harari](/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari "Yuval Noah Harari") evolved into a leading proponent of Big History. From 2001 to 2005, Kedar was director of the [Israel Institute for Advanced Studies](/wiki/Israel_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies "Israel Institute for Advanced Studies").[Benjamin Z. Kedar is given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Honoris Causa](http://bogcms.haifa.ac.il/images/00benjamin%20kedar.pdf), Haifa University site.
### Activities outside the Hebrew University
In 1987β92, Kedar chaired of the Standing Committee on Teachers' Colleges of the [Council for Higher Education in Israel](/wiki/Council_for_Higher_Education_in_Israel "Council for Higher Education in Israel"). During 2001β7, he was chair of the Section of Humanities of the [Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities "Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities").
During his incumbency he wrote two reports: the first discusses the future of the Humanities in Israel, and the second appraises the historical research in Israeli universities;[the historical research in Israeli universities](http://www.academy.ac.il/Index3/Entry.aspx?nodeId=842&entryId=18787). both were published in 2007\. In 2000β12, Kedar chaired the board of the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority "Israel Antiquities Authority"). Kedar is a corresponding fellow of the [Medieval Academy of America](/wiki/Medieval_Academy_of_America "Medieval Academy of America") (since 2005\),[Medieval Academy of America, Corresponding Fellows](http://www.medievalacademy.org/?page=CorrespondingFellows). and of the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica "Monumenta Germaniae Historica") (since 2006\). In 2001, he founded *Crusades, Journal of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East* (SSCLE), and has co\-edited it with [Jonathan Riley\-Smith](/wiki/Jonathan_Riley-Smith "Jonathan Riley-Smith"), and later with Jonathan Phillips. During 1995β2002, he was president of SSCLE, whose quadrennial conferences he convened in 1987 and 1999\. In 2007 he was awarded an [honorary degree](/wiki/Honorary_degree "Honorary degree") by [Haifa University](/wiki/Haifa_University "Haifa University").
In his first book, *October 1973: The Story of an Armored Battalion*, Kedar describes the battles of the battalion in which he served during the [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War") as communications NCO. The foreword to this book was written by the then division commander, later [Israel's prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel "Prime Minister of Israel"), [Ariel Sharon](/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon").{{cite book\| first\=Benjamin Z. \| last\=Kedar \| title\=October 1973: The Story of an Armored Battalion \| location\=Tel Aviv \| date\=1975 \| language\=Hebrew }} Kedar has written numerous opinion articles in Israel's daily newspapers; most of them were collected in a booklet.Kedar, Apocrypha, 1954β2004 (Modi\`in, 2005\).
In 2010, Kedar was elected vice\-president of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities alongside president [Ruth Arnon](/wiki/Ruth_Arnon "Ruth Arnon"). Their term ended in September 2015\.Asaf Shtull\-Trauring (22 June 2010\). [Academy of Sciences and Humanities Elects Prof. Ruth Arnon as Its First Woman President](http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/academy-of-sciences-and-humanities-elects-prof-ruth-arnon-as-its-first-woman-president-1.297553) in [Haarets](/wiki/Haarets "Haarets").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Kedar was born in [Nitra](/wiki/Nitra \"Nitra\"), [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Czechoslovakia \"Czechoslovakia\") to Samuel Kraus and Lydie Jeiteles\\-Kraus.Lydie Jeiteles\\-Kraus, Eine Prager Liebe (Jerusalem, 1995\\). Both his parents were physicians. In 1944β45, his family avoided deportation to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\") by hiding for seven months with [Slovak](/wiki/Slovaks \"Slovaks\") peasants.See Hani Kedar\\-Kehat, My Nitra. A Family's Struggle to Survive in Slovakia. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2015\\. He [immigrated to Israel](/wiki/Aliyah \"Aliyah\") with the [Youth Aliyah](/wiki/Youth_Aliyah \"Youth Aliyah\") in 1949\\. His parents arrived about two months later, and after a few months he went to live with them in [Kfar Netter](/wiki/Kfar_Netter \"Kfar Netter\") in the [Sharon Plain](/wiki/Sharon_Plain \"Sharon Plain\"). In 1952, he completed elementary school in [Even Yehuda](/wiki/Even_Yehuda \"Even Yehuda\"), and in 1956 the Fifth Municipal High School in [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\").In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar*, ed. [Iris Shagrir](/wiki/Iris_Shagrir \"Iris Shagrir\"), [Ronnie Ellenblum](/wiki/Ronnie_Ellenblum \"Ronnie Ellenblum\") and [Jonathan Riley\\-Smith](/wiki/Jonathan_Riley-Smith \"Jonathan Riley-Smith\"). Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\\. 468 introduction, p. x. He earned a [BA](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") in history and sociology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where he continued to graduate studies.In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar* , ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\\-Smith. Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\\. 468 introduction, p. x.",
"Kedar wrote his [MA](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") thesis under the supervision of [Joshua Prawer](/wiki/Joshua_Prawer \"Joshua Prawer\") (1964β1965\\).\"The Jerusalem University awarded 445 academic degrees,\" [Maβariv](/wiki/Ma%E2%80%99ariv \"Maβariv\"), 23 June 1966\\. And In laudem hierosolymitani. *Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar* , ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\\-Smith. Ashgate: Aldershot, 2007\\. 468 introduction, p. x. During the [Lavon Affair](/wiki/Lavon_Affair \"Lavon Affair\"), he was among the leaders of the \"Student Movement for Democracy,\" that opposed [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\")'s purported [authoritarianism](/wiki/Authoritarianism \"Authoritarianism\").\"Differences of Opinion among Students,\" Maβariv, 5 February 1961\\.\nHe wrote his [PhD](/wiki/PhD \"PhD\") thesis on medieval history at [Yale University](/wiki/Yale_University \"Yale University\"), under the supervision of [Roberto Sabatino Lopez](/wiki/Roberto_Sabatino_Lopez \"Roberto Sabatino Lopez\"), submitting his [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation \"Dissertation\") in 1969\\.",
"Kedar returned to Israel in the same year and joined the faculty of the Hebrew University. In 1976β77 he was a [Humboldt Foundation](/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt_Foundation \"Alexander von Humboldt Foundation\") research fellow at the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica\"), [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"), in 1981β82 and again in 1997β98 a member of the [Institute for Advanced Study](/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study \"Institute for Advanced Study\") at [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\"), and in 1983β84 a fellow of the [Israel Institute for Advanced Studies](/wiki/Israel_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies \"Israel Institute for Advanced Studies\") in Jerusalem. In 1986, he was appointed [full professor](/wiki/Full_professor \"Full professor\") at Hebrew University.\nUntil her death in 2015, he was married to Nurith Kenaan\\-Kedar, professor of Art History at [Tel Aviv University](/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University \"Tel Aviv University\"), a descendant of the [Shertok family](/wiki/Moshe_Sharett \"Moshe Sharett\") and granddaughter of Baruch Katinsky, one of the founders of Tel Aviv.\n\"Baruch (Bendett) Katinsky,\" in [David Tidhar](/wiki/David_Tidhar \"David Tidhar\"), [Encyclopedia of the Founders and Builders of Israel](/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Founders_and_Builders_of_Israel \"Encyclopedia of the Founders and Builders of Israel\"), vol. 3, pp. 1187\n8 (in Hebrew); Ziona Rabau, I am a Tel Avivian (Tel Aviv, 1984\\), p. 138 (in [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew \"Hebrew\")).\nHe has two sons (from a previous marriage), Arnon and Yarden.\n[thumb\\|350px\\|Kedar (standing 3rd from left) with Israeli President [Reuven Rivlin](/wiki/Reuven_Rivlin \"Reuven Rivlin\") along with current and former presidents of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/File:Presidents_of_the_Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities.jpg \"Presidents of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.jpg\")",
"### Activities within the Hebrew University",
"During 1990β96, Kedar was chair of the Research Students Authority (Section of [Humanities](/wiki/Humanities \"Humanities\"), [Social Sciences](/wiki/Social_Sciences \"Social Sciences\"), Law) of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1998β2001, he chaired the university's School of History, which he founded,[Diego Olstein](/wiki/Diego_Olstein \"Diego Olstein\"), Thinking History Globally (New York, 2015\\), p. xiv.; Also in the introduction to In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. and where he introduced inter alia a course in world history compulsory for all incoming history students.the introduction to In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. By teaching this course, [Yuval Noah Harari](/wiki/Yuval_Noah_Harari \"Yuval Noah Harari\") evolved into a leading proponent of Big History. From 2001 to 2005, Kedar was director of the [Israel Institute for Advanced Studies](/wiki/Israel_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies \"Israel Institute for Advanced Studies\").[Benjamin Z. Kedar is given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Honoris Causa](http://bogcms.haifa.ac.il/images/00benjamin%20kedar.pdf), Haifa University site.",
"### Activities outside the Hebrew University",
"In 1987β92, Kedar chaired of the Standing Committee on Teachers' Colleges of the [Council for Higher Education in Israel](/wiki/Council_for_Higher_Education_in_Israel \"Council for Higher Education in Israel\"). During 2001β7, he was chair of the Section of Humanities of the [Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities \"Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities\").\nDuring his incumbency he wrote two reports: the first discusses the future of the Humanities in Israel, and the second appraises the historical research in Israeli universities;[the historical research in Israeli universities](http://www.academy.ac.il/Index3/Entry.aspx?nodeId=842&entryId=18787). both were published in 2007\\. In 2000β12, Kedar chaired the board of the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority \"Israel Antiquities Authority\"). Kedar is a corresponding fellow of the [Medieval Academy of America](/wiki/Medieval_Academy_of_America \"Medieval Academy of America\") (since 2005\\),[Medieval Academy of America, Corresponding Fellows](http://www.medievalacademy.org/?page=CorrespondingFellows). and of the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica\") (since 2006\\). In 2001, he founded *Crusades, Journal of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East* (SSCLE), and has co\\-edited it with [Jonathan Riley\\-Smith](/wiki/Jonathan_Riley-Smith \"Jonathan Riley-Smith\"), and later with Jonathan Phillips. During 1995β2002, he was president of SSCLE, whose quadrennial conferences he convened in 1987 and 1999\\. In 2007 he was awarded an [honorary degree](/wiki/Honorary_degree \"Honorary degree\") by [Haifa University](/wiki/Haifa_University \"Haifa University\").",
"In his first book, *October 1973: The Story of an Armored Battalion*, Kedar describes the battles of the battalion in which he served during the [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War \"Yom Kippur War\") as communications NCO. The foreword to this book was written by the then division commander, later [Israel's prime minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel \"Prime Minister of Israel\"), [Ariel Sharon](/wiki/Ariel_Sharon \"Ariel Sharon\").{{cite book\\| first\\=Benjamin Z. \\| last\\=Kedar \\| title\\=October 1973: The Story of an Armored Battalion \\| location\\=Tel Aviv \\| date\\=1975 \\| language\\=Hebrew }} Kedar has written numerous opinion articles in Israel's daily newspapers; most of them were collected in a booklet.Kedar, Apocrypha, 1954β2004 (Modi\\`in, 2005\\).",
"In 2010, Kedar was elected vice\\-president of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities alongside president [Ruth Arnon](/wiki/Ruth_Arnon \"Ruth Arnon\"). Their term ended in September 2015\\.Asaf Shtull\\-Trauring (22 June 2010\\). [Academy of Sciences and Humanities Elects Prof. Ruth Arnon as Its First Woman President](http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/academy-of-sciences-and-humanities-elects-prof-ruth-arnon-as-its-first-woman-president-1.297553) in [Haarets](/wiki/Haarets \"Haarets\").",
""
] |
Research
--------
### Comparative history
Kedar's research spans different periods and cultures, with an emphasis on the European [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") and the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades "Crusades"). His studies compare different civilizations, utilizing a variety of [qualitative](/wiki/Qualitative_research "Qualitative research") and [quantitative methods](/wiki/Qualitative_research "Qualitative research"). Thus for example he compared, In his Crusade and Mission: [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") Approaches toward the [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") ([Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press "Princeton University Press"), 1984\)Crusade and Mission: European Approaches toward the Muslims. [Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press "Princeton University Press"): Princeton, 1984 (paperback edition, 1988\). the attitudes toward the [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") that took shape in [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium "Byzantium") and [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe") as well as among [Eastern Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Christianity "Eastern Christianity"), and. compared developments along [Latin Europe](/wiki/Romance-speaking_Europe "Romance-speaking Europe")'s three fronts with the realm of Islam: [Iberia](/wiki/Iberia "Iberia"), [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") and the Frankish Levant. Other comparative studies deal with medieval cartography in Korea, China, the Muslim world, Western Europe as well as in [pre\-Columbian America](/wiki/Pre-Columbian_America "Pre-Columbian America"); with Muslim, Byzantine and Frankish hospitals; with legislation in the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks "Franks") [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") and in Byzantium; and the comparative dimensions of medieval [pilgrimage](/wiki/Pilgrimage "Pilgrimage"). Kedar's interest in the theoretical aspects of this sub\-discipline led him to study outlines for comparative history set forth from the late 19th century onward.See Kedar, "Outlines for Comparative History proposed by Practicing Historians," in Benjamin Z. Kedar (ed.), Explorations in Comparative History (Jerusalem, 2009\), pp. 1β28\.
### Economic depression and merchant mentality
Kedar's first major research, based on his [PhD](/wiki/PhD "PhD") [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation "Dissertation"), was published in 1976 by [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press "Yale University Press");Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth\-Century Depression. [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press "Yale University Press"): New Haven and London, 1976\. 260 pp. an expanded version was translated into [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language "Italian language").Mercanti in crisi a Genova e Venezia nel '300\. Jouvence: Rome, 1981\. It examines the impact of the 14th century [economic depression](/wiki/Economic_depression "Economic depression") on the [mentality](/wiki/Mentality "Mentality") of [Genoese](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa") and [Venetian](/wiki/Venice "Venice") merchants and reveals that the depression entailed a shrinkage of horizons, a decrease in daring, and a growing quest for security. The idea of [insurance](/wiki/Insurance "Insurance") arose during this period, the geographical range of activity diminished and, instead of advancing to new regions, commerce was now largely limited to the long\-known [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") and [Black Seas](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea"). Kedar concluded that "the successful exploits in the late 13th century drove some \[merchants] to attempt the objectively unfeasible, whereas the setbacks in the mid\-14th century made even the objectively feasible seem too hazardous to try."Kedar, Merchants in Crisis, p. 132\. In later years, Kedar made various contributions to the history of Genoa, from drawing attention to a new Arabic source on the Muslim attack on Genoa in 934 to a study of the Genoese notariate in 1382\."Segurano\-Sakran Salvaygo: Un mercante genovese al servizio dei sultani mamalucchi, c. 1303β1322," in Fatti e idee di storia economica nei secoli XIIβXX. Studi dedicati a Franco Borlandi (Bologna, 1976\), pp. 75β91; (with E. Ashtor:) "Una guerra fra Genova e i Mamlucchi negli anni 1380," Archivio Storico Italiano 133 (1975\), 3β44; "The Genoese Notaries of 1382: The Anatomy of an Urban Occupational Group," in The Medieval City. Studies in Honor of Robert S. Lopez, ed. H.A. Miskimin, D. Herlihy and A.L. Udovitch (New Haven and London, 1977\), pp. 73\-94; "Chi era Andrea Franco?" Atti della SocietΓ ligure di Storia Patria 91 (1977\), 371β77; "Una nuova fonte per l'incursione musulmana del 934\-935 e le sue implicazioni per la storia genovese," in Oriente e Occidente fra medioevo ed etΓ moderna: Studi in onore di Geo Pistarino, ed. L. Balletto (Genoa, 1997\), pp. 605β16\.
### The study of personal names
Kedar is one of the pioneers of the study of medieval [personal names](/wiki/Personal_name "Personal name"). In his first articleKedar, "Noms de saints et mentalitΓ© populaire Γ GΓͺnes au XIVe siΓ¨cle," Moyen Age 73 (1967\), pp. 431\-46\.For a list of Kedar's publications down to 2006 see In Laudem Hierosolymitani. Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar, ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\-Smith (Aldershot, 2007\), pp. xiiiβxxiii. as well as in the above\-mentioned book on the Genoese and Venetian merchants he studied changes in naming fashions through the analysis of long lists of citizens that had been compiled at different dates. He argued that while most medieval people did not leave a direct testimony regarding their mentality, it is possible to approximate it via the names they chose to give their children. That is, the child's personal name serves as an indirect indicator of some facet of the parent's [mentality](/wiki/Mentality "Mentality"). Consequently, a change in name\-giving fashion may be taken as an indication of a shift in group mentality. An article written with his student Muhammad al\-Hajjuj, deals with a list of Muslim villagers from the [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus "Nablus") area, who fled from Frankish rule to Muslim Damascus in the middle of the 12th century. Analysis of this list allowed for the reconstruction of family size and revealed the distribution of personal names. Comparison with the names of children born in the same area in the years 1905β25 revealed a remarkable similarity of the most common names given in the mid\-12th to those given in the early 20th century."Muslim Villagers of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem: Some Demographic and Onomastic Data", in ItinΓ©raires d'Orient. Hommages Γ Claude Cahen, ed. E. Curiel and R. Gyselen \[\=Res Orientales, vol. 6], (Bures\-sur\-Yvette, 1994\), pp. 145β56\.
### The crusades
A large part of Kedar's studies deals with the crusades and the Frankish [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem"), established in the wake of the [First Crusade](/wiki/First_Crusade "First Crusade"). In these studies he exhibits "an ability to change thinking through a rigorous and imaginative treatment of source\-material that has often been ignored by others"In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. and to "peel away unfounded assumptions and unwarranted traditions of historical orthodoxy."[C.J. Tyerman](/wiki/C.J._Tyerman "C.J. Tyerman"), review article of In Laudem Hierosolymitani in *[English Historical Review](/wiki/English_Historical_Review "English Historical Review")* 125 (2010\), p. 143\. Topically, he has discussed the relationship of crusading and [conversion](/wiki/Religious_conversion "Religious conversion"); [demography](/wiki/Demography "Demography"); [intellectual](/wiki/Intellectual "Intellectual"), ecclesiastical, [legal](/wiki/Legal "Legal") and [military history](/wiki/Military_history "Military history"); the relationships of the Frankish rulers with their indigenous subjects; medicine; pilgrimage; [eremitism](/wiki/Hermit "Hermit"); [taxation](/wiki/Taxation "Taxation"); [topography](/wiki/Topography "Topography"); mutual perceptions of motivation by Franks and Muslims; and much more. His longitudinal examination of the descriptions of the [Jerusalem massacre of July 1099](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%281099%29 "Siege of Jerusalem (1099)"), from eyewitness reports down to the present,Kedar, "The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades," Crusades 3 (2004\), pp. 15β75\. "sets new standards for the [historiographical](/wiki/Historiographical "Historiographical") analysis of individual events during the crusades."[Norman Housley](/wiki/Norman_Housley "Norman Housley"), Contesting the Crusades (Oxford, 2006\), p. vii. He has also shown that it is possible to establish the age of medieval mortars through radiocarbon datings of the organic components embedded in them.Kedar (with A. Kaufman:) "Radiocarbon Measurements of Medieval Mortars: A Preliminary Report," Israel Exploration Journal 25 (1975\), 36β38; Kedar (with G.A. Mook:) "Radiocarbon Dating of Mortar from the City\-Wall of Ascalon," Israel Exploration Journal 28 (1978\), 173β76; Nechemia Meyers, "Letter from Israel," [Nature](/wiki/Nature_%28journal%29 "Nature (journal)"), vol. 255, 29 May 1975, p. 364\. Turning to present\-day developments, he analyzed the uses of the Crusader motif in [Israeli political](/wiki/Politics_of_Israel "Politics of Israel") discourse, distinguishing between three approaches: a total denial of the possibility of comparison between the Frankish Kingdom and the [Zionist](/wiki/Zionist "Zionist") enterprise; attempts to draw lessons from the Crusaders' failure; and taking recourse to the Crusaders in order to reinforce a political argument, usually critical of the Israeli establishment.Kedar, "Il motivo della crociata nel pensiero politico israeliano," in Verso Gerusalemme. II Convegno Internazionale nel IX Centenario della I Crociata (1099β1999\). Bari, 11β13 gennaio 1999, ed. F. Cardini, M. Belloli, B. Vetere (Lecce, 1999\), pp. 135β50\. An enlarged and updated version appeared in Hebrew in Alpayyim 26 (2004\), 9β40\.
### Aerial photographs as a historical source
In his book *Looking Twice at the Land of Israel: Aerial Photographs of 1917β18 and 1987β91*, written in Hebrew and published in 1991,Looking Twice at the Land of Israel. [Aerial Photographs](/wiki/Aerial_photography "Aerial photography") of 1917β1918 and 1987β91\. Yad Izhak Ben\-Zvi and Israel Ministry of Defense: Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, 1991\. 239 pp. (in Hebrew). Kedar proposes a new way of looking at the history of the country during the 20th century. Aerial photographs of a given area, taken at different dates, enable to observe the major types of physical change that took place in it over time: processes of construction and destruction, change in land use, continuity and innovation in the road system, and much more. In other words, these aerial photographs constitute a new, "promising historical source β limited in scope, because a view from the air discloses only certain material aspects, but candid and hardly assailable as far as these aspects go. In an age in which the feasibility of an unbiased account has been widely called into question, the photographs may tell a uniquely objective if rudimentary story about a country whose recent past has become so befogged by conflicting, self\-righteous and often inflammatory '[narratives](/wiki/Narratives "Narratives")'.Kedar, The Changing Land..., p. 16 and back cover. An early aerial photograph can also reveal ancient remnants that have disappeared in the meantime: for example, an aerial photograph of [Merhavia](/wiki/Merhavia_%28kibbutz%29 "Merhavia (kibbutz)") in 1918 clearly shows the outline of the Frankish 12th century castle of La FΓ¨ve, today covered by houses and lawns.Kedar, The Changing Land..., pp. 178β179{{cite journal \|last1\= Kedar \|first1\= Benjamin Z. \|last2\= Pringle \|first2\= Denys \|title\= La FΓ¨ve: A Crusader Castle in the Jezreel Valley \|pages\= 164β179 \|journal\= Israel Exploration Journal \|publisher\= Israel Exploration Society \|volume\= 35 \|number\= 2/3 \|year\= 1985 \|jstor\= 27925983 \|url\= https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27925983 \|access\-date\=3 November 2020}}
While the 1991 book juxtaposes aerial photographs from two points in time, the extended and updated English version, *The Changing Land between the Jordan and the Sea*, published in 1999, allows to compare aerial photographs of the same area taken at four points in time: 1917β18, around 1948, around 1967 and in the 1990s.
Examination of the 1917β18 photographs allowed Kedar also to reassess the crucial [Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917](/wiki/Battle_of_Beersheba_%281917%29 "Battle of Beersheba (1917)"), as well as other developments on the [Palestine front](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign "Sinai and Palestine campaign") during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")."The Conquest of Beersheba, 1917, Revisited: The Crucial Role of German Air Squadron No. 301", in Palestine and World War I βGrand Strategy, Tactics and Culture in War, ed. Eran Dolev, Yigal Sheffy and Haim Goren (London β New York, 2014\), pp. 58β69\.
### Explication of a 7th\-century apocalypse
A further example for the use of a variety of research methods is the explication of a statement in a 7th\-century Syriac [apocalypse](/wiki/Apocalypse "Apocalypse") on the impact of the Arab conquests on trees and vegetation. Utilizing [palynological](/wiki/Palynology "Palynology") studies and [satellite imagery](/wiki/Satellite_imagery "Satellite imagery") Kedar reaches the conclusion that the statement in the apocalypse was rooted in reality."The Arab Conquests and Agriculture: A Seventh\-Century Apocalypse, Satellite Imagery, and Palynology," Asian and African Studies 19 (1985\), 1β15\.
### World history
In his earliest contribution to this subfield, Kedar analyzed the phenomenon of [expulsion](/wiki/Deportation "Deportation") throughout history, and reached the conclusion that systematic corporate expulsion by governmental [decree](/wiki/Decree "Decree") constitutes a characteristic of Western European civilization, where it recurred from the 12th century onward. He identified a persistent pattern: the ruler decides that a group is dangerous to society; he orders to remove its members beyond the borders; usually these members are given three months to liquidate their affairs. While expulsion aimed most frequently at [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), other groups β [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards "Lombards") and [Cahorsins](/wiki/Cahorsins "Cahorsins"), [Moriscos](/wiki/Moriscos "Moriscos"), [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants "Protestants"), [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits") and [Mormons](/wiki/Mormons "Mormons")βwere also expelled between the 13th and 19th centuries. With the expansion of European civilization to other continents, the practice struck roots there as well, with [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin "Idi Amin")'s expulsion of Asians from [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda") in 1972 being a recent example.Kedar, "Expulsion as an Issue of World History", [Journal of World History](/wiki/Journal_of_World_History "Journal of World History") 7 (1996\), pp. 165β180\.
Other world historical studies dealt with the role of surviving elites in ensuring various degrees of cultural persistence in the wake of, or despite, the collapse of a state or a regime,Kedar, "Cultural Persistence despite Total Political Collapse", in Images of the Past. Collection in Memory of A. Ja. Gurevich, ed. Irina G. Galkova et al., (St. Petersburg, 2011\), pp. 207β12 (in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language")). and with the role of harbor and river chains in world history from Antiquity onward.Kedar, "Prolegomena to a World History of Harbour and River Chains", in Shipping, Trade and Crusade in the Medieval Mediterranean. Studies in Honour of John Pryor, ed. Ruthy Gertwagen and [Elizabeth Jeffreys](/wiki/Elizabeth_Jeffreys "Elizabeth Jeffreys") (Farnham, 2012\), pp. 3β37\. More recently he co\-edited, with [Merry Wiesner\-Hanks](/wiki/Merry_Wiesner-Hanks "Merry Wiesner-Hanks"), the volume of [The Cambridge World History](/wiki/The_Cambridge_World_History "The Cambridge World History") that deals with the "Middle Millennium", i.e., the period 500β1500 CE. In his introduction to this volume, he contrasted the growing knowledge about the world's appearance attested by maps on the one hand, with the largely civilization\-centric works of history on the other hand, and outlined the sporadic and regular trans\-civilizational relations of that age.Kedar and Wiesner\-Hanks, "Introduction", Cambridge History of the World, vol. 5: Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500 CE β 1500 CE (Cambridge, 2015\), pp. 1β27\.
### Regional history
In his "History of the [Modi\`in](/wiki/Modi%27in-Maccabim-Re%27ut "Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut") Region," published in 2014, Kedar dealt with the past of a specific region from [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") times onward, treating equitably all periods. The region in question is the one in which the new Israeli town of Modi\`in was erected in the 1990s. Contrary to many Israeli accounts that focus almost exclusively on the Jewish periods in the country's history, Kedar dwells on all periods even\-handedly and presents a wealth of data on the [Arab](/wiki/Arab "Arab") villages that existed in the region until 1948, some of which were already mentioned in Latin [charters](/wiki/Charter "Charter") of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem."The History of the Modi\`in Region," in The City Modi\`in, ed. Eyal Miron (Jerusalem, 2014\), pp. 18β81 \[in Hebrew].
### Some discoveries
Kedar discovered a number of unknown texts from the period of the Crusades. Among these are a series of [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin")\-written [biographies](/wiki/Biographies "Biographies") of [hermits](/wiki/Hermit "Hermit") who lived in the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century,Kedar, "Gerard of Nazareth: A Neglected Twelfth\-Century Writer in the Latin East. A Contribution to the Intellectual and Monastic History of the Crusader States", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 37 (1983\), 55β77; "The Latin Hermits of the Frankish Levant Revisited", in "Come lβorco della fiaba." Studi per Franco Cardini, ed. Marina Montesano (Florence, 2010\), pp. 185β202\. and a series of Arabic\-written stories about Muslim holy men who lived under Frankish rule in the area of [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus "Nablus"); he entrusted the publication of the latter series to his student Daniella Talmon\-Heller.Daniella Talmon\-Heller, "The Cited Tales of the Wondrous Doings of the Shaykhs of the Holy Land by Diya' al\-Din Abu \`Abdallah Muhammad b. \`Abd al\-Wahid al\-Maqdisi (569/1173 β 643/1245\). Text, Translation and Commentary", Crusades 1 (2002\), pp. 111β154\. He also deciphered a detailed description of everyday routine in the [Jerusalem Hospital](/wiki/Muristan%23Crusader_period "Muristan#Crusader period"), written apparently around 1180,Kedar, "A Twelfth\-Century Description of the Jerusalem Hospital" ,in The Military Orders: Welfare and Warfare, ed. Helen Nicholson (Aldershot, 1998\), pp. 3β26\. and published an unknown letter in which [Eraclius](/wiki/Patriarch_Heraclius_of_Jerusalem "Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem"), the last Latin [Patriarch](/wiki/Patriarch "Patriarch") to reside in Jerusalem, called for help from the West as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin")'s armies were approaching the city in 1187\.Kedar, "Ein Hilferuf aus Jerusalem vom September 1187", Deutsches Archiv fΓΌr Erforschung des Mittelalters 38 (1982\), pp. 112β22\. Kedar discovered also the original text of [Chaim Weizmann](/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann "Chaim Weizmann")'s address at the laying of the foundation stones of the Hebrew University in July 1918,Kedar, "Laying the Foundation Stones for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 24 July 1918", in The History of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, ed. Shaul Katz and Michael Heyd (Jerusalem, 1997\), pp. 90β119 \[in Hebrew]. as well as suppressed passages of Weizmann's [autobiography](/wiki/Autobiography "Autobiography").Kedar, "Unpublished Sections on Science in the Drafts of Trial ad Error", in Kedar, ed., Chaim Weizmann: Scientist, Statesman and Architect of Science Policy (Jerusalem, 2015\), pp. 249β259\. \[in Hebrew].
### A Bavarian historian reinvents himself
In 2011, Kedar published, with [Peter Herde](/wiki/Peter_Herde "Peter Herde") of [WΓΌrzburg University](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_University "WΓΌrzburg University"), a book that revealed that [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl "Karl Bosl"), one of Bavaria's most prominent historians in the post\-1945 era, had manifold links with the Nazi regime and as late as December 1944 extolled the struggle for the preservation of [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler "Hitler")'s [Reich](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). Yet immediately after the war he asserted that he had risked his life in activities against the Nazi regime, and succeeded in persuading a [Denazification](/wiki/Denazification "Denazification") [Tribunal](/wiki/Tribunal "Tribunal") that this had been the case. The book is based on a large number of unpublished official and private documents. [Ian Kershaw](/wiki/Ian_Kershaw "Ian Kershaw") appraised it as "an excellent piece of detective work."Benjamin Z. Kedar and Peter Herde, A Bavarian Historian Reinvents Himself : Karl Bosl and the Third Reich, Magnes Press, 2011\.
In the wake of the book's publication, the municipality of [Cham](/wiki/Cham%2C_Germany "Cham, Germany"), the town in which Bosl was born, decided to rename the square called after him.Hans Kratzer, "Wegen dubioser NS\-Vergangenheit: Cham stΓΌrzt das Denkmal Bosls", SΓΌddeutsche Zeitung, 29 November 2011, p. 16\.
### Scholarly initiatives
In 1977 Kedar proposed to Professor Horst Fuhrmann, the then\-president of the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica "Monumenta Germaniae Historica"), to launch a series of critically edited Hebrew texts written in the German lands in medieval times. In 2001, when Kedar chaired the Humanities Section of the [Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities "Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities"), the Academy and the MGH signed a formal agreement to publish the series *HebrΓ€ische Texte aus dem mittelalterlichen Deutschland*; the first volume appeared in 2005,Kedar and Rudolf Schieffer, "Geleitwort," in HebrΓ€ische Berichte ΓΌber die Judenverfolgungen wΓ€hrend des Ersten Kreuzzugs, ed. Eva Haverkamp, MGH. HebrΓ€ische Texte aus dem mittelalterlichen Deutschland, 1 (Hanover, 2005\), pp. viiβviii. and the second in 2016\.
In 2009, Kedar and [Oleg Grabar](/wiki/Oleg_Grabar "Oleg Grabar") (of the [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey") [Institute for Advanced Study](/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study "Institute for Advanced Study")) edited a book on the past and the present of [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem")'s [Temple Mount](/wiki/Temple_Mount "Temple Mount") / al\-Haram al\-Sharif, whose possession has become of the thorniest issues impeding an Israeli\-Palestinian rapprochement. The initiative was unprecedented, inasmuch as it succeeded in securing the sponsorship of an Israeli, a Palestinian and a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") institute of higher learning, all located in Jerusalem; the authors of the book's chapters were Israeli, Palestinian, European and American scholars.Kedar and Grabar, eds., Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem's Sacred Esplanade. Jerusalem and Austin, Texas, 2009\.
### Recent research
As of 2023, Kedar is completing a book on the socio\-cultural history of the Frankish kingdoms of Jerusalem and Acre.
|
[
"Research\n--------",
"### Comparative history",
"Kedar's research spans different periods and cultures, with an emphasis on the European [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") and the [crusades](/wiki/Crusades \"Crusades\"). His studies compare different civilizations, utilizing a variety of [qualitative](/wiki/Qualitative_research \"Qualitative research\") and [quantitative methods](/wiki/Qualitative_research \"Qualitative research\"). Thus for example he compared, In his Crusade and Mission: [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") Approaches toward the [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") ([Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press \"Princeton University Press\"), 1984\\)Crusade and Mission: European Approaches toward the Muslims. [Princeton University Press](/wiki/Princeton_University_Press \"Princeton University Press\"): Princeton, 1984 (paperback edition, 1988\\). the attitudes toward the [Muslims](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") that took shape in [Byzantium](/wiki/Byzantium \"Byzantium\") and [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\") as well as among [Eastern Christians](/wiki/Eastern_Christianity \"Eastern Christianity\"), and. compared developments along [Latin Europe](/wiki/Romance-speaking_Europe \"Romance-speaking Europe\")'s three fronts with the realm of Islam: [Iberia](/wiki/Iberia \"Iberia\"), [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") and the Frankish Levant. Other comparative studies deal with medieval cartography in Korea, China, the Muslim world, Western Europe as well as in [pre\\-Columbian America](/wiki/Pre-Columbian_America \"Pre-Columbian America\"); with Muslim, Byzantine and Frankish hospitals; with legislation in the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") and in Byzantium; and the comparative dimensions of medieval [pilgrimage](/wiki/Pilgrimage \"Pilgrimage\"). Kedar's interest in the theoretical aspects of this sub\\-discipline led him to study outlines for comparative history set forth from the late 19th century onward.See Kedar, \"Outlines for Comparative History proposed by Practicing Historians,\" in Benjamin Z. Kedar (ed.), Explorations in Comparative History (Jerusalem, 2009\\), pp. 1β28\\.",
"### Economic depression and merchant mentality",
"Kedar's first major research, based on his [PhD](/wiki/PhD \"PhD\") [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation \"Dissertation\"), was published in 1976 by [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press \"Yale University Press\");Merchants in Crisis: Genoese and Venetian Men of Affairs and the Fourteenth\\-Century Depression. [Yale University Press](/wiki/Yale_University_Press \"Yale University Press\"): New Haven and London, 1976\\. 260 pp. an expanded version was translated into [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language \"Italian language\").Mercanti in crisi a Genova e Venezia nel '300\\. Jouvence: Rome, 1981\\. It examines the impact of the 14th century [economic depression](/wiki/Economic_depression \"Economic depression\") on the [mentality](/wiki/Mentality \"Mentality\") of [Genoese](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\") and [Venetian](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") merchants and reveals that the depression entailed a shrinkage of horizons, a decrease in daring, and a growing quest for security. The idea of [insurance](/wiki/Insurance \"Insurance\") arose during this period, the geographical range of activity diminished and, instead of advancing to new regions, commerce was now largely limited to the long\\-known [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") and [Black Seas](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\"). Kedar concluded that \"the successful exploits in the late 13th century drove some \\[merchants] to attempt the objectively unfeasible, whereas the setbacks in the mid\\-14th century made even the objectively feasible seem too hazardous to try.\"Kedar, Merchants in Crisis, p. 132\\. In later years, Kedar made various contributions to the history of Genoa, from drawing attention to a new Arabic source on the Muslim attack on Genoa in 934 to a study of the Genoese notariate in 1382\\.\"Segurano\\-Sakran Salvaygo: Un mercante genovese al servizio dei sultani mamalucchi, c. 1303β1322,\" in Fatti e idee di storia economica nei secoli XIIβXX. Studi dedicati a Franco Borlandi (Bologna, 1976\\), pp. 75β91; (with E. Ashtor:) \"Una guerra fra Genova e i Mamlucchi negli anni 1380,\" Archivio Storico Italiano 133 (1975\\), 3β44; \"The Genoese Notaries of 1382: The Anatomy of an Urban Occupational Group,\" in The Medieval City. Studies in Honor of Robert S. Lopez, ed. H.A. Miskimin, D. Herlihy and A.L. Udovitch (New Haven and London, 1977\\), pp. 73\\-94; \"Chi era Andrea Franco?\" Atti della SocietΓ ligure di Storia Patria 91 (1977\\), 371β77; \"Una nuova fonte per l'incursione musulmana del 934\\-935 e le sue implicazioni per la storia genovese,\" in Oriente e Occidente fra medioevo ed etΓ moderna: Studi in onore di Geo Pistarino, ed. L. Balletto (Genoa, 1997\\), pp. 605β16\\.",
"### The study of personal names",
"Kedar is one of the pioneers of the study of medieval [personal names](/wiki/Personal_name \"Personal name\"). In his first articleKedar, \"Noms de saints et mentalitΓ© populaire Γ GΓͺnes au XIVe siΓ¨cle,\" Moyen Age 73 (1967\\), pp. 431\\-46\\.For a list of Kedar's publications down to 2006 see In Laudem Hierosolymitani. Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar, ed. Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley\\-Smith (Aldershot, 2007\\), pp. xiiiβxxiii. as well as in the above\\-mentioned book on the Genoese and Venetian merchants he studied changes in naming fashions through the analysis of long lists of citizens that had been compiled at different dates. He argued that while most medieval people did not leave a direct testimony regarding their mentality, it is possible to approximate it via the names they chose to give their children. That is, the child's personal name serves as an indirect indicator of some facet of the parent's [mentality](/wiki/Mentality \"Mentality\"). Consequently, a change in name\\-giving fashion may be taken as an indication of a shift in group mentality. An article written with his student Muhammad al\\-Hajjuj, deals with a list of Muslim villagers from the [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus \"Nablus\") area, who fled from Frankish rule to Muslim Damascus in the middle of the 12th century. Analysis of this list allowed for the reconstruction of family size and revealed the distribution of personal names. Comparison with the names of children born in the same area in the years 1905β25 revealed a remarkable similarity of the most common names given in the mid\\-12th to those given in the early 20th century.\"Muslim Villagers of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem: Some Demographic and Onomastic Data\", in ItinΓ©raires d'Orient. Hommages Γ Claude Cahen, ed. E. Curiel and R. Gyselen \\[\\=Res Orientales, vol. 6], (Bures\\-sur\\-Yvette, 1994\\), pp. 145β56\\.",
"### The crusades",
"A large part of Kedar's studies deals with the crusades and the Frankish [Kingdom of Jerusalem](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\"), established in the wake of the [First Crusade](/wiki/First_Crusade \"First Crusade\"). In these studies he exhibits \"an ability to change thinking through a rigorous and imaginative treatment of source\\-material that has often been ignored by others\"In Laudem Hierosolymitani, p. xi. and to \"peel away unfounded assumptions and unwarranted traditions of historical orthodoxy.\"[C.J. Tyerman](/wiki/C.J._Tyerman \"C.J. Tyerman\"), review article of In Laudem Hierosolymitani in *[English Historical Review](/wiki/English_Historical_Review \"English Historical Review\")* 125 (2010\\), p. 143\\. Topically, he has discussed the relationship of crusading and [conversion](/wiki/Religious_conversion \"Religious conversion\"); [demography](/wiki/Demography \"Demography\"); [intellectual](/wiki/Intellectual \"Intellectual\"), ecclesiastical, [legal](/wiki/Legal \"Legal\") and [military history](/wiki/Military_history \"Military history\"); the relationships of the Frankish rulers with their indigenous subjects; medicine; pilgrimage; [eremitism](/wiki/Hermit \"Hermit\"); [taxation](/wiki/Taxation \"Taxation\"); [topography](/wiki/Topography \"Topography\"); mutual perceptions of motivation by Franks and Muslims; and much more. His longitudinal examination of the descriptions of the [Jerusalem massacre of July 1099](/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_%281099%29 \"Siege of Jerusalem (1099)\"), from eyewitness reports down to the present,Kedar, \"The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades,\" Crusades 3 (2004\\), pp. 15β75\\. \"sets new standards for the [historiographical](/wiki/Historiographical \"Historiographical\") analysis of individual events during the crusades.\"[Norman Housley](/wiki/Norman_Housley \"Norman Housley\"), Contesting the Crusades (Oxford, 2006\\), p. vii. He has also shown that it is possible to establish the age of medieval mortars through radiocarbon datings of the organic components embedded in them.Kedar (with A. Kaufman:) \"Radiocarbon Measurements of Medieval Mortars: A Preliminary Report,\" Israel Exploration Journal 25 (1975\\), 36β38; Kedar (with G.A. Mook:) \"Radiocarbon Dating of Mortar from the City\\-Wall of Ascalon,\" Israel Exploration Journal 28 (1978\\), 173β76; Nechemia Meyers, \"Letter from Israel,\" [Nature](/wiki/Nature_%28journal%29 \"Nature (journal)\"), vol. 255, 29 May 1975, p. 364\\. Turning to present\\-day developments, he analyzed the uses of the Crusader motif in [Israeli political](/wiki/Politics_of_Israel \"Politics of Israel\") discourse, distinguishing between three approaches: a total denial of the possibility of comparison between the Frankish Kingdom and the [Zionist](/wiki/Zionist \"Zionist\") enterprise; attempts to draw lessons from the Crusaders' failure; and taking recourse to the Crusaders in order to reinforce a political argument, usually critical of the Israeli establishment.Kedar, \"Il motivo della crociata nel pensiero politico israeliano,\" in Verso Gerusalemme. II Convegno Internazionale nel IX Centenario della I Crociata (1099β1999\\). Bari, 11β13 gennaio 1999, ed. F. Cardini, M. Belloli, B. Vetere (Lecce, 1999\\), pp. 135β50\\. An enlarged and updated version appeared in Hebrew in Alpayyim 26 (2004\\), 9β40\\.",
"### Aerial photographs as a historical source",
"In his book *Looking Twice at the Land of Israel: Aerial Photographs of 1917β18 and 1987β91*, written in Hebrew and published in 1991,Looking Twice at the Land of Israel. [Aerial Photographs](/wiki/Aerial_photography \"Aerial photography\") of 1917β1918 and 1987β91\\. Yad Izhak Ben\\-Zvi and Israel Ministry of Defense: Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, 1991\\. 239 pp. (in Hebrew). Kedar proposes a new way of looking at the history of the country during the 20th century. Aerial photographs of a given area, taken at different dates, enable to observe the major types of physical change that took place in it over time: processes of construction and destruction, change in land use, continuity and innovation in the road system, and much more. In other words, these aerial photographs constitute a new, \"promising historical source β limited in scope, because a view from the air discloses only certain material aspects, but candid and hardly assailable as far as these aspects go. In an age in which the feasibility of an unbiased account has been widely called into question, the photographs may tell a uniquely objective if rudimentary story about a country whose recent past has become so befogged by conflicting, self\\-righteous and often inflammatory '[narratives](/wiki/Narratives \"Narratives\")'.Kedar, The Changing Land..., p. 16 and back cover. An early aerial photograph can also reveal ancient remnants that have disappeared in the meantime: for example, an aerial photograph of [Merhavia](/wiki/Merhavia_%28kibbutz%29 \"Merhavia (kibbutz)\") in 1918 clearly shows the outline of the Frankish 12th century castle of La FΓ¨ve, today covered by houses and lawns.Kedar, The Changing Land..., pp. 178β179{{cite journal \\|last1\\= Kedar \\|first1\\= Benjamin Z. \\|last2\\= Pringle \\|first2\\= Denys \\|title\\= La FΓ¨ve: A Crusader Castle in the Jezreel Valley \\|pages\\= 164β179 \\|journal\\= Israel Exploration Journal \\|publisher\\= Israel Exploration Society \\|volume\\= 35 \\|number\\= 2/3 \\|year\\= 1985 \\|jstor\\= 27925983 \\|url\\= https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27925983 \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2020}}",
"While the 1991 book juxtaposes aerial photographs from two points in time, the extended and updated English version, *The Changing Land between the Jordan and the Sea*, published in 1999, allows to compare aerial photographs of the same area taken at four points in time: 1917β18, around 1948, around 1967 and in the 1990s.",
"Examination of the 1917β18 photographs allowed Kedar also to reassess the crucial [Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917](/wiki/Battle_of_Beersheba_%281917%29 \"Battle of Beersheba (1917)\"), as well as other developments on the [Palestine front](/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_campaign \"Sinai and Palestine campaign\") during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\").\"The Conquest of Beersheba, 1917, Revisited: The Crucial Role of German Air Squadron No. 301\", in Palestine and World War I βGrand Strategy, Tactics and Culture in War, ed. Eran Dolev, Yigal Sheffy and Haim Goren (London β New York, 2014\\), pp. 58β69\\.",
"### Explication of a 7th\\-century apocalypse",
"A further example for the use of a variety of research methods is the explication of a statement in a 7th\\-century Syriac [apocalypse](/wiki/Apocalypse \"Apocalypse\") on the impact of the Arab conquests on trees and vegetation. Utilizing [palynological](/wiki/Palynology \"Palynology\") studies and [satellite imagery](/wiki/Satellite_imagery \"Satellite imagery\") Kedar reaches the conclusion that the statement in the apocalypse was rooted in reality.\"The Arab Conquests and Agriculture: A Seventh\\-Century Apocalypse, Satellite Imagery, and Palynology,\" Asian and African Studies 19 (1985\\), 1β15\\.",
"### World history",
"In his earliest contribution to this subfield, Kedar analyzed the phenomenon of [expulsion](/wiki/Deportation \"Deportation\") throughout history, and reached the conclusion that systematic corporate expulsion by governmental [decree](/wiki/Decree \"Decree\") constitutes a characteristic of Western European civilization, where it recurred from the 12th century onward. He identified a persistent pattern: the ruler decides that a group is dangerous to society; he orders to remove its members beyond the borders; usually these members are given three months to liquidate their affairs. While expulsion aimed most frequently at [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), other groups β [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards \"Lombards\") and [Cahorsins](/wiki/Cahorsins \"Cahorsins\"), [Moriscos](/wiki/Moriscos \"Moriscos\"), [Protestants](/wiki/Protestants \"Protestants\"), [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\") and [Mormons](/wiki/Mormons \"Mormons\")βwere also expelled between the 13th and 19th centuries. With the expansion of European civilization to other continents, the practice struck roots there as well, with [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin \"Idi Amin\")'s expulsion of Asians from [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\") in 1972 being a recent example.Kedar, \"Expulsion as an Issue of World History\", [Journal of World History](/wiki/Journal_of_World_History \"Journal of World History\") 7 (1996\\), pp. 165β180\\.",
"Other world historical studies dealt with the role of surviving elites in ensuring various degrees of cultural persistence in the wake of, or despite, the collapse of a state or a regime,Kedar, \"Cultural Persistence despite Total Political Collapse\", in Images of the Past. Collection in Memory of A. Ja. Gurevich, ed. Irina G. Galkova et al., (St. Petersburg, 2011\\), pp. 207β12 (in [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\")). and with the role of harbor and river chains in world history from Antiquity onward.Kedar, \"Prolegomena to a World History of Harbour and River Chains\", in Shipping, Trade and Crusade in the Medieval Mediterranean. Studies in Honour of John Pryor, ed. Ruthy Gertwagen and [Elizabeth Jeffreys](/wiki/Elizabeth_Jeffreys \"Elizabeth Jeffreys\") (Farnham, 2012\\), pp. 3β37\\. More recently he co\\-edited, with [Merry Wiesner\\-Hanks](/wiki/Merry_Wiesner-Hanks \"Merry Wiesner-Hanks\"), the volume of [The Cambridge World History](/wiki/The_Cambridge_World_History \"The Cambridge World History\") that deals with the \"Middle Millennium\", i.e., the period 500β1500 CE. In his introduction to this volume, he contrasted the growing knowledge about the world's appearance attested by maps on the one hand, with the largely civilization\\-centric works of history on the other hand, and outlined the sporadic and regular trans\\-civilizational relations of that age.Kedar and Wiesner\\-Hanks, \"Introduction\", Cambridge History of the World, vol. 5: Expanding Webs of Exchange and Conflict, 500 CE β 1500 CE (Cambridge, 2015\\), pp. 1β27\\.",
"### Regional history",
"In his \"History of the [Modi\\`in](/wiki/Modi%27in-Maccabim-Re%27ut \"Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut\") Region,\" published in 2014, Kedar dealt with the past of a specific region from [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") times onward, treating equitably all periods. The region in question is the one in which the new Israeli town of Modi\\`in was erected in the 1990s. Contrary to many Israeli accounts that focus almost exclusively on the Jewish periods in the country's history, Kedar dwells on all periods even\\-handedly and presents a wealth of data on the [Arab](/wiki/Arab \"Arab\") villages that existed in the region until 1948, some of which were already mentioned in Latin [charters](/wiki/Charter \"Charter\") of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem.\"The History of the Modi\\`in Region,\" in The City Modi\\`in, ed. Eyal Miron (Jerusalem, 2014\\), pp. 18β81 \\[in Hebrew].",
"### Some discoveries",
"Kedar discovered a number of unknown texts from the period of the Crusades. Among these are a series of [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\")\\-written [biographies](/wiki/Biographies \"Biographies\") of [hermits](/wiki/Hermit \"Hermit\") who lived in the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century,Kedar, \"Gerard of Nazareth: A Neglected Twelfth\\-Century Writer in the Latin East. A Contribution to the Intellectual and Monastic History of the Crusader States\", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 37 (1983\\), 55β77; \"The Latin Hermits of the Frankish Levant Revisited\", in \"Come lβorco della fiaba.\" Studi per Franco Cardini, ed. Marina Montesano (Florence, 2010\\), pp. 185β202\\. and a series of Arabic\\-written stories about Muslim holy men who lived under Frankish rule in the area of [Nablus](/wiki/Nablus \"Nablus\"); he entrusted the publication of the latter series to his student Daniella Talmon\\-Heller.Daniella Talmon\\-Heller, \"The Cited Tales of the Wondrous Doings of the Shaykhs of the Holy Land by Diya' al\\-Din Abu \\`Abdallah Muhammad b. \\`Abd al\\-Wahid al\\-Maqdisi (569/1173 β 643/1245\\). Text, Translation and Commentary\", Crusades 1 (2002\\), pp. 111β154\\. He also deciphered a detailed description of everyday routine in the [Jerusalem Hospital](/wiki/Muristan%23Crusader_period \"Muristan#Crusader period\"), written apparently around 1180,Kedar, \"A Twelfth\\-Century Description of the Jerusalem Hospital\" ,in The Military Orders: Welfare and Warfare, ed. Helen Nicholson (Aldershot, 1998\\), pp. 3β26\\. and published an unknown letter in which [Eraclius](/wiki/Patriarch_Heraclius_of_Jerusalem \"Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem\"), the last Latin [Patriarch](/wiki/Patriarch \"Patriarch\") to reside in Jerusalem, called for help from the West as [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\")'s armies were approaching the city in 1187\\.Kedar, \"Ein Hilferuf aus Jerusalem vom September 1187\", Deutsches Archiv fΓΌr Erforschung des Mittelalters 38 (1982\\), pp. 112β22\\. Kedar discovered also the original text of [Chaim Weizmann](/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann \"Chaim Weizmann\")'s address at the laying of the foundation stones of the Hebrew University in July 1918,Kedar, \"Laying the Foundation Stones for the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 24 July 1918\", in The History of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, ed. Shaul Katz and Michael Heyd (Jerusalem, 1997\\), pp. 90β119 \\[in Hebrew]. as well as suppressed passages of Weizmann's [autobiography](/wiki/Autobiography \"Autobiography\").Kedar, \"Unpublished Sections on Science in the Drafts of Trial ad Error\", in Kedar, ed., Chaim Weizmann: Scientist, Statesman and Architect of Science Policy (Jerusalem, 2015\\), pp. 249β259\\. \\[in Hebrew].",
"### A Bavarian historian reinvents himself",
"In 2011, Kedar published, with [Peter Herde](/wiki/Peter_Herde \"Peter Herde\") of [WΓΌrzburg University](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_University \"WΓΌrzburg University\"), a book that revealed that [Karl Bosl](/wiki/Karl_Bosl \"Karl Bosl\"), one of Bavaria's most prominent historians in the post\\-1945 era, had manifold links with the Nazi regime and as late as December 1944 extolled the struggle for the preservation of [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler \"Hitler\")'s [Reich](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\"). Yet immediately after the war he asserted that he had risked his life in activities against the Nazi regime, and succeeded in persuading a [Denazification](/wiki/Denazification \"Denazification\") [Tribunal](/wiki/Tribunal \"Tribunal\") that this had been the case. The book is based on a large number of unpublished official and private documents. [Ian Kershaw](/wiki/Ian_Kershaw \"Ian Kershaw\") appraised it as \"an excellent piece of detective work.\"Benjamin Z. Kedar and Peter Herde, A Bavarian Historian Reinvents Himself : Karl Bosl and the Third Reich, Magnes Press, 2011\\.",
"In the wake of the book's publication, the municipality of [Cham](/wiki/Cham%2C_Germany \"Cham, Germany\"), the town in which Bosl was born, decided to rename the square called after him.Hans Kratzer, \"Wegen dubioser NS\\-Vergangenheit: Cham stΓΌrzt das Denkmal Bosls\", SΓΌddeutsche Zeitung, 29 November 2011, p. 16\\.",
"### Scholarly initiatives",
"In 1977 Kedar proposed to Professor Horst Fuhrmann, the then\\-president of the [Monumenta Germaniae Historica](/wiki/Monumenta_Germaniae_Historica \"Monumenta Germaniae Historica\"), to launch a series of critically edited Hebrew texts written in the German lands in medieval times. In 2001, when Kedar chaired the Humanities Section of the [Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities](/wiki/Israel_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Humanities \"Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities\"), the Academy and the MGH signed a formal agreement to publish the series *HebrΓ€ische Texte aus dem mittelalterlichen Deutschland*; the first volume appeared in 2005,Kedar and Rudolf Schieffer, \"Geleitwort,\" in HebrΓ€ische Berichte ΓΌber die Judenverfolgungen wΓ€hrend des Ersten Kreuzzugs, ed. Eva Haverkamp, MGH. HebrΓ€ische Texte aus dem mittelalterlichen Deutschland, 1 (Hanover, 2005\\), pp. viiβviii. and the second in 2016\\.",
"In 2009, Kedar and [Oleg Grabar](/wiki/Oleg_Grabar \"Oleg Grabar\") (of the [Princeton](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\") [Institute for Advanced Study](/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study \"Institute for Advanced Study\")) edited a book on the past and the present of [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\")'s [Temple Mount](/wiki/Temple_Mount \"Temple Mount\") / al\\-Haram al\\-Sharif, whose possession has become of the thorniest issues impeding an Israeli\\-Palestinian rapprochement. The initiative was unprecedented, inasmuch as it succeeded in securing the sponsorship of an Israeli, a Palestinian and a [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") institute of higher learning, all located in Jerusalem; the authors of the book's chapters were Israeli, Palestinian, European and American scholars.Kedar and Grabar, eds., Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem's Sacred Esplanade. Jerusalem and Austin, Texas, 2009\\.",
"### Recent research",
"As of 2023, Kedar is completing a book on the socio\\-cultural history of the Frankish kingdoms of Jerusalem and Acre.",
""
] |
Dances
------
Dances are normally performed during wintertime at great feasts and potlatches. The Haisla have a series of dances that they perform, which are ranked from the lowest to highest. The lowest dances are usually performed by younger members and commoners, while the higher dances are reserved for nobles and chiefs. Participants in the dance are recognized by the βfive vertical streaks on both sides of the faceβ.{{Cite journal \|last\=Olson \|first\=Ronald L. \|date\=1940 \|title\=The Social Organization of the Haisla of British Columbia \|journal\=Anthropological Records \|volume\=2 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=169β185}} The three highest dances are secret, called hai'likula (a word meaning magical or shamanistic) and commoners are not permitted to know the details. Jesters are used to entertain the crowd as dancers would make their preparations behind a screen. They also dance in select dances. The position of jester is hereditary via the matrilineal line. The preparation for the higher dances is reserved for nobleman and woman, as they are the only members of the tribe that are permitted to witness these preparations. Although noblewomen were not permitted to dance in the higher dances, they were involved in helping with the preparations. These highest three dances also include the use of whistles and rattles, and the tone of the whistle is distinctive to the dance being performed. Members of the two highest dances are thought to possess magical powers.
Series of Dances, starting with the lowest:
1\) Mitla
This dance is usually performed by younger nobles and commoners into advanced years. Most adult nobleman would have long βgraduatedβ from performing this dance, unless he is childless and/or unable to pass on the dance.
2\) Glo'ala'ha ("came down a second time")
This dance, like the Mitla, is a common dance.
3\) Ula'la
This is the highest of the common dances, and you must be a potential noble to dance. These participants are permitted to witness preparations for the higher dances. The dancers are usually sons of nobleman, who wish to begin preparing them for the higher dances.
4\) NutlΓ₯m
The Hisla people believe that this dance originated at Kemano with the (Kitlope) tribe. This is referred to the dog\-eater dance, and participants adorn dog skulls when dancing. The number of skulls worn is determined by the number of dogs that the individual has killed and devoured. Historically, the Haisla people believed eating dog meat or human flesh was poisonous. Those who were able to ingest the meat and survive were seen as special.
5\) Nu'ntlsista (meaning *dizzy* or *crazy*)
This dance is also referred to as the fire dance. It is considered the second most important dance to the Haisla people. In this dance, the dancers wear their hair matted and act crazy. If anyone in the audience smiles, laughs or speaks they are set upon by the dancers. To demonstrate their might, dancers will walk on hot coals. You must be a nobleman to participate in this dance.
6\) Tanish
A Haihais word meaning cannibal or man\-eater. The right to participate in the Tanish dance is by inheritance only, with a few exceptions such as a dowry gift. Women are not allowed to dance, but they help with preparations for this dance and act as attendants.
|
[
"Dances\n------",
"Dances are normally performed during wintertime at great feasts and potlatches. The Haisla have a series of dances that they perform, which are ranked from the lowest to highest. The lowest dances are usually performed by younger members and commoners, while the higher dances are reserved for nobles and chiefs. Participants in the dance are recognized by the βfive vertical streaks on both sides of the faceβ.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Olson \\|first\\=Ronald L. \\|date\\=1940 \\|title\\=The Social Organization of the Haisla of British Columbia \\|journal\\=Anthropological Records \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=169β185}} The three highest dances are secret, called hai'likula (a word meaning magical or shamanistic) and commoners are not permitted to know the details. Jesters are used to entertain the crowd as dancers would make their preparations behind a screen. They also dance in select dances. The position of jester is hereditary via the matrilineal line. The preparation for the higher dances is reserved for nobleman and woman, as they are the only members of the tribe that are permitted to witness these preparations. Although noblewomen were not permitted to dance in the higher dances, they were involved in helping with the preparations. These highest three dances also include the use of whistles and rattles, and the tone of the whistle is distinctive to the dance being performed. Members of the two highest dances are thought to possess magical powers.",
"Series of Dances, starting with the lowest:",
"1\\) Mitla",
"This dance is usually performed by younger nobles and commoners into advanced years. Most adult nobleman would have long βgraduatedβ from performing this dance, unless he is childless and/or unable to pass on the dance.",
"2\\) Glo'ala'ha (\"came down a second time\")",
"This dance, like the Mitla, is a common dance.",
"3\\) Ula'la",
"This is the highest of the common dances, and you must be a potential noble to dance. These participants are permitted to witness preparations for the higher dances. The dancers are usually sons of nobleman, who wish to begin preparing them for the higher dances.",
"4\\) NutlΓ₯m",
"The Hisla people believe that this dance originated at Kemano with the (Kitlope) tribe. This is referred to the dog\\-eater dance, and participants adorn dog skulls when dancing. The number of skulls worn is determined by the number of dogs that the individual has killed and devoured. Historically, the Haisla people believed eating dog meat or human flesh was poisonous. Those who were able to ingest the meat and survive were seen as special.",
"5\\) Nu'ntlsista (meaning *dizzy* or *crazy*)",
"This dance is also referred to as the fire dance. It is considered the second most important dance to the Haisla people. In this dance, the dancers wear their hair matted and act crazy. If anyone in the audience smiles, laughs or speaks they are set upon by the dancers. To demonstrate their might, dancers will walk on hot coals. You must be a nobleman to participate in this dance.",
"6\\) Tanish",
"A Haihais word meaning cannibal or man\\-eater. The right to participate in the Tanish dance is by inheritance only, with a few exceptions such as a dowry gift. Women are not allowed to dance, but they help with preparations for this dance and act as attendants.",
""
] |
Career
------
### Local and state politics
Despite her father's ties to the Democratic Party, Harden became active in the local [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)"). She first became interested in local politics in 1931, when President [Herbert Hoover](/wiki/Herbert_Hoover "Herbert Hoover") appointed her husband as Covington's postmaster. Harden became even more active in Republican politics in 1933, after President [Franklin Delano Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt "Franklin Delano Roosevelt") took office and appointed a Democrat to replace her husband as the Covington postmaster.
Harden entered politics in 1932 as the Republican precinct vice chairman, a position she retained until 1940\. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, Harden was active in Indiana politics. In 1938, she became vice chairman of the Fountain County Republican Party, a position she held until 1950, and served as the vice chair of an Indiana congressional district.
Harden joined the Republican National Speakers Bureau in 1940\. She was elected Indiana's [Republican National committeewoman](/wiki/Republican_National_Committee "Republican National Committee") in 1944, serving until 1959, and again from 1964 to 1972\. Harden also served as a delegate\-at\-large to the [Republican National Conventions](/wiki/Republican_National_Convention "Republican National Convention") in 1948, 1952, 1956, and 1968\.
### U.S. House of Representatives
In 1948, when Indiana Republican [Noble J. Johnson](/wiki/Noble_J._Johnson "Noble J. Johnson") resigned from the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") to accept a federal judgeship, Harden won the Republican Party's nomination to run for his seat in the [U.S. House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") in the general election in the fall. In her first bid for elective office, Harden narrowly defeated Democrat John James (Jack J.) O'Grady by a margin of only 483 votes out of a total of 132,000 votes cast in the race. O'Grady, a native of [Terre Haute, Indiana](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana "Terre Haute, Indiana"), was a U.S. Army veteran who had represented [Vigo County, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo_County%2C_Indiana "Vigo County, Indiana"), in both houses of the Indiana legislature.{{citation needed\|date\=October 2019}} Harden was elected to the [81st Congress](/wiki/81st_United_States_Congress "81st United States Congress") and the four succeeding Congresses, serving from January 3, 1949 to January 3, 1959, a total of five consecutive terms in the U.S. House as a representative of [Indiana's 6th congressional district](/wiki/Indiana%27s_6th_congressional_district "Indiana's 6th congressional district"). Harden voted in favor of the [Civil Rights Act of 1957](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957 "Civil Rights Act of 1957").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85\-1957/h42\|title\=HR 6127\. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957\.\|work\=GovTrack.us}}
In her first term in Congress in 1949, Harden was initially assigned to the Veterans' Affairs Committee, but the next term she transferred to the House Committee on Expenditures in Executive Departments (later called Government Operations). During the [83rd Congress](/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress "83rd United States Congress"), Harden chaired the Inter\-Governmental Relations subcommittee of Government Operations. She also served six years (1953β59\) on the Committee on the Post Office and Civil Service. While serving on these congressional committees, Harden toured military installations to evaluate and looking for ways to improve the military's procurement procedures. In an effort to cut government costs under the [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") administration, she also urged military and other government offices to consider using private companies to perform some of their work.
Harden, an advocate for women's rights, joined with [Maine](/wiki/Maine "Maine")'s U.S. Senator, [Margaret Chase Smith](/wiki/Margaret_Chase_Smith "Margaret Chase Smith"), and [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio")'s U.S. Representative, [Frances Bolton](/wiki/Frances_Bolton "Frances Bolton"), to urge the Republican Party to adopt platform planks of interest to women. In 1957, Harden and [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey "New Jersey")'s U.S. Representative, [Florence Dwyer](/wiki/Florence_Dwyer "Florence Dwyer"), offered "a bill to provide equal pay for women."
Harden served her Indiana constituents by promoting flood control in the [Wabash River](/wiki/Wabash_River "Wabash River") valley, helping to secure federal funding for flood control projects in her state. She was also critical of [U.S. Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission "United States Atomic Energy Commission")'s plan in 1956 to close its [heavy water](/wiki/Heavy_water "Heavy water") plant in [Dana, Indiana](/wiki/Dana%2C_Indiana "Dana, Indiana"), which was within her congressional district. Harden claimed that 900 workers would become unemployed as a result of the closure.
Harden, who aligned her political interests with the Eisenhower administration, lost her bid for a sixth term in the U.S. House to Democrat [Fred Wampler](/wiki/Fred_Wampler_%28politician%29 "Fred Wampler (politician)"), a Terre Haute high school football coach, in 1958 by slightly more than a two\-percent margin.{{cite news\|title\=Republicans Gain in Womanpower in Congress, Total Now is 17\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1350\&dat\=19581105\&id\=GfdOAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5314,2283075\&hl\=en \| access\-date \=September 22, 2019}} Harden was one of Indiana's seven Republican congressional members who were defeated in the 1958 election (and one of the forty\-seven seats in the U.S. House that the Republicans lost in the election). Her defeat was blamed, in part, on a recession that negatively affected industrial employment in Terre Haute.
### Other service
Although her final congressional term ended in January 1959, Harden remained in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") Two months later, in March 1959, she was appointed to serve as special assistant for women's affairs to [U.S. Postmaster General](/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General "United States Postmaster General") [Arthur Summerfield](/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield "Arthur Summerfield"). Harden remained at this post until President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy")'s Democratic administration replaced Eisenhower's Republican administration in March 1961\. Harden also continued to serve as a Republican national committeewoman for Indiana from 1964 until 1972, and as a delegate\-at\-large for the Republican National Conventions in 1968 and in 1972\. In 1970, President [Richard M. Nixon](/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon "Richard M. Nixon") appointed Harden to the National Advisory Committee for the [White House Conference on Aging](/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Aging "White House Conference on Aging"), where she served in 1972β73\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Local and state politics",
"Despite her father's ties to the Democratic Party, Harden became active in the local [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\"). She first became interested in local politics in 1931, when President [Herbert Hoover](/wiki/Herbert_Hoover \"Herbert Hoover\") appointed her husband as Covington's postmaster. Harden became even more active in Republican politics in 1933, after President [Franklin Delano Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt \"Franklin Delano Roosevelt\") took office and appointed a Democrat to replace her husband as the Covington postmaster.",
"Harden entered politics in 1932 as the Republican precinct vice chairman, a position she retained until 1940\\. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, Harden was active in Indiana politics. In 1938, she became vice chairman of the Fountain County Republican Party, a position she held until 1950, and served as the vice chair of an Indiana congressional district.",
"Harden joined the Republican National Speakers Bureau in 1940\\. She was elected Indiana's [Republican National committeewoman](/wiki/Republican_National_Committee \"Republican National Committee\") in 1944, serving until 1959, and again from 1964 to 1972\\. Harden also served as a delegate\\-at\\-large to the [Republican National Conventions](/wiki/Republican_National_Convention \"Republican National Convention\") in 1948, 1952, 1956, and 1968\\.",
"### U.S. House of Representatives",
"In 1948, when Indiana Republican [Noble J. Johnson](/wiki/Noble_J._Johnson \"Noble J. Johnson\") resigned from the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") to accept a federal judgeship, Harden won the Republican Party's nomination to run for his seat in the [U.S. House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") in the general election in the fall. In her first bid for elective office, Harden narrowly defeated Democrat John James (Jack J.) O'Grady by a margin of only 483 votes out of a total of 132,000 votes cast in the race. O'Grady, a native of [Terre Haute, Indiana](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana \"Terre Haute, Indiana\"), was a U.S. Army veteran who had represented [Vigo County, Indiana](/wiki/Vigo_County%2C_Indiana \"Vigo County, Indiana\"), in both houses of the Indiana legislature.{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2019}} Harden was elected to the [81st Congress](/wiki/81st_United_States_Congress \"81st United States Congress\") and the four succeeding Congresses, serving from January 3, 1949 to January 3, 1959, a total of five consecutive terms in the U.S. House as a representative of [Indiana's 6th congressional district](/wiki/Indiana%27s_6th_congressional_district \"Indiana's 6th congressional district\"). Harden voted in favor of the [Civil Rights Act of 1957](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957 \"Civil Rights Act of 1957\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/85\\-1957/h42\\|title\\=HR 6127\\. CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF 1957\\.\\|work\\=GovTrack.us}}",
"In her first term in Congress in 1949, Harden was initially assigned to the Veterans' Affairs Committee, but the next term she transferred to the House Committee on Expenditures in Executive Departments (later called Government Operations). During the [83rd Congress](/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress \"83rd United States Congress\"), Harden chaired the Inter\\-Governmental Relations subcommittee of Government Operations. She also served six years (1953β59\\) on the Committee on the Post Office and Civil Service. While serving on these congressional committees, Harden toured military installations to evaluate and looking for ways to improve the military's procurement procedures. In an effort to cut government costs under the [Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") administration, she also urged military and other government offices to consider using private companies to perform some of their work.",
"Harden, an advocate for women's rights, joined with [Maine](/wiki/Maine \"Maine\")'s U.S. Senator, [Margaret Chase Smith](/wiki/Margaret_Chase_Smith \"Margaret Chase Smith\"), and [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\")'s U.S. Representative, [Frances Bolton](/wiki/Frances_Bolton \"Frances Bolton\"), to urge the Republican Party to adopt platform planks of interest to women. In 1957, Harden and [New Jersey](/wiki/New_Jersey \"New Jersey\")'s U.S. Representative, [Florence Dwyer](/wiki/Florence_Dwyer \"Florence Dwyer\"), offered \"a bill to provide equal pay for women.\"",
"Harden served her Indiana constituents by promoting flood control in the [Wabash River](/wiki/Wabash_River \"Wabash River\") valley, helping to secure federal funding for flood control projects in her state. She was also critical of [U.S. Atomic Energy Commission](/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission \"United States Atomic Energy Commission\")'s plan in 1956 to close its [heavy water](/wiki/Heavy_water \"Heavy water\") plant in [Dana, Indiana](/wiki/Dana%2C_Indiana \"Dana, Indiana\"), which was within her congressional district. Harden claimed that 900 workers would become unemployed as a result of the closure.",
"Harden, who aligned her political interests with the Eisenhower administration, lost her bid for a sixth term in the U.S. House to Democrat [Fred Wampler](/wiki/Fred_Wampler_%28politician%29 \"Fred Wampler (politician)\"), a Terre Haute high school football coach, in 1958 by slightly more than a two\\-percent margin.{{cite news\\|title\\=Republicans Gain in Womanpower in Congress, Total Now is 17\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1350\\&dat\\=19581105\\&id\\=GfdOAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5314,2283075\\&hl\\=en \\| access\\-date \\=September 22, 2019}} Harden was one of Indiana's seven Republican congressional members who were defeated in the 1958 election (and one of the forty\\-seven seats in the U.S. House that the Republicans lost in the election). Her defeat was blamed, in part, on a recession that negatively affected industrial employment in Terre Haute.",
"### Other service",
"Although her final congressional term ended in January 1959, Harden remained in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") Two months later, in March 1959, she was appointed to serve as special assistant for women's affairs to [U.S. Postmaster General](/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General \"United States Postmaster General\") [Arthur Summerfield](/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield \"Arthur Summerfield\"). Harden remained at this post until President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\")'s Democratic administration replaced Eisenhower's Republican administration in March 1961\\. Harden also continued to serve as a Republican national committeewoman for Indiana from 1964 until 1972, and as a delegate\\-at\\-large for the Republican National Conventions in 1968 and in 1972\\. In 1970, President [Richard M. Nixon](/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon \"Richard M. Nixon\") appointed Harden to the National Advisory Committee for the [White House Conference on Aging](/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Aging \"White House Conference on Aging\"), where she served in 1972β73\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Born in [Brantford, Ontario](/wiki/Brantford%2C_Ontario "Brantford, Ontario"), the son of James and Ethel (Cooke) Hillier, he received a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") in Mathematics and Physics (1937\), [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts "Master of Arts") (1938\), and a [Ph.D](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") (1941\) from the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto "University of Toronto"), where, as a graduate student, he completed a prototype of the electron microscope that had been invented by [Ernst Ruska](/wiki/Ernst_Ruska "Ernst Ruska"). This [transmission electron microscope](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope "Transmission electron microscope") was used as a prototype for later electron microscopes.
In 1941, he went to the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America "United States of America") and joined the [Radio Corporation of America](/wiki/RCA "RCA") in [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey "Camden, New Jersey"). He became General Manager, RCA Laboratories (1957\); Vice President, RCA Laboratories (1958\); Vice President, Research and Engineering (1968\); Executive Vice President, Research and Engineering (1969\); and Executive Vice President and Chief Scientist (1976\). New technologies developed during his tenure include the system that became RCA [SelectaVision](/wiki/SelectaVision "SelectaVision"). (Note: RCA Laboratories, located in Princeton, NJ, became independent of RCA as a result of the corporate take\-over by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric") in 1986 and became [Sarnoff Corporation](/wiki/Sarnoff_corporation "Sarnoff corporation"), a subsidiary of [SRI International](/wiki/SRI_International "SRI International") through 2011, when it was absorbed by SRI.) Hillier spent many years refining the electron microscope and marketing it to research laboratories and universities, receiving a total of 41 patents for devices and processes.
After retiring from RCA in 1977, Dr. Hillier advised on the role of technology in the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World "Third World") and promoted science education. Although he became a U.S. citizen in 1945, Hillier remained involved with the Brantford community throughout his lifetime. The James Hillier Foundation, established in 1993, awards annual scholarships to Brant County students pursuing education in science.
In 1936, he married Florence Marjory Bell, a union that lasted until Florence's death in 1992\. They had two sons: James Robert Hillier, LhD., FAIA and William Wynship Hillier.
On January 15, 2007, Hillier died in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey") due to a stroke.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Born in [Brantford, Ontario](/wiki/Brantford%2C_Ontario \"Brantford, Ontario\"), the son of James and Ethel (Cooke) Hillier, he received a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") in Mathematics and Physics (1937\\), [Master of Arts](/wiki/Master_of_Arts \"Master of Arts\") (1938\\), and a [Ph.D](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") (1941\\) from the [University of Toronto](/wiki/University_of_Toronto \"University of Toronto\"), where, as a graduate student, he completed a prototype of the electron microscope that had been invented by [Ernst Ruska](/wiki/Ernst_Ruska \"Ernst Ruska\"). This [transmission electron microscope](/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope \"Transmission electron microscope\") was used as a prototype for later electron microscopes.",
"In 1941, he went to the [United States of America](/wiki/United_States_of_America \"United States of America\") and joined the [Radio Corporation of America](/wiki/RCA \"RCA\") in [Camden, New Jersey](/wiki/Camden%2C_New_Jersey \"Camden, New Jersey\"). He became General Manager, RCA Laboratories (1957\\); Vice President, RCA Laboratories (1958\\); Vice President, Research and Engineering (1968\\); Executive Vice President, Research and Engineering (1969\\); and Executive Vice President and Chief Scientist (1976\\). New technologies developed during his tenure include the system that became RCA [SelectaVision](/wiki/SelectaVision \"SelectaVision\"). (Note: RCA Laboratories, located in Princeton, NJ, became independent of RCA as a result of the corporate take\\-over by [General Electric](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") in 1986 and became [Sarnoff Corporation](/wiki/Sarnoff_corporation \"Sarnoff corporation\"), a subsidiary of [SRI International](/wiki/SRI_International \"SRI International\") through 2011, when it was absorbed by SRI.) Hillier spent many years refining the electron microscope and marketing it to research laboratories and universities, receiving a total of 41 patents for devices and processes.",
"After retiring from RCA in 1977, Dr. Hillier advised on the role of technology in the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World \"Third World\") and promoted science education. Although he became a U.S. citizen in 1945, Hillier remained involved with the Brantford community throughout his lifetime. The James Hillier Foundation, established in 1993, awards annual scholarships to Brant County students pursuing education in science.",
"In 1936, he married Florence Marjory Bell, a union that lasted until Florence's death in 1992\\. They had two sons: James Robert Hillier, LhD., FAIA and William Wynship Hillier.",
"On January 15, 2007, Hillier died in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\") due to a stroke.",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
In 1959, Hooker married the former Eugenia "Tish" Fort. They had three children, Dara, Kendall, and Blount, who was named after William Blount; he also had a son by a second marriage, James Thomas Lovell. {{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/us/politics/john\-jay\-hooker\-jr\-political\-gadfly\-and\-perennial\-litigant\-dies\-at\-85\.html\|title\=John Jay Hooker Jr., Political Gadfly and Perennial Litigant, Dies at 85\|work\=The New York Times \|date\=27 January 2016 \|accessdate\= 4 March 2023 \|last1\=Roberts \|first1\=Sam }} Fort family members were co\-founders along with other families of the former [National Life and Accident Insurance Company](/wiki/National_Life_and_Accident_Insurance_Company "National Life and Accident Insurance Company") and its subsidiaries, [WSM](/wiki/WSM_%28AM%29 "WSM (AM)") radio and the [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry "Grand Ole Opry") [country music](/wiki/Country_music "Country music") program. Hooker also was close friends with Amon Evans, whose family then owned and published *The Tennessean*. Thereafter, Hooker convinced Evans to employ [John Seigenthaler](/wiki/John_Seigenthaler%2C_Sr. "John Seigenthaler, Sr.") as the [editor](/wiki/Editing "Editing") of the newspaper. Seigenthaler likewise had an association with Robert F. Kennedy that emanated from the Schoolfield investigation and trial. Thereafter, Seigenthaler was a major political supporter of Robert Kennedy and of Hooker.
With the support and backing of the Evans family and John Seigenthaler, Hooker decided to enter the 1966 Democratic [primary](/wiki/Partisan_primary "Partisan primary") for governor of Tennessee. His opponent was [Buford Ellington](/wiki/Buford_Ellington "Buford Ellington"), a former governor attempting a return to the office who had the strong backing of the incumbent governor, Clement, and [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson "Lyndon Johnson"), who was Ellington's close personal friend and who had appointed him to a prominent position at the [Federal Emergency Management Agency](/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency "Federal Emergency Management Agency"). Ellington was also strongly backed by the other Nashville newspaper, the *[Nashville Banner](/wiki/Nashville_Banner "Nashville Banner")*. Supported by some of the more progressive members of the Nashville business community and using innovative advertising such as sponsoring [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") driver [Buddy Baker](/wiki/Buddy_Baker "Buddy Baker")'s [racecar](/wiki/Auto_racing "Auto racing"), Hooker underwent a blistering counterattack which was mounted by Ellington's "Old Guard" supporters. Hooker ran fairly well in the [urban](/wiki/Urban_area "Urban area") and [rural](/wiki/Rural "Rural") areas but lost badly in the [suburbs](/wiki/Suburb "Suburb"), to which the Old Guard's support had largely moved in the post\-[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") era. Ellington went on to an easy victory in November, with no Republican opposition, the last time such a circumstance was to occur in Tennessee.
During the next four years, Hooker divided his time between two major activities β investments and planning to run for governor again in 1970\. By this time Hooker had many diversified investments including Whale Inc. and a chain of [fried chicken](/wiki/Fried_chicken "Fried chicken") restaurants with country comedian [Minnie Pearl](/wiki/Minnie_Pearl "Minnie Pearl") and gospel singer [Mahalia Jackson](/wiki/Mahalia_Jackson "Mahalia Jackson"). His rationale for the chicken restaurants was just as [Pepsi](/wiki/Pepsi "Pepsi") had long made a large amount of money as the primary competitor to [Coca\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola "Coca-Cola"), someone else stood to make a comparable fortune as the primary competitor to [Kentucky Fried Chicken](/wiki/Kentucky_Fried_Chicken "Kentucky Fried Chicken"). Hooker was also closely involved around the same time with the [Frist family](/wiki/William_Frist "William Frist") and others in the formation of what became the first major for\-profit healthcare chain, the [Hospital Corporation of America](/wiki/Hospital_Corporation_of_America "Hospital Corporation of America").
Hooker won the 1970 Democratic nomination for governor of Tennessee over a host of competitors, most notably the candidate of the "Old Guard", Nashville attorney Stan Snodgrass, who had the endorsement of the *Nashville Banner*. In the past, the Democratic nomination would have assured him victory in November. But many things had changed in Tennessee in the four years since his loss to Ellington. For one, the Republican Party was benefitting greatly from the [Southern strategy](/wiki/Southern_strategy "Southern strategy") of then\-President [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon "Richard Nixon") to reach out to rural and working\-class urban Southern whites who were disturbed by [desegregation](/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States "Desegregation in the United States") and other rapid social changes. Tennessee Republicans, only just over two years from failing to field a gubernatorial candidate, had even managed to organize the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives "Tennessee House of Representatives") for the first (and only) time in the 20th century in 1969, and they were not about to allow what appeared to them to be a golden opportunity to pass them by. In 1966, [Howard Baker](/wiki/Howard_Baker "Howard Baker") had beaten Governor Frank Clement for the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") because the Democratic party was divided between the Clement/Ellington forces and the anti\-Clement/Ellington forces, as best exemplified in the heated primary battle that year between Ellington and Hooker, and the absence of a gubernatorial nominee had in fact allowed Republicans to focus almost all of their energies on electing Baker to the Senate seat.
Events, as well as people, seemed to conspire against Hooker in the fall of 1970\. The Republicans had staged a very hard\-fought primary race of their own but had come out of it largely united behind the candidacy of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee") dentist Dr. [Winfield Dunn](/wiki/Winfield_Dunn "Winfield Dunn"), former chairman of the [Shelby County Republican Party](/wiki/Shelby_County_Republican_Party_%28Tennessee%29 "Shelby County Republican Party (Tennessee)"). Many of Snodgrass' erstwhile supporters, including the *Nashville Banner*, endorsed Dunn. At the same time, the [Securities and Exchange Commission](/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission") had in 1969 announced an investigation into Minnie Pearl's Chicken, and over time as a consequence of the investigation the price the stock had declined from a high of $40 a share to approximately 50 cents a share.
Simultaneously, Democratic Senator [Albert Gore, Sr.](/wiki/Albert_Gore%2C_Sr. "Albert Gore, Sr.") was running an equally hard\-fought and ultimately unsuccessful campaign for a fourth term against Chattanooga [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Representative "United States Representative") [Bill Brock](/wiki/Bill_Brock "Bill Brock"). The friendly relationship both Gore and Hooker shared with the Kennedy family became an issue, especially in light of [Ted Kennedy](/wiki/Ted_Kennedy "Ted Kennedy")'s involvement in the [Chappaquiddick incident](/wiki/Chappaquiddick_incident "Chappaquiddick incident") the previous year. Republicans and "Old Guard" detractors alike pilloried the two, leading to a Republican sweep and for the first time in the [post\-Reconstruction era](/wiki/Post-Reconstruction_era "Post-Reconstruction era") the Republicans held the Tennessee governorship and both United States Senate seats (although, curiously, they lost control of the state House of Representatives and did not gain it again it until the beginning of the 21st century).
Hooker was never convicted of any criminal wrongdoing in the SEC/Minnie Pearl Chicken case. Nonetheless, the SEC investigation, which lasted three years, caused the company virtually to liquidate, although a few outlets continued to function into the 1980s. Hooker claimed until his death that the SEC investigation was unjustified and totally politically inspired by the Nixon Administration, which wanted to defeat Albert Gore Sr. and Hooker because they were anti\-[war](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") candidates. Hooker also claimed that the Nixon political "[machine](/wiki/Machine_politics "Machine politics")" challenged Hooker and Gore as part of its "Southern strategy".
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"In 1959, Hooker married the former Eugenia \"Tish\" Fort. They had three children, Dara, Kendall, and Blount, who was named after William Blount; he also had a son by a second marriage, James Thomas Lovell. {{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/27/us/politics/john\\-jay\\-hooker\\-jr\\-political\\-gadfly\\-and\\-perennial\\-litigant\\-dies\\-at\\-85\\.html\\|title\\=John Jay Hooker Jr., Political Gadfly and Perennial Litigant, Dies at 85\\|work\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=27 January 2016 \\|accessdate\\= 4 March 2023 \\|last1\\=Roberts \\|first1\\=Sam }} Fort family members were co\\-founders along with other families of the former [National Life and Accident Insurance Company](/wiki/National_Life_and_Accident_Insurance_Company \"National Life and Accident Insurance Company\") and its subsidiaries, [WSM](/wiki/WSM_%28AM%29 \"WSM (AM)\") radio and the [Grand Ole Opry](/wiki/Grand_Ole_Opry \"Grand Ole Opry\") [country music](/wiki/Country_music \"Country music\") program. Hooker also was close friends with Amon Evans, whose family then owned and published *The Tennessean*. Thereafter, Hooker convinced Evans to employ [John Seigenthaler](/wiki/John_Seigenthaler%2C_Sr. \"John Seigenthaler, Sr.\") as the [editor](/wiki/Editing \"Editing\") of the newspaper. Seigenthaler likewise had an association with Robert F. Kennedy that emanated from the Schoolfield investigation and trial. Thereafter, Seigenthaler was a major political supporter of Robert Kennedy and of Hooker.",
"With the support and backing of the Evans family and John Seigenthaler, Hooker decided to enter the 1966 Democratic [primary](/wiki/Partisan_primary \"Partisan primary\") for governor of Tennessee. His opponent was [Buford Ellington](/wiki/Buford_Ellington \"Buford Ellington\"), a former governor attempting a return to the office who had the strong backing of the incumbent governor, Clement, and [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [Lyndon Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson \"Lyndon Johnson\"), who was Ellington's close personal friend and who had appointed him to a prominent position at the [Federal Emergency Management Agency](/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency \"Federal Emergency Management Agency\"). Ellington was also strongly backed by the other Nashville newspaper, the *[Nashville Banner](/wiki/Nashville_Banner \"Nashville Banner\")*. Supported by some of the more progressive members of the Nashville business community and using innovative advertising such as sponsoring [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") driver [Buddy Baker](/wiki/Buddy_Baker \"Buddy Baker\")'s [racecar](/wiki/Auto_racing \"Auto racing\"), Hooker underwent a blistering counterattack which was mounted by Ellington's \"Old Guard\" supporters. Hooker ran fairly well in the [urban](/wiki/Urban_area \"Urban area\") and [rural](/wiki/Rural \"Rural\") areas but lost badly in the [suburbs](/wiki/Suburb \"Suburb\"), to which the Old Guard's support had largely moved in the post\\-[World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") era. Ellington went on to an easy victory in November, with no Republican opposition, the last time such a circumstance was to occur in Tennessee.",
"During the next four years, Hooker divided his time between two major activities β investments and planning to run for governor again in 1970\\. By this time Hooker had many diversified investments including Whale Inc. and a chain of [fried chicken](/wiki/Fried_chicken \"Fried chicken\") restaurants with country comedian [Minnie Pearl](/wiki/Minnie_Pearl \"Minnie Pearl\") and gospel singer [Mahalia Jackson](/wiki/Mahalia_Jackson \"Mahalia Jackson\"). His rationale for the chicken restaurants was just as [Pepsi](/wiki/Pepsi \"Pepsi\") had long made a large amount of money as the primary competitor to [Coca\\-Cola](/wiki/Coca-Cola \"Coca-Cola\"), someone else stood to make a comparable fortune as the primary competitor to [Kentucky Fried Chicken](/wiki/Kentucky_Fried_Chicken \"Kentucky Fried Chicken\"). Hooker was also closely involved around the same time with the [Frist family](/wiki/William_Frist \"William Frist\") and others in the formation of what became the first major for\\-profit healthcare chain, the [Hospital Corporation of America](/wiki/Hospital_Corporation_of_America \"Hospital Corporation of America\").",
"Hooker won the 1970 Democratic nomination for governor of Tennessee over a host of competitors, most notably the candidate of the \"Old Guard\", Nashville attorney Stan Snodgrass, who had the endorsement of the *Nashville Banner*. In the past, the Democratic nomination would have assured him victory in November. But many things had changed in Tennessee in the four years since his loss to Ellington. For one, the Republican Party was benefitting greatly from the [Southern strategy](/wiki/Southern_strategy \"Southern strategy\") of then\\-President [Richard Nixon](/wiki/Richard_Nixon \"Richard Nixon\") to reach out to rural and working\\-class urban Southern whites who were disturbed by [desegregation](/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States \"Desegregation in the United States\") and other rapid social changes. Tennessee Republicans, only just over two years from failing to field a gubernatorial candidate, had even managed to organize the [Tennessee House of Representatives](/wiki/Tennessee_House_of_Representatives \"Tennessee House of Representatives\") for the first (and only) time in the 20th century in 1969, and they were not about to allow what appeared to them to be a golden opportunity to pass them by. In 1966, [Howard Baker](/wiki/Howard_Baker \"Howard Baker\") had beaten Governor Frank Clement for the [United States Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") because the Democratic party was divided between the Clement/Ellington forces and the anti\\-Clement/Ellington forces, as best exemplified in the heated primary battle that year between Ellington and Hooker, and the absence of a gubernatorial nominee had in fact allowed Republicans to focus almost all of their energies on electing Baker to the Senate seat.",
"Events, as well as people, seemed to conspire against Hooker in the fall of 1970\\. The Republicans had staged a very hard\\-fought primary race of their own but had come out of it largely united behind the candidacy of [Memphis](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\") dentist Dr. [Winfield Dunn](/wiki/Winfield_Dunn \"Winfield Dunn\"), former chairman of the [Shelby County Republican Party](/wiki/Shelby_County_Republican_Party_%28Tennessee%29 \"Shelby County Republican Party (Tennessee)\"). Many of Snodgrass' erstwhile supporters, including the *Nashville Banner*, endorsed Dunn. At the same time, the [Securities and Exchange Commission](/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission \"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission\") had in 1969 announced an investigation into Minnie Pearl's Chicken, and over time as a consequence of the investigation the price the stock had declined from a high of $40 a share to approximately 50 cents a share.",
"Simultaneously, Democratic Senator [Albert Gore, Sr.](/wiki/Albert_Gore%2C_Sr. \"Albert Gore, Sr.\") was running an equally hard\\-fought and ultimately unsuccessful campaign for a fourth term against Chattanooga [Congressman](/wiki/United_States_Representative \"United States Representative\") [Bill Brock](/wiki/Bill_Brock \"Bill Brock\"). The friendly relationship both Gore and Hooker shared with the Kennedy family became an issue, especially in light of [Ted Kennedy](/wiki/Ted_Kennedy \"Ted Kennedy\")'s involvement in the [Chappaquiddick incident](/wiki/Chappaquiddick_incident \"Chappaquiddick incident\") the previous year. Republicans and \"Old Guard\" detractors alike pilloried the two, leading to a Republican sweep and for the first time in the [post\\-Reconstruction era](/wiki/Post-Reconstruction_era \"Post-Reconstruction era\") the Republicans held the Tennessee governorship and both United States Senate seats (although, curiously, they lost control of the state House of Representatives and did not gain it again it until the beginning of the 21st century).",
"Hooker was never convicted of any criminal wrongdoing in the SEC/Minnie Pearl Chicken case. Nonetheless, the SEC investigation, which lasted three years, caused the company virtually to liquidate, although a few outlets continued to function into the 1980s. Hooker claimed until his death that the SEC investigation was unjustified and totally politically inspired by the Nixon Administration, which wanted to defeat Albert Gore Sr. and Hooker because they were anti\\-[war](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") candidates. Hooker also claimed that the Nixon political \"[machine](/wiki/Machine_politics \"Machine politics\")\" challenged Hooker and Gore as part of its \"Southern strategy\".",
""
] |
Later life
----------
Hooker served as chairman of [STP Corporation](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 "STP (motor oil company)") from 1973 to 1976\. In 1976 he entered the Democratic Primary for Brock's U.S. Senate seat and was at first perhaps favored to win the nomination but was by defeated [Jim Sasser](/wiki/Jim_Sasser "Jim Sasser") for the nomination.
In 1979, Hooker arranged for the sale of *The Tennessean* newspaper to [Gannett](/wiki/Gannett "Gannett"), which had earlier purchased the *Banner* but preferred to own morning rather than evening papers. At the same time, his own investment group purchased the *Banner* from Gannett (the two papers were linked by a [joint operating agreement](/wiki/Joint_operating_agreement "Joint operating agreement")) and Hooker became publisher of the very paper that had so tormented him only nine years earlier. In retrospect, he has called this perhaps the greatest single moment of his life. Hooker, however, sold his portion of the *Banner* in 1982 and, for a period of time, became chairman of [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International "United Press International"), the historical but faltering competitor to the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press") in the [wire service](/wiki/Wire_service "Wire service") news business.
Hooker's fortunes seemed to ebb and flow in the 1980s. At one point, he became rather prosperous again. He promoted a new fast\-food chain, Hooker's Hamburgers,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/14/business/fast\-food\-s\-changing\-landscape.html/\|title\=New York Times\|website\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=14 April 1985 \|accessdate\= 29 November 2022\|last1\=Kleinfield \|first1\=N. R. }} named for himself, which sold hamburgers from small, drive\-by\-only buildings, operating this venture from 1984 to 1986 before selling it for $3 million. One of these outlets was built in the Nashville area and several more in the Dallas\-Fort Worth Metroplex.
Hooker began to file to run for various political offices including governor, Senator, Congressman, and others, for the purpose of acquiring the legal standing to sue all of these persons running for the office for taking campaign contributions from "out of state" contributors, which according to his legal theories were both illegal and unconstitutional. Hooker continued to bring lawsuits in that regard down through the early part of the 21st century. In 1995 he sued President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton"), as well as all of the other presidential candidates, for accepting certain campaign contributions, which according to his theory were unconstitutional. He sued the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court "Tennessee Supreme Court"), saying their elections under the "[Modified Missouri Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan "Tennessee Plan")" were unconstitutional, eventually forcing them to recuse themselves from their own case and require the empanelment of a special State Supreme Court to hear the charges (this panel dismissed Hooker's claims).
Hooker received the 1998 Democratic nomination for governor. No other prominent Democrat had filed to oppose incumbent Republican governor [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist "Don Sundquist"), and Hooker defeated a field of other "token" candidates as well as the "serious" candidate with [union](/wiki/Labor_union "Labor union") backing, Mark Whitaker. Hooker won the nomination based on name recognition among older Democrats, who in Tennessee are generally the most reliable primary voters. He ran best in the rural areas and with urban blacks, who had always provided him with a core support group. While not formally disavowing him, the regular Democratic Party organization did almost nothing to promote his candidacy, and Hooker had disavowed the formal fundraising process as unethical and immoral. Hooker received about 30 percent of the vote in the November general election. At this time, Governor Sundquist had a 72 percent approval rating. Hooker remained a political activist, running for Congress in 2002 and again suing all his opponents, and then for Chancery Court judge in 2004 as an Independent against Chancellor Claudia Bonnyman. He sued her for taking campaign contributions from lawyers who practiced in her court and then attended fundraisers held by her at which, according to Hooker, she [furnished them with food and drink](/wiki/Treating "Treating") as prohibited by Article X Section 3 of the [Tennessee Constitution](/wiki/Tennessee_Constitution "Tennessee Constitution").
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.hughesandcoleman.com/\|title\=Tennessee Accident Attorney\|accessdate\= 19 November 2015}}
In 2006 Hooker filed to run for the Democratic nomination for both governor of Tennessee and United States Senator. Despite refusing to raise or spend any money in these efforts, Hooker finished third in the senatorial primary{{cite web \|url\=http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\-08/DemUss.pdf \|title\=Elections \| Tennessee Secretary of State \|website\=Tennessee.gov \|date\=2015\-12\-17 \|accessdate\=2016\-01\-25 \|archive\-date\=2012\-02\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204105140/http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\-08/DemUss.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} and second in the gubernatorial primary{{cite web\|url\=http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\-08/GovernorDem.pdf \|title\=Elections \| Tennessee Secretary of State \|website\=Tennessee.gov \|date\=2015\-12\-17 \|accessdate\=2016\-01\-25}} held on August 3\.
He ran for Governor as an Independent in the [2014 election](/wiki/Tennessee_gubernatorial_election%2C_2014 "Tennessee gubernatorial election, 2014"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.memphisdailynews.com/news/2014/apr/2/candidates\-commit\-as\-deadline\-nears/\|title\=Candidates Commit as Deadline Nears\|publisher\=\[\[The Daily News (Memphis)\|The Daily News]]\|last\=Dries\|first\=Bill\|date\=April 2, 2014\|accessdate\=April 2, 2014}} and in 2015 worked to legalize [physician\-assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide_in_the_United_States "Assisted suicide in the United States") in Tennessee.{{cite web\|last\=Daniels \|first\=Frank \|url\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/opinion/columnists/frank\-daniels/2015/02/15/death\-dignity\-john\-jay\-hooker\-final\-fight/23378411/ \|title\='Death with dignity' to be John Jay Hooker's final fight \|website\=Tennessean.com \|date\=2015\-02\-15 \|accessdate\=2016\-01\-25}}
On January 24, 2016, John Jay Hooker died of cancer at the age of 85\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chattanoogan.com/2016/1/24/316621/Nashville\-s\-John\-Jay\-Hooker\-Dies\-At.aspx \|title\=Nashville's John Jay Hooker Dies At 85 \|website\=Chattanoogan.com \|date\= 24 January 2016\|accessdate\=2016\-01\-25}}{{cite web\|last\=Daniels \|first\=Frank \|url\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2016/01/24/charismatic\-john\-jay\-hooker\-has\-died/79225098/ \|title\='Charismatic' John Jay Hooker has died \|website\=Tennessean.com \|date\=2015\-08\-08 \|accessdate\=2016\-01\-25}}
|
[
"Later life\n----------",
"Hooker served as chairman of [STP Corporation](/wiki/STP_%28motor_oil_company%29 \"STP (motor oil company)\") from 1973 to 1976\\. In 1976 he entered the Democratic Primary for Brock's U.S. Senate seat and was at first perhaps favored to win the nomination but was by defeated [Jim Sasser](/wiki/Jim_Sasser \"Jim Sasser\") for the nomination.",
"In 1979, Hooker arranged for the sale of *The Tennessean* newspaper to [Gannett](/wiki/Gannett \"Gannett\"), which had earlier purchased the *Banner* but preferred to own morning rather than evening papers. At the same time, his own investment group purchased the *Banner* from Gannett (the two papers were linked by a [joint operating agreement](/wiki/Joint_operating_agreement \"Joint operating agreement\")) and Hooker became publisher of the very paper that had so tormented him only nine years earlier. In retrospect, he has called this perhaps the greatest single moment of his life. Hooker, however, sold his portion of the *Banner* in 1982 and, for a period of time, became chairman of [United Press International](/wiki/United_Press_International \"United Press International\"), the historical but faltering competitor to the [Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\") in the [wire service](/wiki/Wire_service \"Wire service\") news business.",
"Hooker's fortunes seemed to ebb and flow in the 1980s. At one point, he became rather prosperous again. He promoted a new fast\\-food chain, Hooker's Hamburgers,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/14/business/fast\\-food\\-s\\-changing\\-landscape.html/\\|title\\=New York Times\\|website\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=14 April 1985 \\|accessdate\\= 29 November 2022\\|last1\\=Kleinfield \\|first1\\=N. R. }} named for himself, which sold hamburgers from small, drive\\-by\\-only buildings, operating this venture from 1984 to 1986 before selling it for $3 million. One of these outlets was built in the Nashville area and several more in the Dallas\\-Fort Worth Metroplex.",
"Hooker began to file to run for various political offices including governor, Senator, Congressman, and others, for the purpose of acquiring the legal standing to sue all of these persons running for the office for taking campaign contributions from \"out of state\" contributors, which according to his legal theories were both illegal and unconstitutional. Hooker continued to bring lawsuits in that regard down through the early part of the 21st century. In 1995 he sued President [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\"), as well as all of the other presidential candidates, for accepting certain campaign contributions, which according to his theory were unconstitutional. He sued the [Tennessee Supreme Court](/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court \"Tennessee Supreme Court\"), saying their elections under the \"[Modified Missouri Plan](/wiki/Tennessee_Plan \"Tennessee Plan\")\" were unconstitutional, eventually forcing them to recuse themselves from their own case and require the empanelment of a special State Supreme Court to hear the charges (this panel dismissed Hooker's claims).",
"Hooker received the 1998 Democratic nomination for governor. No other prominent Democrat had filed to oppose incumbent Republican governor [Don Sundquist](/wiki/Don_Sundquist \"Don Sundquist\"), and Hooker defeated a field of other \"token\" candidates as well as the \"serious\" candidate with [union](/wiki/Labor_union \"Labor union\") backing, Mark Whitaker. Hooker won the nomination based on name recognition among older Democrats, who in Tennessee are generally the most reliable primary voters. He ran best in the rural areas and with urban blacks, who had always provided him with a core support group. While not formally disavowing him, the regular Democratic Party organization did almost nothing to promote his candidacy, and Hooker had disavowed the formal fundraising process as unethical and immoral. Hooker received about 30 percent of the vote in the November general election. At this time, Governor Sundquist had a 72 percent approval rating. Hooker remained a political activist, running for Congress in 2002 and again suing all his opponents, and then for Chancery Court judge in 2004 as an Independent against Chancellor Claudia Bonnyman. He sued her for taking campaign contributions from lawyers who practiced in her court and then attended fundraisers held by her at which, according to Hooker, she [furnished them with food and drink](/wiki/Treating \"Treating\") as prohibited by Article X Section 3 of the [Tennessee Constitution](/wiki/Tennessee_Constitution \"Tennessee Constitution\").\n{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.hughesandcoleman.com/\\|title\\=Tennessee Accident Attorney\\|accessdate\\= 19 November 2015}}",
"In 2006 Hooker filed to run for the Democratic nomination for both governor of Tennessee and United States Senator. Despite refusing to raise or spend any money in these efforts, Hooker finished third in the senatorial primary{{cite web \\|url\\=http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\\-08/DemUss.pdf \\|title\\=Elections \\| Tennessee Secretary of State \\|website\\=Tennessee.gov \\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-17 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204105140/http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\\-08/DemUss.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and second in the gubernatorial primary{{cite web\\|url\\=http://tennessee.gov/sos/election/results/2006\\-08/GovernorDem.pdf \\|title\\=Elections \\| Tennessee Secretary of State \\|website\\=Tennessee.gov \\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-17 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-25}} held on August 3\\.",
"He ran for Governor as an Independent in the [2014 election](/wiki/Tennessee_gubernatorial_election%2C_2014 \"Tennessee gubernatorial election, 2014\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.memphisdailynews.com/news/2014/apr/2/candidates\\-commit\\-as\\-deadline\\-nears/\\|title\\=Candidates Commit as Deadline Nears\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Daily News (Memphis)\\|The Daily News]]\\|last\\=Dries\\|first\\=Bill\\|date\\=April 2, 2014\\|accessdate\\=April 2, 2014}} and in 2015 worked to legalize [physician\\-assisted suicide](/wiki/Assisted_suicide_in_the_United_States \"Assisted suicide in the United States\") in Tennessee.{{cite web\\|last\\=Daniels \\|first\\=Frank \\|url\\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/opinion/columnists/frank\\-daniels/2015/02/15/death\\-dignity\\-john\\-jay\\-hooker\\-final\\-fight/23378411/ \\|title\\='Death with dignity' to be John Jay Hooker's final fight \\|website\\=Tennessean.com \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-15 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-25}}",
"On January 24, 2016, John Jay Hooker died of cancer at the age of 85\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chattanoogan.com/2016/1/24/316621/Nashville\\-s\\-John\\-Jay\\-Hooker\\-Dies\\-At.aspx \\|title\\=Nashville's John Jay Hooker Dies At 85 \\|website\\=Chattanoogan.com \\|date\\= 24 January 2016\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-25}}{{cite web\\|last\\=Daniels \\|first\\=Frank \\|url\\=http://www.tennessean.com/story/news/2016/01/24/charismatic\\-john\\-jay\\-hooker\\-has\\-died/79225098/ \\|title\\='Charismatic' John Jay Hooker has died \\|website\\=Tennessean.com \\|date\\=2015\\-08\\-08 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-25}}",
""
] |
Civil and criminal proceedings involving Patrick
------------------------------------------------
Some criminal proceedings against Patrick have resulted in [felony](/wiki/Felony "Felony") convictions for kidnapping and [unlawful imprisonment](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment") resulting from his [deprogramming](/wiki/Deprogramming "Deprogramming") efforts.{{cite journal\|journal\=Brigham Young University Law Review\|title\=Regulation of religious proselytism in the United States\|url\=http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/2001/2/hun6\.pdf\|format\=PDF\|author1\=Hunter, Howard O.\|author2\=Price, Polly J.\|year\=2001\|volume\=2001\|issue\=2\|access\-date\=2008\-12\-31\|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-19\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719155505/http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/2001/2/hun6\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}}
In February 1973, Daniel Voll of [Farmington, Connecticut](/wiki/Farmington%2C_Connecticut "Farmington, Connecticut"),Olson, Lynne, ["Parents Across U.S. Fear Religious Sects' Hold on Children: Couple's Attempt to Kidnap Son Not Unique,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19730624&id=6QorAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NZoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5109,2006036) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055325/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1955\&dat\=19730624\&id\=6QorAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=NZoFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5109,2006036 \|date\=2022\-08\-08 }} *Reading Eagle* (Reading, Pennsylvania), 24 June 1973\. summoned Ted Patrick to [New York City Criminal Court](/wiki/New_York_City_Criminal_Court "New York City Criminal Court") on assault charges for a botched attempt to deprogram him from the New Testament Ministry Fellowship, part of the burgeoning [Jesus Movement](/wiki/Jesus_movement "Jesus movement").Willoughby, William, ["Parents Resort to Kidnapping and Deprogramming to 'Save' Children,"](http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19730224&id=Bi8iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yHQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=949,3962865) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227223253/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1915\&dat\=19730224\&id\=Bi8iAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=yHQFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=949,3962865 \|date\=2023\-12\-27 }} *The Day* (New London, Connecticut), 27 February 1973\. Voll alleged that on 29 January 1973, while walking to his apartment in uptown [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), he was abducted by his parents and Patrick. On 13 February 1973, Voll pressed assault charges against Patrick, of which he was acquitted.["Court acquits Patrick,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2512&dat=19741217&id=HBVIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=igANAAAAIBAJ&pg=3313,2522078) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102161012/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2512\&dat\=19741217\&id\=HBVIAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=igANAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3313,2522078 \|date\=2023\-11\-02 }} *The Morning Record* (Meriden, Connecticut), 17 December 1974\.Fiske, Edward B., ["'Abductions' Spur Controversy: Parents Try to Retrieve Children From Sects,"](http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19730313&id=7B1OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DO0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=5017,5142235) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227152925/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1314\&dat\=19730313\&id\=7B1OAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=DO0DAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5017,5142235 \|date\=2023\-12\-27 }} *The Spokesman\-Review* (Spokane, Washington), 13 March 1973\.
In May 1974, Patrick held Dena Thomas Jones and Kathy Markis against their wills with some of their acquaintances in [Denver](/wiki/Denver "Denver") because they were believed to be controlled by a "satanic group."["Jailer of 2 Sentenced to 7\-Day Term: Aided Imprisonment To Break Hold of 'Satanic' Group,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19740627&id=DycxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JwIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7303,3320478) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1350\&dat\=19740627\&id\=DycxAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=JwIEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=7303,3320478 \|date\=2023\-11\-02 }} *Toledo Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 28 June 1974\. District Court Judge [Zita Weinshienk](/wiki/Zita_Leeson_Weinshienk "Zita Leeson Weinshienk") sentenced Patrick to a seven\-day jail term and a 1,000 [USD](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar") fine in June 1974 in order to teach him he "can't play God or the law". However, the *[Evening Independent](/wiki/Evening_Independent "Evening Independent")* ([St. Petersburg, Florida](/wiki/St._Petersburg%2C_Florida "St. Petersburg, Florida")) reported that he received an eight\-month sentence for this incident.["Controversial 'Deprogrammer' Loses Court Appeal,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19760505&id=_kVQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TlgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4421,720361) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055322/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=950\&dat\=19760505\&id\=\_kVQAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=TlgDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4421,720361 \|date\=2022\-08\-08 }} *The Evening Independent* (St. Petersburg, Florida), 5 May 1976\.
In December 1974, Patrick was acquitted of kidnapping charges in [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle "Seattle"). Kathe Crampton, who called herself Dedication Israel after joining the [Love Family](/wiki/Love_Family "Love Family"), was brought to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") from Seattle to be deprogrammed by Patrick and her parents in 1973\. She broke free and returned to Seattle where she sued Patrick for false imprisonment, but Judge [Walter T. McGovern](/wiki/Walter_Thomas_McGovern "Walter Thomas McGovern") absolved Patrick, comparing his situation to a person rushing into a street to save a child from on\-coming traffic.
In January 1975, Wendy Helander alleged that Patrick attempted to deprogram her from the [Unification Church](/wiki/Unification_Church "Unification Church") for fourteen hours straight after her parents tricked her into coming to a house in northern [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut"). According to her, the deprogramming session only ended after signing an [affidavit](/wiki/Affidavit "Affidavit") stating she was willing to be forcibly removed from the Unification Church if she were to return.Sabrin, Amy, ["Girl's tape heard in cult hearing,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19750823&id=-eJNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=aIsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6938,2942643) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121045046/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1298\&dat\=19750823\&id\=\-eJNAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=aIsDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6938,2942643 \|date\=2023\-11\-21 }} *The Free Lance\-Star* (Fredericksburg, Virginia), 22 August 1975\. A tape was played to Judge [James Belson](/wiki/James_A._Belson "James A. Belson") of the [Washington D.C. Superior Court](/wiki/Superior_Court_of_the_District_of_Columbia "Superior Court of the District of Columbia") on 21 August 1975, where psychiatrist Harold Kaufman recorded a conversation with Helander about her experience with Patrick and her parents in January.["Girl testifies she tricked deprogrammer,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2512&dat=19750822&id=O9lHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GQANAAAAIBAJ&pg=871,2750179) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102165829/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2512\&dat\=19750822\&id\=O9lHAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=GQANAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=871,2750179 \|date\=2023\-11\-02 }} *The Morning Record* (Meriden, Connecticut), 22 August 1975\."Couple charges church brainwashed their daughter," *[Gadsden Times](/wiki/The_Gadsden_Times "The Gadsden Times")* (Gadsden, Alabama), 4 September 1975\.
In May 1975, Patrick was convicted of holding Joanne Rogin Bradley β a 19\-year\-old convert to the [International Society for Krishna Consciousness](/wiki/International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness "International Society for Krishna Consciousness") (ISKCON) β against her will in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California "Orange County, California"). In May 1976, Patrick failed to appeal the conviction in the Orange County Superior Court. He was sentenced to one year in prison in June 1976\.["'Deprogram' Expert Gets Prison Term,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&dat=19760724&id=a3cwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4PgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4130,1792106) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1338\&dat\=19760724\&id\=a3cwAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=4PgDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4130,1792106 \|date\=2023\-11\-02 }} *Spokane Daily Chronicle*, 24 July 1976\.
In June 1976, [Long Beach, New Jersey](/wiki/Long_Beach_Township%2C_New_Jersey "Long Beach Township, New Jersey"), authorities charged Patrick with false imprisonment of Richard and Alan Mezey who converted to the [Divine Light Mission](/wiki/Divine_Light_Mission "Divine Light Mission").["Deprogrammer Cited For Holding Youths,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19760614&id=xCtPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UAIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6816,947207) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106145151/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1350\&dat\=19760614\&id\=xCtPAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=UAIEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6816,947207 \|date\=2023\-11\-06 }} *Toledo Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 14 June 1976\.["Police charge Patrick with false jailing,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2194&dat=19760615&id=0aIyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=tO0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5409,7269633) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2194\&dat\=19760615\&id\=0aIyAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=tO0FAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5409,7269633 \|date\=2023\-11\-02 }} *Ottawa Citizen*, 15 June 1976\.
On 3 March 1978, Jessica Marks β a member of the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology "Church of Scientology") β filed a lawsuit naming thirteen defendants including Patrick in a deprogramming incident in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"), in June 1976\. Peter Rudie, a lawyer named as a defendant, claimed that Patrick was not part of the conversation that took place in June 1976 and that he was not in Portland at the time.["Benny niece suit alleges 'brainwash,'"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19780306&id=KvJVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4eEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3200,1599440) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055322/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1310\&dat\=19780306\&id\=KvJVAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=4eEDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3200,1599440 \|date\=2022\-08\-08 }} *Eugene Register\-Guard*, 6 March 1978\.
In 1978, Leslie Weiss pressed the charges of [assault](/wiki/Assault "Assault"), [battery](/wiki/Battery_%28crime%29 "Battery (crime)"), and false imprisonment against Patrick and Albert Turner, who assisted in the attempted deprogramming of Weiss on [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 "Thanksgiving (United States)") 1974\. Weiss converted to the Unification Church in June 1974\. [The United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Rhode_Island "United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island") Judge [Francis J. Boyle](/wiki/Francis_J._Boyle "Francis J. Boyle") found no wrongdoing on behalf of the defendants.{{Cite web \|title\=Weiss v. Patrick, 453 F. Supp. 717 (D.R.I. 1978\) \|url\=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\-courts/FSupp/453/717/1488162/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-02 \|website\=Justia Law \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509234721/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\-courts/FSupp/453/717/1488162/ \|url\-status\=live }}"Moonies: Conflict in New Hampshire," *Associated Press*, 29 August 1978\."'Deprogrammer' Upheld on Appeal," *Facts on File: World New Digest* (New York), 31 December 1978\.Carelli, Richard, untitled article, *Associated Press*, 11 June 1979\.
According to a [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus "Habeas corpus") petition filed by [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh") attorney Joseph Bonistall in March 1979, Daniel Eyink was abducted by his parents and Patrick from a [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati "Cincinnati") restaurant where he worked and held in California, in order to be deprogrammed from an unnamed religious community in Cincinnati. Eyink's parents sought to gain custody of their son through a [conservatorship](/wiki/Conservatorship "Conservatorship"). Eyink spoke to Judge [Maurice B. Cohill](/wiki/Maurice_Blanchard_Cohill_Jr. "Maurice Blanchard Cohill Jr.") who concluded that Eyink was in the community through his own free will and ended the custody battle in May 1979\.Huysman, Fritz, ["Son Missing, Deprogramming Case Stalls,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19790501&id=9ecNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nm0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=2831,11231) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1129\&dat\=19790501\&id\=9ecNAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=nm0DAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2831,11231 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Pittsburgh Post\-Gazette*, 1 May 1979\.Vollmer, Judith, ["Parents Lose In Cult Custody Suit,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19790508&id=MjAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1wEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4667,3321473) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1144\&dat\=19790508\&id\=MjAcAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=I1wEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4667,3321473 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Pittsburgh Press*, 8 May 1979\.Vollmer, Judith, ["Cult 'Deprogrammer' Told to Testify Here,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19790501&id=LzAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1wEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4250,11211) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1144\&dat\=19790501\&id\=LzAcAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=I1wEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4250,11211 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Pittsburgh Press*, 1 May 1979\.
In May 1979 Patrick, along with Marti Schumacher of [Vancouver, Washington](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_Washington "Vancouver, Washington"), was charged with second\-degree kidnapping after attempting to convince Schumacher's daughter Janet Cannefax to divorce her husband of approximately seven months, Charles Cannefax. The attempt failed and Janet Cannefax brought charges against them, but Patrick and Schumacher were acquitted.["Ted Patrick acquitted in abduction,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19790520&id=WgtWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AOIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6550,6395986) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1310\&dat\=19790520\&id\=WgtWAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=AOIDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6550,6395986 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Eugene Register\-Guard*, 20 May 1979\.
In July 1980, Patrick and others were charged with [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28criminal%29 "Conspiracy (criminal)"), kidnapping, and false imprisonment. Paula Dain, a 24\-year\-old Scientologist, testified against Patrick in [Los Angeles, California](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), in early July 1980\.["Testifies against deprogrammer,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=860&dat=19800711&id=lYdUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Qo8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6371,679529) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205953/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=860\&dat\=19800711\&id\=lYdUAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=Qo8DAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6371,679529 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Ellensburg Daily Record*, 11 July 1980\. Dain claimed she was kidnapped by Patrick and the other defendants in order to deprogram her from the Church of Scientology.["Ted Patrick Faces Kidnap Charge,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19800726&id=1pwcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yWcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6799,4603485) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1755\&dat\=19800726\&id\=1pwcAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=yWcEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6799,4603485 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Sarasota Hareld\-Tribune* (Sarasota, Florida), 27 July 1980\. A California jury cleared Patrick of charges in August 1980\.["Jury clears deprogrammer of kidnapping Scientologist,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1243&dat=19800806&id=g_xXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2vYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2648,5099781) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1243\&dat\=19800806\&id\=g\_xXAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=2vYDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2648,5099781 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Bulletin* (Bend, Oregon), 6 August 1980\.["Deprogrammer Found Not Guilty,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19800806&id=5Hc1AAAAIBAJ&sjid=1GcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5896,2294200) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1755\&dat\=19800806\&id\=5Hc1AAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=1GcEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5896,2294200 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Sarasota Herald\-Tribune* (Sarasota, Florida), 6 August 1980\.["Cult Case: 4 cleared of kidnap,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&dat=19800806&id=mmROAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PfkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5903,1500154) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1338\&dat\=19800806\&id\=mmROAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=PfkDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5903,1500154 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Spokane Daily Chronicle*, 6 August 1980\.["Jury frees deprogrammer in Scientology\-kidnap case,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19800806&id=XvhVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5-EDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4739,1509573) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1310\&dat\=19800806\&id\=XvhVAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=5\-EDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=4739,1509573 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Eugene Register\-Guard*, 6 August 1980\. Dain and the Church of Scientology later sued Patrick for US$30 million.["Cult deprogrammer sued for $30 million,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2211&dat=19840602&id=hS0mAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gf4FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5198,2034073) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2211\&dat\=19840602\&id\=hS0mAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=gf4FAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5198,2034073 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Afro American* (Baltimore, Maryland), 2 June 1984\.
In August 1980, Patrick was convicted of conspiracy, [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"), and [false imprisonment](/wiki/False_imprisonment "False imprisonment"). These charges were related to the abduction and attempted deprogramming of Roberta McElfish, a 26\-year\-old [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona "Tucson, Arizona") waitress, who joined the "Wesley Thomas Family".{{cite news\|title\=Ted Patrick Convicted of Seizing Woman Said to Have Joined Cult; Escaped From Abductors\|date\=August 30, 1980\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/30/archives/ted\-patrick\-convicted\-of\-seizing\-woman\-said\-to\-have\-joined\-cult.html\|access\-date\=July 23, 2018\|archive\-date\=May 26, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526145621/https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/30/archives/ted\-patrick\-convicted\-of\-seizing\-woman\-said\-to\-have\-joined\-cult.html\|url\-status\=live}}"Cult Deprogrammer Convicted of Kidnapping," *Associated Press*, 29 August 1980\. Patrick was convicted and sentenced to one year in prison and fined US$5,000\.{{cite news\|title\=Ted Patrick is sentenced in seizure of cult member\|date\=1980\-09\-27\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]}}["Cult Deprogrammer Is Found Guilty,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19800829&id=FTFPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mQIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7028,6230084) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1350\&dat\=19800829\&id\=FTFPAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=mQIEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=7028,6230084 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Toledo Blade*, 30 August 1980\. Patrick failed to appeal the conviction in 1982 in the [California Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California "Supreme Court of California").["Conviction upheld,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2209&dat=19820319&id=QqQrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=s_wFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5622,3813971) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2209\&dat\=19820319\&id\=QqQrAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=s\_wFAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=5622,3813971 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Telegraph* (London), 19 March 1982\. In 1985, he was found guilty of violating [probation](/wiki/Probation "Probation") in relation to his conviction in 1980, and he was sentenced to three years in prison.["Deprogrammer given three years in prison,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1320&dat=19850813&id=LY1PAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XQYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3944,4320300) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1320\&dat\=19850813\&id\=LY1PAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=XQYEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3944,4320300 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *Gainesville Sun*, 13 August 1985\.
In October 1981, Stephanie Riethmiller was abducted by two men walking to her Cincinnati apartment with her roommate and significant other, Patty Thiemann, who was sprayed with [mace](/wiki/Mace_%28spray%29 "Mace (spray)"). The two men made her enter a van where she encountered her father, William Riethmiller. Her parents sought to deprogram her from her [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian") relationship with Thiemann, which they believed was making her more distant from them. Stephanie Riethmiller was driven to [Cedar Bluff, Alabama](/wiki/Cedar_Bluff%2C_Alabama "Cedar Bluff, Alabama"), where she was allegedly held against her will and [serially raped](/wiki/Serial_rape "Serial rape") by James Anthony Roe, a friend of Patrick's son who Patrick referred to Riethmiller's parents. Patrick also referred Naomi Faye Kelley Goss and a man solely identified as "Ray" to Riethmiller's parents. In Cedar Bluff, she was allegedly held in a cabin where Goss "harangued" Riethmiller about the evils of homosexuality. Authorities brought charges of assault, [abduction](/wiki/Kidnapping "Kidnapping"), and [sexual battery](/wiki/Sexual_battery "Sexual battery") against Riethmiller's parents, Patrick, Roe, and "Ray," but all defendants either had their charges dropped or were found not guilty in April 1982\."Love with an Improper Stranger: Sexual Deprogramming goes on trial in Cincinnati," *Time* 119, no. 18 (May 1982\)."Cult Opponent on Trial in Ohio Kidnapping Case," *New York Times*, 19 April 1982\."Defendant Freed in Abduction Case: Ted Patrick, For of Cultists, Is Found Not Guilty by a Jury After Trial in Cincinnati," *New York Times*, 25 April 1982\. Goss was sentenced to 38 days in jail in 1983\.["Ala. woman held by cult is sentenced,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19831016&id=wTYdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=t6UEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6689,4223544) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205948/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1817\&dat\=19831016\&id\=wTYdAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=t6UEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6689,4223544 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Tuscaloosa News*, 16 October 1983\. Patrick was on probation from his McElfish conviction in 1980 when the incident occurred, and allegedly Riethmiller's parents paid him US$8,000 to organize Goss, Roe, and "Ray" to deprogram Riethmiller."Indictments Charge Illegal Sex," *Associated Press*, 29 October 1981\.
In late 1983, Patrick was found guilty of violating the civil rights of Richard Cooper, a member of the Divine Light Mission. The jury ordered Patrick to pay US$40,000 in [punitive damages](/wiki/Punitive_damages "Punitive damages") and US$10,000 in [compensatory damages](/wiki/Compensatory_damages "Compensatory damages"). Patrick was unable to pay the damages immediately due to the years of legal battles.["Deprogrammer is found guilty,"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=799&dat=19831201&id=LbhTAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5ocDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3741,6003970) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=799\&dat\=19831201\&id\=LbhTAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=5ocDAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3741,6003970 \|date\=2022\-08\-02 }} *The Bryan Times* (Bryan, Ohio), 1 December 1983\.
In 1990, Patrick attempted to deprogram Elma Miller, an [Amish](/wiki/Amish "Amish") woman who had joined a liberal sect. He was hired by her husband to return her to him and the Amish church. Criminal charges of conspiracy were filed against Miller's husband, brother, and two others, but were later dropped on her request to the prosecuting attorney, who decided not to charge Patrick.{{Cite news\|title\=Amish Woman Charges Deprogramming\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1144\&dat\=19901130\&id\=UzkgAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=5WMEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6938,10854676\|last\=French\|first\=Ron\|date\=November 14, 1990\|newspaper\=\[\[The Pittsburgh Press]]\|department\=News\|page\=A14\|access\-date\=October 8, 2016\|archive\-date\=April 8, 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408021227/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1144\&dat\=19901130\&id\=UzkgAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=5WMEAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=6938,10854676\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Civil and criminal proceedings involving Patrick\n------------------------------------------------",
"Some criminal proceedings against Patrick have resulted in [felony](/wiki/Felony \"Felony\") convictions for kidnapping and [unlawful imprisonment](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\") resulting from his [deprogramming](/wiki/Deprogramming \"Deprogramming\") efforts.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Brigham Young University Law Review\\|title\\=Regulation of religious proselytism in the United States\\|url\\=http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/2001/2/hun6\\.pdf\\|format\\=PDF\\|author1\\=Hunter, Howard O.\\|author2\\=Price, Polly J.\\|year\\=2001\\|volume\\=2001\\|issue\\=2\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-12\\-31\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-19\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719155505/http://lawreview.byu.edu/archives/2001/2/hun6\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"In February 1973, Daniel Voll of [Farmington, Connecticut](/wiki/Farmington%2C_Connecticut \"Farmington, Connecticut\"),Olson, Lynne, [\"Parents Across U.S. Fear Religious Sects' Hold on Children: Couple's Attempt to Kidnap Son Not Unique,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19730624&id=6QorAAAAIBAJ&sjid=NZoFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5109,2006036) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055325/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1955\\&dat\\=19730624\\&id\\=6QorAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=NZoFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5109,2006036 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-08 }} *Reading Eagle* (Reading, Pennsylvania), 24 June 1973\\. summoned Ted Patrick to [New York City Criminal Court](/wiki/New_York_City_Criminal_Court \"New York City Criminal Court\") on assault charges for a botched attempt to deprogram him from the New Testament Ministry Fellowship, part of the burgeoning [Jesus Movement](/wiki/Jesus_movement \"Jesus movement\").Willoughby, William, [\"Parents Resort to Kidnapping and Deprogramming to 'Save' Children,\"](http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19730224&id=Bi8iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yHQFAAAAIBAJ&pg=949,3962865) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227223253/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1915\\&dat\\=19730224\\&id\\=Bi8iAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=yHQFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=949,3962865 \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-27 }} *The Day* (New London, Connecticut), 27 February 1973\\. Voll alleged that on 29 January 1973, while walking to his apartment in uptown [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), he was abducted by his parents and Patrick. On 13 February 1973, Voll pressed assault charges against Patrick, of which he was acquitted.[\"Court acquits Patrick,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2512&dat=19741217&id=HBVIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=igANAAAAIBAJ&pg=3313,2522078) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102161012/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2512\\&dat\\=19741217\\&id\\=HBVIAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=igANAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3313,2522078 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 }} *The Morning Record* (Meriden, Connecticut), 17 December 1974\\.Fiske, Edward B., [\"'Abductions' Spur Controversy: Parents Try to Retrieve Children From Sects,\"](http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19730313&id=7B1OAAAAIBAJ&sjid=DO0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=5017,5142235) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227152925/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1314\\&dat\\=19730313\\&id\\=7B1OAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=DO0DAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5017,5142235 \\|date\\=2023\\-12\\-27 }} *The Spokesman\\-Review* (Spokane, Washington), 13 March 1973\\.",
"In May 1974, Patrick held Dena Thomas Jones and Kathy Markis against their wills with some of their acquaintances in [Denver](/wiki/Denver \"Denver\") because they were believed to be controlled by a \"satanic group.\"[\"Jailer of 2 Sentenced to 7\\-Day Term: Aided Imprisonment To Break Hold of 'Satanic' Group,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19740627&id=DycxAAAAIBAJ&sjid=JwIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7303,3320478) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1350\\&dat\\=19740627\\&id\\=DycxAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=JwIEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=7303,3320478 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 }} *Toledo Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 28 June 1974\\. District Court Judge [Zita Weinshienk](/wiki/Zita_Leeson_Weinshienk \"Zita Leeson Weinshienk\") sentenced Patrick to a seven\\-day jail term and a 1,000 [USD](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\") fine in June 1974 in order to teach him he \"can't play God or the law\". However, the *[Evening Independent](/wiki/Evening_Independent \"Evening Independent\")* ([St. Petersburg, Florida](/wiki/St._Petersburg%2C_Florida \"St. Petersburg, Florida\")) reported that he received an eight\\-month sentence for this incident.[\"Controversial 'Deprogrammer' Loses Court Appeal,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19760505&id=_kVQAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TlgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4421,720361) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055322/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=950\\&dat\\=19760505\\&id\\=\\_kVQAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=TlgDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4421,720361 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-08 }} *The Evening Independent* (St. Petersburg, Florida), 5 May 1976\\.",
"In December 1974, Patrick was acquitted of kidnapping charges in [Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Seattle \"Seattle\"). Kathe Crampton, who called herself Dedication Israel after joining the [Love Family](/wiki/Love_Family \"Love Family\"), was brought to [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") from Seattle to be deprogrammed by Patrick and her parents in 1973\\. She broke free and returned to Seattle where she sued Patrick for false imprisonment, but Judge [Walter T. McGovern](/wiki/Walter_Thomas_McGovern \"Walter Thomas McGovern\") absolved Patrick, comparing his situation to a person rushing into a street to save a child from on\\-coming traffic.",
"In January 1975, Wendy Helander alleged that Patrick attempted to deprogram her from the [Unification Church](/wiki/Unification_Church \"Unification Church\") for fourteen hours straight after her parents tricked her into coming to a house in northern [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\"). According to her, the deprogramming session only ended after signing an [affidavit](/wiki/Affidavit \"Affidavit\") stating she was willing to be forcibly removed from the Unification Church if she were to return.Sabrin, Amy, [\"Girl's tape heard in cult hearing,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1298&dat=19750823&id=-eJNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=aIsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6938,2942643) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121045046/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1298\\&dat\\=19750823\\&id\\=\\-eJNAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=aIsDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6938,2942643 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-21 }} *The Free Lance\\-Star* (Fredericksburg, Virginia), 22 August 1975\\. A tape was played to Judge [James Belson](/wiki/James_A._Belson \"James A. Belson\") of the [Washington D.C. Superior Court](/wiki/Superior_Court_of_the_District_of_Columbia \"Superior Court of the District of Columbia\") on 21 August 1975, where psychiatrist Harold Kaufman recorded a conversation with Helander about her experience with Patrick and her parents in January.[\"Girl testifies she tricked deprogrammer,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2512&dat=19750822&id=O9lHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GQANAAAAIBAJ&pg=871,2750179) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102165829/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2512\\&dat\\=19750822\\&id\\=O9lHAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=GQANAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=871,2750179 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 }} *The Morning Record* (Meriden, Connecticut), 22 August 1975\\.\"Couple charges church brainwashed their daughter,\" *[Gadsden Times](/wiki/The_Gadsden_Times \"The Gadsden Times\")* (Gadsden, Alabama), 4 September 1975\\.",
"In May 1975, Patrick was convicted of holding Joanne Rogin Bradley β a 19\\-year\\-old convert to the [International Society for Krishna Consciousness](/wiki/International_Society_for_Krishna_Consciousness \"International Society for Krishna Consciousness\") (ISKCON) β against her will in [Orange County, California](/wiki/Orange_County%2C_California \"Orange County, California\"). In May 1976, Patrick failed to appeal the conviction in the Orange County Superior Court. He was sentenced to one year in prison in June 1976\\.[\"'Deprogram' Expert Gets Prison Term,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&dat=19760724&id=a3cwAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4PgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4130,1792106) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1338\\&dat\\=19760724\\&id\\=a3cwAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=4PgDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4130,1792106 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 }} *Spokane Daily Chronicle*, 24 July 1976\\.",
"In June 1976, [Long Beach, New Jersey](/wiki/Long_Beach_Township%2C_New_Jersey \"Long Beach Township, New Jersey\"), authorities charged Patrick with false imprisonment of Richard and Alan Mezey who converted to the [Divine Light Mission](/wiki/Divine_Light_Mission \"Divine Light Mission\").[\"Deprogrammer Cited For Holding Youths,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19760614&id=xCtPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UAIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6816,947207) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106145151/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1350\\&dat\\=19760614\\&id\\=xCtPAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=UAIEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6816,947207 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-06 }} *Toledo Blade* (Toledo, Ohio), 14 June 1976\\.[\"Police charge Patrick with false jailing,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2194&dat=19760615&id=0aIyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=tO0FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5409,7269633) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102163419/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2194\\&dat\\=19760615\\&id\\=0aIyAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=tO0FAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5409,7269633 \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-02 }} *Ottawa Citizen*, 15 June 1976\\.",
"On 3 March 1978, Jessica Marks β a member of the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology \"Church of Scientology\") β filed a lawsuit naming thirteen defendants including Patrick in a deprogramming incident in [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"), in June 1976\\. Peter Rudie, a lawyer named as a defendant, claimed that Patrick was not part of the conversation that took place in June 1976 and that he was not in Portland at the time.[\"Benny niece suit alleges 'brainwash,'\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19780306&id=KvJVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=4eEDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3200,1599440) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808055322/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1310\\&dat\\=19780306\\&id\\=KvJVAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=4eEDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3200,1599440 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-08 }} *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, 6 March 1978\\.",
"In 1978, Leslie Weiss pressed the charges of [assault](/wiki/Assault \"Assault\"), [battery](/wiki/Battery_%28crime%29 \"Battery (crime)\"), and false imprisonment against Patrick and Albert Turner, who assisted in the attempted deprogramming of Weiss on [Thanksgiving Day](/wiki/Thanksgiving_%28United_States%29 \"Thanksgiving (United States)\") 1974\\. Weiss converted to the Unification Church in June 1974\\. [The United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island](/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Rhode_Island \"United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island\") Judge [Francis J. Boyle](/wiki/Francis_J._Boyle \"Francis J. Boyle\") found no wrongdoing on behalf of the defendants.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Weiss v. Patrick, 453 F. Supp. 717 (D.R.I. 1978\\) \\|url\\=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\\-courts/FSupp/453/717/1488162/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=Justia Law \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509234721/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district\\-courts/FSupp/453/717/1488162/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\"Moonies: Conflict in New Hampshire,\" *Associated Press*, 29 August 1978\\.\"'Deprogrammer' Upheld on Appeal,\" *Facts on File: World New Digest* (New York), 31 December 1978\\.Carelli, Richard, untitled article, *Associated Press*, 11 June 1979\\.",
"According to a [habeas corpus](/wiki/Habeas_corpus \"Habeas corpus\") petition filed by [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\") attorney Joseph Bonistall in March 1979, Daniel Eyink was abducted by his parents and Patrick from a [Cincinnati](/wiki/Cincinnati \"Cincinnati\") restaurant where he worked and held in California, in order to be deprogrammed from an unnamed religious community in Cincinnati. Eyink's parents sought to gain custody of their son through a [conservatorship](/wiki/Conservatorship \"Conservatorship\"). Eyink spoke to Judge [Maurice B. Cohill](/wiki/Maurice_Blanchard_Cohill_Jr. \"Maurice Blanchard Cohill Jr.\") who concluded that Eyink was in the community through his own free will and ended the custody battle in May 1979\\.Huysman, Fritz, [\"Son Missing, Deprogramming Case Stalls,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19790501&id=9ecNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nm0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=2831,11231) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1129\\&dat\\=19790501\\&id\\=9ecNAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=nm0DAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2831,11231 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Pittsburgh Post\\-Gazette*, 1 May 1979\\.Vollmer, Judith, [\"Parents Lose In Cult Custody Suit,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19790508&id=MjAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1wEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4667,3321473) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1144\\&dat\\=19790508\\&id\\=MjAcAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=I1wEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4667,3321473 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Pittsburgh Press*, 8 May 1979\\.Vollmer, Judith, [\"Cult 'Deprogrammer' Told to Testify Here,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1144&dat=19790501&id=LzAcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=I1wEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4250,11211) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1144\\&dat\\=19790501\\&id\\=LzAcAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=I1wEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4250,11211 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Pittsburgh Press*, 1 May 1979\\.",
"In May 1979 Patrick, along with Marti Schumacher of [Vancouver, Washington](/wiki/Vancouver%2C_Washington \"Vancouver, Washington\"), was charged with second\\-degree kidnapping after attempting to convince Schumacher's daughter Janet Cannefax to divorce her husband of approximately seven months, Charles Cannefax. The attempt failed and Janet Cannefax brought charges against them, but Patrick and Schumacher were acquitted.[\"Ted Patrick acquitted in abduction,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19790520&id=WgtWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AOIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6550,6395986) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1310\\&dat\\=19790520\\&id\\=WgtWAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=AOIDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6550,6395986 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, 20 May 1979\\.",
"In July 1980, Patrick and others were charged with [conspiracy](/wiki/Conspiracy_%28criminal%29 \"Conspiracy (criminal)\"), kidnapping, and false imprisonment. Paula Dain, a 24\\-year\\-old Scientologist, testified against Patrick in [Los Angeles, California](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), in early July 1980\\.[\"Testifies against deprogrammer,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=860&dat=19800711&id=lYdUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Qo8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6371,679529) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205953/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=860\\&dat\\=19800711\\&id\\=lYdUAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=Qo8DAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6371,679529 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Ellensburg Daily Record*, 11 July 1980\\. Dain claimed she was kidnapped by Patrick and the other defendants in order to deprogram her from the Church of Scientology.[\"Ted Patrick Faces Kidnap Charge,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19800726&id=1pwcAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yWcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6799,4603485) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1755\\&dat\\=19800726\\&id\\=1pwcAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=yWcEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6799,4603485 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Sarasota Hareld\\-Tribune* (Sarasota, Florida), 27 July 1980\\. A California jury cleared Patrick of charges in August 1980\\.[\"Jury clears deprogrammer of kidnapping Scientologist,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1243&dat=19800806&id=g_xXAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2vYDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2648,5099781) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205952/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1243\\&dat\\=19800806\\&id\\=g\\_xXAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=2vYDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2648,5099781 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Bulletin* (Bend, Oregon), 6 August 1980\\.[\"Deprogrammer Found Not Guilty,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19800806&id=5Hc1AAAAIBAJ&sjid=1GcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5896,2294200) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1755\\&dat\\=19800806\\&id\\=5Hc1AAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=1GcEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5896,2294200 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Sarasota Herald\\-Tribune* (Sarasota, Florida), 6 August 1980\\.[\"Cult Case: 4 cleared of kidnap,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1338&dat=19800806&id=mmROAAAAIBAJ&sjid=PfkDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5903,1500154) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1338\\&dat\\=19800806\\&id\\=mmROAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=PfkDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5903,1500154 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Spokane Daily Chronicle*, 6 August 1980\\.[\"Jury frees deprogrammer in Scientology\\-kidnap case,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1310&dat=19800806&id=XvhVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5-EDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4739,1509573) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1310\\&dat\\=19800806\\&id\\=XvhVAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=5\\-EDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=4739,1509573 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Eugene Register\\-Guard*, 6 August 1980\\. Dain and the Church of Scientology later sued Patrick for US$30 million.[\"Cult deprogrammer sued for $30 million,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2211&dat=19840602&id=hS0mAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gf4FAAAAIBAJ&pg=5198,2034073) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2211\\&dat\\=19840602\\&id\\=hS0mAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=gf4FAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5198,2034073 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Afro American* (Baltimore, Maryland), 2 June 1984\\.",
"In August 1980, Patrick was convicted of conspiracy, [kidnapping](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"), and [false imprisonment](/wiki/False_imprisonment \"False imprisonment\"). These charges were related to the abduction and attempted deprogramming of Roberta McElfish, a 26\\-year\\-old [Tucson](/wiki/Tucson%2C_Arizona \"Tucson, Arizona\") waitress, who joined the \"Wesley Thomas Family\".{{cite news\\|title\\=Ted Patrick Convicted of Seizing Woman Said to Have Joined Cult; Escaped From Abductors\\|date\\=August 30, 1980\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/30/archives/ted\\-patrick\\-convicted\\-of\\-seizing\\-woman\\-said\\-to\\-have\\-joined\\-cult.html\\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=May 26, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526145621/https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/30/archives/ted\\-patrick\\-convicted\\-of\\-seizing\\-woman\\-said\\-to\\-have\\-joined\\-cult.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\"Cult Deprogrammer Convicted of Kidnapping,\" *Associated Press*, 29 August 1980\\. Patrick was convicted and sentenced to one year in prison and fined US$5,000\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Ted Patrick is sentenced in seizure of cult member\\|date\\=1980\\-09\\-27\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}}[\"Cult Deprogrammer Is Found Guilty,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19800829&id=FTFPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mQIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7028,6230084) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1350\\&dat\\=19800829\\&id\\=FTFPAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=mQIEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=7028,6230084 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Toledo Blade*, 30 August 1980\\. Patrick failed to appeal the conviction in 1982 in the [California Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California \"Supreme Court of California\").[\"Conviction upheld,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2209&dat=19820319&id=QqQrAAAAIBAJ&sjid=s_wFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5622,3813971) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205951/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2209\\&dat\\=19820319\\&id\\=QqQrAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=s\\_wFAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=5622,3813971 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Telegraph* (London), 19 March 1982\\. In 1985, he was found guilty of violating [probation](/wiki/Probation \"Probation\") in relation to his conviction in 1980, and he was sentenced to three years in prison.[\"Deprogrammer given three years in prison,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1320&dat=19850813&id=LY1PAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XQYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3944,4320300) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205950/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1320\\&dat\\=19850813\\&id\\=LY1PAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=XQYEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3944,4320300 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *Gainesville Sun*, 13 August 1985\\.",
"In October 1981, Stephanie Riethmiller was abducted by two men walking to her Cincinnati apartment with her roommate and significant other, Patty Thiemann, who was sprayed with [mace](/wiki/Mace_%28spray%29 \"Mace (spray)\"). The two men made her enter a van where she encountered her father, William Riethmiller. Her parents sought to deprogram her from her [lesbian](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\") relationship with Thiemann, which they believed was making her more distant from them. Stephanie Riethmiller was driven to [Cedar Bluff, Alabama](/wiki/Cedar_Bluff%2C_Alabama \"Cedar Bluff, Alabama\"), where she was allegedly held against her will and [serially raped](/wiki/Serial_rape \"Serial rape\") by James Anthony Roe, a friend of Patrick's son who Patrick referred to Riethmiller's parents. Patrick also referred Naomi Faye Kelley Goss and a man solely identified as \"Ray\" to Riethmiller's parents. In Cedar Bluff, she was allegedly held in a cabin where Goss \"harangued\" Riethmiller about the evils of homosexuality. Authorities brought charges of assault, [abduction](/wiki/Kidnapping \"Kidnapping\"), and [sexual battery](/wiki/Sexual_battery \"Sexual battery\") against Riethmiller's parents, Patrick, Roe, and \"Ray,\" but all defendants either had their charges dropped or were found not guilty in April 1982\\.\"Love with an Improper Stranger: Sexual Deprogramming goes on trial in Cincinnati,\" *Time* 119, no. 18 (May 1982\\).\"Cult Opponent on Trial in Ohio Kidnapping Case,\" *New York Times*, 19 April 1982\\.\"Defendant Freed in Abduction Case: Ted Patrick, For of Cultists, Is Found Not Guilty by a Jury After Trial in Cincinnati,\" *New York Times*, 25 April 1982\\. Goss was sentenced to 38 days in jail in 1983\\.[\"Ala. woman held by cult is sentenced,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19831016&id=wTYdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=t6UEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6689,4223544) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205948/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1817\\&dat\\=19831016\\&id\\=wTYdAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=t6UEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6689,4223544 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Tuscaloosa News*, 16 October 1983\\. Patrick was on probation from his McElfish conviction in 1980 when the incident occurred, and allegedly Riethmiller's parents paid him US$8,000 to organize Goss, Roe, and \"Ray\" to deprogram Riethmiller.\"Indictments Charge Illegal Sex,\" *Associated Press*, 29 October 1981\\.",
"In late 1983, Patrick was found guilty of violating the civil rights of Richard Cooper, a member of the Divine Light Mission. The jury ordered Patrick to pay US$40,000 in [punitive damages](/wiki/Punitive_damages \"Punitive damages\") and US$10,000 in [compensatory damages](/wiki/Compensatory_damages \"Compensatory damages\"). Patrick was unable to pay the damages immediately due to the years of legal battles.[\"Deprogrammer is found guilty,\"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=799&dat=19831201&id=LbhTAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5ocDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3741,6003970) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802205949/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=799\\&dat\\=19831201\\&id\\=LbhTAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=5ocDAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3741,6003970 \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-02 }} *The Bryan Times* (Bryan, Ohio), 1 December 1983\\.",
"In 1990, Patrick attempted to deprogram Elma Miller, an [Amish](/wiki/Amish \"Amish\") woman who had joined a liberal sect. He was hired by her husband to return her to him and the Amish church. Criminal charges of conspiracy were filed against Miller's husband, brother, and two others, but were later dropped on her request to the prosecuting attorney, who decided not to charge Patrick.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Amish Woman Charges Deprogramming\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1144\\&dat\\=19901130\\&id\\=UzkgAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=5WMEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6938,10854676\\|last\\=French\\|first\\=Ron\\|date\\=November 14, 1990\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Pittsburgh Press]]\\|department\\=News\\|page\\=A14\\|access\\-date\\=October 8, 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=April 8, 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408021227/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1144\\&dat\\=19901130\\&id\\=UzkgAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=5WMEAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=6938,10854676\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Origins
The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure.{{cite book\|publisher\=Theosophical Society in America\|title\=Reincarnation: The Hope of the World\|page\=15\|author\=Irving Steiger Cooper\|year\=1920}} Discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of [Ancient India](/wiki/Ancient_India "Ancient India"). The Greek [Pre\-Socratics](/wiki/Pre-Socratics "Pre-Socratics") discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic [druids](/wiki/Druids "Druids") are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation.[Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus "Diodorus Siculus") thought the druids might have been influenced by the teachings of [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras "Pythagoras"). Diodorus Siculus v.28\.6; Hippolytus *Philosophumena* i.25\.
### Early Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism
The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, *[saαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra "SaαΉsΔra")*, and [liberation](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha") partly derive from [ascetic traditions](/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a "ΕramaαΉa") that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE.Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003\. *The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.* Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273β274\. "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsaraβthe belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvanaβthe goal of human existence....." The first textual references to the idea of reincarnation appear in the [Rigveda](/wiki/Rig_Veda "Rig Veda"), [Yajurveda](/wiki/Yajur_Veda "Yajur Veda") and [Upanishads](/wiki/Upanishads "Upanishads") of the late [Vedic period](/wiki/Vedic_period "Vedic period") (c.β1100 β c.β500 BCE), predating the [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha "Buddha") and [Mahavira](/wiki/Mahavira "Mahavira").{{cite book\|first\=Damien \|last\=Keown \|title\=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction \|year\=2013\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-966383\-5 \|pages\=28, 32β38 }}{{sfn\|Laumakis\|2008\|p\=}} Though no direct evidence of this has been found, the tribes of the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") valley or the [Dravidian](/wiki/Dravidian_peoples "Dravidian peoples") traditions of [South India](/wiki/South_India "South India") have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs.Gavin D. Flood, *An Introduction to Hinduism*, Cambridge University Press (1996\), UK {{ISBN\|0\-521\-43878\-0}} p. 86 β "A third alternative is that the origin of transmigration theory lies outside of vedic or sramanian traditions in the tribal religions of the Ganges valley, or even in Dravidian traditions of south India."
The idea of reincarnation, *saαΉsΔra*, did exist in the early [Vedic religions](/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion "Historical Vedic religion").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig\-veda\-english\-translation/d/doc839140\.html\|title\=Rig Veda 10\.58\.1 \[English translation]\|date\=27 August 2021\|website\=www.wisdomlib.org\|access\-date\=8 October 2023}}A.M. Boyer: "Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara." *Journal Asiatique*, (1901\), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451β453, 459β468{{Cite book \|last\=Krishan \|first\=Y. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books/about/The\_Doctrine\_of\_Karma.html?id\=\_Bi6FWX1NOgC \|title\=The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in BrΔhmaαΉical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions \|last2\=Krishan \|first2\=Yuvraj \|date\=1997 \|publisher\=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan \|isbn\=978\-81\-208\-1233\-8 \|pages\=3\-37 \|language\=en}} The early Vedas mention the doctrine of [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") and rebirth.{{sfn\|Laumakis\|2008\|pp\=90β99}}{{cite book\|title\=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy\|author\=R.D.Ranade\|publisher\=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan \|pages\=147β148 \|year \= 1926 \|url\= https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926\.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926\#page/n181/mode/2up \|quote\= There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet \[of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live."}}{{cite book\|author\=Atsushi Hayakawa \|title\=Circulation of Fire in the Veda \|year\=2014\| publisher\=LIT Verlag MΓΌnster\| isbn\=978\-3\-643\-90472\-0\| pages\=66β67, 101β103 with footnotes}} It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre\-[Buddha](/wiki/Buddha "Buddha") and pre\-[Mahavira](/wiki/Mahavira "Mahavira"), where these ideas are developed and described in a general way.{{sfn\|Laumakis\|2008\|p\=90}}A.M. Boyer (1901\), "Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara", *Journal Asiatique*, Volume 9, Issue 18, pp. 451β453, 459β468{{cite book\|title\=The way to Nirvana: six lectures on ancient Buddhism as a discipline of salvation\|author\=Vallee Pussin\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|year\=1917\|pages\=24β25}} Detailed descriptions first appear around the mid\-1st millennium BCE in diverse traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of [Hindu philosophy](/wiki/Hindu_philosophy "Hindu philosophy"), each of which gave unique expression to the general principle.{{sfn\|Laumakis\|2008\|pp\=90β99}}
[Sangam literature](/wiki/Sangam_literature "Sangam literature"){{cite book\|author\=K Kailasapathy\|title\=Tamil Heroic Poetry\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kF9kAAAAMAAJ \|year\=1968\|publisher\=Clarendon Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-815434\-1\|page\=1}} connotes the ancient [Tamil literature](/wiki/Tamil_literature "Tamil literature") and is the earliest known literature of [South India](/wiki/South_India "South India"). The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around [Madurai](/wiki/Madurai "Madurai"). According to [Kamil Zvelebil](/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil "Kamil Zvelebil"), a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi\-historic allusions within the texts and the [colophons](/wiki/Colophon_%28publishing%29 "Colophon (publishing)").{{sfn\|Kamil Zvelebil\|1974\|pp\=9β10 with footnotes}} There are several mentions of rebirth and moksha in the [Purananuru](/wiki/Purananuru "Purananuru").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru\-part\-134\|title\=Poem: Purananuru \- Part 134 by George L. III Hart\|website\=www.poetrynook.com\|access\-date\=8 October 2023}} The text explains Hindu rituals surrounding death such as making riceballs called [pinda](/wiki/Pinda_%28riceball%29 "Pinda (riceball)") and cremation. The text states that good souls get a place in [Indraloka](/wiki/Svarga "Svarga") where [Indra](/wiki/Indra "Indra") welcomes them.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru\-part\-241\|title\=Poem: Purananuru \- Part 241 by George L. III Hart\|website\=www.poetrynook.com\|access\-date\=8 October 2023}}
The texts of ancient [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism "Jainism") that have survived into the modern era are post\-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the first millennium BCE, and extensively discuss the doctrines of rebirth and karma.{{cite book \|first\=Padmanabh \|last\=Jaini \|editor\=Wendy Doniger \|title\=Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions \|url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_4WZTj3M71y0C \|year\=1980\|publisher\=University of California Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-520\-03923\-0 \|pages\=217β236}}{{cite book\|author\= Paul Dundas\|title\=The Jains \|year\=2003\|publisher\= \[\[Routledge]]\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-26605\-5 \|pages\= 14β16, 102β105 }} Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul (*[jiva](/wiki/Jiva "Jiva")* in Jainism; *[atman](/wiki/%C4%80tman_%28Hinduism%29 "Δtman (Hinduism)")* in Hinduism) exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration and rebirth.{{Sfn\|Jaini\|1980\|pp\=226β228}} After death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts. Depending upon the accumulated karma, rebirth occurs into a higher or lower bodily form, either in heaven or hell or earthly realm.{{cite book\|author\=Kristi L. Wiley \|title\=The A to Z of Jainism \|year\=2009\|publisher\=Scarecrow \|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-6337\-8 \|page\=186}}{{Sfn\|Jaini\|1980\|pp\=227\-228}} No bodily form is permanent: everyone dies and reincarnates further. Liberation (*kevalya*) from reincarnation is possible, however, through removing and ending karmic accumulations to one's soul.{{cite book\|author\= Paul Dundas\|title\=The Jains \|year\=2003\|publisher\= Routledge\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-26605\-5 \|pages\= 104β105 }} From the early stages of Jainism on, a human being was considered the highest mortal being, with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through [asceticism](/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism").{{cite book\|author\=Jeffery D Long\|title\=Jainism: An Introduction\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ajAEBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT36\|year\=2013\|publisher\=I.B.Tauris\|isbn\=978\-0\-85773\-656\-7\|pages\=36β37}}{{cite book\|author\= Paul Dundas\|title\=The Jains \|year\=2003\|publisher\= Routledge\|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-26605\-5 \|pages\= 55β59 }}{{cite book\|author\=John E. Cort\|title\=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India\| year\=2001\|publisher\= Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-803037\-9\|pages\=118β119}}
The [early Buddhist texts](/wiki/Buddhist_texts%23Texts_of_the_Early_schools "Buddhist texts#Texts of the Early schools") discuss rebirth as part of the doctrine of *[saαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_%28Buddhism%29 "SaαΉsΔra (Buddhism)")*. This asserts that the nature of existence is a "suffering\-laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end".{{cite book\|author\=Jeff Wilson\|year\= 2010\|title\= SaαΉsΔra and Rebirth, in Buddhism\| publisher\= Oxford University Press\|isbn\= 978\-0\-19\-539352\-1\| doi\=10\.1093/obo/9780195393521\-0141}}{{cite book\|first\=Kevin \|last\=Trainor \|title\= Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide \|year\=2004\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-517398\-7 \|pages\=62β63 }}; *Quote:* "Buddhist doctrine holds that until they realize nirvana, beings are bound to undergo rebirth and redeath due to their having acted out of ignorance and desire, thereby producing the seeds of karma". Also referred to as the wheel of existence (*[Bhavacakra](/wiki/Bhavacakra "Bhavacakra")*), it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term *punarbhava* (rebirth, re\-becoming). Liberation from this cycle of existence, *Nirvana*, is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism.{{cite book\|author\=Edward Conze \|title\= Buddhist Thought in India: Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy \|year\=2013\|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-54231\-4\|page\=71\|quote\="Nirvana is the ''raison d'Γͺtre'' of Buddhism, and its ultimate justification."}}{{Citation \| last \=Gethin \| first \=Rupert \| year \=1998 \| title \=Foundations of Buddhism \| publisher \=Oxford University Press \| isbn \=978\-0\-19\-289223\-2 \| page \=\[https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/119 119] \| url \=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/119 }} Buddhist texts also assert that an [enlightened](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism "Enlightenment in Buddhism") person knows his previous births, a knowledge achieved through high levels of [meditative concentration](/wiki/Samadhi "Samadhi").Paul Williams, Anthony Tribe, *Buddhist thought: a complete introduction to the Indian tradition.* Routledge, 2000, p. 84\. Tibetan Buddhism discusses death, [bardo](/wiki/Bardo "Bardo") (an intermediate state), and rebirth in texts such as the *[Tibetan Book of the Dead](/wiki/Bardo_Thodol "Bardo Thodol")*. While Nirvana is taught as the ultimate goal in the Theravadin Buddhism, and is essential to Mahayana Buddhism, the vast majority of contemporary lay Buddhists focus on accumulating good karma and acquiring merit to achieve a better reincarnation in the next life.{{cite book\|author\=Merv Fowler \|title\=Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices\|year\=1999\|publisher\=Sussex Academic Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-898723\-66\-0 \|page\=65\|quote\="For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth."}}{{cite book\|author\=Christopher Gowans\|title\=Philosophy of the Buddha: An Introduction\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-46973\-4\|page\=169}}
In early Buddhist traditions, *saαΉsΔra* cosmology consisted of five realms through which the wheel of existence cycled. This included hells (*[niraya](/wiki/Niraya "Niraya")*), [hungry ghosts](/wiki/Hungry_ghosts "Hungry ghosts") (*[pretas](/wiki/Pretas "Pretas")*), animals (*[tiryaka](/wiki/Tiryakas_realm "Tiryakas realm")*), humans (*[manushya](/wiki/Manushya "Manushya")*), and gods (*[devas](/wiki/Deva_%28Buddhism%29 "Deva (Buddhism)")*, heavenly).{{cite book\|author\=Robert DeCaroli \|title\=Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism \|year\=2004\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-803765\-1\|pages\=94β103}} In latter Buddhist traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demigods (*[asuras](/wiki/Asura_%28Buddhism%29 "Asura (Buddhism)")*).{{cite book\|author\=Akira Sadakata\|title\=Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins\|year\=1997\|publisher\= KΕsei Publishing δ½ΌζεΊηη€Ύ, Tokyo\|isbn\=978\-4\-333\-01682\-2\|pages\=68β70}}
#### Rationale
The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife "Afterlife") in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit).{{cite book\|author1\=James Hastings\|author2\=John Alexander Selbie\|author3\-link\=Louis Herbert Gray\|author3\=Louis Herbert Gray\|series\=\[\[EncyclopΓ¦dia of Religion and Ethics]]\|title\=Volume 12: Suffering\-Zwingli\|url\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\.500005\|year\=1922\|publisher\=T. \& T. Clark\|pages\=616β618\|author1\-link\=James Hastings}} However, the ancient Vedic [rishis](/wiki/Rishi "Rishi") challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live equally moral or immoral lives. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for people, with varying degrees of virtue or vices, to end up in heaven or hell, in "either or" and disproportionate manner irrespective of how virtuous or vicious their lives were.{{Sfn\|Jessica Frazier\|Gavin Flood\|2011\|pp\=84β86}}{{cite book\|author\=Kusum P. Merh \|title\=Yama, the Glorious Lord of the Other World \|year\=1996\|publisher\=Penguin \|isbn\=978\-81\-246\-0066\-5 \|pages\=213β215}}{{cite book\|author\= Anita Raina Thapan\|title\=The Penguin Swami Chinmyananda Reader \|year\=2006\|publisher\=Penguin Books \|isbn\=978\-0\-14\-400062\-3 \|pages\=84β90 }} They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one's merit.{{cite book\|author1\=Jessica Frazier \|author2\=Gavin Flood \|title\= The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies \|year\=2011\|publisher\=Bloomsbury Academic \|isbn\=978\-0\-8264\-9966\-0\|pages\= 84β86 }}{{cite book\|author1\=Patrul Rinpoche\|author2\-link\=Dalai Lama\|author2\=Dalai Lama\|title\=The Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Rowman Altamira\|isbn\=978\-0\-7619\-9027\-7\|pages\=95β96\|author1\-link\=Patrul Rinpoche}}{{cite book\|author\=Yuvraj Krishan \|title\=The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in BrΔhmaαΉical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions \|year\=1997\|publisher\= Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan\|isbn\=978\-81\-208\-1233\-8 \|pages\=17β27 }}
#### Comparison
Early texts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism share the concepts and terminology related to reincarnation.{{cite book \|last1\=Williams \|first1\=Paul \|last2\=Tribe \|first2\=Anthony \|last3\=Wynne \|first3\=Alexander \| year\=2012 \|title\=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition \|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-136\-52088\-4 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=NOLfCgAAQBAJ \|access\-date\=2016\-09\-25 \|archive\-date\=2020\-11\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120065316/https://books.google.com/books?id\=NOLfCgAAQBAJ \|url\-status\=live \|pages\=30β42}} They also emphasize similar virtuous practices and [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") as necessary for liberation and what influences future rebirths.{{cite book\|author\=Michael D. Coogan\|title\=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions \| year\=2003\| publisher\=Oxford University Press\| isbn\=978\-0\-19\-521997\-5\| page\=192}} For example, all three discuss various virtuesβsometimes grouped as [Yamas](/wiki/Yamas "Yamas") and [Niyamas](/wiki/Niyama "Niyama")βsuch as [non\-violence](/wiki/Ahimsa "Ahimsa"), [truthfulness](/wiki/Satya "Satya"), [non\-stealing](/wiki/Asteya "Asteya"), [non\-possessiveness](/wiki/Aparigraha "Aparigraha"), [compassion](/wiki/Compassion "Compassion") for all living beings, [charity](/wiki/D%C4%81na "DΔna") and many others.{{cite book\|author1\=David Carpenter\|author2\=Ian Whicher\|title\=Yoga: The Indian Tradition\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-135\-79606\-8\|page\=116}}{{cite book\|author\=Rita Langer \|title\=Buddhist Rituals of Death and Rebirth: Contemporary Sri Lankan Practice and Its Origins \|year\=2007\|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-15873\-7 \|pages\=53β54 }}
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism disagree in their assumptions and theories about rebirth. Hinduism relies on its foundational belief that the 'soul, Self exists' ([*atman*](/wiki/Atman_%28Hinduism%29 "Atman (Hinduism)") or *attΔ*), while Buddhism aserts that there is 'no soul, no Self' ([*anatta*](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 "AnattΔ") or *anatman*).{{cite book\|author\=Christmas Humphreys\|title\=Exploring Buddhism \|year\=2012\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-136\-22877\-3 \|pages\=42β43 }}{{cite book\|author\=Brian Morris \|title\=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PguGB\_uEQh4C\&pg\=PA51 \|year\=2006\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-85241\-8\|page\=51\|quote\="(...) anatta is the doctrine of non\-self, and is an extreme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heapsβthe body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering."}}{{cite book\|author\=Richard Gombrich\|title\=Theravada Buddhism\|year\=2006\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-90352\-8\|page\=47\|quote\="(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no\-soul doctrine' (anatta\-vada) he expounded in his second sermon."}}[Anatta](http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210185046/http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta \|date\=2015\-12\-10 }}, Encyclopedia Britannica (2013\), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";Steven Collins (1994\), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7914\-2217\-5}}, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not\-self (Pali: anattΔ, Sanskrit: anΔtman, the opposed doctrine of Δtman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the \[Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books\|3uwDAAAAMAAJ\|Shankara's Introduction\|page\=2}} to *Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad*, pp. 2β4;Katie Javanaud (2013\), [Is The Buddhist 'No\-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?](https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206211126/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is\_The\_Buddhist\_No\-Self\_Doctrine\_Compatible\_With\_Pursuing\_Nirvana \|date\=2015\-02\-06 }}, Philosophy Now;KN Jayatilleke (2010\), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN\|978\-81\-208\-0619\-1}}, pp. 246β249, from note 385 onwards;John C. Plott et al (2000\), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978\-81\-208\-0158\-5}}, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Δtman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism". Hindu traditions consider soul to be the unchanging eternal essence of a living being, which journeys through reincarnations until it attains self\-knowledge.{{cite book\|author\=Bruce M. Sullivan\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism\|year\=1997\|publisher\=Scarecrow\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-3327\-2\|pages\=235β236 (See: Upanishads)}}{{cite book\|author\=Klaus K. Klostermaier\|title\=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition\|year\=2007\|publisher\=State University of New York Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-7914\-7082\-4\|pages\=119β122, 162β180, 194β195}}{{cite book \|last\=Kalupahana \|first\=David J. \|date\=1992 \|title\=The Principles of Buddhist Psychology \|location\=Delhi \|publisher\=ri Satguru Publications \|pages\=38β39}} Buddhism, in contrast, asserts a rebirth theory without a Self, and considers realization of non\-Self or Emptiness as Nirvana (*[nibbana](/wiki/Nibbana "Nibbana")*).
The reincarnation doctrine in Jainism differs from those in Buddhism, even though both are non\-theistic [Sramana](/wiki/Sramana "Sramana") traditions.{{cite book\|author\=Kristi L. Wiley\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Scarecrow\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-5051\-4\|page\=91}} Jainism, in contrast to Buddhism, accepts the foundational assumption that soul (*[Jiva](/wiki/Jiva "Jiva")*) exists and asserts that this soul is involved in the rebirth mechanism.{{cite book\|author\=Kristi L. Wiley\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Scarecrow\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-5051\-4\|pages\=10β12, 111β112, 119}} Furthermore, Jainism considers [asceticism](/wiki/Asceticism "Asceticism") as an important means to spiritual liberation that ends the cycle of reincarnation, while Buddhism does not.{{cite book\|author\=Naomi Appleton \|title\=Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi\-Life Stories \|year\=2014\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-139\-91640\-0\|pages\=76β89 }}{{cite book\|author\=Gananath Obeyesekere \|title\=Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study \|year\=2006\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn\=978\-81\-208\-2609\-0 \|pages\=107β108 }};
{{cite book\|author\=Kristi L. Wiley\|title\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Scarecrow\|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-5051\-4\|pages\=118β119}}{{cite book\|author\=John E. Cort\|title\=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India \| year\=2001\|publisher\= Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-803037\-9\|pages\=118β123}}
### Classical antiquity
{{see also\|Metempsychosis}}
[thumb\|A second\-century Roman sarcophagus shows the mythology and symbolism of the Orphic and Dionysiac Mystery schools. Orpheus plays his lyre to the left.](/wiki/Image:2161_-_Taormina_-_Badia_Vecchia_-_Sarcofago_romano_del_sec._II_d.C._-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_20-May-2008.jpg "2161 - Taormina - Badia Vecchia - Sarcofago romano del sec. II d.C. - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20-May-2008.jpg")
Early Greek discussion of the concept dates to the sixth century BCE. An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is [Pherecydes of Syros](/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros "Pherecydes of Syros") (fl. 540 BCE).Schibli, S., Hermann, Pherekydes of Syros, p. 104, Oxford Univ. Press 2001 His younger contemporary [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras "Pythagoras") (c. 570βc. 495 BCE"The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. *V.P.* 9\) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BCE, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy\-five or eighty." [William Keith Chambers Guthrie](/wiki/William_Keith_Chambers_Guthrie "William Keith Chambers Guthrie"), (1978\), *A history of Greek philosophy, Volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans*, p. 173\. Cambridge University Press), its first famous exponent, instituted societies for its diffusion. Some authorities believe that Pythagoras was Pherecydes' pupil, others that Pythagoras took up the idea of reincarnation from the doctrine of [Orphism](/wiki/Orphism_%28religion%29 "Orphism (religion)"), a [Thracian](/wiki/Thrace "Thrace") religion, or brought the teaching from India.
[Plato](/wiki/Plato "Plato") (428/427β348/347 BCE) presented accounts of reincarnation in his works, particularly the *[Myth of Er](/wiki/Myth_of_Er "Myth of Er")*, where Plato makes Socrates tell how Er, the son of [Armenius](/wiki/Arminius "Arminius"), miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, in the [Chariot allegory](/wiki/Chariot_allegory "Chariot allegory") of the *[Phaedrus](/wiki/Phaedrus_%28dialogue%29 "Phaedrus (dialogue)")*,*The Dialogues of Plato* (Benjamin Jowett trans., 1875 ed), vol. 2, p. 125 in the *[Meno](/wiki/Meno "Meno")*,*The Dialogues of Plato* (Benjamin Jowett trans., 1875 ed), vol. 1, p. 282 *[Timaeus](/wiki/Timaeus_%28dialogue%29 "Timaeus (dialogue)")* and *[Laws](/wiki/Laws_%28dialogue%29 "Laws (dialogue)")*. The soul, once separated from the body, spends an indeterminate amount of time in the intelligible realm (see The [Allegory of the Cave](/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave "Allegory of the Cave") in *[The Republic](/wiki/The_Republic_%28Plato%29 "The Republic (Plato)")*) and then assumes another body. In the *Timaeus*, Plato believes that the soul moves from body to body without any distinct reward\-or\-punishment phase between lives, because the reincarnation is itself a punishment or reward for how a person has lived.See Kamtekar 2016 for a discussion of how Plato's view of reincarnation changes across texts, especially concerning the existence of a distinct reward\-or\-punishment phase between lives. Rachana Kamtekar. 2016\. "The Soulβs (After\-) Life," *Ancient Philosophy* 36 (1\):115\-132\.
In *[Phaedo](/wiki/Phaedo "Phaedo")*, Plato has his teacher [Socrates](/wiki/Socrates "Socrates"), prior to his death, state: "I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead." However, [Xenophon](/wiki/Xenophon "Xenophon") does not mention Socrates as believing in reincarnation, and Plato may have systematized Socrates' thought with concepts he took directly from Pythagoreanism or Orphism. Recent scholars have come to see that Plato has multiple reasons for the belief in reincarnation.See Campbell 2022 for more on why Plato believes in reincarnation. Douglas R. Campbell. 2022\. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," *Review of Metaphysics* 75 (4\): 643\-665\. See also the discussion in Chad Jorgensen. 2018\. *The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. One argument concerns the theory of reincarnation's usefulness for explaining why non\-human animals exist: they are former humans, being punished for their vices; Plato gives this argument at the end of the *Timaeus*.See *Timaeus* 90β92\.
#### Mystery cults
The [Orphic religion](/wiki/Orphism_%28religion%29 "Orphism (religion)"), which taught reincarnation, about the sixth century BCE, produced a copious literature.Linforth, Ivan M. (1941\) *The Arts of Orpheus* Arno Press, New York, {{OCLC\|514515}}Long, Herbert S. (1948\) *A Study of the doctrine of metempsychosis in Greece, from Pythagoras to Plato* (Long's 1942 Ph.D. dissertation) Princeton, New Jersey, {{OCLC\|1472399}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Long \|first1\=Herbert S. \|title\=Plato's Doctrine of Metempsychosis and Its Source \|journal\=The Classical Weekly \|date\=1948 \|volume\=41 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=149β155 \|id\={{ProQuest\|1296280468}} \|doi\=10\.2307/4342414 \|jstor\=4342414 }} [Orpheus](/wiki/Orpheus "Orpheus"), its legendary founder, is said to have taught that the immortal soul aspires to freedom while the body holds it prisoner. The wheel of birth revolves, the soul alternates between freedom and captivity round the wide circle of necessity. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods, [Dionysus](/wiki/Dionysus "Dionysus") in particular, and of self\-purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live forever.
An association between [Pythagorean philosophy](/wiki/Pythagoreanism "Pythagoreanism") and reincarnation was routinely accepted throughout antiquity, as Pythagoras also taught about reincarnation. However, unlike the Orphics, who considered metempsychosis a cycle of grief that could be escaped by attaining liberation from it, Pythagoras seems to postulate an eternal, neutral reincarnation where subsequent lives would not be conditioned by any action done in the previous.{{Cite book\|title\=Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans\|author\=Leonid Zhmud\|publisher\=OUP Oxford\|year\=2012\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-928931\-8\|pages\=232β233}}
#### Later authors
In later Greek literature the doctrine is mentioned in a fragment of [Menander](/wiki/Menander "Menander")Menander, *The Inspired Woman* and satirized by [Lucian](/wiki/Lucian "Lucian").Lucian, *Gallus*, 18 et seq. In [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") literature it is found as early as [Ennius](/wiki/Ennius "Ennius"),Poesch, Jessie (1962\) "Ennius and Basinio of Parma" *[Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes](/wiki/Journal_of_the_Warburg_and_Courtauld_Institutes "Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes")* 25(1/2\):116β118 \[117 n15]. who, in a lost passage of his *Annals*, told how he had seen [Homer](/wiki/Homer "Homer") in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a peacock. [Persius](/wiki/Persius "Persius") in his satires (vi. 9\) laughs at this; it is referred to also by [Lucretius](/wiki/Lucretius "Lucretius")Lucretius, (i. 124\) and [Horace](/wiki/Horace "Horace").Horace, *Epistles*, II. i. 52
[Virgil](/wiki/Virgil "Virgil") works the idea into his account of the Underworld in the sixth book of the *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid "Aeneid")*.Virgil, *The Aeneid*, vv. 724 et seq. It persists down to the late classic thinkers, [Plotinus](/wiki/Plotinus "Plotinus") and the other [Neoplatonists](/wiki/Neoplatonist "Neoplatonist"). In the [Hermetica](/wiki/Hermetica "Hermetica"), a Graeco\-Egyptian series of writings on cosmology and spirituality attributed to [Hermes Trismegistus](/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus "Hermes Trismegistus")/[Thoth](/wiki/Thoth "Thoth"), the doctrine of reincarnation is central.
### Celtic paganism
In the first century BCE [Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor](/wiki/Alexander_Cornelius_Polyhistor "Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor") wrote:
{{bquote\|The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the \[\[Gauls]]' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body.}}
[Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar") recorded that the [druids](/wiki/Druids "Druids") of Gaul, Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines:Julius Caesar, "De Bello Gallico", VI
{{bquote\|The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another... the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed.}}
[Diodorus](/wiki/Diodorus "Diodorus") also recorded the Gaul belief that human souls were immortal, and that after a prescribed number of years they would commence upon a new life in another body. He added that Gauls had the custom of casting letters to their deceased upon the funeral pyres, through which the dead would be able to read them.{{cite book\|author\=\[\[T. Rice Holmes]]\|title\=Caesar's Conquest of Gaul: An Historical Narrative\|date\=1903\|publisher\=\|isbn\=\|page\=}} [Valerius Maximus](/wiki/Valerius_Maximus "Valerius Maximus") also recounted they had the custom of lending sums of money to each other which would be repayable in the next world.{{cite book \|last\=Kendrick \|first\=T.D. \|date\=2003 \|orig\-date\=1927 \|title\=Druids and Druidism \|publisher\=Dover \|isbn\=0\-486\-42719\-6 \|page\=106}} This was mentioned by [Pomponius Mela](/wiki/Pomponius_Mela "Pomponius Mela"), who also recorded Gauls buried or burnt with them things they would need in a next life, to the point some would jump into the funeral piles of their relatives in order to cohabit in the new life with them.{{Sfn\|Kendrick\|2003\|p\=108}}
[Hippolytus of Rome](/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome "Hippolytus of Rome") believed the Gauls had been taught the doctrine of reincarnation by a slave of [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras "Pythagoras") named [Zalmoxis](/wiki/Zalmoxis "Zalmoxis"). Conversely, [Clement of Alexandria](/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria "Clement of Alexandria") believed Pythagoras himself had learned it from the Celts and not the opposite, claiming he had been taught by [Galatian](/wiki/Galatians_%28people%29 "Galatians (people)") Gauls, [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") priests and [Zoroastrians](/wiki/Zoroastrians "Zoroastrians").{{Sfn\|Kendrick\|2003\|p\=105}}{{cite book\|author\=Robin Melrose\|title\=The Druids and King Arthur: A New View of Early Britain\|date\=2014\|publisher\=McFarland\|isbn\=978\-07\-864600\-5\-2}} However, author [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick "T. D. Kendrick") rejected a real connection between Pythagoras and the Celtic idea reincarnation, noting their beliefs to have substantial differences, and any contact to be historically unlikely.{{Sfn\|Kendrick\|2003\|p\=108}} Nonetheless, he proposed the possibility of an ancient common source, also related to the [Orphic religion](/wiki/Orphic_religion "Orphic religion") and [Thracian](/wiki/Thracian "Thracian") systems of belief.{{Sfn\|Kendrick\|2003\|p\=109}}
### Germanic paganism
{{Main\|Rebirth in Germanic paganism}}
Surviving texts indicate that there was a belief in [rebirth in Germanic paganism](/wiki/Rebirth_in_Germanic_paganism "Rebirth in Germanic paganism"). Examples include figures from [eddic poetry](/wiki/Eddic_poetry "Eddic poetry") and [sagas](/wiki/Saga "Saga"), potentially by way of a process of naming and/or through the family line. Scholars have discussed the implications of these attestations and proposed theories regarding belief in reincarnation among the [Germanic peoples](/wiki/Germanic_peoples "Germanic peoples") prior to [Christianization](/wiki/Christianization "Christianization") and potentially to some extent in [folk belief](/wiki/Folk_belief "Folk belief") thereafter.
### Judaism
The belief in reincarnation developed among Jewish mystics in the medieval world, among whom differing explanations were given of the afterlife, although with a universal belief in an immortal soul.*Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs \& Rituals*, By George Robinson, Simon and Schuster 2008, p. 193 It was explicitly rejected by [Saadiah Gaon](/wiki/Saadiah_Gaon "Saadiah Gaon").*The Book of Beliefs and Opinions*, chap. VIII Today, reincarnation is an [esoteric](/wiki/Esoteric "Esoteric") belief within many streams of modern Judaism. [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") teaches a belief in *[gilgul](/wiki/Gilgul "Gilgul")*, transmigration of souls, and hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in [Hasidic Judaism](/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism "Hasidic Judaism"), which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative, and is also sometimes held as an esoteric belief within other strains of [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism "Orthodox Judaism"). In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism"), the [Zohar](/wiki/Zohar "Zohar"), first published in the 13th century, discusses reincarnation at length, especially in the [Torah](/wiki/Torah "Torah") portion "Balak." The most comprehensive [kabbalistic](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") work on reincarnation, *[Shaar HaGilgulim](/wiki/Shaar_HaGilgulim "Shaar HaGilgulim")*,"Mind in the Balance: Meditation in Science, Buddhism, and Christianity", p. 104, by B. Alan Wallace"Between Worlds: Dybbuks, Exorcists, and Early Modern Judaism", p. 190, by [J. H. Chajes](/wiki/J._H._Chajes "J. H. Chajes") was written by [Chaim Vital](/wiki/Hayyim_ben_Joseph_Vital "Hayyim ben Joseph Vital"), based on the teachings of his mentor, the 16th\-century kabbalist [Isaac Luria](/wiki/Isaac_Luria "Isaac Luria"), who was said to know the past lives of each person through his [semi\-prophetic](/wiki/Ruach_HaKodesh "Ruach HaKodesh") abilities. The 18th\-century Lithuanian master scholar and kabbalist, Elijah of Vilna, known as the [Vilna Gaon](/wiki/Vilna_Gaon "Vilna Gaon"), authored a commentary on the biblical [Book of Jonah](/wiki/Book_of_Jonah "Book of Jonah") as an allegory of reincarnation.
The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation. According to this school of thought in Judaism, when non\-Jews are drawn to Judaism, it is because they had been Jews in a former life. Such souls may "wander among nations" through multiple lives, until they find their way back to Judaism, including through finding themselves born in a gentile family with a "lost" Jewish ancestor.*Jewish Tales of Reincarnation*, By Yonasson Gershom, Yonasson Gershom, Jason Aronson, Incorporated, 31 January 2000
There is an extensive literature of Jewish folk and traditional stories that refer to reincarnation.Yonasson Gershom (1999\), *Jewish Tales of Reincarnation*. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. {{ISBN\|0\-7657\-6083\-5}}
### Christianity
**Reincarnationism** or **biblical reincarnation** is the belief that certain people are or can be [reincarnations](/wiki/Reincarnations "Reincarnations") of [biblical figures](/wiki/Biblical_figures "Biblical figures"), such as [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus_Christ "Jesus Christ") and the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary "Virgin Mary").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cinemaseekers.com/Christ/reincarnation.html \|title\=Biblical Accounts that Suggest Reincarnation \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-27 \|archive\-date\=2021\-06\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608232803/http://www.cinemaseekers.com/christ/reincarnation.html }} Some Christians believe that certain New Testament figures are reincarnations of Old Testament figures. For example, [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist") is believed by some to be a reincarnation of the prophet [Elijah](/wiki/Elijah "Elijah"), and a few take this further by suggesting Jesus was the reincarnation of Elijah's disciple [Elisha](/wiki/Elisha "Elisha").{{Cite web \|url\=https://yoganandafortheworld.com/who\-was\-jesus\-before\-the\-last\-incarnation\-elias\-and\-elijah\-the\-second\-coming\-of\-christ/ \|title\=Who Was Jesus Before the Last Incarnation? \|date\=9 January 2012 \|access\-date\=2023\-09\-07}} Other Christians believe the [Second Coming](/wiki/Second_Coming "Second Coming") of Jesus would be fulfilled by reincarnation. [Sun Myung Moon](/wiki/Sun_Myung_Moon "Sun Myung Moon"), the founder of the [Unification Church](/wiki/Unification_Church "Unification Church"), considered himself to be the fulfillment of Jesus' return.
The Catholic Church does not believe in reincarnation, which it regards as being incompatible with [death](/wiki/Death "Death").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc\_css/archive/catechism/p123a11\.htm\#1013 \|title\=CCC \- PART 1 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 ARTICLE 11 \|publisher\=Vatican.va \|date\= \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-23}} Nonetheless, the leaders of certain [sects](/wiki/Sects "Sects") in the church have taught that they are reincarnations of Mary \- for example, Marie\-Paule GiguΓ¨re of the [Army of Mary](/wiki/Community_of_the_Lady_of_All_Nations "Community of the Lady of All Nations"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.cccb.ca/site/Files/armyofmary.html \|title\=Army of Mary Doctrinal Note \|publisher\=Cccb.ca \|date\= \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-23 \|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504170432/http://www.cccb.ca/site/Files/armyofmary.html }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://wrldrels.org/2016/10/08/army\-of\-mary/\|title\=Army of Mary / Community of the Lady of All Peoples β WRSP\|access\-date\=8 October 2023}} and [Maria Franciszka](/wiki/Feliksa_Koz%C5%82owska "Feliksa KozΕowska") of the former [Mariavites](/wiki/Mariavite_Church "Mariavite Church").{{cite web\|author\=Pius X \|url\=https://www.vatican.va/holy\_father/pius\_x/encyclicals/documents/hf\_p\-x\_enc\_05041906\_tribus\-circiter\_en.html \|title\=Pius X, Tribus Circiter (05/04/1906\) \|publisher\=Vatican.va \|date\=1904\-09\-04 \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-23}} The [Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith "Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith") excommunicated the Army of Mary for teaching heresy, including reincarnationism.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.cccb.ca/site/images/stories/pdf/decl\_excomm\_english.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=2012\-05\-23 \|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504170442/http://www.cccb.ca/site/images/stories/pdf/decl\_excomm\_english.pdf }}
#### Gnosticism
Several [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic "Gnostic") sects professed reincarnation. The [Sethians](/wiki/Sethians "Sethians") and followers of [Valentinus](/wiki/Valentinus_%28Gnostic%29 "Valentinus (Gnostic)") believed in it.Much of this is documented in R.E. Slater's book *Paradise Reconsidered.* The followers of [Bardaisan](/wiki/Bardaisan "Bardaisan") of [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia "Mesopotamia"), a sect of the second century deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, drew upon [Chaldean](/wiki/Babylon "Babylon") [astrology](/wiki/Astrology "Astrology"), to which Bardaisan's son Harmonius, educated in Athens, added Greek ideas including a sort of metempsychosis. Another such teacher was [Basilides](/wiki/Basilides "Basilides") (132β? CE/AD), known to us through the criticisms of [Irenaeus](/wiki/Irenaeus "Irenaeus") and the work of [Clement of Alexandria](/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria "Clement of Alexandria") (see also [Neoplatonism and Gnosticism](/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Gnosticism "Neoplatonism and Gnosticism") and [Buddhism and Gnosticism](/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism "Buddhism and Gnosticism")).
In the third Christian century [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism "Manichaeism") spread both east and west from [Babylonia](/wiki/Babylonia "Babylonia"), then within the [Sassanid Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire "Sassanid Empire"), where its founder [Mani](/wiki/Mani_%28prophet%29 "Mani (prophet)") lived about 216β276\. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 AD. Noting Mani's early travels to the [Kushan Empire](/wiki/Kushan_Empire "Kushan Empire") and other Buddhist influences in Manichaeism, [Richard Foltz](/wiki/Richard_Foltz "Richard Foltz")[Richard Foltz](/wiki/Richard_Foltz "Richard Foltz"), *Religions of the Silk Road*, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 attributes Mani's teaching of reincarnation to Buddhist influence. However the inter\-relation of Manicheanism, Orphism, Gnosticism and neo\-Platonism is far from clear.
### Taoism
[Taoist](/wiki/Taoist "Taoist") documents from as early as the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") claimed that [Lao Tzu](/wiki/Lao_Tzu "Lao Tzu") appeared on earth as different persons in different times beginning in the legendary era of [Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors](/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors "Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors"). The (ca. third century BC) *[Chuang Tzu](/wiki/Zhuangzi_%28book%29 "Zhuangzi (book)")* states: "Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting\-point. Existence without limitation is Space. Continuity without a starting point is Time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in."{{cite book \|url\= https://archive.org/details/chuangtzmysticm00chuagoog\|title\=Chuang TzΕ: Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer (translated by Herbert Allen Giles)\|publisher\= Bernard Quaritch\|year\= 1889\|page\= \[https://archive.org/details/chuangtzmysticm00chuagoog/page/n338 304]\|author1\=Zhuangzi}}{{Better source needed\|date\=April 2019}}
### European Middle Ages
Around the 11β12th century in Europe, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition "Medieval Inquisition") in the Latin west. These included the [Cathar](/wiki/Cathar "Cathar"), Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe, the [Paulician](/wiki/Paulician "Paulician") movement, which arose in Armenia,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11583b.htm \|title\=Newadvent.org \|publisher\=Newadvent.org \|date\=1 February 1911 \|access\-date\=6 December 2011}} and the [Bogomils](/wiki/Bogomils "Bogomils") in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria").Steven Runciman, *The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy*, 1982, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-28926\-2}}, Cambridge University Press, *The Bogomils*
Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as "Manichaean", and are today sometimes described by scholars as "Neo\-Manichaean".For example Dondaine, Antoine. O.P. *Un traite neo\-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare* (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939\) As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm \|title\=Newadvent.org \|publisher\=Newadvent.org \|date\=1 March 1907 \|access\-date\=6 December 2011}}
### Renaissance and Early Modern period
While reincarnation has been a matter of faith in some communities from an early date it has also frequently been argued for on principle, as Plato does when he argues that the number of souls must be finite because souls are indestructible,"the souls must always be the same, for if none be destroyed they will not diminish in number". Republic X, 611\. The Republic of Plato By Plato, Benjamin Jowett Edition: 3 Published by Clarendon press, 1888\. [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin "Benjamin Franklin") held a similar view.In a letter to his friend [George Whatley](/wiki/George_Whatley "George Whatley") written 23 May 1785: {{cite journal\|jstor \= 25057231\|title \= Death Effects: Revisiting the Conceit of Franklin's "Memoir"\|journal \= Early American Literature\|volume \= 36\|issue \= 2\|pages \= 201β234\|last1 \= Kennedy\|first1 \= Jennifer T.\|year \= 2001\|doi \= 10\.1353/eal.2001\.0016\|s2cid \= 161799223}} Sometimes such convictions, as in Socrates' case, arise from a more general personal faith, at other times from anecdotal evidence such as Plato makes Socrates offer in the *[Myth of Er](/wiki/Myth_of_Er "Myth of Er")*.
During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") translations of Plato, the [Hermetica](/wiki/Hermetica "Hermetica") and other works fostered new European interest in reincarnation. [Marsilio Ficino](/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino "Marsilio Ficino")Marsilio Ficino, *Platonic Theology*, 17\.3β4 argued that Plato's references to reincarnation were intended allegorically, Shakespeare alluded to the doctrine of reincarnation"Again, Rosalind in "As You Like It" (Act III., Scene 2\), says: *I was never so be\-rhimed that I can remember since Pythagoras's time, when I was an Irish rat"*βalluding to the doctrine of the transmigration of souls." William H. Grattan Flood, quoted at [Libraryireland.com](http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/XVII-2.php) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421065024/http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/XVII\-2\.php \|date\=2009\-04\-21 }} but [Giordano Bruno](/wiki/Giordano_Bruno "Giordano Bruno") was burned at the stake by authorities after being found guilty of heresy by the [Roman Inquisition](/wiki/Roman_Inquisition "Roman Inquisition") for his teachings.Boulting, 1914\. pp. 163β164 But the Greek philosophical works remained available and, particularly in north Europe, were discussed by groups such as the [Cambridge Platonists](/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists "Cambridge Platonists"). [Emanuel Swedenborg](/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg "Emanuel Swedenborg") believed that we leave the physical world once, but then go through several lives in the spiritual worldβa kind of hybrid of Christian tradition and the popular view of reincarnation.{{cite web \|title\=Swedenborg and Life Recap: Do We Reincarnate? 3/6/2017 \|date\=10 March 2017 \|url\=https://swedenborg.com/recap\-do\-we\-reincarnate/ \|access\-date\=24 October 2019 \|publisher\=Swedenborg Foundation}}
### 19th to 20th centuries
By the 19th century the philosophers [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer")Schopenhauer, A: "Parerga und Paralipomena" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177 and [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche "Nietzsche")Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth \& J. Lippitt, *Nietzsche and the Divine*, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000 could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the [American Transcendentalists](/wiki/American_Transcendentalism "American Transcendentalism") [Henry David Thoreau](/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau "Henry David Thoreau"), [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman "Walt Whitman") and [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson "Ralph Waldo Emerson") and was adapted by [Francis Bowen](/wiki/Francis_Bowen "Francis Bowen") into *Christian Metempsychosis*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\-318 \|title\=Shirleymaclaine.com \|publisher\=Shirleymaclaine.com \|access\-date\=6 December 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106160539/http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\-318 \|archive\-date\=6 November 2011 }}
By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of [psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology"), largely due to the influence of [William James](/wiki/William_James "William James"), who raised aspects of the [philosophy of mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind "Philosophy of mind"), [comparative religion](/wiki/Comparative_religion "Comparative religion"), the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, *The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation*, Penguin, p. 34\. For relevant works by James, see; William James, *Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897\)*, *The Will to Believe, Human Immortality* (1956\) Dover Publications, {{ISBN\|0\-486\-20291\-7}}, *The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature* (1902\), {{ISBN\|0\-14\-039034\-0}}, *Essays in Radical Empiricism* (1912\) Dover Publications 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-486\-43094\-4}} James was influential in the founding of the [American Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/American_Society_for_Psychical_Research "American Society for Psychical Research") (ASPR) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") in 1885, three years after the British [Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research "Society for Psychical Research") (SPR) was inaugurated in London,{{cite book \|last\=Berger \|first\=Arthur S. \|url\=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpa00berg \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research \|author2\=Berger, Joyce \|publisher\=Paragon House Publishers \|year\=1991 \|isbn\=1\-55778\-043\-9}} leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.
At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society "Theosophical Society")'s dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like [The Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn"). Notable personalities like [Annie Besant](/wiki/Annie_Besant "Annie Besant"), [W. B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats "W. B. Yeats") and [Dion Fortune](/wiki/Dion_Fortune "Dion Fortune") made the subject almost as [familiar an element of the popular culture](/wiki/Reincarnation_in_popular_culture "Reincarnation in popular culture") of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.Richmal Crompton, *More William*, George Newnes, London, 1924, XIII. [William and the Ancient Souls](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529165615/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125\-h/17125\-h.htm \|date\=2012\-05\-29 }}; "The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes." Humorist [Don Marquis](/wiki/Don_Marquis "Don Marquis") created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.Marquis, "Archy and Mehitabel" (1927\)
[ThΓ©odore Flournoy](/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy "ThΓ©odore Flournoy") was among the first to study a claim of past\-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium [HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Smith "HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith"), published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of [cryptomnesia](/wiki/Cryptomnesia "Cryptomnesia") in such accounts.ThΓ©odore Flournoy, [Des Indes Γ la planΓ¨te Mars](http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201172115/http://www.psychanalyse\-paris.com/\-Des\-Indes\-a\-la\-planete\-Mars\-.html \|date\=2009\-12\-01 }}, Γtude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Γditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et GenΓ¨ve, 1900
[Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung "Carl Gustav Jung"), like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own...." [Hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis "Hypnosis"), used in [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis "Psychoanalysis") for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.
More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation. Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern [Neopagans](/wiki/Neopaganism "Neopaganism"), [Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism "Kardecist spiritism"), Astara,{{Cite web \|title\=Astara \|url\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias\-almanacs\-transcripts\-and\-maps/astara/ \|website\=www.encyclopedia.com}} [Dianetics](/wiki/Dianetics "Dianetics"), and [Scientology](/wiki/Scientology "Scientology"). Many [esoteric](/wiki/Esotericism "Esotericism") philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. [Theosophy](/wiki/Theosophy_%28Blavatskian%29 "Theosophy (Blavatskian)"), [Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy "Anthroposophy"), [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah"), and [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic "Gnostic") and [Esoteric Christianity](/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity "Esoteric Christianity") such as the works of [Martinus Thomsen](/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen "Martinus Thomsen").
Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth.David W. Moore, [Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal](https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113011455/https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three\-four\-americans\-believe\-paranormal.aspx \|date\=2020\-01\-13 }} The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania") having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all [born again](/wiki/Born_again "Born again") Christians, embrace the idea.[Buddhism China](http://worldmonitor.wordpress.com/2007/08/25/buddhism-china/){{dead link\|date\=December 2011}}
Academic psychiatrist [Ian Stevenson](/wiki/Ian_Stevenson "Ian Stevenson") reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"). In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.Jane Henry (2005\). [Parapsychology: research on exceptional experiences](https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&pg=PP5) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\=EaIhapm\-4UgC\&pg\=PP5\&lpg\=PP5\&dq\=%22Parapsychology:\+Research\+on\+Exceptional\+Experiences%22\+%22Jane\+Henry%22\&source\=bl\&ots\=tReXJKfiIh\&sig\=IIE8o603PaUPxN2RT21gedmeoP8\&hl\=en\&ei\=k\_VKSpL6HIvkNduOrJsB\&sa\=X\&oi\=book\_result\&ct\=result\&resnum\=1 \|date\=2022\-12\-12 }} Routledge, p. 224\. One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in\-depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation.{{cite journal \|last1\=Walter \|first1\=Tony \|last2\=Waterhouse \|first2\=Helen \|title\=A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England \|journal\=Sociology of Religion \|date\=1999 \|volume\=60 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=187β197 \|doi\=10\.2307/3711748 \|jstor\=3711748 }} The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of "new age" ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as "one way of tackling issues of suffering", but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.
Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews.{{Cite journal \|author\=Waterhouse, H. \|year\=1999 \|title\=Reincarnation belief in Britain: New age orientation or mainstream option? \|journal\=Journal of Contemporary Religion \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=97β109 \|doi\=10\.1080/13537909908580854}} She noted that although most people "hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly" and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past\-life memories and [near\-death experiences](/wiki/Near-death_experience "Near-death experience") had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second\-hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people's accounts of past\-lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there "must be something in it" if other people were having such experiences.
Other influential contemporary figures that have written on reincarnation include [Alice Ann Bailey](/wiki/Alice_Ann_Bailey "Alice Ann Bailey"), one of the first writers to use the terms [New Age](/wiki/New_Age "New Age") and [age of Aquarius](/wiki/Age_of_Aquarius "Age of Aquarius"), [Torkom Saraydarian](/wiki/Torkom_Saraydarian "Torkom Saraydarian"), an [Armenian\-American](/wiki/Armenian-American "Armenian-American") musician and religious author, Dolores Cannon, [Atul Gawande](/wiki/Atul_Gawande "Atul Gawande"), [Michael Newton](/wiki/Michael_Newton_%28hypnotist%29 "Michael Newton (hypnotist)"), [Bruce Greyson](/wiki/Bruce_Greyson "Bruce Greyson"), [Raymond Moody](/wiki/Raymond_Moody "Raymond Moody") and [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church "Unity Church") founder [Charles Fillmore](/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_%28Unity_Church%29 "Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)").{{Cite web \|title\=Unity Magazine November 1938 β Reincarnation {{!}} Truth Unity \|url\=https://www.truthunity.net/monthly\-magazine/1938\-11\-unity\-reincarnation \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-20 \|website\=www.truthunity.net}} [Neale Donald Walsch](/wiki/Neale_Donald_Walsch "Neale Donald Walsch"), an American author of the series *[Conversations with God](/wiki/Conversations_with_God "Conversations with God")* claims that he has reincarnated more than 600 times.{{cite web \|title\=Being at One: Neale Donald Walsch Interview with Gil Dekel (Part 3 of 3, paragraphs 18β19\) \|date\=19 September 2010 \|url\=http://www.poeticmind.co.uk/creative\-thoughts/being\-at\-one\-neale\-donald\-walsch\-interview\-with\-gil\-dekel\-phd\-part\-3\-of\-3/}} The Indian spiritual teacher [Meher Baba](/wiki/Meher_Baba "Meher Baba") who had significant following in the West taught that reincarnation followed from human desire and ceased once a person was freed from desire.[Baba, Meher](/wiki/Meher_Baba "Meher Baba") (1967\), [*Discourses*](http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200229/http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org/ \|date\=2018\-07\-08 }}, Volume III, Sufism Reoriented, 1967, {{ISBN\|1\-880619\-09\-1}}, p. 96\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Origins",
"The origins of the notion of reincarnation are obscure.{{cite book\\|publisher\\=Theosophical Society in America\\|title\\=Reincarnation: The Hope of the World\\|page\\=15\\|author\\=Irving Steiger Cooper\\|year\\=1920}} Discussion of the subject appears in the philosophical traditions of [Ancient India](/wiki/Ancient_India \"Ancient India\"). The Greek [Pre\\-Socratics](/wiki/Pre-Socratics \"Pre-Socratics\") discussed reincarnation, and the Celtic [druids](/wiki/Druids \"Druids\") are also reported to have taught a doctrine of reincarnation.[Diodorus Siculus](/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus \"Diodorus Siculus\") thought the druids might have been influenced by the teachings of [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\"). Diodorus Siculus v.28\\.6; Hippolytus *Philosophumena* i.25\\.",
"### Early Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism",
"The concepts of the cycle of birth and death, *[saαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra \"SaαΉsΔra\")*, and [liberation](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\") partly derive from [ascetic traditions](/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a \"ΕramaαΉa\") that arose in India around the middle of the first millennium BCE.Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003\\. *The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.* Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273β274\\. \"The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsaraβthe belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvanaβthe goal of human existence.....\" The first textual references to the idea of reincarnation appear in the [Rigveda](/wiki/Rig_Veda \"Rig Veda\"), [Yajurveda](/wiki/Yajur_Veda \"Yajur Veda\") and [Upanishads](/wiki/Upanishads \"Upanishads\") of the late [Vedic period](/wiki/Vedic_period \"Vedic period\") (c.β1100 β c.β500 BCE), predating the [Buddha](/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\") and [Mahavira](/wiki/Mahavira \"Mahavira\").{{cite book\\|first\\=Damien \\|last\\=Keown \\|title\\=Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction \\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-966383\\-5 \\|pages\\=28, 32β38 }}{{sfn\\|Laumakis\\|2008\\|p\\=}} Though no direct evidence of this has been found, the tribes of the [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges \"Ganges\") valley or the [Dravidian](/wiki/Dravidian_peoples \"Dravidian peoples\") traditions of [South India](/wiki/South_India \"South India\") have been proposed as another early source of reincarnation beliefs.Gavin D. Flood, *An Introduction to Hinduism*, Cambridge University Press (1996\\), UK {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-43878\\-0}} p. 86 β \"A third alternative is that the origin of transmigration theory lies outside of vedic or sramanian traditions in the tribal religions of the Ganges valley, or even in Dravidian traditions of south India.\"",
"The idea of reincarnation, *saαΉsΔra*, did exist in the early [Vedic religions](/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion \"Historical Vedic religion\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/rig\\-veda\\-english\\-translation/d/doc839140\\.html\\|title\\=Rig Veda 10\\.58\\.1 \\[English translation]\\|date\\=27 August 2021\\|website\\=www.wisdomlib.org\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2023}}A.M. Boyer: \"Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara.\" *Journal Asiatique*, (1901\\), Volume 9, Issue 18, S. 451β453, 459β468{{Cite book \\|last\\=Krishan \\|first\\=Y. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books/about/The\\_Doctrine\\_of\\_Karma.html?id\\=\\_Bi6FWX1NOgC \\|title\\=The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in BrΔhmaαΉical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions \\|last2\\=Krishan \\|first2\\=Yuvraj \\|date\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-208\\-1233\\-8 \\|pages\\=3\\-37 \\|language\\=en}} The early Vedas mention the doctrine of [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") and rebirth.{{sfn\\|Laumakis\\|2008\\|pp\\=90β99}}{{cite book\\|title\\=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy\\|author\\=R.D.Ranade\\|publisher\\=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan \\|pages\\=147β148 \\|year \\= 1926 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/stream/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926\\.djvu/A.Constructive.Survey.of.Upanishadic.Philosophy.by.R.D.Ranade.1926\\#page/n181/mode/2up \\|quote\\= There we definitely know that the whole hymn is address to a departed spirit, and the poet \\[of the Rigvedic hymn] says that he is going to recall the departed soul in order that it may return again and live.\"}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Atsushi Hayakawa \\|title\\=Circulation of Fire in the Veda \\|year\\=2014\\| publisher\\=LIT Verlag MΓΌnster\\| isbn\\=978\\-3\\-643\\-90472\\-0\\| pages\\=66β67, 101β103 with footnotes}} It is in the early Upanishads, which are pre\\-[Buddha](/wiki/Buddha \"Buddha\") and pre\\-[Mahavira](/wiki/Mahavira \"Mahavira\"), where these ideas are developed and described in a general way.{{sfn\\|Laumakis\\|2008\\|p\\=90}}A.M. Boyer (1901\\), \"Etude sur l'origine de la doctrine du samsara\", *Journal Asiatique*, Volume 9, Issue 18, pp. 451β453, 459β468{{cite book\\|title\\=The way to Nirvana: six lectures on ancient Buddhism as a discipline of salvation\\|author\\=Vallee Pussin\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|year\\=1917\\|pages\\=24β25}} Detailed descriptions first appear around the mid\\-1st millennium BCE in diverse traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism and various schools of [Hindu philosophy](/wiki/Hindu_philosophy \"Hindu philosophy\"), each of which gave unique expression to the general principle.{{sfn\\|Laumakis\\|2008\\|pp\\=90β99}}",
"[Sangam literature](/wiki/Sangam_literature \"Sangam literature\"){{cite book\\|author\\=K Kailasapathy\\|title\\=Tamil Heroic Poetry\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kF9kAAAAMAAJ \\|year\\=1968\\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-815434\\-1\\|page\\=1}} connotes the ancient [Tamil literature](/wiki/Tamil_literature \"Tamil literature\") and is the earliest known literature of [South India](/wiki/South_India \"South India\"). The Tamil tradition and legends link it to three literary gatherings around [Madurai](/wiki/Madurai \"Madurai\"). According to [Kamil Zvelebil](/wiki/Kamil_Zvelebil \"Kamil Zvelebil\"), a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi\\-historic allusions within the texts and the [colophons](/wiki/Colophon_%28publishing%29 \"Colophon (publishing)\").{{sfn\\|Kamil Zvelebil\\|1974\\|pp\\=9β10 with footnotes}} There are several mentions of rebirth and moksha in the [Purananuru](/wiki/Purananuru \"Purananuru\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru\\-part\\-134\\|title\\=Poem: Purananuru \\- Part 134 by George L. III Hart\\|website\\=www.poetrynook.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2023}} The text explains Hindu rituals surrounding death such as making riceballs called [pinda](/wiki/Pinda_%28riceball%29 \"Pinda (riceball)\") and cremation. The text states that good souls get a place in [Indraloka](/wiki/Svarga \"Svarga\") where [Indra](/wiki/Indra \"Indra\") welcomes them.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/purananuru\\-part\\-241\\|title\\=Poem: Purananuru \\- Part 241 by George L. III Hart\\|website\\=www.poetrynook.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2023}}",
"The texts of ancient [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\") that have survived into the modern era are post\\-Mahavira, likely from the last centuries of the first millennium BCE, and extensively discuss the doctrines of rebirth and karma.{{cite book \\|first\\=Padmanabh \\|last\\=Jaini \\|editor\\=Wendy Doniger \\|title\\=Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_4WZTj3M71y0C \\|year\\=1980\\|publisher\\=University of California Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-520\\-03923\\-0 \\|pages\\=217β236}}{{cite book\\|author\\= Paul Dundas\\|title\\=The Jains \\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Routledge]]\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-26605\\-5 \\|pages\\= 14β16, 102β105 }} Jaina philosophy assumes that the soul (*[jiva](/wiki/Jiva \"Jiva\")* in Jainism; *[atman](/wiki/%C4%80tman_%28Hinduism%29 \"Δtman (Hinduism)\")* in Hinduism) exists and is eternal, passing through cycles of transmigration and rebirth.{{Sfn\\|Jaini\\|1980\\|pp\\=226β228}} After death, reincarnation into a new body is asserted to be instantaneous in early Jaina texts. Depending upon the accumulated karma, rebirth occurs into a higher or lower bodily form, either in heaven or hell or earthly realm.{{cite book\\|author\\=Kristi L. Wiley \\|title\\=The A to Z of Jainism \\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-6337\\-8 \\|page\\=186}}{{Sfn\\|Jaini\\|1980\\|pp\\=227\\-228}} No bodily form is permanent: everyone dies and reincarnates further. Liberation (*kevalya*) from reincarnation is possible, however, through removing and ending karmic accumulations to one's soul.{{cite book\\|author\\= Paul Dundas\\|title\\=The Jains \\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\= Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-26605\\-5 \\|pages\\= 104β105 }} From the early stages of Jainism on, a human being was considered the highest mortal being, with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through [asceticism](/wiki/Asceticism \"Asceticism\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Jeffery D Long\\|title\\=Jainism: An Introduction\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ajAEBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT36\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=I.B.Tauris\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85773\\-656\\-7\\|pages\\=36β37}}{{cite book\\|author\\= Paul Dundas\\|title\\=The Jains \\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\= Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-26605\\-5 \\|pages\\= 55β59 }}{{cite book\\|author\\=John E. Cort\\|title\\=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India\\| year\\=2001\\|publisher\\= Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-803037\\-9\\|pages\\=118β119}}",
"The [early Buddhist texts](/wiki/Buddhist_texts%23Texts_of_the_Early_schools \"Buddhist texts#Texts of the Early schools\") discuss rebirth as part of the doctrine of *[saαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_%28Buddhism%29 \"SaαΉsΔra (Buddhism)\")*. This asserts that the nature of existence is a \"suffering\\-laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end\".{{cite book\\|author\\=Jeff Wilson\\|year\\= 2010\\|title\\= SaαΉsΔra and Rebirth, in Buddhism\\| publisher\\= Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-19\\-539352\\-1\\| doi\\=10\\.1093/obo/9780195393521\\-0141}}{{cite book\\|first\\=Kevin \\|last\\=Trainor \\|title\\= Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide \\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-517398\\-7 \\|pages\\=62β63 }}; *Quote:* \"Buddhist doctrine holds that until they realize nirvana, beings are bound to undergo rebirth and redeath due to their having acted out of ignorance and desire, thereby producing the seeds of karma\". Also referred to as the wheel of existence (*[Bhavacakra](/wiki/Bhavacakra \"Bhavacakra\")*), it is often mentioned in Buddhist texts with the term *punarbhava* (rebirth, re\\-becoming). Liberation from this cycle of existence, *Nirvana*, is the foundation and the most important purpose of Buddhism.{{cite book\\|author\\=Edward Conze \\|title\\= Buddhist Thought in India: Three Phases of Buddhist Philosophy \\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-54231\\-4\\|page\\=71\\|quote\\=\"Nirvana is the ''raison d'Γͺtre'' of Buddhism, and its ultimate justification.\"}}{{Citation \\| last \\=Gethin \\| first \\=Rupert \\| year \\=1998 \\| title \\=Foundations of Buddhism \\| publisher \\=Oxford University Press \\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-19\\-289223\\-2 \\| page \\=\\[https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/119 119] \\| url \\=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofbud00rupe/page/119 }} Buddhist texts also assert that an [enlightened](/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism \"Enlightenment in Buddhism\") person knows his previous births, a knowledge achieved through high levels of [meditative concentration](/wiki/Samadhi \"Samadhi\").Paul Williams, Anthony Tribe, *Buddhist thought: a complete introduction to the Indian tradition.* Routledge, 2000, p. 84\\. Tibetan Buddhism discusses death, [bardo](/wiki/Bardo \"Bardo\") (an intermediate state), and rebirth in texts such as the *[Tibetan Book of the Dead](/wiki/Bardo_Thodol \"Bardo Thodol\")*. While Nirvana is taught as the ultimate goal in the Theravadin Buddhism, and is essential to Mahayana Buddhism, the vast majority of contemporary lay Buddhists focus on accumulating good karma and acquiring merit to achieve a better reincarnation in the next life.{{cite book\\|author\\=Merv Fowler \\|title\\=Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices\\|year\\=1999\\|publisher\\=Sussex Academic Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-898723\\-66\\-0 \\|page\\=65\\|quote\\=\"For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth.\"}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Christopher Gowans\\|title\\=Philosophy of the Buddha: An Introduction\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-46973\\-4\\|page\\=169}}",
"In early Buddhist traditions, *saαΉsΔra* cosmology consisted of five realms through which the wheel of existence cycled. This included hells (*[niraya](/wiki/Niraya \"Niraya\")*), [hungry ghosts](/wiki/Hungry_ghosts \"Hungry ghosts\") (*[pretas](/wiki/Pretas \"Pretas\")*), animals (*[tiryaka](/wiki/Tiryakas_realm \"Tiryakas realm\")*), humans (*[manushya](/wiki/Manushya \"Manushya\")*), and gods (*[devas](/wiki/Deva_%28Buddhism%29 \"Deva (Buddhism)\")*, heavenly).{{cite book\\|author\\=Robert DeCaroli \\|title\\=Haunting the Buddha: Indian Popular Religions and the Formation of Buddhism \\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-803765\\-1\\|pages\\=94β103}} In latter Buddhist traditions, this list grew to a list of six realms of rebirth, adding demigods (*[asuras](/wiki/Asura_%28Buddhism%29 \"Asura (Buddhism)\")*).{{cite book\\|author\\=Akira Sadakata\\|title\\=Buddhist Cosmology: Philosophy and Origins\\|year\\=1997\\|publisher\\= KΕsei Publishing δ½ΌζεΊηη€Ύ, Tokyo\\|isbn\\=978\\-4\\-333\\-01682\\-2\\|pages\\=68β70}}",
"#### Rationale",
"The earliest layers of Vedic text incorporate the concept of life, followed by an [afterlife](/wiki/Afterlife \"Afterlife\") in heaven and hell based on cumulative virtues (merit) or vices (demerit).{{cite book\\|author1\\=James Hastings\\|author2\\=John Alexander Selbie\\|author3\\-link\\=Louis Herbert Gray\\|author3\\=Louis Herbert Gray\\|series\\=\\[\\[EncyclopΓ¦dia of Religion and Ethics]]\\|title\\=Volume 12: Suffering\\-Zwingli\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015\\.500005\\|year\\=1922\\|publisher\\=T. \\& T. Clark\\|pages\\=616β618\\|author1\\-link\\=James Hastings}} However, the ancient Vedic [rishis](/wiki/Rishi \"Rishi\") challenged this idea of afterlife as simplistic, because people do not live equally moral or immoral lives. Between generally virtuous lives, some are more virtuous; while evil too has degrees, and the texts assert that it would be unfair for people, with varying degrees of virtue or vices, to end up in heaven or hell, in \"either or\" and disproportionate manner irrespective of how virtuous or vicious their lives were.{{Sfn\\|Jessica Frazier\\|Gavin Flood\\|2011\\|pp\\=84β86}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Kusum P. Merh \\|title\\=Yama, the Glorious Lord of the Other World \\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Penguin \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-246\\-0066\\-5 \\|pages\\=213β215}}{{cite book\\|author\\= Anita Raina Thapan\\|title\\=The Penguin Swami Chinmyananda Reader \\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-14\\-400062\\-3 \\|pages\\=84β90 }} They introduced the idea of an afterlife in heaven or hell in proportion to one's merit.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Jessica Frazier \\|author2\\=Gavin Flood \\|title\\= The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies \\|year\\=2011\\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Academic \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8264\\-9966\\-0\\|pages\\= 84β86 }}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Patrul Rinpoche\\|author2\\-link\\=Dalai Lama\\|author2\\=Dalai Lama\\|title\\=The Words of My Perfect Teacher: A Complete Translation of a Classic Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Rowman Altamira\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7619\\-9027\\-7\\|pages\\=95β96\\|author1\\-link\\=Patrul Rinpoche}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Yuvraj Krishan \\|title\\=The Doctrine of Karma: Its Origin and Development in BrΔhmaαΉical, Buddhist, and Jaina Traditions \\|year\\=1997\\|publisher\\= Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-208\\-1233\\-8 \\|pages\\=17β27 }}",
"#### Comparison",
"Early texts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism share the concepts and terminology related to reincarnation.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Williams \\|first1\\=Paul \\|last2\\=Tribe \\|first2\\=Anthony \\|last3\\=Wynne \\|first3\\=Alexander \\| year\\=2012 \\|title\\=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-136\\-52088\\-4 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NOLfCgAAQBAJ \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120065316/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=NOLfCgAAQBAJ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|pages\\=30β42}} They also emphasize similar virtuous practices and [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") as necessary for liberation and what influences future rebirths.{{cite book\\|author\\=Michael D. Coogan\\|title\\=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions \\| year\\=2003\\| publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-521997\\-5\\| page\\=192}} For example, all three discuss various virtuesβsometimes grouped as [Yamas](/wiki/Yamas \"Yamas\") and [Niyamas](/wiki/Niyama \"Niyama\")βsuch as [non\\-violence](/wiki/Ahimsa \"Ahimsa\"), [truthfulness](/wiki/Satya \"Satya\"), [non\\-stealing](/wiki/Asteya \"Asteya\"), [non\\-possessiveness](/wiki/Aparigraha \"Aparigraha\"), [compassion](/wiki/Compassion \"Compassion\") for all living beings, [charity](/wiki/D%C4%81na \"DΔna\") and many others.{{cite book\\|author1\\=David Carpenter\\|author2\\=Ian Whicher\\|title\\=Yoga: The Indian Tradition\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-135\\-79606\\-8\\|page\\=116}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Rita Langer \\|title\\=Buddhist Rituals of Death and Rebirth: Contemporary Sri Lankan Practice and Its Origins \\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-15873\\-7 \\|pages\\=53β54 }}",
"Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism disagree in their assumptions and theories about rebirth. Hinduism relies on its foundational belief that the 'soul, Self exists' ([*atman*](/wiki/Atman_%28Hinduism%29 \"Atman (Hinduism)\") or *attΔ*), while Buddhism aserts that there is 'no soul, no Self' ([*anatta*](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 \"AnattΔ\") or *anatman*).{{cite book\\|author\\=Christmas Humphreys\\|title\\=Exploring Buddhism \\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-136\\-22877\\-3 \\|pages\\=42β43 }}{{cite book\\|author\\=Brian Morris \\|title\\=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PguGB\\_uEQh4C\\&pg\\=PA51 \\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-85241\\-8\\|page\\=51\\|quote\\=\"(...) anatta is the doctrine of non\\-self, and is an extreme empiricist doctrine that holds that the notion of an unchanging permanent self is a fiction and has no reality. According to Buddhist doctrine, the individual person consists of five skandhas or heapsβthe body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and consciousness. The belief in a self or soul, over these five skandhas, is illusory and the cause of suffering.\"}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Richard Gombrich\\|title\\=Theravada Buddhism\\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-90352\\-8\\|page\\=47\\|quote\\=\"(...) Buddha's teaching that beings have no soul, no abiding essence. This 'no\\-soul doctrine' (anatta\\-vada) he expounded in his second sermon.\"}}[Anatta](http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210185046/http://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta \\|date\\=2015\\-12\\-10 }}, Encyclopedia Britannica (2013\\), Quote: \"Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (\"the self\").\";Steven Collins (1994\\), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7914\\-2217\\-5}}, p. 64; \"Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not\\-self (Pali: anattΔ, Sanskrit: anΔtman, the opposed doctrine of Δtman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the \\[Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.\"Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books\\|3uwDAAAAMAAJ\\|Shankara's Introduction\\|page\\=2}} to *Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad*, pp. 2β4;Katie Javanaud (2013\\), [Is The Buddhist 'No\\-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?](https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206211126/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is\\_The\\_Buddhist\\_No\\-Self\\_Doctrine\\_Compatible\\_With\\_Pursuing\\_Nirvana \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-06 }}, Philosophy Now;KN Jayatilleke (2010\\), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN\\|978\\-81\\-208\\-0619\\-1}}, pp. 246β249, from note 385 onwards;John C. Plott et al (2000\\), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\\|978\\-81\\-208\\-0158\\-5}}, p. 63, Quote: \"The Buddhist schools reject any Δtman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism\". Hindu traditions consider soul to be the unchanging eternal essence of a living being, which journeys through reincarnations until it attains self\\-knowledge.{{cite book\\|author\\=Bruce M. Sullivan\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Hinduism\\|year\\=1997\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-3327\\-2\\|pages\\=235β236 (See: Upanishads)}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Klaus K. Klostermaier\\|title\\=A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition\\|year\\=2007\\|publisher\\=State University of New York Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7914\\-7082\\-4\\|pages\\=119β122, 162β180, 194β195}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Kalupahana \\|first\\=David J. \\|date\\=1992 \\|title\\=The Principles of Buddhist Psychology \\|location\\=Delhi \\|publisher\\=ri Satguru Publications \\|pages\\=38β39}} Buddhism, in contrast, asserts a rebirth theory without a Self, and considers realization of non\\-Self or Emptiness as Nirvana (*[nibbana](/wiki/Nibbana \"Nibbana\")*).",
"The reincarnation doctrine in Jainism differs from those in Buddhism, even though both are non\\-theistic [Sramana](/wiki/Sramana \"Sramana\") traditions.{{cite book\\|author\\=Kristi L. Wiley\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-5051\\-4\\|page\\=91}} Jainism, in contrast to Buddhism, accepts the foundational assumption that soul (*[Jiva](/wiki/Jiva \"Jiva\")*) exists and asserts that this soul is involved in the rebirth mechanism.{{cite book\\|author\\=Kristi L. Wiley\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-5051\\-4\\|pages\\=10β12, 111β112, 119}} Furthermore, Jainism considers [asceticism](/wiki/Asceticism \"Asceticism\") as an important means to spiritual liberation that ends the cycle of reincarnation, while Buddhism does not.{{cite book\\|author\\=Naomi Appleton \\|title\\=Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi\\-Life Stories \\|year\\=2014\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-139\\-91640\\-0\\|pages\\=76β89 }}{{cite book\\|author\\=Gananath Obeyesekere \\|title\\=Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study \\|year\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-208\\-2609\\-0 \\|pages\\=107β108 }}; \n{{cite book\\|author\\=Kristi L. Wiley\\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Jainism\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-5051\\-4\\|pages\\=118β119}}{{cite book\\|author\\=John E. Cort\\|title\\=Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India \\| year\\=2001\\|publisher\\= Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-803037\\-9\\|pages\\=118β123}}",
"### Classical antiquity",
"{{see also\\|Metempsychosis}}\n[thumb\\|A second\\-century Roman sarcophagus shows the mythology and symbolism of the Orphic and Dionysiac Mystery schools. Orpheus plays his lyre to the left.](/wiki/Image:2161_-_Taormina_-_Badia_Vecchia_-_Sarcofago_romano_del_sec._II_d.C._-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_20-May-2008.jpg \"2161 - Taormina - Badia Vecchia - Sarcofago romano del sec. II d.C. - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20-May-2008.jpg\")\nEarly Greek discussion of the concept dates to the sixth century BCE. An early Greek thinker known to have considered rebirth is [Pherecydes of Syros](/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros \"Pherecydes of Syros\") (fl. 540 BCE).Schibli, S., Hermann, Pherekydes of Syros, p. 104, Oxford Univ. Press 2001 His younger contemporary [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\") (c. 570βc. 495 BCE\"The dates of his life cannot be fixed exactly, but assuming the approximate correctness of the statement of Aristoxenus (ap. Porph. *V.P.* 9\\) that he left Samos to escape the tyranny of Polycrates at the age of forty, we may put his birth round about 570 BCE, or a few years earlier. The length of his life was variously estimated in antiquity, but it is agreed that he lived to a fairly ripe old age, and most probably he died at about seventy\\-five or eighty.\" [William Keith Chambers Guthrie](/wiki/William_Keith_Chambers_Guthrie \"William Keith Chambers Guthrie\"), (1978\\), *A history of Greek philosophy, Volume 1: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans*, p. 173\\. Cambridge University Press), its first famous exponent, instituted societies for its diffusion. Some authorities believe that Pythagoras was Pherecydes' pupil, others that Pythagoras took up the idea of reincarnation from the doctrine of [Orphism](/wiki/Orphism_%28religion%29 \"Orphism (religion)\"), a [Thracian](/wiki/Thrace \"Thrace\") religion, or brought the teaching from India.",
"[Plato](/wiki/Plato \"Plato\") (428/427β348/347 BCE) presented accounts of reincarnation in his works, particularly the *[Myth of Er](/wiki/Myth_of_Er \"Myth of Er\")*, where Plato makes Socrates tell how Er, the son of [Armenius](/wiki/Arminius \"Arminius\"), miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, in the [Chariot allegory](/wiki/Chariot_allegory \"Chariot allegory\") of the *[Phaedrus](/wiki/Phaedrus_%28dialogue%29 \"Phaedrus (dialogue)\")*,*The Dialogues of Plato* (Benjamin Jowett trans., 1875 ed), vol. 2, p. 125 in the *[Meno](/wiki/Meno \"Meno\")*,*The Dialogues of Plato* (Benjamin Jowett trans., 1875 ed), vol. 1, p. 282 *[Timaeus](/wiki/Timaeus_%28dialogue%29 \"Timaeus (dialogue)\")* and *[Laws](/wiki/Laws_%28dialogue%29 \"Laws (dialogue)\")*. The soul, once separated from the body, spends an indeterminate amount of time in the intelligible realm (see The [Allegory of the Cave](/wiki/Allegory_of_the_Cave \"Allegory of the Cave\") in *[The Republic](/wiki/The_Republic_%28Plato%29 \"The Republic (Plato)\")*) and then assumes another body. In the *Timaeus*, Plato believes that the soul moves from body to body without any distinct reward\\-or\\-punishment phase between lives, because the reincarnation is itself a punishment or reward for how a person has lived.See Kamtekar 2016 for a discussion of how Plato's view of reincarnation changes across texts, especially concerning the existence of a distinct reward\\-or\\-punishment phase between lives. Rachana Kamtekar. 2016\\. \"The Soulβs (After\\-) Life,\" *Ancient Philosophy* 36 (1\\):115\\-132\\.",
"In *[Phaedo](/wiki/Phaedo \"Phaedo\")*, Plato has his teacher [Socrates](/wiki/Socrates \"Socrates\"), prior to his death, state: \"I am confident that there truly is such a thing as living again, and that the living spring from the dead.\" However, [Xenophon](/wiki/Xenophon \"Xenophon\") does not mention Socrates as believing in reincarnation, and Plato may have systematized Socrates' thought with concepts he took directly from Pythagoreanism or Orphism. Recent scholars have come to see that Plato has multiple reasons for the belief in reincarnation.See Campbell 2022 for more on why Plato believes in reincarnation. Douglas R. Campbell. 2022\\. \"Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy,\" *Review of Metaphysics* 75 (4\\): 643\\-665\\. See also the discussion in Chad Jorgensen. 2018\\. *The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. One argument concerns the theory of reincarnation's usefulness for explaining why non\\-human animals exist: they are former humans, being punished for their vices; Plato gives this argument at the end of the *Timaeus*.See *Timaeus* 90β92\\.",
"#### Mystery cults",
"The [Orphic religion](/wiki/Orphism_%28religion%29 \"Orphism (religion)\"), which taught reincarnation, about the sixth century BCE, produced a copious literature.Linforth, Ivan M. (1941\\) *The Arts of Orpheus* Arno Press, New York, {{OCLC\\|514515}}Long, Herbert S. (1948\\) *A Study of the doctrine of metempsychosis in Greece, from Pythagoras to Plato* (Long's 1942 Ph.D. dissertation) Princeton, New Jersey, {{OCLC\\|1472399}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Long \\|first1\\=Herbert S. \\|title\\=Plato's Doctrine of Metempsychosis and Its Source \\|journal\\=The Classical Weekly \\|date\\=1948 \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=149β155 \\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|1296280468}} \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/4342414 \\|jstor\\=4342414 }} [Orpheus](/wiki/Orpheus \"Orpheus\"), its legendary founder, is said to have taught that the immortal soul aspires to freedom while the body holds it prisoner. The wheel of birth revolves, the soul alternates between freedom and captivity round the wide circle of necessity. Orpheus proclaimed the need of the grace of the gods, [Dionysus](/wiki/Dionysus \"Dionysus\") in particular, and of self\\-purification until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live forever.",
"An association between [Pythagorean philosophy](/wiki/Pythagoreanism \"Pythagoreanism\") and reincarnation was routinely accepted throughout antiquity, as Pythagoras also taught about reincarnation. However, unlike the Orphics, who considered metempsychosis a cycle of grief that could be escaped by attaining liberation from it, Pythagoras seems to postulate an eternal, neutral reincarnation where subsequent lives would not be conditioned by any action done in the previous.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans\\|author\\=Leonid Zhmud\\|publisher\\=OUP Oxford\\|year\\=2012\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-928931\\-8\\|pages\\=232β233}}",
"#### Later authors",
"In later Greek literature the doctrine is mentioned in a fragment of [Menander](/wiki/Menander \"Menander\")Menander, *The Inspired Woman* and satirized by [Lucian](/wiki/Lucian \"Lucian\").Lucian, *Gallus*, 18 et seq. In [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") literature it is found as early as [Ennius](/wiki/Ennius \"Ennius\"),Poesch, Jessie (1962\\) \"Ennius and Basinio of Parma\" *[Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes](/wiki/Journal_of_the_Warburg_and_Courtauld_Institutes \"Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes\")* 25(1/2\\):116β118 \\[117 n15]. who, in a lost passage of his *Annals*, told how he had seen [Homer](/wiki/Homer \"Homer\") in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a peacock. [Persius](/wiki/Persius \"Persius\") in his satires (vi. 9\\) laughs at this; it is referred to also by [Lucretius](/wiki/Lucretius \"Lucretius\")Lucretius, (i. 124\\) and [Horace](/wiki/Horace \"Horace\").Horace, *Epistles*, II. i. 52",
"[Virgil](/wiki/Virgil \"Virgil\") works the idea into his account of the Underworld in the sixth book of the *[Aeneid](/wiki/Aeneid \"Aeneid\")*.Virgil, *The Aeneid*, vv. 724 et seq. It persists down to the late classic thinkers, [Plotinus](/wiki/Plotinus \"Plotinus\") and the other [Neoplatonists](/wiki/Neoplatonist \"Neoplatonist\"). In the [Hermetica](/wiki/Hermetica \"Hermetica\"), a Graeco\\-Egyptian series of writings on cosmology and spirituality attributed to [Hermes Trismegistus](/wiki/Hermes_Trismegistus \"Hermes Trismegistus\")/[Thoth](/wiki/Thoth \"Thoth\"), the doctrine of reincarnation is central.",
"### Celtic paganism",
"In the first century BCE [Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor](/wiki/Alexander_Cornelius_Polyhistor \"Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor\") wrote:",
"{{bquote\\|The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the \\[\\[Gauls]]' teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body.}}",
"[Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\") recorded that the [druids](/wiki/Druids \"Druids\") of Gaul, Britain and Ireland had metempsychosis as one of their core doctrines:Julius Caesar, \"De Bello Gallico\", VI",
"{{bquote\\|The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another... the main object of all education is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone, they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human courage be developed.}}",
"[Diodorus](/wiki/Diodorus \"Diodorus\") also recorded the Gaul belief that human souls were immortal, and that after a prescribed number of years they would commence upon a new life in another body. He added that Gauls had the custom of casting letters to their deceased upon the funeral pyres, through which the dead would be able to read them.{{cite book\\|author\\=\\[\\[T. Rice Holmes]]\\|title\\=Caesar's Conquest of Gaul: An Historical Narrative\\|date\\=1903\\|publisher\\=\\|isbn\\=\\|page\\=}} [Valerius Maximus](/wiki/Valerius_Maximus \"Valerius Maximus\") also recounted they had the custom of lending sums of money to each other which would be repayable in the next world.{{cite book \\|last\\=Kendrick \\|first\\=T.D. \\|date\\=2003 \\|orig\\-date\\=1927 \\|title\\=Druids and Druidism \\|publisher\\=Dover \\|isbn\\=0\\-486\\-42719\\-6 \\|page\\=106}} This was mentioned by [Pomponius Mela](/wiki/Pomponius_Mela \"Pomponius Mela\"), who also recorded Gauls buried or burnt with them things they would need in a next life, to the point some would jump into the funeral piles of their relatives in order to cohabit in the new life with them.{{Sfn\\|Kendrick\\|2003\\|p\\=108}}",
"[Hippolytus of Rome](/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome \"Hippolytus of Rome\") believed the Gauls had been taught the doctrine of reincarnation by a slave of [Pythagoras](/wiki/Pythagoras \"Pythagoras\") named [Zalmoxis](/wiki/Zalmoxis \"Zalmoxis\"). Conversely, [Clement of Alexandria](/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria \"Clement of Alexandria\") believed Pythagoras himself had learned it from the Celts and not the opposite, claiming he had been taught by [Galatian](/wiki/Galatians_%28people%29 \"Galatians (people)\") Gauls, [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") priests and [Zoroastrians](/wiki/Zoroastrians \"Zoroastrians\").{{Sfn\\|Kendrick\\|2003\\|p\\=105}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Robin Melrose\\|title\\=The Druids and King Arthur: A New View of Early Britain\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=McFarland\\|isbn\\=978\\-07\\-864600\\-5\\-2}} However, author [T. D. Kendrick](/wiki/T._D._Kendrick \"T. D. Kendrick\") rejected a real connection between Pythagoras and the Celtic idea reincarnation, noting their beliefs to have substantial differences, and any contact to be historically unlikely.{{Sfn\\|Kendrick\\|2003\\|p\\=108}} Nonetheless, he proposed the possibility of an ancient common source, also related to the [Orphic religion](/wiki/Orphic_religion \"Orphic religion\") and [Thracian](/wiki/Thracian \"Thracian\") systems of belief.{{Sfn\\|Kendrick\\|2003\\|p\\=109}}",
"### Germanic paganism",
"{{Main\\|Rebirth in Germanic paganism}}\nSurviving texts indicate that there was a belief in [rebirth in Germanic paganism](/wiki/Rebirth_in_Germanic_paganism \"Rebirth in Germanic paganism\"). Examples include figures from [eddic poetry](/wiki/Eddic_poetry \"Eddic poetry\") and [sagas](/wiki/Saga \"Saga\"), potentially by way of a process of naming and/or through the family line. Scholars have discussed the implications of these attestations and proposed theories regarding belief in reincarnation among the [Germanic peoples](/wiki/Germanic_peoples \"Germanic peoples\") prior to [Christianization](/wiki/Christianization \"Christianization\") and potentially to some extent in [folk belief](/wiki/Folk_belief \"Folk belief\") thereafter.",
"### Judaism",
"The belief in reincarnation developed among Jewish mystics in the medieval world, among whom differing explanations were given of the afterlife, although with a universal belief in an immortal soul.*Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs \\& Rituals*, By George Robinson, Simon and Schuster 2008, p. 193 It was explicitly rejected by [Saadiah Gaon](/wiki/Saadiah_Gaon \"Saadiah Gaon\").*The Book of Beliefs and Opinions*, chap. VIII Today, reincarnation is an [esoteric](/wiki/Esoteric \"Esoteric\") belief within many streams of modern Judaism. [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\") teaches a belief in *[gilgul](/wiki/Gilgul \"Gilgul\")*, transmigration of souls, and hence the belief in reincarnation is universal in [Hasidic Judaism](/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism \"Hasidic Judaism\"), which regards the Kabbalah as sacred and authoritative, and is also sometimes held as an esoteric belief within other strains of [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism \"Orthodox Judaism\"). In [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\"), the [Zohar](/wiki/Zohar \"Zohar\"), first published in the 13th century, discusses reincarnation at length, especially in the [Torah](/wiki/Torah \"Torah\") portion \"Balak.\" The most comprehensive [kabbalistic](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\") work on reincarnation, *[Shaar HaGilgulim](/wiki/Shaar_HaGilgulim \"Shaar HaGilgulim\")*,\"Mind in the Balance: Meditation in Science, Buddhism, and Christianity\", p. 104, by B. Alan Wallace\"Between Worlds: Dybbuks, Exorcists, and Early Modern Judaism\", p. 190, by [J. H. Chajes](/wiki/J._H._Chajes \"J. H. Chajes\") was written by [Chaim Vital](/wiki/Hayyim_ben_Joseph_Vital \"Hayyim ben Joseph Vital\"), based on the teachings of his mentor, the 16th\\-century kabbalist [Isaac Luria](/wiki/Isaac_Luria \"Isaac Luria\"), who was said to know the past lives of each person through his [semi\\-prophetic](/wiki/Ruach_HaKodesh \"Ruach HaKodesh\") abilities. The 18th\\-century Lithuanian master scholar and kabbalist, Elijah of Vilna, known as the [Vilna Gaon](/wiki/Vilna_Gaon \"Vilna Gaon\"), authored a commentary on the biblical [Book of Jonah](/wiki/Book_of_Jonah \"Book of Jonah\") as an allegory of reincarnation.",
"The practice of conversion to Judaism is sometimes understood within Orthodox Judaism in terms of reincarnation. According to this school of thought in Judaism, when non\\-Jews are drawn to Judaism, it is because they had been Jews in a former life. Such souls may \"wander among nations\" through multiple lives, until they find their way back to Judaism, including through finding themselves born in a gentile family with a \"lost\" Jewish ancestor.*Jewish Tales of Reincarnation*, By Yonasson Gershom, Yonasson Gershom, Jason Aronson, Incorporated, 31 January 2000",
"There is an extensive literature of Jewish folk and traditional stories that refer to reincarnation.Yonasson Gershom (1999\\), *Jewish Tales of Reincarnation*. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. {{ISBN\\|0\\-7657\\-6083\\-5}}",
"### Christianity",
"**Reincarnationism** or **biblical reincarnation** is the belief that certain people are or can be [reincarnations](/wiki/Reincarnations \"Reincarnations\") of [biblical figures](/wiki/Biblical_figures \"Biblical figures\"), such as [Jesus Christ](/wiki/Jesus_Christ \"Jesus Christ\") and the [Virgin Mary](/wiki/Virgin_Mary \"Virgin Mary\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cinemaseekers.com/Christ/reincarnation.html \\|title\\=Biblical Accounts that Suggest Reincarnation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-27 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608232803/http://www.cinemaseekers.com/christ/reincarnation.html }} Some Christians believe that certain New Testament figures are reincarnations of Old Testament figures. For example, [John the Baptist](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\") is believed by some to be a reincarnation of the prophet [Elijah](/wiki/Elijah \"Elijah\"), and a few take this further by suggesting Jesus was the reincarnation of Elijah's disciple [Elisha](/wiki/Elisha \"Elisha\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://yoganandafortheworld.com/who\\-was\\-jesus\\-before\\-the\\-last\\-incarnation\\-elias\\-and\\-elijah\\-the\\-second\\-coming\\-of\\-christ/ \\|title\\=Who Was Jesus Before the Last Incarnation? \\|date\\=9 January 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-09\\-07}} Other Christians believe the [Second Coming](/wiki/Second_Coming \"Second Coming\") of Jesus would be fulfilled by reincarnation. [Sun Myung Moon](/wiki/Sun_Myung_Moon \"Sun Myung Moon\"), the founder of the [Unification Church](/wiki/Unification_Church \"Unification Church\"), considered himself to be the fulfillment of Jesus' return.",
"The Catholic Church does not believe in reincarnation, which it regards as being incompatible with [death](/wiki/Death \"Death\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc\\_css/archive/catechism/p123a11\\.htm\\#1013 \\|title\\=CCC \\- PART 1 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 ARTICLE 11 \\|publisher\\=Vatican.va \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-23}} Nonetheless, the leaders of certain [sects](/wiki/Sects \"Sects\") in the church have taught that they are reincarnations of Mary \\- for example, Marie\\-Paule GiguΓ¨re of the [Army of Mary](/wiki/Community_of_the_Lady_of_All_Nations \"Community of the Lady of All Nations\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cccb.ca/site/Files/armyofmary.html \\|title\\=Army of Mary Doctrinal Note \\|publisher\\=Cccb.ca \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504170432/http://www.cccb.ca/site/Files/armyofmary.html }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://wrldrels.org/2016/10/08/army\\-of\\-mary/\\|title\\=Army of Mary / Community of the Lady of All Peoples β WRSP\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2023}} and [Maria Franciszka](/wiki/Feliksa_Koz%C5%82owska \"Feliksa KozΕowska\") of the former [Mariavites](/wiki/Mariavite_Church \"Mariavite Church\").{{cite web\\|author\\=Pius X \\|url\\=https://www.vatican.va/holy\\_father/pius\\_x/encyclicals/documents/hf\\_p\\-x\\_enc\\_05041906\\_tribus\\-circiter\\_en.html \\|title\\=Pius X, Tribus Circiter (05/04/1906\\) \\|publisher\\=Vatican.va \\|date\\=1904\\-09\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-23}} The [Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith](/wiki/Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_of_the_Faith \"Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith\") excommunicated the Army of Mary for teaching heresy, including reincarnationism.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.cccb.ca/site/images/stories/pdf/decl\\_excomm\\_english.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-23 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504170442/http://www.cccb.ca/site/images/stories/pdf/decl\\_excomm\\_english.pdf }}",
"#### Gnosticism",
"Several [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic \"Gnostic\") sects professed reincarnation. The [Sethians](/wiki/Sethians \"Sethians\") and followers of [Valentinus](/wiki/Valentinus_%28Gnostic%29 \"Valentinus (Gnostic)\") believed in it.Much of this is documented in R.E. Slater's book *Paradise Reconsidered.* The followers of [Bardaisan](/wiki/Bardaisan \"Bardaisan\") of [Mesopotamia](/wiki/Mesopotamia \"Mesopotamia\"), a sect of the second century deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, drew upon [Chaldean](/wiki/Babylon \"Babylon\") [astrology](/wiki/Astrology \"Astrology\"), to which Bardaisan's son Harmonius, educated in Athens, added Greek ideas including a sort of metempsychosis. Another such teacher was [Basilides](/wiki/Basilides \"Basilides\") (132β? CE/AD), known to us through the criticisms of [Irenaeus](/wiki/Irenaeus \"Irenaeus\") and the work of [Clement of Alexandria](/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria \"Clement of Alexandria\") (see also [Neoplatonism and Gnosticism](/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Gnosticism \"Neoplatonism and Gnosticism\") and [Buddhism and Gnosticism](/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism \"Buddhism and Gnosticism\")).",
"In the third Christian century [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism \"Manichaeism\") spread both east and west from [Babylonia](/wiki/Babylonia \"Babylonia\"), then within the [Sassanid Empire](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire \"Sassanid Empire\"), where its founder [Mani](/wiki/Mani_%28prophet%29 \"Mani (prophet)\") lived about 216β276\\. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 AD. Noting Mani's early travels to the [Kushan Empire](/wiki/Kushan_Empire \"Kushan Empire\") and other Buddhist influences in Manichaeism, [Richard Foltz](/wiki/Richard_Foltz \"Richard Foltz\")[Richard Foltz](/wiki/Richard_Foltz \"Richard Foltz\"), *Religions of the Silk Road*, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010 attributes Mani's teaching of reincarnation to Buddhist influence. However the inter\\-relation of Manicheanism, Orphism, Gnosticism and neo\\-Platonism is far from clear.",
"### Taoism",
"[Taoist](/wiki/Taoist \"Taoist\") documents from as early as the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") claimed that [Lao Tzu](/wiki/Lao_Tzu \"Lao Tzu\") appeared on earth as different persons in different times beginning in the legendary era of [Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors](/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors \"Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors\"). The (ca. third century BC) *[Chuang Tzu](/wiki/Zhuangzi_%28book%29 \"Zhuangzi (book)\")* states: \"Birth is not a beginning; death is not an end. There is existence without limitation; there is continuity without a starting\\-point. Existence without limitation is Space. Continuity without a starting point is Time. There is birth, there is death, there is issuing forth, there is entering in.\"{{cite book \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/chuangtzmysticm00chuagoog\\|title\\=Chuang TzΕ: Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer (translated by Herbert Allen Giles)\\|publisher\\= Bernard Quaritch\\|year\\= 1889\\|page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/chuangtzmysticm00chuagoog/page/n338 304]\\|author1\\=Zhuangzi}}{{Better source needed\\|date\\=April 2019}}",
"### European Middle Ages",
"Around the 11β12th century in Europe, several reincarnationist movements were persecuted as heresies, through the establishment of the [Inquisition](/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition \"Medieval Inquisition\") in the Latin west. These included the [Cathar](/wiki/Cathar \"Cathar\"), Paterene or Albigensian church of western Europe, the [Paulician](/wiki/Paulician \"Paulician\") movement, which arose in Armenia,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11583b.htm \\|title\\=Newadvent.org \\|publisher\\=Newadvent.org \\|date\\=1 February 1911 \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011}} and the [Bogomils](/wiki/Bogomils \"Bogomils\") in [Bulgaria](/wiki/Bulgaria \"Bulgaria\").Steven Runciman, *The Medieval Manichee: A Study of the Christian Dualist Heresy*, 1982, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-28926\\-2}}, Cambridge University Press, *The Bogomils*",
"Christian sects such as the Bogomils and the Cathars, who professed reincarnation and other gnostic beliefs, were referred to as \"Manichaean\", and are today sometimes described by scholars as \"Neo\\-Manichaean\".For example Dondaine, Antoine. O.P. *Un traite neo\\-manicheen du XIIIe siecle: Le Liber de duobus principiis, suivi d'un fragment de rituel Cathare* (Rome: Institutum Historicum Fratrum Praedicatorum, 1939\\) As there is no known Manichaean mythology or terminology in the writings of these groups there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups truly were descendants of Manichaeism.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm \\|title\\=Newadvent.org \\|publisher\\=Newadvent.org \\|date\\=1 March 1907 \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011}}",
"### Renaissance and Early Modern period",
"While reincarnation has been a matter of faith in some communities from an early date it has also frequently been argued for on principle, as Plato does when he argues that the number of souls must be finite because souls are indestructible,\"the souls must always be the same, for if none be destroyed they will not diminish in number\". Republic X, 611\\. The Republic of Plato By Plato, Benjamin Jowett Edition: 3 Published by Clarendon press, 1888\\. [Benjamin Franklin](/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin \"Benjamin Franklin\") held a similar view.In a letter to his friend [George Whatley](/wiki/George_Whatley \"George Whatley\") written 23 May 1785: {{cite journal\\|jstor \\= 25057231\\|title \\= Death Effects: Revisiting the Conceit of Franklin's \"Memoir\"\\|journal \\= Early American Literature\\|volume \\= 36\\|issue \\= 2\\|pages \\= 201β234\\|last1 \\= Kennedy\\|first1 \\= Jennifer T.\\|year \\= 2001\\|doi \\= 10\\.1353/eal.2001\\.0016\\|s2cid \\= 161799223}} Sometimes such convictions, as in Socrates' case, arise from a more general personal faith, at other times from anecdotal evidence such as Plato makes Socrates offer in the *[Myth of Er](/wiki/Myth_of_Er \"Myth of Er\")*.",
"During the [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") translations of Plato, the [Hermetica](/wiki/Hermetica \"Hermetica\") and other works fostered new European interest in reincarnation. [Marsilio Ficino](/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino \"Marsilio Ficino\")Marsilio Ficino, *Platonic Theology*, 17\\.3β4 argued that Plato's references to reincarnation were intended allegorically, Shakespeare alluded to the doctrine of reincarnation\"Again, Rosalind in \"As You Like It\" (Act III., Scene 2\\), says: *I was never so be\\-rhimed that I can remember since Pythagoras's time, when I was an Irish rat\"*βalluding to the doctrine of the transmigration of souls.\" William H. Grattan Flood, quoted at [Libraryireland.com](http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/XVII-2.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421065024/http://www.libraryireland.com/IrishMusic/XVII\\-2\\.php \\|date\\=2009\\-04\\-21 }} but [Giordano Bruno](/wiki/Giordano_Bruno \"Giordano Bruno\") was burned at the stake by authorities after being found guilty of heresy by the [Roman Inquisition](/wiki/Roman_Inquisition \"Roman Inquisition\") for his teachings.Boulting, 1914\\. pp. 163β164 But the Greek philosophical works remained available and, particularly in north Europe, were discussed by groups such as the [Cambridge Platonists](/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists \"Cambridge Platonists\"). [Emanuel Swedenborg](/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg \"Emanuel Swedenborg\") believed that we leave the physical world once, but then go through several lives in the spiritual worldβa kind of hybrid of Christian tradition and the popular view of reincarnation.{{cite web \\|title\\=Swedenborg and Life Recap: Do We Reincarnate? 3/6/2017 \\|date\\=10 March 2017 \\|url\\=https://swedenborg.com/recap\\-do\\-we\\-reincarnate/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2019 \\|publisher\\=Swedenborg Foundation}}",
"### 19th to 20th centuries",
"By the 19th century the philosophers [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer \"Arthur Schopenhauer\")Schopenhauer, A: \"Parerga und Paralipomena\" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177 and [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche \"Nietzsche\")Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth \\& J. Lippitt, *Nietzsche and the Divine*, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000 could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the [American Transcendentalists](/wiki/American_Transcendentalism \"American Transcendentalism\") [Henry David Thoreau](/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau \"Henry David Thoreau\"), [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman \"Walt Whitman\") and [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson \"Ralph Waldo Emerson\") and was adapted by [Francis Bowen](/wiki/Francis_Bowen \"Francis Bowen\") into *Christian Metempsychosis*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\\-318 \\|title\\=Shirleymaclaine.com \\|publisher\\=Shirleymaclaine.com \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106160539/http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\\-318 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2011 }}",
"By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of [psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\"), largely due to the influence of [William James](/wiki/William_James \"William James\"), who raised aspects of the [philosophy of mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\"), [comparative religion](/wiki/Comparative_religion \"Comparative religion\"), the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, *The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation*, Penguin, p. 34\\. For relevant works by James, see; William James, *Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897\\)*, *The Will to Believe, Human Immortality* (1956\\) Dover Publications, {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-20291\\-7}}, *The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature* (1902\\), {{ISBN\\|0\\-14\\-039034\\-0}}, *Essays in Radical Empiricism* (1912\\) Dover Publications 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-43094\\-4}} James was influential in the founding of the [American Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/American_Society_for_Psychical_Research \"American Society for Psychical Research\") (ASPR) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") in 1885, three years after the British [Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research \"Society for Psychical Research\") (SPR) was inaugurated in London,{{cite book \\|last\\=Berger \\|first\\=Arthur S. \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpa00berg \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research \\|author2\\=Berger, Joyce \\|publisher\\=Paragon House Publishers \\|year\\=1991 \\|isbn\\=1\\-55778\\-043\\-9}} leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.",
"At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society \"Theosophical Society\")'s dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like [The Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn \"Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn\"). Notable personalities like [Annie Besant](/wiki/Annie_Besant \"Annie Besant\"), [W. B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats \"W. B. Yeats\") and [Dion Fortune](/wiki/Dion_Fortune \"Dion Fortune\") made the subject almost as [familiar an element of the popular culture](/wiki/Reincarnation_in_popular_culture \"Reincarnation in popular culture\") of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.Richmal Crompton, *More William*, George Newnes, London, 1924, XIII. [William and the Ancient Souls](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529165615/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125\\-h/17125\\-h.htm \\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-29 }}; \"The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes.\" Humorist [Don Marquis](/wiki/Don_Marquis \"Don Marquis\") created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.Marquis, \"Archy and Mehitabel\" (1927\\)",
"[ThΓ©odore Flournoy](/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy \"ThΓ©odore Flournoy\") was among the first to study a claim of past\\-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium [HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Smith \"HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith\"), published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of [cryptomnesia](/wiki/Cryptomnesia \"Cryptomnesia\") in such accounts.ThΓ©odore Flournoy, [Des Indes Γ la planΓ¨te Mars](http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201172115/http://www.psychanalyse\\-paris.com/\\-Des\\-Indes\\-a\\-la\\-planete\\-Mars\\-.html \\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-01 }}, Γtude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Γditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et GenΓ¨ve, 1900\n[Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung \"Carl Gustav Jung\"), like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: \"This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own....\" [Hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis \"Hypnosis\"), used in [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis \"Psychoanalysis\") for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.",
"More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation. Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern [Neopagans](/wiki/Neopaganism \"Neopaganism\"), [Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism \"Kardecist spiritism\"), Astara,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Astara \\|url\\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias\\-almanacs\\-transcripts\\-and\\-maps/astara/ \\|website\\=www.encyclopedia.com}} [Dianetics](/wiki/Dianetics \"Dianetics\"), and [Scientology](/wiki/Scientology \"Scientology\"). Many [esoteric](/wiki/Esotericism \"Esotericism\") philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. [Theosophy](/wiki/Theosophy_%28Blavatskian%29 \"Theosophy (Blavatskian)\"), [Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy \"Anthroposophy\"), [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\"), and [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic \"Gnostic\") and [Esoteric Christianity](/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity \"Esoteric Christianity\") such as the works of [Martinus Thomsen](/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen \"Martinus Thomsen\").",
"Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth.David W. Moore, [Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal](https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113011455/https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three\\-four\\-americans\\-believe\\-paranormal.aspx \\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-13 }} The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all [born again](/wiki/Born_again \"Born again\") Christians, embrace the idea.[Buddhism China](http://worldmonitor.wordpress.com/2007/08/25/buddhism-china/){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2011}}",
"Academic psychiatrist [Ian Stevenson](/wiki/Ian_Stevenson \"Ian Stevenson\") reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.Jane Henry (2005\\). [Parapsychology: research on exceptional experiences](https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&pg=PP5) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EaIhapm\\-4UgC\\&pg\\=PP5\\&lpg\\=PP5\\&dq\\=%22Parapsychology:\\+Research\\+on\\+Exceptional\\+Experiences%22\\+%22Jane\\+Henry%22\\&source\\=bl\\&ots\\=tReXJKfiIh\\&sig\\=IIE8o603PaUPxN2RT21gedmeoP8\\&hl\\=en\\&ei\\=k\\_VKSpL6HIvkNduOrJsB\\&sa\\=X\\&oi\\=book\\_result\\&ct\\=result\\&resnum\\=1 \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-12 }} Routledge, p. 224\\. One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in\\-depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Walter \\|first1\\=Tony \\|last2\\=Waterhouse \\|first2\\=Helen \\|title\\=A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England \\|journal\\=Sociology of Religion \\|date\\=1999 \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=187β197 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3711748 \\|jstor\\=3711748 }} The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of \"new age\" ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as \"one way of tackling issues of suffering\", but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.",
"Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews.{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Waterhouse, H. \\|year\\=1999 \\|title\\=Reincarnation belief in Britain: New age orientation or mainstream option? \\|journal\\=Journal of Contemporary Religion \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=97β109 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13537909908580854}} She noted that although most people \"hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly\" and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past\\-life memories and [near\\-death experiences](/wiki/Near-death_experience \"Near-death experience\") had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second\\-hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people's accounts of past\\-lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there \"must be something in it\" if other people were having such experiences.",
"Other influential contemporary figures that have written on reincarnation include [Alice Ann Bailey](/wiki/Alice_Ann_Bailey \"Alice Ann Bailey\"), one of the first writers to use the terms [New Age](/wiki/New_Age \"New Age\") and [age of Aquarius](/wiki/Age_of_Aquarius \"Age of Aquarius\"), [Torkom Saraydarian](/wiki/Torkom_Saraydarian \"Torkom Saraydarian\"), an [Armenian\\-American](/wiki/Armenian-American \"Armenian-American\") musician and religious author, Dolores Cannon, [Atul Gawande](/wiki/Atul_Gawande \"Atul Gawande\"), [Michael Newton](/wiki/Michael_Newton_%28hypnotist%29 \"Michael Newton (hypnotist)\"), [Bruce Greyson](/wiki/Bruce_Greyson \"Bruce Greyson\"), [Raymond Moody](/wiki/Raymond_Moody \"Raymond Moody\") and [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church \"Unity Church\") founder [Charles Fillmore](/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_%28Unity_Church%29 \"Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Unity Magazine November 1938 β Reincarnation {{!}} Truth Unity \\|url\\=https://www.truthunity.net/monthly\\-magazine/1938\\-11\\-unity\\-reincarnation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-20 \\|website\\=www.truthunity.net}} [Neale Donald Walsch](/wiki/Neale_Donald_Walsch \"Neale Donald Walsch\"), an American author of the series *[Conversations with God](/wiki/Conversations_with_God \"Conversations with God\")* claims that he has reincarnated more than 600 times.{{cite web \\|title\\=Being at One: Neale Donald Walsch Interview with Gil Dekel (Part 3 of 3, paragraphs 18β19\\) \\|date\\=19 September 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.poeticmind.co.uk/creative\\-thoughts/being\\-at\\-one\\-neale\\-donald\\-walsch\\-interview\\-with\\-gil\\-dekel\\-phd\\-part\\-3\\-of\\-3/}} The Indian spiritual teacher [Meher Baba](/wiki/Meher_Baba \"Meher Baba\") who had significant following in the West taught that reincarnation followed from human desire and ceased once a person was freed from desire.[Baba, Meher](/wiki/Meher_Baba \"Meher Baba\") (1967\\), [*Discourses*](http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200229/http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org/ \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-08 }}, Volume III, Sufism Reoriented, 1967, {{ISBN\\|1\\-880619\\-09\\-1}}, p. 96\\.",
""
] |
### 19th to 20th centuries
By the 19th century the philosophers [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer "Arthur Schopenhauer")Schopenhauer, A: "Parerga und Paralipomena" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177 and [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche "Nietzsche")Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth \& J. Lippitt, *Nietzsche and the Divine*, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000 could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the [American Transcendentalists](/wiki/American_Transcendentalism "American Transcendentalism") [Henry David Thoreau](/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau "Henry David Thoreau"), [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman "Walt Whitman") and [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson "Ralph Waldo Emerson") and was adapted by [Francis Bowen](/wiki/Francis_Bowen "Francis Bowen") into *Christian Metempsychosis*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\-318 \|title\=Shirleymaclaine.com \|publisher\=Shirleymaclaine.com \|access\-date\=6 December 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106160539/http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\-318 \|archive\-date\=6 November 2011 }}
By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of [psychology](/wiki/Psychology "Psychology"), largely due to the influence of [William James](/wiki/William_James "William James"), who raised aspects of the [philosophy of mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind "Philosophy of mind"), [comparative religion](/wiki/Comparative_religion "Comparative religion"), the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, *The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation*, Penguin, p. 34\. For relevant works by James, see; William James, *Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897\)*, *The Will to Believe, Human Immortality* (1956\) Dover Publications, {{ISBN\|0\-486\-20291\-7}}, *The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature* (1902\), {{ISBN\|0\-14\-039034\-0}}, *Essays in Radical Empiricism* (1912\) Dover Publications 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-486\-43094\-4}} James was influential in the founding of the [American Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/American_Society_for_Psychical_Research "American Society for Psychical Research") (ASPR) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") in 1885, three years after the British [Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research "Society for Psychical Research") (SPR) was inaugurated in London,{{cite book \|last\=Berger \|first\=Arthur S. \|url\=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpa00berg \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research \|author2\=Berger, Joyce \|publisher\=Paragon House Publishers \|year\=1991 \|isbn\=1\-55778\-043\-9}} leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.
At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society "Theosophical Society")'s dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like [The Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn"). Notable personalities like [Annie Besant](/wiki/Annie_Besant "Annie Besant"), [W. B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats "W. B. Yeats") and [Dion Fortune](/wiki/Dion_Fortune "Dion Fortune") made the subject almost as [familiar an element of the popular culture](/wiki/Reincarnation_in_popular_culture "Reincarnation in popular culture") of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.Richmal Crompton, *More William*, George Newnes, London, 1924, XIII. [William and the Ancient Souls](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529165615/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125\-h/17125\-h.htm \|date\=2012\-05\-29 }}; "The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes." Humorist [Don Marquis](/wiki/Don_Marquis "Don Marquis") created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.Marquis, "Archy and Mehitabel" (1927\)
[ThΓ©odore Flournoy](/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy "ThΓ©odore Flournoy") was among the first to study a claim of past\-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium [HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Smith "HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith"), published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of [cryptomnesia](/wiki/Cryptomnesia "Cryptomnesia") in such accounts.ThΓ©odore Flournoy, [Des Indes Γ la planΓ¨te Mars](http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201172115/http://www.psychanalyse\-paris.com/\-Des\-Indes\-a\-la\-planete\-Mars\-.html \|date\=2009\-12\-01 }}, Γtude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Γditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et GenΓ¨ve, 1900
[Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung "Carl Gustav Jung"), like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: "This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own...." [Hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis "Hypnosis"), used in [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis "Psychoanalysis") for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.
More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation. Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern [Neopagans](/wiki/Neopaganism "Neopaganism"), [Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism "Kardecist spiritism"), Astara,{{Cite web \|title\=Astara \|url\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias\-almanacs\-transcripts\-and\-maps/astara/ \|website\=www.encyclopedia.com}} [Dianetics](/wiki/Dianetics "Dianetics"), and [Scientology](/wiki/Scientology "Scientology"). Many [esoteric](/wiki/Esotericism "Esotericism") philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. [Theosophy](/wiki/Theosophy_%28Blavatskian%29 "Theosophy (Blavatskian)"), [Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy "Anthroposophy"), [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah"), and [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic "Gnostic") and [Esoteric Christianity](/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity "Esoteric Christianity") such as the works of [Martinus Thomsen](/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen "Martinus Thomsen").
Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth.David W. Moore, [Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal](https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113011455/https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three\-four\-americans\-believe\-paranormal.aspx \|date\=2020\-01\-13 }} The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania "Lithuania") having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all [born again](/wiki/Born_again "Born again") Christians, embrace the idea.[Buddhism China](http://worldmonitor.wordpress.com/2007/08/25/buddhism-china/){{dead link\|date\=December 2011}}
Academic psychiatrist [Ian Stevenson](/wiki/Ian_Stevenson "Ian Stevenson") reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam"). In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.Jane Henry (2005\). [Parapsychology: research on exceptional experiences](https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&pg=PP5) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\=EaIhapm\-4UgC\&pg\=PP5\&lpg\=PP5\&dq\=%22Parapsychology:\+Research\+on\+Exceptional\+Experiences%22\+%22Jane\+Henry%22\&source\=bl\&ots\=tReXJKfiIh\&sig\=IIE8o603PaUPxN2RT21gedmeoP8\&hl\=en\&ei\=k\_VKSpL6HIvkNduOrJsB\&sa\=X\&oi\=book\_result\&ct\=result\&resnum\=1 \|date\=2022\-12\-12 }} Routledge, p. 224\. One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in\-depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation.{{cite journal \|last1\=Walter \|first1\=Tony \|last2\=Waterhouse \|first2\=Helen \|title\=A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England \|journal\=Sociology of Religion \|date\=1999 \|volume\=60 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=187β197 \|doi\=10\.2307/3711748 \|jstor\=3711748 }} The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of "new age" ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as "one way of tackling issues of suffering", but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.
Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews.{{Cite journal \|author\=Waterhouse, H. \|year\=1999 \|title\=Reincarnation belief in Britain: New age orientation or mainstream option? \|journal\=Journal of Contemporary Religion \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=97β109 \|doi\=10\.1080/13537909908580854}} She noted that although most people "hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly" and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past\-life memories and [near\-death experiences](/wiki/Near-death_experience "Near-death experience") had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second\-hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people's accounts of past\-lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there "must be something in it" if other people were having such experiences.
Other influential contemporary figures that have written on reincarnation include [Alice Ann Bailey](/wiki/Alice_Ann_Bailey "Alice Ann Bailey"), one of the first writers to use the terms [New Age](/wiki/New_Age "New Age") and [age of Aquarius](/wiki/Age_of_Aquarius "Age of Aquarius"), [Torkom Saraydarian](/wiki/Torkom_Saraydarian "Torkom Saraydarian"), an [Armenian\-American](/wiki/Armenian-American "Armenian-American") musician and religious author, Dolores Cannon, [Atul Gawande](/wiki/Atul_Gawande "Atul Gawande"), [Michael Newton](/wiki/Michael_Newton_%28hypnotist%29 "Michael Newton (hypnotist)"), [Bruce Greyson](/wiki/Bruce_Greyson "Bruce Greyson"), [Raymond Moody](/wiki/Raymond_Moody "Raymond Moody") and [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church "Unity Church") founder [Charles Fillmore](/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_%28Unity_Church%29 "Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)").{{Cite web \|title\=Unity Magazine November 1938 β Reincarnation {{!}} Truth Unity \|url\=https://www.truthunity.net/monthly\-magazine/1938\-11\-unity\-reincarnation \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-20 \|website\=www.truthunity.net}} [Neale Donald Walsch](/wiki/Neale_Donald_Walsch "Neale Donald Walsch"), an American author of the series *[Conversations with God](/wiki/Conversations_with_God "Conversations with God")* claims that he has reincarnated more than 600 times.{{cite web \|title\=Being at One: Neale Donald Walsch Interview with Gil Dekel (Part 3 of 3, paragraphs 18β19\) \|date\=19 September 2010 \|url\=http://www.poeticmind.co.uk/creative\-thoughts/being\-at\-one\-neale\-donald\-walsch\-interview\-with\-gil\-dekel\-phd\-part\-3\-of\-3/}} The Indian spiritual teacher [Meher Baba](/wiki/Meher_Baba "Meher Baba") who had significant following in the West taught that reincarnation followed from human desire and ceased once a person was freed from desire.[Baba, Meher](/wiki/Meher_Baba "Meher Baba") (1967\), [*Discourses*](http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200229/http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org/ \|date\=2018\-07\-08 }}, Volume III, Sufism Reoriented, 1967, {{ISBN\|1\-880619\-09\-1}}, p. 96\.
|
[
"### 19th to 20th centuries",
"By the 19th century the philosophers [Schopenhauer](/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer \"Arthur Schopenhauer\")Schopenhauer, A: \"Parerga und Paralipomena\" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177 and [Nietzsche](/wiki/Nietzsche \"Nietzsche\")Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth \\& J. Lippitt, *Nietzsche and the Divine*, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000 could access the Indian scriptures for discussion of the doctrine of reincarnation, which recommended itself to the [American Transcendentalists](/wiki/American_Transcendentalism \"American Transcendentalism\") [Henry David Thoreau](/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau \"Henry David Thoreau\"), [Walt Whitman](/wiki/Walt_Whitman \"Walt Whitman\") and [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson \"Ralph Waldo Emerson\") and was adapted by [Francis Bowen](/wiki/Francis_Bowen \"Francis Bowen\") into *Christian Metempsychosis*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\\-318 \\|title\\=Shirleymaclaine.com \\|publisher\\=Shirleymaclaine.com \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106160539/http://www.shirleymaclaine.com/articles/reincarnation/article\\-318 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 November 2011 }}",
"By the early 20th century, interest in reincarnation had been introduced into the nascent discipline of [psychology](/wiki/Psychology \"Psychology\"), largely due to the influence of [William James](/wiki/William_James \"William James\"), who raised aspects of the [philosophy of mind](/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind \"Philosophy of mind\"), [comparative religion](/wiki/Comparative_religion \"Comparative religion\"), the psychology of religious experience and the nature of empiricism.David Hammerman, Lisa Lenard, *The Complete Idiot's Guide to Reincarnation*, Penguin, p. 34\\. For relevant works by James, see; William James, *Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Lecture, 1897\\)*, *The Will to Believe, Human Immortality* (1956\\) Dover Publications, {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-20291\\-7}}, *The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature* (1902\\), {{ISBN\\|0\\-14\\-039034\\-0}}, *Essays in Radical Empiricism* (1912\\) Dover Publications 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-486\\-43094\\-4}} James was influential in the founding of the [American Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/American_Society_for_Psychical_Research \"American Society for Psychical Research\") (ASPR) in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") in 1885, three years after the British [Society for Psychical Research](/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research \"Society for Psychical Research\") (SPR) was inaugurated in London,{{cite book \\|last\\=Berger \\|first\\=Arthur S. \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpa00berg \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Parapsychology and Psychical Research \\|author2\\=Berger, Joyce \\|publisher\\=Paragon House Publishers \\|year\\=1991 \\|isbn\\=1\\-55778\\-043\\-9}} leading to systematic, critical investigation of paranormal phenomena. Famous World War II American General George Patton was a strong believer in reincarnation, believing, among other things, he was a reincarnation of the Carthaginian General Hannibal.",
"At this time popular awareness of the idea of reincarnation was boosted by the [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society \"Theosophical Society\")'s dissemination of systematised and universalised Indian concepts and also by the influence of magical societies like [The Golden Dawn](/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn \"Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn\"). Notable personalities like [Annie Besant](/wiki/Annie_Besant \"Annie Besant\"), [W. B. Yeats](/wiki/W._B._Yeats \"W. B. Yeats\") and [Dion Fortune](/wiki/Dion_Fortune \"Dion Fortune\") made the subject almost as [familiar an element of the popular culture](/wiki/Reincarnation_in_popular_culture \"Reincarnation in popular culture\") of the west as of the east. By 1924 the subject could be satirised in popular children's books.Richmal Crompton, *More William*, George Newnes, London, 1924, XIII. [William and the Ancient Souls](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125-h/17125-h.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529165615/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17125/17125\\-h/17125\\-h.htm \\|date\\=2012\\-05\\-29 }}; \"The memory usually came in a flash. For instance, you might remember in a flash when you were looking at a box of matches that you had been Guy Fawkes.\" Humorist [Don Marquis](/wiki/Don_Marquis \"Don Marquis\") created a fictional cat named Mehitabel who claimed to be a reincarnation of Queen Cleopatra.Marquis, \"Archy and Mehitabel\" (1927\\)",
"[ThΓ©odore Flournoy](/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy \"ThΓ©odore Flournoy\") was among the first to study a claim of past\\-life recall in the course of his investigation of the medium [HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith](/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Smith \"HΓ©lΓ¨ne Smith\"), published in 1900, in which he defined the possibility of [cryptomnesia](/wiki/Cryptomnesia \"Cryptomnesia\") in such accounts.ThΓ©odore Flournoy, [Des Indes Γ la planΓ¨te Mars](http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/-Des-Indes-a-la-planete-Mars-.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201172115/http://www.psychanalyse\\-paris.com/\\-Des\\-Indes\\-a\\-la\\-planete\\-Mars\\-.html \\|date\\=2009\\-12\\-01 }}, Γtude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie, Γditions Alcan et Eggimann, Paris et GenΓ¨ve, 1900\n[Carl Gustav Jung](/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung \"Carl Gustav Jung\"), like Flournoy based in Switzerland, also emulated him in his thesis based on a study of cryptomnesia in psychism. Later Jung would emphasise the importance of the persistence of memory and ego in psychological study of reincarnation: \"This concept of rebirth necessarily implies the continuity of personality... (that) one is able, at least potentially, to remember that one has lived through previous existences, and that these existences were one's own....\" [Hypnosis](/wiki/Hypnosis \"Hypnosis\"), used in [psychoanalysis](/wiki/Psychoanalysis \"Psychoanalysis\") for retrieving forgotten memories, was eventually tried as a means of studying the phenomenon of past life recall.",
"More recently, many people in the West have developed an interest in and acceptance of reincarnation. Many new religious movements include reincarnation among their beliefs, e.g. modern [Neopagans](/wiki/Neopaganism \"Neopaganism\"), [Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism \"Kardecist spiritism\"), Astara,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Astara \\|url\\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias\\-almanacs\\-transcripts\\-and\\-maps/astara/ \\|website\\=www.encyclopedia.com}} [Dianetics](/wiki/Dianetics \"Dianetics\"), and [Scientology](/wiki/Scientology \"Scientology\"). Many [esoteric](/wiki/Esotericism \"Esotericism\") philosophies also include reincarnation, e.g. [Theosophy](/wiki/Theosophy_%28Blavatskian%29 \"Theosophy (Blavatskian)\"), [Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy \"Anthroposophy\"), [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\"), and [Gnostic](/wiki/Gnostic \"Gnostic\") and [Esoteric Christianity](/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity \"Esoteric Christianity\") such as the works of [Martinus Thomsen](/wiki/Martinus_Thomsen \"Martinus Thomsen\").",
"Demographic survey data from 1999 to 2002 shows a significant minority of people from Europe (22%) and America (20%) believe in the existence of life before birth and after death, leading to a physical rebirth.David W. Moore, [Three in Four Americans Believe in Paranormal](https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three-four-americans-believe-paranormal.aspx) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113011455/https://news.gallup.com/poll/16915/three\\-four\\-americans\\-believe\\-paranormal.aspx \\|date\\=2020\\-01\\-13 }} The belief in reincarnation is particularly high in the Baltic countries, with [Lithuania](/wiki/Lithuania \"Lithuania\") having the highest figure for the whole of Europe, 44%, while the lowest figure is in East Germany, 12%. A quarter of U.S. Christians, including 10% of all [born again](/wiki/Born_again \"Born again\") Christians, embrace the idea.[Buddhism China](http://worldmonitor.wordpress.com/2007/08/25/buddhism-china/){{dead link\\|date\\=December 2011}}",
"Academic psychiatrist [Ian Stevenson](/wiki/Ian_Stevenson \"Ian Stevenson\") reported that belief in reincarnation is held (with variations in details) by adherents of almost all major religions except [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\"). In addition, between 20 and 30 percent of persons in western countries who may be nominal Christians also believe in reincarnation.Jane Henry (2005\\). [Parapsychology: research on exceptional experiences](https://books.google.com/books?id=EaIhapm-4UgC&dq=%22Parapsychology:+Research+on+Exceptional+Experiences%22+%22Jane+Henry%22&pg=PP5) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EaIhapm\\-4UgC\\&pg\\=PP5\\&lpg\\=PP5\\&dq\\=%22Parapsychology:\\+Research\\+on\\+Exceptional\\+Experiences%22\\+%22Jane\\+Henry%22\\&source\\=bl\\&ots\\=tReXJKfiIh\\&sig\\=IIE8o603PaUPxN2RT21gedmeoP8\\&hl\\=en\\&ei\\=k\\_VKSpL6HIvkNduOrJsB\\&sa\\=X\\&oi\\=book\\_result\\&ct\\=result\\&resnum\\=1 \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-12 }} Routledge, p. 224\\. One 1999 study by Walter and Waterhouse reviewed the previous data on the level of reincarnation belief and performed a set of thirty in\\-depth interviews in Britain among people who did not belong to a religion advocating reincarnation.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Walter \\|first1\\=Tony \\|last2\\=Waterhouse \\|first2\\=Helen \\|title\\=A Very Private Belief: Reincarnation in Contemporary England \\|journal\\=Sociology of Religion \\|date\\=1999 \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=187β197 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3711748 \\|jstor\\=3711748 }} The authors reported that surveys have found about one fifth to one quarter of Europeans have some level of belief in reincarnation, with similar results found in the USA. In the interviewed group, the belief in the existence of this phenomenon appeared independent of their age, or the type of religion that these people belonged to, with most being Christians. The beliefs of this group also did not appear to contain any more than usual of \"new age\" ideas (broadly defined) and the authors interpreted their ideas on reincarnation as \"one way of tackling issues of suffering\", but noted that this seemed to have little effect on their private lives.",
"Waterhouse also published a detailed discussion of beliefs expressed in the interviews.{{Cite journal \\|author\\=Waterhouse, H. \\|year\\=1999 \\|title\\=Reincarnation belief in Britain: New age orientation or mainstream option? \\|journal\\=Journal of Contemporary Religion \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=97β109 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13537909908580854}} She noted that although most people \"hold their belief in reincarnation quite lightly\" and were unclear on the details of their ideas, personal experiences such as past\\-life memories and [near\\-death experiences](/wiki/Near-death_experience \"Near-death experience\") had influenced most believers, although only a few had direct experience of these phenomena. Waterhouse analyzed the influences of second\\-hand accounts of reincarnation, writing that most of the people in the survey had heard other people's accounts of past\\-lives from regression hypnosis and dreams and found these fascinating, feeling that there \"must be something in it\" if other people were having such experiences.",
"Other influential contemporary figures that have written on reincarnation include [Alice Ann Bailey](/wiki/Alice_Ann_Bailey \"Alice Ann Bailey\"), one of the first writers to use the terms [New Age](/wiki/New_Age \"New Age\") and [age of Aquarius](/wiki/Age_of_Aquarius \"Age of Aquarius\"), [Torkom Saraydarian](/wiki/Torkom_Saraydarian \"Torkom Saraydarian\"), an [Armenian\\-American](/wiki/Armenian-American \"Armenian-American\") musician and religious author, Dolores Cannon, [Atul Gawande](/wiki/Atul_Gawande \"Atul Gawande\"), [Michael Newton](/wiki/Michael_Newton_%28hypnotist%29 \"Michael Newton (hypnotist)\"), [Bruce Greyson](/wiki/Bruce_Greyson \"Bruce Greyson\"), [Raymond Moody](/wiki/Raymond_Moody \"Raymond Moody\") and [Unity Church](/wiki/Unity_Church \"Unity Church\") founder [Charles Fillmore](/wiki/Charles_Fillmore_%28Unity_Church%29 \"Charles Fillmore (Unity Church)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Unity Magazine November 1938 β Reincarnation {{!}} Truth Unity \\|url\\=https://www.truthunity.net/monthly\\-magazine/1938\\-11\\-unity\\-reincarnation \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-20 \\|website\\=www.truthunity.net}} [Neale Donald Walsch](/wiki/Neale_Donald_Walsch \"Neale Donald Walsch\"), an American author of the series *[Conversations with God](/wiki/Conversations_with_God \"Conversations with God\")* claims that he has reincarnated more than 600 times.{{cite web \\|title\\=Being at One: Neale Donald Walsch Interview with Gil Dekel (Part 3 of 3, paragraphs 18β19\\) \\|date\\=19 September 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.poeticmind.co.uk/creative\\-thoughts/being\\-at\\-one\\-neale\\-donald\\-walsch\\-interview\\-with\\-gil\\-dekel\\-phd\\-part\\-3\\-of\\-3/}} The Indian spiritual teacher [Meher Baba](/wiki/Meher_Baba \"Meher Baba\") who had significant following in the West taught that reincarnation followed from human desire and ceased once a person was freed from desire.[Baba, Meher](/wiki/Meher_Baba \"Meher Baba\") (1967\\), [*Discourses*](http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708200229/http://www.discoursesbymeherbaba.org/ \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-08 }}, Volume III, Sufism Reoriented, 1967, {{ISBN\\|1\\-880619\\-09\\-1}}, p. 96\\.",
""
] |
Religions and philosophies
--------------------------
### Buddhism
{{Main\|Rebirth (Buddhism)\|SaαΉsΔra (Buddhism)}}
[upright\|thumb\|In this 8\-meter (25\-foot) tall Buddhist relief, made between 1177 and 1249, located at [Dazu Rock Carvings](/wiki/Dazu_Rock_Carvings "Dazu Rock Carvings"), Chongqing, China, [Mara](/wiki/Mara_%28demon%29 "Mara (demon)"), Lord of Death and Desire, clutches a Wheel of Reincarnation which outlines the Buddhist cycle of reincarnation.](/wiki/Image:Buddhist_Wheel_of_Life.jpg "Buddhist Wheel of Life.jpg")
{{Buddhism\|collapsed\=1}}
According to various Buddhist scriptures, [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha "Gautama Buddha") believed in the existence of an afterlife in another world and in reincarnation,
{{Blockquote\|
Since there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different rebirth realms), one who holds the view 'there is no other world' has wrong view...
\|Buddha\|''\[\[Majjhima Nikaya]]'' i.402, Apannaka Sutta, translated by Peter Harvey{{cite book\|author\=Peter Harvey\|title\=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices\|year\=2012\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-85942\-4\|pages\=32β33, 38β39, 46β49}}\|source\=}}
The Buddha also asserted that karma influences rebirth, and that the cycles of repeated births and deaths are endless.{{cite book\|author\=Ronald Wesley Neufeldt \|title\=Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments \| year\=1986\| publisher\=State University of New York Press\| isbn\=978\-0\-87395\-990\-2\| pages\=123β131}} Before the birth of Buddha, materialistic school such as [Charvaka](/wiki/Charvaka "Charvaka"){{cite book\|author\=Ray Billington\|title\=Understanding Eastern Philosophy\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-79348\-8\|page\=60}} posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and they described death to be a state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved.{{cite book\|author\= Ray Billington\|title\=Understanding Eastern Philosophy \|year\=2002\|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-79349\-5 \|pages\=43β44, 58β60 }} Buddha rejected this theory, adopted the alternative existing theories on rebirth, criticizing the materialistic schools that denied rebirth and karma, states [Damien Keown](/wiki/Damien_Keown "Damien Keown"). Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because such annihilationism views encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism;{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|p\=21}} he tied moral responsibility to rebirth.{{cite book\|isbn\= 978\-0\-19\-860560\-7 \|title\=A Dictionary of Buddhism (Articles titled ucchedavΔda, ΕΔΕvata\-vΔda, rebirth) \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|first\=Damien \|last\=Keown \|year\=2004 \|pages\= 80, 162, 225, 255, 315 }}
The Buddha introduced the concept of *[anattΔ](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 "AnattΔ"),* which asserts that there is no permanent self (soul).{{cite book\|first\=David J. \|last\=Kalupahana \|title\=Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism \|year\=1975\|publisher\=University Press of Hawaii\|isbn\=978\-0\-8248\-0298\-1\|pages\=115β119}}{{cite book\|author\=Peter Harvey\|title\=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices\|year\=2012\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-85942\-4\|pages\=57β62}}{{cite book\|author\= Oliver Leaman\|title\= Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings \|year\=2002\|publisher\=Routledge \|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-68919\-4 \|pages\=23β27 }} Major contemporary Buddhist traditions such as Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions accept the teachings of Buddha. These teachings assert there is rebirth, there is no permanent self and no irreducible [*Δtman*](/wiki/Atman_%28Buddhism%29 "Atman (Buddhism)") (soul) moving from life to another and tying these lives together, there is [impermanence](/wiki/Anicca "Anicca"), that all compounded things such as living beings are [aggregates](/wiki/Skandha "Skandha") dissolve at death, but every being reincarnates.{{cite book\|author\=Malcolm B. Hamilton\|title\=The Sociology of Religion: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives\|year\= 2012\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-134\-97626\-3\|pages\=73β80}}{{cite book \| last \=Raju \| first \=P. T. \| year \=1985 \| title \=Structural Depths of Indian Thought \| publisher \=State University of New York Press \| isbn \=978\-0\-88706\-139\-4 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju\| url\-access \=registration \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/147 147]β151}}{{Harvnb\|McClelland\|2010\|p\=89}};
{{cite book\|author\=Hugh Nicholson\|title\=The Spirit of Contradiction in Christianity and Buddhism \|year\=2016\| publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-045534\-7\|pages\=23β25}} The rebirth cycles continue endlessly, states Buddhism, and it is a source of *[duhkha](/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha "DuαΈ₯kha")* (suffering, pain), but this reincarnation and *duhkha* cycle can be stopped through nirvana. The *[anattΔ](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 "AnattΔ")* doctrine of Buddhism is a contrast to Hinduism, the latter asserting that "soul exists, it is involved in rebirth, and it is through this soul that everything is connected".{{cite book\|first\=Walpola \|last\=Rahula\|title\=What the Buddha Taught\|location\=London\|publisher\=Gordon Fraser \|year\=1990\|page\=51}}{{sfn\|Trainor\|2004\|p\=58, ''Quote:'' "Buddhism shares with Hinduism the doctrine of Samsara, whereby all beings pass through an unceasing cycle of birth, death and rebirth until they find a means of liberation from the cycle. However, Buddhism differs from Hinduism in rejecting the assertion that every human being possesses a changeless soul which constitutes his or her ultimate identity, and which transmigrates from one incarnation to the next.}}{{cite book\|author1\=Robert E. Buswell Jr.\|author2\=Donald S. Lopez Jr.\|title\=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism\|year\=2013\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4008\-4805\-8\|pages\=708β709}}
Different traditions within Buddhism have offered different theories on what reincarnates and how reincarnation happens. One theory suggests that it occurs through consciousness (Sanskrit: *[vijΓ±Δna](/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na "VijΓ±Δna")*; Pali: *samvattanika\-viΓ±Γ±ana*)([M](/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya "Majjhima Nikaya").1\.256\) "Post\-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism." by Bruce Matthews. in *Karma and Rebirth: Post\-Classical Developments* State Univ of New York Press: 1986 {{ISBN\|0\-87395\-990\-6}} p. 125Collins, Steven. *Selfless persons: imagery and thought in TheravΔda Buddhism* Cambridge University Press, 1990\. {{ISBN\|0\-521\-39726\-X}} p. 215, [Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=ruJvjdNQVPIC&dq=samvattanika&pg=RA1-PA115) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163107/https://books.google.com/books?id\=ruJvjdNQVPIC\&pg\=RA1\-PA115\&lpg\=RA1\-PA115\&dq\=samvattanika\&source\=bl\&ots\=d\_WluqzeuL\&sig\=SX1Ua5bfFDZJB16eOueopPtVntw\&hl\=en\&ei\=bfpFS5WzOs\-UtgfU16z7AQ\&sa\=X\&oi\=book\_result\&ct\=result\&resnum\=14\&ved\=0CD8Q6AEwDQ\#v\=onepage\&q\=samvattanika\&f\=false \|date\=2022\-12\-12 }} or stream of consciousness (Sanskrit: *[citta\-santΔna](/wiki/Citta-sant%C4%81na "Citta-santΔna")*, *vijΓ±Δna\-srotΔm, or vijΓ±Δna\-santΔna*; Pali: *viΓ±Γ±ana\-sotam*)([D](/wiki/Digha_Nikaya "Digha Nikaya").3\.105\) "Post\-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism. by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: *Post\-Classical Developments* State Univ of New York Press: 1986 {{ISBN\|0\-87395\-990\-6}} p. 125 upon death, which reincarnates into a new aggregation. This process, states this theory, is similar to the flame of a dying candle lighting up another.{{sfn\|Kalupahana\|1975\|p\=83}}{{cite book\|author1\=William H. Swatos \|author2\=Peter Kivisto \|title\=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society \|year\=1998\|publisher\=Rowman Altamira\|isbn\=978\-0\-7619\-8956\-1\|page\=66}} The consciousness in the newly born being is neither identical to nor entirely different from that in the deceased but the two form a causal continuum or stream in this Buddhist theory. Transmigration is influenced by a being's past *[karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma")* (Pali: *kamma*).His Holiness the Dalai Lama, *How to Practice: The Way to a Meaningful Life* (New York: Atria Books, 2002\), p. 46Bruce Matthews in Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, editor, *Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments.* SUNY Press, 1986, p. 125\. [Google.com](https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC&dq=Bija+Niyama&pg=PA126) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\=iaRWtgXjplQC\&pg\=PA126\&dq\=Bija\+Niyama\&lr\=\#PPA125,M1 \|date\=2022\-12\-12 }} The root cause of rebirth, states Buddhism, is the abiding of consciousness in ignorance (Sanskrit: *[avidya](/wiki/Avidya_%28Buddhism%29 "Avidya (Buddhism)")*; Pali: *avijja*) about the nature of reality, and when this ignorance is uprooted, rebirth ceases.Peter Harvey, *The Selfless Mind.* Curzon Press 1995, p. 247\.
[thumb\|A 12th\-century Japanese painting showing one of the six Buddhist realms of reincarnation (*rokudΕ*, ε
ι)](/wiki/File:Shamon_jigoku_z%C3%B4shi.jpg "Shamon jigoku zΓ΄shi.jpg")
Buddhist traditions also vary in their mechanistic details on rebirth. Most [Theravada](/wiki/Theravada "Theravada") Buddhists assert that rebirth is immediate while the [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism "Tibetan Buddhism") and most Chinese and Japanese schools hold to the notion of a *[bardo](/wiki/Bardo "Bardo")* (intermediate state) that can last up to 49 days.{{cite book\|author1\=Robert E. Buswell Jr.\|author2\=Donald S. Lopez Jr.\|title\=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism\|year\=2013\|publisher\=Princeton University Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-4008\-4805\-8\|pages\=49β50, 708β709}}The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications. Sutta 44\.9 The *bardo* rebirth concept of Tibetan Buddhism, originally developed in India but spread to Tibet and other Buddhist countries, and involves 42 peaceful deities, and 58 wrathful deities.{{cite book\|author1\=Karma\-gliαΉ
\-pa\|author2\=Chogyam Trungpa\|author3\=Francesca Fremantle\|title\=The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Shambhala Publications\|isbn\=978\-1\-57062\-747\-7\|pages\=xi, xviiβxxiii}} These ideas led to maps on karma and what form of rebirth one takes after death, discussed in texts such as *[The Tibetan Book of the Dead](/wiki/Bardo_Thodol "Bardo Thodol")*.{{cite book\|author1\=Karma\-gliαΉ
\-pa\|author2\=Chogyam Trungpa\|author3\=Francesca Fremantle\|title\=The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Shambhala Publications\|isbn\=978\-1\-57062\-747\-7\|pages\=4β23}}{{Sfn\|Trainor\|2004\|pp\=210β211}} The major Buddhist traditions accept that the reincarnation of a being depends on the past karma and merit (demerit) accumulated, and that there are six realms of existence in which the rebirth may occur after each death.{{sfn\|Trainor\|2004\|pp\=62β63}}{{Sfn\|Keown\|2013\|pp\=35β40}}
Within Japanese [Zen](/wiki/Zen "Zen"), reincarnation is accepted by some, but rejected by others. A distinction can be drawn between 'folk Zen', as in the Zen practiced by devotional lay people, and 'philosophical Zen'. Folk Zen generally accepts the various supernatural elements of Buddhism such as rebirth. Philosophical Zen, however, places more emphasis on the present moment.{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|p\=281}}{{citation\|last\=Warner\|first\=Brad\|title\=Hardcore Zen\|isbn\= 978\-0\-86171\-989\-1\|publisher\=Wisdom Publications\|year\=2005\|page\=155}}
Some schools conclude that [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") continues to exist and adhere to the person until it works out its consequences. For the [Sautrantika](/wiki/Sautrantika "Sautrantika") school, each act "perfumes" the individual or "plants a seed" that later germinates. Tibetan Buddhism stresses the state of mind at the time of death. To die with a peaceful mind will stimulate a virtuous seed and a fortunate rebirth; a disturbed mind will stimulate a non\-virtuous seed and an unfortunate rebirth.*Transform Your Life*: A Blissful Journey, p. 52\), [Tharpa Publications](/wiki/Tharpa_Publications "Tharpa Publications") (2001, US ed. 2007\) {{ISBN\|978\-0\-9789067\-4\-0}}
### Christianity
In a survey by the [Pew Forum](/wiki/Pew_Forum "Pew Forum") in 2009, 22% of American Christians expressed a belief in reincarnation,{{cite web \|author\=ANALYSIS \|url\=http://pewforum.org/Other\-Beliefs\-and\-Practices/Many\-Americans\-Mix\-Multiple\-Faiths.aspx \|title\=Pewforum.org \|publisher\=Pewforum.org \|date\=9 December 2009 \|access\-date\=6 December 2011 \|archive\-date\=10 December 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210074029/http://pewforum.org/Other\-Beliefs\-and\-Practices/Many\-Americans\-Mix\-Multiple\-Faiths.aspx \|url\-status\=dead }} and in a 1981 survey 31% of regular churchgoing European Catholics expressed a belief in reincarnation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.spirituale\-wholeness.org/faqs/reinceur/reineuro.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010425113340/http://spiritual\-wholeness.org/faqs/reinceur/reineuro.htm \|archive\-date\=25 April 2001 \|title\=Spiritual\-wholeness.org \|publisher\=Spiritual\-wholeness.org \|access\-date\=6 December 2011 }}
Some Christian theologians interpret certain Biblical passages as referring to reincarnation. These passages include the questioning of Jesus as to whether he is Elijah, John the Baptist, Jeremiah, or another prophet ([Matthew 16](/wiki/Matthew_16 "Matthew 16"):13β15 and [John 1](/wiki/John_1 "John 1"):21β22\) and, less clearly (while Elijah was said not to have died, but to have been taken up to heaven), John the Baptist being asked if he is not Elijah (John 1:25\).Rudolf Frieling, *Christianity and Reincarnation*, Floris Books 2015Mark Albrecht, *Reincarnation, a Christian Appraisal*, InterVarsity Press, 1982Lynn A. De Silva, *Reincarnation in Buddhist and Christian Thought*, Christian Literature Society of Ceylon, 1968 [Geddes MacGregor](/wiki/Geddes_MacGregor "Geddes MacGregor"), an Episcopalian priest and professor of philosophy, has made a case for the compatibility of Christian doctrine and reincarnation.{{cite book \|last\=Cranston \|first\=Sylvia \|title\=Reincarnation in Christianity: A New Vision of the Role of Rebirth in Christian Thought (Quest Books) (9780835605014\): Geddes MacGregor: Books \|isbn\=0\-8356\-0501\-9\|year\=1990 \|publisher\=Quest Books }} The [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") and theologians such as [Norman Geisler](/wiki/Norman_Geisler "Norman Geisler") argue that reincarnation is unorthodox and reject the reincarnationist interpretation of texts about John the Baptist and biblical texts used to defend this belief.{{Cite web \|title\=Part One Section Two I. The Creeds Chapter Three I Believe In The Holy Spirit Article 11 I Believe In The Resurrection Of The Body II. Dying In Christ Jesus \|url\=https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part\_one/section\_two/chapter\_three/article\_11/ii\_dying\_in\_christ\_jesus.html \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-13 \|website\=www.vatican.va}}{{Cite book \|last\=Geisler \|first\=Norman L. \|title\=The reincarnation sensation \|last2\=Amano \|first2\=J. Yutaka \|date\=1986 \|publisher\=Tyndale House Publishers \|isbn\=978\-0\-8423\-5404\-2 \|location\=Wheaton, Ill}}
#### Early
There is evidence*The Big Book of Reincarnation*, by Roy Stemman, p. 14 that [Origen](/wiki/Origen "Origen"), a [Church father](/wiki/Church_father "Church father") in early Christian times, taught reincarnation in his lifetime but that when his works were translated into Latin these references were concealed. One of the epistles written by [St. Jerome](/wiki/St._Jerome "St. Jerome"), "To Avitus" (Letter 124; Ad Avitum. Epistula CXXIV),{{Cite web\|url\=https://mlat.uzh.ch/browser?path\=MLS/text.php\|title\=Corpus Corporum\|website\=mlat.uzh.ch}} which asserts that Origen's *[On the First Principles](/wiki/On_the_First_Principles "On the First Principles")* (Latin: *De Principiis*; Greek: Ξ Ξ΅Οα½Ά αΌΟΟαΏΆΞ½)Cross, F. L., and Elizabeth A. Livingstone. *The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church* (Second Edition). New York: Oxford University Press, 1984\. p. 1009\. was mistranscribed:
{{Blockquote\| About ten years ago that saintly man \[\[Saint Pammachius\|Pammachius]] sent me a copy of a certain person's \[ \[\[Tyrannius Rufinus\|Rufinus]]'s ] rendering, or rather misrendering, of Origen's ''First Principles''; with a request that in a Latin version I should give the true sense of the Greek and should set down the writer's words for good or for evil without bias in either direction. When I did as he wished and sent him the book, he was shocked to read it and locked it up in his desk lest being circulated it might wound the souls of many.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001124\.htm\|title\=Church Fathers: Letter 124 (Jerome)\|website\=www.newadvent.org}}}}
Under the impression that Origen was a heretic like [Arius](/wiki/Arius "Arius"), St. Jerome criticizes ideas described in *On the First Principles*. Further in "To Avitus" (Letter 124\), St. Jerome writes about "convincing proof" that Origen teaches reincarnation in the original version of the book:
{{Blockquote\|The following passage is a convincing proof that he holds the transmigration of the souls and annihilation of bodies. 'If it can be shown that an incorporeal and reasonable being has life in itself independently of the body and that it is worse off in the body than out of it; then beyond a doubt bodies are only of secondary importance and arise from time to time to meet the varying conditions of reasonable creatures. Those who require bodies are clothed with them, and contrariwise, when fallen souls have lifted themselves up to better things, their bodies are once more annihilated. They are thus ever vanishing and ever reappearing.'}}
The original text of *On First Principles* has almost completely disappeared. It remains extant as *De Principiis* in fragments faithfully translated into Latin by St. Jerome and in "the not very reliable Latin translation of [Rufinus](/wiki/Tyrannius_Rufinus "Tyrannius Rufinus")."
However, Origen's supposed belief in reincarnation is controversial. Christian scholar [Dan R. Schlesinger](/wiki/Dan_Schlesinger "Dan Schlesinger") has written an extensive monograph in which he argues that Origen never taught reincarnation.{{Cite thesis \|title\=Did Origen teach reincarnation? a response to neo\-Gnostic theories of Christian reincarnation with particular reference to Origen and to the Second Council of Constantinople (553\) \|url\=https://eleanor.lib.gla.ac.uk/record\=b3269054 \|publisher\=University of Glasgow \|date\=2016 \|place\=Glasgow \|first\=Dan R. \|last\=Schlesinger}}
Reincarnation was taught by several gnostics such as [Marcion of Sinope](/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope "Marcion of Sinope").{{cite book \| last\=Bjorling \| first\=J. \| title\=Reincarnation: A Bibliography \| publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \| series\=Sects and Cults in America \| year\=2013 \| isbn\=978\-1\-136\-51133\-2 \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mdeAAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA96 \| language\=de \| access\-date\=2023\-06\-27 \| page\=96}} Belief in reincarnation was rejected by several church fathers, including [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo "Augustine of Hippo") in [The City of God](/wiki/The_City_of_God "The City of God").{{cite book \| author \= Augustine of Hippo \|translator\=Marcus Dods \|translator\-link\=Marcus Dods (theologian born 1834\) \| url \= https://archive.org/details/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft \| title \=The Works of Aurelius Augustine, Bishop of Hippo \|volume\=I: The city of God \| via \= \[\[Internet Archive]] \| location \= Edinburgh \|publisher\=T. \& T. Clark \| year \= 1913 \| pages \= \[https://archive.org/details/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft/page/508 508]β509 \| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20181225012037/https://archive.org/stream/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft\_djvu.txt \| archive\-date \= 25 December 2018 \| url\-status \= live \| access\-date \= 25 December 2018 }}{{Cite web \|title\=Reincarnation \- Did The Church Suppress It? \|url\=https://www.issuesetcarchive.org/issues\_site/resource/archives/gudel.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-13 \|website\=www.issuesetcarchive.org}}
### Druze
{{Druze\|collapsed\=1}}
{{See also\|Druze\#Beliefs}}
Reincarnation is a paramount tenet in the [Druze](/wiki/Druze "Druze") faith.Seabrook, W. B., *Adventures in Arabia*, Harrap and Sons 1928, (chapters on Druze religion) There is an eternal [duality](/wiki/Dualism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29 "Dualism (philosophy of mind)") of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. Therefore, reincarnations occur instantly at one's death. While in the Hindu and Buddhist belief system a soul can be transmitted to any living creature, in the Druze belief system this is not possible and a human soul will only transfer to a human body. Furthermore, souls cannot be divided into different or separate parts and the number of souls existing is finite.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dwairy \|first1\=Marwan \|title\=The Psychosocial Function Of Reincarnation Among Druze In Israel \|journal\=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry \|date\=March 2006 \|volume\=30 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=29β53 \|doi\=10\.1007/s11013\-006\-9007\-1 \|pmid\=16721673 \|s2cid\=9132055 }}
Few Druzes are able to recall their past but, if they are able to they are called a *Nateq*. Typically souls who have died violent deaths in their previous incarnation will be able to recall memories. Since death is seen as a quick transient state, mourning is discouraged. Unlike other Abrahamic faiths, heaven and hell are spiritual. Heaven is the ultimate happiness received when soul escapes the cycle of rebirths and reunites with the Creator, while hell is conceptualized as the bitterness of being unable to reunite with the Creator and escape from the cycle of rebirth.{{cite book \|last\=Lewis \|first\=James \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions \|publisher\=Prometheus Books \|year\=2002 \|isbn\=1\-61592\-738\-7}}
### Hinduism
{{Further\|Punarjanman\|SaαΉsΔra\|Karma\|Moksha}}
[thumb\|right\|Hindus believe the self or soul ([atman](/wiki/Atman_%28Hinduism%29 "Atman (Hinduism)")) repeatedly takes on a physical body, until [moksha](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha").](/wiki/Image:Reincarnation2.jpg "Reincarnation2.jpg")
{{Hinduism\|collapsed\=1}}
Hindu traditions assert that the body dies, but not the soul, which they believe to be eternal, indestructible, and blissful.{{Sfn\|Juergensmeyer\|Roof\|2011\|p\=272}} Everything and all existence is believed to be connected and cyclical in many Hinduism\-sects, all living beings composed of two things, the soul and the body or matter.{{cite book \|first\=Jeaneane D. \|last\=Fowler \|title\=Hinduism: Practices and Beliefs \|date\=1997 \|publisher\=Sussex Academic Press \|isbn\= \|page\=10}} In Hindu belief, [Δtman](/wiki/%C4%80tman_%28Hinduism%29 "Δtman (Hinduism)") does not change and cannot change by its innate nature.{{Sfn\|Fowler\|1997\|p\=10}} Current [Karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") impacts the future circumstances in this life, as well as the future forms and realms of lives.Christopher Chapple (1986\), *Karma and creativity*, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|0\-88706\-251\-2}}, pp. 60β64 Good intent and actions lead to good future, bad intent and actions lead to bad future, impacting how one reincarnates.{{Sfn\|Fowler\|1997\|p\=11}}
There is no permanent heaven or hell in most Hinduism\-sects.{{cite book\|author\=Julius Lipner\|author\-link\=Julius Lipner\|title\=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices\|year\=2012\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-135\-24061\-5\|pages\=263β265}} In the afterlife, based on one's karma, the soul is reborn as another being in heaven, hell, or a living being on earth (human, animal). Gods, too, die once their past karmic merit runs out, as do those in hell, and they return getting another chance on earth. This reincarnation continues, endlessly in cycles, until one embarks on a spiritual pursuit, realizes self\-knowledge, and thereby gains *[mokαΉ£a](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha")*, the final release out of the reincarnation cycles.{{cite journal \|last1\=Jacobsen \|first1\=Knut \|title\=Three Functions of Hell in the Hindu Traditions \|journal\=Numen \|date\=2009 \|volume\=56 \|issue\=2β3 \|pages\=385β400 \|doi\=10\.1163/156852709X405071 \|jstor\=27793797 }} This release is believed to be a state of utter bliss, which Hindu traditions believe is either related or identical to [Brahman](/wiki/Brahman "Brahman"), the unchanging reality that existed before the creation of universe, continues to exist, and shall exist after the universe ends.{{cite book\|author\=Julius Lipner\|author\-link\=Julius Lipner\|title\=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices\|year\=2012\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-135\-24061\-5\|pages\=251β252, 283, 366β369}}{{cite book\|author\=Roy W. Perrett \|title\=Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study \|year\=1998\|publisher\=University of Hawaii Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8248\-2085\-5 \|pages\=53β54}}{{cite book\|author\=Bruce M. Sullivan \|title\=The A to Z of Hinduism \|year\=2001\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-4070\-6 \|page\=137 }}
The [Upanishads](/wiki/Upanishads "Upanishads"), part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on the liberation from reincarnation.{{Sfn\|Fowler\|1997\|pp\=111\-112}}{{cite book\|author1\=Yong Choon Kim\|author2\=David H. Freeman\|title\=Oriental Thought: An Introduction to the Philosophical and Religious Thought of Asia\|year\=1981\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-8226\-0365\-8\|pages\=15β17}} The [Bhagavad Gita](/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita "Bhagavad Gita") discusses various paths to liberation.{{Sfn\|Juergensmeyer\|Roof\|2011\|p\=272}} The Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a "very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature", and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self\-perfection and self\-knowledge so as to end *SaαΉsΔra*βthe endless cycle of rebirth and redeath.{{cite book \|first\=Harold \|last\=Coward \|year\=2008 \|title\=The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought: The Central Story\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LkE\_8uch5P0C \|publisher\=State University of New York Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-7914\-7336\-8 \|page\=129}} The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is find the true self within and to know one's soul, a state that they assert leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha.{{Sfn\|Coward\|2008\|p\=129, also see pages 130β155}}
The [Bhagavad Gita](/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita "Bhagavad Gita") states:
{{bquote\|
Just as in the body childhood, adulthood and old age happen to an embodied being. So also he (the embodied being) acquires another body. The wise one is not deluded about this. (2:13\){{cite book \|first\=Christopher Key \|last\=Chapple \|date\=2010 \|title\=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty\-fifthβAnniversary Edition \|publisher\=State University of New York Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-4384\-2842\-0 \|page\=98}}
As, after casting away worn out garments, a man later takes new ones. So after casting away worn out bodies, the embodied Self encounters other new ones. (2:22\){{Sfn\|Chapple\|2010\|p\=107}}
When an embodied being transcends, these three qualities which are the source of the body, Released from birth, death, old age and pain, he attains immortality. (14:20\){{Sfn\|Chapple\|2010\|p\=582}}
\|author\=\|title\=\|source\=}}
There are internal differences within Hindu traditions on reincarnation and the state of [moksha](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha"). For example, the dualistic devotional traditions such as [Madhvacharya](/wiki/Madhvacharya "Madhvacharya")'s Dvaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a theistic premise, assert that human soul and Brahman are different, loving devotion to Brahman (god Vishnu in Madhvacharya's theology) is the means to release from Samsara, it is the grace of God which leads to moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable only in after\-life (*[videhamukti](/wiki/Videhamukti "Videhamukti")*).{{cite book\|first\=Jeaneane D. \|last\=Fowler \|title\=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Sussex Academic Press\|isbn\=978\-1\-898723\-93\-6\|pages\=340β347, 373β375}} The non\-dualistic traditions such as [Adi Shankara](/wiki/Adi_Shankara "Adi Shankara")'s [Advaita Vedanta](/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta "Advaita Vedanta") tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise, asserting that the individual human soul and Brahman are identical, only ignorance, impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering through SaαΉsΔra, in reality there are no dualities, meditation and self\-knowledge is the path to liberation, the realization that one's soul is identical to Brahman is moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable in this life (*[jivanmukti](/wiki/Jivanmukta "Jivanmukta")*).{{cite journal \|last1\=Loy \|first1\=David \|title\=Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same? \|journal\=International Philosophical Quarterly \|date\=1982 \|volume\=22 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=65β74 \|doi\=10\.5840/ipq19822217 }}{{sfn\|Fowler\|2002\|pp\=238β240, 243β245, 249β250, 261β263, 279β284}}
Twentieth\-century Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo said that rebirth was the mechanism of [evolution](/wiki/Evolution "Evolution") β plants are reborn as animals, which are reborn as humans, gaining intelligence each time.{{Cite book \|last\=Aurobindo \|first\=Sri \|title\=The Problem of Rebirth \|date\=1915β1921 \|publisher\=Sri Aurobindo Ashram \|location\=Pondicherry, India \|publication\-date\=1952 \|pages\=3\-119, 178\-9}} He said that this progression was irreversible, and that a human cannot be reborn as an animal.{{Cite book \|last\=Aurobindo \|first\=Sri \|title\=The Life Divine \|date\=1914β1919 \|publisher\=Sri Aurobindo Ashram \|edition\=5th \|location\=Pondicherry, India \|publication\-date\=1970 \|pages\=742β823}}
### Islam
Most Islamic schools of thought reject any idea of reincarnation of living beings.{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|pp\=122β123}}{{cite book\|author\=John L. Esposito \|title\=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam \|year\=2004\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-975726\-8 \|pages\=137, 249 }} It teaches a linear concept of life, wherein a human being has only one life and upon death he or she is judged by [God](/wiki/God_in_Islam "God in Islam"), then rewarded in heaven or punished in hell.{{cite book\|author1\=Norman L. Geisler \|author2\=Abdul Saleeb \|title\=Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross \|year\=2002\|publisher\=Baker Academic \|isbn\=978\-0\-8010\-6430\-2 \|page\=109}} Islam teaches final resurrection and Judgement Day,{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|pp\=122β123}} but there is no prospect for the reincarnation of a human being into a different body or being.{{cite book\|author1\=Jane Idelman Smith\|author2\=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad \|title\=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection \|year\=2002\|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-028880\-8 \|pages\=23β24 }} During the early history of Islam, some of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphate "Caliphate") persecuted all reincarnation\-believing people, such as [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism "Manichaeism"), to the point of extinction in Mesopotamia and Persia (modern day Iraq and Iran).{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|pp\=122β123}} However, some Muslim minority sects such as those found among [Sufis](/wiki/Sufism "Sufism"), and some Muslims in [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia "South Asia") and [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") have retained their pre\-Islamic Hindu and Buddhist beliefs in reincarnation.{{Sfn\|McClelland\|2010\|pp\=122β123}} For instance, historically, South Asian Isma'ilis performed chantas yearly, one of which is for seeking forgiveness of sins committed in past lives.[Gnostic liberation front](http://www.gnosticliberationfront.com/sufi_message_of_hazrat_inayat%20khan.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217021533/http://www.gnosticliberationfront.com/sufi\_message\_of\_hazrat\_inayat%20khan.htm \|date\=17 December 2008 }} The Sufi Message of Hazrat Inayat Khan
#### Ghulat sects
The idea of reincarnation is accepted by a few heterodox sects, particularly of the [Ghulat](/wiki/Ghulat "Ghulat").Wilson, Peter Lamborn, *Scandal: Essays in Islamic Heresy*, Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia. (1988\). {{ISBN\|0\-936756\-13\-6}} hardcover 0\-936756\-12\-2 paperback [Alawites](/wiki/Alawites "Alawites") hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or [metempsychosis](/wiki/Metempsychosis "Metempsychosis")) before returning to heaven.{{Cite book\| last1 \= Peters \| first1 \= Francis E. \| author\-link \= Francis E. Peters \| last2 \= Esposito \| first2 \= John L. \| author2\-link \= John L. Esposito \| title \= The children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam \| publisher \= Princeton University Press \| year \= 2006\| isbn \= 978\-0\-691\-12769\-9}} They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.[Alawis](http://countrystudies.us/syria/32.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203947/http://countrystudies.us/syria/32\.htm \|date\=2016\-03\-04 }}, Countrystudies.us, U.S. Library of Congress.
### Jainism
{{Further\|SaαΉsΔra (Jainism)\|Karma in Jainism}}
[thumb\|right\|200px\|17th\-century cloth painting depicting seven levels of [Jain hell](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 "Naraka (Jainism)") according to [Jain cosmology](/wiki/Jain_cosmology "Jain cosmology"). Left panel depicts the demi\-god and his animal vehicle presiding over each hell.](/wiki/File:Seven_Jain_Hells.jpg "Seven Jain Hells.jpg")
{{Jainism\|collapsed\=1}}
In [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism "Jainism"), the reincarnation doctrine, along with its theories of *SaαΉsΔra* and Karma, are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on these topics from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.{{Sfn\|Jaini\|1980\|pp\=217β236}} Reincarnation in contemporary Jainism traditions is the belief that the worldly life is characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.{{Sfn\|Jaini\|1980\|pp\=226β228}}{{cite book\|author\=Tara Sethia \|title\=AhimsΔ, AnekΔnta, and Jainism \|year\=2004\|publisher\=Motilal Banarsidass \|isbn\=978\-81\-208\-2036\-4\|pages\=30β31}}
Karma forms a central and fundamental part of Jain faith, being intricately connected to other of its philosophical concepts like transmigration, reincarnation, liberation, non\-violence (*[ahiαΉsΔ](/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism "Ahimsa in Jainism")*) and non\-attachment, among others. Actions are seen to have consequences: some immediate, some delayed, even into future incarnations. So the doctrine of karma is not considered simply in relation to one life\-time, but also in relation to both future incarnations and past lives.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) pp. 226β230 *[UttarΔdhyayana SΕ«tra](/wiki/Uttar%C3%A2dhyayana_S%C3%BBtra "UttarΓ’dhyayana SΓ»tra")* 3\.3β4 states: "The *jΔ«va* or the soul is sometimes born in [the world of gods](/wiki/Devaloka "Devaloka"), sometimes in [hell](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 "Naraka (Jainism)"). Sometimes it acquires the body of a [demon](/wiki/Asura "Asura"); all this happens on account of its karma. This *jΔ«va* sometimes takes birth as a worm, as an insect or as an ant."Krishan, Yuvraj (1997\): p. 43\. The text further states (32\.7\): "Karma is the root of birth and death. The souls bound by karma go round and round in the cycle of existence."
Actions and emotions in the current lifetime affect future incarnations depending on the nature of the particular karma. For example, a good and virtuous life indicates a latent desire to experience good and virtuous themes of life. Therefore, such a person attracts karma that ensures that their future births will allow them to experience and manifest their virtues and good feelings unhindered.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) pp. 70β71 In this case, they may take birth in heaven or in a prosperous and virtuous human family. On the other hand, a person who has indulged in immoral deeds, or with a cruel disposition, indicates a latent desire to experience cruel themes of life.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) pp. 64β66 As a natural consequence, they will attract karma which will ensure that they are reincarnated in hell, or in lower life forms, to enable their soul to experience the cruel themes of life.
There is no retribution, judgment or reward involved but a natural consequences of the choices in life made either knowingly or unknowingly. Hence, whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing in its present life is on account of choices that it has made in the past.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) p. 15 As a result of this doctrine, Jainism attributes supreme importance to pure thinking and moral behavior.Rankin, Aidan (2006\) p. 67
The Jain texts postulate four *gatis*, that is states\-of\-existence or birth\-categories, within which the soul transmigrates. The four *gatis* are: *[deva](/wiki/Deva_%28Jainism%29 "Deva (Jainism)")* (demigods), *[manuαΉ£ya](/wiki/Manusya-gati "Manusya-gati")* (humans), *[nΔraki](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 "Naraka (Jainism)")* (hell beings), and *tiryaΓ±ca* (animals, plants, and microorganisms).Jaini, Padmanabh (1998\) p. 108 The four *gatis* have four corresponding realms or habitation levels in the vertically tiered [Jain universe](/wiki/Jain_cosmology%23Jain_geography "Jain cosmology#Jain geography"): *deva* occupy the higher levels where the heavens are situated; *manuαΉ£ya* and *tiryaΓ±ca* occupy the middle levels; and *nΔraki* occupy the lower levels where seven hells are situated.
Single\-sensed souls, however, called *[nigoda](/wiki/Nigoda "Nigoda")*,The Jain hierarchy of life classifies living beings on the basis of the senses: five\-sensed beings like humans and animals are at the top, and single sensed beings like microbes and plants are at the bottom. and element\-bodied souls pervade all tiers of this universe. *Nigodas* are souls at the bottom end of the existential hierarchy. They are so tiny and undifferentiated, that they lack even individual bodies, living in colonies. According to Jain texts, this infinity of *nigodas* can also be found in plant tissues, root vegetables and animal bodies.Jaini, Padmanabh (1998\) pp. 108β109 Depending on its karma, a soul transmigrates and reincarnates within the scope of this cosmology of destinies. The four main destinies are further divided into sub\-categories and still smaller sub\-sub\-categories. In all, Jain texts speak of a cycle of 8\.4 million birth destinies in which souls find themselves again and again as they cycle within *[samsara](/wiki/Samsara_%28Jainism%29 "Samsara (Jainism)")*.Jaini, Padmanabh (2000\) p. 130
In Jainism, God has no role to play in an individual's destiny; one's personal destiny is not seen as a consequence of any system of reward or punishment, but rather as a result of its own personal karma. A text from a volume of the ancient Jain canon, *[Bhagvati sΕ«tra](/wiki/Vyakhyaprajnapti "Vyakhyaprajnapti")* 8\.9\.9, links specific states of existence to specific karmas. Violent deeds, killing of creatures having five sense organs, eating fish, and so on, lead to rebirth in hell. Deception, fraud and falsehood lead to rebirth in the animal and vegetable world. Kindness, compassion and humble character result in human birth; while austerities and the making and keeping of vows lead to rebirth in heaven.Krishan, Yuvraj (1997\) p. 44
Each soul is thus responsible for its own predicament, as well as its own salvation. Accumulated karma represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires, attachments and aspirations of a soul.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) p. 28Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) p. 69 It enables the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience. Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karma that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the required fruits. In certain philosophies, heavens and hells are often viewed as places for eternal salvation or eternal damnation for good and bad deeds. But according to Jainism, such places, including the earth are simply the places which allow the soul to experience its unfulfilled karma.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\) pp. 65β66, 70β71
### Judaism
{{See also\|Gilgul}}
{{Kabbalah\|\|collapsed\=1}}
The doctrine of reincarnation has had a complex evolution within Judaism. Initially alien to Jewish tradition, it began to emerge in the 8th century, possibly influenced by Muslim mystics, gaining acceptance among [Karaites](/wiki/Karaite_Judaism "Karaite Judaism") and Jewish dissenters.{{Cite book \|last\=Jacobs \|first\=Louis \|title\=The Jewish religion: a companion \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=Oxford Univ. Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-826463\-7 \|location\=Oxford Berlin \|pages\=417β418}}{{Cite book \|last\=Fine \|first\=Lawrence \|title\=Physician of the soul, healer of the cosmos: Isaac Luria and his kabbalistic fellowship \|date\=2003 \|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8047\-3825\-5 \|series\=Stanford studies in Jewish history \& culture \|location\=Stanford, Calif \|pages\=304}} It was first mentioned in Jewish literature by [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon "Saadia Gaon"), who criticized it.{{Cite web \|title\=Transmigration of souls \|url\=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14479\-transmigration\-of\-souls \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-27 \|website\=JewishEncyclopedia.com \|first1\=Kaufmann \|last1\=Kohler \|first2\=Isaac \|last2\=BroydΓ© }} However, it remained a minority belief, facing little resistance until the spread of Kabbalah in the 12th century. The "[Book of Clarity](/wiki/Bahir "Bahir")" (Sefer ha\-Bahir) of this period introduced concepts such as the transmigration of souls, strengthening the foundation of Kabbalah with mystical symbolism.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-01\-02 \|title\=Kabbala {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, \& Facts \|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kabbala \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-27 \|website\=Britannica \|language\=en}} Kabbalah also teaches that "The soul of Moses is reincarnated in every generation."Tikunei Zohar, Tikkun 69, 112a and 114a. Literally, "There is an extension of Moses in every generation and to each and every righteous man." This teaching found more significant ground in Kabbalistic circles in Provence and Spain.
Despite not being widely accepted in [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism "Orthodox Judaism"), the doctrine of reincarnation attracted some modern Jews involved in mysticism. [Hasidic Judaism](/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism "Hasidic Judaism") and followers of [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah "Kabbalah") remained firm in their belief in the transmigration of souls. Other branches of Judaism, such as [Reform](/wiki/Reform_Judaism "Reform Judaism") and [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism "Conservative Judaism"), do not teach it.{{Cite book \|title\=Gale Encyclopedia of the Unusual and Unexplained: 001 \|date\=2003 \|isbn\=978\-0\-7876\-5383\-5 \|location\=Detroit \|pages\=48 \|last1\=Steiger \|first1\=Brad \|last2\=Steiger \|first2\=Sherry Hansen }}
The 16th century mystical renaissance in communal [Safed](/wiki/Safed "Safed") replaced scholastic [Rationalism](/wiki/Jewish_philosophy "Jewish philosophy") as mainstream traditional Jewish theology, both in scholarly circles and in the popular imagination. References to *gilgul* in former Kabbalah became systematized as part of the metaphysical purpose of creation. [Isaac Luria](/wiki/Isaac_Luria "Isaac Luria") (the Ari) brought the issue to the centre of his new mystical articulation, for the first time, and advocated identification of the reincarnations of historic Jewish figures that were compiled by [Haim Vital](/wiki/Haim_Vital "Haim Vital") in his [Shaar HaGilgulim](/wiki/Shaar_HaGilgulim "Shaar HaGilgulim").*Sha'ar Ha'Gilgulim, The Gate of Reincarnations*, Chaim Vital *Gilgul* is contrasted with the other processes in Kabbalah of [Ibbur](/wiki/Ibbur "Ibbur") ('pregnancy'), the attachment of a second soul to an individual for (or by) good means, and [Dybuk](/wiki/Dybuk "Dybuk") ('possession'), the attachment of a spirit, demon, etc. to an individual for (or by) "bad" means.
In [Lurianic Kabbalah](/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah "Lurianic Kabbalah"), reincarnation is not retributive or fatalistic, but an expression of Divine compassion, the microcosm of the doctrine of cosmic rectification of creation. *Gilgul* is a heavenly agreement with the individual soul, conditional upon circumstances. Luria's radical system focused on [rectification](/wiki/Tohu_and_Tikkun "Tohu and Tikkun") of the Divine soul, played out through Creation. The true essence of anything is the divine spark within that gives it existence. Even a stone or leaf possesses such a soul that "came into this world to receive a rectification". A human soul may occasionally be exiled into lower inanimate, vegetative or animal creations. The most basic component of the soul, the [nefesh](/wiki/Nefesh "Nefesh"), must leave at the cessation of blood production. There are four other soul components and different nations of the world possess different forms of souls with different purposes. Each Jewish soul is reincarnated in order to fulfill each of the [613 Mosaic commandments](/wiki/613_Mitzvot "613 Mitzvot") that elevate a particular spark of holiness associated with each commandment. Once all the Sparks are redeemed to their spiritual source, the [Messianic Era](/wiki/Mashiach "Mashiach") begins. Non\-Jewish observance of the [7 Laws of Noah](/wiki/7_Laws_of_Noah "7 Laws of Noah") assists the Jewish people, though Biblical adversaries of Israel reincarnate to oppose.
Among the many rabbis who accepted reincarnation are Kabbalists like [Nahmanides](/wiki/Nahmanides "Nahmanides") (the Ramban) and Rabbenu [Bahya ben Asher](/wiki/Bahya_ben_Asher "Bahya ben Asher"), [Levi ibn Habib](/wiki/Levi_ibn_Habib "Levi ibn Habib") (the Ralbah), [Shelomoh Alkabez](/wiki/Shelomoh_Alkabez "Shelomoh Alkabez"), [Moses Cordovero](/wiki/Moses_Cordovero "Moses Cordovero"), [Moses Chaim Luzzatto](/wiki/Moses_Chaim_Luzzatto "Moses Chaim Luzzatto"); early Hasidic masters such as the [Baal Shem Tov](/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov "Baal Shem Tov"), [Schneur Zalman of Liadi](/wiki/Schneur_Zalman_of_Liadi "Schneur Zalman of Liadi") and [Nachman of Breslov](/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov "Nachman of Breslov"), as well as virtually all later Hasidic masters; contemporary Hasidic teachers such as DovBer Pinson, [Moshe Weinberger](/wiki/Moshe_Weinberger "Moshe Weinberger") and [Joel Landau](/wiki/Joel_Landau_%28rabbi%29 "Joel Landau (rabbi)"); and key Mitnagdic leaders, such as the [Vilna Gaon](/wiki/Vilna_Gaon "Vilna Gaon") and [Chaim Volozhin](/wiki/Chaim_Volozhin "Chaim Volozhin") and their school, as well as Rabbi [Shalom Sharabi](/wiki/Shalom_Sharabi "Shalom Sharabi") (known at the RaShaSH), the [Ben Ish Chai](/wiki/Ben_Ish_Chai "Ben Ish Chai") of Baghdad, and the [Baba Sali](/wiki/Baba_Sali "Baba Sali").{{Cite web\|url\=https://limmudbayarea2016\.sched.com/event/7YDY/judaism\-and\-reincarnation\|title\=Limmud Bay Area 2016: Judaism and Reincarnation\|website\=limmudbayarea2016\.sched.com\|access\-date\=22 February 2017}} Rabbis who have rejected the idea include [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon "Saadia Gaon"), [David Kimhi](/wiki/David_Kimhi "David Kimhi"), [Hasdai Crescas](/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas "Hasdai Crescas"), [Joseph Albo](/wiki/Joseph_Albo "Joseph Albo"), [Abraham ibn Daud](/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud "Abraham ibn Daud"), [Leon de Modena](/wiki/Leon_de_Modena "Leon de Modena"), [Solomon ben Aderet](/wiki/Solomon_ben_Aderet "Solomon ben Aderet"), [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides "Maimonides") and [Asher ben Jehiel](/wiki/Asher_ben_Jehiel "Asher ben Jehiel"). Among the [Geonim](/wiki/Geonim "Geonim"), [Hai Gaon](/wiki/Hai_Gaon "Hai Gaon") argued in favour of *gilgulim*.
### Inuit
In the Western Hemisphere, belief in reincarnation is most prevalent in the now heavily [Christian](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity") [Polar North](/wiki/Polar_region "Polar region") (now mainly parts of [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland "Greenland") and [Nunavut](/wiki/Nunavut "Nunavut")).{{cite book\|title\=Amerindian Rebirth: Reincarnation Belief Among North American Indians and Inuit\|year\=1994\|publisher\=University of Toronto Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8020\-7703\-5\|editor\=Antonia Mills and Richard Slobodin}} The concept of reincarnation is enshrined in the [Inuit languages](/wiki/Inuit_languages "Inuit languages"),{{cite web\|last\=Rink\|first\=Henry\|title\=Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo\|url\=http://www.sacred\-texts.com/nam/inu/tte/index.htm\|work\=adapted by Weimer, Christopher, M.\|access\-date\=1 December 2011}} and in many [Inuit cultures](/wiki/Inuit_culture "Inuit culture") it is traditional to name a newborn child after a recently deceased person under the belief that the child is the namesake reincarnated.
### Ho\-Chunk
Reincarnation is an intrinsic part of some [Northeastern Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands "Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands") traditions. The following is a story of human\-to\-human reincarnation as told by Thunder Cloud, a [Winnebago (Ho\-Chunk)](/wiki/Ho-Chunk "Ho-Chunk") [shaman](/wiki/Shamanism "Shamanism"). Here Thunder Cloud talks about his two previous lives and how he died and came back again to this his third lifetime. He describes his time between lives, when he was "blessed" by Earth Maker and all the abiding spirits and given special powers, including the ability to heal the sick.
Thunder Cloud's account of his two reincarnations:
{{bquote\|I ''(my ghost)'' was taken to the place where the sun sets ''(the west)''. ... While at that place, I thought I would come back to earth again, and the old man with whom I was staying said to me, "My son, did you not speak about wanting to go to the earth again?" I had, as a matter of fact, only thought of it, yet he knew what I wanted. Then he said to me, "You can go, but you must ask the chief first." Then I went and told the chief of the village of my desire, and he said to me, "You may go and obtain your revenge upon the people who killed your relatives and you." Then I was brought down to earth. ... There I lived until I died of old age. ... As I was lying \[in my grave], someone said to me, "Come, let us go away." So then we went toward the setting of the sun. There we came to a village where we met all the dead. ... From that place I came to this earth again for the third time, and here I am.\|author\=Radin (1923\){{Cite book \|last\=Jefferson \|first\=Warren \|year\=2008 \|title\=Reincarnation beliefs of North American Indians: soul journeys, metamorphoses, and near\-death experiences \|publisher\=Native Voices \|isbn\=978\-1\-57067\-212\-5 \|oclc\=272306114 }}\|title\=\|source\=}}
### Sikhism
Founded in the 15th century, [Sikhism](/wiki/Sikhism "Sikhism")'s founder [Guru Nanak](/wiki/Guru_Nanak "Guru Nanak") had a choice between the cyclical reincarnation concept of ancient Indian religions and the linear concept of Islam, he chose the cyclical concept of time.{{cite book\|author1\=W.O. Cole \|author2\=Piara Singh Sambhi \|title\=Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study \|year\=2016\|publisher\=Springer \|isbn\= 978\-1\-349\-23049\-5 \|pages\= 13β14}}{{cite book\|author\= Arvind\-Pal Singh Mandair\|title\= Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed \|year\=2013\|publisher\=Bloomsbury Academic \|isbn\=978\-1\-4411\-5366\-1 \|page\=176 }} Sikhism teaches reincarnation theory similar to those in Hinduism, but with some differences from its traditional doctrines. Sikh rebirth theories about the nature of existence are similar to ideas that developed during the devotional [Bhakti movement](/wiki/Bhakti_movement "Bhakti movement") particularly within some [Vaishnava traditions](/wiki/Vaishnavism "Vaishnavism"), which define liberation as a state of union with God attained through the grace of God.{{cite book\|author1\=John Gordon Melton\|author2\=Martin Baumann\|title\=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices\|volume\=2\|year\=2002\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-1\-57607\-223\-3\|page\=632}}{{cite book\|author\=Eric J. Lott\|title\=Vision, Tradition, Interpretation: Theology, Religion, and the Study of Religion \|year\=1988\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-009761\-0\|pages\=49β53}}{{cite book \| last \=Flood \| first \=Gavin \| year \=1996 \| title \=An introduction to Hinduism \| publisher \=Cambridge University Press\| isbn\= 978\-0\-521\-43878\-0 \| url\= https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo \| url\-access \=registration \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/137 137]}}
The doctrines of Sikhism teach that the soul exists, and is passed from one body to another in endless cycles of [SaαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra "SaαΉsΔra"), until liberation from the death and rebirth cycle. Each birth begins with karma (*[karam](/wiki/Karma%23Sikhism "Karma#Sikhism")*), and these actions leave a karmic signature (*karni*) on one's soul which influences future rebirths, but it is [God](/wiki/God_in_Sikhism "God in Sikhism") whose grace that liberates from the death and rebirth cycle. The way out of the reincarnation cycle, asserts Sikhism, is to live an ethical life, devote oneself to God and constantly remember God's name.{{cite book\|author\=Arvind\-Pal Singh Mandair \|title\=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed \|year\=2013\|publisher\=A\&C Black \|isbn\=978\-1\-4411\-0231\-7 \|pages\=145β147 }} The precepts of Sikhism encourage the [bhakti](/wiki/Bhakti "Bhakti") of One Lord for *[mukti](/wiki/Moksha "Moksha")* (liberation from the death and rebirth cycle).{{cite book\|author\=H. S. Singha \|title\=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism \|year\=2000\|publisher\=Hemkunt Press\|isbn\=978\-81\-7010\-301\-1 \|pages\=68, 80}}
### Yoruba
{{See also\|Yoruba religion}}
The Yoruba religion teaches that [Olodumare](/wiki/Ol%C3%B3d%C3%B9mar%C3%A8 "Olódùmarè"), the Supreme Being and divine Creator who rules over His Creation, created *eniyan*, or humanity, to achieve balance between heaven and earth and bring about *Ipo Rere*, or the Good Condition.{{cite web \|last1\=O \|first1\=Obafemi \|title\=Reincarnation \|url\=https://www.obafemio.com/reincarnation.html \|website\=ObafemiO.com \|access\-date\=30 August 2023}} To cause achievement of the Good Condition, humanity reincarnates.{{cite web \|last1\=O \|first1\=Obafemi \|title\=ObafemiO \|url\=https://www.obafemio.com/ \|website\=ObafemiO.com \|access\-date\=30 August 2023}} Once achieved, Ipo Rere provides the ultimate state of supreme existence with Olodumare, a goal which elevates reincarnation to a key position in the Yoruba religion.{{cite web \|title\=Yoruba Religion: History and Beliefs \|url\=https://www.learnreligions.com/yoruba\-religion\-4777660 \|website\=LearnReligions \|access\-date\=30 August 2023 }}
*Atunwaye*{{cite web \|last1\=Dunmade \|first1\=Oluwatumininu \|title\=The concept of reincarnation in Igbo and Yoruba culture \|url\=https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food\-travel/the\-concept\-of\-reincarnation\-in\-igbo\-and\-yoruba\-culture/rdxdkw0 \|website\=Pulse Nigeria \|access\-date\=30 August 2023 \|language\=en \|date\=20 September 2022}} (also called *atunwa*) is the Yoruba term for reincarnation. [Predestination](/wiki/Predestination_%28disambiguation%29 "Predestination (disambiguation)") is a foundational component of *atunwaye*. Just prior to incarnation, a person first chooses their *Ayanmo* (destiny) before also choosing their *Akunyelan* (lot) in the presence of Olodumare and [Orunmila](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Crunmila "α»runmila") with Olodumare's approval.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dopamu \|first1\=Abiola \|title\=Predestination, destiny and faith in Yorubaland: Any meeting point? \|journal\=Global Journal of Humanities \|date\=2008 \|volume\=7 \|issue\=1\&2 \|pages\=37β39 \|url\=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjh/article/view/79372 \|access\-date\=30 August 2023 \|ref\=yoruba\_dopamu \|language\=en \|issn\=1596\-6232}} By *atunwaye*, a person may incarnate only in a human being and may choose to reincarnate in either sex, regardless of choice in the prior incarnation.
#### Ipadawaye
The most common, widespread Yoruba reincarnation belief is *ipadawaye*, meaning "the ancestor's rebirth". According to this belief, the reincarnating person will reincarnate along their familial lineage.{{cite web \|last1\=Akinola \|first1\=Temilorun \|title\=From Life to Death: Death and Dying Beliefs of the Yoruba \|url\=https://www.processjmus.org/temilorun\-akinola\-from\-life\-to\-death \|website\=Process \|access\-date\=30 August 2023 \|archive\-date\=30 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830082941/https://www.processjmus.org/temilorun\-akinola\-from\-life\-to\-death \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Olaleye\-Oruene \|first1\=Taiwo O. \|title\=The Yoruba's Cultural Perspective of Death with Special Reference to Twins \|journal\=Twin Research and Human Genetics \|date\=June 2002 \|volume\=5 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=154β155 \|doi\=10\.1375/twin.5\.3\.154\|pmid\=12184881 \|s2cid\=5982761 \|doi\-access\=free }} When a person dies, they go to *orun* (heaven) and will live with the ancestors in either *orunrere* (good heaven) or *orunapaadi* (bad heaven). Reincarnation is believed to be a gift bestowed on ancestors who lived well and experienced a "good" death. Only ancestors living in *orunrere* may return as grandchildren, reincarnating out of their love for the family or the world. Children may be given names to indicate which ancestor is believed to have returned, such as Babatide ("father has come"), Babatunde ("father has come again"), and Yetunde ("mother has come again").
A "bad" death (which includes deaths of children, cruel, or childless people and deaths by punishments from the gods, accidents, suicides, and gruesome murders) is generally believed to prevent the deceased from joining the ancestors and reincarnating again,{{cite book \|last1\=Prothero \|first1\=Stephen R. \|title\=God is not one: the eight rival religions that run the world \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=HarperOne \|location\=New York, NY \|isbn\=978\-0\-06\-157128\-2 }} though some practitioners also believe a person experiencing a "bad" death will be reborn much later into conditions of poverty.
#### Abiku
Another Yoruba reincarnation belief is *[abiku](/wiki/Abiku "Abiku")*, meaning "born to die"{{cite journal\|jstor\=3334754\|title\=The Concept of Abiku\|last\=Mobolade\|first\=Timothy\|journal\=African Arts \|date\=September 1, 1973\|volume\=7 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=62β64 \|publisher\=UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center\|doi\=10\.2307/3334754 }}
According to Yoruba custom, an abiku is a reincarnating child who repeatedly experiences death and rebirth with the same mother in a vicious cycle. Because childlessness is considered a curse in Yoruba culture, parents with an abiku child will always attempt to help the abiku child by preventing their death. However, abiku are believed to possess a power to ensure their eventual death, so rendering assistance is often a frustrating endeavor causing significant pain to the parents. This pain is believed to bring happiness to the abiku.
Abiku are believed to be a "species of spirit" thought to live apart from people in, for example, secluded parts of villages, jungles, and footpaths. Modern belief in abiku has significantly waned among urban populations, with the decline attributed to improved hygiene and medical care reducing infant mortality rates.
#### Akudaaya
*Akudaaya*, meaning "born to die and reappear" (also called *akuda*{{cite web \|author\=AJE \|title\=AKUDAAYA (Meaning and Explanation) \|url\=https://www.orisa.com.ng/2023/06/akudaaya\-meaning\-and\-explanation.html \|website\=orisa.com.ng \|date\=23 June 2023 \|access\-date\=30 November 2023}}), is a Yoruba reincarnation belief of "a person that is dead\[] but has not gone to heaven".{{cite web \|last1\=Aworeni \|first1\=Babalawo \|title\=The Araba Agbaya: The Akudaaya \|url\=https://orishada.com/wordpress/?p\=365 \|website\=orishada.com \|access\-date\=30 November 2023}} Akudaaya is based on the belief that, if a recently\-deceased person's destiny in that life remained unfulfilled, the deceased cannot join the ancestors and therefore must roam the world. Following death, an akudaaya returns to their previous existence by reappearing in the same physical form. However, the new existence will be lived in a different physical location from the first, and the akudaaya will not be recognized by a still\-living relative, should they happen to meet. The akudaaya lives their new existence working to fulfill their destiny from the previous life.
The concept of akudaaya is the subject of *Akudaaya (The Wraith)*, a 2023 Nigerian drama film in the Yoruba language.{{cite web \|last1\=Irabor \|first1\=Joan \|title\="Akudaaya" is Bringing Back the Chills \|url\=https://thenollywoodreporter.com/film/akudaaya\-is\-bringing\-back\-the\-chills/ \|website\=thenollywoodreporter.com \|access\-date\=30 November 2023}} The film is said to center on a deceased son who "has begun living life as a spirit in another state and has fallen in love".{{cite web \|last1\=Irabor \|first1\=Joan \|title\="Akudaaya" Dramatizes The Dilemma Of A Man Caught Between Worlds \|url\=https://thenollywoodreporter.com/film/akudaaya\-dramatizes\-the\-dilemma\-of\-a\-man\-caught\-between\-worlds/ \|website\=thenollywoodreporter.com \|access\-date\=30 November 2023}}
### New religious and spiritual movements
{{Paranormal\|state\=collapsed}}
#### Spiritism
[thumb\|upright\|Tomb of [Allan Kardec](/wiki/Allan_Kardec "Allan Kardec"), founder of spiritism. The inscription says in French "To be born, die, again be reborn, and so progress unceasingly, such is the law".](/wiki/File:Tombe_Allan_Kardec.JPG "Tombe Allan Kardec.JPG")
[Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism "Kardecist spiritism"), a [spiritualist](/wiki/Spiritualism_%28movement%29 "Spiritualism (movement)") philosophy codified in the 19th century by the French educator [Allan Kardec](/wiki/Allan_Kardec "Allan Kardec"), teaches reincarnation or rebirth into human life after death. According to this doctrine, free will and cause and effect are the corollaries of reincarnation, and reincarnation provides a mechanism for a person's spiritual evolution in successive lives.{{cite book \|author\=David J. Hess \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=oGxsfV\-lTtEC\&pg\=PA16 \|title\=Spirits and Scientists: Ideology, Spiritism and Brazilian Culture \|publisher\=Pennsylvania State University Press \|year\=2010 \|isbn\=978\-0\-271\-04080\-6 \|pages\=16β}}
#### Theosophy
{{See also\|Theosophy\#Reincarnation and karma}}
The [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society "Theosophical Society") draws much of its inspiration from India.{{Cite web \|title\=Theosophical Society {{!}} Encyclopedia.com \|url\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy\-and\-religion/other\-religious\-beliefs\-and\-general\-terms/miscellaneous\-religion/theosophical\-society \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-09 \|website\=www.encyclopedia.com}} In the Theosophical world\-view reincarnation is the vast rhythmic process by which the soul, the part of a person which belongs to the formless non\-material and timeless worlds, unfolds its spiritual powers in the world and comes to know itself.{{Cite book \|last\=Chajes \|first\=Julie \|title\=Reincarnation in H.P. Blavatsky's The Secret Doctrine \|year\=2017 \|pages\=66β90}} It descends from sublime, free, spiritual realms and gathers experience through its effort to express itself in the world. Afterwards there is a withdrawal from the physical plane to successively higher levels of reality, in death, a purification and assimilation of the past life. Having cast off all instruments of personal experience it stands again in its spiritual and formless nature, ready to begin its next rhythmic manifestation, every lifetime bringing it closer to complete self\-knowledge and self\-expression. However, it may attract old mental, emotional, and energetic *karma* patterns to form the new personality.{{Cite book \|last\=Campbell \|first\=Bruce F. \|title\=Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement \|publisher\=Berkeley: University of California Press \|year\=1980 \|isbn\=978\-0520039681}}
#### Anthroposophy
[Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy "Anthroposophy") describes reincarnation from the point of view of Western philosophy and culture. The ego is believed to transmute transient soul experiences into universals that form the basis for an individuality that can endure after death. These universals include ideas, which are intersubjective and thus transcend the purely personal (spiritual consciousness), intentionally formed human character (spiritual life), and becoming a fully conscious human being (spiritual humanity). [Rudolf Steiner](/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner "Rudolf Steiner") described both the general principles he believed to be operative in reincarnation, such as that one's will activity in one life forms the basis for the thinking of the next,See e.g. *Reincarnation and Karma* by Steiner and a number of successive lives of various individualities.Steiner, *Karmic Relationships*, volumes 1β6
{{blockquote\|Similarly, other famous people's life stories are not primarily the result of genes, upbringing or biographical vicissitudes. Steiner relates that a large estate in north\-eastern France was held during the early Middle Ages by a martial feudal lord. During a military campaign, this estate was captured by a rival. The previous owner had no means of retaliating, and was forced to see his property lost to an enemy. He was filled with a smoldering resentment towards the propertied classes, not only for the remainder of his life in the Middle Ages, but also in a much later incarnationβas Karl Marx. His rival was reborn as Friedrich Engels.{{cite book\|first\=Olav\|last\=Hammer\|title\=Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EZYsPQgBNioC\&pg\=PA495\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Brill\|isbn\=90\-04\-13638\-X\|page\=495}}\|\[\[Olav Hammer]]\|Coda. On Belief and Evidence}}
#### Modern astrology
Inspired by [Helena Blavatsky](/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky "Helena Blavatsky")'s major works, including *[Isis Unveiled](/wiki/Isis_Unveiled "Isis Unveiled")* and *[The Secret Doctrine](/wiki/The_Secret_Doctrine "The Secret Doctrine")*, [astrologers](/wiki/Astrology "Astrology") in the early twentieth\-century integrated the concepts of [karma](/wiki/Karma "Karma") and reincarnation into the practice of [Western astrology](/wiki/Western_astrology "Western astrology"). Notable astrologers who advanced this development included [Alan Leo](/wiki/Alan_Leo "Alan Leo"), Charles E. O. Carter, [Marc Edmund Jones](/wiki/Marc_Edmund_Jones "Marc Edmund Jones"), and [Dane Rudhyar](/wiki/Dane_Rudhyar "Dane Rudhyar"). A new synthesis of East and West resulted as Hindu and Buddhist concepts of reincarnation were fused with Western astrology's deep roots in [Hermeticism](/wiki/Hermeticism "Hermeticism") and [Neoplatonism](/wiki/Neoplatonism "Neoplatonism"). In the case of Rudhyar, this synthesis was enhanced with the addition of [Jungian](/wiki/Carl_Jung "Carl Jung") [depth psychology](/wiki/Depth_psychology "Depth psychology").{{cite journal \|first1\=Jutta \|last1\=Woods \|title\=The Theosophical Heritage in Modern Astrology \|journal\=The Mountain Astrologer \|date\=2013 }} This dynamic integration of astrology, reincarnation and depth psychology has continued into the modern era with the work of astrologers [Steven Forrest](/wiki/Steven_Forrest_%28astrologer%29 "Steven Forrest (astrologer)") and Jeffrey Wolf Green. Their respective schools of Evolutionary Astrology are based on "an acceptance of the fact that human beings incarnate in a succession of lifetimes".{{cite web \|author\=Steven Forrest and Jeffrey Wolf Green \|title\=About Evolutionary Astrology \|url\=http://www.forrestastrology.com/about\-us/about\-evolutionary\-astrology \|access\-date\=22 November 2014}}
#### Scientology
{{See also\|Scientology beliefs and practices}}
Past reincarnation, usually termed **past lives**, is a key part of the principles and practices of the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology "Church of Scientology"). Scientologists believe that the human individual is actually a *[thetan](/wiki/Thetan "Thetan")*, an immortal spiritual entity, that has fallen into a degraded state as a result of past\-life experiences. Scientology [auditing](/wiki/Auditing_%28Scientology%29 "Auditing (Scientology)") is intended to free the person of these past\-life traumas and recover past\-life memory, leading to a higher state of spiritual awareness.
This idea is echoed in their highest fraternal religious order, [Sea Org](/wiki/Sea_Org "Sea Org"), whose motto is "*Revenimus*" ('We Come Back'), and whose members sign a "[billion\-year contract](/wiki/Billion_year_contract "Billion year contract")" as a sign of commitment to that ideal. [L. Ron Hubbard](/wiki/L._Ron_Hubbard "L. Ron Hubbard"), the founder of Scientology, does not use the word "reincarnation" to describe its beliefs, noting that: "The common definition of reincarnation has been altered from its original meaning. The word has come to mean 'to be born again in different life forms' whereas its actual definition is 'to be born again into the flesh of another body.' Scientology ascribes to this latter, original definition of reincarnation."{{cite web \|title\=Scientology Church \& Religion β What is Scientology? \|url\=http://www.scientology.org/html/opencms/cos/scientology/en\_US/news\-media/faq/pg016\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613231607/http://www.scientology.org/html/opencms/cos/scientology/en\_US/news\-media/faq/pg016\.html \|archive\-date\=13 June 2006 \|work\=Scientology}}
The first writings in Scientology regarding past lives date from around 1951 and slightly earlier. In 1960, Hubbard published a book on past lives entitled *[Have You Lived Before This Life](/wiki/Have_You_Lived_Before_This_Life "Have You Lived Before This Life")*. In 1968 he wrote *[Mission Into Time](/wiki/Bibliography_of_Scientology%23Mission_Into_Time "Bibliography of Scientology#Mission Into Time")*, a report on a five\-week sailing expedition to Sardinia, Sicily and Carthage to see if specific evidence could be found to substantiate L. Ron Hubbard's recall of incidents in his own past, centuries ago.
#### Wicca
[Wicca](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca") is a [neo\-pagan](/wiki/Neo-pagan "Neo-pagan") religion focused on nature, guided by the philosophy of [Wiccan Rede](/wiki/Wiccan_Rede "Wiccan Rede") that advocates the tenets "Harm None, Do As Ye Will". Wiccans believe in a form of karmic return where one's deeds are returned, either in the current life or in another life, threefold or multiple times in order to teach one lessons (the [Threefold Law](/wiki/Threefold_law "Threefold law")). Reincarnation is therefore an accepted part of the Wiccan faith.Encyclopedia of Wicca and Witchcraft, Raven Grimassi{{full citation needed\|date\=December 2016}} Wiccans also believe that death and afterlife are important experiences for the soul to transform and prepare for future lifetimes.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2016}}
|
[
"Religions and philosophies\n--------------------------",
"### Buddhism",
"{{Main\\|Rebirth (Buddhism)\\|SaαΉsΔra (Buddhism)}}\n[upright\\|thumb\\|In this 8\\-meter (25\\-foot) tall Buddhist relief, made between 1177 and 1249, located at [Dazu Rock Carvings](/wiki/Dazu_Rock_Carvings \"Dazu Rock Carvings\"), Chongqing, China, [Mara](/wiki/Mara_%28demon%29 \"Mara (demon)\"), Lord of Death and Desire, clutches a Wheel of Reincarnation which outlines the Buddhist cycle of reincarnation.](/wiki/Image:Buddhist_Wheel_of_Life.jpg \"Buddhist Wheel of Life.jpg\") \n{{Buddhism\\|collapsed\\=1}}",
"According to various Buddhist scriptures, [Gautama Buddha](/wiki/Gautama_Buddha \"Gautama Buddha\") believed in the existence of an afterlife in another world and in reincarnation,",
"{{Blockquote\\|\nSince there actually is another world (any world other than the present human one, i.e. different rebirth realms), one who holds the view 'there is no other world' has wrong view...\n\\|Buddha\\|''\\[\\[Majjhima Nikaya]]'' i.402, Apannaka Sutta, translated by Peter Harvey{{cite book\\|author\\=Peter Harvey\\|title\\=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-85942\\-4\\|pages\\=32β33, 38β39, 46β49}}\\|source\\=}}",
"The Buddha also asserted that karma influences rebirth, and that the cycles of repeated births and deaths are endless.{{cite book\\|author\\=Ronald Wesley Neufeldt \\|title\\=Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments \\| year\\=1986\\| publisher\\=State University of New York Press\\| isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87395\\-990\\-2\\| pages\\=123β131}} Before the birth of Buddha, materialistic school such as [Charvaka](/wiki/Charvaka \"Charvaka\"){{cite book\\|author\\=Ray Billington\\|title\\=Understanding Eastern Philosophy\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-79348\\-8\\|page\\=60}} posited that death is the end, there is no afterlife, no soul, no rebirth, no karma, and they described death to be a state where a living being is completely annihilated, dissolved.{{cite book\\|author\\= Ray Billington\\|title\\=Understanding Eastern Philosophy \\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-79349\\-5 \\|pages\\=43β44, 58β60 }} Buddha rejected this theory, adopted the alternative existing theories on rebirth, criticizing the materialistic schools that denied rebirth and karma, states [Damien Keown](/wiki/Damien_Keown \"Damien Keown\"). Such beliefs are inappropriate and dangerous, stated Buddha, because such annihilationism views encourage moral irresponsibility and material hedonism;{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|p\\=21}} he tied moral responsibility to rebirth.{{cite book\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-19\\-860560\\-7 \\|title\\=A Dictionary of Buddhism (Articles titled ucchedavΔda, ΕΔΕvata\\-vΔda, rebirth) \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|first\\=Damien \\|last\\=Keown \\|year\\=2004 \\|pages\\= 80, 162, 225, 255, 315 }}",
"The Buddha introduced the concept of *[anattΔ](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 \"AnattΔ\"),* which asserts that there is no permanent self (soul).{{cite book\\|first\\=David J. \\|last\\=Kalupahana \\|title\\=Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism \\|year\\=1975\\|publisher\\=University Press of Hawaii\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8248\\-0298\\-1\\|pages\\=115β119}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Peter Harvey\\|title\\=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-85942\\-4\\|pages\\=57β62}}{{cite book\\|author\\= Oliver Leaman\\|title\\= Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings \\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-68919\\-4 \\|pages\\=23β27 }} Major contemporary Buddhist traditions such as Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions accept the teachings of Buddha. These teachings assert there is rebirth, there is no permanent self and no irreducible [*Δtman*](/wiki/Atman_%28Buddhism%29 \"Atman (Buddhism)\") (soul) moving from life to another and tying these lives together, there is [impermanence](/wiki/Anicca \"Anicca\"), that all compounded things such as living beings are [aggregates](/wiki/Skandha \"Skandha\") dissolve at death, but every being reincarnates.{{cite book\\|author\\=Malcolm B. Hamilton\\|title\\=The Sociology of Religion: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives\\|year\\= 2012\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-134\\-97626\\-3\\|pages\\=73β80}}{{cite book \\| last \\=Raju \\| first \\=P. T. \\| year \\=1985 \\| title \\=Structural Depths of Indian Thought \\| publisher \\=State University of New York Press \\| isbn \\=978\\-0\\-88706\\-139\\-4 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju\\| url\\-access \\=registration \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/147 147]β151}}{{Harvnb\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|p\\=89}}; \n{{cite book\\|author\\=Hugh Nicholson\\|title\\=The Spirit of Contradiction in Christianity and Buddhism \\|year\\=2016\\| publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-045534\\-7\\|pages\\=23β25}} The rebirth cycles continue endlessly, states Buddhism, and it is a source of *[duhkha](/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha \"DuαΈ₯kha\")* (suffering, pain), but this reincarnation and *duhkha* cycle can be stopped through nirvana. The *[anattΔ](/wiki/Anatt%C4%81 \"AnattΔ\")* doctrine of Buddhism is a contrast to Hinduism, the latter asserting that \"soul exists, it is involved in rebirth, and it is through this soul that everything is connected\".{{cite book\\|first\\=Walpola \\|last\\=Rahula\\|title\\=What the Buddha Taught\\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=Gordon Fraser \\|year\\=1990\\|page\\=51}}{{sfn\\|Trainor\\|2004\\|p\\=58, ''Quote:'' \"Buddhism shares with Hinduism the doctrine of Samsara, whereby all beings pass through an unceasing cycle of birth, death and rebirth until they find a means of liberation from the cycle. However, Buddhism differs from Hinduism in rejecting the assertion that every human being possesses a changeless soul which constitutes his or her ultimate identity, and which transmigrates from one incarnation to the next.}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Robert E. Buswell Jr.\\|author2\\=Donald S. Lopez Jr.\\|title\\=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4008\\-4805\\-8\\|pages\\=708β709}}",
"Different traditions within Buddhism have offered different theories on what reincarnates and how reincarnation happens. One theory suggests that it occurs through consciousness (Sanskrit: *[vijΓ±Δna](/wiki/Vij%C3%B1%C4%81na \"VijΓ±Δna\")*; Pali: *samvattanika\\-viΓ±Γ±ana*)([M](/wiki/Majjhima_Nikaya \"Majjhima Nikaya\").1\\.256\\) \"Post\\-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism.\" by Bruce Matthews. in *Karma and Rebirth: Post\\-Classical Developments* State Univ of New York Press: 1986 {{ISBN\\|0\\-87395\\-990\\-6}} p. 125Collins, Steven. *Selfless persons: imagery and thought in TheravΔda Buddhism* Cambridge University Press, 1990\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-39726\\-X}} p. 215, [Google Books](https://books.google.com/books?id=ruJvjdNQVPIC&dq=samvattanika&pg=RA1-PA115) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163107/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ruJvjdNQVPIC\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA115\\&lpg\\=RA1\\-PA115\\&dq\\=samvattanika\\&source\\=bl\\&ots\\=d\\_WluqzeuL\\&sig\\=SX1Ua5bfFDZJB16eOueopPtVntw\\&hl\\=en\\&ei\\=bfpFS5WzOs\\-UtgfU16z7AQ\\&sa\\=X\\&oi\\=book\\_result\\&ct\\=result\\&resnum\\=14\\&ved\\=0CD8Q6AEwDQ\\#v\\=onepage\\&q\\=samvattanika\\&f\\=false \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-12 }} or stream of consciousness (Sanskrit: *[citta\\-santΔna](/wiki/Citta-sant%C4%81na \"Citta-santΔna\")*, *vijΓ±Δna\\-srotΔm, or vijΓ±Δna\\-santΔna*; Pali: *viΓ±Γ±ana\\-sotam*)([D](/wiki/Digha_Nikaya \"Digha Nikaya\").3\\.105\\) \"Post\\-Classical Developments in the Concepts of Karma and Rebirth in Theravada Buddhism. by Bruce Matthews. in Karma and Rebirth: *Post\\-Classical Developments* State Univ of New York Press: 1986 {{ISBN\\|0\\-87395\\-990\\-6}} p. 125 upon death, which reincarnates into a new aggregation. This process, states this theory, is similar to the flame of a dying candle lighting up another.{{sfn\\|Kalupahana\\|1975\\|p\\=83}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=William H. Swatos \\|author2\\=Peter Kivisto \\|title\\=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society \\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Rowman Altamira\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7619\\-8956\\-1\\|page\\=66}} The consciousness in the newly born being is neither identical to nor entirely different from that in the deceased but the two form a causal continuum or stream in this Buddhist theory. Transmigration is influenced by a being's past *[karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\")* (Pali: *kamma*).His Holiness the Dalai Lama, *How to Practice: The Way to a Meaningful Life* (New York: Atria Books, 2002\\), p. 46Bruce Matthews in Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, editor, *Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments.* SUNY Press, 1986, p. 125\\. [Google.com](https://books.google.com/books?id=iaRWtgXjplQC&dq=Bija+Niyama&pg=PA126) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212163105/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iaRWtgXjplQC\\&pg\\=PA126\\&dq\\=Bija\\+Niyama\\&lr\\=\\#PPA125,M1 \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-12 }} The root cause of rebirth, states Buddhism, is the abiding of consciousness in ignorance (Sanskrit: *[avidya](/wiki/Avidya_%28Buddhism%29 \"Avidya (Buddhism)\")*; Pali: *avijja*) about the nature of reality, and when this ignorance is uprooted, rebirth ceases.Peter Harvey, *The Selfless Mind.* Curzon Press 1995, p. 247\\.",
"[thumb\\|A 12th\\-century Japanese painting showing one of the six Buddhist realms of reincarnation (*rokudΕ*, ε
ι)](/wiki/File:Shamon_jigoku_z%C3%B4shi.jpg \"Shamon jigoku zΓ΄shi.jpg\")\nBuddhist traditions also vary in their mechanistic details on rebirth. Most [Theravada](/wiki/Theravada \"Theravada\") Buddhists assert that rebirth is immediate while the [Tibetan](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism \"Tibetan Buddhism\") and most Chinese and Japanese schools hold to the notion of a *[bardo](/wiki/Bardo \"Bardo\")* (intermediate state) that can last up to 49 days.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Robert E. Buswell Jr.\\|author2\\=Donald S. Lopez Jr.\\|title\\=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism\\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4008\\-4805\\-8\\|pages\\=49β50, 708β709}}The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Translator. Wisdom Publications. Sutta 44\\.9 The *bardo* rebirth concept of Tibetan Buddhism, originally developed in India but spread to Tibet and other Buddhist countries, and involves 42 peaceful deities, and 58 wrathful deities.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Karma\\-gliαΉ
\\-pa\\|author2\\=Chogyam Trungpa\\|author3\\=Francesca Fremantle\\|title\\=The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Shambhala Publications\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57062\\-747\\-7\\|pages\\=xi, xviiβxxiii}} These ideas led to maps on karma and what form of rebirth one takes after death, discussed in texts such as *[The Tibetan Book of the Dead](/wiki/Bardo_Thodol \"Bardo Thodol\")*.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Karma\\-gliαΉ
\\-pa\\|author2\\=Chogyam Trungpa\\|author3\\=Francesca Fremantle\\|title\\=The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Shambhala Publications\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57062\\-747\\-7\\|pages\\=4β23}}{{Sfn\\|Trainor\\|2004\\|pp\\=210β211}} The major Buddhist traditions accept that the reincarnation of a being depends on the past karma and merit (demerit) accumulated, and that there are six realms of existence in which the rebirth may occur after each death.{{sfn\\|Trainor\\|2004\\|pp\\=62β63}}{{Sfn\\|Keown\\|2013\\|pp\\=35β40}}",
"Within Japanese [Zen](/wiki/Zen \"Zen\"), reincarnation is accepted by some, but rejected by others. A distinction can be drawn between 'folk Zen', as in the Zen practiced by devotional lay people, and 'philosophical Zen'. Folk Zen generally accepts the various supernatural elements of Buddhism such as rebirth. Philosophical Zen, however, places more emphasis on the present moment.{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|p\\=281}}{{citation\\|last\\=Warner\\|first\\=Brad\\|title\\=Hardcore Zen\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-86171\\-989\\-1\\|publisher\\=Wisdom Publications\\|year\\=2005\\|page\\=155}}",
"Some schools conclude that [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") continues to exist and adhere to the person until it works out its consequences. For the [Sautrantika](/wiki/Sautrantika \"Sautrantika\") school, each act \"perfumes\" the individual or \"plants a seed\" that later germinates. Tibetan Buddhism stresses the state of mind at the time of death. To die with a peaceful mind will stimulate a virtuous seed and a fortunate rebirth; a disturbed mind will stimulate a non\\-virtuous seed and an unfortunate rebirth.*Transform Your Life*: A Blissful Journey, p. 52\\), [Tharpa Publications](/wiki/Tharpa_Publications \"Tharpa Publications\") (2001, US ed. 2007\\) {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-9789067\\-4\\-0}}",
"### Christianity",
"In a survey by the [Pew Forum](/wiki/Pew_Forum \"Pew Forum\") in 2009, 22% of American Christians expressed a belief in reincarnation,{{cite web \\|author\\=ANALYSIS \\|url\\=http://pewforum.org/Other\\-Beliefs\\-and\\-Practices/Many\\-Americans\\-Mix\\-Multiple\\-Faiths.aspx \\|title\\=Pewforum.org \\|publisher\\=Pewforum.org \\|date\\=9 December 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210074029/http://pewforum.org/Other\\-Beliefs\\-and\\-Practices/Many\\-Americans\\-Mix\\-Multiple\\-Faiths.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and in a 1981 survey 31% of regular churchgoing European Catholics expressed a belief in reincarnation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.spirituale\\-wholeness.org/faqs/reinceur/reineuro.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20010425113340/http://spiritual\\-wholeness.org/faqs/reinceur/reineuro.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2001 \\|title\\=Spiritual\\-wholeness.org \\|publisher\\=Spiritual\\-wholeness.org \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2011 }}",
"Some Christian theologians interpret certain Biblical passages as referring to reincarnation. These passages include the questioning of Jesus as to whether he is Elijah, John the Baptist, Jeremiah, or another prophet ([Matthew 16](/wiki/Matthew_16 \"Matthew 16\"):13β15 and [John 1](/wiki/John_1 \"John 1\"):21β22\\) and, less clearly (while Elijah was said not to have died, but to have been taken up to heaven), John the Baptist being asked if he is not Elijah (John 1:25\\).Rudolf Frieling, *Christianity and Reincarnation*, Floris Books 2015Mark Albrecht, *Reincarnation, a Christian Appraisal*, InterVarsity Press, 1982Lynn A. De Silva, *Reincarnation in Buddhist and Christian Thought*, Christian Literature Society of Ceylon, 1968 [Geddes MacGregor](/wiki/Geddes_MacGregor \"Geddes MacGregor\"), an Episcopalian priest and professor of philosophy, has made a case for the compatibility of Christian doctrine and reincarnation.{{cite book \\|last\\=Cranston \\|first\\=Sylvia \\|title\\=Reincarnation in Christianity: A New Vision of the Role of Rebirth in Christian Thought (Quest Books) (9780835605014\\): Geddes MacGregor: Books \\|isbn\\=0\\-8356\\-0501\\-9\\|year\\=1990 \\|publisher\\=Quest Books }} The [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") and theologians such as [Norman Geisler](/wiki/Norman_Geisler \"Norman Geisler\") argue that reincarnation is unorthodox and reject the reincarnationist interpretation of texts about John the Baptist and biblical texts used to defend this belief.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Part One Section Two I. The Creeds Chapter Three I Believe In The Holy Spirit Article 11 I Believe In The Resurrection Of The Body II. Dying In Christ Jesus \\|url\\=https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part\\_one/section\\_two/chapter\\_three/article\\_11/ii\\_dying\\_in\\_christ\\_jesus.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=www.vatican.va}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Geisler \\|first\\=Norman L. \\|title\\=The reincarnation sensation \\|last2\\=Amano \\|first2\\=J. Yutaka \\|date\\=1986 \\|publisher\\=Tyndale House Publishers \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8423\\-5404\\-2 \\|location\\=Wheaton, Ill}}",
"#### Early",
"There is evidence*The Big Book of Reincarnation*, by Roy Stemman, p. 14 that [Origen](/wiki/Origen \"Origen\"), a [Church father](/wiki/Church_father \"Church father\") in early Christian times, taught reincarnation in his lifetime but that when his works were translated into Latin these references were concealed. One of the epistles written by [St. Jerome](/wiki/St._Jerome \"St. Jerome\"), \"To Avitus\" (Letter 124; Ad Avitum. Epistula CXXIV),{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://mlat.uzh.ch/browser?path\\=MLS/text.php\\|title\\=Corpus Corporum\\|website\\=mlat.uzh.ch}} which asserts that Origen's *[On the First Principles](/wiki/On_the_First_Principles \"On the First Principles\")* (Latin: *De Principiis*; Greek: Ξ Ξ΅Οα½Ά αΌΟΟαΏΆΞ½)Cross, F. L., and Elizabeth A. Livingstone. *The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church* (Second Edition). New York: Oxford University Press, 1984\\. p. 1009\\. was mistranscribed:",
"{{Blockquote\\| About ten years ago that saintly man \\[\\[Saint Pammachius\\|Pammachius]] sent me a copy of a certain person's \\[ \\[\\[Tyrannius Rufinus\\|Rufinus]]'s ] rendering, or rather misrendering, of Origen's ''First Principles''; with a request that in a Latin version I should give the true sense of the Greek and should set down the writer's words for good or for evil without bias in either direction. When I did as he wished and sent him the book, he was shocked to read it and locked it up in his desk lest being circulated it might wound the souls of many.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001124\\.htm\\|title\\=Church Fathers: Letter 124 (Jerome)\\|website\\=www.newadvent.org}}}}",
"Under the impression that Origen was a heretic like [Arius](/wiki/Arius \"Arius\"), St. Jerome criticizes ideas described in *On the First Principles*. Further in \"To Avitus\" (Letter 124\\), St. Jerome writes about \"convincing proof\" that Origen teaches reincarnation in the original version of the book:",
"{{Blockquote\\|The following passage is a convincing proof that he holds the transmigration of the souls and annihilation of bodies. 'If it can be shown that an incorporeal and reasonable being has life in itself independently of the body and that it is worse off in the body than out of it; then beyond a doubt bodies are only of secondary importance and arise from time to time to meet the varying conditions of reasonable creatures. Those who require bodies are clothed with them, and contrariwise, when fallen souls have lifted themselves up to better things, their bodies are once more annihilated. They are thus ever vanishing and ever reappearing.'}}",
"The original text of *On First Principles* has almost completely disappeared. It remains extant as *De Principiis* in fragments faithfully translated into Latin by St. Jerome and in \"the not very reliable Latin translation of [Rufinus](/wiki/Tyrannius_Rufinus \"Tyrannius Rufinus\").\"",
"However, Origen's supposed belief in reincarnation is controversial. Christian scholar [Dan R. Schlesinger](/wiki/Dan_Schlesinger \"Dan Schlesinger\") has written an extensive monograph in which he argues that Origen never taught reincarnation.{{Cite thesis \\|title\\=Did Origen teach reincarnation? a response to neo\\-Gnostic theories of Christian reincarnation with particular reference to Origen and to the Second Council of Constantinople (553\\) \\|url\\=https://eleanor.lib.gla.ac.uk/record\\=b3269054 \\|publisher\\=University of Glasgow \\|date\\=2016 \\|place\\=Glasgow \\|first\\=Dan R. \\|last\\=Schlesinger}}",
"Reincarnation was taught by several gnostics such as [Marcion of Sinope](/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope \"Marcion of Sinope\").{{cite book \\| last\\=Bjorling \\| first\\=J. \\| title\\=Reincarnation: A Bibliography \\| publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\| series\\=Sects and Cults in America \\| year\\=2013 \\| isbn\\=978\\-1\\-136\\-51133\\-2 \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mdeAAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA96 \\| language\\=de \\| access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-27 \\| page\\=96}} Belief in reincarnation was rejected by several church fathers, including [Augustine of Hippo](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") in [The City of God](/wiki/The_City_of_God \"The City of God\").{{cite book \\| author \\= Augustine of Hippo \\|translator\\=Marcus Dods \\|translator\\-link\\=Marcus Dods (theologian born 1834\\) \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft \\| title \\=The Works of Aurelius Augustine, Bishop of Hippo \\|volume\\=I: The city of God \\| via \\= \\[\\[Internet Archive]] \\| location \\= Edinburgh \\|publisher\\=T. \\& T. Clark \\| year \\= 1913 \\| pages \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft/page/508 508]β509 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20181225012037/https://archive.org/stream/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft/cityofgodtransla01auguuoft\\_djvu.txt \\| archive\\-date \\= 25 December 2018 \\| url\\-status \\= live \\| access\\-date \\= 25 December 2018 }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Reincarnation \\- Did The Church Suppress It? \\|url\\=https://www.issuesetcarchive.org/issues\\_site/resource/archives/gudel.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-13 \\|website\\=www.issuesetcarchive.org}}",
"### Druze",
"{{Druze\\|collapsed\\=1}}\n{{See also\\|Druze\\#Beliefs}}\nReincarnation is a paramount tenet in the [Druze](/wiki/Druze \"Druze\") faith.Seabrook, W. B., *Adventures in Arabia*, Harrap and Sons 1928, (chapters on Druze religion) There is an eternal [duality](/wiki/Dualism_%28philosophy_of_mind%29 \"Dualism (philosophy of mind)\") of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. Therefore, reincarnations occur instantly at one's death. While in the Hindu and Buddhist belief system a soul can be transmitted to any living creature, in the Druze belief system this is not possible and a human soul will only transfer to a human body. Furthermore, souls cannot be divided into different or separate parts and the number of souls existing is finite.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dwairy \\|first1\\=Marwan \\|title\\=The Psychosocial Function Of Reincarnation Among Druze In Israel \\|journal\\=Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry \\|date\\=March 2006 \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=29β53 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11013\\-006\\-9007\\-1 \\|pmid\\=16721673 \\|s2cid\\=9132055 }}",
"Few Druzes are able to recall their past but, if they are able to they are called a *Nateq*. Typically souls who have died violent deaths in their previous incarnation will be able to recall memories. Since death is seen as a quick transient state, mourning is discouraged. Unlike other Abrahamic faiths, heaven and hell are spiritual. Heaven is the ultimate happiness received when soul escapes the cycle of rebirths and reunites with the Creator, while hell is conceptualized as the bitterness of being unable to reunite with the Creator and escape from the cycle of rebirth.{{cite book \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=James \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions \\|publisher\\=Prometheus Books \\|year\\=2002 \\|isbn\\=1\\-61592\\-738\\-7}}",
"### Hinduism",
"{{Further\\|Punarjanman\\|SaαΉsΔra\\|Karma\\|Moksha}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Hindus believe the self or soul ([atman](/wiki/Atman_%28Hinduism%29 \"Atman (Hinduism)\")) repeatedly takes on a physical body, until [moksha](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\").](/wiki/Image:Reincarnation2.jpg \"Reincarnation2.jpg\")\n{{Hinduism\\|collapsed\\=1}}\nHindu traditions assert that the body dies, but not the soul, which they believe to be eternal, indestructible, and blissful.{{Sfn\\|Juergensmeyer\\|Roof\\|2011\\|p\\=272}} Everything and all existence is believed to be connected and cyclical in many Hinduism\\-sects, all living beings composed of two things, the soul and the body or matter.{{cite book \\|first\\=Jeaneane D. \\|last\\=Fowler \\|title\\=Hinduism: Practices and Beliefs \\|date\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=Sussex Academic Press \\|isbn\\= \\|page\\=10}} In Hindu belief, [Δtman](/wiki/%C4%80tman_%28Hinduism%29 \"Δtman (Hinduism)\") does not change and cannot change by its innate nature.{{Sfn\\|Fowler\\|1997\\|p\\=10}} Current [Karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") impacts the future circumstances in this life, as well as the future forms and realms of lives.Christopher Chapple (1986\\), *Karma and creativity*, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\\|0\\-88706\\-251\\-2}}, pp. 60β64 Good intent and actions lead to good future, bad intent and actions lead to bad future, impacting how one reincarnates.{{Sfn\\|Fowler\\|1997\\|p\\=11}}",
"There is no permanent heaven or hell in most Hinduism\\-sects.{{cite book\\|author\\=Julius Lipner\\|author\\-link\\=Julius Lipner\\|title\\=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-135\\-24061\\-5\\|pages\\=263β265}} In the afterlife, based on one's karma, the soul is reborn as another being in heaven, hell, or a living being on earth (human, animal). Gods, too, die once their past karmic merit runs out, as do those in hell, and they return getting another chance on earth. This reincarnation continues, endlessly in cycles, until one embarks on a spiritual pursuit, realizes self\\-knowledge, and thereby gains *[mokαΉ£a](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\")*, the final release out of the reincarnation cycles.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Jacobsen \\|first1\\=Knut \\|title\\=Three Functions of Hell in the Hindu Traditions \\|journal\\=Numen \\|date\\=2009 \\|volume\\=56 \\|issue\\=2β3 \\|pages\\=385β400 \\|doi\\=10\\.1163/156852709X405071 \\|jstor\\=27793797 }} This release is believed to be a state of utter bliss, which Hindu traditions believe is either related or identical to [Brahman](/wiki/Brahman \"Brahman\"), the unchanging reality that existed before the creation of universe, continues to exist, and shall exist after the universe ends.{{cite book\\|author\\=Julius Lipner\\|author\\-link\\=Julius Lipner\\|title\\=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-135\\-24061\\-5\\|pages\\=251β252, 283, 366β369}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Roy W. Perrett \\|title\\=Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study \\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=University of Hawaii Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8248\\-2085\\-5 \\|pages\\=53β54}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Bruce M. Sullivan \\|title\\=The A to Z of Hinduism \\|year\\=2001\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-4070\\-6 \\|page\\=137 }}",
"The [Upanishads](/wiki/Upanishads \"Upanishads\"), part of the scriptures of the Hindu traditions, primarily focus on the liberation from reincarnation.{{Sfn\\|Fowler\\|1997\\|pp\\=111\\-112}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Yong Choon Kim\\|author2\\=David H. Freeman\\|title\\=Oriental Thought: An Introduction to the Philosophical and Religious Thought of Asia\\|year\\=1981\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8226\\-0365\\-8\\|pages\\=15β17}} The [Bhagavad Gita](/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita \"Bhagavad Gita\") discusses various paths to liberation.{{Sfn\\|Juergensmeyer\\|Roof\\|2011\\|p\\=272}} The Upanishads, states Harold Coward, offer a \"very optimistic view regarding the perfectibility of human nature\", and the goal of human effort in these texts is a continuous journey to self\\-perfection and self\\-knowledge so as to end *SaαΉsΔra*βthe endless cycle of rebirth and redeath.{{cite book \\|first\\=Harold \\|last\\=Coward \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought: The Central Story\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LkE\\_8uch5P0C \\|publisher\\=State University of New York Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7914\\-7336\\-8 \\|page\\=129}} The aim of spiritual quest in the Upanishadic traditions is find the true self within and to know one's soul, a state that they assert leads to blissful state of freedom, moksha.{{Sfn\\|Coward\\|2008\\|p\\=129, also see pages 130β155}}",
"The [Bhagavad Gita](/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita \"Bhagavad Gita\") states:\n{{bquote\\|\nJust as in the body childhood, adulthood and old age happen to an embodied being. So also he (the embodied being) acquires another body. The wise one is not deluded about this. (2:13\\){{cite book \\|first\\=Christopher Key \\|last\\=Chapple \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty\\-fifthβAnniversary Edition \\|publisher\\=State University of New York Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4384\\-2842\\-0 \\|page\\=98}}",
"As, after casting away worn out garments, a man later takes new ones. So after casting away worn out bodies, the embodied Self encounters other new ones. (2:22\\){{Sfn\\|Chapple\\|2010\\|p\\=107}}",
"When an embodied being transcends, these three qualities which are the source of the body, Released from birth, death, old age and pain, he attains immortality. (14:20\\){{Sfn\\|Chapple\\|2010\\|p\\=582}}\n\\|author\\=\\|title\\=\\|source\\=}}",
"There are internal differences within Hindu traditions on reincarnation and the state of [moksha](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\"). For example, the dualistic devotional traditions such as [Madhvacharya](/wiki/Madhvacharya \"Madhvacharya\")'s Dvaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism champion a theistic premise, assert that human soul and Brahman are different, loving devotion to Brahman (god Vishnu in Madhvacharya's theology) is the means to release from Samsara, it is the grace of God which leads to moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable only in after\\-life (*[videhamukti](/wiki/Videhamukti \"Videhamukti\")*).{{cite book\\|first\\=Jeaneane D. \\|last\\=Fowler \\|title\\=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Sussex Academic Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-898723\\-93\\-6\\|pages\\=340β347, 373β375}} The non\\-dualistic traditions such as [Adi Shankara](/wiki/Adi_Shankara \"Adi Shankara\")'s [Advaita Vedanta](/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta \"Advaita Vedanta\") tradition of Hinduism champion a monistic premise, asserting that the individual human soul and Brahman are identical, only ignorance, impulsiveness and inertia leads to suffering through SaαΉsΔra, in reality there are no dualities, meditation and self\\-knowledge is the path to liberation, the realization that one's soul is identical to Brahman is moksha, and spiritual liberation is achievable in this life (*[jivanmukti](/wiki/Jivanmukta \"Jivanmukta\")*).{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Loy \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same? \\|journal\\=International Philosophical Quarterly \\|date\\=1982 \\|volume\\=22 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=65β74 \\|doi\\=10\\.5840/ipq19822217 }}{{sfn\\|Fowler\\|2002\\|pp\\=238β240, 243β245, 249β250, 261β263, 279β284}}",
"Twentieth\\-century Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo said that rebirth was the mechanism of [evolution](/wiki/Evolution \"Evolution\") β plants are reborn as animals, which are reborn as humans, gaining intelligence each time.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Aurobindo \\|first\\=Sri \\|title\\=The Problem of Rebirth \\|date\\=1915β1921 \\|publisher\\=Sri Aurobindo Ashram \\|location\\=Pondicherry, India \\|publication\\-date\\=1952 \\|pages\\=3\\-119, 178\\-9}} He said that this progression was irreversible, and that a human cannot be reborn as an animal.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Aurobindo \\|first\\=Sri \\|title\\=The Life Divine \\|date\\=1914β1919 \\|publisher\\=Sri Aurobindo Ashram \\|edition\\=5th \\|location\\=Pondicherry, India \\|publication\\-date\\=1970 \\|pages\\=742β823}}\n### Islam",
"Most Islamic schools of thought reject any idea of reincarnation of living beings.{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|pp\\=122β123}}{{cite book\\|author\\=John L. Esposito \\|title\\=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam \\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-975726\\-8 \\|pages\\=137, 249 }} It teaches a linear concept of life, wherein a human being has only one life and upon death he or she is judged by [God](/wiki/God_in_Islam \"God in Islam\"), then rewarded in heaven or punished in hell.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Norman L. Geisler \\|author2\\=Abdul Saleeb \\|title\\=Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross \\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Baker Academic \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8010\\-6430\\-2 \\|page\\=109}} Islam teaches final resurrection and Judgement Day,{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|pp\\=122β123}} but there is no prospect for the reincarnation of a human being into a different body or being.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Jane Idelman Smith\\|author2\\=Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad \\|title\\=The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection \\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-028880\\-8 \\|pages\\=23β24 }} During the early history of Islam, some of the [Caliphs](/wiki/Caliphate \"Caliphate\") persecuted all reincarnation\\-believing people, such as [Manichaeism](/wiki/Manichaeism \"Manichaeism\"), to the point of extinction in Mesopotamia and Persia (modern day Iraq and Iran).{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|pp\\=122β123}} However, some Muslim minority sects such as those found among [Sufis](/wiki/Sufism \"Sufism\"), and some Muslims in [South Asia](/wiki/South_Asia \"South Asia\") and [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") have retained their pre\\-Islamic Hindu and Buddhist beliefs in reincarnation.{{Sfn\\|McClelland\\|2010\\|pp\\=122β123}} For instance, historically, South Asian Isma'ilis performed chantas yearly, one of which is for seeking forgiveness of sins committed in past lives.[Gnostic liberation front](http://www.gnosticliberationfront.com/sufi_message_of_hazrat_inayat%20khan.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217021533/http://www.gnosticliberationfront.com/sufi\\_message\\_of\\_hazrat\\_inayat%20khan.htm \\|date\\=17 December 2008 }} The Sufi Message of Hazrat Inayat Khan",
"#### Ghulat sects",
"The idea of reincarnation is accepted by a few heterodox sects, particularly of the [Ghulat](/wiki/Ghulat \"Ghulat\").Wilson, Peter Lamborn, *Scandal: Essays in Islamic Heresy*, Brooklyn, NY: Autonomedia. (1988\\). {{ISBN\\|0\\-936756\\-13\\-6}} hardcover 0\\-936756\\-12\\-2 paperback [Alawites](/wiki/Alawites \"Alawites\") hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or [metempsychosis](/wiki/Metempsychosis \"Metempsychosis\")) before returning to heaven.{{Cite book\\| last1 \\= Peters \\| first1 \\= Francis E. \\| author\\-link \\= Francis E. Peters \\| last2 \\= Esposito \\| first2 \\= John L. \\| author2\\-link \\= John L. Esposito \\| title \\= The children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam \\| publisher \\= Princeton University Press \\| year \\= 2006\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-691\\-12769\\-9}} They can be reincarnated as Christians or others through sin and as animals if they become infidels.[Alawis](http://countrystudies.us/syria/32.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304203947/http://countrystudies.us/syria/32\\.htm \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 }}, Countrystudies.us, U.S. Library of Congress.",
"### Jainism",
"{{Further\\|SaαΉsΔra (Jainism)\\|Karma in Jainism}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|17th\\-century cloth painting depicting seven levels of [Jain hell](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 \"Naraka (Jainism)\") according to [Jain cosmology](/wiki/Jain_cosmology \"Jain cosmology\"). Left panel depicts the demi\\-god and his animal vehicle presiding over each hell.](/wiki/File:Seven_Jain_Hells.jpg \"Seven Jain Hells.jpg\")\n{{Jainism\\|collapsed\\=1}}\nIn [Jainism](/wiki/Jainism \"Jainism\"), the reincarnation doctrine, along with its theories of *SaαΉsΔra* and Karma, are central to its theological foundations, as evidenced by the extensive literature on it in the major sects of Jainism, and their pioneering ideas on these topics from the earliest times of the Jaina tradition.{{Sfn\\|Jaini\\|1980\\|pp\\=217β236}} Reincarnation in contemporary Jainism traditions is the belief that the worldly life is characterized by continuous rebirths and suffering in various realms of existence.{{Sfn\\|Jaini\\|1980\\|pp\\=226β228}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Tara Sethia \\|title\\=AhimsΔ, AnekΔnta, and Jainism \\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Motilal Banarsidass \\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-208\\-2036\\-4\\|pages\\=30β31}}",
"Karma forms a central and fundamental part of Jain faith, being intricately connected to other of its philosophical concepts like transmigration, reincarnation, liberation, non\\-violence (*[ahiαΉsΔ](/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism \"Ahimsa in Jainism\")*) and non\\-attachment, among others. Actions are seen to have consequences: some immediate, some delayed, even into future incarnations. So the doctrine of karma is not considered simply in relation to one life\\-time, but also in relation to both future incarnations and past lives.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) pp. 226β230 *[UttarΔdhyayana SΕ«tra](/wiki/Uttar%C3%A2dhyayana_S%C3%BBtra \"UttarΓ’dhyayana SΓ»tra\")* 3\\.3β4 states: \"The *jΔ«va* or the soul is sometimes born in [the world of gods](/wiki/Devaloka \"Devaloka\"), sometimes in [hell](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 \"Naraka (Jainism)\"). Sometimes it acquires the body of a [demon](/wiki/Asura \"Asura\"); all this happens on account of its karma. This *jΔ«va* sometimes takes birth as a worm, as an insect or as an ant.\"Krishan, Yuvraj (1997\\): p. 43\\. The text further states (32\\.7\\): \"Karma is the root of birth and death. The souls bound by karma go round and round in the cycle of existence.\"",
"Actions and emotions in the current lifetime affect future incarnations depending on the nature of the particular karma. For example, a good and virtuous life indicates a latent desire to experience good and virtuous themes of life. Therefore, such a person attracts karma that ensures that their future births will allow them to experience and manifest their virtues and good feelings unhindered.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) pp. 70β71 In this case, they may take birth in heaven or in a prosperous and virtuous human family. On the other hand, a person who has indulged in immoral deeds, or with a cruel disposition, indicates a latent desire to experience cruel themes of life.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) pp. 64β66 As a natural consequence, they will attract karma which will ensure that they are reincarnated in hell, or in lower life forms, to enable their soul to experience the cruel themes of life.",
"There is no retribution, judgment or reward involved but a natural consequences of the choices in life made either knowingly or unknowingly. Hence, whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing in its present life is on account of choices that it has made in the past.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) p. 15 As a result of this doctrine, Jainism attributes supreme importance to pure thinking and moral behavior.Rankin, Aidan (2006\\) p. 67",
"The Jain texts postulate four *gatis*, that is states\\-of\\-existence or birth\\-categories, within which the soul transmigrates. The four *gatis* are: *[deva](/wiki/Deva_%28Jainism%29 \"Deva (Jainism)\")* (demigods), *[manuαΉ£ya](/wiki/Manusya-gati \"Manusya-gati\")* (humans), *[nΔraki](/wiki/Naraka_%28Jainism%29 \"Naraka (Jainism)\")* (hell beings), and *tiryaΓ±ca* (animals, plants, and microorganisms).Jaini, Padmanabh (1998\\) p. 108 The four *gatis* have four corresponding realms or habitation levels in the vertically tiered [Jain universe](/wiki/Jain_cosmology%23Jain_geography \"Jain cosmology#Jain geography\"): *deva* occupy the higher levels where the heavens are situated; *manuαΉ£ya* and *tiryaΓ±ca* occupy the middle levels; and *nΔraki* occupy the lower levels where seven hells are situated.",
"Single\\-sensed souls, however, called *[nigoda](/wiki/Nigoda \"Nigoda\")*,The Jain hierarchy of life classifies living beings on the basis of the senses: five\\-sensed beings like humans and animals are at the top, and single sensed beings like microbes and plants are at the bottom. and element\\-bodied souls pervade all tiers of this universe. *Nigodas* are souls at the bottom end of the existential hierarchy. They are so tiny and undifferentiated, that they lack even individual bodies, living in colonies. According to Jain texts, this infinity of *nigodas* can also be found in plant tissues, root vegetables and animal bodies.Jaini, Padmanabh (1998\\) pp. 108β109 Depending on its karma, a soul transmigrates and reincarnates within the scope of this cosmology of destinies. The four main destinies are further divided into sub\\-categories and still smaller sub\\-sub\\-categories. In all, Jain texts speak of a cycle of 8\\.4 million birth destinies in which souls find themselves again and again as they cycle within *[samsara](/wiki/Samsara_%28Jainism%29 \"Samsara (Jainism)\")*.Jaini, Padmanabh (2000\\) p. 130",
"In Jainism, God has no role to play in an individual's destiny; one's personal destiny is not seen as a consequence of any system of reward or punishment, but rather as a result of its own personal karma. A text from a volume of the ancient Jain canon, *[Bhagvati sΕ«tra](/wiki/Vyakhyaprajnapti \"Vyakhyaprajnapti\")* 8\\.9\\.9, links specific states of existence to specific karmas. Violent deeds, killing of creatures having five sense organs, eating fish, and so on, lead to rebirth in hell. Deception, fraud and falsehood lead to rebirth in the animal and vegetable world. Kindness, compassion and humble character result in human birth; while austerities and the making and keeping of vows lead to rebirth in heaven.Krishan, Yuvraj (1997\\) p. 44",
"Each soul is thus responsible for its own predicament, as well as its own salvation. Accumulated karma represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires, attachments and aspirations of a soul.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) p. 28Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) p. 69 It enables the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience. Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karma that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the required fruits. In certain philosophies, heavens and hells are often viewed as places for eternal salvation or eternal damnation for good and bad deeds. But according to Jainism, such places, including the earth are simply the places which allow the soul to experience its unfulfilled karma.Kuhn, Hermann (2001\\) pp. 65β66, 70β71",
"### Judaism",
"{{See also\\|Gilgul}}\n{{Kabbalah\\|\\|collapsed\\=1}}\nThe doctrine of reincarnation has had a complex evolution within Judaism. Initially alien to Jewish tradition, it began to emerge in the 8th century, possibly influenced by Muslim mystics, gaining acceptance among [Karaites](/wiki/Karaite_Judaism \"Karaite Judaism\") and Jewish dissenters.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Jacobs \\|first\\=Louis \\|title\\=The Jewish religion: a companion \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Oxford Univ. Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-826463\\-7 \\|location\\=Oxford Berlin \\|pages\\=417β418}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Fine \\|first\\=Lawrence \\|title\\=Physician of the soul, healer of the cosmos: Isaac Luria and his kabbalistic fellowship \\|date\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8047\\-3825\\-5 \\|series\\=Stanford studies in Jewish history \\& culture \\|location\\=Stanford, Calif \\|pages\\=304}} It was first mentioned in Jewish literature by [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon \"Saadia Gaon\"), who criticized it.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Transmigration of souls \\|url\\=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14479\\-transmigration\\-of\\-souls \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-27 \\|website\\=JewishEncyclopedia.com \\|first1\\=Kaufmann \\|last1\\=Kohler \\|first2\\=Isaac \\|last2\\=BroydΓ© }} However, it remained a minority belief, facing little resistance until the spread of Kabbalah in the 12th century. The \"[Book of Clarity](/wiki/Bahir \"Bahir\")\" (Sefer ha\\-Bahir) of this period introduced concepts such as the transmigration of souls, strengthening the foundation of Kabbalah with mystical symbolism.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-02 \\|title\\=Kabbala {{!}} Definition, Beliefs, \\& Facts \\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kabbala \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-27 \\|website\\=Britannica \\|language\\=en}} Kabbalah also teaches that \"The soul of Moses is reincarnated in every generation.\"Tikunei Zohar, Tikkun 69, 112a and 114a. Literally, \"There is an extension of Moses in every generation and to each and every righteous man.\" This teaching found more significant ground in Kabbalistic circles in Provence and Spain.",
"Despite not being widely accepted in [Orthodox Judaism](/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism \"Orthodox Judaism\"), the doctrine of reincarnation attracted some modern Jews involved in mysticism. [Hasidic Judaism](/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism \"Hasidic Judaism\") and followers of [Kabbalah](/wiki/Kabbalah \"Kabbalah\") remained firm in their belief in the transmigration of souls. Other branches of Judaism, such as [Reform](/wiki/Reform_Judaism \"Reform Judaism\") and [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Judaism \"Conservative Judaism\"), do not teach it.{{Cite book \\|title\\=Gale Encyclopedia of the Unusual and Unexplained: 001 \\|date\\=2003 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7876\\-5383\\-5 \\|location\\=Detroit \\|pages\\=48 \\|last1\\=Steiger \\|first1\\=Brad \\|last2\\=Steiger \\|first2\\=Sherry Hansen }}",
"The 16th century mystical renaissance in communal [Safed](/wiki/Safed \"Safed\") replaced scholastic [Rationalism](/wiki/Jewish_philosophy \"Jewish philosophy\") as mainstream traditional Jewish theology, both in scholarly circles and in the popular imagination. References to *gilgul* in former Kabbalah became systematized as part of the metaphysical purpose of creation. [Isaac Luria](/wiki/Isaac_Luria \"Isaac Luria\") (the Ari) brought the issue to the centre of his new mystical articulation, for the first time, and advocated identification of the reincarnations of historic Jewish figures that were compiled by [Haim Vital](/wiki/Haim_Vital \"Haim Vital\") in his [Shaar HaGilgulim](/wiki/Shaar_HaGilgulim \"Shaar HaGilgulim\").*Sha'ar Ha'Gilgulim, The Gate of Reincarnations*, Chaim Vital *Gilgul* is contrasted with the other processes in Kabbalah of [Ibbur](/wiki/Ibbur \"Ibbur\") ('pregnancy'), the attachment of a second soul to an individual for (or by) good means, and [Dybuk](/wiki/Dybuk \"Dybuk\") ('possession'), the attachment of a spirit, demon, etc. to an individual for (or by) \"bad\" means.",
"In [Lurianic Kabbalah](/wiki/Lurianic_Kabbalah \"Lurianic Kabbalah\"), reincarnation is not retributive or fatalistic, but an expression of Divine compassion, the microcosm of the doctrine of cosmic rectification of creation. *Gilgul* is a heavenly agreement with the individual soul, conditional upon circumstances. Luria's radical system focused on [rectification](/wiki/Tohu_and_Tikkun \"Tohu and Tikkun\") of the Divine soul, played out through Creation. The true essence of anything is the divine spark within that gives it existence. Even a stone or leaf possesses such a soul that \"came into this world to receive a rectification\". A human soul may occasionally be exiled into lower inanimate, vegetative or animal creations. The most basic component of the soul, the [nefesh](/wiki/Nefesh \"Nefesh\"), must leave at the cessation of blood production. There are four other soul components and different nations of the world possess different forms of souls with different purposes. Each Jewish soul is reincarnated in order to fulfill each of the [613 Mosaic commandments](/wiki/613_Mitzvot \"613 Mitzvot\") that elevate a particular spark of holiness associated with each commandment. Once all the Sparks are redeemed to their spiritual source, the [Messianic Era](/wiki/Mashiach \"Mashiach\") begins. Non\\-Jewish observance of the [7 Laws of Noah](/wiki/7_Laws_of_Noah \"7 Laws of Noah\") assists the Jewish people, though Biblical adversaries of Israel reincarnate to oppose.",
"Among the many rabbis who accepted reincarnation are Kabbalists like [Nahmanides](/wiki/Nahmanides \"Nahmanides\") (the Ramban) and Rabbenu [Bahya ben Asher](/wiki/Bahya_ben_Asher \"Bahya ben Asher\"), [Levi ibn Habib](/wiki/Levi_ibn_Habib \"Levi ibn Habib\") (the Ralbah), [Shelomoh Alkabez](/wiki/Shelomoh_Alkabez \"Shelomoh Alkabez\"), [Moses Cordovero](/wiki/Moses_Cordovero \"Moses Cordovero\"), [Moses Chaim Luzzatto](/wiki/Moses_Chaim_Luzzatto \"Moses Chaim Luzzatto\"); early Hasidic masters such as the [Baal Shem Tov](/wiki/Baal_Shem_Tov \"Baal Shem Tov\"), [Schneur Zalman of Liadi](/wiki/Schneur_Zalman_of_Liadi \"Schneur Zalman of Liadi\") and [Nachman of Breslov](/wiki/Nachman_of_Breslov \"Nachman of Breslov\"), as well as virtually all later Hasidic masters; contemporary Hasidic teachers such as DovBer Pinson, [Moshe Weinberger](/wiki/Moshe_Weinberger \"Moshe Weinberger\") and [Joel Landau](/wiki/Joel_Landau_%28rabbi%29 \"Joel Landau (rabbi)\"); and key Mitnagdic leaders, such as the [Vilna Gaon](/wiki/Vilna_Gaon \"Vilna Gaon\") and [Chaim Volozhin](/wiki/Chaim_Volozhin \"Chaim Volozhin\") and their school, as well as Rabbi [Shalom Sharabi](/wiki/Shalom_Sharabi \"Shalom Sharabi\") (known at the RaShaSH), the [Ben Ish Chai](/wiki/Ben_Ish_Chai \"Ben Ish Chai\") of Baghdad, and the [Baba Sali](/wiki/Baba_Sali \"Baba Sali\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://limmudbayarea2016\\.sched.com/event/7YDY/judaism\\-and\\-reincarnation\\|title\\=Limmud Bay Area 2016: Judaism and Reincarnation\\|website\\=limmudbayarea2016\\.sched.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 February 2017}} Rabbis who have rejected the idea include [Saadia Gaon](/wiki/Saadia_Gaon \"Saadia Gaon\"), [David Kimhi](/wiki/David_Kimhi \"David Kimhi\"), [Hasdai Crescas](/wiki/Hasdai_Crescas \"Hasdai Crescas\"), [Joseph Albo](/wiki/Joseph_Albo \"Joseph Albo\"), [Abraham ibn Daud](/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Daud \"Abraham ibn Daud\"), [Leon de Modena](/wiki/Leon_de_Modena \"Leon de Modena\"), [Solomon ben Aderet](/wiki/Solomon_ben_Aderet \"Solomon ben Aderet\"), [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides \"Maimonides\") and [Asher ben Jehiel](/wiki/Asher_ben_Jehiel \"Asher ben Jehiel\"). Among the [Geonim](/wiki/Geonim \"Geonim\"), [Hai Gaon](/wiki/Hai_Gaon \"Hai Gaon\") argued in favour of *gilgulim*.",
"### Inuit",
"In the Western Hemisphere, belief in reincarnation is most prevalent in the now heavily [Christian](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\") [Polar North](/wiki/Polar_region \"Polar region\") (now mainly parts of [Greenland](/wiki/Greenland \"Greenland\") and [Nunavut](/wiki/Nunavut \"Nunavut\")).{{cite book\\|title\\=Amerindian Rebirth: Reincarnation Belief Among North American Indians and Inuit\\|year\\=1994\\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8020\\-7703\\-5\\|editor\\=Antonia Mills and Richard Slobodin}} The concept of reincarnation is enshrined in the [Inuit languages](/wiki/Inuit_languages \"Inuit languages\"),{{cite web\\|last\\=Rink\\|first\\=Henry\\|title\\=Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo\\|url\\=http://www.sacred\\-texts.com/nam/inu/tte/index.htm\\|work\\=adapted by Weimer, Christopher, M.\\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2011}} and in many [Inuit cultures](/wiki/Inuit_culture \"Inuit culture\") it is traditional to name a newborn child after a recently deceased person under the belief that the child is the namesake reincarnated.",
"### Ho\\-Chunk",
"Reincarnation is an intrinsic part of some [Northeastern Native American](/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands \"Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands\") traditions. The following is a story of human\\-to\\-human reincarnation as told by Thunder Cloud, a [Winnebago (Ho\\-Chunk)](/wiki/Ho-Chunk \"Ho-Chunk\") [shaman](/wiki/Shamanism \"Shamanism\"). Here Thunder Cloud talks about his two previous lives and how he died and came back again to this his third lifetime. He describes his time between lives, when he was \"blessed\" by Earth Maker and all the abiding spirits and given special powers, including the ability to heal the sick.",
"Thunder Cloud's account of his two reincarnations:\n{{bquote\\|I ''(my ghost)'' was taken to the place where the sun sets ''(the west)''. ... While at that place, I thought I would come back to earth again, and the old man with whom I was staying said to me, \"My son, did you not speak about wanting to go to the earth again?\" I had, as a matter of fact, only thought of it, yet he knew what I wanted. Then he said to me, \"You can go, but you must ask the chief first.\" Then I went and told the chief of the village of my desire, and he said to me, \"You may go and obtain your revenge upon the people who killed your relatives and you.\" Then I was brought down to earth. ... There I lived until I died of old age. ... As I was lying \\[in my grave], someone said to me, \"Come, let us go away.\" So then we went toward the setting of the sun. There we came to a village where we met all the dead. ... From that place I came to this earth again for the third time, and here I am.\\|author\\=Radin (1923\\){{Cite book \\|last\\=Jefferson \\|first\\=Warren \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=Reincarnation beliefs of North American Indians: soul journeys, metamorphoses, and near\\-death experiences \\|publisher\\=Native Voices \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57067\\-212\\-5 \\|oclc\\=272306114 }}\\|title\\=\\|source\\=}}",
"### Sikhism",
"Founded in the 15th century, [Sikhism](/wiki/Sikhism \"Sikhism\")'s founder [Guru Nanak](/wiki/Guru_Nanak \"Guru Nanak\") had a choice between the cyclical reincarnation concept of ancient Indian religions and the linear concept of Islam, he chose the cyclical concept of time.{{cite book\\|author1\\=W.O. Cole \\|author2\\=Piara Singh Sambhi \\|title\\=Sikhism and Christianity: A Comparative Study \\|year\\=2016\\|publisher\\=Springer \\|isbn\\= 978\\-1\\-349\\-23049\\-5 \\|pages\\= 13β14}}{{cite book\\|author\\= Arvind\\-Pal Singh Mandair\\|title\\= Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed \\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Bloomsbury Academic \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4411\\-5366\\-1 \\|page\\=176 }} Sikhism teaches reincarnation theory similar to those in Hinduism, but with some differences from its traditional doctrines. Sikh rebirth theories about the nature of existence are similar to ideas that developed during the devotional [Bhakti movement](/wiki/Bhakti_movement \"Bhakti movement\") particularly within some [Vaishnava traditions](/wiki/Vaishnavism \"Vaishnavism\"), which define liberation as a state of union with God attained through the grace of God.{{cite book\\|author1\\=John Gordon Melton\\|author2\\=Martin Baumann\\|title\\=Religions of the world: a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices\\|volume\\=2\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57607\\-223\\-3\\|page\\=632}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Eric J. Lott\\|title\\=Vision, Tradition, Interpretation: Theology, Religion, and the Study of Religion \\|year\\=1988\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-009761\\-0\\|pages\\=49β53}}{{cite book \\| last \\=Flood \\| first \\=Gavin \\| year \\=1996 \\| title \\=An introduction to Hinduism \\| publisher \\=Cambridge University Press\\| isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-521\\-43878\\-0 \\| url\\= https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo \\| url\\-access \\=registration \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/137 137]}}",
"The doctrines of Sikhism teach that the soul exists, and is passed from one body to another in endless cycles of [SaαΉsΔra](/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra \"SaαΉsΔra\"), until liberation from the death and rebirth cycle. Each birth begins with karma (*[karam](/wiki/Karma%23Sikhism \"Karma#Sikhism\")*), and these actions leave a karmic signature (*karni*) on one's soul which influences future rebirths, but it is [God](/wiki/God_in_Sikhism \"God in Sikhism\") whose grace that liberates from the death and rebirth cycle. The way out of the reincarnation cycle, asserts Sikhism, is to live an ethical life, devote oneself to God and constantly remember God's name.{{cite book\\|author\\=Arvind\\-Pal Singh Mandair \\|title\\=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed \\|year\\=2013\\|publisher\\=A\\&C Black \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4411\\-0231\\-7 \\|pages\\=145β147 }} The precepts of Sikhism encourage the [bhakti](/wiki/Bhakti \"Bhakti\") of One Lord for *[mukti](/wiki/Moksha \"Moksha\")* (liberation from the death and rebirth cycle).{{cite book\\|author\\=H. S. Singha \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism \\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Hemkunt Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-7010\\-301\\-1 \\|pages\\=68, 80}}",
"### Yoruba",
"{{See also\\|Yoruba religion}}",
"The Yoruba religion teaches that [Olodumare](/wiki/Ol%C3%B3d%C3%B9mar%C3%A8 \"Olódùmarè\"), the Supreme Being and divine Creator who rules over His Creation, created *eniyan*, or humanity, to achieve balance between heaven and earth and bring about *Ipo Rere*, or the Good Condition.{{cite web \\|last1\\=O \\|first1\\=Obafemi \\|title\\=Reincarnation \\|url\\=https://www.obafemio.com/reincarnation.html \\|website\\=ObafemiO.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023}} To cause achievement of the Good Condition, humanity reincarnates.{{cite web \\|last1\\=O \\|first1\\=Obafemi \\|title\\=ObafemiO \\|url\\=https://www.obafemio.com/ \\|website\\=ObafemiO.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023}} Once achieved, Ipo Rere provides the ultimate state of supreme existence with Olodumare, a goal which elevates reincarnation to a key position in the Yoruba religion.{{cite web \\|title\\=Yoruba Religion: History and Beliefs \\|url\\=https://www.learnreligions.com/yoruba\\-religion\\-4777660 \\|website\\=LearnReligions \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023 }}",
"*Atunwaye*{{cite web \\|last1\\=Dunmade \\|first1\\=Oluwatumininu \\|title\\=The concept of reincarnation in Igbo and Yoruba culture \\|url\\=https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food\\-travel/the\\-concept\\-of\\-reincarnation\\-in\\-igbo\\-and\\-yoruba\\-culture/rdxdkw0 \\|website\\=Pulse Nigeria \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=20 September 2022}} (also called *atunwa*) is the Yoruba term for reincarnation. [Predestination](/wiki/Predestination_%28disambiguation%29 \"Predestination (disambiguation)\") is a foundational component of *atunwaye*. Just prior to incarnation, a person first chooses their *Ayanmo* (destiny) before also choosing their *Akunyelan* (lot) in the presence of Olodumare and [Orunmila](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Crunmila \"α»runmila\") with Olodumare's approval.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dopamu \\|first1\\=Abiola \\|title\\=Predestination, destiny and faith in Yorubaland: Any meeting point? \\|journal\\=Global Journal of Humanities \\|date\\=2008 \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1\\&2 \\|pages\\=37β39 \\|url\\=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/gjh/article/view/79372 \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023 \\|ref\\=yoruba\\_dopamu \\|language\\=en \\|issn\\=1596\\-6232}} By *atunwaye*, a person may incarnate only in a human being and may choose to reincarnate in either sex, regardless of choice in the prior incarnation.",
"#### Ipadawaye",
"The most common, widespread Yoruba reincarnation belief is *ipadawaye*, meaning \"the ancestor's rebirth\". According to this belief, the reincarnating person will reincarnate along their familial lineage.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Akinola \\|first1\\=Temilorun \\|title\\=From Life to Death: Death and Dying Beliefs of the Yoruba \\|url\\=https://www.processjmus.org/temilorun\\-akinola\\-from\\-life\\-to\\-death \\|website\\=Process \\|access\\-date\\=30 August 2023 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830082941/https://www.processjmus.org/temilorun\\-akinola\\-from\\-life\\-to\\-death \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Olaleye\\-Oruene \\|first1\\=Taiwo O. \\|title\\=The Yoruba's Cultural Perspective of Death with Special Reference to Twins \\|journal\\=Twin Research and Human Genetics \\|date\\=June 2002 \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=154β155 \\|doi\\=10\\.1375/twin.5\\.3\\.154\\|pmid\\=12184881 \\|s2cid\\=5982761 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} When a person dies, they go to *orun* (heaven) and will live with the ancestors in either *orunrere* (good heaven) or *orunapaadi* (bad heaven). Reincarnation is believed to be a gift bestowed on ancestors who lived well and experienced a \"good\" death. Only ancestors living in *orunrere* may return as grandchildren, reincarnating out of their love for the family or the world. Children may be given names to indicate which ancestor is believed to have returned, such as Babatide (\"father has come\"), Babatunde (\"father has come again\"), and Yetunde (\"mother has come again\").",
"A \"bad\" death (which includes deaths of children, cruel, or childless people and deaths by punishments from the gods, accidents, suicides, and gruesome murders) is generally believed to prevent the deceased from joining the ancestors and reincarnating again,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Prothero \\|first1\\=Stephen R. \\|title\\=God is not one: the eight rival religions that run the world \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=HarperOne \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-06\\-157128\\-2 }} though some practitioners also believe a person experiencing a \"bad\" death will be reborn much later into conditions of poverty.",
"#### Abiku",
"Another Yoruba reincarnation belief is *[abiku](/wiki/Abiku \"Abiku\")*, meaning \"born to die\"{{cite journal\\|jstor\\=3334754\\|title\\=The Concept of Abiku\\|last\\=Mobolade\\|first\\=Timothy\\|journal\\=African Arts \\|date\\=September 1, 1973\\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=62β64 \\|publisher\\=UCLA James S. Coleman African Studies Center\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3334754 }}\nAccording to Yoruba custom, an abiku is a reincarnating child who repeatedly experiences death and rebirth with the same mother in a vicious cycle. Because childlessness is considered a curse in Yoruba culture, parents with an abiku child will always attempt to help the abiku child by preventing their death. However, abiku are believed to possess a power to ensure their eventual death, so rendering assistance is often a frustrating endeavor causing significant pain to the parents. This pain is believed to bring happiness to the abiku.",
"Abiku are believed to be a \"species of spirit\" thought to live apart from people in, for example, secluded parts of villages, jungles, and footpaths. Modern belief in abiku has significantly waned among urban populations, with the decline attributed to improved hygiene and medical care reducing infant mortality rates.",
"#### Akudaaya",
"*Akudaaya*, meaning \"born to die and reappear\" (also called *akuda*{{cite web \\|author\\=AJE \\|title\\=AKUDAAYA (Meaning and Explanation) \\|url\\=https://www.orisa.com.ng/2023/06/akudaaya\\-meaning\\-and\\-explanation.html \\|website\\=orisa.com.ng \\|date\\=23 June 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=30 November 2023}}), is a Yoruba reincarnation belief of \"a person that is dead\\[] but has not gone to heaven\".{{cite web \\|last1\\=Aworeni \\|first1\\=Babalawo \\|title\\=The Araba Agbaya: The Akudaaya \\|url\\=https://orishada.com/wordpress/?p\\=365 \\|website\\=orishada.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 November 2023}} Akudaaya is based on the belief that, if a recently\\-deceased person's destiny in that life remained unfulfilled, the deceased cannot join the ancestors and therefore must roam the world. Following death, an akudaaya returns to their previous existence by reappearing in the same physical form. However, the new existence will be lived in a different physical location from the first, and the akudaaya will not be recognized by a still\\-living relative, should they happen to meet. The akudaaya lives their new existence working to fulfill their destiny from the previous life.",
"The concept of akudaaya is the subject of *Akudaaya (The Wraith)*, a 2023 Nigerian drama film in the Yoruba language.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Irabor \\|first1\\=Joan \\|title\\=\"Akudaaya\" is Bringing Back the Chills \\|url\\=https://thenollywoodreporter.com/film/akudaaya\\-is\\-bringing\\-back\\-the\\-chills/ \\|website\\=thenollywoodreporter.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 November 2023}} The film is said to center on a deceased son who \"has begun living life as a spirit in another state and has fallen in love\".{{cite web \\|last1\\=Irabor \\|first1\\=Joan \\|title\\=\"Akudaaya\" Dramatizes The Dilemma Of A Man Caught Between Worlds \\|url\\=https://thenollywoodreporter.com/film/akudaaya\\-dramatizes\\-the\\-dilemma\\-of\\-a\\-man\\-caught\\-between\\-worlds/ \\|website\\=thenollywoodreporter.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 November 2023}}",
"### New religious and spiritual movements",
"{{Paranormal\\|state\\=collapsed}}",
"#### Spiritism",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Tomb of [Allan Kardec](/wiki/Allan_Kardec \"Allan Kardec\"), founder of spiritism. The inscription says in French \"To be born, die, again be reborn, and so progress unceasingly, such is the law\".](/wiki/File:Tombe_Allan_Kardec.JPG \"Tombe Allan Kardec.JPG\")\n[Spiritism](/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism \"Kardecist spiritism\"), a [spiritualist](/wiki/Spiritualism_%28movement%29 \"Spiritualism (movement)\") philosophy codified in the 19th century by the French educator [Allan Kardec](/wiki/Allan_Kardec \"Allan Kardec\"), teaches reincarnation or rebirth into human life after death. According to this doctrine, free will and cause and effect are the corollaries of reincarnation, and reincarnation provides a mechanism for a person's spiritual evolution in successive lives.{{cite book \\|author\\=David J. Hess \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=oGxsfV\\-lTtEC\\&pg\\=PA16 \\|title\\=Spirits and Scientists: Ideology, Spiritism and Brazilian Culture \\|publisher\\=Pennsylvania State University Press \\|year\\=2010 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-271\\-04080\\-6 \\|pages\\=16β}}",
"#### Theosophy",
"{{See also\\|Theosophy\\#Reincarnation and karma}}\nThe [Theosophical Society](/wiki/Theosophical_Society \"Theosophical Society\") draws much of its inspiration from India.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Theosophical Society {{!}} Encyclopedia.com \\|url\\=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy\\-and\\-religion/other\\-religious\\-beliefs\\-and\\-general\\-terms/miscellaneous\\-religion/theosophical\\-society \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-09 \\|website\\=www.encyclopedia.com}} In the Theosophical world\\-view reincarnation is the vast rhythmic process by which the soul, the part of a person which belongs to the formless non\\-material and timeless worlds, unfolds its spiritual powers in the world and comes to know itself.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Chajes \\|first\\=Julie \\|title\\=Reincarnation in H.P. Blavatsky's The Secret Doctrine \\|year\\=2017 \\|pages\\=66β90}} It descends from sublime, free, spiritual realms and gathers experience through its effort to express itself in the world. Afterwards there is a withdrawal from the physical plane to successively higher levels of reality, in death, a purification and assimilation of the past life. Having cast off all instruments of personal experience it stands again in its spiritual and formless nature, ready to begin its next rhythmic manifestation, every lifetime bringing it closer to complete self\\-knowledge and self\\-expression. However, it may attract old mental, emotional, and energetic *karma* patterns to form the new personality.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Campbell \\|first\\=Bruce F. \\|title\\=Ancient Wisdom Revived: A History of the Theosophical Movement \\|publisher\\=Berkeley: University of California Press \\|year\\=1980 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0520039681}}",
"#### Anthroposophy",
"[Anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy \"Anthroposophy\") describes reincarnation from the point of view of Western philosophy and culture. The ego is believed to transmute transient soul experiences into universals that form the basis for an individuality that can endure after death. These universals include ideas, which are intersubjective and thus transcend the purely personal (spiritual consciousness), intentionally formed human character (spiritual life), and becoming a fully conscious human being (spiritual humanity). [Rudolf Steiner](/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner \"Rudolf Steiner\") described both the general principles he believed to be operative in reincarnation, such as that one's will activity in one life forms the basis for the thinking of the next,See e.g. *Reincarnation and Karma* by Steiner and a number of successive lives of various individualities.Steiner, *Karmic Relationships*, volumes 1β6",
"{{blockquote\\|Similarly, other famous people's life stories are not primarily the result of genes, upbringing or biographical vicissitudes. Steiner relates that a large estate in north\\-eastern France was held during the early Middle Ages by a martial feudal lord. During a military campaign, this estate was captured by a rival. The previous owner had no means of retaliating, and was forced to see his property lost to an enemy. He was filled with a smoldering resentment towards the propertied classes, not only for the remainder of his life in the Middle Ages, but also in a much later incarnationβas Karl Marx. His rival was reborn as Friedrich Engels.{{cite book\\|first\\=Olav\\|last\\=Hammer\\|title\\=Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EZYsPQgBNioC\\&pg\\=PA495\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Brill\\|isbn\\=90\\-04\\-13638\\-X\\|page\\=495}}\\|\\[\\[Olav Hammer]]\\|Coda. On Belief and Evidence}}",
"#### Modern astrology",
"Inspired by [Helena Blavatsky](/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky \"Helena Blavatsky\")'s major works, including *[Isis Unveiled](/wiki/Isis_Unveiled \"Isis Unveiled\")* and *[The Secret Doctrine](/wiki/The_Secret_Doctrine \"The Secret Doctrine\")*, [astrologers](/wiki/Astrology \"Astrology\") in the early twentieth\\-century integrated the concepts of [karma](/wiki/Karma \"Karma\") and reincarnation into the practice of [Western astrology](/wiki/Western_astrology \"Western astrology\"). Notable astrologers who advanced this development included [Alan Leo](/wiki/Alan_Leo \"Alan Leo\"), Charles E. O. Carter, [Marc Edmund Jones](/wiki/Marc_Edmund_Jones \"Marc Edmund Jones\"), and [Dane Rudhyar](/wiki/Dane_Rudhyar \"Dane Rudhyar\"). A new synthesis of East and West resulted as Hindu and Buddhist concepts of reincarnation were fused with Western astrology's deep roots in [Hermeticism](/wiki/Hermeticism \"Hermeticism\") and [Neoplatonism](/wiki/Neoplatonism \"Neoplatonism\"). In the case of Rudhyar, this synthesis was enhanced with the addition of [Jungian](/wiki/Carl_Jung \"Carl Jung\") [depth psychology](/wiki/Depth_psychology \"Depth psychology\").{{cite journal \\|first1\\=Jutta \\|last1\\=Woods \\|title\\=The Theosophical Heritage in Modern Astrology \\|journal\\=The Mountain Astrologer \\|date\\=2013 }} This dynamic integration of astrology, reincarnation and depth psychology has continued into the modern era with the work of astrologers [Steven Forrest](/wiki/Steven_Forrest_%28astrologer%29 \"Steven Forrest (astrologer)\") and Jeffrey Wolf Green. Their respective schools of Evolutionary Astrology are based on \"an acceptance of the fact that human beings incarnate in a succession of lifetimes\".{{cite web \\|author\\=Steven Forrest and Jeffrey Wolf Green \\|title\\=About Evolutionary Astrology \\|url\\=http://www.forrestastrology.com/about\\-us/about\\-evolutionary\\-astrology \\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2014}}",
"#### Scientology",
"{{See also\\|Scientology beliefs and practices}}",
"Past reincarnation, usually termed **past lives**, is a key part of the principles and practices of the [Church of Scientology](/wiki/Church_of_Scientology \"Church of Scientology\"). Scientologists believe that the human individual is actually a *[thetan](/wiki/Thetan \"Thetan\")*, an immortal spiritual entity, that has fallen into a degraded state as a result of past\\-life experiences. Scientology [auditing](/wiki/Auditing_%28Scientology%29 \"Auditing (Scientology)\") is intended to free the person of these past\\-life traumas and recover past\\-life memory, leading to a higher state of spiritual awareness.",
"This idea is echoed in their highest fraternal religious order, [Sea Org](/wiki/Sea_Org \"Sea Org\"), whose motto is \"*Revenimus*\" ('We Come Back'), and whose members sign a \"[billion\\-year contract](/wiki/Billion_year_contract \"Billion year contract\")\" as a sign of commitment to that ideal. [L. Ron Hubbard](/wiki/L._Ron_Hubbard \"L. Ron Hubbard\"), the founder of Scientology, does not use the word \"reincarnation\" to describe its beliefs, noting that: \"The common definition of reincarnation has been altered from its original meaning. The word has come to mean 'to be born again in different life forms' whereas its actual definition is 'to be born again into the flesh of another body.' Scientology ascribes to this latter, original definition of reincarnation.\"{{cite web \\|title\\=Scientology Church \\& Religion β What is Scientology? \\|url\\=http://www.scientology.org/html/opencms/cos/scientology/en\\_US/news\\-media/faq/pg016\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613231607/http://www.scientology.org/html/opencms/cos/scientology/en\\_US/news\\-media/faq/pg016\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2006 \\|work\\=Scientology}}",
"The first writings in Scientology regarding past lives date from around 1951 and slightly earlier. In 1960, Hubbard published a book on past lives entitled *[Have You Lived Before This Life](/wiki/Have_You_Lived_Before_This_Life \"Have You Lived Before This Life\")*. In 1968 he wrote *[Mission Into Time](/wiki/Bibliography_of_Scientology%23Mission_Into_Time \"Bibliography of Scientology#Mission Into Time\")*, a report on a five\\-week sailing expedition to Sardinia, Sicily and Carthage to see if specific evidence could be found to substantiate L. Ron Hubbard's recall of incidents in his own past, centuries ago.",
"#### Wicca",
"[Wicca](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\") is a [neo\\-pagan](/wiki/Neo-pagan \"Neo-pagan\") religion focused on nature, guided by the philosophy of [Wiccan Rede](/wiki/Wiccan_Rede \"Wiccan Rede\") that advocates the tenets \"Harm None, Do As Ye Will\". Wiccans believe in a form of karmic return where one's deeds are returned, either in the current life or in another life, threefold or multiple times in order to teach one lessons (the [Threefold Law](/wiki/Threefold_law \"Threefold law\")). Reincarnation is therefore an accepted part of the Wiccan faith.Encyclopedia of Wicca and Witchcraft, Raven Grimassi{{full citation needed\\|date\\=December 2016}} Wiccans also believe that death and afterlife are important experiences for the soul to transform and prepare for future lifetimes.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2016}}",
"",
""
] |
Overview
--------
Leslie Johnson was born in [Walthamstow](/wiki/Walthamstow "Walthamstow"), at that time one of London's poorest districts, and he spent his early years there. His father, a [cabinet maker](/wiki/Cabinet_making "Cabinet making"), died soon after starting his own business. Johnson, left with a mother and younger brother to support even though he was still in his teens, took charge of the firm. The employees responded to his enlightened, philanthropic management with a loyalty and dedication which, allied to Johnson's astute business brain, helped create the successful furniture manufacturing business that funded his entry into motor sport.
When competition resumed after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") he progressed from [rallies](/wiki/Rallying "Rallying") to [hill climbs](/wiki/Hill_climbing "Hill climbing"), [sports car racing](/wiki/Sports_car_racing "Sports car racing") and [single\-seaters](/wiki/Open_wheel_car "Open wheel car"). Although a prodigiously gifted driver who early in his career won the admiration of senior competitors such as [Raymond Sommer](/wiki/Raymond_Sommer "Raymond Sommer") and [Louis Chiron](/wiki/Louis_Chiron "Louis Chiron"), he never made a full commitment to racing. Business interests remained his primary focus. Further, as a child his heart and kidneys were damaged by [nephritis](/wiki/Nephritis "Nephritis") and [acromegaly](/wiki/Acromegaly "Acromegaly"), and deteriorating health in adulthood imposed its own constraints on his racing.
He specialised in European [sports car endurance events](/wiki/Endurance_racing_%28motorsport%29 "Endurance racing (motorsport)"), competing in five [Le Mans 24\-hour races](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "24 Hours of Le Mans"), two [Spa 24\-hour races](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours "Spa 24 Hours") and four [Mille Miglias](/wiki/Mille_Miglia "Mille Miglia"). He also took part in five [Grands Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_motor_racing "Grand Prix motor racing"), and broke several world speed records for production cars.
In sports car racing, he achieved [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin "Aston Martin")'s first postwar international victory, and also the first successes for [Jaguar's XK120 model](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 "Jaguar XK120") in both England and America.
His business ventures included the acquisition of British racing car manufacturer [English Racing Automobiles](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles "English Racing Automobiles") (ERA) after World War II. He also initiated and negotiated [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss "Stirling Moss")'s first commercial sponsorship deal, with [Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell "Royal Dutch Shell").
Among his close friends were Jaguar founder [William Lyons](/wiki/William_Lyons "William Lyons") (to whom he lent his [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 "BMW 328") for detailed mechanical investigation during the planning and design of the [XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 "Jaguar XK120")) and [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") Grand Prix engineering supremo [Rudolf Uhlenhaut](/wiki/Rudolf_Uhlenhaut "Rudolf Uhlenhaut"). (Johnson used three Mercedes\-Benz road cars: [300SL](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_300SL "Mercedes-Benz 300SL") "gullwing," [300](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_W186 "Mercedes-Benz W186") "Adenauer" saloon, and [220S "ponton" saloon](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Ponton "Mercedes-Benz Ponton").)
His worsening heart condition finally forced permanent retirement from competition in 1954\. He bought a farm in [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire "Gloucestershire") that included three houses: one was for himself and his family, one for his farm manager, and one for his bank manager. He continued to run his [Maidenhead](/wiki/Maidenhead "Maidenhead")\-based company Prototype Engineering, which produced precision components for the fledgling [nuclear industry](/wiki/Nuclear_power "Nuclear power"). Towards the end of his life he developed a keen interest in the ["Sport of Kings"](/wiki/Horse_racing "Horse racing") and owned several racehorses.
[Doug Nye](/wiki/Doug_Nye "Doug Nye") recorded motor racing photographer Guy Griffiths's personal recollection of Leslie Johnson:
"\[Q]uite the most charming, friendly, unassuming and courteous man in motor racing... \[His] furniture factory \[was] an extremely paternalistic, caring concern, in which long\-term employees were looked after virtually to the grave. When they became too old for their regular work they might be put onto lighter duties for a lesser wage, but there'd always be something for them, Johnson made sure of that.
"When he acquired ERA Ltd and re\-established it at Dunstable he \[employed] a number of old lags from pre\-war racing who were looking for a job postwar. When he drove the E\-Type, I think in the Isle of Man, [Reg Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell "Reg Parnell") wandered over for a chat with Johnson, and absent\-mindedly gave the car's steering wheel a tweak, to discover VAAAST free\-play. 'You can't race this Leslie, you'll kill yourself'. 'Oh yes, well, it takes a bit of getting used to but you know, the boys have worked so hard to get it ready I really feel I ought to give it a go...'.
"He apparently never complained, he was a very buttoned\-up, stoical, philosophical chap...his final illness was very quick, and extremely painful for him, yet he never let it show \[...] He was regarded as being straight as a die...a good fellow."[Nye, Doug. Autosport website, 7 April 2003](http://forums.autosport.com/showthread.php?postid=1222681#post1222681). Retrieved on 17 November 2008\.
He was married to the widow of Anglo\-French driver [Pierre MarΓ©chal](/wiki/Pierre_Mar%C3%A9chal "Pierre MarΓ©chal"), and stepfather to her son Christian MarΓ©chal, an advertising copywriter, UK [ultralight aviation](/wiki/Ultralight_aviation "Ultralight aviation") pioneer and freelance journalist.
Leslie Johnson died in 1959, aged 46, at Foxcote House, the family's home in the village of [Foxcote](/wiki/Foxcote%2C_Gloucestershire "Foxcote, Gloucestershire"), Gloucestershire, England.
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"Leslie Johnson was born in [Walthamstow](/wiki/Walthamstow \"Walthamstow\"), at that time one of London's poorest districts, and he spent his early years there. His father, a [cabinet maker](/wiki/Cabinet_making \"Cabinet making\"), died soon after starting his own business. Johnson, left with a mother and younger brother to support even though he was still in his teens, took charge of the firm. The employees responded to his enlightened, philanthropic management with a loyalty and dedication which, allied to Johnson's astute business brain, helped create the successful furniture manufacturing business that funded his entry into motor sport.",
"When competition resumed after [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") he progressed from [rallies](/wiki/Rallying \"Rallying\") to [hill climbs](/wiki/Hill_climbing \"Hill climbing\"), [sports car racing](/wiki/Sports_car_racing \"Sports car racing\") and [single\\-seaters](/wiki/Open_wheel_car \"Open wheel car\"). Although a prodigiously gifted driver who early in his career won the admiration of senior competitors such as [Raymond Sommer](/wiki/Raymond_Sommer \"Raymond Sommer\") and [Louis Chiron](/wiki/Louis_Chiron \"Louis Chiron\"), he never made a full commitment to racing. Business interests remained his primary focus. Further, as a child his heart and kidneys were damaged by [nephritis](/wiki/Nephritis \"Nephritis\") and [acromegaly](/wiki/Acromegaly \"Acromegaly\"), and deteriorating health in adulthood imposed its own constraints on his racing.",
"He specialised in European [sports car endurance events](/wiki/Endurance_racing_%28motorsport%29 \"Endurance racing (motorsport)\"), competing in five [Le Mans 24\\-hour races](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 Hours of Le Mans\"), two [Spa 24\\-hour races](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours \"Spa 24 Hours\") and four [Mille Miglias](/wiki/Mille_Miglia \"Mille Miglia\"). He also took part in five [Grands Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_motor_racing \"Grand Prix motor racing\"), and broke several world speed records for production cars.",
"In sports car racing, he achieved [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin \"Aston Martin\")'s first postwar international victory, and also the first successes for [Jaguar's XK120 model](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 \"Jaguar XK120\") in both England and America.",
"His business ventures included the acquisition of British racing car manufacturer [English Racing Automobiles](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles \"English Racing Automobiles\") (ERA) after World War II. He also initiated and negotiated [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss \"Stirling Moss\")'s first commercial sponsorship deal, with [Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell \"Royal Dutch Shell\").",
"Among his close friends were Jaguar founder [William Lyons](/wiki/William_Lyons \"William Lyons\") (to whom he lent his [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 \"BMW 328\") for detailed mechanical investigation during the planning and design of the [XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 \"Jaguar XK120\")) and [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") Grand Prix engineering supremo [Rudolf Uhlenhaut](/wiki/Rudolf_Uhlenhaut \"Rudolf Uhlenhaut\"). (Johnson used three Mercedes\\-Benz road cars: [300SL](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_300SL \"Mercedes-Benz 300SL\") \"gullwing,\" [300](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_W186 \"Mercedes-Benz W186\") \"Adenauer\" saloon, and [220S \"ponton\" saloon](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Ponton \"Mercedes-Benz Ponton\").)",
"His worsening heart condition finally forced permanent retirement from competition in 1954\\. He bought a farm in [Gloucestershire](/wiki/Gloucestershire \"Gloucestershire\") that included three houses: one was for himself and his family, one for his farm manager, and one for his bank manager. He continued to run his [Maidenhead](/wiki/Maidenhead \"Maidenhead\")\\-based company Prototype Engineering, which produced precision components for the fledgling [nuclear industry](/wiki/Nuclear_power \"Nuclear power\"). Towards the end of his life he developed a keen interest in the [\"Sport of Kings\"](/wiki/Horse_racing \"Horse racing\") and owned several racehorses.",
"[Doug Nye](/wiki/Doug_Nye \"Doug Nye\") recorded motor racing photographer Guy Griffiths's personal recollection of Leslie Johnson:",
"\"\\[Q]uite the most charming, friendly, unassuming and courteous man in motor racing... \\[His] furniture factory \\[was] an extremely paternalistic, caring concern, in which long\\-term employees were looked after virtually to the grave. When they became too old for their regular work they might be put onto lighter duties for a lesser wage, but there'd always be something for them, Johnson made sure of that.\n\"When he acquired ERA Ltd and re\\-established it at Dunstable he \\[employed] a number of old lags from pre\\-war racing who were looking for a job postwar. When he drove the E\\-Type, I think in the Isle of Man, [Reg Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell \"Reg Parnell\") wandered over for a chat with Johnson, and absent\\-mindedly gave the car's steering wheel a tweak, to discover VAAAST free\\-play. 'You can't race this Leslie, you'll kill yourself'. 'Oh yes, well, it takes a bit of getting used to but you know, the boys have worked so hard to get it ready I really feel I ought to give it a go...'.\n\"He apparently never complained, he was a very buttoned\\-up, stoical, philosophical chap...his final illness was very quick, and extremely painful for him, yet he never let it show \\[...] He was regarded as being straight as a die...a good fellow.\"[Nye, Doug. Autosport website, 7 April 2003](http://forums.autosport.com/showthread.php?postid=1222681#post1222681). Retrieved on 17 November 2008\\.\nHe was married to the widow of Anglo\\-French driver [Pierre MarΓ©chal](/wiki/Pierre_Mar%C3%A9chal \"Pierre MarΓ©chal\"), and stepfather to her son Christian MarΓ©chal, an advertising copywriter, UK [ultralight aviation](/wiki/Ultralight_aviation \"Ultralight aviation\") pioneer and freelance journalist.",
"Leslie Johnson died in 1959, aged 46, at Foxcote House, the family's home in the village of [Foxcote](/wiki/Foxcote%2C_Gloucestershire \"Foxcote, Gloucestershire\"), Gloucestershire, England.",
""
] |
Review of competition career
----------------------------
Key: FTD fastest time of the day; DNF did not finish; DNS did not start
### Rallies
Johnsonβs involvement in motor sport began and ended with rallying, and he was a member of the [Rootes](/wiki/Rootes_Group "Rootes Group") factory teams in four [Monte Carlo Rallies](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_Rally "Monte Carlo Rally") and one [Alpine Rally](/wiki/Alpine_Rally "Alpine Rally").{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|page\=330 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }} Rootes Competition Manager Norman Garrad said Johnson "knew more about the geometry of driving than anybody in the business . . . I used to sit beside Leslie and say, 'I don't give a damn who you are, you are never going to get round this one at this speed.' Thank God he always did."{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|page\=10 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }}
Johnson's rally results included:
* 1937: Winner, Scottish Rally. Winner, Torquay Rally, [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 "BMW 328").
* 1938: 3rd, [RAC Rally](/wiki/Rally_GB "Rally GB"), BMW 328\.
* 1939: 3rd, RAC Rally, BMW 328\.
* 1952: 3rd, RAC Rally, Jaguar XK120\. Later disqualified after a protest for running without rear spats, despite the scrutineers having noted and agreed their removal.
* 1953: Winner, Team Prize, Monte Carlo Rally, with [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss "Stirling Moss") and Jack Imhof, [Sunbeam\-Talbot](/wiki/Sunbeam-Talbot "Sunbeam-Talbot") Mark IIAs. Class winner, Alpine Rally, [Sunbeam Alpine](/wiki/Sunbeam_Alpine "Sunbeam Alpine") Mark I.
* 1954: Winner, Team Prize, Monte Carlo Rally, with Stirling Moss and [Sheila van Damm](/wiki/Sheila_van_Damm "Sheila van Damm"), Sunbeam\-Talbot Mark IIAs. During the rally Johnson suffered a heart attack. Norman Garrad, who was in the car with Johnson and navigator John Cutts, said: "It was altogether typical of Johnson that he somehow persuaded his colleagues . . . to get to the end of the event before committing him to hospital in Monaco."{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|page\=49 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }} He recalled that they arrived in Monte Carlo with Johnson "absolutely unconscious", and that he nearly died that night in the hospital.{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|page\=14 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }}
### Speed hill climbs
Johnson competed in numerous British speed hill climbs in 1946\. Notable results included:
* First and second, [Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Shelsley_Walsh_Speed_Hill_Climb "Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb") International meeting 1 June; [Talbot\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago "Talbot-Lago") T150C and BMW 328\. John Eason Gibson reported: "It was noticeable that Johnson was one of the select few who deliberately slid their cars into the swerves, in preference to waiting for a centrifugally inspired slide to compel them to dice a bitβ¦the high praise poured on Johnson by Sommer and Chiron, for his driving at Brussels, has been confirmed elsewhere."
* 4th and 5th, Bugatti Owners Club [Prescott Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Prescott_Speed_Hillclimb "Prescott Speed Hillclimb") 23 June; Talbot\-Lago and BMW 328\.
* 2nd, Bugatti Owners Club Prescott Speed Hill Climb 28 July; Talbot\-Lago.
* First, FTD and course record, Scottish Sporting Club [Bo'ness](/wiki/Bo%27ness_Hill_Climb "Bo'ness Hill Climb") Speed Hill Climb 7 September; Talbot\-Lago. Achieved on his first acquaintance with the course.
* 3rd in class (to [Sydney Allard](/wiki/Sydney_Allard "Sydney Allard")'s [Allard](/wiki/Allard_Motor_Company "Allard Motor Company")), Jersey Motor Club [Bouley Bay Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Bouley_Bay_Hill_Climb "Bouley Bay Hill Climb") 17 October; Talbot\-Lago.*Motor Sport*, December 1946, Page 284\.
### Racing: sports cars
Johnson's early races were with a [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 "BMW 328") and a Talbot\-Lago T150C sports\-racing car. [Louis Chiron](/wiki/Louis_Chiron "Louis Chiron") had driven the latter to victory in the 1937 Grand Prix de l'A.C.F. at [MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry "Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry"). Johnson fitted extra fuel tanks in the tail and cockpit for long\-distance racing.
* 1946: 2nd overall and fastest lap, Brussels International Sports Car Race, [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps"); BMW. [*The Motor*](/wiki/The_Motor_%28magazine%29 "The Motor (magazine)") reported his performance as that of "a budding [Dick Seaman](/wiki/Richard_Seaman "Richard Seaman")" and added: "[Sommer](/wiki/Raymond_Sommer "Raymond Sommer") and Louis Chiron danced with fiendish glee as Johnson took the esses in a single controlled slide. Chiron said he had the flair of [Nuvolari](/wiki/Tazio_Nuvolari "Tazio Nuvolari"). Sommer, inarticulate with emotion, kissed the poor chap."MarΓ©chal, Christian: "Learning Curves" *Classic and Sportscar* June 1966 p.92
* 1948: Winner, [Spa 24 Hours](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours "Spa 24 Hours"); prototype [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin "Aston Martin") shared with [St. John Horsfall](/wiki/St._John_Horsfall "St. John Horsfall"). Aston Martin's first postwar victory.
* 1949:
+ 3rd, [Spa 24 Hours](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours "Spa 24 Hours"); [Aston Martin DB2](/wiki/Aston_Martin_DB2 "Aston Martin DB2"), partnered by Charles Brackenbury.
+ Winner, [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit") National Allcomers Race; [Bentley](/wiki/Bentley "Bentley") 8 Litre owned by Forrest Lycett
His name is closely associated with Jaguar, particularly the [XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 "Jaguar XK120") model. The extraordinary competition history of his white car, road\-registered as JWK 651, made it the world's most valuable XK120 when it sold at auction for Β£230,000 ($350,000\) in 2001\.
His various successes with XK120s included the model's first\-ever victories in Europe and the United States:
* 1949: Winner, Daily Express International Sports Car Race, [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_circuit "Silverstone circuit"), the XK120's first race, after an early collision with a spinning [Jowett Javelin](/wiki/Jowett_Javelin "Jowett Javelin") dropped Johnson to fifth.
* 1950: Winner in class, 4th overall, [Palm Beach Shores, Florida](/wiki/Palm_Beach_Shores%2C_Florida "Palm Beach Shores, Florida"), [SCCA](/wiki/SCCA "SCCA") sports car race β the XK120s first American race β despite losing the brakes.Porter, Philip (1998\). *Jaguar Sports Racing Cars*, p.14\. Bay View Books. {{ISBN\|1\-901432\-21\-1}} Johnson was granted an American racing licence for the event, as his entry was not sanctioned by the RAC, and the Jaguar was unmodified from standard specification.{{cite magazine \|last\=Boddy \|first\=William \|title\=Sports Car Racing in America \|magazine\=Motor Sport \|issue\=March 1951 \|page\=110}} Jim McCraw wrote, "In rain and high winds, the Jaguar finished fourth in a race that included three giants of American sports\-car racing β [Briggs Cunningham](/wiki/Briggs_Cunningham "Briggs Cunningham") in a Cadillac\-Healey, second; Phil Walters in a Healey, fifth; and Miles Collier in a Riley\-Ford, sixth. Sam Collier finished eighth in one of the XK 120s, and Bill Spear DNF'd with no brakes in the third car."{{cite web\|url\=http://europeancar.automotive.com/72183/epcp\-0204\-jaguar\-xk\-120c/index.html\|title\=Jim McCraw, ''Jaguar XK120C β Brief History Behind Jaguar'' European Car Magazine\|access\-date\=23 May 2009\|publisher\=Europeancar.automotive.com\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707191511/http://europeancar.automotive.com/72183/epcp\-0204\-jaguar\-xk\-120c/index.html\|archive\-date\=7 July 2011\|df\=dmy\-all}} The success launched Jaguar in the US market.
Johnson's [Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans "24 Hours of Le Mans") results:
[thumb\|Scale model by Bizarre 1/43 (Art. BZR090\) of the 1952 [Nash\-Healey](/wiki/Nash-Healey "Nash-Healey") lightweight purpose\-built for the Le Mans 24\-hour race. Driven by Leslie Johnson and [Tommy Wisdom](/wiki/Tommy_Wisdom "Tommy Wisdom"), it finished third.](/wiki/File:1952_Nash-Healey_Le_Mans_lightweight_2.JPG "1952 Nash-Healey Le Mans lightweight 2.JPG")
* 1949: DNF, Aston Martin DB2, co\-driver Charles Brackenbury. Retired from fifth place after six laps; overheating caused by water pump failure.
* 1950: DNF, Jaguar XK120; clutch failure after 21Β hours while lying third and catching the leader at a rate that would have seen the Jaguar in the lead before the full 24Β hours had elapsedBuckley, Martin: *Jaguar: Fifty Years of Speed and Style* p.120\. Haynes Publishing 2003, {{ISBN\|978\-1\-85960\-875\-3}}βan effort that convinced William Lyons it was worth investing in success at Le Mans.Nevinson, Tim: "Flat out for a week" *Thoroughbred and Classic Cars* June 2008 p. 84\. Explaining the clutch failure, Jim McCraw wrote: "Leslie Johnson ran as high as second during the middle portion of the race, but, in order to save brake wear, he kept downshifting the transmission at high speeds and eventually blew the clutch, which prompted the substitution of a solid\-disc clutch plate from then on."
* 1951: DNF, [Jaguar C\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_C-Type "Jaguar C-Type"), co\-driver [Clemente Biondetti](/wiki/Clemente_Biondetti "Clemente Biondetti"). Retired from third place after 50 laps; no oil pressure.
* 1952: 3rd overall out of 57 starters, behind two factory\-entered Mercedes\-Benz W194 300SLs; first in class, ahead of triple Le Mans winner [Luigi Chinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Chinetti "Luigi Chinetti")'s Ferrari; second in Index of Performance; winner, Gold Challenge Cup. [Nash\-Healey](/wiki/Nash-Healey "Nash-Healey") (a lightweight competition version hastily constructed for the raceβthe body was fabricated in less than a week; the entire car built from scratch in a fortnight).
* 1953: 11th out of 60 starters; Nash\-Healey.
His [Mille Miglia](/wiki/Mille_Miglia "Mille Miglia") results:
* 1950: 5th, Jaguar XK120\. The best\-ever result by an Englishman driving a British car, in this instance a production model beaten only by lightweight competition cars entered by [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport "Alfa Romeo in motorsport") ([Fangio](/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Fangio "Juan Manuel Fangio")'s came third) and [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari "Scuderia Ferrari").
* 1951: DNF, Ferrari\-Jaguar "Biondetti Special" shared with his 1951 Le Mans partner and four\-time Mille Miglia winner Clemente Biondetti.
* 1952: 7th to [Bracco](/wiki/Giovanni_Bracco "Giovanni Bracco")'s winning works team Ferrari, the works Mercedes\-Benz 300SLs of [Kling](/wiki/Karl_Kling "Karl Kling") and [Caracciola](/wiki/Rudolf_Caracciola "Rudolf Caracciola"), and three works Lancias. Lightweight competition Nash\-Healey, with [Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph "Daily Telegraph") motoring correspondent Bill McKenzie as passenger.
* 1953: DNF, Jaguar C\-Type.
### Racing: single\-seaters
Johnson raced [Delage](/wiki/Delage "Delage"), [Talbot\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago "Talbot-Lago") and [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles "English Racing Automobiles") cars in single\-seater events between 1946 and 1950\.
In August 1946, in his first drive in a "proper" racing car, albeit one that was already 20Β years old, he broke the lap record at the Ards circuit (the Ulster venue of the [RAC Tourist Trophy](/wiki/RAC_Tourist_Trophy "RAC Tourist Trophy") race from 1928 to 1936\). The car was the supercharged straight\-eight Delage previously raced by [Earl Howe](/wiki/Francis_Curzon%2C_5th_Earl_Howe "Francis Curzon, 5th Earl Howe"), [Dick Seaman](/wiki/Richard_Seaman "Richard Seaman") and [Prince Bira](/wiki/Prince_Bira "Prince Bira"). The clutch failed to release at the start so the car had to be pushed off the line. Having lost some 200Β yards to the rest of the field, Johnson worked his way up to fourth behind Prince Bira, [Reg Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell "Reg Parnell") and [Bob Gerard](/wiki/Bob_Gerard "Bob Gerard") but a spark plug melted four laps from the end, forcing him out. (He consoled himself with fastest average in the subsequent handicap race with his BMW 328\.)Race report titled "Ulster" by John Eason Gibson in *Motor Racing 1946* published 1948 by Motor Racing Publications Ltd.
He entered three 1947 [Grands Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_motor_racing "Grand Prix motor racing") with his ten\-year\-old ex\-Louis Chiron [Talbot\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago "Talbot-Lago") T150C β Johnson raced it both as a sports car and a single\-seater, simply removing the mudguards to convert it to Grand Prix configuration. The results were:
* 6th, [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey "Jersey") International Road Race. Finished ahead of several [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati_in_motorsport "Maserati in motorsport") and [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles "English Racing Automobiles") single\-seaters.
* 7th, [Belgian Grand Prix](/wiki/Belgian_Grand_Prix "Belgian Grand Prix"), Spa.
* DNF, [Swiss Grand Prix](/wiki/Swiss_Grand_Prix "Swiss Grand Prix"), Bern. There was an almost total lack of crowd control, with the result that [Achille Varzi](/wiki/Achille_Varzi "Achille Varzi")'s Alfa Romeo killed one spectator on the track in practice, and Johnson pulled out of the race after his Talbot\-Lago locked a brake entering a corner and tail\-swiped the spectators, killing two. The following year, Varzi suffered a fatal accident in practice for the same event.
In November 1947 Leslie Johnson acquired [English Racing Automobiles](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles "English Racing Automobiles"), together with one of their prewar ERA E\-Type single\-seaters. The car was fast but fragile, and Johnson's 1948 results were disappointing despite a lap record and a fastest lap:
[thumb\|ERA E\-Type GP2 driven by Leslie Johnson in the [1948](/wiki/1948_British_Grand_Prix "1948 British Grand Prix") and [1950 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1950_British_Grand_Prix "1950 British Grand Prix").](/wiki/File:ERA_E-type.jpg "ERA E-type.jpg")
* DNF, Grand Prix du Salon, [MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry "Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry"). Lap record and pole position, but the fuel tank split in the race.
* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1948_British_Grand_Prix "1948 British Grand Prix"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit"). *Autosport* magazine reported that he posted fastest lap in the opening practice session, "good enough for Johnson to be a front row man, and a potential winner!" He was 5th on the starting grid. In the race, de Graffenried's [Maserati 4CL](/wiki/Maserati_4CL_and_4CLT "Maserati 4CL and 4CLT") was fastest off the line. Before Woodcote, the first corner, Chiron's [Talbot\-Lago T26C](/wiki/Talbot-Lago "Talbot-Lago") took the lead, followed by Parnell's Maserati 4CLT and Johnson's ERA. Entering Woodcote, Johnson drew level with Chiron. Then there was a "crash and a bang"' and the ERA "rolled to a standstill . . . leaving a trail of flame and smoke in its wake." A driveshaft universal joint had failed.
* 5th and fastest lap (shared with [Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell "Reg Parnell")'s 4CLT Maserati), [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") Trophy.
1949 saw three promising results from five entries:
* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1949_British_Grand_Prix "1949 British Grand Prix"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit")βBritain's first World Championship Grand Prix.
* 5th, [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_London "Richmond, London") Trophy, [Goodwood](/wiki/Goodwood_Motor_Racing_Circuit "Goodwood Motor Racing Circuit").
* 3rd, [Chichester](/wiki/Chichester "Chichester") Trophy.
* 3rd, British Empire Trophy, despite broken rear shock\-absorbers.
* DNS, Jersey Road Race. Second fastest to Italian champion [Luigi Villoresi](/wiki/Luigi_Villoresi "Luigi Villoresi")'s Maserati in practice, but engine bearing failure kept the car out of the race.
But in 1950 Johnson again found himself repeatedly sidelined by the car's unreliability:
* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1950_British_Grand_Prix "1950 British Grand Prix"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit "Silverstone Circuit"). Started from the fourth row. The [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger "Supercharger") disintegrated after two laps and the car caught fire.
Other outings ended in steering failure and another split fuel tank.
Johnson's ambitious and technically advanced E\-Type successor, the G\-Type ERA, was designed to race in both Grands Prix and Formula 2\. The anticipated development funds did not materialise, and the car was unsuccessful even in the hands of Stirling Moss.
In 1951 Johnson was to have driven the new 600Β bhp [V16 BRM](/wiki/British_Racing_Motors_V16 "British Racing Motors V16") in the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/Italian_Grand_Prix "Italian Grand Prix") at Monza, but he was unable to reach the circuit in time for a pre\-race test session in the very early morning. [Hans Stuck](/wiki/Hans_Stuck "Hans Stuck") took the drive but the car blew up in practice and did not race.Ludwigsen, Karl (2007\). *BRM V16*, p. 59\. Veloce Publishing. {{ISBN\|1\-84584\-037\-2}}.
### Record\-breaking
Johnson set numerous world records with Jaguar sports cars at the [Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry "Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry"), the banked oval track near Paris; most notably:
* 1950: 107\.46Β mph for 24Β hours, including stops for fuel and tyres, in Johnsonβs Jaguar XK120 roadster JWK 651; co\-driver Stirling Moss. The first time a production car had averaged over 100Β mph for 24 hours. Johnson and Moss, driving in three\-hour shifts, covered 2579\.16 miles, with a best lap of 126\.2Β mph.
* 1951: 131\.83Β miles in one hour, with a best lap of 134\.43Β mph; Johnson solo with the XK120\. "No mean feat...driving at almost twice today's maximum *(UK)* speed limit into a steep turn, assaulted by the g\-force induced by 30Β degree banking twice every minute, using Forties technology, leaf spring suspension and narrow crossply tyres...Johnson remarked that the car felt so good it could have gone on for another week, an off\-the\-cuff comment that sowed the seed for another idea. Flat out for a week...
* 1952: 100\.31Β mph for 7Β days and 7 nights; Jaguar XK120 coupΓ©; co\-drivers Stirling Moss, Bert Hadley and [Jack Fairman](/wiki/Jack_Fairman "Jack Fairman").
[thumb\|The MontlhΓ©ry Jaguar XK120 FHC, seen in 2008](/wiki/File:Jaguar_XK120_%27Montlhery%27_FHC_-_Flickr_-_exfordy.jpg "Jaguar XK120 'Montlhery' FHC - Flickr - exfordy.jpg")
For the week\-long 1952 marathon [Jaguar's founder](/wiki/William_Lyons "William Lyons"), mindful of the considerable kudos and advertising mileage that had already accrued from Johnson's efforts, commandeered a brand new gold\-coloured XK120 FHC for him: it was Jaguar chief engineer [Walter Hassan](/wiki/Walter_Hassan "Walter Hassan")'s car, the second right\-hand drive coupΓ© made.
Moss recalled:
"...in mid\-summer Leslie Johnson had another of his ideas. Having averaged 100mph for 24 hours at MontlhΓ©ry he now talked Jaguar into attempting 100mph for a week!...We again drove in three\-hour spells. The speedbowl lap was under a minute at 120mph, so it was quite a strain. After each straight we hit the banking high up near the lip, then plunged off, twice every fifty seconds, night and day. In each spell we would cover about 2000 laps. It was impossible to keep one's mind occupied on a job like that. We had a two\-way radio which helped keep boredom at bay. We talked all the time, called each other names, even told stories. One dare not let the mind wander, because we were running within four feet of the banking lip at around 120mph. One had to concentrate on something. I worked out how many million revs the engine made in a day, how many times the wheels turned, things like that.
The weather did not help; hot by day, cold at night. Night driving was a strain too, because we couldn't afford the drain on the battery of extra lights. The headlights had to be set very high to let us see the top of the banking when we were on it, and this meant that on the short straights we could see nothing at all because the beams were playing in the air.
We hit several hares, rabbits and birds, and Leslie swore at one point that he'd seen a huge ten\-foot tall figure in a long cloak, wearing a tall pointed hat, striding toward him along the verge. Next time round the figure had gone...it worried the life out of him for the rest of his stint. In fact I had donned a Shell fuel funnel, pulled a tarpaulin around me and sat on Jack Fairman's shoulders as he strode along the verge. After Leslie had whizzed by we ran away and hid...All very childish, but good fun in the circumstances. Leslie then had an extraordinary idea to get his own back during one of my stints. I came whistling off the banking to find him sitting with Jack Fairman in the middle of the track, playing cards!
Then he took the pit signal board and put it out on the track, so that my natural line past the pits took me between it and the timekeeper's hut. He was lounging beside the hut so I waved to him as I shot through the gap. Next time round the board had been moved closer to the hut. The gap was narrower, but I couldn't leave the fast line so I shot through it again. Next time round, he'd moved the board closer still. Each lap he narrowed the gap which made me concentrate harder to pass through it. Eventually he gave in, and the board went back to its proper position, hung on the tent. At least it passed the time..."
MontlhΓ©ry's concrete surface was rough, and the Jaguar broke a spring when it was already well into the run. No spare was carried on board. Regulations stipulated that an outside replacement would make the car ineligible for any further records beyond those already achieved before the repair. Johnson drove nine hours to save the other drivers from added risk while the speed had to be maintained on the broken spring. When finally he stopped to have it replaced, the car had taken the World and Class C 72\-hour records at 105\.55Β mph, World and Class C four\-day records at 101\.17Β mph, Class C 10,000\-kilometer record at 107\.031Β mph, World and Class C 15,000\-kilometer records at 101\.95Β mph, and World and Class C 10,000\-mile records at 100\.65Β mph. After the repair the car went on to complete the full seven days and nights, covering a total of 16,851\.73Β miles at an average speed of 100\.31Β mph.
In 1953 Rootes commissioned Johnson's company [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles "English Racing Automobiles") to modify a Sunbeam Alpine for Stirling Moss and [Sheila van Damm](/wiki/Sheila_van_Damm "Sheila van Damm") to drive flat\-out through a flying kilometre on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium, where Moss's speed of {{convert\|120\.13\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} established a new Belgian national record for cars of its class. Two days after the record runs, Johnson drove the car for an hour at an average speed of {{convert\|111\.2\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}} at MontlhΓ©ry, and Moss put in a lap at {{convert\|116\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|page\=90 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }}
### High\-speed run: 16 countries in 90 hours
In December 1952 Johnson, Stirling Moss, rally driver David Humphrey, and navigator John Cutts crewed a [Humber Super Snipe Mark IV](/wiki/Humber_Super_Snipe%23Mk_%21V "Humber Super Snipe#Mk !V") on a journey from [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo "Oslo"), Norway, to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), Portugalβa total of 16 countries and 3,380 milesβin 3 days, 17 hours and 59 minutes. The purpose was to publicise the car, which Rootes had introduced six weeks earlier as a new model for 1953\. The company's Competition Manager Norman Garrad, who had come up with the idea, hoped the trip might be completed in five days.{{cite book \|last\=Robson \|first\=Graham \|title\=Rootes Maestros \|date\=November 2008 \|publisher\=Mercian \|pages\=75β81 \|isbn\=9781903088463 }}
The team stopped only for meals, refuelling, driver changeovers, and to change a wheel after a puncture. With "heroic driving, particularly from Stirling Moss and Leslie Johnson" they finished at Lisbon 30 hours earlier than Garrad had expected, despite traffic, sheet ice, blizzards, and snowdrifts up to 18 inches deep en route. They took every opportunity to cruise at {{convert\|90\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}βMoss recalled that "many times" the speedometer indicated "over ninety for a quarter of an hour at a stretch"βand Johnson drove the last three hours to Lisbon at an average of {{convert\|64\|mph\|km/h\|abbr\=on}}.
|
[
"Review of competition career\n----------------------------",
"Key: FTD fastest time of the day; DNF did not finish; DNS did not start",
"### Rallies",
"Johnsonβs involvement in motor sport began and ended with rallying, and he was a member of the [Rootes](/wiki/Rootes_Group \"Rootes Group\") factory teams in four [Monte Carlo Rallies](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_Rally \"Monte Carlo Rally\") and one [Alpine Rally](/wiki/Alpine_Rally \"Alpine Rally\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|page\\=330 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }} Rootes Competition Manager Norman Garrad said Johnson \"knew more about the geometry of driving than anybody in the business . . . I used to sit beside Leslie and say, 'I don't give a damn who you are, you are never going to get round this one at this speed.' Thank God he always did.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|page\\=10 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }}",
"Johnson's rally results included:",
"* 1937: Winner, Scottish Rally. Winner, Torquay Rally, [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 \"BMW 328\").\n* 1938: 3rd, [RAC Rally](/wiki/Rally_GB \"Rally GB\"), BMW 328\\.\n* 1939: 3rd, RAC Rally, BMW 328\\.\n* 1952: 3rd, RAC Rally, Jaguar XK120\\. Later disqualified after a protest for running without rear spats, despite the scrutineers having noted and agreed their removal.\n* 1953: Winner, Team Prize, Monte Carlo Rally, with [Stirling Moss](/wiki/Stirling_Moss \"Stirling Moss\") and Jack Imhof, [Sunbeam\\-Talbot](/wiki/Sunbeam-Talbot \"Sunbeam-Talbot\") Mark IIAs. Class winner, Alpine Rally, [Sunbeam Alpine](/wiki/Sunbeam_Alpine \"Sunbeam Alpine\") Mark I.\n* 1954: Winner, Team Prize, Monte Carlo Rally, with Stirling Moss and [Sheila van Damm](/wiki/Sheila_van_Damm \"Sheila van Damm\"), Sunbeam\\-Talbot Mark IIAs. During the rally Johnson suffered a heart attack. Norman Garrad, who was in the car with Johnson and navigator John Cutts, said: \"It was altogether typical of Johnson that he somehow persuaded his colleagues . . . to get to the end of the event before committing him to hospital in Monaco.\"{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|page\\=49 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }} He recalled that they arrived in Monte Carlo with Johnson \"absolutely unconscious\", and that he nearly died that night in the hospital.{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|page\\=14 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }}",
"### Speed hill climbs",
"Johnson competed in numerous British speed hill climbs in 1946\\. Notable results included:",
"* First and second, [Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Shelsley_Walsh_Speed_Hill_Climb \"Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb\") International meeting 1 June; [Talbot\\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago \"Talbot-Lago\") T150C and BMW 328\\. John Eason Gibson reported: \"It was noticeable that Johnson was one of the select few who deliberately slid their cars into the swerves, in preference to waiting for a centrifugally inspired slide to compel them to dice a bitβ¦the high praise poured on Johnson by Sommer and Chiron, for his driving at Brussels, has been confirmed elsewhere.\"\n* 4th and 5th, Bugatti Owners Club [Prescott Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Prescott_Speed_Hillclimb \"Prescott Speed Hillclimb\") 23 June; Talbot\\-Lago and BMW 328\\.\n* 2nd, Bugatti Owners Club Prescott Speed Hill Climb 28 July; Talbot\\-Lago.\n* First, FTD and course record, Scottish Sporting Club [Bo'ness](/wiki/Bo%27ness_Hill_Climb \"Bo'ness Hill Climb\") Speed Hill Climb 7 September; Talbot\\-Lago. Achieved on his first acquaintance with the course.\n* 3rd in class (to [Sydney Allard](/wiki/Sydney_Allard \"Sydney Allard\")'s [Allard](/wiki/Allard_Motor_Company \"Allard Motor Company\")), Jersey Motor Club [Bouley Bay Speed Hill Climb](/wiki/Bouley_Bay_Hill_Climb \"Bouley Bay Hill Climb\") 17 October; Talbot\\-Lago.*Motor Sport*, December 1946, Page 284\\.",
"### Racing: sports cars",
"Johnson's early races were with a [BMW 328](/wiki/BMW_328 \"BMW 328\") and a Talbot\\-Lago T150C sports\\-racing car. [Louis Chiron](/wiki/Louis_Chiron \"Louis Chiron\") had driven the latter to victory in the 1937 Grand Prix de l'A.C.F. at [MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry \"Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry\"). Johnson fitted extra fuel tanks in the tail and cockpit for long\\-distance racing.",
"* 1946: 2nd overall and fastest lap, Brussels International Sports Car Race, [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\"); BMW. [*The Motor*](/wiki/The_Motor_%28magazine%29 \"The Motor (magazine)\") reported his performance as that of \"a budding [Dick Seaman](/wiki/Richard_Seaman \"Richard Seaman\")\" and added: \"[Sommer](/wiki/Raymond_Sommer \"Raymond Sommer\") and Louis Chiron danced with fiendish glee as Johnson took the esses in a single controlled slide. Chiron said he had the flair of [Nuvolari](/wiki/Tazio_Nuvolari \"Tazio Nuvolari\"). Sommer, inarticulate with emotion, kissed the poor chap.\"MarΓ©chal, Christian: \"Learning Curves\" *Classic and Sportscar* June 1966 p.92\n* 1948: Winner, [Spa 24 Hours](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours \"Spa 24 Hours\"); prototype [Aston Martin](/wiki/Aston_Martin \"Aston Martin\") shared with [St. John Horsfall](/wiki/St._John_Horsfall \"St. John Horsfall\"). Aston Martin's first postwar victory.\n* 1949:\n\t+ 3rd, [Spa 24 Hours](/wiki/Spa_24_Hours \"Spa 24 Hours\"); [Aston Martin DB2](/wiki/Aston_Martin_DB2 \"Aston Martin DB2\"), partnered by Charles Brackenbury.\n\t+ Winner, [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\") National Allcomers Race; [Bentley](/wiki/Bentley \"Bentley\") 8 Litre owned by Forrest Lycett",
"His name is closely associated with Jaguar, particularly the [XK120](/wiki/Jaguar_XK120 \"Jaguar XK120\") model. The extraordinary competition history of his white car, road\\-registered as JWK 651, made it the world's most valuable XK120 when it sold at auction for Β£230,000 ($350,000\\) in 2001\\.",
"His various successes with XK120s included the model's first\\-ever victories in Europe and the United States:",
"* 1949: Winner, Daily Express International Sports Car Race, [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_circuit \"Silverstone circuit\"), the XK120's first race, after an early collision with a spinning [Jowett Javelin](/wiki/Jowett_Javelin \"Jowett Javelin\") dropped Johnson to fifth.\n* 1950: Winner in class, 4th overall, [Palm Beach Shores, Florida](/wiki/Palm_Beach_Shores%2C_Florida \"Palm Beach Shores, Florida\"), [SCCA](/wiki/SCCA \"SCCA\") sports car race β the XK120s first American race β despite losing the brakes.Porter, Philip (1998\\). *Jaguar Sports Racing Cars*, p.14\\. Bay View Books. {{ISBN\\|1\\-901432\\-21\\-1}} Johnson was granted an American racing licence for the event, as his entry was not sanctioned by the RAC, and the Jaguar was unmodified from standard specification.{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Boddy \\|first\\=William \\|title\\=Sports Car Racing in America \\|magazine\\=Motor Sport \\|issue\\=March 1951 \\|page\\=110}} Jim McCraw wrote, \"In rain and high winds, the Jaguar finished fourth in a race that included three giants of American sports\\-car racing β [Briggs Cunningham](/wiki/Briggs_Cunningham \"Briggs Cunningham\") in a Cadillac\\-Healey, second; Phil Walters in a Healey, fifth; and Miles Collier in a Riley\\-Ford, sixth. Sam Collier finished eighth in one of the XK 120s, and Bill Spear DNF'd with no brakes in the third car.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://europeancar.automotive.com/72183/epcp\\-0204\\-jaguar\\-xk\\-120c/index.html\\|title\\=Jim McCraw, ''Jaguar XK120C β Brief History Behind Jaguar'' European Car Magazine\\|access\\-date\\=23 May 2009\\|publisher\\=Europeancar.automotive.com\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707191511/http://europeancar.automotive.com/72183/epcp\\-0204\\-jaguar\\-xk\\-120c/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2011\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} The success launched Jaguar in the US market.",
"Johnson's [Le Mans](/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans \"24 Hours of Le Mans\") results: \n[thumb\\|Scale model by Bizarre 1/43 (Art. BZR090\\) of the 1952 [Nash\\-Healey](/wiki/Nash-Healey \"Nash-Healey\") lightweight purpose\\-built for the Le Mans 24\\-hour race. Driven by Leslie Johnson and [Tommy Wisdom](/wiki/Tommy_Wisdom \"Tommy Wisdom\"), it finished third.](/wiki/File:1952_Nash-Healey_Le_Mans_lightweight_2.JPG \"1952 Nash-Healey Le Mans lightweight 2.JPG\")\n* 1949: DNF, Aston Martin DB2, co\\-driver Charles Brackenbury. Retired from fifth place after six laps; overheating caused by water pump failure.\n* 1950: DNF, Jaguar XK120; clutch failure after 21Β hours while lying third and catching the leader at a rate that would have seen the Jaguar in the lead before the full 24Β hours had elapsedBuckley, Martin: *Jaguar: Fifty Years of Speed and Style* p.120\\. Haynes Publishing 2003, {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-85960\\-875\\-3}}βan effort that convinced William Lyons it was worth investing in success at Le Mans.Nevinson, Tim: \"Flat out for a week\" *Thoroughbred and Classic Cars* June 2008 p. 84\\. Explaining the clutch failure, Jim McCraw wrote: \"Leslie Johnson ran as high as second during the middle portion of the race, but, in order to save brake wear, he kept downshifting the transmission at high speeds and eventually blew the clutch, which prompted the substitution of a solid\\-disc clutch plate from then on.\"\n* 1951: DNF, [Jaguar C\\-Type](/wiki/Jaguar_C-Type \"Jaguar C-Type\"), co\\-driver [Clemente Biondetti](/wiki/Clemente_Biondetti \"Clemente Biondetti\"). Retired from third place after 50 laps; no oil pressure.\n* 1952: 3rd overall out of 57 starters, behind two factory\\-entered Mercedes\\-Benz W194 300SLs; first in class, ahead of triple Le Mans winner [Luigi Chinetti](/wiki/Luigi_Chinetti \"Luigi Chinetti\")'s Ferrari; second in Index of Performance; winner, Gold Challenge Cup. [Nash\\-Healey](/wiki/Nash-Healey \"Nash-Healey\") (a lightweight competition version hastily constructed for the raceβthe body was fabricated in less than a week; the entire car built from scratch in a fortnight).\n* 1953: 11th out of 60 starters; Nash\\-Healey.",
"His [Mille Miglia](/wiki/Mille_Miglia \"Mille Miglia\") results:",
"* 1950: 5th, Jaguar XK120\\. The best\\-ever result by an Englishman driving a British car, in this instance a production model beaten only by lightweight competition cars entered by [Alfa Romeo](/wiki/Alfa_Romeo_in_motorsport \"Alfa Romeo in motorsport\") ([Fangio](/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Fangio \"Juan Manuel Fangio\")'s came third) and [Ferrari](/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari \"Scuderia Ferrari\").\n* 1951: DNF, Ferrari\\-Jaguar \"Biondetti Special\" shared with his 1951 Le Mans partner and four\\-time Mille Miglia winner Clemente Biondetti.\n* 1952: 7th to [Bracco](/wiki/Giovanni_Bracco \"Giovanni Bracco\")'s winning works team Ferrari, the works Mercedes\\-Benz 300SLs of [Kling](/wiki/Karl_Kling \"Karl Kling\") and [Caracciola](/wiki/Rudolf_Caracciola \"Rudolf Caracciola\"), and three works Lancias. Lightweight competition Nash\\-Healey, with [Daily Telegraph](/wiki/Daily_Telegraph \"Daily Telegraph\") motoring correspondent Bill McKenzie as passenger.\n* 1953: DNF, Jaguar C\\-Type.",
"### Racing: single\\-seaters",
"Johnson raced [Delage](/wiki/Delage \"Delage\"), [Talbot\\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago \"Talbot-Lago\") and [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles \"English Racing Automobiles\") cars in single\\-seater events between 1946 and 1950\\.",
"In August 1946, in his first drive in a \"proper\" racing car, albeit one that was already 20Β years old, he broke the lap record at the Ards circuit (the Ulster venue of the [RAC Tourist Trophy](/wiki/RAC_Tourist_Trophy \"RAC Tourist Trophy\") race from 1928 to 1936\\). The car was the supercharged straight\\-eight Delage previously raced by [Earl Howe](/wiki/Francis_Curzon%2C_5th_Earl_Howe \"Francis Curzon, 5th Earl Howe\"), [Dick Seaman](/wiki/Richard_Seaman \"Richard Seaman\") and [Prince Bira](/wiki/Prince_Bira \"Prince Bira\"). The clutch failed to release at the start so the car had to be pushed off the line. Having lost some 200Β yards to the rest of the field, Johnson worked his way up to fourth behind Prince Bira, [Reg Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell \"Reg Parnell\") and [Bob Gerard](/wiki/Bob_Gerard \"Bob Gerard\") but a spark plug melted four laps from the end, forcing him out. (He consoled himself with fastest average in the subsequent handicap race with his BMW 328\\.)Race report titled \"Ulster\" by John Eason Gibson in *Motor Racing 1946* published 1948 by Motor Racing Publications Ltd.",
"He entered three 1947 [Grands Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_motor_racing \"Grand Prix motor racing\") with his ten\\-year\\-old ex\\-Louis Chiron [Talbot\\-Lago](/wiki/Talbot-Lago \"Talbot-Lago\") T150C β Johnson raced it both as a sports car and a single\\-seater, simply removing the mudguards to convert it to Grand Prix configuration. The results were:",
"* 6th, [Jersey](/wiki/Jersey \"Jersey\") International Road Race. Finished ahead of several [Maserati](/wiki/Maserati_in_motorsport \"Maserati in motorsport\") and [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles \"English Racing Automobiles\") single\\-seaters.\n* 7th, [Belgian Grand Prix](/wiki/Belgian_Grand_Prix \"Belgian Grand Prix\"), Spa.\n* DNF, [Swiss Grand Prix](/wiki/Swiss_Grand_Prix \"Swiss Grand Prix\"), Bern. There was an almost total lack of crowd control, with the result that [Achille Varzi](/wiki/Achille_Varzi \"Achille Varzi\")'s Alfa Romeo killed one spectator on the track in practice, and Johnson pulled out of the race after his Talbot\\-Lago locked a brake entering a corner and tail\\-swiped the spectators, killing two. The following year, Varzi suffered a fatal accident in practice for the same event.",
"In November 1947 Leslie Johnson acquired [English Racing Automobiles](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles \"English Racing Automobiles\"), together with one of their prewar ERA E\\-Type single\\-seaters. The car was fast but fragile, and Johnson's 1948 results were disappointing despite a lap record and a fastest lap:\n[thumb\\|ERA E\\-Type GP2 driven by Leslie Johnson in the [1948](/wiki/1948_British_Grand_Prix \"1948 British Grand Prix\") and [1950 British Grand Prix](/wiki/1950_British_Grand_Prix \"1950 British Grand Prix\").](/wiki/File:ERA_E-type.jpg \"ERA E-type.jpg\")",
"* DNF, Grand Prix du Salon, [MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry \"Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry\"). Lap record and pole position, but the fuel tank split in the race.\n* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1948_British_Grand_Prix \"1948 British Grand Prix\"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\"). *Autosport* magazine reported that he posted fastest lap in the opening practice session, \"good enough for Johnson to be a front row man, and a potential winner!\" He was 5th on the starting grid. In the race, de Graffenried's [Maserati 4CL](/wiki/Maserati_4CL_and_4CLT \"Maserati 4CL and 4CLT\") was fastest off the line. Before Woodcote, the first corner, Chiron's [Talbot\\-Lago T26C](/wiki/Talbot-Lago \"Talbot-Lago\") took the lead, followed by Parnell's Maserati 4CLT and Johnson's ERA. Entering Woodcote, Johnson drew level with Chiron. Then there was a \"crash and a bang\"' and the ERA \"rolled to a standstill . . . leaving a trail of flame and smoke in its wake.\" A driveshaft universal joint had failed.\n* 5th and fastest lap (shared with [Parnell](/wiki/Reg_Parnell \"Reg Parnell\")'s 4CLT Maserati), [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\") Trophy.",
"1949 saw three promising results from five entries:",
"* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1949_British_Grand_Prix \"1949 British Grand Prix\"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\")βBritain's first World Championship Grand Prix.\n* 5th, [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_London \"Richmond, London\") Trophy, [Goodwood](/wiki/Goodwood_Motor_Racing_Circuit \"Goodwood Motor Racing Circuit\").\n* 3rd, [Chichester](/wiki/Chichester \"Chichester\") Trophy.\n* 3rd, British Empire Trophy, despite broken rear shock\\-absorbers.\n* DNS, Jersey Road Race. Second fastest to Italian champion [Luigi Villoresi](/wiki/Luigi_Villoresi \"Luigi Villoresi\")'s Maserati in practice, but engine bearing failure kept the car out of the race.",
"But in 1950 Johnson again found himself repeatedly sidelined by the car's unreliability:",
"* DNF, [British Grand Prix](/wiki/1950_British_Grand_Prix \"1950 British Grand Prix\"), [Silverstone](/wiki/Silverstone_Circuit \"Silverstone Circuit\"). Started from the fourth row. The [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger \"Supercharger\") disintegrated after two laps and the car caught fire.",
"Other outings ended in steering failure and another split fuel tank.",
"Johnson's ambitious and technically advanced E\\-Type successor, the G\\-Type ERA, was designed to race in both Grands Prix and Formula 2\\. The anticipated development funds did not materialise, and the car was unsuccessful even in the hands of Stirling Moss.",
"In 1951 Johnson was to have driven the new 600Β bhp [V16 BRM](/wiki/British_Racing_Motors_V16 \"British Racing Motors V16\") in the [Italian Grand Prix](/wiki/Italian_Grand_Prix \"Italian Grand Prix\") at Monza, but he was unable to reach the circuit in time for a pre\\-race test session in the very early morning. [Hans Stuck](/wiki/Hans_Stuck \"Hans Stuck\") took the drive but the car blew up in practice and did not race.Ludwigsen, Karl (2007\\). *BRM V16*, p. 59\\. Veloce Publishing. {{ISBN\\|1\\-84584\\-037\\-2}}.",
"### Record\\-breaking",
"Johnson set numerous world records with Jaguar sports cars at the [Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry](/wiki/Autodrome_de_Montlh%C3%A9ry \"Autodrome de MontlhΓ©ry\"), the banked oval track near Paris; most notably:",
"* 1950: 107\\.46Β mph for 24Β hours, including stops for fuel and tyres, in Johnsonβs Jaguar XK120 roadster JWK 651; co\\-driver Stirling Moss. The first time a production car had averaged over 100Β mph for 24 hours. Johnson and Moss, driving in three\\-hour shifts, covered 2579\\.16 miles, with a best lap of 126\\.2Β mph.\n* 1951: 131\\.83Β miles in one hour, with a best lap of 134\\.43Β mph; Johnson solo with the XK120\\. \"No mean feat...driving at almost twice today's maximum *(UK)* speed limit into a steep turn, assaulted by the g\\-force induced by 30Β degree banking twice every minute, using Forties technology, leaf spring suspension and narrow crossply tyres...Johnson remarked that the car felt so good it could have gone on for another week, an off\\-the\\-cuff comment that sowed the seed for another idea. Flat out for a week...\n* 1952: 100\\.31Β mph for 7Β days and 7 nights; Jaguar XK120 coupΓ©; co\\-drivers Stirling Moss, Bert Hadley and [Jack Fairman](/wiki/Jack_Fairman \"Jack Fairman\").",
"[thumb\\|The MontlhΓ©ry Jaguar XK120 FHC, seen in 2008](/wiki/File:Jaguar_XK120_%27Montlhery%27_FHC_-_Flickr_-_exfordy.jpg \"Jaguar XK120 'Montlhery' FHC - Flickr - exfordy.jpg\")\nFor the week\\-long 1952 marathon [Jaguar's founder](/wiki/William_Lyons \"William Lyons\"), mindful of the considerable kudos and advertising mileage that had already accrued from Johnson's efforts, commandeered a brand new gold\\-coloured XK120 FHC for him: it was Jaguar chief engineer [Walter Hassan](/wiki/Walter_Hassan \"Walter Hassan\")'s car, the second right\\-hand drive coupΓ© made.",
"Moss recalled:",
"\"...in mid\\-summer Leslie Johnson had another of his ideas. Having averaged 100mph for 24 hours at MontlhΓ©ry he now talked Jaguar into attempting 100mph for a week!...We again drove in three\\-hour spells. The speedbowl lap was under a minute at 120mph, so it was quite a strain. After each straight we hit the banking high up near the lip, then plunged off, twice every fifty seconds, night and day. In each spell we would cover about 2000 laps. It was impossible to keep one's mind occupied on a job like that. We had a two\\-way radio which helped keep boredom at bay. We talked all the time, called each other names, even told stories. One dare not let the mind wander, because we were running within four feet of the banking lip at around 120mph. One had to concentrate on something. I worked out how many million revs the engine made in a day, how many times the wheels turned, things like that.\nThe weather did not help; hot by day, cold at night. Night driving was a strain too, because we couldn't afford the drain on the battery of extra lights. The headlights had to be set very high to let us see the top of the banking when we were on it, and this meant that on the short straights we could see nothing at all because the beams were playing in the air.\nWe hit several hares, rabbits and birds, and Leslie swore at one point that he'd seen a huge ten\\-foot tall figure in a long cloak, wearing a tall pointed hat, striding toward him along the verge. Next time round the figure had gone...it worried the life out of him for the rest of his stint. In fact I had donned a Shell fuel funnel, pulled a tarpaulin around me and sat on Jack Fairman's shoulders as he strode along the verge. After Leslie had whizzed by we ran away and hid...All very childish, but good fun in the circumstances. Leslie then had an extraordinary idea to get his own back during one of my stints. I came whistling off the banking to find him sitting with Jack Fairman in the middle of the track, playing cards!\nThen he took the pit signal board and put it out on the track, so that my natural line past the pits took me between it and the timekeeper's hut. He was lounging beside the hut so I waved to him as I shot through the gap. Next time round the board had been moved closer to the hut. The gap was narrower, but I couldn't leave the fast line so I shot through it again. Next time round, he'd moved the board closer still. Each lap he narrowed the gap which made me concentrate harder to pass through it. Eventually he gave in, and the board went back to its proper position, hung on the tent. At least it passed the time...\"\nMontlhΓ©ry's concrete surface was rough, and the Jaguar broke a spring when it was already well into the run. No spare was carried on board. Regulations stipulated that an outside replacement would make the car ineligible for any further records beyond those already achieved before the repair. Johnson drove nine hours to save the other drivers from added risk while the speed had to be maintained on the broken spring. When finally he stopped to have it replaced, the car had taken the World and Class C 72\\-hour records at 105\\.55Β mph, World and Class C four\\-day records at 101\\.17Β mph, Class C 10,000\\-kilometer record at 107\\.031Β mph, World and Class C 15,000\\-kilometer records at 101\\.95Β mph, and World and Class C 10,000\\-mile records at 100\\.65Β mph. After the repair the car went on to complete the full seven days and nights, covering a total of 16,851\\.73Β miles at an average speed of 100\\.31Β mph.",
"In 1953 Rootes commissioned Johnson's company [ERA](/wiki/English_Racing_Automobiles \"English Racing Automobiles\") to modify a Sunbeam Alpine for Stirling Moss and [Sheila van Damm](/wiki/Sheila_van_Damm \"Sheila van Damm\") to drive flat\\-out through a flying kilometre on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium, where Moss's speed of {{convert\\|120\\.13\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} established a new Belgian national record for cars of its class. Two days after the record runs, Johnson drove the car for an hour at an average speed of {{convert\\|111\\.2\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}} at MontlhΓ©ry, and Moss put in a lap at {{convert\\|116\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|page\\=90 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }}",
"### High\\-speed run: 16 countries in 90 hours",
"In December 1952 Johnson, Stirling Moss, rally driver David Humphrey, and navigator John Cutts crewed a [Humber Super Snipe Mark IV](/wiki/Humber_Super_Snipe%23Mk_%21V \"Humber Super Snipe#Mk !V\") on a journey from [Oslo](/wiki/Oslo \"Oslo\"), Norway, to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), Portugalβa total of 16 countries and 3,380 milesβin 3 days, 17 hours and 59 minutes. The purpose was to publicise the car, which Rootes had introduced six weeks earlier as a new model for 1953\\. The company's Competition Manager Norman Garrad, who had come up with the idea, hoped the trip might be completed in five days.{{cite book \\|last\\=Robson \\|first\\=Graham \\|title\\=Rootes Maestros \\|date\\=November 2008 \\|publisher\\=Mercian \\|pages\\=75β81 \\|isbn\\=9781903088463 }}",
"The team stopped only for meals, refuelling, driver changeovers, and to change a wheel after a puncture. With \"heroic driving, particularly from Stirling Moss and Leslie Johnson\" they finished at Lisbon 30 hours earlier than Garrad had expected, despite traffic, sheet ice, blizzards, and snowdrifts up to 18 inches deep en route. They took every opportunity to cruise at {{convert\\|90\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}βMoss recalled that \"many times\" the speedometer indicated \"over ninety for a quarter of an hour at a stretch\"βand Johnson drove the last three hours to Lisbon at an average of {{convert\\|64\\|mph\\|km/h\\|abbr\\=on}}.",
""
] |
Post\-Cold War usage
--------------------
{{See also\|PostβCold War era}}
The phrase "new world order" as used to herald in the post\-Cold War era had no developed or substantive definition. There appear to have been three distinct periods in which it was progressively redefined, first by the Soviets and later by the United States before the Malta Conference and again after [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush")'s speech of September 11, 1990\.
1. At first, the new world order dealt almost exclusively with [nuclear disarmament](/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament "Nuclear disarmament") and security arrangements. [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev") would then expand the phrase to include [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") strengthening and [great power](/wiki/Great_power "Great power") cooperation on a range of [NorthβSouth](/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World "NorthβSouth divide in the World") economic, and security problems. Implications for [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO"), the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact "Warsaw Pact"), and [European integration](/wiki/European_integration "European integration") were subsequently included.
2. The [Malta Conference](/wiki/Malta_Summit "Malta Summit") collected these various expectations and they were fleshed out in more detail by the press. [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification "German reunification"), [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") and the [polarity](/wiki/Polarity_%28power%29 "Polarity (power)") of the [international system](/wiki/International_relations "International relations") were then included.
3. The [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War") crisis refocused the term on [superpower](/wiki/Superpower "Superpower") cooperation and regional crises. Economic NorthβSouth problems, the integration of the Soviets into the international system and the changes in economic and military polarity received greater attention.
### Mikhail Gorbachev's formulation
The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo\-Indian talks on November 21, 1988\. [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India "Prime Minister of India") [Rajiv Gandhi](/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi "Rajiv Gandhi") used the term in reference to the commitments made by the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") through the [Declaration of Delhi](/wiki/Declaration_of_Delhi "Declaration of Delhi") of two years previous. The new world order which he describes is characterized by "[non\-violence](/wiki/Non-violence "Non-violence") and the principles of peaceful coexistence". He also includes the possibility of a sustained peace, an alternative to the nuclear [balance of terror](/wiki/Balance_of_terror "Balance of terror"), dismantling of [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons "Nuclear weapons") systems, significant cuts in strategic arms and eventually a general and complete disarmament."Gorbachev and Indian Prime Minister Hold Talks on November 19 Speeches Made at Peace Prize." November 21, 1988
Three days later, a *[Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")* article quotes [NATO Secretary General](/wiki/Secretary_General_of_NATO "Secretary General of NATO") [Manfred WΓΆrner](/wiki/Manfred_W%C3%B6rner "Manfred WΓΆrner") as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting NATO's doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as well as [conventional arms](/wiki/Conventional_weapons "Conventional weapons"). In his opinion, this would spur the creation of "a new security framework" and a move towards "a new world order"."Soviets 'in arms strategy shift'", *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian")*, November 24, 1988
However, the principal statement creating the new world order concept came from [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev")'s December 7, 1988 speech to the United Nations General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role of the United Nations and the active involvement of all membersβthe Cold War had prevented the United Nations and its Security Council from performing their roles as initially envisioned. The de\-[ideologizing](/wiki/Ideology "Ideology") of relations among states was the mechanism through which this new level of cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only one world economyβessentially an end to [economic blocs](/wiki/Trade_bloc "Trade bloc"). Furthermore, he advocated Soviet entry into several important international organizations, such as the [CSCE](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe") and [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice"). Reinvigoration of the [United Nations peacekeeping](/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping "United Nations peacekeeping") role and recognition that superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no longer legitimate and that the strong must demonstrate restraint toward the weak. As the major powers of the world, he foresaw the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan and Brazil. He asked for cooperation on [environmental protection](/wiki/Environmental_protection "Environmental protection"), on [debt relief](/wiki/Debt_relief "Debt relief") for [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_countries "Developing countries"), on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on preservation of the [ABM treaty](/wiki/ABM_treaty "ABM treaty") and on a convention for the elimination of [chemical weapons](/wiki/Chemical_weapons "Chemical weapons"). At the same time, he promised the significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia as well as an end to the jamming of [Radio Liberty](/wiki/Radio_Liberty "Radio Liberty").
Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global political awakening:
{{blockquote\|We are witnessing most profound social change. Whether in the East or the South, the West or the North, hundreds of millions of people, new nations and states, new public movements and ideologies have moved to the forefront of history. Broad\-based and frequently turbulent popular movements have given expression, in a multidimensional and contradictory way, to a longing for independence, democracy and \[\[social justice]]. The idea of democratizing the entire world order has become a powerful socio\-political force. At the same time, the scientific and technological revolution has turned many economic, food, energy, environmental, information and population problems, which only recently we treated as national or regional ones, into global problems. Thanks to the advances in \[\[mass media]] and means of transportation, the world seems to have become more visible and tangible. International communication has become easier than ever before.}}
In the press, Gorbachev was compared to [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") giving the Fourteen Points, to [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") and [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") promulgating the [Atlantic Charter](/wiki/Atlantic_Charter "Atlantic Charter") and to [George Marshall](/wiki/George_Marshall "George Marshall") and [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman") building the [Western Alliance](/wiki/NATO "NATO"). While visionary, his speech was to be approached with caution as he was seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support "for independence, democracy and social justice" was highlighted, but the principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order based on [pluralism](/wiki/Pluralism_%28political_philosophy%29 "Pluralism (political philosophy)"), tolerance and cooperation."Vision on the World Stage", *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")*, November 9, 1988
{{blockquote\|For a new type of progress throughout the world to become a reality, everyone must change. Tolerance is the \[\[alpha and omega]] of a new world order.\|Gorbachev, June 1990}}
A month later, *[Time Magazine](/wiki/Time_Magazine "Time Magazine")* ran a longer analysis of the speech and its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a threat, which might "lure the West toward complacency" and "woo Western Europe into neutered [neutralism](/wiki/Neutral_country "Neutral country")". However, the more overriding threat was that the [West](/wiki/Western_world "Western world") did not yet have any imaginative response to Gorbachevβleaving the Soviets with the moral initiative and solidifying Gorbachev's place as "the most popular world leader in much of [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe "Western Europe")". The article noted as important his de\-ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there) and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new world order seemed to imply shifting of resources from military to domestic needs; a world community of states based on the [rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law "Rule of law"); a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the *Time* article felt that [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush") should counter Gorbachev's "[common home](/wiki/Common_European_Home "Common European Home")" rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of "common ideals", turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values. Gorbachev's repudiation of [expansionism](/wiki/Expansionism "Expansionism") leaves the United States in a good position, no longer having to support [anti\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism") [dictators](/wiki/Dictator "Dictator") and able to pursue better goals such as the environment; [nonproliferation](/wiki/Nonproliferation "Nonproliferation") of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons; reducing [famine](/wiki/Famine "Famine") and poverty; and resolving regional conflicts."The Gorbachev Challenge", *[Time Magazine](/wiki/Time_Magazine "Time Magazine")*, December 19, 1988 In *[A World Transformed](/wiki/A_World_Transformed "A World Transformed")*, Bush and [Brent Scowcroft](/wiki/Brent_Scowcroft "Brent Scowcroft")'s similarly concern about losing leadership to Gorbachev is noted and they worry that the Europeans might stop following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet.George H.W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft. *[A World Transformed](/wiki/A_World_Transformed "A World Transformed")*, {{ISBN\|0\-679\-75259\-5}}, pp. 42β43\.
As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world order for the [European Community](/wiki/European_Community "European Community") surfaced. The European Community was seen as the vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could "pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings with those superpowers on something more like equal terms". It would be less exclusively tied to the U.S. and stretch "from [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France") to [Brest\-Litovsk](/wiki/Brest-Litovsk "Brest-Litovsk"), or at least from [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin") to [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin "Lublin")"."The Dog that Failed to Bark", *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times")*, January 10, 1989 By July 1989, newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to Gorbachev's proposals. Bush visited Europe, but "left undefined for those on both sides of the [Iron Curtain](/wiki/Iron_Curtain "Iron Curtain") his vision for the new world order", leading commentators to view the U.S. as over\-cautious and reactive, rather than pursuing long\-range strategic goals."Still searching for the Bush Doctrine", *[The Boston Globe](/wiki/The_Boston_Globe "The Boston Globe")*, July 23, 1989
### Malta Conference
[thumb\|upright\=0\.7\|[George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush "George H. W. Bush")](/wiki/File:George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg "George H. W. Bush presidential portrait (cropped).jpg")
In *A World Transformed*, Bush and Scowcroft detail their crafting of a strategy aimed at flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the [Malta Conference](/wiki/Malta_Summit "Malta Summit") to catch him off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the defensive.*A World Transformed*, pp. 163β167\.
The Malta Conference on December 2β3, 1989 reinvigorated discussion of the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments, settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening EastβWest trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in international economic institutions and protecting the environment. Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast, with the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation and treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and the Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four\-power framework from World War II (i.e. the United States, United Kingdom, France and Russia). However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was expected to help contain "historic antagonisms", thus making possible a [new European order](/wiki/European_integration "European integration").Compiled from:
"U.S. must get involved in shaping a new world order", *The Boston Globe*, December 3, 1989
"New World Order Galloping Into Position", *The Washington Post*, February 25, 1990
"A Workmanlike Summit", *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, June 5, 1990
* + - In Europe, German reunification was seen as part of the new order. However, [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott "Strobe Talbott") saw it as more of a brake on the new era and believed Malta to be a holding action on part of the superpowers designed to forestall the "new world order" because of the German question."American Abroad; Braking the Juggernaut", *Time Magazine*, December 18, 1989 Political change in Eastern Europe also arose on the agenda. The Eastern Europeans believed that the new world order did not signify superpower leadership, but that superpower dominance was coming to an end."Soviet hopes are undaunted", *The Boston Globe*, December 3, 1989
In general, the new security structure arising from superpower cooperation seemed to indicate to observers that the new world order would be based on the principles of political liberty, self\-determination and non\-intervention. This would mean an end to the sponsoring of military conflicts in third countries, restrictions on global arms sales, and greater engagement in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East "Middle East") (especially regarding [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"), [Palestine](/wiki/Palestinian_territories "Palestinian territories") and [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel")). The U.S. might use this opportunity to more emphatically promote [human rights in China](/wiki/Human_rights_in_China "Human rights in China") and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa").
Economically, debt relief was expected to be a significant issue as EastβWest competition would give way to NorthβSouth cooperation. Economic tripolarity would arise with the U.S., [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") as the three motors of world growth. Meanwhile, the Soviet social and economic crisis was manifestly going to limit its ability to project power abroad, thus necessitating continued U.S. leadership.
Commentators assessing the results of the Conference and how the pronouncements measured up to expectations, were underwhelmed. Bush was criticized for taking refuge behind notions of "[status quo](/wiki/Status_quo "Status quo")\-plus" rather than a full commitment to new world order. Others noted that Bush thus far failed to satisfy the out\-of\-control "soaring expectations" that Gorbachev's speech unleashed.
### Gulf War and Bush's formulation
[thumb\|Bush greeting troops on the eve of the First [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War")](/wiki/File:Bush_troops.jpg "Bush troops.jpg")
Bush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run\-up to the [Persian Gulf War](/wiki/Persian_Gulf_War "Persian Gulf War"), when he began to define the elements of the new world order as he saw it and link the new order's success to the international community's response in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait "Kuwait").
Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein "Saddam Hussein") highlighted this linkage in the press. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* declared that this superpower cooperation demonstrates that the Soviet Union has joined the international community and that in the new world order Saddam faces not just the U.S., but the international community itself."Summit Decision Signals Superpower Cooperation", *The Washington Post*, September 2, 1990 A *New York Times* editorial was the first to assert that at stake in the collective response to Saddam was "nothing less than the new world order which Bush and other leaders struggle to shape"."The Month that Shook the World", *The New York Times*, September 2, 1990
In *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft notes that Bush even offered to have Soviet troops amongst the coalition forces liberating Kuwait. Bush places the fate of the new world order on the ability of the U.S. and the Soviet Union to respond to Hussein's aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 361β364\. The idea that the Persian Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take shape. Bush notes that the "premise \[was] that the United States henceforth would be obligated to lead the world community to an unprecedented degree, as demonstrated by the [Iraqi](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq") crisis, and that we should attempt to pursue our [national interests](/wiki/National_interest "National interest"), wherever possible, within a framework of concert with our friends and the [international community](/wiki/International_community "International community")".*A World Transformed*, pp. 399β400\.
On March 6, 1991, President Bush addressed [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") in a speech often cited as the Bush administration's principal policy statement on the new world order in the Middle East following the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait.[Michael Oren](/wiki/Michael_Oren "Michael Oren"), *[Power, Faith and Fantasy](/wiki/Power%2C_Faith_and_Fantasy "Power, Faith and Fantasy")*, p. 569, 2011, W W Norton \& Son, {{ISBN\|978\-0393330304}} [Michael Oren](/wiki/Michael_Oren "Michael Oren") summarizes the speech, saying: "The president proceeded to outline his plan for maintaining a permanent U.S. naval presence in the Persian Gulf, for providing funds for Middle East development, and for instituting safeguards against the spread of unconventional weapons. The centerpiece of his program, however, was the achievement of an Arab\-Israeli treaty based on the territory\-for\-peace principle and the fulfillment of Palestinian rights". As a first step, Bush announced his intention to reconvene the international peace [conference in Madrid](/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991 "Madrid Conference of 1991").
A pivotal point came with Bush's September 11, 1990 "Toward a New World Order" speech ([full text](/wiki/wikisource:Toward_a_New_World_Order "Toward a New World Order")) to a joint session of Congress. This time it was Bush, not Gorbachev, whose idealism was compared to [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") and to [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") at the creation of the United Nations. Key points picked up in the press were:
* Commitment to U.S. strength, such that it can lead the world toward rule of law, rather than use of force. The Gulf crisis was seen as a reminder that the U.S. must continue to lead and that military strength does matter, but that the resulting new world order should make military force less important in the future.
* SovietβAmerican partnership in cooperation toward making the world safe for democracy, making possible the goals of the United Nations for the first time since its inception. Some countered that this was unlikely and that ideological tensions would remain, such that the two superpowers could be partners of convenience for specific and limited goals only. The inability of the Soviet Union to project force abroad was another factor in skepticism toward such a partnership.
* Another caveat raised was that the new world order was based not on U.S.\-Soviet cooperation, but really on Bush\-Gorbachev cooperation and that the personal diplomacy made the entire concept exceedingly fragile.
* Future cleavages were to be economic, not ideological, with the First and Second World cooperating to contain regional instability in the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World "Third World"). Russia could become an ally against economic assaults from Asia, [Islamic terrorism](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism "Islamic terrorism") and [drugs](/wiki/War_on_drugs "War on drugs") from [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America").
* Soviet integration into world economic institutions such as the [G7](/wiki/G7 "G7") and establishment of ties with the European Community.
* Restoration of German [sovereignty](/wiki/Sovereignty "Sovereignty") and [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia "Cambodia")'s acceptance of the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council")'s peace plan on the day previous to the speech were seen as signs of what to expect in the new world order.
* The reemergence of Germany and Japan as members of the great powers and concomitant reform of the United Nations Security Council was seen as necessary for great power cooperation and reinvigorated United Nations leadership
* Europe was seen as taking the lead on building their own world order while the U.S. was relegated to the sidelines. The rationale for U.S. presence on the continent was vanishing and the Persian Gulf crisis was seen as incapable of rallying Europe. Instead, Europe was discussing the European Community, the CSCE and relations with the Soviet Union. Gorbachev even proposed an all\-European security council to replace the CSCE, in effect superseding the increasingly irrelevant NATO.
* A very few postulated a bi\-polar new order of U.S. power and United Nations [moral authority](/wiki/Moral_authority "Moral authority"), the first as global policeman, the second as global judge and jury. The order would be collectivist in which decisions and responsibility would be shared.
These were the common themes which emerged from reporting about Bush's speech and its implications.Compiled from:
"Evoking the memory of Wilson and 'a new world order'", *The Boston Globe*, September 12, 1990
"Superpowers to Superpartners", *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")*, September 17, 1990
"Steps to a new world order", *Financial Times*, September 17, 1990
"U.S. leads the new world order", *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star "Toronto Star")*, September 19, 1990
"Europe choreographs new world order, but Bush is out of step", *The Boston Globe*, November 21
* + - * + Critics held that Bush and Baker remained too vague about what exactly the order entailed:
{{blockquote\|Does it mean a strengthened U.N.? And new regional security arrangements in the gulf and elsewhere? Will the U.S. be willing to put its own military under international leadership? In the Persian Gulf, Mr. Bush has rejected a UN command outright. Sometimes, when Administration officials describe their goals, they say the U.S. must reduce its military burden and commitment. Other times, they appear determined to seek new arrangements to preserve U.S. military supremacy and to justify new expenditures.}}
*[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* observed that the [American left](/wiki/American_liberalism "American liberalism") was calling the new world order a "rationalization for imperial ambitions" in the Middle East while the [right](/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States "Conservatism in the United States") rejected new security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any possibility of United Nations revival."George Bush Meet Woodrow Wilson", *The New York Times*, November 20, 1990 [Pat Buchanan](/wiki/Pat_Buchanan "Pat Buchanan") predicted that the Persian Gulf War would in fact be the demise of the new world order, the concept of United Nations peacekeeping and the U.S.'s role as global policeman.*A World Transformed*, pp. 426\.
The *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* reported that the speech signified more than just the rhetoric about superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of the new world order was the U.S.' emergence "as the single greatest power in a multipolar world". Moscow was crippled by internal problems and thus unable to project power abroad. While hampered by economic malaise, the U.S. was militarily unconstrained for the first time since the end of World War II. Militarily, it was now a unipolar world as illustrated by the Persian Gulf crisis. While diplomatic rhetoric stressed a U.S.\-Soviet partnership, the U.S. was deploying troops to [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia "Saudi Arabia") (a mere 700 miles from the Soviet frontier) and was preparing for war against a former Soviet [client state](/wiki/Client_state "Client state"). Further, U.S. authority over the Soviets was displayed in 1\. The unification of Germany, withdrawal of Soviet forces, and almost open appeal to Washington for aid in managing the Soviet transition to democracy; 2\. Withdrawal of Soviet support for Third World clients; and 3\) Soviets seeking economic aid through membership in Western international economic and trade communities."With Moscow Crippled, U.S. Emerges as Top Power", *[LA Times](/wiki/LA_Times "LA Times")*, September 12, 1990
{{anchor\|unipolar moment}}The speech was indeed pivotal but the meaning hidden. A pivotal interpretation of the speech came the same month a week later on September 18, 1990\. [Charles Krauthammer](/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer "Charles Krauthammer") then delivered a lecture in Washington in which he introduced the idea of American [unipolarity](/wiki/Unipolarity "Unipolarity"). By the fall 1990, his essay was published in *Foreign Affairs* titled "The Unipolar Moment".*Foreign Affairs*, 69/5: (Winter 1990/91\), p 23\-33\. It had little to do with Kuwait. The main point was the following:
{{blockquote\|It has been assumed that the old bipolar world would beget a multipolar world⦠The immediate post\-Cold War world is not multipolar. It is unipolar. The center of world power is an unchallenged superpower, the United States, attended by its Western allies.''Foreign Affairs'', 69/5: (Winter 1990/91\), p 23\.}}
In fact, as [Lawrence Freedman](/wiki/Lawrence_Freedman "Lawrence Freedman") commented in 1991, a "unipolar" world is now taken seriously. He details:
{{blockquote\|An underlying theme in all the discussions is that the United States has now acquired a preeminent position in the international hierarchy. This situation has developed because of the precipitate decline of the Soviet Union. Bush himself has indicated that it is the new relationship with Moscow that creates the possibility for his new order. For many analysts, therefore, the new order's essential feature is not the values it is said to embody nor the principles upon which it is to be based, but that it has the United States at its center... In effect, the debate is over the consequences of the West's victory in the Cold War rather than in the Gulf for the generality of international conflicts.Lawrence Freedman, 'The Gulf War and the New World Order,' ''Survival'', 33/3, (1991\): p 197\.}}
Washington's capacity to exert overwhelming military power and leadership over a multinational coalition provides the "basis for a *[Pax Americana](/wiki/Pax_Americana "Pax Americana")*". Indeed, one of the problems with Bush's phrase was that "a call for 'order' from Washington chills practically everyone else, because it sounds suspiciously like a *Pax Americana*".Lawrence Freedman, 'The Gulf War and the New World Order,' *Survival*, 33/3, (1991\): p 196\-197\. The unipolarity, Krauthammer noted, is the "most striking feature of the post\-Cold War world". The article proved to be epochal. Twelve years later, Krauthammer in "The Unipolar Moment Revisited"*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\), p 5\-20\. stated that the "moment" is lasting and lasting with "acceleration".*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\), p 6\. He replied to those who still refused to acknowledge the fact of unipolarity: "If today's American primacy does not constitute unipolarity, then nothing ever will". In 1990, Krauthammer had estimated that the "moment" will last forty years at best, but he adjusted the estimation in 2002: "Today, it seems rather modest. The unipolar moment has become the unipolar era".*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\), p 17\. On the latter occasion, Krauthammer added perhaps his most significant commentβthe new unipolar world order represents a "unique to modern history" structure.*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\), p 5\.
#### Presaging the Iraq War of 2003
[thumb\|upright\|[James Baker](/wiki/James_Baker "James Baker"), [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State "United States Secretary of State") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:JamesBaker.jpeg "JamesBaker.jpeg")
*[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist "The Economist")* published an article explaining the drive toward the Persian Gulf War in terms presaging the run\-up to the [Iraq War of 2003](/wiki/Iraq_War_of_2003 "Iraq War of 2003"). The author notes directly that despite the coalition, in the minds of most governments this is the U.S.' war and [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") that "chose to stake his political life on defeating Mr Hussein". An attack on Iraq would certainly shatter Bush's alliance, they assert, predicting calls from United Nations Security Council members saying that diplomacy should have been given more time and that they will not wish to allow a course of action "that leaves America sitting too prettily as sole remaining superpower". When the unanimity of the Security Council ends, "all that lovely talk about the new world order" will too. When casualties mount, "Bush will be called a warmonger, an [imperialist](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") and a bully". The article goes on to say that Bush and [James Baker](/wiki/James_Baker "James Baker")'s speechifying cannot save the new world order once they launch a controversial war. It closes noting that a wide consensus is not necessary for U.S. actionβonly a hardcore of supporters, namely [Gulf Cooperation Council](/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council "Gulf Cooperation Council") states (including Saudi Arabia), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") and Britain. The rest need only not interfere."New World Order Inc", *The Economist*, November 10, 1990
In a passage with similar echoes of the future, Bush and Scowcroft explain in *A World Transformed* the role of the [United Nations Secretary\-General](/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations "Secretary-General of the United Nations") in attempting to avert the Persian Gulf War. Secretary\-General [Javier PΓ©rez de CuΓ©llar](/wiki/Javier_P%C3%A9rez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar "Javier PΓ©rez de CuΓ©llar") arrived at [Camp David](/wiki/Camp_David "Camp David") to ask what he could do to head off the war. Bush told him that it was important that we get full implementation on every United Nations resolution: "If we compromise, we weaken the UN and our own credibility in building this new world order," I said. "I think Saddam Hussein doesn't believe force will be usedβor if it is, he can produce a stalemate". Additional meetings between Baker or PΓ©rez and the Iraqis are rejected for fear that they will simply come back empty\-handed once again. Bush feared that Javier will be cover for Hussein's manipulations. PΓ©rez suggested another Security Council meeting, but Bush saw no reason for one.*A World Transformed*, pp. 440\.
### Following the Persian Gulf War
Following the Persian Gulf War which was seen as the crucible in which great power cooperation and collective security would emerge the new norms of the eraβseveral academic assessments of the "new world order" idea were published.
[John Lewis Gaddis](/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis "John Lewis Gaddis"), a Cold War historian, wrote in *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs")* about what he saw as the key characteristics of the potential new order, namely unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration, resurgent [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism") and religiosity, a diffusion of security threats and collective security. He casts the fundamental challenge as one of integration versus fragmentation and the concomitant benefits and dangers associated with each. Changes in [communications](/wiki/Telecommunication "Telecommunication"), the international economic system, the nature of security threats and the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating into [isolation](/wiki/Isolationism "Isolationism"). In light of this, Gaddis sees a chance for the [democratic peace](/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory "Democratic peace theory") predicted by [liberal international relations theorists](/wiki/Liberal_international_relations_theory "Liberal international relations theory") to come closer to reality. However, he illustrates that not only is the fragmentary pressure of nationalism manifest in the former Communist bloc countries and the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World "Third World"), but it is also a considerable factor in the West. Further, a revitalized [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") could play both integrating and fragmenting rolesβemphasizing common identity, but also contributing to new conflicts that could resemble the [Lebanese Civil War](/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War "Lebanese Civil War"). The integration coming from the new order could also aggravate [ecological](/wiki/Ecology "Ecology"), [demographic](/wiki/Demography "Demography") and [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic "Epidemic") threats. National [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"), leading to the breakup and reunification of states (such as Yugoslavia on one hand and Germany on the other) could signal abrupt shifts in the balance of power with a destabilizing effect. Integrated markets, especially energy markets, are now a security liability for the world economic system as events affecting [energy security](/wiki/Energy_security "Energy security") in one part of the globe could threaten countries far removed from potential conflicts. Finally, diffusion of security threats required a new security paradigm involving low\-intensity, but more frequent deployment of peacekeeping troopsβa type of mission that is hard to sustain under budgetary or public opinion pressure. Gaddis called for aid to Eastern European countries, updated security and economic regimes for Europe, United Nations\-based regional conflict resolution, a slower pace of international economic integration and paying off the U.S. [debt](/wiki/Government_debt "Government debt").John Lewis Gaddis. "Toward the PostβCold War World." *Foreign Affairs* 1991, Spring
However, statesman [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott "Strobe Talbott") wrote of the new world order that it was only in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War that the United Nations took a step toward redefining its role to take account of both interstate relations and intrastate events. Furthermore, he asserted that it was only as an unintended postscript to Desert Storm that Bush gave meaning to the "new world order" slogan. By the end of the year, Bush stopped talking about a new world order and his advisers explained that he had dropped the phrase because he felt it suggested more enthusiasm for the changes sweeping the planet than he actually felt. As an antidote to the uncertainties of the world, he wanted to stress the old verities of territorial integrity, national sovereignty and international stability.Strobe Talbott. "Post\-Victory Blues." *Foreign Affairs.* December 1991 January 1992 [David Gergen](/wiki/David_Gergen "David Gergen") suggested at the time that it was the [recession of 1991β1992](/wiki/Early_1990s_recession "Early 1990s recession") which finally killed the new world order idea within the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"). The economic downturn took a deeper psychological toll than expected while domestic politics were increasingly frustrated by paralysis, with the result that the United States toward the end of 1991 turned increasingly pessimistic, inward and nationalistic.David Gergen. "America's Missed Opportunities." *Foreign Affairs*. December 1991 January 1992
In 1992, [Hans KΓΆchler](/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler "Hans KΓΆchler") published a critical assessment of the notion of the "new world order", describing it as an ideological tool of legitimation of the global exercise of power by the U.S. in a unipolar environment.Hans KΓΆchler. *Democracy and the New World Order*. Studies in International Relations, XIX. Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1993\. {{ISBN\|3\-900704\-13\-9}}. (Translation of the German edition of 1992\) In [Joseph Nye](/wiki/Joseph_Nye "Joseph Nye")'s analysis (1992\), the [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union "Collapse of the Soviet Union") did not issue in a new world order per se, but rather simply allowed for the reappearance of the liberal institutional order that was supposed to have come into effect in 1945\. However, this success of this order was not a fait accomplis.Joseph S. Nye, Jr. "What New World Order." *Foreign Affairs*. 1992, Spring Three years later, [John Ikenberry](/wiki/John_Ikenberry "John Ikenberry") would reaffirm Nye's idea of a reclamation of the ideal post\-World War II order, but would dispute the nay\-sayers who had predicted post\-Cold War chaos.G. John Ikenberry. "The Myth of PostβCold War Chaos." *Foreign Affairs*. May 1996 / June 1996 By 1997, [Anne\-Marie Slaughter](/wiki/Anne-Marie_Slaughter "Anne-Marie Slaughter") produced an analysis calling the restoration of the post\-World War II order a "chimera ... infeasible at best and dangerous at worst". In her view, the new order was not a liberal institutionalist one, but one in which state authority disaggregated and decentralized in the face of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization").Anne\-Marie Slaughter. "The Real New World Order." *Foreign Affairs*. September 1997 / October 1997
[Samuel Huntington](/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington "Samuel P. Huntington") wrote critically of the "new world order" and of [Francis Fukuyama](/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama "Francis Fukuyama")'s *[End of History](/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man "The End of History and the Last Man")* theory in *The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order*:
The expectation of harmony was widely shared. Political and intellectual leaders elaborated similar views. The Berlin wall had come down, communist regimes had collapsed, the United Nations was to assume a new importance, the former Cold War rivals would engage in "partnership" and a "grand bargain," peacekeeping and peacemaking would be the order of the day. The President of the world's leading country proclaimed the "new world order"...
The moment of euphoria at the end of the Cold War generated an illusion of harmony, which was soon revealed to be exactly that. The world became different in the early 1990s, but not necessarily more peaceful. Change was inevitable; progress was not... The illusion of harmony at the end of that Cold War was soon dissipated by the multiplication of ethnic conflicts and "[ethnic cleansing](/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing "Ethnic cleansing")," the breakdown of law and order, the emergence of new patterns of alliance and conflict among states, the resurgence of neo\-[communist](/wiki/Communist "Communist") and [neo\-fascist](/wiki/Neo-fascist "Neo-fascist") movements, intensification of religious [fundamentalism](/wiki/Fundamentalism "Fundamentalism"), the end of the "diplomacy of smiles" and "[policy of yes](/wiki/Policy_of_yes "Policy of yes")" in Russia's relations with the West, the inability of the United Nations and the United States to suppress bloody local conflicts, and the increasing assertiveness of a rising China. In the five years after the Berlin wall came down, the word "[genocide](/wiki/Genocide "Genocide")" was heard far more often than in any five years of the Cold War.
The one harmonious world paradigm is clearly far too divorced from reality to be a useful guide to the postβCold War world. Two Worlds: Us and Them. While one\-world expectations appear at the end of major conflicts, the tendency to think in terms of two worlds recurs throughout human history. People are always tempted to divide people into us and them, the in\-group and the other, our civilization and those barbarians.Samuel P. Huntington. *[The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order](http://helmet.stetson.edu/artsci/polsci/extras/clash.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060227064610/http://helmet.stetson.edu/artsci/polsci/extras/clash.pdf \|date\=2006\-02\-27 }}.* Simon \& Schuster: New York. January 28, 1998\. {{ISBN\|0\-684\-84441\-9}}. pp. 7β8\.
Despite the criticisms of the new world order concept, ranging from its practical unworkability to its theoretical incoherence, [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton "Bill Clinton") not only signed on to the idea of the "new world order", but dramatically expanded the concept beyond Bush's formulation. The essence of Clinton's [election year](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election "1992 United States presidential election") critique was that Bush had done too little, not too much.David C. Hendrickson. "The Recovery of Internationalism." *Foreign Affairs*. September 1994 / October 1994
American intellectual [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky "Noam Chomsky"), author of the 1994 book *[World Orders Old and New](/wiki/World_Orders_Old_and_New "World Orders Old and New")*, often describes the "new world order" as a post\-Cold\-War era in which "the [New World](/wiki/New_World "New World") gives the orders". Commenting on the [1999 U.S.\-NATO bombing of Serbia](/wiki/Kosovo_War "Kosovo War"), he writes:
{{blockquote\|The aim of these assaults is to establish the role of the major imperialist powersβabove all, the United Statesβas the unchallengeable arbiters of world affairs. The "New World Order" is precisely this: an international regime of unrelenting pressure and intimidation by the most powerful capitalist states against the weakest.{{Cite web \| author \= Noam Chomsky \| title \= US\-NATO bombs fall on Serbia: the "New World Order" takes shape \| year \= 1999 \| url \= http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/mar1999/nato\-m25\.shtml \| access\-date \= 2010\-06\-18}}}}
Following the rise of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin "Boris Yeltsin") eclipsing Gorbachev and the [election victory](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election "1992 United States presidential election") of Clinton over Bush, the term "new world order" fell from common usage. It was replaced by competing similar concepts about how the post\-Cold War order would develop. Prominent among these were the ideas of the "era of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization")", the "unipolar moment", the "end of history" and the "[Clash of Civilizations](/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations "Clash of Civilizations")".Adam Garfinkle. "The Present Opportunity." *[The National Interest](/wiki/The_National_Interest "The National Interest")*. 2001 Fall
### Viewed in retrospect
A 2001 paper in *Presidential Studies Quarterly* examined the idea of the "new world order" as it was presented by the Bush administration (mostly ignoring previous uses by Gorbachev). Their conclusion was that Bush really only ever had three firm aspects to the new world order:
1. Checking the offensive use of force.
2. Promoting [collective security](/wiki/Collective_security "Collective security").
3. Using great power cooperation.
These were not developed into a policy architecture, but came about incrementally as a function of domestic, personal and global factors. Because of the somewhat overblown expectations for the new world order in the media, Bush was widely criticized for lacking vision.Eric A. Miller and Steve A. Yetiv, ["The New World Order in Theory and Practice: The Bush Administration's Worldview in Transition."](http://unitedelite.net/bush.html) *Presidential Studies Quarterly*, March 2001
The Gulf crisis is seen as the catalyst for Bush's development and implementation of the new world order concept. The authors note that before the crisis the concept remained "ambiguous, nascent, and unproven" and that the U.S. had not assumed a leadership role with respect to the new order. Essentially, the Cold War's end was the permissive cause for the new world order, but the Persian Gulf crisis was the active cause.
[thumb\|upright\|[Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney"), then [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:Richard_Cheney_2005_official_portrait.jpg "Richard Cheney 2005 official portrait.jpg")
They reveal that in August 1990 U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia [Charles W. Freeman Jr.](/wiki/Charles_W._Freeman_Jr. "Charles W. Freeman Jr.") sent a diplomatic cable to Washington from Saudi Arabia in which he argued that U.S. conduct in the Persian Gulf crisis would determine the nature of the world. Bush would then refer to the "new world order" at least 42 times from the summer of 1990 to the end of March 1991\. They also note that [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney") gave three priorities to the [Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") on fighting the Persian Gulf War, namely prevent further aggression, protect oil supplies and further a new world order. The authors note that the new world order did not emerge in policy speeches until after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, maintaining that the concept was clearly not critical in the U.S. decision to deploy. [John H. Sununu](/wiki/John_H._Sununu "John H. Sununu") later indicated that the administration wanted to refrain from talking about the concept until Soviet collapse was more clear. A reversal of Soviet collapse would have been the death knell for the new order.
Bush and Scowcroft were frustrated by the exaggerated and distorted ideas surrounding the new world order. They did not intend to suggest that the U.S. would yield significant influence to the United Nations, or that they expected the world to enter an era of peace and tranquility. They preferred [multilateralism](/wiki/Multilateralism "Multilateralism"), but did not reject [unilateralism](/wiki/Unilateralism "Unilateralism"). The new world order did not signal peace, but a "challenge to keep the dangers of disorder at bay".
Bush's drive toward the Persian Gulf War was based on the world making a clear choice. Baker recalls that UNSCR 660's "language was simply and crystal clear, purposely designed by us to frame the vote as being for or against aggression". Bush's motivation centered around 1\. The dangers of [appeasement](/wiki/Appeasement "Appeasement"); and 2\. Failure to check aggression could spark further aggression. Bush repeatedly invoked images of World War II in this connection and became very emotional over [Iraqi atrocities being committed in Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait%23Iraqi_response "Invasion of Kuwait#Iraqi response"). He also believed that failure to check Iraqi aggression would lead to more challenges to the U.S.\-favored status quo and global stability. While the end of the Cold War increased U.S. security globally, it remained vulnerable to regional threats. Furthermore, Washington believed that addressing the Iraqi threat would help reassert U.S. predominance in light of growing concerns about relative decline, following the resurgence of Germany and Japan.
[thumb\|upright\|[Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze "Eduard Shevardnadze"), then [Soviet Foreign Minister](/wiki/Soviet_Foreign_Minister "Soviet Foreign Minister")](/wiki/File:Eduard_shevardnadze.jpg "Eduard shevardnadze.jpg")
The Gulf War was also framed as a test case for United Nations credibility. As a model for dealing with aggressors, Scowcroft believed that the United States ought to act in a way that others can trust and thus get United Nations support. It was critical that the U.S. not look like it was throwing its weight around. Great power cooperation and United Nations support would collapse if the U.S. marched on the [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad") to try to remake Iraq. However, practically, superpower cooperation was limited. For example, when the U.S. deployed troops to Saudi Arabia, Soviet Foreign Minister [Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze "Eduard Shevardnadze") became furious at not being consulted.
By 1992, the authors note that the U.S. was already abandoning the idea of collective action. The leaked draft of the [Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz "Paul Wolfowitz")\-[Libby](/wiki/Lewis_Libby "Lewis Libby") 1992 Defense Guidance Report effectively confirmed this shift as it called for a unilateral role for the U.S. in world affairs, focusing on preserving American dominance.
In closing *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft sums up what his expectations were for the new world order. He states that the U.S. has the strength and the resources to pursue its own interests, but has a disproportionate responsibility to use its power in pursuit of the common good as well as an obligation to lead and to be involved. The U.S. is perceived as uncomfortable in exercising its power and ought to work to create predictability and stability in international relations. The U.S. needs not be embroiled in every conflict, but ought to aid in developing multilateral responses to them. The U.S. can unilaterally broker disputes, but ought to act whenever possible in concert with equally committed partners to deter major aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 565β566\.
|
[
"Post\\-Cold War usage\n--------------------",
"{{See also\\|PostβCold War era}}\nThe phrase \"new world order\" as used to herald in the post\\-Cold War era had no developed or substantive definition. There appear to have been three distinct periods in which it was progressively redefined, first by the Soviets and later by the United States before the Malta Conference and again after [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\")'s speech of September 11, 1990\\.\n1. At first, the new world order dealt almost exclusively with [nuclear disarmament](/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament \"Nuclear disarmament\") and security arrangements. [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\") would then expand the phrase to include [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") strengthening and [great power](/wiki/Great_power \"Great power\") cooperation on a range of [NorthβSouth](/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World \"NorthβSouth divide in the World\") economic, and security problems. Implications for [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"), the [Warsaw Pact](/wiki/Warsaw_Pact \"Warsaw Pact\"), and [European integration](/wiki/European_integration \"European integration\") were subsequently included.\n2. The [Malta Conference](/wiki/Malta_Summit \"Malta Summit\") collected these various expectations and they were fleshed out in more detail by the press. [German reunification](/wiki/German_reunification \"German reunification\"), [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights \"Human rights\") and the [polarity](/wiki/Polarity_%28power%29 \"Polarity (power)\") of the [international system](/wiki/International_relations \"International relations\") were then included.\n3. The [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\") crisis refocused the term on [superpower](/wiki/Superpower \"Superpower\") cooperation and regional crises. Economic NorthβSouth problems, the integration of the Soviets into the international system and the changes in economic and military polarity received greater attention.",
"### Mikhail Gorbachev's formulation",
"The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo\\-Indian talks on November 21, 1988\\. [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_India \"Prime Minister of India\") [Rajiv Gandhi](/wiki/Rajiv_Gandhi \"Rajiv Gandhi\") used the term in reference to the commitments made by the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") through the [Declaration of Delhi](/wiki/Declaration_of_Delhi \"Declaration of Delhi\") of two years previous. The new world order which he describes is characterized by \"[non\\-violence](/wiki/Non-violence \"Non-violence\") and the principles of peaceful coexistence\". He also includes the possibility of a sustained peace, an alternative to the nuclear [balance of terror](/wiki/Balance_of_terror \"Balance of terror\"), dismantling of [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons \"Nuclear weapons\") systems, significant cuts in strategic arms and eventually a general and complete disarmament.\"Gorbachev and Indian Prime Minister Hold Talks on November 19 Speeches Made at Peace Prize.\" November 21, 1988",
"Three days later, a *[Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")* article quotes [NATO Secretary General](/wiki/Secretary_General_of_NATO \"Secretary General of NATO\") [Manfred WΓΆrner](/wiki/Manfred_W%C3%B6rner \"Manfred WΓΆrner\") as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting NATO's doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as well as [conventional arms](/wiki/Conventional_weapons \"Conventional weapons\"). In his opinion, this would spur the creation of \"a new security framework\" and a move towards \"a new world order\".\"Soviets 'in arms strategy shift'\", *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\")*, November 24, 1988",
"However, the principal statement creating the new world order concept came from [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\")'s December 7, 1988 speech to the United Nations General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role of the United Nations and the active involvement of all membersβthe Cold War had prevented the United Nations and its Security Council from performing their roles as initially envisioned. The de\\-[ideologizing](/wiki/Ideology \"Ideology\") of relations among states was the mechanism through which this new level of cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only one world economyβessentially an end to [economic blocs](/wiki/Trade_bloc \"Trade bloc\"). Furthermore, he advocated Soviet entry into several important international organizations, such as the [CSCE](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe\") and [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\"). Reinvigoration of the [United Nations peacekeeping](/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping \"United Nations peacekeeping\") role and recognition that superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no longer legitimate and that the strong must demonstrate restraint toward the weak. As the major powers of the world, he foresaw the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan and Brazil. He asked for cooperation on [environmental protection](/wiki/Environmental_protection \"Environmental protection\"), on [debt relief](/wiki/Debt_relief \"Debt relief\") for [developing countries](/wiki/Developing_countries \"Developing countries\"), on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on preservation of the [ABM treaty](/wiki/ABM_treaty \"ABM treaty\") and on a convention for the elimination of [chemical weapons](/wiki/Chemical_weapons \"Chemical weapons\"). At the same time, he promised the significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia as well as an end to the jamming of [Radio Liberty](/wiki/Radio_Liberty \"Radio Liberty\").",
"Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global political awakening:\n{{blockquote\\|We are witnessing most profound social change. Whether in the East or the South, the West or the North, hundreds of millions of people, new nations and states, new public movements and ideologies have moved to the forefront of history. Broad\\-based and frequently turbulent popular movements have given expression, in a multidimensional and contradictory way, to a longing for independence, democracy and \\[\\[social justice]]. The idea of democratizing the entire world order has become a powerful socio\\-political force. At the same time, the scientific and technological revolution has turned many economic, food, energy, environmental, information and population problems, which only recently we treated as national or regional ones, into global problems. Thanks to the advances in \\[\\[mass media]] and means of transportation, the world seems to have become more visible and tangible. International communication has become easier than ever before.}}",
"In the press, Gorbachev was compared to [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") giving the Fourteen Points, to [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") and [Winston Churchill](/wiki/Winston_Churchill \"Winston Churchill\") promulgating the [Atlantic Charter](/wiki/Atlantic_Charter \"Atlantic Charter\") and to [George Marshall](/wiki/George_Marshall \"George Marshall\") and [Harry S. Truman](/wiki/Harry_S._Truman \"Harry S. Truman\") building the [Western Alliance](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\"). While visionary, his speech was to be approached with caution as he was seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support \"for independence, democracy and social justice\" was highlighted, but the principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order based on [pluralism](/wiki/Pluralism_%28political_philosophy%29 \"Pluralism (political philosophy)\"), tolerance and cooperation.\"Vision on the World Stage\", *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")*, November 9, 1988\n{{blockquote\\|For a new type of progress throughout the world to become a reality, everyone must change. Tolerance is the \\[\\[alpha and omega]] of a new world order.\\|Gorbachev, June 1990}}",
"A month later, *[Time Magazine](/wiki/Time_Magazine \"Time Magazine\")* ran a longer analysis of the speech and its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a threat, which might \"lure the West toward complacency\" and \"woo Western Europe into neutered [neutralism](/wiki/Neutral_country \"Neutral country\")\". However, the more overriding threat was that the [West](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\") did not yet have any imaginative response to Gorbachevβleaving the Soviets with the moral initiative and solidifying Gorbachev's place as \"the most popular world leader in much of [Western Europe](/wiki/Western_Europe \"Western Europe\")\". The article noted as important his de\\-ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there) and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new world order seemed to imply shifting of resources from military to domestic needs; a world community of states based on the [rule of law](/wiki/Rule_of_law \"Rule of law\"); a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the *Time* article felt that [George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\") should counter Gorbachev's \"[common home](/wiki/Common_European_Home \"Common European Home\")\" rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of \"common ideals\", turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values. Gorbachev's repudiation of [expansionism](/wiki/Expansionism \"Expansionism\") leaves the United States in a good position, no longer having to support [anti\\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\") [dictators](/wiki/Dictator \"Dictator\") and able to pursue better goals such as the environment; [nonproliferation](/wiki/Nonproliferation \"Nonproliferation\") of nuclear, chemical and biological weapons; reducing [famine](/wiki/Famine \"Famine\") and poverty; and resolving regional conflicts.\"The Gorbachev Challenge\", *[Time Magazine](/wiki/Time_Magazine \"Time Magazine\")*, December 19, 1988 In *[A World Transformed](/wiki/A_World_Transformed \"A World Transformed\")*, Bush and [Brent Scowcroft](/wiki/Brent_Scowcroft \"Brent Scowcroft\")'s similarly concern about losing leadership to Gorbachev is noted and they worry that the Europeans might stop following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet.George H.W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft. *[A World Transformed](/wiki/A_World_Transformed \"A World Transformed\")*, {{ISBN\\|0\\-679\\-75259\\-5}}, pp. 42β43\\.",
"As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world order for the [European Community](/wiki/European_Community \"European Community\") surfaced. The European Community was seen as the vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could \"pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings with those superpowers on something more like equal terms\". It would be less exclusively tied to the U.S. and stretch \"from [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\") to [Brest\\-Litovsk](/wiki/Brest-Litovsk \"Brest-Litovsk\"), or at least from [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\") to [Lublin](/wiki/Lublin \"Lublin\")\".\"The Dog that Failed to Bark\", *[Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\")*, January 10, 1989 By July 1989, newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to Gorbachev's proposals. Bush visited Europe, but \"left undefined for those on both sides of the [Iron Curtain](/wiki/Iron_Curtain \"Iron Curtain\") his vision for the new world order\", leading commentators to view the U.S. as over\\-cautious and reactive, rather than pursuing long\\-range strategic goals.\"Still searching for the Bush Doctrine\", *[The Boston Globe](/wiki/The_Boston_Globe \"The Boston Globe\")*, July 23, 1989",
"### Malta Conference",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.7\\|[George H. W. Bush](/wiki/George_H._W._Bush \"George H. W. Bush\")](/wiki/File:George_H._W._Bush_presidential_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg \"George H. W. Bush presidential portrait (cropped).jpg\")\nIn *A World Transformed*, Bush and Scowcroft detail their crafting of a strategy aimed at flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the [Malta Conference](/wiki/Malta_Summit \"Malta Summit\") to catch him off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the defensive.*A World Transformed*, pp. 163β167\\.",
"The Malta Conference on December 2β3, 1989 reinvigorated discussion of the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments, settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening EastβWest trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in international economic institutions and protecting the environment. Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast, with the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation and treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and the Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four\\-power framework from World War II (i.e. the United States, United Kingdom, France and Russia). However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was expected to help contain \"historic antagonisms\", thus making possible a [new European order](/wiki/European_integration \"European integration\").Compiled from:\n \"U.S. must get involved in shaping a new world order\", *The Boston Globe*, December 3, 1989\n \"New World Order Galloping Into Position\", *The Washington Post*, February 25, 1990\n \"A Workmanlike Summit\", *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, June 5, 1990",
"* + - In Europe, German reunification was seen as part of the new order. However, [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott \"Strobe Talbott\") saw it as more of a brake on the new era and believed Malta to be a holding action on part of the superpowers designed to forestall the \"new world order\" because of the German question.\"American Abroad; Braking the Juggernaut\", *Time Magazine*, December 18, 1989 Political change in Eastern Europe also arose on the agenda. The Eastern Europeans believed that the new world order did not signify superpower leadership, but that superpower dominance was coming to an end.\"Soviet hopes are undaunted\", *The Boston Globe*, December 3, 1989",
"In general, the new security structure arising from superpower cooperation seemed to indicate to observers that the new world order would be based on the principles of political liberty, self\\-determination and non\\-intervention. This would mean an end to the sponsoring of military conflicts in third countries, restrictions on global arms sales, and greater engagement in the [Middle East](/wiki/Middle_East \"Middle East\") (especially regarding [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"), [Palestine](/wiki/Palestinian_territories \"Palestinian territories\") and [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\")). The U.S. might use this opportunity to more emphatically promote [human rights in China](/wiki/Human_rights_in_China \"Human rights in China\") and [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\").",
"Economically, debt relief was expected to be a significant issue as EastβWest competition would give way to NorthβSouth cooperation. Economic tripolarity would arise with the U.S., [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") and [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") as the three motors of world growth. Meanwhile, the Soviet social and economic crisis was manifestly going to limit its ability to project power abroad, thus necessitating continued U.S. leadership.",
"Commentators assessing the results of the Conference and how the pronouncements measured up to expectations, were underwhelmed. Bush was criticized for taking refuge behind notions of \"[status quo](/wiki/Status_quo \"Status quo\")\\-plus\" rather than a full commitment to new world order. Others noted that Bush thus far failed to satisfy the out\\-of\\-control \"soaring expectations\" that Gorbachev's speech unleashed.",
"### Gulf War and Bush's formulation",
"[thumb\\|Bush greeting troops on the eve of the First [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\")](/wiki/File:Bush_troops.jpg \"Bush troops.jpg\")\nBush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run\\-up to the [Persian Gulf War](/wiki/Persian_Gulf_War \"Persian Gulf War\"), when he began to define the elements of the new world order as he saw it and link the new order's success to the international community's response in [Kuwait](/wiki/Kuwait \"Kuwait\").",
"Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein \"Saddam Hussein\") highlighted this linkage in the press. *[The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* declared that this superpower cooperation demonstrates that the Soviet Union has joined the international community and that in the new world order Saddam faces not just the U.S., but the international community itself.\"Summit Decision Signals Superpower Cooperation\", *The Washington Post*, September 2, 1990 A *New York Times* editorial was the first to assert that at stake in the collective response to Saddam was \"nothing less than the new world order which Bush and other leaders struggle to shape\".\"The Month that Shook the World\", *The New York Times*, September 2, 1990",
"In *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft notes that Bush even offered to have Soviet troops amongst the coalition forces liberating Kuwait. Bush places the fate of the new world order on the ability of the U.S. and the Soviet Union to respond to Hussein's aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 361β364\\. The idea that the Persian Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take shape. Bush notes that the \"premise \\[was] that the United States henceforth would be obligated to lead the world community to an unprecedented degree, as demonstrated by the [Iraqi](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\") crisis, and that we should attempt to pursue our [national interests](/wiki/National_interest \"National interest\"), wherever possible, within a framework of concert with our friends and the [international community](/wiki/International_community \"International community\")\".*A World Transformed*, pp. 399β400\\.",
"On March 6, 1991, President Bush addressed [Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") in a speech often cited as the Bush administration's principal policy statement on the new world order in the Middle East following the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait.[Michael Oren](/wiki/Michael_Oren \"Michael Oren\"), *[Power, Faith and Fantasy](/wiki/Power%2C_Faith_and_Fantasy \"Power, Faith and Fantasy\")*, p. 569, 2011, W W Norton \\& Son, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0393330304}} [Michael Oren](/wiki/Michael_Oren \"Michael Oren\") summarizes the speech, saying: \"The president proceeded to outline his plan for maintaining a permanent U.S. naval presence in the Persian Gulf, for providing funds for Middle East development, and for instituting safeguards against the spread of unconventional weapons. The centerpiece of his program, however, was the achievement of an Arab\\-Israeli treaty based on the territory\\-for\\-peace principle and the fulfillment of Palestinian rights\". As a first step, Bush announced his intention to reconvene the international peace [conference in Madrid](/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991 \"Madrid Conference of 1991\").",
"A pivotal point came with Bush's September 11, 1990 \"Toward a New World Order\" speech ([full text](/wiki/wikisource:Toward_a_New_World_Order \"Toward a New World Order\")) to a joint session of Congress. This time it was Bush, not Gorbachev, whose idealism was compared to [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") and to [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") at the creation of the United Nations. Key points picked up in the press were:\n* Commitment to U.S. strength, such that it can lead the world toward rule of law, rather than use of force. The Gulf crisis was seen as a reminder that the U.S. must continue to lead and that military strength does matter, but that the resulting new world order should make military force less important in the future.\n* SovietβAmerican partnership in cooperation toward making the world safe for democracy, making possible the goals of the United Nations for the first time since its inception. Some countered that this was unlikely and that ideological tensions would remain, such that the two superpowers could be partners of convenience for specific and limited goals only. The inability of the Soviet Union to project force abroad was another factor in skepticism toward such a partnership.\n* Another caveat raised was that the new world order was based not on U.S.\\-Soviet cooperation, but really on Bush\\-Gorbachev cooperation and that the personal diplomacy made the entire concept exceedingly fragile.\n* Future cleavages were to be economic, not ideological, with the First and Second World cooperating to contain regional instability in the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World \"Third World\"). Russia could become an ally against economic assaults from Asia, [Islamic terrorism](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism \"Islamic terrorism\") and [drugs](/wiki/War_on_drugs \"War on drugs\") from [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\").\n* Soviet integration into world economic institutions such as the [G7](/wiki/G7 \"G7\") and establishment of ties with the European Community.\n* Restoration of German [sovereignty](/wiki/Sovereignty \"Sovereignty\") and [Cambodia](/wiki/Cambodia \"Cambodia\")'s acceptance of the [United Nations Security Council](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council \"United Nations Security Council\")'s peace plan on the day previous to the speech were seen as signs of what to expect in the new world order.\n* The reemergence of Germany and Japan as members of the great powers and concomitant reform of the United Nations Security Council was seen as necessary for great power cooperation and reinvigorated United Nations leadership\n* Europe was seen as taking the lead on building their own world order while the U.S. was relegated to the sidelines. The rationale for U.S. presence on the continent was vanishing and the Persian Gulf crisis was seen as incapable of rallying Europe. Instead, Europe was discussing the European Community, the CSCE and relations with the Soviet Union. Gorbachev even proposed an all\\-European security council to replace the CSCE, in effect superseding the increasingly irrelevant NATO.\n* A very few postulated a bi\\-polar new order of U.S. power and United Nations [moral authority](/wiki/Moral_authority \"Moral authority\"), the first as global policeman, the second as global judge and jury. The order would be collectivist in which decisions and responsibility would be shared.\nThese were the common themes which emerged from reporting about Bush's speech and its implications.Compiled from:\n \"Evoking the memory of Wilson and 'a new world order'\", *The Boston Globe*, September 12, 1990\n \"Superpowers to Superpartners\", *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, September 17, 1990\n \"Steps to a new world order\", *Financial Times*, September 17, 1990\n \"U.S. leads the new world order\", *[Toronto Star](/wiki/Toronto_Star \"Toronto Star\")*, September 19, 1990\n \"Europe choreographs new world order, but Bush is out of step\", *The Boston Globe*, November 21",
"* + - * + Critics held that Bush and Baker remained too vague about what exactly the order entailed:\n\t\t\t\t{{blockquote\\|Does it mean a strengthened U.N.? And new regional security arrangements in the gulf and elsewhere? Will the U.S. be willing to put its own military under international leadership? In the Persian Gulf, Mr. Bush has rejected a UN command outright. Sometimes, when Administration officials describe their goals, they say the U.S. must reduce its military burden and commitment. Other times, they appear determined to seek new arrangements to preserve U.S. military supremacy and to justify new expenditures.}}",
"*[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* observed that the [American left](/wiki/American_liberalism \"American liberalism\") was calling the new world order a \"rationalization for imperial ambitions\" in the Middle East while the [right](/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States \"Conservatism in the United States\") rejected new security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any possibility of United Nations revival.\"George Bush Meet Woodrow Wilson\", *The New York Times*, November 20, 1990 [Pat Buchanan](/wiki/Pat_Buchanan \"Pat Buchanan\") predicted that the Persian Gulf War would in fact be the demise of the new world order, the concept of United Nations peacekeeping and the U.S.'s role as global policeman.*A World Transformed*, pp. 426\\.",
"The *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* reported that the speech signified more than just the rhetoric about superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of the new world order was the U.S.' emergence \"as the single greatest power in a multipolar world\". Moscow was crippled by internal problems and thus unable to project power abroad. While hampered by economic malaise, the U.S. was militarily unconstrained for the first time since the end of World War II. Militarily, it was now a unipolar world as illustrated by the Persian Gulf crisis. While diplomatic rhetoric stressed a U.S.\\-Soviet partnership, the U.S. was deploying troops to [Saudi Arabia](/wiki/Saudi_Arabia \"Saudi Arabia\") (a mere 700 miles from the Soviet frontier) and was preparing for war against a former Soviet [client state](/wiki/Client_state \"Client state\"). Further, U.S. authority over the Soviets was displayed in 1\\. The unification of Germany, withdrawal of Soviet forces, and almost open appeal to Washington for aid in managing the Soviet transition to democracy; 2\\. Withdrawal of Soviet support for Third World clients; and 3\\) Soviets seeking economic aid through membership in Western international economic and trade communities.\"With Moscow Crippled, U.S. Emerges as Top Power\", *[LA Times](/wiki/LA_Times \"LA Times\")*, September 12, 1990",
"{{anchor\\|unipolar moment}}The speech was indeed pivotal but the meaning hidden. A pivotal interpretation of the speech came the same month a week later on September 18, 1990\\. [Charles Krauthammer](/wiki/Charles_Krauthammer \"Charles Krauthammer\") then delivered a lecture in Washington in which he introduced the idea of American [unipolarity](/wiki/Unipolarity \"Unipolarity\"). By the fall 1990, his essay was published in *Foreign Affairs* titled \"The Unipolar Moment\".*Foreign Affairs*, 69/5: (Winter 1990/91\\), p 23\\-33\\. It had little to do with Kuwait. The main point was the following:\n{{blockquote\\|It has been assumed that the old bipolar world would beget a multipolar world⦠The immediate post\\-Cold War world is not multipolar. It is unipolar. The center of world power is an unchallenged superpower, the United States, attended by its Western allies.''Foreign Affairs'', 69/5: (Winter 1990/91\\), p 23\\.}}",
"In fact, as [Lawrence Freedman](/wiki/Lawrence_Freedman \"Lawrence Freedman\") commented in 1991, a \"unipolar\" world is now taken seriously. He details:\n{{blockquote\\|An underlying theme in all the discussions is that the United States has now acquired a preeminent position in the international hierarchy. This situation has developed because of the precipitate decline of the Soviet Union. Bush himself has indicated that it is the new relationship with Moscow that creates the possibility for his new order. For many analysts, therefore, the new order's essential feature is not the values it is said to embody nor the principles upon which it is to be based, but that it has the United States at its center... In effect, the debate is over the consequences of the West's victory in the Cold War rather than in the Gulf for the generality of international conflicts.Lawrence Freedman, 'The Gulf War and the New World Order,' ''Survival'', 33/3, (1991\\): p 197\\.}}",
"Washington's capacity to exert overwhelming military power and leadership over a multinational coalition provides the \"basis for a *[Pax Americana](/wiki/Pax_Americana \"Pax Americana\")*\". Indeed, one of the problems with Bush's phrase was that \"a call for 'order' from Washington chills practically everyone else, because it sounds suspiciously like a *Pax Americana*\".Lawrence Freedman, 'The Gulf War and the New World Order,' *Survival*, 33/3, (1991\\): p 196\\-197\\. The unipolarity, Krauthammer noted, is the \"most striking feature of the post\\-Cold War world\". The article proved to be epochal. Twelve years later, Krauthammer in \"The Unipolar Moment Revisited\"*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\\), p 5\\-20\\. stated that the \"moment\" is lasting and lasting with \"acceleration\".*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\\), p 6\\. He replied to those who still refused to acknowledge the fact of unipolarity: \"If today's American primacy does not constitute unipolarity, then nothing ever will\". In 1990, Krauthammer had estimated that the \"moment\" will last forty years at best, but he adjusted the estimation in 2002: \"Today, it seems rather modest. The unipolar moment has become the unipolar era\".*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\\), p 17\\. On the latter occasion, Krauthammer added perhaps his most significant commentβthe new unipolar world order represents a \"unique to modern history\" structure.*National Interest*, 70: (Winter 2002/3\\), p 5\\.",
"#### Presaging the Iraq War of 2003",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[James Baker](/wiki/James_Baker \"James Baker\"), [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State \"United States Secretary of State\") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:JamesBaker.jpeg \"JamesBaker.jpeg\")\n*[The Economist](/wiki/The_Economist \"The Economist\")* published an article explaining the drive toward the Persian Gulf War in terms presaging the run\\-up to the [Iraq War of 2003](/wiki/Iraq_War_of_2003 \"Iraq War of 2003\"). The author notes directly that despite the coalition, in the minds of most governments this is the U.S.' war and [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") that \"chose to stake his political life on defeating Mr Hussein\". An attack on Iraq would certainly shatter Bush's alliance, they assert, predicting calls from United Nations Security Council members saying that diplomacy should have been given more time and that they will not wish to allow a course of action \"that leaves America sitting too prettily as sole remaining superpower\". When the unanimity of the Security Council ends, \"all that lovely talk about the new world order\" will too. When casualties mount, \"Bush will be called a warmonger, an [imperialist](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") and a bully\". The article goes on to say that Bush and [James Baker](/wiki/James_Baker \"James Baker\")'s speechifying cannot save the new world order once they launch a controversial war. It closes noting that a wide consensus is not necessary for U.S. actionβonly a hardcore of supporters, namely [Gulf Cooperation Council](/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council \"Gulf Cooperation Council\") states (including Saudi Arabia), [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") and Britain. The rest need only not interfere.\"New World Order Inc\", *The Economist*, November 10, 1990",
"In a passage with similar echoes of the future, Bush and Scowcroft explain in *A World Transformed* the role of the [United Nations Secretary\\-General](/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations \"Secretary-General of the United Nations\") in attempting to avert the Persian Gulf War. Secretary\\-General [Javier PΓ©rez de CuΓ©llar](/wiki/Javier_P%C3%A9rez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar \"Javier PΓ©rez de CuΓ©llar\") arrived at [Camp David](/wiki/Camp_David \"Camp David\") to ask what he could do to head off the war. Bush told him that it was important that we get full implementation on every United Nations resolution: \"If we compromise, we weaken the UN and our own credibility in building this new world order,\" I said. \"I think Saddam Hussein doesn't believe force will be usedβor if it is, he can produce a stalemate\". Additional meetings between Baker or PΓ©rez and the Iraqis are rejected for fear that they will simply come back empty\\-handed once again. Bush feared that Javier will be cover for Hussein's manipulations. PΓ©rez suggested another Security Council meeting, but Bush saw no reason for one.*A World Transformed*, pp. 440\\.",
"### Following the Persian Gulf War",
"Following the Persian Gulf War which was seen as the crucible in which great power cooperation and collective security would emerge the new norms of the eraβseveral academic assessments of the \"new world order\" idea were published.",
"[John Lewis Gaddis](/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis \"John Lewis Gaddis\"), a Cold War historian, wrote in *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs \"Foreign Affairs\")* about what he saw as the key characteristics of the potential new order, namely unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration, resurgent [nationalism](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\") and religiosity, a diffusion of security threats and collective security. He casts the fundamental challenge as one of integration versus fragmentation and the concomitant benefits and dangers associated with each. Changes in [communications](/wiki/Telecommunication \"Telecommunication\"), the international economic system, the nature of security threats and the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating into [isolation](/wiki/Isolationism \"Isolationism\"). In light of this, Gaddis sees a chance for the [democratic peace](/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory \"Democratic peace theory\") predicted by [liberal international relations theorists](/wiki/Liberal_international_relations_theory \"Liberal international relations theory\") to come closer to reality. However, he illustrates that not only is the fragmentary pressure of nationalism manifest in the former Communist bloc countries and the [Third World](/wiki/Third_World \"Third World\"), but it is also a considerable factor in the West. Further, a revitalized [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") could play both integrating and fragmenting rolesβemphasizing common identity, but also contributing to new conflicts that could resemble the [Lebanese Civil War](/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War \"Lebanese Civil War\"). The integration coming from the new order could also aggravate [ecological](/wiki/Ecology \"Ecology\"), [demographic](/wiki/Demography \"Demography\") and [epidemic](/wiki/Epidemic \"Epidemic\") threats. National [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\"), leading to the breakup and reunification of states (such as Yugoslavia on one hand and Germany on the other) could signal abrupt shifts in the balance of power with a destabilizing effect. Integrated markets, especially energy markets, are now a security liability for the world economic system as events affecting [energy security](/wiki/Energy_security \"Energy security\") in one part of the globe could threaten countries far removed from potential conflicts. Finally, diffusion of security threats required a new security paradigm involving low\\-intensity, but more frequent deployment of peacekeeping troopsβa type of mission that is hard to sustain under budgetary or public opinion pressure. Gaddis called for aid to Eastern European countries, updated security and economic regimes for Europe, United Nations\\-based regional conflict resolution, a slower pace of international economic integration and paying off the U.S. [debt](/wiki/Government_debt \"Government debt\").John Lewis Gaddis. \"Toward the PostβCold War World.\" *Foreign Affairs* 1991, Spring",
"However, statesman [Strobe Talbott](/wiki/Strobe_Talbott \"Strobe Talbott\") wrote of the new world order that it was only in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War that the United Nations took a step toward redefining its role to take account of both interstate relations and intrastate events. Furthermore, he asserted that it was only as an unintended postscript to Desert Storm that Bush gave meaning to the \"new world order\" slogan. By the end of the year, Bush stopped talking about a new world order and his advisers explained that he had dropped the phrase because he felt it suggested more enthusiasm for the changes sweeping the planet than he actually felt. As an antidote to the uncertainties of the world, he wanted to stress the old verities of territorial integrity, national sovereignty and international stability.Strobe Talbott. \"Post\\-Victory Blues.\" *Foreign Affairs.* December 1991 January 1992 [David Gergen](/wiki/David_Gergen \"David Gergen\") suggested at the time that it was the [recession of 1991β1992](/wiki/Early_1990s_recession \"Early 1990s recession\") which finally killed the new world order idea within the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"). The economic downturn took a deeper psychological toll than expected while domestic politics were increasingly frustrated by paralysis, with the result that the United States toward the end of 1991 turned increasingly pessimistic, inward and nationalistic.David Gergen. \"America's Missed Opportunities.\" *Foreign Affairs*. December 1991 January 1992",
"In 1992, [Hans KΓΆchler](/wiki/Hans_K%C3%B6chler \"Hans KΓΆchler\") published a critical assessment of the notion of the \"new world order\", describing it as an ideological tool of legitimation of the global exercise of power by the U.S. in a unipolar environment.Hans KΓΆchler. *Democracy and the New World Order*. Studies in International Relations, XIX. Vienna: International Progress Organization, 1993\\. {{ISBN\\|3\\-900704\\-13\\-9}}. (Translation of the German edition of 1992\\) In [Joseph Nye](/wiki/Joseph_Nye \"Joseph Nye\")'s analysis (1992\\), the [collapse of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Collapse of the Soviet Union\") did not issue in a new world order per se, but rather simply allowed for the reappearance of the liberal institutional order that was supposed to have come into effect in 1945\\. However, this success of this order was not a fait accomplis.Joseph S. Nye, Jr. \"What New World Order.\" *Foreign Affairs*. 1992, Spring Three years later, [John Ikenberry](/wiki/John_Ikenberry \"John Ikenberry\") would reaffirm Nye's idea of a reclamation of the ideal post\\-World War II order, but would dispute the nay\\-sayers who had predicted post\\-Cold War chaos.G. John Ikenberry. \"The Myth of PostβCold War Chaos.\" *Foreign Affairs*. May 1996 / June 1996 By 1997, [Anne\\-Marie Slaughter](/wiki/Anne-Marie_Slaughter \"Anne-Marie Slaughter\") produced an analysis calling the restoration of the post\\-World War II order a \"chimera ... infeasible at best and dangerous at worst\". In her view, the new order was not a liberal institutionalist one, but one in which state authority disaggregated and decentralized in the face of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\").Anne\\-Marie Slaughter. \"The Real New World Order.\" *Foreign Affairs*. September 1997 / October 1997",
"[Samuel Huntington](/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington \"Samuel P. Huntington\") wrote critically of the \"new world order\" and of [Francis Fukuyama](/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama \"Francis Fukuyama\")'s *[End of History](/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man \"The End of History and the Last Man\")* theory in *The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order*:\nThe expectation of harmony was widely shared. Political and intellectual leaders elaborated similar views. The Berlin wall had come down, communist regimes had collapsed, the United Nations was to assume a new importance, the former Cold War rivals would engage in \"partnership\" and a \"grand bargain,\" peacekeeping and peacemaking would be the order of the day. The President of the world's leading country proclaimed the \"new world order\"...\nThe moment of euphoria at the end of the Cold War generated an illusion of harmony, which was soon revealed to be exactly that. The world became different in the early 1990s, but not necessarily more peaceful. Change was inevitable; progress was not... The illusion of harmony at the end of that Cold War was soon dissipated by the multiplication of ethnic conflicts and \"[ethnic cleansing](/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing \"Ethnic cleansing\"),\" the breakdown of law and order, the emergence of new patterns of alliance and conflict among states, the resurgence of neo\\-[communist](/wiki/Communist \"Communist\") and [neo\\-fascist](/wiki/Neo-fascist \"Neo-fascist\") movements, intensification of religious [fundamentalism](/wiki/Fundamentalism \"Fundamentalism\"), the end of the \"diplomacy of smiles\" and \"[policy of yes](/wiki/Policy_of_yes \"Policy of yes\")\" in Russia's relations with the West, the inability of the United Nations and the United States to suppress bloody local conflicts, and the increasing assertiveness of a rising China. In the five years after the Berlin wall came down, the word \"[genocide](/wiki/Genocide \"Genocide\")\" was heard far more often than in any five years of the Cold War.\nThe one harmonious world paradigm is clearly far too divorced from reality to be a useful guide to the postβCold War world. Two Worlds: Us and Them. While one\\-world expectations appear at the end of major conflicts, the tendency to think in terms of two worlds recurs throughout human history. People are always tempted to divide people into us and them, the in\\-group and the other, our civilization and those barbarians.Samuel P. Huntington. *[The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order](http://helmet.stetson.edu/artsci/polsci/extras/clash.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060227064610/http://helmet.stetson.edu/artsci/polsci/extras/clash.pdf \\|date\\=2006\\-02\\-27 }}.* Simon \\& Schuster: New York. January 28, 1998\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-684\\-84441\\-9}}. pp. 7β8\\.",
"Despite the criticisms of the new world order concept, ranging from its practical unworkability to its theoretical incoherence, [Bill Clinton](/wiki/Bill_Clinton \"Bill Clinton\") not only signed on to the idea of the \"new world order\", but dramatically expanded the concept beyond Bush's formulation. The essence of Clinton's [election year](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election \"1992 United States presidential election\") critique was that Bush had done too little, not too much.David C. Hendrickson. \"The Recovery of Internationalism.\" *Foreign Affairs*. September 1994 / October 1994",
"American intellectual [Noam Chomsky](/wiki/Noam_Chomsky \"Noam Chomsky\"), author of the 1994 book *[World Orders Old and New](/wiki/World_Orders_Old_and_New \"World Orders Old and New\")*, often describes the \"new world order\" as a post\\-Cold\\-War era in which \"the [New World](/wiki/New_World \"New World\") gives the orders\". Commenting on the [1999 U.S.\\-NATO bombing of Serbia](/wiki/Kosovo_War \"Kosovo War\"), he writes:\n{{blockquote\\|The aim of these assaults is to establish the role of the major imperialist powersβabove all, the United Statesβas the unchallengeable arbiters of world affairs. The \"New World Order\" is precisely this: an international regime of unrelenting pressure and intimidation by the most powerful capitalist states against the weakest.{{Cite web \\| author \\= Noam Chomsky \\| title \\= US\\-NATO bombs fall on Serbia: the \"New World Order\" takes shape \\| year \\= 1999 \\| url \\= http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/mar1999/nato\\-m25\\.shtml \\| access\\-date \\= 2010\\-06\\-18}}}}",
"Following the rise of [Boris Yeltsin](/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin \"Boris Yeltsin\") eclipsing Gorbachev and the [election victory](/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election \"1992 United States presidential election\") of Clinton over Bush, the term \"new world order\" fell from common usage. It was replaced by competing similar concepts about how the post\\-Cold War order would develop. Prominent among these were the ideas of the \"era of [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\")\", the \"unipolar moment\", the \"end of history\" and the \"[Clash of Civilizations](/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations \"Clash of Civilizations\")\".Adam Garfinkle. \"The Present Opportunity.\" *[The National Interest](/wiki/The_National_Interest \"The National Interest\")*. 2001 Fall",
"### Viewed in retrospect",
"A 2001 paper in *Presidential Studies Quarterly* examined the idea of the \"new world order\" as it was presented by the Bush administration (mostly ignoring previous uses by Gorbachev). Their conclusion was that Bush really only ever had three firm aspects to the new world order:\n1. Checking the offensive use of force.\n2. Promoting [collective security](/wiki/Collective_security \"Collective security\").\n3. Using great power cooperation.",
"These were not developed into a policy architecture, but came about incrementally as a function of domestic, personal and global factors. Because of the somewhat overblown expectations for the new world order in the media, Bush was widely criticized for lacking vision.Eric A. Miller and Steve A. Yetiv, [\"The New World Order in Theory and Practice: The Bush Administration's Worldview in Transition.\"](http://unitedelite.net/bush.html) *Presidential Studies Quarterly*, March 2001",
"The Gulf crisis is seen as the catalyst for Bush's development and implementation of the new world order concept. The authors note that before the crisis the concept remained \"ambiguous, nascent, and unproven\" and that the U.S. had not assumed a leadership role with respect to the new order. Essentially, the Cold War's end was the permissive cause for the new world order, but the Persian Gulf crisis was the active cause.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\"), then [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:Richard_Cheney_2005_official_portrait.jpg \"Richard Cheney 2005 official portrait.jpg\")\nThey reveal that in August 1990 U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia [Charles W. Freeman Jr.](/wiki/Charles_W._Freeman_Jr. \"Charles W. Freeman Jr.\") sent a diplomatic cable to Washington from Saudi Arabia in which he argued that U.S. conduct in the Persian Gulf crisis would determine the nature of the world. Bush would then refer to the \"new world order\" at least 42 times from the summer of 1990 to the end of March 1991\\. They also note that [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\") gave three priorities to the [Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") on fighting the Persian Gulf War, namely prevent further aggression, protect oil supplies and further a new world order. The authors note that the new world order did not emerge in policy speeches until after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, maintaining that the concept was clearly not critical in the U.S. decision to deploy. [John H. Sununu](/wiki/John_H._Sununu \"John H. Sununu\") later indicated that the administration wanted to refrain from talking about the concept until Soviet collapse was more clear. A reversal of Soviet collapse would have been the death knell for the new order.",
"Bush and Scowcroft were frustrated by the exaggerated and distorted ideas surrounding the new world order. They did not intend to suggest that the U.S. would yield significant influence to the United Nations, or that they expected the world to enter an era of peace and tranquility. They preferred [multilateralism](/wiki/Multilateralism \"Multilateralism\"), but did not reject [unilateralism](/wiki/Unilateralism \"Unilateralism\"). The new world order did not signal peace, but a \"challenge to keep the dangers of disorder at bay\".",
"Bush's drive toward the Persian Gulf War was based on the world making a clear choice. Baker recalls that UNSCR 660's \"language was simply and crystal clear, purposely designed by us to frame the vote as being for or against aggression\". Bush's motivation centered around 1\\. The dangers of [appeasement](/wiki/Appeasement \"Appeasement\"); and 2\\. Failure to check aggression could spark further aggression. Bush repeatedly invoked images of World War II in this connection and became very emotional over [Iraqi atrocities being committed in Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait%23Iraqi_response \"Invasion of Kuwait#Iraqi response\"). He also believed that failure to check Iraqi aggression would lead to more challenges to the U.S.\\-favored status quo and global stability. While the end of the Cold War increased U.S. security globally, it remained vulnerable to regional threats. Furthermore, Washington believed that addressing the Iraqi threat would help reassert U.S. predominance in light of growing concerns about relative decline, following the resurgence of Germany and Japan.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze \"Eduard Shevardnadze\"), then [Soviet Foreign Minister](/wiki/Soviet_Foreign_Minister \"Soviet Foreign Minister\")](/wiki/File:Eduard_shevardnadze.jpg \"Eduard shevardnadze.jpg\")\nThe Gulf War was also framed as a test case for United Nations credibility. As a model for dealing with aggressors, Scowcroft believed that the United States ought to act in a way that others can trust and thus get United Nations support. It was critical that the U.S. not look like it was throwing its weight around. Great power cooperation and United Nations support would collapse if the U.S. marched on the [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\") to try to remake Iraq. However, practically, superpower cooperation was limited. For example, when the U.S. deployed troops to Saudi Arabia, Soviet Foreign Minister [Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze \"Eduard Shevardnadze\") became furious at not being consulted.",
"By 1992, the authors note that the U.S. was already abandoning the idea of collective action. The leaked draft of the [Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz \"Paul Wolfowitz\")\\-[Libby](/wiki/Lewis_Libby \"Lewis Libby\") 1992 Defense Guidance Report effectively confirmed this shift as it called for a unilateral role for the U.S. in world affairs, focusing on preserving American dominance.",
"In closing *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft sums up what his expectations were for the new world order. He states that the U.S. has the strength and the resources to pursue its own interests, but has a disproportionate responsibility to use its power in pursuit of the common good as well as an obligation to lead and to be involved. The U.S. is perceived as uncomfortable in exercising its power and ought to work to create predictability and stability in international relations. The U.S. needs not be embroiled in every conflict, but ought to aid in developing multilateral responses to them. The U.S. can unilaterally broker disputes, but ought to act whenever possible in concert with equally committed partners to deter major aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 565β566\\.",
""
] |
### Viewed in retrospect
A 2001 paper in *Presidential Studies Quarterly* examined the idea of the "new world order" as it was presented by the Bush administration (mostly ignoring previous uses by Gorbachev). Their conclusion was that Bush really only ever had three firm aspects to the new world order:
1. Checking the offensive use of force.
2. Promoting [collective security](/wiki/Collective_security "Collective security").
3. Using great power cooperation.
These were not developed into a policy architecture, but came about incrementally as a function of domestic, personal and global factors. Because of the somewhat overblown expectations for the new world order in the media, Bush was widely criticized for lacking vision.Eric A. Miller and Steve A. Yetiv, ["The New World Order in Theory and Practice: The Bush Administration's Worldview in Transition."](http://unitedelite.net/bush.html) *Presidential Studies Quarterly*, March 2001
The Gulf crisis is seen as the catalyst for Bush's development and implementation of the new world order concept. The authors note that before the crisis the concept remained "ambiguous, nascent, and unproven" and that the U.S. had not assumed a leadership role with respect to the new order. Essentially, the Cold War's end was the permissive cause for the new world order, but the Persian Gulf crisis was the active cause.
[thumb\|upright\|[Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney"), then [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:Richard_Cheney_2005_official_portrait.jpg "Richard Cheney 2005 official portrait.jpg")
They reveal that in August 1990 U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia [Charles W. Freeman Jr.](/wiki/Charles_W._Freeman_Jr. "Charles W. Freeman Jr.") sent a diplomatic cable to Washington from Saudi Arabia in which he argued that U.S. conduct in the Persian Gulf crisis would determine the nature of the world. Bush would then refer to the "new world order" at least 42 times from the summer of 1990 to the end of March 1991\. They also note that [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney "Dick Cheney") gave three priorities to the [Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate "United States Senate") on fighting the Persian Gulf War, namely prevent further aggression, protect oil supplies and further a new world order. The authors note that the new world order did not emerge in policy speeches until after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, maintaining that the concept was clearly not critical in the U.S. decision to deploy. [John H. Sununu](/wiki/John_H._Sununu "John H. Sununu") later indicated that the administration wanted to refrain from talking about the concept until Soviet collapse was more clear. A reversal of Soviet collapse would have been the death knell for the new order.
Bush and Scowcroft were frustrated by the exaggerated and distorted ideas surrounding the new world order. They did not intend to suggest that the U.S. would yield significant influence to the United Nations, or that they expected the world to enter an era of peace and tranquility. They preferred [multilateralism](/wiki/Multilateralism "Multilateralism"), but did not reject [unilateralism](/wiki/Unilateralism "Unilateralism"). The new world order did not signal peace, but a "challenge to keep the dangers of disorder at bay".
Bush's drive toward the Persian Gulf War was based on the world making a clear choice. Baker recalls that UNSCR 660's "language was simply and crystal clear, purposely designed by us to frame the vote as being for or against aggression". Bush's motivation centered around 1\. The dangers of [appeasement](/wiki/Appeasement "Appeasement"); and 2\. Failure to check aggression could spark further aggression. Bush repeatedly invoked images of World War II in this connection and became very emotional over [Iraqi atrocities being committed in Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait%23Iraqi_response "Invasion of Kuwait#Iraqi response"). He also believed that failure to check Iraqi aggression would lead to more challenges to the U.S.\-favored status quo and global stability. While the end of the Cold War increased U.S. security globally, it remained vulnerable to regional threats. Furthermore, Washington believed that addressing the Iraqi threat would help reassert U.S. predominance in light of growing concerns about relative decline, following the resurgence of Germany and Japan.
[thumb\|upright\|[Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze "Eduard Shevardnadze"), then [Soviet Foreign Minister](/wiki/Soviet_Foreign_Minister "Soviet Foreign Minister")](/wiki/File:Eduard_shevardnadze.jpg "Eduard shevardnadze.jpg")
The Gulf War was also framed as a test case for United Nations credibility. As a model for dealing with aggressors, Scowcroft believed that the United States ought to act in a way that others can trust and thus get United Nations support. It was critical that the U.S. not look like it was throwing its weight around. Great power cooperation and United Nations support would collapse if the U.S. marched on the [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad") to try to remake Iraq. However, practically, superpower cooperation was limited. For example, when the U.S. deployed troops to Saudi Arabia, Soviet Foreign Minister [Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze "Eduard Shevardnadze") became furious at not being consulted.
By 1992, the authors note that the U.S. was already abandoning the idea of collective action. The leaked draft of the [Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz "Paul Wolfowitz")\-[Libby](/wiki/Lewis_Libby "Lewis Libby") 1992 Defense Guidance Report effectively confirmed this shift as it called for a unilateral role for the U.S. in world affairs, focusing on preserving American dominance.
In closing *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft sums up what his expectations were for the new world order. He states that the U.S. has the strength and the resources to pursue its own interests, but has a disproportionate responsibility to use its power in pursuit of the common good as well as an obligation to lead and to be involved. The U.S. is perceived as uncomfortable in exercising its power and ought to work to create predictability and stability in international relations. The U.S. needs not be embroiled in every conflict, but ought to aid in developing multilateral responses to them. The U.S. can unilaterally broker disputes, but ought to act whenever possible in concert with equally committed partners to deter major aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 565β566\.
|
[
"### Viewed in retrospect",
"A 2001 paper in *Presidential Studies Quarterly* examined the idea of the \"new world order\" as it was presented by the Bush administration (mostly ignoring previous uses by Gorbachev). Their conclusion was that Bush really only ever had three firm aspects to the new world order:\n1. Checking the offensive use of force.\n2. Promoting [collective security](/wiki/Collective_security \"Collective security\").\n3. Using great power cooperation.",
"These were not developed into a policy architecture, but came about incrementally as a function of domestic, personal and global factors. Because of the somewhat overblown expectations for the new world order in the media, Bush was widely criticized for lacking vision.Eric A. Miller and Steve A. Yetiv, [\"The New World Order in Theory and Practice: The Bush Administration's Worldview in Transition.\"](http://unitedelite.net/bush.html) *Presidential Studies Quarterly*, March 2001",
"The Gulf crisis is seen as the catalyst for Bush's development and implementation of the new world order concept. The authors note that before the crisis the concept remained \"ambiguous, nascent, and unproven\" and that the U.S. had not assumed a leadership role with respect to the new order. Essentially, the Cold War's end was the permissive cause for the new world order, but the Persian Gulf crisis was the active cause.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\"), then [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") under George H. W. Bush](/wiki/File:Richard_Cheney_2005_official_portrait.jpg \"Richard Cheney 2005 official portrait.jpg\")\nThey reveal that in August 1990 U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia [Charles W. Freeman Jr.](/wiki/Charles_W._Freeman_Jr. \"Charles W. Freeman Jr.\") sent a diplomatic cable to Washington from Saudi Arabia in which he argued that U.S. conduct in the Persian Gulf crisis would determine the nature of the world. Bush would then refer to the \"new world order\" at least 42 times from the summer of 1990 to the end of March 1991\\. They also note that [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") [Dick Cheney](/wiki/Dick_Cheney \"Dick Cheney\") gave three priorities to the [Senate](/wiki/United_States_Senate \"United States Senate\") on fighting the Persian Gulf War, namely prevent further aggression, protect oil supplies and further a new world order. The authors note that the new world order did not emerge in policy speeches until after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, maintaining that the concept was clearly not critical in the U.S. decision to deploy. [John H. Sununu](/wiki/John_H._Sununu \"John H. Sununu\") later indicated that the administration wanted to refrain from talking about the concept until Soviet collapse was more clear. A reversal of Soviet collapse would have been the death knell for the new order.",
"Bush and Scowcroft were frustrated by the exaggerated and distorted ideas surrounding the new world order. They did not intend to suggest that the U.S. would yield significant influence to the United Nations, or that they expected the world to enter an era of peace and tranquility. They preferred [multilateralism](/wiki/Multilateralism \"Multilateralism\"), but did not reject [unilateralism](/wiki/Unilateralism \"Unilateralism\"). The new world order did not signal peace, but a \"challenge to keep the dangers of disorder at bay\".",
"Bush's drive toward the Persian Gulf War was based on the world making a clear choice. Baker recalls that UNSCR 660's \"language was simply and crystal clear, purposely designed by us to frame the vote as being for or against aggression\". Bush's motivation centered around 1\\. The dangers of [appeasement](/wiki/Appeasement \"Appeasement\"); and 2\\. Failure to check aggression could spark further aggression. Bush repeatedly invoked images of World War II in this connection and became very emotional over [Iraqi atrocities being committed in Kuwait](/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait%23Iraqi_response \"Invasion of Kuwait#Iraqi response\"). He also believed that failure to check Iraqi aggression would lead to more challenges to the U.S.\\-favored status quo and global stability. While the end of the Cold War increased U.S. security globally, it remained vulnerable to regional threats. Furthermore, Washington believed that addressing the Iraqi threat would help reassert U.S. predominance in light of growing concerns about relative decline, following the resurgence of Germany and Japan.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze \"Eduard Shevardnadze\"), then [Soviet Foreign Minister](/wiki/Soviet_Foreign_Minister \"Soviet Foreign Minister\")](/wiki/File:Eduard_shevardnadze.jpg \"Eduard shevardnadze.jpg\")\nThe Gulf War was also framed as a test case for United Nations credibility. As a model for dealing with aggressors, Scowcroft believed that the United States ought to act in a way that others can trust and thus get United Nations support. It was critical that the U.S. not look like it was throwing its weight around. Great power cooperation and United Nations support would collapse if the U.S. marched on the [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\") to try to remake Iraq. However, practically, superpower cooperation was limited. For example, when the U.S. deployed troops to Saudi Arabia, Soviet Foreign Minister [Eduard Shevardnadze](/wiki/Eduard_Shevardnadze \"Eduard Shevardnadze\") became furious at not being consulted.",
"By 1992, the authors note that the U.S. was already abandoning the idea of collective action. The leaked draft of the [Wolfowitz](/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz \"Paul Wolfowitz\")\\-[Libby](/wiki/Lewis_Libby \"Lewis Libby\") 1992 Defense Guidance Report effectively confirmed this shift as it called for a unilateral role for the U.S. in world affairs, focusing on preserving American dominance.",
"In closing *A World Transformed*, Scowcroft sums up what his expectations were for the new world order. He states that the U.S. has the strength and the resources to pursue its own interests, but has a disproportionate responsibility to use its power in pursuit of the common good as well as an obligation to lead and to be involved. The U.S. is perceived as uncomfortable in exercising its power and ought to work to create predictability and stability in international relations. The U.S. needs not be embroiled in every conflict, but ought to aid in developing multilateral responses to them. The U.S. can unilaterally broker disputes, but ought to act whenever possible in concert with equally committed partners to deter major aggression.*A World Transformed*, pp. 565β566\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
One of the artist's favourite themes is the representation of Alpine landscapes. Deeply impressed by the canvases [Alexandre Calame](/wiki/Alexandre_Calame "Alexandre Calame") (1810 β1864\) had sent to Belgian Salons, FranΓ§ois Roffiaen indeed won a place at Geneva in the autumn of 1846 and stayed for six months beside this master, before discovering the mountains himself. He continued to familiarise himself with the landscapes of Switzerland, Austria, Upper Bavaria and the Haute\-Savoie during several other journeys (1852, 1855, 1856, 1864, 1868, 1879\). But the painter also liked to represent picturesque scenes of the valleys of the Meuse and the Ourthe, the Scottish lochs, discovered in 1862, or the extensive heather of Limbourg, which he travelled through from the middle of the preceding decade, so that like Edmond Tschaggeny (1818β1873\), he became one of the pioneers of the Campine Painters (called the School of Genk), a school which has been unjustly forgotten.
Since the beginning of the year 1840, Roffiaen adopted the path followed by all artists, anxious to assure the greatest possible publicity for their works : participation in big group exhibitions. That is how for more than fifty years his paintings came to be hanging on the [picture rails](/wiki/Picture_rail "Picture rail") of the three yearly Salons of Antwerp, Brussels and Gent and were included in very many exhibitions in the provinces (Bruges, Dendermonde, Kortrijk, Leuven, Liège, Mechelen, Mons, Namur, Spa, Ostend, Ypres) and abroad (Alger, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Bremen, Caracas, Dublin, Le Havre, London, Lyon, Melbourne, Munich, Nice, Paris, Reims, Rotterdam, The Hague).
The years 1850β1860 were those of his greatest success, including numerous sales in Belgium, in Great Britain and in the United States, having works acquired by the Shah of Persia, by the Belgian and British royal houses, a study tour of Scotland commissioned by Queen Victoria, but which unfortunately never took place because of the sudden death of Albert, Prince Consort (December 1861\), and when he received the title of Chevalier de lβOrdre de LΓ©opold (1869\).
His painting, constructed according to indefinitely repeated formulae and each year becoming a little more tired, finished however by wearying the art chroniclers : "*Critics of the press have often reproached him for the bias he shows in his painting. M Roffiaen has ignored them, he has continued to accumulate landscapes of Belgium, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, what do I know, combing them without rest, using the same formula, making do with the same sky, the same trees, the same rocks, unconcerned by the latitudes, according to the taste of a special public, who buy all of that and pay him handsomely. Leave M. Roffiaen alone, gentlemen of the press, he paints his little nature scenes one demands of him and knows well the reason why.*" (G. H., *LβOrgane de Namur et de la Province*, 1874\).
[thumb\|right\|**François Roffiaen, *On the banks of the river Meuse at Waulsort* (oil on panel, 1876\)**](/wiki/Image:Roffiaen-Waulsort-1876.jpg "Roffiaen-Waulsort-1876.jpg")
However, on several occasions a critic like Gustave Lagye (1843β1908\) attempted to emphasise the qualities of his art, both in its extreme delicacy and finesse and in its almost photographic detail. "*Although opposed to M. Roffiaen for his manner of painting, dry and thin, I am obliged to admire him for the prodigious ability and above all for the exquisite art with which he holds grandiose panoramas in the narrowest of frames, where he chisels the smallest bump with the scruples of a miniaturist. Allow lovers of great painting to prefer in general large studies, executed in a day of fever and inspiration, but the tourist always prefers fine and complete pictorial photographs, where M. Roffiaen allows them to rediscover the scenes that he admired and details of the places themselves from an enthusiastic and curious point of view. His Borders of the Meuse, at Wauslort; his Marshes of Genck, at the approach of Sunset; his View into the Bernese Overland, are treated in a gothic manner, also in their perspective and their elegance. M. Roffiaen is a figure apart in the Belgian artistic movement and one should give him the justice he is due*" (*La FΓ©deration artistique*, 1877\). The execution of certain animals or little characters which fill out his works have been left to others more expert than he in these matters, as is the custom in traditional artistic circles : [Johannes Hubertus Leonardus de Haas](/wiki/Johannes_Hubertus_Leonardus_de_Haas "Johannes Hubertus Leonardus de Haas") (1832\-1908\), [Adolf Dillens](/wiki/Adolf_Dillens "Adolf Dillens") (1821β1877\), ThΓ©odore GΓ©rard (1829β1902\), Louis Robbe (1806β1887\), Paul Van der Vin (1823β1877\), [Frans Van Leemputten](/wiki/Frans_Van_Leemputten "Frans Van Leemputten") (1850β1914\), EugΓ¨ne Verboeckhoven (1799β1881\) or again the brothers Edward (1819β1897\) and Constant (1823β1867\) Woutermaetens.
Initiated in April 1854 into the most important lodge in the kingdom, *The True Friends of the Union and of Progress Reunited*, FranΓ§ois Roffiaen pushed his masonic career up to the 33rd and last degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, his name appearing in the *List of Great General Inspectors* for the Supreme Council of Belgium, of which he was Grand Master of Ceremonies for twenty eight years. In 1883, his involvement encouraged him to pay homage openly by dedicating one of his paintings to his Brother, General Antonio GuzmΓ‘n\-Blanco (1829β1899\), president of the republic of Venezuela.
[thumb\|right\|**François Roffiaen, *The Banks of the Kânigsee (Upper Bavaria)* (oil on cardboard, not dated)**](/wiki/Image:Roffiaen-281.jpg "Roffiaen-281.jpg")
FranΓ§ois Roffiaen is equally illustrious in the domain of natural sciences, to which Jules Colbeau (1823β1881\) introduced him in his youth. While children the two companions already took delight in observing nature in the little property that Colbeau's parents owned in the suburbs of Namur. Once adult, they took a journey together to Switzerland (1852\) where they collected insects, butterflies and molluscs. In January 1863, their mutual passion for the last type of living creatures led them, with five other people, Firmin De Malzine, Egide Fologne, Henri Lambotte, Alexandre Seghers and Joseph Weyers β to found the Malacological Society of Belgium, to whose *Annals* Roffiaen made diverse contributions : "Notes conchyoliogiques" (French translation from an article in Italian by Dr Senoner (t.1\); "Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles recueillis en Suisse" and "Essais pour obtenir les Helix scalariformes" (t.3\); "Coquilles recueillies Γ HastiΓ¨re et Γ Chimay" (t. 6\); "Mollusques observΓ©s dans la vallΓ©e de lβOurthe" (t. 8\); "Mollusques recueillis dans le Grand\-DuchΓ© de Luxembourg" (t. 9\); "Mollusques recueillis Γ Gand"; "Mollusques recueillis Γ Waulsor" (t. 10\); "Mollusques recueillis dans les environs de Gand" (t. 11\); "Notes sur des mollusques recueillis Γ Waulsort" (t. 12\); "Jules Colbeau et la SociΓ©tΓ© royale malacologique de Belgique" (t. 16\); "Rapport sur lβassemble gΓ©nΓ©rale du 1er juillet 1882" (t. 17\). The owner of a remarkable personal collection of molluscs, he also attended to the increase and the presentation of those of the Malacological Society, invented a series of instruments used to extract the animals from their shells and constructed a cochlearium, a sort of vivarium used for the observation and raising of molluscs. A sign of the place he occupies in this little scholarly world of his time, two of the animalsβone living and a fossilβeven received his name, *Planorbis Roffiaeni* and *Cyprina Roffiaeni* respectively.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"One of the artist's favourite themes is the representation of Alpine landscapes. Deeply impressed by the canvases [Alexandre Calame](/wiki/Alexandre_Calame \"Alexandre Calame\") (1810 β1864\\) had sent to Belgian Salons, FranΓ§ois Roffiaen indeed won a place at Geneva in the autumn of 1846 and stayed for six months beside this master, before discovering the mountains himself. He continued to familiarise himself with the landscapes of Switzerland, Austria, Upper Bavaria and the Haute\\-Savoie during several other journeys (1852, 1855, 1856, 1864, 1868, 1879\\). But the painter also liked to represent picturesque scenes of the valleys of the Meuse and the Ourthe, the Scottish lochs, discovered in 1862, or the extensive heather of Limbourg, which he travelled through from the middle of the preceding decade, so that like Edmond Tschaggeny (1818β1873\\), he became one of the pioneers of the Campine Painters (called the School of Genk), a school which has been unjustly forgotten.",
"Since the beginning of the year 1840, Roffiaen adopted the path followed by all artists, anxious to assure the greatest possible publicity for their works : participation in big group exhibitions. That is how for more than fifty years his paintings came to be hanging on the [picture rails](/wiki/Picture_rail \"Picture rail\") of the three yearly Salons of Antwerp, Brussels and Gent and were included in very many exhibitions in the provinces (Bruges, Dendermonde, Kortrijk, Leuven, Liège, Mechelen, Mons, Namur, Spa, Ostend, Ypres) and abroad (Alger, Amsterdam, Barcelona, Bremen, Caracas, Dublin, Le Havre, London, Lyon, Melbourne, Munich, Nice, Paris, Reims, Rotterdam, The Hague).",
"The years 1850β1860 were those of his greatest success, including numerous sales in Belgium, in Great Britain and in the United States, having works acquired by the Shah of Persia, by the Belgian and British royal houses, a study tour of Scotland commissioned by Queen Victoria, but which unfortunately never took place because of the sudden death of Albert, Prince Consort (December 1861\\), and when he received the title of Chevalier de lβOrdre de LΓ©opold (1869\\).",
"His painting, constructed according to indefinitely repeated formulae and each year becoming a little more tired, finished however by wearying the art chroniclers : \"*Critics of the press have often reproached him for the bias he shows in his painting. M Roffiaen has ignored them, he has continued to accumulate landscapes of Belgium, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, what do I know, combing them without rest, using the same formula, making do with the same sky, the same trees, the same rocks, unconcerned by the latitudes, according to the taste of a special public, who buy all of that and pay him handsomely. Leave M. Roffiaen alone, gentlemen of the press, he paints his little nature scenes one demands of him and knows well the reason why.*\" (G. H., *LβOrgane de Namur et de la Province*, 1874\\).",
"[thumb\\|right\\|**FranΓ§ois Roffiaen, *On the banks of the river Meuse at Waulsort* (oil on panel, 1876\\)**](/wiki/Image:Roffiaen-Waulsort-1876.jpg \"Roffiaen-Waulsort-1876.jpg\")\nHowever, on several occasions a critic like Gustave Lagye (1843β1908\\) attempted to emphasise the qualities of his art, both in its extreme delicacy and finesse and in its almost photographic detail. \"*Although opposed to M. Roffiaen for his manner of painting, dry and thin, I am obliged to admire him for the prodigious ability and above all for the exquisite art with which he holds grandiose panoramas in the narrowest of frames, where he chisels the smallest bump with the scruples of a miniaturist. Allow lovers of great painting to prefer in general large studies, executed in a day of fever and inspiration, but the tourist always prefers fine and complete pictorial photographs, where M. Roffiaen allows them to rediscover the scenes that he admired and details of the places themselves from an enthusiastic and curious point of view. His Borders of the Meuse, at Wauslort; his Marshes of Genck, at the approach of Sunset; his View into the Bernese Overland, are treated in a gothic manner, also in their perspective and their elegance. M. Roffiaen is a figure apart in the Belgian artistic movement and one should give him the justice he is due*\" (*La FΓ©deration artistique*, 1877\\). The execution of certain animals or little characters which fill out his works have been left to others more expert than he in these matters, as is the custom in traditional artistic circles : [Johannes Hubertus Leonardus de Haas](/wiki/Johannes_Hubertus_Leonardus_de_Haas \"Johannes Hubertus Leonardus de Haas\") (1832\\-1908\\), [Adolf Dillens](/wiki/Adolf_Dillens \"Adolf Dillens\") (1821β1877\\), ThΓ©odore GΓ©rard (1829β1902\\), Louis Robbe (1806β1887\\), Paul Van der Vin (1823β1877\\), [Frans Van Leemputten](/wiki/Frans_Van_Leemputten \"Frans Van Leemputten\") (1850β1914\\), EugΓ¨ne Verboeckhoven (1799β1881\\) or again the brothers Edward (1819β1897\\) and Constant (1823β1867\\) Woutermaetens.",
"Initiated in April 1854 into the most important lodge in the kingdom, *The True Friends of the Union and of Progress Reunited*, FranΓ§ois Roffiaen pushed his masonic career up to the 33rd and last degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, his name appearing in the *List of Great General Inspectors* for the Supreme Council of Belgium, of which he was Grand Master of Ceremonies for twenty eight years. In 1883, his involvement encouraged him to pay homage openly by dedicating one of his paintings to his Brother, General Antonio GuzmΓ‘n\\-Blanco (1829β1899\\), president of the republic of Venezuela.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|**François Roffiaen, *The Banks of the Kânigsee (Upper Bavaria)* (oil on cardboard, not dated)**](/wiki/Image:Roffiaen-281.jpg \"Roffiaen-281.jpg\")",
"FranΓ§ois Roffiaen is equally illustrious in the domain of natural sciences, to which Jules Colbeau (1823β1881\\) introduced him in his youth. While children the two companions already took delight in observing nature in the little property that Colbeau's parents owned in the suburbs of Namur. Once adult, they took a journey together to Switzerland (1852\\) where they collected insects, butterflies and molluscs. In January 1863, their mutual passion for the last type of living creatures led them, with five other people, Firmin De Malzine, Egide Fologne, Henri Lambotte, Alexandre Seghers and Joseph Weyers β to found the Malacological Society of Belgium, to whose *Annals* Roffiaen made diverse contributions : \"Notes conchyoliogiques\" (French translation from an article in Italian by Dr Senoner (t.1\\); \"Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles recueillis en Suisse\" and \"Essais pour obtenir les Helix scalariformes\" (t.3\\); \"Coquilles recueillies Γ HastiΓ¨re et Γ Chimay\" (t. 6\\); \"Mollusques observΓ©s dans la vallΓ©e de lβOurthe\" (t. 8\\); \"Mollusques recueillis dans le Grand\\-DuchΓ© de Luxembourg\" (t. 9\\); \"Mollusques recueillis Γ Gand\"; \"Mollusques recueillis Γ Waulsor\" (t. 10\\); \"Mollusques recueillis dans les environs de Gand\" (t. 11\\); \"Notes sur des mollusques recueillis Γ Waulsort\" (t. 12\\); \"Jules Colbeau et la SociΓ©tΓ© royale malacologique de Belgique\" (t. 16\\); \"Rapport sur lβassemble gΓ©nΓ©rale du 1er juillet 1882\" (t. 17\\). The owner of a remarkable personal collection of molluscs, he also attended to the increase and the presentation of those of the Malacological Society, invented a series of instruments used to extract the animals from their shells and constructed a cochlearium, a sort of vivarium used for the observation and raising of molluscs. A sign of the place he occupies in this little scholarly world of his time, two of the animalsβone living and a fossilβeven received his name, *Planorbis Roffiaeni* and *Cyprina Roffiaeni* respectively.",
""
] |
Removal
-------
In most legal systems the parties are free to specify in what circumstances the appointment of an arbitrator may be revoked. In default, most legal systems provide either that (i) the parties to the dispute must act jointly to remove an arbitrator, or (ii) the other members of the arbitral tribunal must act to remove the arbitrator, and/or (iii) the court must act to remove an arbitrator. Most legal systems reserve a power to the court to remove arbitrators who are unfit to act, or are not impartial.
### Resignation
It is generally accepted that one cannot force a person to continue as an arbitrator against their will, and arbitrators may [resign](/wiki/Resignation "Resignation") if they are unwilling to proceed with the arbitration. Where the arbitrator becomes aware of facts that might be seen to affect his or her impartiality, they are often under a duty to resign. The parties are generally free to agree with the arbitrator what should happen with respect to (i) the arbitrator's fees, and (ii) any liability of the arbitrator (such as wasted costs), if the arbitrator should resign, with or without cause.
### Death
The authority of an arbitrator is personal, and an appointment ceases upon [death](/wiki/Death "Death").
Unless the parties have otherwise provided, the death of a party does not usually revoke the appointment of any arbitrator appointed by the deceased, and any agreement relating to the appointment is enforceable in the usual way against the [personal representatives](/wiki/Personal_representative "Personal representative") of the deceased.
### Filling a vacancy
If a vacancy arises (through resignation or death, or otherwise) then the parties are free to agree:
1. whether, and if so, how, the vacancy shall be filled
2. whether, and if so, to what extent, the previous proceedings shall stand
3. what effect, if any, the arbitrator's ceasing to hold office has on any appointment or order made by that arbitrator (alone or jointly)
Most legal systems provide that, in default of agreement, a new arbitrator shall be appointed using the provision for appointments which applied to the original arbitrator that has vacated office;See for example, Article 15 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration and section 27 of the Arbitration Act 1996 of the United Kingdom. the tribunal itself (once reconstituted) should determine whether, and if so, to what extent, previous proceedings stand; and the appointments and orders made by the previous arbitrator are unaffected.
|
[
"Removal\n-------",
"In most legal systems the parties are free to specify in what circumstances the appointment of an arbitrator may be revoked. In default, most legal systems provide either that (i) the parties to the dispute must act jointly to remove an arbitrator, or (ii) the other members of the arbitral tribunal must act to remove the arbitrator, and/or (iii) the court must act to remove an arbitrator. Most legal systems reserve a power to the court to remove arbitrators who are unfit to act, or are not impartial.",
"### Resignation",
"It is generally accepted that one cannot force a person to continue as an arbitrator against their will, and arbitrators may [resign](/wiki/Resignation \"Resignation\") if they are unwilling to proceed with the arbitration. Where the arbitrator becomes aware of facts that might be seen to affect his or her impartiality, they are often under a duty to resign. The parties are generally free to agree with the arbitrator what should happen with respect to (i) the arbitrator's fees, and (ii) any liability of the arbitrator (such as wasted costs), if the arbitrator should resign, with or without cause.",
"### Death",
"The authority of an arbitrator is personal, and an appointment ceases upon [death](/wiki/Death \"Death\").",
"Unless the parties have otherwise provided, the death of a party does not usually revoke the appointment of any arbitrator appointed by the deceased, and any agreement relating to the appointment is enforceable in the usual way against the [personal representatives](/wiki/Personal_representative \"Personal representative\") of the deceased.",
"### Filling a vacancy",
"If a vacancy arises (through resignation or death, or otherwise) then the parties are free to agree:\n1. whether, and if so, how, the vacancy shall be filled\n2. whether, and if so, to what extent, the previous proceedings shall stand\n3. what effect, if any, the arbitrator's ceasing to hold office has on any appointment or order made by that arbitrator (alone or jointly)",
"Most legal systems provide that, in default of agreement, a new arbitrator shall be appointed using the provision for appointments which applied to the original arbitrator that has vacated office;See for example, Article 15 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration and section 27 of the Arbitration Act 1996 of the United Kingdom. the tribunal itself (once reconstituted) should determine whether, and if so, to what extent, previous proceedings stand; and the appointments and orders made by the previous arbitrator are unaffected.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
{{refimprovesect\|date\=February 2024}}
{{Further\|Thomas Hearns vs. Iran Barkley\|Iran Barkley vs. Roberto DurΓ‘n\|Michael Nunn vs. Iran Barkley\|Nigel Benn vs. Iran Barkley\|Darrin Van Horn vs. Iran Barkley\|Thomas Hearns vs. Iran Barkley II\|Iran Barkley vs. James Toney\|Henry Maske vs. Iran Barkley}}
Known as "The Blade", Barkley turned professional in December 1982, and first challenged for a world title against the highly skilled Italian [Sumbu Kalambay](/wiki/Sumbu_Kalambay "Sumbu Kalambay"), losing on points over fifteen rounds for the vacant [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association "World Boxing Association") [middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight "Middleweight") title in Livorno, Toscana, Italy in October 1987\.
Barkley returned in 1988 with a split decision over Sanderline Williams and a fifth\-round stoppage of Michael Olajide, before winning the [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council "World Boxing Council") middleweight title with a third\-round knockout of [Thomas Hearns](/wiki/Thomas_Hearns "Thomas Hearns"), voted 1988 Upset of the Year by [*The Ring* magazine](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 "The Ring (magazine)").
In his next fight, Barkley lost his title via [split decision](/wiki/Split_decision "Split decision") in a 12\-round war with [Roberto DurΓ‘n](/wiki/Roberto_Dur%C3%A1n "Roberto DurΓ‘n"), in a fight proclaimed 1989 [Fight of the Year](/wiki/Ring_Magazine_fights_of_the_year "Ring Magazine fights of the year") by *Ring* magazine.{{cite web\| website\= WorldBoxing101\.com \| url\= http://www.worldboxing101\.com/2012/04/17/roberto\-duran\-vs\-iran\-barkley\-vhs\-classic\-rewind/ \|url\-status\= dead\|title\= Roberto Duran vs. Iran Barkley: VHS Classic Rewind\| date\= April 17, 2012\| access\-date\= May 16, 2018\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034620/http://www.worldboxing101\.com/2012/04/17/roberto\-duran\-vs\-iran\-barkley\-vhs\-classic\-rewind/ \|first\= Sharon \|last\= Scrima\| archive\-date\= March 4, 2016}} Following the defeat to Duran, Barkley took on undefeated [Michael Nunn](/wiki/Michael_Nunn "Michael Nunn") for the [IBF](/wiki/International_Boxing_Federation "International Boxing Federation") and [lineal](/wiki/Lineal_championship "Lineal championship") middleweight titles, dropping a close [majority decision](/wiki/Majority_decision "Majority decision"). He next fought [Nigel Benn](/wiki/Nigel_Benn "Nigel Benn") in a challenge for the [WBO](/wiki/WBO "WBO") middleweight title and was stopped on the three\-knockdown rule at the end of a wild first round in which both fighters were hurt.
After losing to Benn, Barkley underwent surgery for a detached retina and was inactive for a year. Barkley returned with two low\-key wins at light heavyweight in 1991, then defeated [Darrin Van Horn](/wiki/Darrin_Van_Horn "Darrin Van Horn") to win the IBF [super middleweight](/wiki/Super_middleweight "Super middleweight") title in two rounds in January 1992 in Paramount Theatre, New York. Just two months later, he went on to again defeat Hearns and take his WBA [light heavyweight](/wiki/Light_heavyweight "Light heavyweight") title via a twelve\-round split decision. Barkley vacated the title without defending it, choosing instead to defend his super middleweight title against IBF and lineal middleweight champion [James Toney](/wiki/James_Toney "James Toney"). Barkley reportedly had trouble getting back down to the 168 lb weight limit and lost his IBF title via a corner retirement after nine rounds due to severe swelling around both eyes.
Barkley's final shot at a title would come against undefeated [Henry Maske](/wiki/Henry_Maske "Henry Maske") at light heavyweight for Maske's IBF title in Nordrhein\-Westfalen, Germany in October 1994\. Barkley again lost by corner retirement after nine rounds.
Barkley continued to fight after this loss, eventually moving up to the heavyweight division. His last fight of note was a June 1997 win for the WBB heavyweight title, a bout in which Barkley retired former WBA heavyweight champion [Gerrie Coetzee](/wiki/Gerrie_Coetzee "Gerrie Coetzee") with a 10th\-round TKO.
Barkley 'retired' in 1999 after losing a bout in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi "Mississippi") by sixth\-round stoppage to Keith McKnight.
### Comeback
In 2006, at the age of 46, Barkley won an unsanctioned bout by second\-round stoppage in Aruba. In 2008, at age 48, Barkley fought to a six\-round draw in an unsanctioned exhibition bout against heavyweight [Chauncy Welliver](/wiki/Chauncy_Welliver "Chauncy Welliver") in [Lapwai](/wiki/Lapwai "Lapwai"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho "Idaho") at the Pi\-Nee\-Waus Community Center of the [Nez Perce Tribe](/wiki/Nez_Perce_Indian_Reservation "Nez Perce Indian Reservation").{{cite web \|url\=http://fightbeat.com/news\_details.php?NW\=21232 \|title\=News \|publisher\=Fight Beat \|access\-date\=2011\-09\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928120027/http://fightbeat.com/news\_details.php?NW\=21232 \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-28 \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"{{refimprovesect\\|date\\=February 2024}}\n{{Further\\|Thomas Hearns vs. Iran Barkley\\|Iran Barkley vs. Roberto DurΓ‘n\\|Michael Nunn vs. Iran Barkley\\|Nigel Benn vs. Iran Barkley\\|Darrin Van Horn vs. Iran Barkley\\|Thomas Hearns vs. Iran Barkley II\\|Iran Barkley vs. James Toney\\|Henry Maske vs. Iran Barkley}}\nKnown as \"The Blade\", Barkley turned professional in December 1982, and first challenged for a world title against the highly skilled Italian [Sumbu Kalambay](/wiki/Sumbu_Kalambay \"Sumbu Kalambay\"), losing on points over fifteen rounds for the vacant [WBA](/wiki/World_Boxing_Association \"World Boxing Association\") [middleweight](/wiki/Middleweight \"Middleweight\") title in Livorno, Toscana, Italy in October 1987\\.",
"Barkley returned in 1988 with a split decision over Sanderline Williams and a fifth\\-round stoppage of Michael Olajide, before winning the [WBC](/wiki/World_Boxing_Council \"World Boxing Council\") middleweight title with a third\\-round knockout of [Thomas Hearns](/wiki/Thomas_Hearns \"Thomas Hearns\"), voted 1988 Upset of the Year by [*The Ring* magazine](/wiki/The_Ring_%28magazine%29 \"The Ring (magazine)\").",
"In his next fight, Barkley lost his title via [split decision](/wiki/Split_decision \"Split decision\") in a 12\\-round war with [Roberto DurΓ‘n](/wiki/Roberto_Dur%C3%A1n \"Roberto DurΓ‘n\"), in a fight proclaimed 1989 [Fight of the Year](/wiki/Ring_Magazine_fights_of_the_year \"Ring Magazine fights of the year\") by *Ring* magazine.{{cite web\\| website\\= WorldBoxing101\\.com \\| url\\= http://www.worldboxing101\\.com/2012/04/17/roberto\\-duran\\-vs\\-iran\\-barkley\\-vhs\\-classic\\-rewind/ \\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|title\\= Roberto Duran vs. Iran Barkley: VHS Classic Rewind\\| date\\= April 17, 2012\\| access\\-date\\= May 16, 2018\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034620/http://www.worldboxing101\\.com/2012/04/17/roberto\\-duran\\-vs\\-iran\\-barkley\\-vhs\\-classic\\-rewind/ \\|first\\= Sharon \\|last\\= Scrima\\| archive\\-date\\= March 4, 2016}} Following the defeat to Duran, Barkley took on undefeated [Michael Nunn](/wiki/Michael_Nunn \"Michael Nunn\") for the [IBF](/wiki/International_Boxing_Federation \"International Boxing Federation\") and [lineal](/wiki/Lineal_championship \"Lineal championship\") middleweight titles, dropping a close [majority decision](/wiki/Majority_decision \"Majority decision\"). He next fought [Nigel Benn](/wiki/Nigel_Benn \"Nigel Benn\") in a challenge for the [WBO](/wiki/WBO \"WBO\") middleweight title and was stopped on the three\\-knockdown rule at the end of a wild first round in which both fighters were hurt.",
"After losing to Benn, Barkley underwent surgery for a detached retina and was inactive for a year. Barkley returned with two low\\-key wins at light heavyweight in 1991, then defeated [Darrin Van Horn](/wiki/Darrin_Van_Horn \"Darrin Van Horn\") to win the IBF [super middleweight](/wiki/Super_middleweight \"Super middleweight\") title in two rounds in January 1992 in Paramount Theatre, New York. Just two months later, he went on to again defeat Hearns and take his WBA [light heavyweight](/wiki/Light_heavyweight \"Light heavyweight\") title via a twelve\\-round split decision. Barkley vacated the title without defending it, choosing instead to defend his super middleweight title against IBF and lineal middleweight champion [James Toney](/wiki/James_Toney \"James Toney\"). Barkley reportedly had trouble getting back down to the 168 lb weight limit and lost his IBF title via a corner retirement after nine rounds due to severe swelling around both eyes.",
"Barkley's final shot at a title would come against undefeated [Henry Maske](/wiki/Henry_Maske \"Henry Maske\") at light heavyweight for Maske's IBF title in Nordrhein\\-Westfalen, Germany in October 1994\\. Barkley again lost by corner retirement after nine rounds.",
"Barkley continued to fight after this loss, eventually moving up to the heavyweight division. His last fight of note was a June 1997 win for the WBB heavyweight title, a bout in which Barkley retired former WBA heavyweight champion [Gerrie Coetzee](/wiki/Gerrie_Coetzee \"Gerrie Coetzee\") with a 10th\\-round TKO.",
"Barkley 'retired' in 1999 after losing a bout in [Mississippi](/wiki/Mississippi \"Mississippi\") by sixth\\-round stoppage to Keith McKnight.",
"### Comeback",
"In 2006, at the age of 46, Barkley won an unsanctioned bout by second\\-round stoppage in Aruba. In 2008, at age 48, Barkley fought to a six\\-round draw in an unsanctioned exhibition bout against heavyweight [Chauncy Welliver](/wiki/Chauncy_Welliver \"Chauncy Welliver\") in [Lapwai](/wiki/Lapwai \"Lapwai\"), [Idaho](/wiki/Idaho \"Idaho\") at the Pi\\-Nee\\-Waus Community Center of the [Nez Perce Tribe](/wiki/Nez_Perce_Indian_Reservation \"Nez Perce Indian Reservation\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fightbeat.com/news\\_details.php?NW\\=21232 \\|title\\=News \\|publisher\\=Fight Beat \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928120027/http://fightbeat.com/news\\_details.php?NW\\=21232 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
Solubility and bioavailability
------------------------------
### Factors impacting Saharan dust dissolution \& iron solubility
While Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, only a small amount of that iron (\~0\.4 \- 0\.5%) is actually soluble in water.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sedwick\|first1\=Peter N.\|last2\=Sholkovitz\|first2\=Edward R.\|last3\=Church\|first3\=Thomas M.\|date\=2007\|title\=Impact of anthropogenic combustion emissions on the fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Evidence from the Sargasso Sea: FRACTIONAL SOLUBILITY OF AEROSOL IRON\|journal\=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems\|language\=en\|volume\=8\|issue\=10\|pages\=n/a\|doi\=10\.1029/2007GC001586\|s2cid\=3527662 \|doi\-access\=free}} The solubility of Saharan dust in the world's oceans and the iron it delivers depend on a variety of factors, including [particle size](/wiki/Particle_size "Particle size"), mineral composition, temperature, pH, and the presence or absence of [organic matter](/wiki/Organic_matter "Organic matter").
#### Particle size
[thumb\|Sahara sand and Sahara dust depicted on the same scale](/wiki/File:Sahara_sand_and_Sahara_dust.jpg "Sahara sand and Sahara dust.jpg")
Saharan dust transported over long distances is primarily composed of very small particles called [aerosols](/wiki/Aerosol "Aerosol").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Journet\|first1\=Emilie\|last2\=Desboeufs\|first2\=Karine V.\|last3\=Caquineau\|first3\=Sandrine\|last4\=Colin\|first4\=Jean\-Louis\|date\=2008\|title\=Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility: MINERALOGY AND DUST IRON SOLUBILITY\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|language\=en\|volume\=35\|issue\=7\|pages\=n/a\|doi\=10\.1029/2007GL031589\|s2cid\=54943559 \|doi\-access\=free}} Smaller particles have a larger [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area "Surface area") per unit of mass than larger particles. Once Saharan dust settles into a body of water, the larger surface area increases the contact the dust has with surrounding water, and causes it to dissolve faster than larger particles would. This effect is described by a variant of the [Kelvin Equation.](/wiki/Kelvin_equation "Kelvin equation")
#### Mineral composition
Minerals in aerosolized dust are typically modified in the atmosphere to be more soluble than material in soils. Some processes known to modify iron to more soluble forms in the atmosphere are acidic reactions and [photochemistry](/wiki/Photochemistry "Photochemistry").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Longo\|first1\=Amelia F.\|last2\=Feng\|first2\=Yan\|last3\=Lai\|first3\=Barry\|last4\=Landing\|first4\=William M.\|last5\=Shelley\|first5\=Rachel U.\|last6\=Nenes\|first6\=Athanasios\|last7\=Mihalopoulos\|first7\=Nikolaos\|last8\=Violaki\|first8\=Kalliopi\|last9\=Ingall\|first9\=Ellery D.\|date\=2016\|title\=Influence of Atmospheric Processes on the Solubility and Composition of Iron in Saharan Dust\|url\=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1339565\|journal\=Environmental Science \& Technology\|language\=en\|volume\=50\|issue\=13\|pages\=6912β6920\|doi\=10\.1021/acs.est.6b02605\|pmid\=27286140\|bibcode\=2016EnST...50\.6912L\|osti\=1339565\|issn\=0013\-936X\|via\=}} Iron\-containing minerals such as [clays](/wiki/Clay "Clay"), [feldspars](/wiki/Feldspar "Feldspar"), and [iron oxides](/wiki/Iron_oxide "Iron oxide") are commonly found in Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\|last\=Reid\|first\=Elizabeth A.\|date\=2003\|title\=Characterization of African dust transported to Puerto Rico by individual particle and size segregated bulk analysis\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research\|language\=en\|volume\=108\|issue\=D19\|page\=8591\|doi\=10\.1029/2002JD002935\|bibcode\=2003JGRD..108\.8591R\|issn\=0148\-0227\|doi\-access\=free}}
Clays in Saharan dust tend to show higher fractional solubility than iron oxides. Changes in the relative amounts of these minerals and other forms of iron in Saharan dust can alter the amount of the dust that will dissolve.
#### Temperature and pH
The solubility of many salts and minerals increases with temperature.{{Cite book\|last\=Kotz, John C.\|title\=Chemistry \& chemical reactivity\|date\=2012\|publisher\=Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning\|others\=Treichel, Paul., Townsend, John Raymond.\|isbn\=978\-0\-8400\-4828\-8\|edition\=8th\|location\=Belmont, CA\|oclc\=706384877}} As a result, Saharan dust is typically more soluble in regions with higher temperatures.
pH helps determine the solubility of metal\-containing materials. At low pH (acidic conditions), iron is typically more soluble than it is at higher pH (basic conditions).{{Cite journal\|last\=Luther\|first\=George W.\|date\=2010\|title\=The Role of One\- and Two\-Electron Transfer Reactions in Forming Thermodynamically Unstable Intermediates as Barriers in Multi\-Electron Redox Reactions\|journal\=Aquatic Geochemistry\|volume\=16\|issue\=3\|pages\=395β420\|doi\=10\.1007/s10498\-009\-9082\-3\|s2cid\=97926442\|issn\=1380\-6165}} This pH effect has been directly observed with Saharan dust iron solubility, as the dust tends to be more soluble in acidic aerosols and rainwater than it is in the more basic surface ocean. This makes [wet deposition](/wiki/Wet_deposition "Wet deposition") containing Saharan dust an important delivery mechanism for soluble iron to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Does\|first1\=MichΓ¨lle\|last2\=Brummer\|first2\=GeertβJan A.\|last3\=Crimpen\|first3\=Fleur C. J.\|last4\=Korte\|first4\=Laura F.\|last5\=Mahowald\|first5\=Natalie M.\|last6\=Merkel\|first6\=Ute\|last7\=Yu\|first7\=Hongbin\|last8\=Zuidema\|first8\=Paquita\|last9\=Stuut\|first9\=JanβBerend W.\|date\=2020\-03\-16\|title\=Tropical Rains Controlling Deposition of Saharan Dust Across the North Atlantic Ocean\|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1029/2019GL086867\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|language\=en\|volume\=47\|issue\=5\|pages\=e86867\|doi\=10\.1029/2019GL086867\|bibcode\=2020GeoRL..4786867V\|s2cid\=214372386\|issn\=0094\-8276}}
#### Organic stabilization of aerosolized and dissolved iron
Free aqueous iron is not very stable in non\-acidic conditions; it tends to want to oxidize to form an iron oxide and precipitate out of solution. Some types of organic matter can help stabilize iron by binding to the iron and preventing the formation of relatively insoluble iron oxides. These organic molecules are called ligands. Different [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group "Functional group") and heteroatoms in organic molecules contribute differently to the molecules iron\-binding activity. Heteroatoms such as [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen "Oxygen") (O), [sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur "Sulfur") (S), and [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen "Nitrogen") (N) can increase an organic molecule's iron\-binding capacity; the presence of organic matter containing O and/or S and/or N can increase the solubility of iron contained in aerosols.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wozniak\|first1\=Andrew S.\|last2\=Shelley\|first2\=Rachel U.\|last3\=McElhenie\|first3\=Stephanie D.\|last4\=Landing\|first4\=William M.\|last5\=Hatcher\|first5\=Patrick G.\|date\=2015\|title\=Aerosol water soluble organic matter characteristics over the North Atlantic Ocean: Implications for iron\-binding ligands and iron solubility\|journal\=Marine Chemistry\|volume\=173\|pages\=162β172\|doi\=10\.1016/j.marchem.2014\.11\.002\|bibcode\=2015MarCh.173\..162W \|issn\=0304\-4203}} [Carboxyl groups](/wiki/Carboxyl_Group "Carboxyl Group") in particular have been noted for increasing ligand\-like activity of organic matter in aerosols.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wozniak\|first1\=Andrew S.\|last2\=Shelley\|first2\=Rachel U.\|last3\=Sleighter\|first3\=Rachel L.\|last4\=Abdulla\|first4\=Hussain A.N.\|last5\=Morton\|first5\=Peter L.\|last6\=Landing\|first6\=William M.\|last7\=Hatcher\|first7\=Patrick G.\|date\=2013\|title\=Relationships among aerosol water soluble organic matter, iron and aluminum in European, North African, and Marine air masses from the 2010 US GEOTRACES cruise\|journal\=Marine Chemistry\|volume\=154\|pages\=24β33\|doi\=10\.1016/j.marchem.2013\.04\.011\|bibcode\=2013MarCh.154\...24W \|issn\=0304\-4203}} Other functional groups known to contribute to ligand\-like properties in aerosols include [ethers](/wiki/Ether "Ether"), [esters](/wiki/Ester "Ester"), and [amines.](/wiki/Amine "Amine") Aerosols containing more of these ligands have higher percentages of soluble iron than aerosols that have less or no ligands. Saharan dust aerosols contain lower amounts of these ligands, which contributes to the low solubility of iron from Saharan dust. Saharan aerosol organic matter tends to contain more [carbohydrate](/wiki/Carbohydrate "Carbohydrate")\-like material, which does not tend to have strong ligand activity.
Ligands in the surface ocean are varied in molecular structure and include compound classes such as [porphyrins](/wiki/Porphyrin "Porphyrin") and [siderophores.](/wiki/Siderophore "Siderophore"){{Cite journal\|last1\=Weaver\|first1\=RS\|last2\=Kirchman\|first2\=DL\|last3\=Hutchins\|first3\=DA\|date\=2003\|title\=Utilization of iron/organic ligand complexes by marine bacterioplankton\|journal\=Aquatic Microbial Ecology\|volume\=31\|pages\=227β239\|doi\=10\.3354/ame031227\|issn\=0948\-3055\|doi\-access\=free}} These molecules are generally produced by marine [bacteria](/wiki/Bacteria "Bacteria") or [phytoplankton](/wiki/Phytoplankton "Phytoplankton") to obtain metals in regions where metal concentrations are low.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Buck\|first1\=Kristen N.\|last2\=Selph\|first2\=Karen E.\|last3\=Barbeau\|first3\=Katherine A.\|author\-link3\=Katherine Barbeau\|date\=2010\|title\=Iron\-binding ligand production and copper speciation in an incubation experiment of Antarctic Peninsula shelf waters from the Bransfield Strait, Southern Ocean\|journal\=Marine Chemistry\|volume\=122\|issue\=1β4\|pages\=148β159\|doi\=10\.1016/j.marchem.2010\.06\.002\|bibcode\=2010MarCh.122\..148B \|issn\=0304\-4203}}{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hassler\|first1\=Christel S.\|last2\=Norman\|first2\=Louiza\|last3\=Mancuso Nichols\|first3\=Carol A.\|last4\=Clementson\|first4\=Lesley A.\|last5\=Robinson\|first5\=Charlotte\|last6\=Schoemann\|first6\=VΓ©ronique\|last7\=Watson\|first7\=Roslyn J.\|last8\=Doblin\|first8\=Martina A.\|date\=2015\|title\=Iron associated with exopolymeric substances is highly bioavailable to oceanic phytoplankton\|journal\=Marine Chemistry\|volume\=173\|pages\=136β147\|doi\=10\.1016/j.marchem.2014\.10\.002\|bibcode\=2015MarCh.173\..136H \|issn\=0304\-4203}} Other ligands in the ocean are produced as organic matter breaks down to form [humic acids](/wiki/Humic_acids "Humic acids").{{Cite journal\|last1\=Oldham\|first1\=VΓ©ronique E.\|last2\=Mucci\|first2\=Alfonso\|last3\=Tebo\|first3\=Bradley M.\|last4\=Luther\|first4\=George W.\|date\=2017\|title\=Soluble Mn(III)βL complexes are abundant in oxygenated waters and stabilized by humic ligands\|journal\=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta\|volume\=199\|pages\=238β246\|doi\=10\.1016/j.gca.2016\.11\.043\|bibcode\=2017GeCoA.199\..238O\|issn\=0016\-7037\|doi\-access\=free}} These humic acids, as well as [oxalate](/wiki/Oxalate "Oxalate"), [malonate](/wiki/Malonate "Malonate"), and [tartrate](/wiki/Tartrate "Tartrate"), have been shown to specifically increase the solubility of iron contained in Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Paris\|first1\=R.\|last2\=Desboeufs\|first2\=K. V.\|date\=2013\|title\=Effect of atmospheric organic complexation on iron\-bearing dust solubility\|url\=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/13/4895/2013/\|journal\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics\|language\=en\|volume\=13\|issue\=9\|pages\=4895β4905\|doi\=10\.5194/acp\-13\-4895\-2013\|bibcode\=2013ACP....13\.4895P\|issn\=1680\-7324\|via\=\|doi\-access\=free}}
### Bioavailability of Saharan dust\-derived iron
Generally, marine bacteria and phytoplankton require some form of dissolved iron to meet their iron needs. Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the oceans, but most of this iron is insoluble. Therefore, it can generally be stated that factors which increase the solubility of Saharan dust (small particle sizes, clay\-like mineral composition, higher temperatures, lower pH, presence of organic ligands) subsequently increase the [bioavailability](/wiki/Bioavailability_%28soil%29 "Bioavailability (soil)") of iron to these organisms. However, the concept of bioavailability is a bit more nuanced than this statement implies.
Organismal preferences for different forms of iron can be complex. In a study comparing two distinct [bacterioplankton](/wiki/Bacterioplankton "Bacterioplankton") communities and their uptake of iron bound to different ligands, the two communities were found to utilize different forms of bound iron. In this study, organisms from an area with abundant iron seemed to prefer iron bound to ligands such as [phaeophytin](/wiki/Phaeophytin "Phaeophytin") but not ligands such as [pheophorbide](/wiki/Pheophorbide "Pheophorbide") (though both are porphyrin\-like ligands), while organisms from an iron\-depleted region preferred inorganic unbound iron or iron bound to chlorin e6 (another porphyrin\-like molecule). In other cases, organisms have been documented to produce organic molecules which increase the bioavailability of iron as an iron\-acquisition strategy. Other organisms, when subjected to grazing pressure, produce ligands which decrease the bioavailability of iron to themselves and other species of phytoplankton.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sato\|first1\=Mitsuhide\|last2\=Takeda\|first2\=Shigenobu\|last3\=Furuya\|first3\=Ken\|date\=2007\|title\=Iron regeneration and organic iron(III)\-binding ligand production during in situ zooplankton grazing experiment\|journal\=Marine Chemistry\|volume\=106\|issue\=3β4\|pages\=471β488\|doi\=10\.1016/j.marchem.2007\.05\.001\|bibcode\=2007MarCh.106\..471S \|issn\=0304\-4203}} The bioavailability of Saharan dust\-derived iron, therefore, depends on the kinds of organisms present to use that iron and the form of iron available in solution.
|
[
"Solubility and bioavailability\n------------------------------",
"### Factors impacting Saharan dust dissolution \\& iron solubility",
"While Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, only a small amount of that iron (\\~0\\.4 \\- 0\\.5%) is actually soluble in water.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sedwick\\|first1\\=Peter N.\\|last2\\=Sholkovitz\\|first2\\=Edward R.\\|last3\\=Church\\|first3\\=Thomas M.\\|date\\=2007\\|title\\=Impact of anthropogenic combustion emissions on the fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Evidence from the Sargasso Sea: FRACTIONAL SOLUBILITY OF AEROSOL IRON\\|journal\\=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=8\\|issue\\=10\\|pages\\=n/a\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2007GC001586\\|s2cid\\=3527662 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} The solubility of Saharan dust in the world's oceans and the iron it delivers depend on a variety of factors, including [particle size](/wiki/Particle_size \"Particle size\"), mineral composition, temperature, pH, and the presence or absence of [organic matter](/wiki/Organic_matter \"Organic matter\").",
"#### Particle size",
"[thumb\\|Sahara sand and Sahara dust depicted on the same scale](/wiki/File:Sahara_sand_and_Sahara_dust.jpg \"Sahara sand and Sahara dust.jpg\")\nSaharan dust transported over long distances is primarily composed of very small particles called [aerosols](/wiki/Aerosol \"Aerosol\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Journet\\|first1\\=Emilie\\|last2\\=Desboeufs\\|first2\\=Karine V.\\|last3\\=Caquineau\\|first3\\=Sandrine\\|last4\\=Colin\\|first4\\=Jean\\-Louis\\|date\\=2008\\|title\\=Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility: MINERALOGY AND DUST IRON SOLUBILITY\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=35\\|issue\\=7\\|pages\\=n/a\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2007GL031589\\|s2cid\\=54943559 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Smaller particles have a larger [surface area](/wiki/Surface_area \"Surface area\") per unit of mass than larger particles. Once Saharan dust settles into a body of water, the larger surface area increases the contact the dust has with surrounding water, and causes it to dissolve faster than larger particles would. This effect is described by a variant of the [Kelvin Equation.](/wiki/Kelvin_equation \"Kelvin equation\")",
"#### Mineral composition",
"Minerals in aerosolized dust are typically modified in the atmosphere to be more soluble than material in soils. Some processes known to modify iron to more soluble forms in the atmosphere are acidic reactions and [photochemistry](/wiki/Photochemistry \"Photochemistry\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Longo\\|first1\\=Amelia F.\\|last2\\=Feng\\|first2\\=Yan\\|last3\\=Lai\\|first3\\=Barry\\|last4\\=Landing\\|first4\\=William M.\\|last5\\=Shelley\\|first5\\=Rachel U.\\|last6\\=Nenes\\|first6\\=Athanasios\\|last7\\=Mihalopoulos\\|first7\\=Nikolaos\\|last8\\=Violaki\\|first8\\=Kalliopi\\|last9\\=Ingall\\|first9\\=Ellery D.\\|date\\=2016\\|title\\=Influence of Atmospheric Processes on the Solubility and Composition of Iron in Saharan Dust\\|url\\=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1339565\\|journal\\=Environmental Science \\& Technology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=50\\|issue\\=13\\|pages\\=6912β6920\\|doi\\=10\\.1021/acs.est.6b02605\\|pmid\\=27286140\\|bibcode\\=2016EnST...50\\.6912L\\|osti\\=1339565\\|issn\\=0013\\-936X\\|via\\=}} Iron\\-containing minerals such as [clays](/wiki/Clay \"Clay\"), [feldspars](/wiki/Feldspar \"Feldspar\"), and [iron oxides](/wiki/Iron_oxide \"Iron oxide\") are commonly found in Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Reid\\|first\\=Elizabeth A.\\|date\\=2003\\|title\\=Characterization of African dust transported to Puerto Rico by individual particle and size segregated bulk analysis\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=108\\|issue\\=D19\\|page\\=8591\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2002JD002935\\|bibcode\\=2003JGRD..108\\.8591R\\|issn\\=0148\\-0227\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}\nClays in Saharan dust tend to show higher fractional solubility than iron oxides. Changes in the relative amounts of these minerals and other forms of iron in Saharan dust can alter the amount of the dust that will dissolve.",
"#### Temperature and pH",
"The solubility of many salts and minerals increases with temperature.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Kotz, John C.\\|title\\=Chemistry \\& chemical reactivity\\|date\\=2012\\|publisher\\=Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning\\|others\\=Treichel, Paul., Townsend, John Raymond.\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8400\\-4828\\-8\\|edition\\=8th\\|location\\=Belmont, CA\\|oclc\\=706384877}} As a result, Saharan dust is typically more soluble in regions with higher temperatures.",
"pH helps determine the solubility of metal\\-containing materials. At low pH (acidic conditions), iron is typically more soluble than it is at higher pH (basic conditions).{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Luther\\|first\\=George W.\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=The Role of One\\- and Two\\-Electron Transfer Reactions in Forming Thermodynamically Unstable Intermediates as Barriers in Multi\\-Electron Redox Reactions\\|journal\\=Aquatic Geochemistry\\|volume\\=16\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=395β420\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10498\\-009\\-9082\\-3\\|s2cid\\=97926442\\|issn\\=1380\\-6165}} This pH effect has been directly observed with Saharan dust iron solubility, as the dust tends to be more soluble in acidic aerosols and rainwater than it is in the more basic surface ocean. This makes [wet deposition](/wiki/Wet_deposition \"Wet deposition\") containing Saharan dust an important delivery mechanism for soluble iron to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Does\\|first1\\=MichΓ¨lle\\|last2\\=Brummer\\|first2\\=GeertβJan A.\\|last3\\=Crimpen\\|first3\\=Fleur C. J.\\|last4\\=Korte\\|first4\\=Laura F.\\|last5\\=Mahowald\\|first5\\=Natalie M.\\|last6\\=Merkel\\|first6\\=Ute\\|last7\\=Yu\\|first7\\=Hongbin\\|last8\\=Zuidema\\|first8\\=Paquita\\|last9\\=Stuut\\|first9\\=JanβBerend W.\\|date\\=2020\\-03\\-16\\|title\\=Tropical Rains Controlling Deposition of Saharan Dust Across the North Atlantic Ocean\\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1029/2019GL086867\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=47\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=e86867\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2019GL086867\\|bibcode\\=2020GeoRL..4786867V\\|s2cid\\=214372386\\|issn\\=0094\\-8276}}",
"#### Organic stabilization of aerosolized and dissolved iron",
"Free aqueous iron is not very stable in non\\-acidic conditions; it tends to want to oxidize to form an iron oxide and precipitate out of solution. Some types of organic matter can help stabilize iron by binding to the iron and preventing the formation of relatively insoluble iron oxides. These organic molecules are called ligands. Different [functional groups](/wiki/Functional_group \"Functional group\") and heteroatoms in organic molecules contribute differently to the molecules iron\\-binding activity. Heteroatoms such as [oxygen](/wiki/Oxygen \"Oxygen\") (O), [sulfur](/wiki/Sulfur \"Sulfur\") (S), and [nitrogen](/wiki/Nitrogen \"Nitrogen\") (N) can increase an organic molecule's iron\\-binding capacity; the presence of organic matter containing O and/or S and/or N can increase the solubility of iron contained in aerosols.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wozniak\\|first1\\=Andrew S.\\|last2\\=Shelley\\|first2\\=Rachel U.\\|last3\\=McElhenie\\|first3\\=Stephanie D.\\|last4\\=Landing\\|first4\\=William M.\\|last5\\=Hatcher\\|first5\\=Patrick G.\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Aerosol water soluble organic matter characteristics over the North Atlantic Ocean: Implications for iron\\-binding ligands and iron solubility\\|journal\\=Marine Chemistry\\|volume\\=173\\|pages\\=162β172\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.marchem.2014\\.11\\.002\\|bibcode\\=2015MarCh.173\\..162W \\|issn\\=0304\\-4203}} [Carboxyl groups](/wiki/Carboxyl_Group \"Carboxyl Group\") in particular have been noted for increasing ligand\\-like activity of organic matter in aerosols.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wozniak\\|first1\\=Andrew S.\\|last2\\=Shelley\\|first2\\=Rachel U.\\|last3\\=Sleighter\\|first3\\=Rachel L.\\|last4\\=Abdulla\\|first4\\=Hussain A.N.\\|last5\\=Morton\\|first5\\=Peter L.\\|last6\\=Landing\\|first6\\=William M.\\|last7\\=Hatcher\\|first7\\=Patrick G.\\|date\\=2013\\|title\\=Relationships among aerosol water soluble organic matter, iron and aluminum in European, North African, and Marine air masses from the 2010 US GEOTRACES cruise\\|journal\\=Marine Chemistry\\|volume\\=154\\|pages\\=24β33\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.marchem.2013\\.04\\.011\\|bibcode\\=2013MarCh.154\\...24W \\|issn\\=0304\\-4203}} Other functional groups known to contribute to ligand\\-like properties in aerosols include [ethers](/wiki/Ether \"Ether\"), [esters](/wiki/Ester \"Ester\"), and [amines.](/wiki/Amine \"Amine\") Aerosols containing more of these ligands have higher percentages of soluble iron than aerosols that have less or no ligands. Saharan dust aerosols contain lower amounts of these ligands, which contributes to the low solubility of iron from Saharan dust. Saharan aerosol organic matter tends to contain more [carbohydrate](/wiki/Carbohydrate \"Carbohydrate\")\\-like material, which does not tend to have strong ligand activity.",
"Ligands in the surface ocean are varied in molecular structure and include compound classes such as [porphyrins](/wiki/Porphyrin \"Porphyrin\") and [siderophores.](/wiki/Siderophore \"Siderophore\"){{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Weaver\\|first1\\=RS\\|last2\\=Kirchman\\|first2\\=DL\\|last3\\=Hutchins\\|first3\\=DA\\|date\\=2003\\|title\\=Utilization of iron/organic ligand complexes by marine bacterioplankton\\|journal\\=Aquatic Microbial Ecology\\|volume\\=31\\|pages\\=227β239\\|doi\\=10\\.3354/ame031227\\|issn\\=0948\\-3055\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} These molecules are generally produced by marine [bacteria](/wiki/Bacteria \"Bacteria\") or [phytoplankton](/wiki/Phytoplankton \"Phytoplankton\") to obtain metals in regions where metal concentrations are low.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Buck\\|first1\\=Kristen N.\\|last2\\=Selph\\|first2\\=Karen E.\\|last3\\=Barbeau\\|first3\\=Katherine A.\\|author\\-link3\\=Katherine Barbeau\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=Iron\\-binding ligand production and copper speciation in an incubation experiment of Antarctic Peninsula shelf waters from the Bransfield Strait, Southern Ocean\\|journal\\=Marine Chemistry\\|volume\\=122\\|issue\\=1β4\\|pages\\=148β159\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.marchem.2010\\.06\\.002\\|bibcode\\=2010MarCh.122\\..148B \\|issn\\=0304\\-4203}}{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hassler\\|first1\\=Christel S.\\|last2\\=Norman\\|first2\\=Louiza\\|last3\\=Mancuso Nichols\\|first3\\=Carol A.\\|last4\\=Clementson\\|first4\\=Lesley A.\\|last5\\=Robinson\\|first5\\=Charlotte\\|last6\\=Schoemann\\|first6\\=VΓ©ronique\\|last7\\=Watson\\|first7\\=Roslyn J.\\|last8\\=Doblin\\|first8\\=Martina A.\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=Iron associated with exopolymeric substances is highly bioavailable to oceanic phytoplankton\\|journal\\=Marine Chemistry\\|volume\\=173\\|pages\\=136β147\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.marchem.2014\\.10\\.002\\|bibcode\\=2015MarCh.173\\..136H \\|issn\\=0304\\-4203}} Other ligands in the ocean are produced as organic matter breaks down to form [humic acids](/wiki/Humic_acids \"Humic acids\").{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Oldham\\|first1\\=VΓ©ronique E.\\|last2\\=Mucci\\|first2\\=Alfonso\\|last3\\=Tebo\\|first3\\=Bradley M.\\|last4\\=Luther\\|first4\\=George W.\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Soluble Mn(III)βL complexes are abundant in oxygenated waters and stabilized by humic ligands\\|journal\\=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta\\|volume\\=199\\|pages\\=238β246\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.gca.2016\\.11\\.043\\|bibcode\\=2017GeCoA.199\\..238O\\|issn\\=0016\\-7037\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} These humic acids, as well as [oxalate](/wiki/Oxalate \"Oxalate\"), [malonate](/wiki/Malonate \"Malonate\"), and [tartrate](/wiki/Tartrate \"Tartrate\"), have been shown to specifically increase the solubility of iron contained in Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Paris\\|first1\\=R.\\|last2\\=Desboeufs\\|first2\\=K. V.\\|date\\=2013\\|title\\=Effect of atmospheric organic complexation on iron\\-bearing dust solubility\\|url\\=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/13/4895/2013/\\|journal\\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=4895β4905\\|doi\\=10\\.5194/acp\\-13\\-4895\\-2013\\|bibcode\\=2013ACP....13\\.4895P\\|issn\\=1680\\-7324\\|via\\=\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"### Bioavailability of Saharan dust\\-derived iron",
"Generally, marine bacteria and phytoplankton require some form of dissolved iron to meet their iron needs. Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the oceans, but most of this iron is insoluble. Therefore, it can generally be stated that factors which increase the solubility of Saharan dust (small particle sizes, clay\\-like mineral composition, higher temperatures, lower pH, presence of organic ligands) subsequently increase the [bioavailability](/wiki/Bioavailability_%28soil%29 \"Bioavailability (soil)\") of iron to these organisms. However, the concept of bioavailability is a bit more nuanced than this statement implies.",
"Organismal preferences for different forms of iron can be complex. In a study comparing two distinct [bacterioplankton](/wiki/Bacterioplankton \"Bacterioplankton\") communities and their uptake of iron bound to different ligands, the two communities were found to utilize different forms of bound iron. In this study, organisms from an area with abundant iron seemed to prefer iron bound to ligands such as [phaeophytin](/wiki/Phaeophytin \"Phaeophytin\") but not ligands such as [pheophorbide](/wiki/Pheophorbide \"Pheophorbide\") (though both are porphyrin\\-like ligands), while organisms from an iron\\-depleted region preferred inorganic unbound iron or iron bound to chlorin e6 (another porphyrin\\-like molecule). In other cases, organisms have been documented to produce organic molecules which increase the bioavailability of iron as an iron\\-acquisition strategy. Other organisms, when subjected to grazing pressure, produce ligands which decrease the bioavailability of iron to themselves and other species of phytoplankton.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sato\\|first1\\=Mitsuhide\\|last2\\=Takeda\\|first2\\=Shigenobu\\|last3\\=Furuya\\|first3\\=Ken\\|date\\=2007\\|title\\=Iron regeneration and organic iron(III)\\-binding ligand production during in situ zooplankton grazing experiment\\|journal\\=Marine Chemistry\\|volume\\=106\\|issue\\=3β4\\|pages\\=471β488\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.marchem.2007\\.05\\.001\\|bibcode\\=2007MarCh.106\\..471S \\|issn\\=0304\\-4203}} The bioavailability of Saharan dust\\-derived iron, therefore, depends on the kinds of organisms present to use that iron and the form of iron available in solution.",
""
] |
Impacts on ocean and land ecosystems
------------------------------------
### Stimulation of primary production
The nutrients that Saharan dust provides to marine ecosystems are important for [primary production](/wiki/Primary_production "Primary production"). Iron is a necessary [micronutrient](/wiki/Micronutrient "Micronutrient") for [photosynthesis](/wiki/Photosynthesis "Photosynthesis") in [marine primary producers](/wiki/Marine_primary_production "Marine primary production") such as [phytoplankton](/wiki/Phytoplankton "Phytoplankton"). In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most dust that is brought to the ocean's surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require organic molecules called [ligands](/wiki/Ligand "Ligand") to help make the iron usable for photosynthesis.
One group of primary producers in the Atlantic, is called [diazotrophs](/wiki/Diazotroph "Diazotroph"). [Diazotrophs](/wiki/Diazotroph "Diazotroph") show increased need for the micronutrient iron since they perform [nitrogen fixation](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation "Nitrogen fixation") and the enzyme [nitrogenase](/wiki/Nitrogenase "Nitrogenase") required for nitrogen fixing contains iron.
### North Atlantic Ocean circulation
The presence of Saharan mineral dust in the Atlantic Ocean can attenuate solar radiation, reducing the amount of [shortwave radiation](/wiki/Solar_irradiance "Solar irradiance") that reaches the sea surface and decreasing the [sea surface temperature](/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature "Sea surface temperature") (SST).{{Cite journal\|last1\=Yue\|first1\=X.\|last2\=Liao\|first2\=H.\|last3\=Wang\|first3\=H. J.\|last4\=Li\|first4\=S. L.\|last5\=Tang\|first5\=J. P.\|date\=2011\-06\-28\|title\=Role of sea surface temperature responses in simulation of the climatic effect of mineral dust aerosol\|url\=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/11/6049/2011/\|journal\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics\|language\=English\|volume\=11\|issue\=12\|pages\=6049β6062\|doi\=10\.5194/acp\-11\-6049\-2011\|bibcode\=2011ACP....11\.6049Y\|issn\=1680\-7316\|doi\-access\=free}} This has been shown to account for up to 35% of the inter\-annual variability in summer SST over the North Atlantic.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Foltz\|first1\=Gregory R.\|last2\=McPhaden\|first2\=Michael J.\|date\=2008\-10\-01\|title\=Impact of Saharan Dust on Tropical North Atlantic SST\|journal\=Journal of Climate\|language\=en\|volume\=21\|issue\=19\|pages\=5048β5060\|doi\=10\.1175/2008JCLI2232\.1\|bibcode\=2008JCli...21\.5048F\|issn\=0894\-8755\|doi\-access\=free}} A more highly concentrated Saharan Air Layer (SAL) has also been linked with bringing greater precipitation to the northern tropical Atlantic by way of shifting the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) north by a few degrees.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Wilcox\|first1\=Eric M.\|last2\=Lau\|first2\=K. M.\|last3\=Kim\|first3\=Kyu\-Myong\|date\=2010\|title\=A northward shift of the North Atlantic Ocean Intertropical Convergence Zone in response to summertime Saharan dust outbreaks\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|language\=en\|volume\=37\|issue\=4\|pages\=L04804\|doi\=10\.1029/2009GL041774\|bibcode\=2010GeoRL..37\.4804W\|issn\=1944\-8007\|doi\-access\=free}}
With the presence of dust controlling a lot of the variability in SST, major ocean circulation patterns can also be influenced by dust accumulation.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Serra\|first1\=N.\|last2\=MartΓnez Avellaneda\|first2\=N.\|last3\=Stammer\|first3\=D.\|date\=2014\|title\=Large\-scale impact of Saharan dust on the North Atlantic Ocean circulation: LARGE\-SCALE SAHARAN DUST IMPACT\|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans\|language\=en\|volume\=119\|issue\=2\|pages\=704β730\|doi\=10\.1002/2013JC009274\|via\=\|doi\-access\=free}} Decreased SST can upset the stability of the [ocean stratification](/wiki/Ocean_stratification "Ocean stratification"), leading to enhanced vertical mixing which can in turn influence the behavior of the greater [geostrophic flow](/wiki/Geostrophic_Flow "Geostrophic Flow") field. Since Saharan Dust originates on the eastern side of the Atlantic basin, this is where the shortwave radiation flux is reduced the most, hence it is the origin of the largest anomalous ocean conditions. These anomalies slowly advect westward across the basin, leading to basin\-scale zonal pressure gradients that further change the basin\-wide circulation. These [gyre](/wiki/Ocean_gyre "Ocean gyre") and basin circulation impacts happen on the scale of several years \- large dust storm events can have impacts on the circulation years later.
### Desert dust across the Mediterranean
There are no dust sources in Europe; however, desert dust is occasionally discovered in various areas of Europe.{{cite journal \|last1\=Pieri \|first1\=L. \|last2\=Matzneller \|first2\=P. \|last3\=Gaspari \|first3\=N. \|last4\=Marotti \|first4\=I. \|last5\=Dinelli \|first5\=G. \|last6\=Rossi \|first6\=P. \|title\=Bulk atmospheric deposition in the southern Po Valley (northern Italy) \|journal\=Water, Air, \& Soil Pollution \|date\=2010 \|volume\=210 \|issue\=1β4 \|pages\=155β169 \|doi\=10\.1007/s11270\-009\-0238\-y\|bibcode\=2010WASP..210\..155P \|s2cid\=94998458 }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Gerasopoulos \|first1\=E. \|last2\=Amiridis \|first2\=V. \|last3\=Kazadzis \|first3\=S. \|last4\=Kokkalis \|first4\=P. \|last5\=Eleftheratos \|first5\=K. \|last6\=Andreae \|first6\=M. O. \|last7\=Andreae \|first7\=T. W. \|last8\=El\-Askary \|first8\=H. \|last9\=Zerefos \|first9\=C. S. \|title\=Three\-year ground based measurements of aerosol optical depthover the Eastern Mediterranean: The urban environment of Athens \|journal\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics \|date\=2011 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=2145β2159 \|doi\=10\.5194/acp\-11\-2145\-2011\|bibcode\=2011ACP....11\.2145G \|doi\-access\=free }} The transport of desert dust in the Mediterranean region depends on the seasonal variation of dust sources from Africa and seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation (see previous Saharan Dust Trajectory section).
[thumb\|402x402px\|An accumulation of Saharan dust on a rooftop in Cambridge, UK](/wiki/File:Saharahdust2022cambridgeuk2.jpg "Saharahdust2022cambridgeuk2.jpg")
[thumb\|Sahara dust over the snow in the [Mont Blanc](/wiki/Mont_Blanc "Mont Blanc") massif](/wiki/File:Mont_Blanc_P1550003.jpg "Mont Blanc P1550003.jpg")
[thumb\|Beige dust on a glove after wiping an outdoor surface in [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble "Grenoble")](/wiki/File:Sable_du_sahara_IMG_6951.jpg "Sable du sahara IMG 6951.jpg")
Evidence of dust transport from Africa to northern Italy shows that the composition of the [particulate matter](/wiki/Particulate_matter "Particulate matter") changed considerably owing to the significant increase of [crustal element](/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust "Abundance of elements in Earth's crust") concentration, e.g., [Al](/wiki/Aluminium "Aluminium"), [Si](/wiki/Silicon "Silicon"), [Ti](/wiki/Titanium "Titanium"), [K](/wiki/Potassium "Potassium"), [Fe](/wiki/Iron "Iron") and [Ca](/wiki/Calcium "Calcium"); however, concentrations of anthropogenic elements remain constant.{{cite book \|last1\=Bonelli \|first1\=P. \|last2\=Marcazzan \|first2\=G. M. Braga \|last3\=Cereda \|first3\=E. \|series\=Environmental Science and Technology Library \|title\=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean \|date\=1996 \|volume\=11 \|publisher\=Springer Netherlands \|isbn\=978\-94\-017\-3354\-0 \|pages\=275β283 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Elemental Composition and Air Trajectories of African Dust Transported in Northern Italy\|doi\=10\.1007/978\-94\-017\-3354\-0\_27 }} Saharan Dust is a major source of atmospheric aerosol over the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is the most important sedimentary contributor to the [Mediterranean Basin](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin "Mediterranean Basin").{{cite journal \|last1\=Molinaroli \|first1\=E. \|last2\=Guerzoni \|first2\=S. \|last3\=Rampazzo \|first3\=G. \|title\=Contribution of Saharan dust to the Central Mediterranean Basin \|journal\=Geological Society of America Special Paper \|series\=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|date\=1993 \|volume\=284 \|pages\=303β312\|doi\=10\.1130/SPE284\-p303 \|hdl\=10278/24398 \|isbn\=0\-8137\-2284\-5 \|hdl\-access\=free }} These aerosols play a crucial role in supplying macro\- and micro\- nutrients to its low\-nutrient and low\-[chlorophyll](/wiki/Chlorophyll "Chlorophyll") water, enhancing primary production and affecting the [bacterioplankton](/wiki/Bacterioplankton "Bacterioplankton") community structure.{{cite journal \|last1\=Rahav \|first1\=E. \|last2\=Paytan \|first2\=A. \|last3\=Chien \|first3\=C. \|last4\=Ovadia \|first4\=G. \|last5\=Katz \|first5\=T. \|last6\=Herut \|first6\=B. \|title\=The impact of atmospheric dry deposition associated microbes on the southeastern Mediterranean Sea surface water following an intense dust storm. \|journal\=Frontiers in Marine Science \|date\=2016 \|volume\=3 \|issue\=127 \|doi\=10\.3389/fmars.2016\.00127\|doi\-access\=free }} The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is extremely [oligotrophic](/wiki/Oligotrophic "Oligotrophic"){{cite journal \|last1\=Siokou\-Frangou \|first1\=I. \|last2\=Christaki \|first2\=U. \|last3\=Mazzocchi \|first3\=M.G. \|last4\=Montresor \|first4\=M. \|last5\=Ribera d'AlcalΓ‘ \|first5\=M. \|last6\=VaquΓ© \|first6\=D. \|title\=Plankton in the open Mediterranean Sea: a review \|journal\=Biogeosciences \|date\=2010 \|volume\=7 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=1543β1586 \|doi\=10\.5194/bg\-7\-1543\-2010\|bibcode\=2010BGeo....7\.1543S \|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=10261/79959 \|hdl\-access\=free }} and is greatly influenced by desert dusts. In the past decade, the increase of temperature and decrease of precipitation at the Eastern Mediterranean Sea cause soil drying,{{cite journal \|last1\=Lelieveld \|first1\=J. \|last2\=Hadjinicolaou \|first2\=P. \|last3\=Kostopoulou \|first3\=E. \|last4\=Chenoweth \|first4\=J. \|last5\=El Maayar \|first5\=M. \|last6\=Giannakopoulos \|first6\=C. \|title\=Climate change and impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East \|journal\=Climate Change \|date\=2012 \|volume\=114 \|issue\=3β4 \|pages\=667β687 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10584\-012\-0418\-4\|pmid\=25834296 \|pmc\=4372776 \|bibcode\=2012ClCh..114\..667L \|doi\-access\=free }} leading to increased dust emission. Due to [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change"), this process is expected to continue in the future and contribute more micro\- and macro\- nutrients into the oligotrophic water.{{cite journal \|last1\=KlingmΓΌller \|first1\=K. \|last2\=Pozzer \|first2\=A. \|last3\=Metzger \|first3\=S. \|last4\=Stenchikov \|first4\=G. L. \|last5\=Lelieveld \|first5\=J. \|title\=Aerosol optical depth trend over the Middle East \|journal\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics \|date\=2016 \|volume\=16 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=5063β5073 \|doi\=10\.5194/acp\-16\-5063\-2016\|bibcode\=2016ACP....16\.5063K \|doi\-access\=free \|hdl\=10754/610582 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
### Amazon basin
The majority of soil in the [Amazon Basin](/wiki/Amazon_basin "Amazon basin"), home of the [Amazon rainforest](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest "Amazon rainforest"), which accounts for about half of the world's remaining rainforest, is phosphorus deficient.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Sanchez\|first1\=P. A.\|last2\=Bandy\|first2\=D. E.\|last3\=Villachica\|first3\=J. H.\|last4\=Nicholaides\|first4\=J. J.\|date\=1982\-05\-21\|title\=Amazon Basin Soils: Management for Continuous Crop Production\|url\=https://www.science.org/doi/10\.1126/science.216\.4548\.821\|journal\=Science\|language\=en\|volume\=216\|issue\=4548\|pages\=821β827\|doi\=10\.1126/science.216\.4548\.821\|pmid\=17819134\|bibcode\=1982Sci...216\..821S\|s2cid\=40337688\|issn\=0036\-8075}} However, studies have found that phosphorus is the dominant fertility factor in the Amazon Basin when it comes to tree growth,{{Cite journal\|last1\=Mercado\|first1\=Lina M.\|last2\=PatiΓ±o\|first2\=Sandra\|last3\=Domingues\|first3\=Tomas F.\|last4\=Fyllas\|first4\=Nikolaos M.\|last5\=Weedon\|first5\=Graham P.\|last6\=Sitch\|first6\=Stephen\|last7\=Quesada\|first7\=Carlos Alberto\|last8\=Phillips\|first8\=Oliver L.\|last9\=AragΓ£o\|first9\=Luiz E. O. C.\|last10\=Malhi\|first10\=Yadvinder\|last11\=Dolman\|first11\=A. J.\|date\=2011\-11\-27\|title\=Variations in Amazon forest productivity correlated with foliar nutrients and modelled rates of photosynthetic carbon supply\|url\= \|journal\=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\|volume\=366\|issue\=1582\|pages\=3316β3329\|doi\=10\.1098/rstb.2011\.0045\|pmc\=3179632\|pmid\=22006971}} so phosphorus deficiency could limit tree growth. Estimated turnover rates of phosphorus within soil in the Amazon Basin compared to deposition rates of phosphorus from Saharan dust indicate that the long\-term health and productivity of the Amazon rainforest is dependent on the supply of phosphorus from Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Okin\|first1\=Gregory S.\|last2\=Mahowald\|first2\=Natalie\|last3\=Chadwick\|first3\=Oliver A.\|last4\=Artaxo\|first4\=Paulo\|date\=2004\|title\=Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems\|journal\=Global Biogeochemical Cycles\|language\=en\|volume\=18\|issue\=2\|pages\=n/a\|doi\=10\.1029/2003GB002145\|bibcode\=2004GBioC..18\.2005O\|s2cid\=129691352 \|issn\=1944\-9224\|doi\-access\=free}} While the relative amount of phosphorus deposition from the atmosphere into the Amazon Basin due to Saharan dust is relatively small (roughly 13%) compared to non\-dust sources, such as biogenic aerosols and smoke particles, it is comparable to the hydrological loss of phosphorus.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Yu\|first1\=Hongbin\|last2\=Chin\|first2\=Mian\|last3\=Yuan\|first3\=Tianle\|last4\=Bian\|first4\=Huisheng\|last5\=Remer\|first5\=Lorraine A.\|last6\=Prospero\|first6\=Joseph M.\|last7\=Omar\|first7\=Ali\|last8\=Winker\|first8\=David\|last9\=Yang\|first9\=Yuekui\|last10\=Zhang\|first10\=Yan\|last11\=Zhang\|first11\=Zhibo\|date\=2015\|title\=The fertilizing role of African dust in the Amazon rainforest: A first multiyear assessment based on data from Cloud\-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations\|journal\=Geophysical Research Letters\|language\=en\|volume\=42\|issue\=6\|pages\=1984β1991\|doi\=10\.1002/2015GL063040\|bibcode\=2015GeoRL..42\.1984Y\|issn\=1944\-8007\|doi\-access\=free}} Without the input of phosphorus from Saharan dust, this hydrological loss could eventually deplete the Amazon Basin of its phosphorus content.
### Dust and climate
Saharan dust emissions and transports are sensitive to weather and climate conditions in the source regions. Dense dust clouds reduce the ocean surface exposure to sunlight, hence, reducing the ocean surface heating and therefore influencing the air\-sea transfer of [water vapor](/wiki/Water_vapor "Water vapor") and [latent heat](/wiki/Latent_heat "Latent heat"), which are critical to climate.{{cite journal \|last1\=Lelieveld \|first1\=J. \|last2\=Berresheim \|first2\=H. \|last3\=Borrmann \|first3\=S. \|last4\=Crutzen \|first4\=P. j. \|last5\=Dentener \|first5\=F. j. \|last6\=Fischer \|first6\=H. \|last7\=Feichter \|first7\=J. \|last8\=Flatau \|first8\=P. J. \|last9\=Heland \|first9\=J. \|last10\=Holzinger \|first10\=R. \|last11\=Korrmann \|first11\=R.\|author12\-link\=Mark G. Lawrence \|last12\=Lawrence \|first12\=M. G. \|last13\=Levin \|first13\=Z. \|last14\=Markowicz \|first14\=K. M. \|last15\=Mihalopoulos \|first15\=N. \|last16\=Minikin \|first16\=A. \|last17\=Ramanathan \|first17\=V. \|last18\=de Reus \|first18\=M. \|last19\=Roelofs \|first19\=G. J. \|last20\=Scheeren \|first20\=H. A. \|last21\=Sciare \|first21\=J. \|last22\=Schlager \|first22\=H. \|last23\=Schultz \|first23\=M. \|last24\=Siegmund \|first24\=P. \|last25\=Steil \|first25\=B. \|last26\=Stephanou \|first26\=E. G. \|last27\=Stier \|first27\=P. \|last28\=Traub \|first28\=M. \|last29\=Warneke \|first29\=C. \|last30\=Williams \|first30\=J. \|last31\=Ziereis \|first31\=H. \|title\=Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean \|journal\=Science \|date\=2002 \|volume\=298 \|issue\=5594 \|pages\=794β799 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.1075457\|pmid\=12399583 \|bibcode\=2002Sci...298\..794L \|s2cid\=1602767 }} When the dust suspends over the Tropical Atlantic, the reduction of heating could contribute to the interhemispheric tropical Atlantic sea\-surface temperature anomaly patterns that are related to the Soudano\-Sahel drought.{{cite journal \|last1\=Neil Ward \|first1\=M. \|title\=Diagnosis and Short\-Lead Time Prediction of Summer Rainfall in Tropical North Africa at Interannual and Multidecadal Timescales \|journal\=Journal of Climate \|date\=1998 \|volume\=11 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=3167β3191 \|doi\=10\.1175/1520\-0442(1998\)011\<3167:DASLTP\>2\.0\.CO;2\|bibcode\=1998JCli...11\.3167W \|doi\-access\=free }} Hence, increased dust could lead to longer or more intense drought. In addition, the West African rainfall is well correlated with the frequency and the intensity of the Atlantic [hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricane "Hurricane"), suggesting less hurricane activities during dry phases.{{cite journal \|last1\=Prospero \|first1\=Joseph M. \|last2\=Lamb \|first2\=Peter J. \|title\=African Droughts and Dust Transport to the Caribbean: Climate Change Implications \|journal\=Science \|date\=2003 \|volume\=302 \|issue\=1024 \|pages\=1024β1027 \|doi\=10\.1126/science.1089915\|pmid\=14605365 \|bibcode\=2003Sci...302\.1024P \|s2cid\=13426333 }} Some of the dustiest years in Barbados coincide with the [El NiΓ±o Southern Oscillation](/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation "El NiΓ±oβSouthern Oscillation") (ENSO) events;{{cite journal \|last1\=Propero \|first1\=Joseph M. \|title\=Saharan Dust Impacts and Climate Change \|journal\=Oceanography \|date\=2006 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=60β61 \|doi\=10\.5670/oceanog.2006\.65\|doi\-access\=free }} however, it is still an open question of how [global warming](/wiki/Global_warming "Global warming") will influence dust emissions in the Sahara.
### Transport of microbial communities
Saharan dust storms can transport particulate matter that includes different local [microorganisms](/wiki/Microorganism "Microorganism") over continental scales, ultimately depositing them where those microorganisms are not natively found.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Weil\|first1\=Tobias\|last2\=De Filippo\|first2\=Carlotta\|last3\=Albanese\|first3\=Davide\|last4\=Donati\|first4\=Claudio\|last5\=Pindo\|first5\=Massimo\|last6\=Pavarini\|first6\=Lorenzo\|last7\=Carotenuto\|first7\=Federico\|last8\=Pasqui\|first8\=Massimiliano\|last9\=Poto\|first9\=Luisa\|last10\=Gabrieli\|first10\=Jacopo\|last11\=Barbante\|first11\=Carlo\|date\=2017\|title\=Legal immigrants: invasion of alien microbial communities during winter occurring desert dust storms\|url\= \|journal\=Microbiome\|language\=en\|volume\=5\|issue\=1\|page\=32\|doi\=10\.1186/s40168\-017\-0249\-7\|issn\=2049\-2618\|pmc\=5345179\|pmid\=28283029 \|doi\-access\=free }} Research shows that significant portions of microbial communities can be transported over large distances in these dust storms.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Marone\|first1\=Alioune\|last2\=Kane\|first2\=Coumba TourΓ©\|last3\=Mbengue\|first3\=Malick\|last4\=Jenkins\|first4\=Gregory S.\|last5\=Niang\|first5\=Demba Ndao\|last6\=Drame\|first6\=Mamadou Simina\|last7\=Gernand\|first7\=Jeremy M.\|date\=2020\|title\=Characterization of Bacteria on Aerosols From Dust Events in Dakar, Senegal, West Africa\|url\= \|journal\=GeoHealth\|volume\=4\|issue\=6\|pages\=e2019GH000216\|doi\=10\.1029/2019gh000216\|issn\=2471\-1403\|pmc\=7262684\|pmid\=32490303}} These microbial communities are highly stress\-resistant and can contain destructive fungal and bacterial [pathogens.](/wiki/Pathogen "Pathogen") Within Africa, but up to thousands of kilometers away from the dust source, high Saharan dust concentrations have been correlated to increased cases of [asthma](/wiki/Asthma "Asthma"), [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis "Bronchitis"), [meningitis](/wiki/Meningitis "Meningitis"), and [acute respiratory infections.](/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection "Respiratory tract infection")
### Human impacts
While Saharan dust may fertilize the ocean and land, human exposure to this desert dust combined with organic matter can cause potential infections of the lungs.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Korenyi\-Both\|first1\=AL\|last2\=Kornyi\-Both\|first2\=AL\|last3\=Molnar\|first3\=AC\|last4\=Fidelus\-Gort\|first4\=R\|date\=1992\|title\=Al Eskan disease: Desert Storm pneumonitis\|url\=\|journal\=Military Medicine\|volume\=157\|issue\=9\|pages\=452β462\|doi\=10\.1093/milmed/157\.9\.452\|pmid\=1333577}} Studies have shown that Saharan dust may contain toxic biological allergens and irritants.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Garrison\|first1\=V.H.\|last2\=Foreman\|first2\=W.T.\|last3\=Genualdi\|first3\=S.\|last4\=Griffin\|first4\=D.W.\|last5\=Kellogg\|first5\=C.A.\|last6\=Majewski\|first6\=M.S.\|date\=2006\|title\=Saharan dust β a carrier of persistent organic pollutants, metals and microbes to the Caribbean?\|url\=\|journal\=Revista de BiologΓa Tropical\|volume\=54\|pages\=S9βS21\|via\=}} It is also possible that nonbiological compounds in dust can generate adverse health effects, including [respiratory](/wiki/Respiratory_disease "Respiratory disease") (e.g., asthma, [tracheitis](/wiki/Tracheitis "Tracheitis"), [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia"), allergic [rhinitis](/wiki/Rhinitis "Rhinitis") and [silicosis](/wiki/Silicosis "Silicosis")), [cardiovascular](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease "Cardiovascular disease") (e.g., [stroke](/wiki/Stroke "Stroke")), and [cardiopulmonary](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary "Cardiopulmonary") diseases. In addition, [conjunctivitis](/wiki/Conjunctivitis "Conjunctivitis"), skin irritations, [meningococcal disease](/wiki/Meningococcal_disease "Meningococcal disease"), and [coccidioidomycosis](/wiki/Coccidioidomycosis "Coccidioidomycosis") are found to be related to dust storms.{{Cite journal\|last\=Goudie\|first\=A.S.\|date\=2014\|title\=Desert dust and human health disorders\|url\=\|journal\=Environment International\|volume\=63\|pages\=101β113\|doi\=10\.1016/j.envint.2013\.10\.011\|pmid\=24275707}} For long periods of time, the dust concentration in some areas exceeds several times the maximum levels suggested from the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization "World Health Organization").{{Cite web \|date\=2006\|title\=WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide : global update 2005: summary of risk assessment.\|url\=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/69477\|website\=World Health Organization \|hdl\=10665/69477 \|hdl\-access\=free}} The concentration of particulate matters (PM) also elevates to hazardous level that could threaten human health and early life. Exposure of PM can cause neonatal mortality either through mother exposure or through increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in neonates.
|
[
"Impacts on ocean and land ecosystems\n------------------------------------",
"### Stimulation of primary production",
"The nutrients that Saharan dust provides to marine ecosystems are important for [primary production](/wiki/Primary_production \"Primary production\"). Iron is a necessary [micronutrient](/wiki/Micronutrient \"Micronutrient\") for [photosynthesis](/wiki/Photosynthesis \"Photosynthesis\") in [marine primary producers](/wiki/Marine_primary_production \"Marine primary production\") such as [phytoplankton](/wiki/Phytoplankton \"Phytoplankton\"). In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most dust that is brought to the ocean's surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require organic molecules called [ligands](/wiki/Ligand \"Ligand\") to help make the iron usable for photosynthesis.",
"One group of primary producers in the Atlantic, is called [diazotrophs](/wiki/Diazotroph \"Diazotroph\"). [Diazotrophs](/wiki/Diazotroph \"Diazotroph\") show increased need for the micronutrient iron since they perform [nitrogen fixation](/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation \"Nitrogen fixation\") and the enzyme [nitrogenase](/wiki/Nitrogenase \"Nitrogenase\") required for nitrogen fixing contains iron.",
"### North Atlantic Ocean circulation",
"The presence of Saharan mineral dust in the Atlantic Ocean can attenuate solar radiation, reducing the amount of [shortwave radiation](/wiki/Solar_irradiance \"Solar irradiance\") that reaches the sea surface and decreasing the [sea surface temperature](/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature \"Sea surface temperature\") (SST).{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Yue\\|first1\\=X.\\|last2\\=Liao\\|first2\\=H.\\|last3\\=Wang\\|first3\\=H. J.\\|last4\\=Li\\|first4\\=S. L.\\|last5\\=Tang\\|first5\\=J. P.\\|date\\=2011\\-06\\-28\\|title\\=Role of sea surface temperature responses in simulation of the climatic effect of mineral dust aerosol\\|url\\=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/11/6049/2011/\\|journal\\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics\\|language\\=English\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=12\\|pages\\=6049β6062\\|doi\\=10\\.5194/acp\\-11\\-6049\\-2011\\|bibcode\\=2011ACP....11\\.6049Y\\|issn\\=1680\\-7316\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} This has been shown to account for up to 35% of the inter\\-annual variability in summer SST over the North Atlantic.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Foltz\\|first1\\=Gregory R.\\|last2\\=McPhaden\\|first2\\=Michael J.\\|date\\=2008\\-10\\-01\\|title\\=Impact of Saharan Dust on Tropical North Atlantic SST\\|journal\\=Journal of Climate\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=21\\|issue\\=19\\|pages\\=5048β5060\\|doi\\=10\\.1175/2008JCLI2232\\.1\\|bibcode\\=2008JCli...21\\.5048F\\|issn\\=0894\\-8755\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} A more highly concentrated Saharan Air Layer (SAL) has also been linked with bringing greater precipitation to the northern tropical Atlantic by way of shifting the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) north by a few degrees.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Wilcox\\|first1\\=Eric M.\\|last2\\=Lau\\|first2\\=K. M.\\|last3\\=Kim\\|first3\\=Kyu\\-Myong\\|date\\=2010\\|title\\=A northward shift of the North Atlantic Ocean Intertropical Convergence Zone in response to summertime Saharan dust outbreaks\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=37\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=L04804\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2009GL041774\\|bibcode\\=2010GeoRL..37\\.4804W\\|issn\\=1944\\-8007\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"With the presence of dust controlling a lot of the variability in SST, major ocean circulation patterns can also be influenced by dust accumulation.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Serra\\|first1\\=N.\\|last2\\=MartΓnez Avellaneda\\|first2\\=N.\\|last3\\=Stammer\\|first3\\=D.\\|date\\=2014\\|title\\=Large\\-scale impact of Saharan dust on the North Atlantic Ocean circulation: LARGE\\-SCALE SAHARAN DUST IMPACT\\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=119\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=704β730\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/2013JC009274\\|via\\=\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Decreased SST can upset the stability of the [ocean stratification](/wiki/Ocean_stratification \"Ocean stratification\"), leading to enhanced vertical mixing which can in turn influence the behavior of the greater [geostrophic flow](/wiki/Geostrophic_Flow \"Geostrophic Flow\") field. Since Saharan Dust originates on the eastern side of the Atlantic basin, this is where the shortwave radiation flux is reduced the most, hence it is the origin of the largest anomalous ocean conditions. These anomalies slowly advect westward across the basin, leading to basin\\-scale zonal pressure gradients that further change the basin\\-wide circulation. These [gyre](/wiki/Ocean_gyre \"Ocean gyre\") and basin circulation impacts happen on the scale of several years \\- large dust storm events can have impacts on the circulation years later.",
"### Desert dust across the Mediterranean",
"There are no dust sources in Europe; however, desert dust is occasionally discovered in various areas of Europe.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Pieri \\|first1\\=L. \\|last2\\=Matzneller \\|first2\\=P. \\|last3\\=Gaspari \\|first3\\=N. \\|last4\\=Marotti \\|first4\\=I. \\|last5\\=Dinelli \\|first5\\=G. \\|last6\\=Rossi \\|first6\\=P. \\|title\\=Bulk atmospheric deposition in the southern Po Valley (northern Italy) \\|journal\\=Water, Air, \\& Soil Pollution \\|date\\=2010 \\|volume\\=210 \\|issue\\=1β4 \\|pages\\=155β169 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s11270\\-009\\-0238\\-y\\|bibcode\\=2010WASP..210\\..155P \\|s2cid\\=94998458 }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Gerasopoulos \\|first1\\=E. \\|last2\\=Amiridis \\|first2\\=V. \\|last3\\=Kazadzis \\|first3\\=S. \\|last4\\=Kokkalis \\|first4\\=P. \\|last5\\=Eleftheratos \\|first5\\=K. \\|last6\\=Andreae \\|first6\\=M. O. \\|last7\\=Andreae \\|first7\\=T. W. \\|last8\\=El\\-Askary \\|first8\\=H. \\|last9\\=Zerefos \\|first9\\=C. S. \\|title\\=Three\\-year ground based measurements of aerosol optical depthover the Eastern Mediterranean: The urban environment of Athens \\|journal\\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics \\|date\\=2011 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=2145β2159 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/acp\\-11\\-2145\\-2011\\|bibcode\\=2011ACP....11\\.2145G \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The transport of desert dust in the Mediterranean region depends on the seasonal variation of dust sources from Africa and seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation (see previous Saharan Dust Trajectory section).",
"[thumb\\|402x402px\\|An accumulation of Saharan dust on a rooftop in Cambridge, UK](/wiki/File:Saharahdust2022cambridgeuk2.jpg \"Saharahdust2022cambridgeuk2.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Sahara dust over the snow in the [Mont Blanc](/wiki/Mont_Blanc \"Mont Blanc\") massif](/wiki/File:Mont_Blanc_P1550003.jpg \"Mont Blanc P1550003.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Beige dust on a glove after wiping an outdoor surface in [Grenoble](/wiki/Grenoble \"Grenoble\")](/wiki/File:Sable_du_sahara_IMG_6951.jpg \"Sable du sahara IMG 6951.jpg\")",
"Evidence of dust transport from Africa to northern Italy shows that the composition of the [particulate matter](/wiki/Particulate_matter \"Particulate matter\") changed considerably owing to the significant increase of [crustal element](/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust \"Abundance of elements in Earth's crust\") concentration, e.g., [Al](/wiki/Aluminium \"Aluminium\"), [Si](/wiki/Silicon \"Silicon\"), [Ti](/wiki/Titanium \"Titanium\"), [K](/wiki/Potassium \"Potassium\"), [Fe](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\") and [Ca](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\"); however, concentrations of anthropogenic elements remain constant.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Bonelli \\|first1\\=P. \\|last2\\=Marcazzan \\|first2\\=G. M. Braga \\|last3\\=Cereda \\|first3\\=E. \\|series\\=Environmental Science and Technology Library \\|title\\=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean \\|date\\=1996 \\|volume\\=11 \\|publisher\\=Springer Netherlands \\|isbn\\=978\\-94\\-017\\-3354\\-0 \\|pages\\=275β283 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Elemental Composition and Air Trajectories of African Dust Transported in Northern Italy\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-94\\-017\\-3354\\-0\\_27 }} Saharan Dust is a major source of atmospheric aerosol over the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is the most important sedimentary contributor to the [Mediterranean Basin](/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin \"Mediterranean Basin\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Molinaroli \\|first1\\=E. \\|last2\\=Guerzoni \\|first2\\=S. \\|last3\\=Rampazzo \\|first3\\=G. \\|title\\=Contribution of Saharan dust to the Central Mediterranean Basin \\|journal\\=Geological Society of America Special Paper \\|series\\=Geological Society of America Special Papers \\|date\\=1993 \\|volume\\=284 \\|pages\\=303β312\\|doi\\=10\\.1130/SPE284\\-p303 \\|hdl\\=10278/24398 \\|isbn\\=0\\-8137\\-2284\\-5 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} These aerosols play a crucial role in supplying macro\\- and micro\\- nutrients to its low\\-nutrient and low\\-[chlorophyll](/wiki/Chlorophyll \"Chlorophyll\") water, enhancing primary production and affecting the [bacterioplankton](/wiki/Bacterioplankton \"Bacterioplankton\") community structure.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rahav \\|first1\\=E. \\|last2\\=Paytan \\|first2\\=A. \\|last3\\=Chien \\|first3\\=C. \\|last4\\=Ovadia \\|first4\\=G. \\|last5\\=Katz \\|first5\\=T. \\|last6\\=Herut \\|first6\\=B. \\|title\\=The impact of atmospheric dry deposition associated microbes on the southeastern Mediterranean Sea surface water following an intense dust storm. \\|journal\\=Frontiers in Marine Science \\|date\\=2016 \\|volume\\=3 \\|issue\\=127 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fmars.2016\\.00127\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is extremely [oligotrophic](/wiki/Oligotrophic \"Oligotrophic\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Siokou\\-Frangou \\|first1\\=I. \\|last2\\=Christaki \\|first2\\=U. \\|last3\\=Mazzocchi \\|first3\\=M.G. \\|last4\\=Montresor \\|first4\\=M. \\|last5\\=Ribera d'AlcalΓ‘ \\|first5\\=M. \\|last6\\=VaquΓ© \\|first6\\=D. \\|title\\=Plankton in the open Mediterranean Sea: a review \\|journal\\=Biogeosciences \\|date\\=2010 \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=1543β1586 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/bg\\-7\\-1543\\-2010\\|bibcode\\=2010BGeo....7\\.1543S \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=10261/79959 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }} and is greatly influenced by desert dusts. In the past decade, the increase of temperature and decrease of precipitation at the Eastern Mediterranean Sea cause soil drying,{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Lelieveld \\|first1\\=J. \\|last2\\=Hadjinicolaou \\|first2\\=P. \\|last3\\=Kostopoulou \\|first3\\=E. \\|last4\\=Chenoweth \\|first4\\=J. \\|last5\\=El Maayar \\|first5\\=M. \\|last6\\=Giannakopoulos \\|first6\\=C. \\|title\\=Climate change and impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East \\|journal\\=Climate Change \\|date\\=2012 \\|volume\\=114 \\|issue\\=3β4 \\|pages\\=667β687 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10584\\-012\\-0418\\-4\\|pmid\\=25834296 \\|pmc\\=4372776 \\|bibcode\\=2012ClCh..114\\..667L \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} leading to increased dust emission. Due to [climate change](/wiki/Climate_change \"Climate change\"), this process is expected to continue in the future and contribute more micro\\- and macro\\- nutrients into the oligotrophic water.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=KlingmΓΌller \\|first1\\=K. \\|last2\\=Pozzer \\|first2\\=A. \\|last3\\=Metzger \\|first3\\=S. \\|last4\\=Stenchikov \\|first4\\=G. L. \\|last5\\=Lelieveld \\|first5\\=J. \\|title\\=Aerosol optical depth trend over the Middle East \\|journal\\=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics \\|date\\=2016 \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=5063β5073 \\|doi\\=10\\.5194/acp\\-16\\-5063\\-2016\\|bibcode\\=2016ACP....16\\.5063K \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=10754/610582 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"### Amazon basin",
"The majority of soil in the [Amazon Basin](/wiki/Amazon_basin \"Amazon basin\"), home of the [Amazon rainforest](/wiki/Amazon_rainforest \"Amazon rainforest\"), which accounts for about half of the world's remaining rainforest, is phosphorus deficient.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Sanchez\\|first1\\=P. A.\\|last2\\=Bandy\\|first2\\=D. E.\\|last3\\=Villachica\\|first3\\=J. H.\\|last4\\=Nicholaides\\|first4\\=J. J.\\|date\\=1982\\-05\\-21\\|title\\=Amazon Basin Soils: Management for Continuous Crop Production\\|url\\=https://www.science.org/doi/10\\.1126/science.216\\.4548\\.821\\|journal\\=Science\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=216\\|issue\\=4548\\|pages\\=821β827\\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.216\\.4548\\.821\\|pmid\\=17819134\\|bibcode\\=1982Sci...216\\..821S\\|s2cid\\=40337688\\|issn\\=0036\\-8075}} However, studies have found that phosphorus is the dominant fertility factor in the Amazon Basin when it comes to tree growth,{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Mercado\\|first1\\=Lina M.\\|last2\\=PatiΓ±o\\|first2\\=Sandra\\|last3\\=Domingues\\|first3\\=Tomas F.\\|last4\\=Fyllas\\|first4\\=Nikolaos M.\\|last5\\=Weedon\\|first5\\=Graham P.\\|last6\\=Sitch\\|first6\\=Stephen\\|last7\\=Quesada\\|first7\\=Carlos Alberto\\|last8\\=Phillips\\|first8\\=Oliver L.\\|last9\\=AragΓ£o\\|first9\\=Luiz E. O. C.\\|last10\\=Malhi\\|first10\\=Yadvinder\\|last11\\=Dolman\\|first11\\=A. J.\\|date\\=2011\\-11\\-27\\|title\\=Variations in Amazon forest productivity correlated with foliar nutrients and modelled rates of photosynthetic carbon supply\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\\|volume\\=366\\|issue\\=1582\\|pages\\=3316β3329\\|doi\\=10\\.1098/rstb.2011\\.0045\\|pmc\\=3179632\\|pmid\\=22006971}} so phosphorus deficiency could limit tree growth. Estimated turnover rates of phosphorus within soil in the Amazon Basin compared to deposition rates of phosphorus from Saharan dust indicate that the long\\-term health and productivity of the Amazon rainforest is dependent on the supply of phosphorus from Saharan dust.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Okin\\|first1\\=Gregory S.\\|last2\\=Mahowald\\|first2\\=Natalie\\|last3\\=Chadwick\\|first3\\=Oliver A.\\|last4\\=Artaxo\\|first4\\=Paulo\\|date\\=2004\\|title\\=Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems\\|journal\\=Global Biogeochemical Cycles\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=18\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=n/a\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2003GB002145\\|bibcode\\=2004GBioC..18\\.2005O\\|s2cid\\=129691352 \\|issn\\=1944\\-9224\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} While the relative amount of phosphorus deposition from the atmosphere into the Amazon Basin due to Saharan dust is relatively small (roughly 13%) compared to non\\-dust sources, such as biogenic aerosols and smoke particles, it is comparable to the hydrological loss of phosphorus.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Yu\\|first1\\=Hongbin\\|last2\\=Chin\\|first2\\=Mian\\|last3\\=Yuan\\|first3\\=Tianle\\|last4\\=Bian\\|first4\\=Huisheng\\|last5\\=Remer\\|first5\\=Lorraine A.\\|last6\\=Prospero\\|first6\\=Joseph M.\\|last7\\=Omar\\|first7\\=Ali\\|last8\\=Winker\\|first8\\=David\\|last9\\=Yang\\|first9\\=Yuekui\\|last10\\=Zhang\\|first10\\=Yan\\|last11\\=Zhang\\|first11\\=Zhibo\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=The fertilizing role of African dust in the Amazon rainforest: A first multiyear assessment based on data from Cloud\\-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations\\|journal\\=Geophysical Research Letters\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=42\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=1984β1991\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/2015GL063040\\|bibcode\\=2015GeoRL..42\\.1984Y\\|issn\\=1944\\-8007\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Without the input of phosphorus from Saharan dust, this hydrological loss could eventually deplete the Amazon Basin of its phosphorus content.",
"### Dust and climate",
"Saharan dust emissions and transports are sensitive to weather and climate conditions in the source regions. Dense dust clouds reduce the ocean surface exposure to sunlight, hence, reducing the ocean surface heating and therefore influencing the air\\-sea transfer of [water vapor](/wiki/Water_vapor \"Water vapor\") and [latent heat](/wiki/Latent_heat \"Latent heat\"), which are critical to climate.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Lelieveld \\|first1\\=J. \\|last2\\=Berresheim \\|first2\\=H. \\|last3\\=Borrmann \\|first3\\=S. \\|last4\\=Crutzen \\|first4\\=P. j. \\|last5\\=Dentener \\|first5\\=F. j. \\|last6\\=Fischer \\|first6\\=H. \\|last7\\=Feichter \\|first7\\=J. \\|last8\\=Flatau \\|first8\\=P. J. \\|last9\\=Heland \\|first9\\=J. \\|last10\\=Holzinger \\|first10\\=R. \\|last11\\=Korrmann \\|first11\\=R.\\|author12\\-link\\=Mark G. Lawrence \\|last12\\=Lawrence \\|first12\\=M. G. \\|last13\\=Levin \\|first13\\=Z. \\|last14\\=Markowicz \\|first14\\=K. M. \\|last15\\=Mihalopoulos \\|first15\\=N. \\|last16\\=Minikin \\|first16\\=A. \\|last17\\=Ramanathan \\|first17\\=V. \\|last18\\=de Reus \\|first18\\=M. \\|last19\\=Roelofs \\|first19\\=G. J. \\|last20\\=Scheeren \\|first20\\=H. A. \\|last21\\=Sciare \\|first21\\=J. \\|last22\\=Schlager \\|first22\\=H. \\|last23\\=Schultz \\|first23\\=M. \\|last24\\=Siegmund \\|first24\\=P. \\|last25\\=Steil \\|first25\\=B. \\|last26\\=Stephanou \\|first26\\=E. G. \\|last27\\=Stier \\|first27\\=P. \\|last28\\=Traub \\|first28\\=M. \\|last29\\=Warneke \\|first29\\=C. \\|last30\\=Williams \\|first30\\=J. \\|last31\\=Ziereis \\|first31\\=H. \\|title\\=Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean \\|journal\\=Science \\|date\\=2002 \\|volume\\=298 \\|issue\\=5594 \\|pages\\=794β799 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1075457\\|pmid\\=12399583 \\|bibcode\\=2002Sci...298\\..794L \\|s2cid\\=1602767 }} When the dust suspends over the Tropical Atlantic, the reduction of heating could contribute to the interhemispheric tropical Atlantic sea\\-surface temperature anomaly patterns that are related to the Soudano\\-Sahel drought.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Neil Ward \\|first1\\=M. \\|title\\=Diagnosis and Short\\-Lead Time Prediction of Summer Rainfall in Tropical North Africa at Interannual and Multidecadal Timescales \\|journal\\=Journal of Climate \\|date\\=1998 \\|volume\\=11 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=3167β3191 \\|doi\\=10\\.1175/1520\\-0442(1998\\)011\\<3167:DASLTP\\>2\\.0\\.CO;2\\|bibcode\\=1998JCli...11\\.3167W \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Hence, increased dust could lead to longer or more intense drought. In addition, the West African rainfall is well correlated with the frequency and the intensity of the Atlantic [hurricanes](/wiki/Hurricane \"Hurricane\"), suggesting less hurricane activities during dry phases.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Prospero \\|first1\\=Joseph M. \\|last2\\=Lamb \\|first2\\=Peter J. \\|title\\=African Droughts and Dust Transport to the Caribbean: Climate Change Implications \\|journal\\=Science \\|date\\=2003 \\|volume\\=302 \\|issue\\=1024 \\|pages\\=1024β1027 \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/science.1089915\\|pmid\\=14605365 \\|bibcode\\=2003Sci...302\\.1024P \\|s2cid\\=13426333 }} Some of the dustiest years in Barbados coincide with the [El NiΓ±o Southern Oscillation](/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation \"El NiΓ±oβSouthern Oscillation\") (ENSO) events;{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Propero \\|first1\\=Joseph M. \\|title\\=Saharan Dust Impacts and Climate Change \\|journal\\=Oceanography \\|date\\=2006 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=60β61 \\|doi\\=10\\.5670/oceanog.2006\\.65\\|doi\\-access\\=free }} however, it is still an open question of how [global warming](/wiki/Global_warming \"Global warming\") will influence dust emissions in the Sahara.",
"### Transport of microbial communities",
"Saharan dust storms can transport particulate matter that includes different local [microorganisms](/wiki/Microorganism \"Microorganism\") over continental scales, ultimately depositing them where those microorganisms are not natively found.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Weil\\|first1\\=Tobias\\|last2\\=De Filippo\\|first2\\=Carlotta\\|last3\\=Albanese\\|first3\\=Davide\\|last4\\=Donati\\|first4\\=Claudio\\|last5\\=Pindo\\|first5\\=Massimo\\|last6\\=Pavarini\\|first6\\=Lorenzo\\|last7\\=Carotenuto\\|first7\\=Federico\\|last8\\=Pasqui\\|first8\\=Massimiliano\\|last9\\=Poto\\|first9\\=Luisa\\|last10\\=Gabrieli\\|first10\\=Jacopo\\|last11\\=Barbante\\|first11\\=Carlo\\|date\\=2017\\|title\\=Legal immigrants: invasion of alien microbial communities during winter occurring desert dust storms\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=Microbiome\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=1\\|page\\=32\\|doi\\=10\\.1186/s40168\\-017\\-0249\\-7\\|issn\\=2049\\-2618\\|pmc\\=5345179\\|pmid\\=28283029 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Research shows that significant portions of microbial communities can be transported over large distances in these dust storms.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Marone\\|first1\\=Alioune\\|last2\\=Kane\\|first2\\=Coumba TourΓ©\\|last3\\=Mbengue\\|first3\\=Malick\\|last4\\=Jenkins\\|first4\\=Gregory S.\\|last5\\=Niang\\|first5\\=Demba Ndao\\|last6\\=Drame\\|first6\\=Mamadou Simina\\|last7\\=Gernand\\|first7\\=Jeremy M.\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Characterization of Bacteria on Aerosols From Dust Events in Dakar, Senegal, West Africa\\|url\\= \\|journal\\=GeoHealth\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=e2019GH000216\\|doi\\=10\\.1029/2019gh000216\\|issn\\=2471\\-1403\\|pmc\\=7262684\\|pmid\\=32490303}} These microbial communities are highly stress\\-resistant and can contain destructive fungal and bacterial [pathogens.](/wiki/Pathogen \"Pathogen\") Within Africa, but up to thousands of kilometers away from the dust source, high Saharan dust concentrations have been correlated to increased cases of [asthma](/wiki/Asthma \"Asthma\"), [bronchitis](/wiki/Bronchitis \"Bronchitis\"), [meningitis](/wiki/Meningitis \"Meningitis\"), and [acute respiratory infections.](/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection \"Respiratory tract infection\")",
"### Human impacts",
"While Saharan dust may fertilize the ocean and land, human exposure to this desert dust combined with organic matter can cause potential infections of the lungs.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Korenyi\\-Both\\|first1\\=AL\\|last2\\=Kornyi\\-Both\\|first2\\=AL\\|last3\\=Molnar\\|first3\\=AC\\|last4\\=Fidelus\\-Gort\\|first4\\=R\\|date\\=1992\\|title\\=Al Eskan disease: Desert Storm pneumonitis\\|url\\=\\|journal\\=Military Medicine\\|volume\\=157\\|issue\\=9\\|pages\\=452β462\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/milmed/157\\.9\\.452\\|pmid\\=1333577}} Studies have shown that Saharan dust may contain toxic biological allergens and irritants.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Garrison\\|first1\\=V.H.\\|last2\\=Foreman\\|first2\\=W.T.\\|last3\\=Genualdi\\|first3\\=S.\\|last4\\=Griffin\\|first4\\=D.W.\\|last5\\=Kellogg\\|first5\\=C.A.\\|last6\\=Majewski\\|first6\\=M.S.\\|date\\=2006\\|title\\=Saharan dust β a carrier of persistent organic pollutants, metals and microbes to the Caribbean?\\|url\\=\\|journal\\=Revista de BiologΓa Tropical\\|volume\\=54\\|pages\\=S9βS21\\|via\\=}} It is also possible that nonbiological compounds in dust can generate adverse health effects, including [respiratory](/wiki/Respiratory_disease \"Respiratory disease\") (e.g., asthma, [tracheitis](/wiki/Tracheitis \"Tracheitis\"), [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia \"Pneumonia\"), allergic [rhinitis](/wiki/Rhinitis \"Rhinitis\") and [silicosis](/wiki/Silicosis \"Silicosis\")), [cardiovascular](/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease \"Cardiovascular disease\") (e.g., [stroke](/wiki/Stroke \"Stroke\")), and [cardiopulmonary](/wiki/Cardiopulmonary \"Cardiopulmonary\") diseases. In addition, [conjunctivitis](/wiki/Conjunctivitis \"Conjunctivitis\"), skin irritations, [meningococcal disease](/wiki/Meningococcal_disease \"Meningococcal disease\"), and [coccidioidomycosis](/wiki/Coccidioidomycosis \"Coccidioidomycosis\") are found to be related to dust storms.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Goudie\\|first\\=A.S.\\|date\\=2014\\|title\\=Desert dust and human health disorders\\|url\\=\\|journal\\=Environment International\\|volume\\=63\\|pages\\=101β113\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.envint.2013\\.10\\.011\\|pmid\\=24275707}} For long periods of time, the dust concentration in some areas exceeds several times the maximum levels suggested from the [World Health Organization](/wiki/World_Health_Organization \"World Health Organization\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2006\\|title\\=WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide : global update 2005: summary of risk assessment.\\|url\\=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/69477\\|website\\=World Health Organization \\|hdl\\=10665/69477 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} The concentration of particulate matters (PM) also elevates to hazardous level that could threaten human health and early life. Exposure of PM can cause neonatal mortality either through mother exposure or through increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in neonates.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Maider began her activity as a gymnast at the Club NataciΓ³n Pamplona, following two of her cousins that already practised the sport. In 1993 she was 4th in clubs in the [Spanish Individual Championship](/wiki/Spanish_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_Championships "Spanish Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships") "B" in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), and that same year she participated in the Spanish Group Championship in [GijΓ³n](/wiki/Gij%C3%B3n "GijΓ³n"), being 4th in first category with NataciΓ³n Pamplona.
In 1994, she was called by [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva "Emilia Boneva") to be part of the national team as a member of the group. During this time she lived with the rest of the team members in a chalet in [Canillejas](/wiki/Canillejas "Canillejas") and trained at the MoscardΓ³ Gymnasium from Monday to Saturday, first about 6 hours and then up to 8 hours a day in the year before the Olympic Games, when they stopped going to school.{{Cite web \|title\=3er PROGRAMA CURSO 07\-08 \- RADIO SOLIDARIA AMIGA \- Podcast en iVoox \|url\=https://www.ivoox.com/3er\-programa\-curso\-07\-08\-audios\-mp3\_rf\_329584\_1\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=iVoox \|language\=es}}
In October 1994 she became a starter, making her competition debut at the PortimΓ£o International Tournament in April 1995, where she won bronze in both the All\-Around and the 5 hoops final. After the Karlsruhe tournament, her second competition as a starter, she was the substitute gymnast in most of the competitions in which the Spanish group participated. As the team's substitute gymnast, Maider had to learn each of the parts in the two exercises, so that in the event of a starter's injury, she could replace her.
In July 1995 she won bronze in the All\-Around and with 5 hoops, silver with 2 balls and 3 ribbons at the [European Championships](/wiki/1995_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_European_Championships "1995 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships") in [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague").{{Cite web \|title\=11\. (5\. Junior) European Championships in Prague, Czech Republic (6\.\-9\. July 1995\) \|url\=http://r\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/EB95J.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=r\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} In September, as a substitute, she won silver in the All\-Around and with 5 hoops, gold with 3 balls and 2 ribbons at the [World Championships](/wiki/1995_World_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_Championships "1995 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna").{{Cite web \|title\=19\.World Championships in Vienna, Austria (19\.\-24\. September 1995\) \|url\=http://r\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/VB95\.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=r\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} In June 1996 Spain won silver in the All\-Around and gold with 3 balls and 2 ribbons at the [European Championships](/wiki/1996_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_European_Championships "1996 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships") in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest").{{Cite web \|title\=20\.World Championships in Budapest, Hungary (21\.\-23\. June 1996\) \|url\=http://r\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/VB96\.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=r\-gymnast.bplaced.net}}
For the [Atlanta Olympic Games](/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics "1996 Summer Olympics") only the team's six starting gymnasts could participate, so Maider was left out, although she did travel to watch the competition live. The group made up of [Marta BaldΓ³](/wiki/Marta_Bald%C3%B3 "Marta BaldΓ³"), [Nuria Cabanillas](/wiki/Nuria_Cabanillas "Nuria Cabanillas"), [Estela GimΓ©nez](/wiki/Estela_Gim%C3%A9nez "Estela GimΓ©nez"), [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez "Lorena GurΓ©ndez"), [Tania Lamarca](/wiki/Tania_Lamarca "Tania Lamarca") and [EstΓbaliz MartΓnez](/wiki/Est%C3%ADbaliz_Mart%C3%ADnez "EstΓbaliz MartΓnez") won an historical gold ahead of Bulgaria and Russia.{{Cite web \|title\=XXVI. Olympic Games from 1\.\- 4\.August 1996 in Atlanta, USA \|url\=http://r\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/Ol96\.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=r\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} After this achievement, the group was baptized by the media as the NiΓ±as de Oro.{{Cite web \|title\=Apotheosis in Barajas to receive the great winners of Atlanta \|url\=http://hemeroteca.abcdesevilla.es/nav/Navigate.exe/hemeroteca/sevilla/abc.sevilla/1996/08/07/066\.html \|website\=hemeroteca.abcdesevilla.es}}{{cite web \|accessdate\=25 March 2013 \|date\=31 July 2012 \|archive\-date\=12 March 2018 \|url\-status\=dead \|editor\=juegos\-olimpicos.com \|title\=Interview to Tania Lamarca: "The rhythmic group can fight for bronze" \|url\=http://juegos\-olimpicos.com/entrevista\-a\-tania\-lamarca\-el\-conjunto\-de\-ritmica\-puede\-luchar\-por\-el\-bronce/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312083052/http://juegos\-olimpicos.com/entrevista\-a\-tania\-lamarca\-el\-conjunto\-de\-ritmica\-puede\-luchar\-por\-el\-bronce/}} She was also awarded the Gold Plate of the Royal Order of Sports Merit (1996\) and the BarΓ³n de GΓΌell Cup at the National Sports Awards (1997\), distinctions awarded to the Spanish rhythmic gymnastics team by the Higher Sports Council.
Esparza retired in September 1996, after the Games. On December 22 of that year, she received a tribute in Pamplona from the Navarra Gymnastics Federation. In it, the Spanish group put on an exhibition and the group and trainers were presented with a replica of the Atlanta gold medal.{{Cite book \|last\=Gallo \|first\=Cristina \|title\=LΓ‘grimas por una medalla. \|date\=8 April 2008 \|publisher\=Ediciones Temas de Hoy \|isbn\=9788484607007}}{{Cite web \|title\=Anaitasuna pays tribute to the rhythmic team and Maider Esparza \|url\=https://www.efedata.com/texto/gimnasia\-anaitasuna\-acoge\-homenaje\-seleccion\-ritmica\-maider\-esparza/EFEDATA/18/4844/199612212029003151 \|website\=www.efedata.com}} Years later, at the presentation in Pamplona of the book *LΓ‘grimas por una medalla* by her colleague [Tania Lamarca](/wiki/Tania_Lamarca "Tania Lamarca"), Maider would comment that for her the retirement "was a relief \[...] The worst thing for me was the pressure of being concentrated in Madrid. In Pamplona I felt good. In the same appearance she demanded "that the work done by the gymnasts who are there even if they are not seen be recognized, because they all do the same work with the same effort."{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-09\-03 \|title\=Maider Esparza: "Para mΓ, la retirada fue un alivio" \- \- Diario de Navarra \|url\=http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20080905/deportes/maider\-esparza\-mi\-retirada\-fue\-alivio.html?not\=2008090501365758\&idnot\=2008090501365758\&dia\=20080905\&seccion\=deportes\&seccion2\=\&chnl\=20 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903062927/http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20080905/deportes/maider\-esparza\-mi\-retirada\-fue\-alivio.html?not\=2008090501365758\&idnot\=2008090501365758\&dia\=20080905\&seccion\=deportes\&seccion2\=\&chnl\=20 \|archive\-date\=2014\-09\-03 }}
On August 5, 2000, she participated along with some of her former teammates from the national team in a tribute to [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva "Emilia Boneva") during the Spanish Rhythmic Gymnastics Group Championships held in [Malaga](/wiki/M%C3%A1laga "MΓ‘laga"), in which they performed an exercise set up especially for the occasion that was inspired in the 1996 5 hoops and that they had trained the previous weeks with the help of [Ana Bautista](/wiki/Ana_Bautista "Ana Bautista"). Emilia herself traveled from Bulgaria to attend the event, although she was unaware that several of her former pupils were going to pay tribute to her. [Marta BaldΓ³](/wiki/Marta_Bald%C3%B3 "Marta BaldΓ³") was not able to participate in the event and [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez "Lorena GurΓ©ndez") attended but she did not perform the exercise as she was still a member of the national team. The person in charge of organizing the reunion was Carlos PΓ©rez, then External Relations of the ADO Program, after the girls themselves told him about the idea. Days later they would carry out the exercise again in [Manzanares el Real](/wiki/Manzanares_el_Real "Manzanares el Real"), this being the last time they met Emilia again.
In April 2002, the members of the 1996 group met again at the V Interschool Rhythmic Gymnastics Competition, which was organized by MT in Zaragoza and where five of them performed one of the Atlanta exercises, in addition to receiving a tribute. [Nuria Cabanillas](/wiki/Nuria_Cabanillas "Nuria Cabanillas") and [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez "Lorena GurΓ©ndez") were not able to attend the week in which the exercise was trained, but they did attend the event.
In August 2006, along with the rest of her former teammates from the 1996 national team, she attended a reunion that took place in Γvila for three days on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of winning the gold medal in Atlanta. Organised by Carlos BeltrΓ‘n with his production company, Klifas dreams, with the aim of recording a documentary in which they themselves narrated their story.{{Cite web \|title\=D\-GeneraciΓ³n: Lo que la medalla esconde \|url\=https://dgeneracion.blogspot.com/2006/08/lo\-que\-la\-medalla\-esconde.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-12\-31 \|title\=Lo que la medalla esconde {{!}} Trapseia \|url\=http://trapseia.com/2008/08/08/lo\-que\-la\-medalla\-esconde/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231211342/http://trapseia.com/2008/08/08/lo\-que\-la\-medalla\-esconde/ \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-31 }} *Las NiΓ±as de Oro*, as it was called, premiered on YouTube in December 2013, directed by BeltrΓ‘n himself and lasting 54 minutes. It was presented divided into five parts. The documentary narrates, through interviews with the gymnasts themselves, the before, during and after of the gold medal in Atlanta.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-12\-31 \|title\=Se estrena "Las NiΓ±as de Oro", el documental de las campeonas olΓmpicas de rΓtmica en Atlanta'96 \- Otros Deportes {{!}} 6CERO \|url\=http://grada.6cero.com/a/davidluque2/2013/dic/estrena\-ninas\-oro\-documental\-campeonas\-olimpicas\-ritmica\-atlanta\-96/233563 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220246/http://grada.6cero.com/a/davidluque2/2013/dic/estrena\-ninas\-oro\-documental\-campeonas\-olimpicas\-ritmica\-atlanta\-96/233563 \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-31 }}
On November 8, 2014, the seven members of the 1996 group, including Maider, were honored at the IX Euskalgym Gala, which was held for the first time in Vitoria.{{Cite web \|last\=Campo \|first\=Jose Luis del \|date\=2014\-10\-15 \|title\=VΓDEO: Vitoria\-Gastreiz homenajearΓ‘ a las niΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta 96 \|url\=https://www.gasteizhoy.com/video\-vitoria\-gastreiz\-homenajeara\-a\-las\-ninas\-de\-oro\-de\-atlanta\-96/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=Gasteiz Hoy \|language\=es}}{{Cite web \|last\=Dxtfem \|date\=2014\-10\-14 \|title\=Las "chicas de oro" de Atlanta 96 recibirΓ‘n un homenaje en el Buesa Arena \|url\=https://www.dxtfem.com/alava/principal/las\-chicas\-de\-oro\-de\-atlanta\-96\-recibiran\-un\-homenaje\-en\-el\-buesa\-arena/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=DXTFem Alava \|language\=es}} In the same, a projection of images was carried out on, consisting of the names of the gymnasts with the logo of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games and the gold medal in the background, while the music of their hoops exercise played in that Olympics. Next, the seven gymnasts took to the carpet to present them with the Euskalgym Medal and receive a commemorative plaque from the hands of JosΓ© Luis Tejedor and Javier Maroto, president of the Basque Gymnastics Federation and mayor of Vitoria respectively, in the presence of the almost 9,000 people attended the gala at the [Fernando Buesa Arena](/wiki/Fernando_Buesa_Arena "Fernando Buesa Arena").{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-11\-09 \|title\=Las mejores especialistas mundiales de la rΓtmica deleitan en el Buesa Arena {{!}} www.diariovasco.com \|url\=http://www.diariovasco.com/agencias/201411/08/mejores\-especialistas\-mundiales\-ritmica\-235627\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109215550/http://www.diariovasco.com/agencias/201411/08/mejores\-especialistas\-mundiales\-ritmica\-235627\.html \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-09 }} It was the first time since 2006 all the NiΓ±as de Oro were together.{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-11\-08 \|title\=Exito total del Euskalgym de Vitoria \|url\=https://cadenaser.com/emisora/2014/11/08/ser\_vitoria/1415481316\_559063\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=cadena SER \|language\=es\-ES}}{{Cite web \|date\=2014\-11\-09 \|title\=Aquellas niΓ±as (alavesas) de oro. Diario de Noticias de Alava \|url\=http://www.noticiasdealava.com/2014/11/09/deportes/otros\-deportes/aquellas\-ninas\-alavesas\-de\-oro \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109210414/http://www.noticiasdealava.com/2014/11/09/deportes/otros\-deportes/aquellas\-ninas\-alavesas\-de\-oro \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-09 }}{{Cite web \|last\=JimΓ©nez \|first\=Olga \|date\=2014\-11\-20 \|title\=Las NiΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta, 18 aΓ±os despuΓ©s \|url\=https://cadenaser.com/emisora/2014/11/20/ser\_vitoria/1416446849\_054838\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=cadena SER \|language\=es\-ES}} On October 14, 2015, the seven NiΓ±as de Oro met again in Madrid as the six Olympic champions were awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit, awarded by the Higher Sports Council. At the same event, the Bronze Medal was presented to the Spanish team of 2014, known as Equipaso, being the first time that both generations of gymnasts met.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-11\-26 \|title\=El equipo nacional de Gimnasia RΓtmica y 'Las niΓ±as de oro' {{!}} Real FederaciΓ³n EspaΓ±ola de Gimnasia \|url\=http://www.rfegimnasia.es/2015/10/15/el\-equipo\-nacional\-de\-gimnasia\-ritmica\-y\-las\-ninas\-de\-oro/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126102838/http://www.rfegimnasia.es/2015/10/15/el\-equipo\-nacional\-de\-gimnasia\-ritmica\-y\-las\-ninas\-de\-oro/ \|archive\-date\=2015\-11\-26 }}{{Cite web \|last\=MARCA.com \|date\=2015\-10\-15 \|title\=Las ΓΊltimas niΓ±as de oro de la gimnasia \|url\=https://www.marca.com/2015/10/15/mas\_deportes/otros\_deportes/1444900111\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=MARCA.com \|language\=es}}
On July 23, 2016, she was reunited with the rest of the group at the 20th Anniversary Gala of the gold medal in Atlanta '96, which took place at the Badajoz Congress Palace within the framework of the X International Campus of Nuria Cabanillas Rhythmic Gymnastics.{{Cite web \|date\=2016\-06\-07 \|title\=X Campus Internacional "Nuria Cabanillas" \|url\=http://www.clubgimnasiabadajoz.com/x\-campus\-internacional\-nuria\-cabanillas/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607165012/http://www.clubgimnasiabadajoz.com/x\-campus\-internacional\-nuria\-cabanillas/ \|archive\-date\=2016\-06\-07 }} Several former gymnasts of the national team also attended the tribute, such as [Carolina Pascual](/wiki/Carolina_Pascual "Carolina Pascual"), [Almudena Cid](/wiki/Almudena_Cid "Almudena Cid"), [Alba Caride](/wiki/Alba_Caride "Alba Caride"), [Ana Bautista](/wiki/Ana_Bautista "Ana Bautista"), [Carolina Malchair](/wiki/Carolina_Malchair "Carolina Malchair"), [Marta Calamonte](/wiki/Marta_Calamonte "Marta Calamonte"), MarΓa Eugenia RodrΓguez and [Ana MarΓa Pelaz](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Pelaz "Ana MarΓa Pelaz"), as well as the international judge Maite Nadal and the choreographer of the Atlanta group, Marisa Mateo. The national junior group also performed two exhibitions during the gala, which also featured performances by Carolina Pascual and the Campus participants. A recorded message from former coach Emilia Boneva was also broadcast from her home in Bulgaria.{{Citation \|title\=VΓdeo sorpresa para las NiΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta \- Gala 20 Aniversario \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=M7KMfdu9VD8 \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|last\=Reigadas \|first\=Natalia \|date\=2016\-07\-24 \|title\=Ahora son treintaΓ±eras de oro \|url\=https://www.hoy.es/badajoz/201607/24/ahora\-treintaneras\-20160724001023\-v.html \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-03 \|website\=Hoy \|language\=es}}
In September 2018, she traveled with several former gymnasts from the Spanish team to the [World Championships](/wiki/2018_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_World_Championships "2018 Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia") to meet again with the former national team coach [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva "Emilia Boneva"), and a tribute dinner was also organized in her honor.{{Citation \|title\=CENA HOMENAJE A EMILIA BONEVA {{!}} Seguimos en Bulgaria.Cena homenaje a Emilia Boneva por parte de las gimnastas que pudieron viajar a Bulgaria la semana pasada: Gemma Royo, Lorea Elso,... {{!}} By Montse Martin ArtFacebook \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/montsemartin.pinceladas/videos/cena\-homenaje\-a\-emilia\-boneva/612867685776610/ \|access\-date\=2024\-03\-02 \|language\=en}} After Boneva's death on 20 September 2019, Maider and other former national gymnasts gathered to pay tribute to her during the [Euskalgym](/wiki/Euskalgym "Euskalgym") held on 16 November 2019, the event took place before 8,500 attendees at the [Bilbao Exhibition Center](/wiki/Bilbao_Exhibition_Centre "Bilbao Exhibition Centre") de [Baracaldo](/wiki/Barakaldo "Barakaldo") and was followed by a dinner in her honor.{{Cite web \|title\=Facebook \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/almudenacidoficial/posts/1172676899589730 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-31 \|website\=www.facebook.com}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Maider began her activity as a gymnast at the Club NataciΓ³n Pamplona, following two of her cousins that already practised the sport. In 1993 she was 4th in clubs in the [Spanish Individual Championship](/wiki/Spanish_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_Championships \"Spanish Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships\") \"B\" in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), and that same year she participated in the Spanish Group Championship in [GijΓ³n](/wiki/Gij%C3%B3n \"GijΓ³n\"), being 4th in first category with NataciΓ³n Pamplona.",
"In 1994, she was called by [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva \"Emilia Boneva\") to be part of the national team as a member of the group. During this time she lived with the rest of the team members in a chalet in [Canillejas](/wiki/Canillejas \"Canillejas\") and trained at the MoscardΓ³ Gymnasium from Monday to Saturday, first about 6 hours and then up to 8 hours a day in the year before the Olympic Games, when they stopped going to school.{{Cite web \\|title\\=3er PROGRAMA CURSO 07\\-08 \\- RADIO SOLIDARIA AMIGA \\- Podcast en iVoox \\|url\\=https://www.ivoox.com/3er\\-programa\\-curso\\-07\\-08\\-audios\\-mp3\\_rf\\_329584\\_1\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=iVoox \\|language\\=es}}",
"In October 1994 she became a starter, making her competition debut at the PortimΓ£o International Tournament in April 1995, where she won bronze in both the All\\-Around and the 5 hoops final. After the Karlsruhe tournament, her second competition as a starter, she was the substitute gymnast in most of the competitions in which the Spanish group participated. As the team's substitute gymnast, Maider had to learn each of the parts in the two exercises, so that in the event of a starter's injury, she could replace her.",
"In July 1995 she won bronze in the All\\-Around and with 5 hoops, silver with 2 balls and 3 ribbons at the [European Championships](/wiki/1995_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_European_Championships \"1995 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships\") in [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=11\\. (5\\. Junior) European Championships in Prague, Czech Republic (6\\.\\-9\\. July 1995\\) \\|url\\=http://r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/EB95J.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} In September, as a substitute, she won silver in the All\\-Around and with 5 hoops, gold with 3 balls and 2 ribbons at the [World Championships](/wiki/1995_World_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_Championships \"1995 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships\") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=19\\.World Championships in Vienna, Austria (19\\.\\-24\\. September 1995\\) \\|url\\=http://r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/VB95\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} In June 1996 Spain won silver in the All\\-Around and gold with 3 balls and 2 ribbons at the [European Championships](/wiki/1996_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_European_Championships \"1996 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships\") in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=20\\.World Championships in Budapest, Hungary (21\\.\\-23\\. June 1996\\) \\|url\\=http://r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/VB96\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net}}",
"For the [Atlanta Olympic Games](/wiki/1996_Summer_Olympics \"1996 Summer Olympics\") only the team's six starting gymnasts could participate, so Maider was left out, although she did travel to watch the competition live. The group made up of [Marta BaldΓ³](/wiki/Marta_Bald%C3%B3 \"Marta BaldΓ³\"), [Nuria Cabanillas](/wiki/Nuria_Cabanillas \"Nuria Cabanillas\"), [Estela GimΓ©nez](/wiki/Estela_Gim%C3%A9nez \"Estela GimΓ©nez\"), [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez \"Lorena GurΓ©ndez\"), [Tania Lamarca](/wiki/Tania_Lamarca \"Tania Lamarca\") and [EstΓbaliz MartΓnez](/wiki/Est%C3%ADbaliz_Mart%C3%ADnez \"EstΓbaliz MartΓnez\") won an historical gold ahead of Bulgaria and Russia.{{Cite web \\|title\\=XXVI. Olympic Games from 1\\.\\- 4\\.August 1996 in Atlanta, USA \\|url\\=http://r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net/RG/Results/Ol96\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=r\\-gymnast.bplaced.net}} After this achievement, the group was baptized by the media as the NiΓ±as de Oro.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Apotheosis in Barajas to receive the great winners of Atlanta \\|url\\=http://hemeroteca.abcdesevilla.es/nav/Navigate.exe/hemeroteca/sevilla/abc.sevilla/1996/08/07/066\\.html \\|website\\=hemeroteca.abcdesevilla.es}}{{cite web \\|accessdate\\=25 March 2013 \\|date\\=31 July 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 March 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|editor\\=juegos\\-olimpicos.com \\|title\\=Interview to Tania Lamarca: \"The rhythmic group can fight for bronze\" \\|url\\=http://juegos\\-olimpicos.com/entrevista\\-a\\-tania\\-lamarca\\-el\\-conjunto\\-de\\-ritmica\\-puede\\-luchar\\-por\\-el\\-bronce/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312083052/http://juegos\\-olimpicos.com/entrevista\\-a\\-tania\\-lamarca\\-el\\-conjunto\\-de\\-ritmica\\-puede\\-luchar\\-por\\-el\\-bronce/}} She was also awarded the Gold Plate of the Royal Order of Sports Merit (1996\\) and the BarΓ³n de GΓΌell Cup at the National Sports Awards (1997\\), distinctions awarded to the Spanish rhythmic gymnastics team by the Higher Sports Council.",
"Esparza retired in September 1996, after the Games. On December 22 of that year, she received a tribute in Pamplona from the Navarra Gymnastics Federation. In it, the Spanish group put on an exhibition and the group and trainers were presented with a replica of the Atlanta gold medal.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Gallo \\|first\\=Cristina \\|title\\=LΓ‘grimas por una medalla. \\|date\\=8 April 2008 \\|publisher\\=Ediciones Temas de Hoy \\|isbn\\=9788484607007}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Anaitasuna pays tribute to the rhythmic team and Maider Esparza \\|url\\=https://www.efedata.com/texto/gimnasia\\-anaitasuna\\-acoge\\-homenaje\\-seleccion\\-ritmica\\-maider\\-esparza/EFEDATA/18/4844/199612212029003151 \\|website\\=www.efedata.com}} Years later, at the presentation in Pamplona of the book *LΓ‘grimas por una medalla* by her colleague [Tania Lamarca](/wiki/Tania_Lamarca \"Tania Lamarca\"), Maider would comment that for her the retirement \"was a relief \\[...] The worst thing for me was the pressure of being concentrated in Madrid. In Pamplona I felt good. In the same appearance she demanded \"that the work done by the gymnasts who are there even if they are not seen be recognized, because they all do the same work with the same effort.\"{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-03 \\|title\\=Maider Esparza: \"Para mΓ, la retirada fue un alivio\" \\- \\- Diario de Navarra \\|url\\=http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20080905/deportes/maider\\-esparza\\-mi\\-retirada\\-fue\\-alivio.html?not\\=2008090501365758\\&idnot\\=2008090501365758\\&dia\\=20080905\\&seccion\\=deportes\\&seccion2\\=\\&chnl\\=20 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903062927/http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20080905/deportes/maider\\-esparza\\-mi\\-retirada\\-fue\\-alivio.html?not\\=2008090501365758\\&idnot\\=2008090501365758\\&dia\\=20080905\\&seccion\\=deportes\\&seccion2\\=\\&chnl\\=20 \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-09\\-03 }}",
"On August 5, 2000, she participated along with some of her former teammates from the national team in a tribute to [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva \"Emilia Boneva\") during the Spanish Rhythmic Gymnastics Group Championships held in [Malaga](/wiki/M%C3%A1laga \"MΓ‘laga\"), in which they performed an exercise set up especially for the occasion that was inspired in the 1996 5 hoops and that they had trained the previous weeks with the help of [Ana Bautista](/wiki/Ana_Bautista \"Ana Bautista\"). Emilia herself traveled from Bulgaria to attend the event, although she was unaware that several of her former pupils were going to pay tribute to her. [Marta BaldΓ³](/wiki/Marta_Bald%C3%B3 \"Marta BaldΓ³\") was not able to participate in the event and [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez \"Lorena GurΓ©ndez\") attended but she did not perform the exercise as she was still a member of the national team. The person in charge of organizing the reunion was Carlos PΓ©rez, then External Relations of the ADO Program, after the girls themselves told him about the idea. Days later they would carry out the exercise again in [Manzanares el Real](/wiki/Manzanares_el_Real \"Manzanares el Real\"), this being the last time they met Emilia again.",
"In April 2002, the members of the 1996 group met again at the V Interschool Rhythmic Gymnastics Competition, which was organized by MT in Zaragoza and where five of them performed one of the Atlanta exercises, in addition to receiving a tribute. [Nuria Cabanillas](/wiki/Nuria_Cabanillas \"Nuria Cabanillas\") and [Lorena GurΓ©ndez](/wiki/Lorena_Gur%C3%A9ndez \"Lorena GurΓ©ndez\") were not able to attend the week in which the exercise was trained, but they did attend the event.",
"In August 2006, along with the rest of her former teammates from the 1996 national team, she attended a reunion that took place in Γvila for three days on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of winning the gold medal in Atlanta. Organised by Carlos BeltrΓ‘n with his production company, Klifas dreams, with the aim of recording a documentary in which they themselves narrated their story.{{Cite web \\|title\\=D\\-GeneraciΓ³n: Lo que la medalla esconde \\|url\\=https://dgeneracion.blogspot.com/2006/08/lo\\-que\\-la\\-medalla\\-esconde.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-31 \\|title\\=Lo que la medalla esconde {{!}} Trapseia \\|url\\=http://trapseia.com/2008/08/08/lo\\-que\\-la\\-medalla\\-esconde/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231211342/http://trapseia.com/2008/08/08/lo\\-que\\-la\\-medalla\\-esconde/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-31 }} *Las NiΓ±as de Oro*, as it was called, premiered on YouTube in December 2013, directed by BeltrΓ‘n himself and lasting 54 minutes. It was presented divided into five parts. The documentary narrates, through interviews with the gymnasts themselves, the before, during and after of the gold medal in Atlanta.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-12\\-31 \\|title\\=Se estrena \"Las NiΓ±as de Oro\", el documental de las campeonas olΓmpicas de rΓtmica en Atlanta'96 \\- Otros Deportes {{!}} 6CERO \\|url\\=http://grada.6cero.com/a/davidluque2/2013/dic/estrena\\-ninas\\-oro\\-documental\\-campeonas\\-olimpicas\\-ritmica\\-atlanta\\-96/233563 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220246/http://grada.6cero.com/a/davidluque2/2013/dic/estrena\\-ninas\\-oro\\-documental\\-campeonas\\-olimpicas\\-ritmica\\-atlanta\\-96/233563 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-31 }}",
"On November 8, 2014, the seven members of the 1996 group, including Maider, were honored at the IX Euskalgym Gala, which was held for the first time in Vitoria.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Campo \\|first\\=Jose Luis del \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-15 \\|title\\=VΓDEO: Vitoria\\-Gastreiz homenajearΓ‘ a las niΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta 96 \\|url\\=https://www.gasteizhoy.com/video\\-vitoria\\-gastreiz\\-homenajeara\\-a\\-las\\-ninas\\-de\\-oro\\-de\\-atlanta\\-96/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=Gasteiz Hoy \\|language\\=es}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dxtfem \\|date\\=2014\\-10\\-14 \\|title\\=Las \"chicas de oro\" de Atlanta 96 recibirΓ‘n un homenaje en el Buesa Arena \\|url\\=https://www.dxtfem.com/alava/principal/las\\-chicas\\-de\\-oro\\-de\\-atlanta\\-96\\-recibiran\\-un\\-homenaje\\-en\\-el\\-buesa\\-arena/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=DXTFem Alava \\|language\\=es}} In the same, a projection of images was carried out on, consisting of the names of the gymnasts with the logo of the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games and the gold medal in the background, while the music of their hoops exercise played in that Olympics. Next, the seven gymnasts took to the carpet to present them with the Euskalgym Medal and receive a commemorative plaque from the hands of JosΓ© Luis Tejedor and Javier Maroto, president of the Basque Gymnastics Federation and mayor of Vitoria respectively, in the presence of the almost 9,000 people attended the gala at the [Fernando Buesa Arena](/wiki/Fernando_Buesa_Arena \"Fernando Buesa Arena\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-09 \\|title\\=Las mejores especialistas mundiales de la rΓtmica deleitan en el Buesa Arena {{!}} www.diariovasco.com \\|url\\=http://www.diariovasco.com/agencias/201411/08/mejores\\-especialistas\\-mundiales\\-ritmica\\-235627\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109215550/http://www.diariovasco.com/agencias/201411/08/mejores\\-especialistas\\-mundiales\\-ritmica\\-235627\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-09 }} It was the first time since 2006 all the NiΓ±as de Oro were together.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-08 \\|title\\=Exito total del Euskalgym de Vitoria \\|url\\=https://cadenaser.com/emisora/2014/11/08/ser\\_vitoria/1415481316\\_559063\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=cadena SER \\|language\\=es\\-ES}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-09 \\|title\\=Aquellas niΓ±as (alavesas) de oro. Diario de Noticias de Alava \\|url\\=http://www.noticiasdealava.com/2014/11/09/deportes/otros\\-deportes/aquellas\\-ninas\\-alavesas\\-de\\-oro \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141109210414/http://www.noticiasdealava.com/2014/11/09/deportes/otros\\-deportes/aquellas\\-ninas\\-alavesas\\-de\\-oro \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-09 }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=JimΓ©nez \\|first\\=Olga \\|date\\=2014\\-11\\-20 \\|title\\=Las NiΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta, 18 aΓ±os despuΓ©s \\|url\\=https://cadenaser.com/emisora/2014/11/20/ser\\_vitoria/1416446849\\_054838\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=cadena SER \\|language\\=es\\-ES}} On October 14, 2015, the seven NiΓ±as de Oro met again in Madrid as the six Olympic champions were awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit, awarded by the Higher Sports Council. At the same event, the Bronze Medal was presented to the Spanish team of 2014, known as Equipaso, being the first time that both generations of gymnasts met.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-11\\-26 \\|title\\=El equipo nacional de Gimnasia RΓtmica y 'Las niΓ±as de oro' {{!}} Real FederaciΓ³n EspaΓ±ola de Gimnasia \\|url\\=http://www.rfegimnasia.es/2015/10/15/el\\-equipo\\-nacional\\-de\\-gimnasia\\-ritmica\\-y\\-las\\-ninas\\-de\\-oro/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126102838/http://www.rfegimnasia.es/2015/10/15/el\\-equipo\\-nacional\\-de\\-gimnasia\\-ritmica\\-y\\-las\\-ninas\\-de\\-oro/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-11\\-26 }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=MARCA.com \\|date\\=2015\\-10\\-15 \\|title\\=Las ΓΊltimas niΓ±as de oro de la gimnasia \\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/2015/10/15/mas\\_deportes/otros\\_deportes/1444900111\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=MARCA.com \\|language\\=es}}",
"On July 23, 2016, she was reunited with the rest of the group at the 20th Anniversary Gala of the gold medal in Atlanta '96, which took place at the Badajoz Congress Palace within the framework of the X International Campus of Nuria Cabanillas Rhythmic Gymnastics.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-07 \\|title\\=X Campus Internacional \"Nuria Cabanillas\" \\|url\\=http://www.clubgimnasiabadajoz.com/x\\-campus\\-internacional\\-nuria\\-cabanillas/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607165012/http://www.clubgimnasiabadajoz.com/x\\-campus\\-internacional\\-nuria\\-cabanillas/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-06\\-07 }} Several former gymnasts of the national team also attended the tribute, such as [Carolina Pascual](/wiki/Carolina_Pascual \"Carolina Pascual\"), [Almudena Cid](/wiki/Almudena_Cid \"Almudena Cid\"), [Alba Caride](/wiki/Alba_Caride \"Alba Caride\"), [Ana Bautista](/wiki/Ana_Bautista \"Ana Bautista\"), [Carolina Malchair](/wiki/Carolina_Malchair \"Carolina Malchair\"), [Marta Calamonte](/wiki/Marta_Calamonte \"Marta Calamonte\"), MarΓa Eugenia RodrΓguez and [Ana MarΓa Pelaz](/wiki/Ana_Mar%C3%ADa_Pelaz \"Ana MarΓa Pelaz\"), as well as the international judge Maite Nadal and the choreographer of the Atlanta group, Marisa Mateo. The national junior group also performed two exhibitions during the gala, which also featured performances by Carolina Pascual and the Campus participants. A recorded message from former coach Emilia Boneva was also broadcast from her home in Bulgaria.{{Citation \\|title\\=VΓdeo sorpresa para las NiΓ±as de Oro de Atlanta \\- Gala 20 Aniversario \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=M7KMfdu9VD8 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Reigadas \\|first\\=Natalia \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-24 \\|title\\=Ahora son treintaΓ±eras de oro \\|url\\=https://www.hoy.es/badajoz/201607/24/ahora\\-treintaneras\\-20160724001023\\-v.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=Hoy \\|language\\=es}}",
"In September 2018, she traveled with several former gymnasts from the Spanish team to the [World Championships](/wiki/2018_Rhythmic_Gymnastics_World_Championships \"2018 Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships\") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\") to meet again with the former national team coach [Emilia Boneva](/wiki/Emilia_Boneva \"Emilia Boneva\"), and a tribute dinner was also organized in her honor.{{Citation \\|title\\=CENA HOMENAJE A EMILIA BONEVA {{!}} Seguimos en Bulgaria.Cena homenaje a Emilia Boneva por parte de las gimnastas que pudieron viajar a Bulgaria la semana pasada: Gemma Royo, Lorea Elso,... {{!}} By Montse Martin ArtFacebook \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/montsemartin.pinceladas/videos/cena\\-homenaje\\-a\\-emilia\\-boneva/612867685776610/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-03\\-02 \\|language\\=en}} After Boneva's death on 20 September 2019, Maider and other former national gymnasts gathered to pay tribute to her during the [Euskalgym](/wiki/Euskalgym \"Euskalgym\") held on 16 November 2019, the event took place before 8,500 attendees at the [Bilbao Exhibition Center](/wiki/Bilbao_Exhibition_Centre \"Bilbao Exhibition Centre\") de [Baracaldo](/wiki/Barakaldo \"Barakaldo\") and was followed by a dinner in her honor.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Facebook \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/almudenacidoficial/posts/1172676899589730 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-31 \\|website\\=www.facebook.com}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years (1945\-1964\)
Born in Los Angeles, California, on February 24, 1945 to Curtis and Ocie Brooks McDonald, Clarence showed an early interest in music, and started playing at a very young age. His first instrument was the soprano saxophone, followed by the trombone, euphonium, sousaphone and piano. McDonald chose the piano as his primary instrument because he found it to be the most challenging.
His parents encouraged his early instincts.
Prominent music teacher [Alma Julia Hightower](/wiki/Alma_Julia_Hightower "Alma Julia Hightower") taught Clarence to play the piano. The combination of early exposure and unconditional support launched the young man on his journey to becoming a great musician, songwriter, and producer. By the age of 12, Clarence was playing the piano for Angeles Funeral Home, then located on Jefferson Boulevard and Central Avenue in Los Angeles.
By the age of 16, McDonald was playing at the local nightclub, Memory Lane, accompanying American jazz \& gospel singer [Lorez Alexandria](/wiki/Lorez_Alexandria "Lorez Alexandria"). On weekends he played with the [Chico Hamilton](/wiki/Chico_Hamilton "Chico Hamilton") Quintet through an invitation from the Musical Director and jazz saxophonist [Charles Lloyd](/wiki/Charles_Lloyd_%28jazz_musician%29 "Charles Lloyd (jazz musician)"). McDonald understood the guitar voicings required for the quartet and was able to play them on the piano. He often worked til dawn, before heading straight to school on Monday mornings.
Upon graduation from [Dorsey High School](/wiki/Dorsey_High_School "Dorsey High School"), McDonald attended Cal State, Los Angeles. He completed his college schooling, graduating with honors in 1964\.
### The Fifth Dimension and Vietnam War conscription (1964β1977\)
After college, he was introduced to the art and business of session recording, immediately contributing to some all\-time favorite pop tunes.
In the early 1960s, McDonald replaced Rex Middleton as musical director of The Hi\-Fi's, a Los Angeles\-based vocal group. The group changed its name to The Vocals and began working with American soul singer Lonnie Sattin. The Vocals evolved into The Versatiles, which became [The 5th Dimension](/wiki/The_5th_Dimension "The 5th Dimension") in 1966\. Clarence lent his own special groove to classics like "Up Up and Away". While touring, the group was contracted to be the opening act for [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles"), traveling with him in 1964β65\.
In 1966, when his rise in the music world seemed limitless, McDonald was drafted into the United States Army and sent to [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), where he served for two years. His division was sent home on January 7, 1968, the day before the North Vietnamese overran and destroyed their base camp in the [Tet Offensive](/wiki/Tet_Offensive "Tet Offensive"). McDonald received an Honorable Discharge and was awarded the [National Defense Service Medal](/wiki/National_Defense_Service_Medal "National Defense Service Medal"), the [Vietnam Service Medal](/wiki/Vietnam_Service_Medal "Vietnam Service Medal"), and the [Vietnam Campaign Medal](/wiki/Vietnam_Campaign_Medal "Vietnam Campaign Medal").
### Return to music and career rise (1968β1977\)
McDonald returned to the music business, contributing to thousands of songs as a session player. Some of his first sessions were for Motown (Los Angeles) recording with [Diana Ross](/wiki/Diana_Ross "Diana Ross"), [Gladys Knight \& the Pips](/wiki/Gladys_Knight_%26_the_Pips "Gladys Knight & the Pips") and [the Jackson 5](/wiki/The_Jackson_5 "The Jackson 5"), and he played on records including the Jackson 5's first hit, [I Want You Back](/wiki/I_Want_You_Back "I Want You Back").{{Cite book\|title\=Michael Jackson All The Songs\|last1\=Lecocq\|first1\=Richard\|last2\=Allard\|first2\=Francois\|publisher\=Cassell\|year\=2018\|isbn\=9781788400572\|location\=London}}
In 1975, while working with [Carole King](/wiki/Carole_King "Carole King"), McDonald met [James Taylor](/wiki/James_Taylor "James Taylor"). An invitation followed from [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Brothers "Warner Brothers") Producers [Lenny Waronker](/wiki/Lenny_Waronker "Lenny Waronker") and [Russ Titelman](/wiki/Russ_Titelman "Russ Titelman"), who asked McDonald to record on Taylor's album, *Gorilla*. McDonald recorded on three James Taylor albums: *[Gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla_%28James_Taylor_album%29 "Gorilla (James Taylor album)")* (1975\), *[In the Pocket](/wiki/In_the_Pocket_%28James_Taylor_album%29 "In the Pocket (James Taylor album)")* (1976\) and *[JT](/wiki/JT_%28album%29 "JT (album)")* (1977\). McDonald toured with Taylor from 1975 to 1978\.
In 1975 McDonald worked with [Maurice White](/wiki/Maurice_White "Maurice White") and the late [Charles Stepney](/wiki/Charles_Stepney "Charles Stepney") on [Deniece Williams](/wiki/Deniece_Williams "Deniece Williams") "This Is Niecy" released in 1976\. The disc rose to Nos. 3 and 33 on the Top R\&B/Hip\-Hop Albums and Billboard 200 charts and was certified gold.
In 1977, McDonald produced [the Emotions](/wiki/The_Emotions "The Emotions")' platinum album *[Rejoice](/wiki/Rejoice_%28The_Emotions_album%29 "Rejoice (The Emotions album)")* with [Maurice White](/wiki/Maurice_White "Maurice White"). On the album was the No. 1 Hot 100 and R\&B song, "[The Best of My Love](/wiki/Best_of_My_Love_%28The_Emotions_song%29 "Best of My Love (The Emotions song)")". The song won a Grammy for Best R\&B Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocals and an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R\&B Single.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.billboard.com/album/the\-emotions/best\-of\-my\-love\-the\-best\-of\-the\-emotions/183311\#/charts/r\-b\-hip\-hop\-songs?chartDate\=1977\-07\-23 \|title\=Best of My Love: The Best of the Emotions β The Emotions \|publisher\=Billboard.com \|date\=1996\-03\-30 \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-17}}
### Later years (2004β2021\)
In 2004, McDonald recorded keyboards with [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/the\-legacy\-of/sep\-04/1890 \|title\=The Legacy of The Genius \|publisher\=Keyboardmag.com \|date\=2010\-02\-03 \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-17}} on the song "Heaven Help Us All" for the Grammy Winning Best Gospel Song duet with [Gladys Knight](/wiki/Gladys_Knight "Gladys Knight"). McDonald arranged the song with David Blumberg and [Randy Waldman](/wiki/Randy_Waldman "Randy Waldman"). The song appears on [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles "Ray Charles")β last album, *Genius Loves Company*.
In 2007, [Erykah Badu](/wiki/Erykah_Badu "Erykah Badu") released "Honey", a song created with "Iβm In Love," originally recorded by Nancy Wilson (Music on My Mind), produced by McDonald and co\-written by McDonald, Fritz Baskett and David Shields. In 2008 the song was part of Badu's CD *New Amerykah Vol. 1*. The lead single, "Honey" reached No. 22 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 "Billboard (magazine)")* R\&B/Hip Hop Charts.{{cite web\|url\={{BillboardURLbyName\|artist\=erykah badu\|chart\=all}} \|title\=Top Hip\-Hop and R\&B Songs \& Singles Charts \|publisher\=Billboard.com \|date\=2011\-05\-14 \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-18}}
In 2008, McDonald filmed and recorded a multi\-media performance at the El Portal Theatre in North Hollywood, California. McDonald documents stories of Los Angelesβ rich recording history with music classics he's associated with: "[Sara Smile](/wiki/Sara_Smile "Sara Smile")"/ [Hall \& Oates](/wiki/Hall_%26_Oates "Hall & Oates") (recorded at Larrabee Studios), "[Summer Breeze](/wiki/Summer_Breeze_%28song%29 "Summer Breeze (song)")"/[Seals \& Crofts](/wiki/Seals_%26_Crofts "Seals & Crofts") (recorded at the Sound Factory), "Best Of My Love" / [The Emotions](/wiki/The_Emotions "The Emotions") (recorded at Hollywood Sound Recorders) and "[How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)](/wiki/How_Sweet_It_Is_%28To_Be_Loved_by_You%29 "How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)")"/ [James Taylor](/wiki/James_Taylor "James Taylor") (recorded at Warner Brothers Recording Studios).
In 2010, McDonald was co\-writer and co\-publisher of the No. 1 *Billboard* single "[Everything To Me](/wiki/Everything_to_Me_%28Monica_song%29 "Everything to Me (Monica song)")" recorded by [Monica](/wiki/Monica_%28singer%29 "Monica (singer)") for her 2010 album *[Still Standing](/wiki/Still_Standing_%28Monica_album%29 "Still Standing (Monica album)")*. The song remained at No. 1 on the R\&B/Hip Hop Charts for seven consecutive weeks.
In September 2011, in response to Japan's natural disasters, McDonald recorded three songs for the "Jazz for Japan" all\-star benefit album on Avatar Records. All proceeds from the recording project were to go directly to Japanese relief funds.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/jazz\-for\-japan\-mw0002146945 \|title\=All Music: Jazz for Japan \|author\= \|website\=allmusic.com \|access\-date\=January 22, 2021}} McDonald was joined by notable jazz musicians including [George Duke](/wiki/George_Duke "George Duke"), [Nathan East](/wiki/Nathan_East "Nathan East"), Herman Jackson, [Boney James](/wiki/Boney_James "Boney James"), Ndugu Chancler, [Billy Childs](/wiki/Billy_Childs "Billy Childs"), [Christian McBride](/wiki/Christian_McBride "Christian McBride"), [Marcus Miller](/wiki/Marcus_Miller "Marcus Miller") and [David T. Walker](/wiki/David_T._Walker "David T. Walker").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.asmac.org/templates/System/details.asp?id\=39902\&PID\=478631 \|title\=Clarence McDonald \|publisher\=Asmac.org \|date\=1968\-01\-07 \|access\-date\=2011\-05\-17 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904125830/http://www.asmac.org/templates/System/details.asp?id\=39902\&PID\=478631 \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-04 }}
He died on July 21, 2021, at the age of 76\.[Clarence McDonald, Grammy\-Winning Keyboardist and Producer, Dies at 76](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/clarence-mcdonald-dead-keyboardist-producer-grammy-winner-1234989098/)
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years (1945\\-1964\\)",
"Born in Los Angeles, California, on February 24, 1945 to Curtis and Ocie Brooks McDonald, Clarence showed an early interest in music, and started playing at a very young age. His first instrument was the soprano saxophone, followed by the trombone, euphonium, sousaphone and piano. McDonald chose the piano as his primary instrument because he found it to be the most challenging.\nHis parents encouraged his early instincts.",
"Prominent music teacher [Alma Julia Hightower](/wiki/Alma_Julia_Hightower \"Alma Julia Hightower\") taught Clarence to play the piano. The combination of early exposure and unconditional support launched the young man on his journey to becoming a great musician, songwriter, and producer. By the age of 12, Clarence was playing the piano for Angeles Funeral Home, then located on Jefferson Boulevard and Central Avenue in Los Angeles.",
"By the age of 16, McDonald was playing at the local nightclub, Memory Lane, accompanying American jazz \\& gospel singer [Lorez Alexandria](/wiki/Lorez_Alexandria \"Lorez Alexandria\"). On weekends he played with the [Chico Hamilton](/wiki/Chico_Hamilton \"Chico Hamilton\") Quintet through an invitation from the Musical Director and jazz saxophonist [Charles Lloyd](/wiki/Charles_Lloyd_%28jazz_musician%29 \"Charles Lloyd (jazz musician)\"). McDonald understood the guitar voicings required for the quartet and was able to play them on the piano. He often worked til dawn, before heading straight to school on Monday mornings.",
"Upon graduation from [Dorsey High School](/wiki/Dorsey_High_School \"Dorsey High School\"), McDonald attended Cal State, Los Angeles. He completed his college schooling, graduating with honors in 1964\\.",
"### The Fifth Dimension and Vietnam War conscription (1964β1977\\)",
"After college, he was introduced to the art and business of session recording, immediately contributing to some all\\-time favorite pop tunes.",
"In the early 1960s, McDonald replaced Rex Middleton as musical director of The Hi\\-Fi's, a Los Angeles\\-based vocal group. The group changed its name to The Vocals and began working with American soul singer Lonnie Sattin. The Vocals evolved into The Versatiles, which became [The 5th Dimension](/wiki/The_5th_Dimension \"The 5th Dimension\") in 1966\\. Clarence lent his own special groove to classics like \"Up Up and Away\". While touring, the group was contracted to be the opening act for [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\"), traveling with him in 1964β65\\.",
"In 1966, when his rise in the music world seemed limitless, McDonald was drafted into the United States Army and sent to [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), where he served for two years. His division was sent home on January 7, 1968, the day before the North Vietnamese overran and destroyed their base camp in the [Tet Offensive](/wiki/Tet_Offensive \"Tet Offensive\"). McDonald received an Honorable Discharge and was awarded the [National Defense Service Medal](/wiki/National_Defense_Service_Medal \"National Defense Service Medal\"), the [Vietnam Service Medal](/wiki/Vietnam_Service_Medal \"Vietnam Service Medal\"), and the [Vietnam Campaign Medal](/wiki/Vietnam_Campaign_Medal \"Vietnam Campaign Medal\").",
"### Return to music and career rise (1968β1977\\)",
"McDonald returned to the music business, contributing to thousands of songs as a session player. Some of his first sessions were for Motown (Los Angeles) recording with [Diana Ross](/wiki/Diana_Ross \"Diana Ross\"), [Gladys Knight \\& the Pips](/wiki/Gladys_Knight_%26_the_Pips \"Gladys Knight & the Pips\") and [the Jackson 5](/wiki/The_Jackson_5 \"The Jackson 5\"), and he played on records including the Jackson 5's first hit, [I Want You Back](/wiki/I_Want_You_Back \"I Want You Back\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Michael Jackson All The Songs\\|last1\\=Lecocq\\|first1\\=Richard\\|last2\\=Allard\\|first2\\=Francois\\|publisher\\=Cassell\\|year\\=2018\\|isbn\\=9781788400572\\|location\\=London}}",
"In 1975, while working with [Carole King](/wiki/Carole_King \"Carole King\"), McDonald met [James Taylor](/wiki/James_Taylor \"James Taylor\"). An invitation followed from [Warner Brothers](/wiki/Warner_Brothers \"Warner Brothers\") Producers [Lenny Waronker](/wiki/Lenny_Waronker \"Lenny Waronker\") and [Russ Titelman](/wiki/Russ_Titelman \"Russ Titelman\"), who asked McDonald to record on Taylor's album, *Gorilla*. McDonald recorded on three James Taylor albums: *[Gorilla](/wiki/Gorilla_%28James_Taylor_album%29 \"Gorilla (James Taylor album)\")* (1975\\), *[In the Pocket](/wiki/In_the_Pocket_%28James_Taylor_album%29 \"In the Pocket (James Taylor album)\")* (1976\\) and *[JT](/wiki/JT_%28album%29 \"JT (album)\")* (1977\\). McDonald toured with Taylor from 1975 to 1978\\.",
"In 1975 McDonald worked with [Maurice White](/wiki/Maurice_White \"Maurice White\") and the late [Charles Stepney](/wiki/Charles_Stepney \"Charles Stepney\") on [Deniece Williams](/wiki/Deniece_Williams \"Deniece Williams\") \"This Is Niecy\" released in 1976\\. The disc rose to Nos. 3 and 33 on the Top R\\&B/Hip\\-Hop Albums and Billboard 200 charts and was certified gold.",
"In 1977, McDonald produced [the Emotions](/wiki/The_Emotions \"The Emotions\")' platinum album *[Rejoice](/wiki/Rejoice_%28The_Emotions_album%29 \"Rejoice (The Emotions album)\")* with [Maurice White](/wiki/Maurice_White \"Maurice White\"). On the album was the No. 1 Hot 100 and R\\&B song, \"[The Best of My Love](/wiki/Best_of_My_Love_%28The_Emotions_song%29 \"Best of My Love (The Emotions song)\")\". The song won a Grammy for Best R\\&B Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocals and an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R\\&B Single.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.billboard.com/album/the\\-emotions/best\\-of\\-my\\-love\\-the\\-best\\-of\\-the\\-emotions/183311\\#/charts/r\\-b\\-hip\\-hop\\-songs?chartDate\\=1977\\-07\\-23 \\|title\\=Best of My Love: The Best of the Emotions β The Emotions \\|publisher\\=Billboard.com \\|date\\=1996\\-03\\-30 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-17}}",
"### Later years (2004β2021\\)",
"In 2004, McDonald recorded keyboards with [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/the\\-legacy\\-of/sep\\-04/1890 \\|title\\=The Legacy of The Genius \\|publisher\\=Keyboardmag.com \\|date\\=2010\\-02\\-03 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-17}} on the song \"Heaven Help Us All\" for the Grammy Winning Best Gospel Song duet with [Gladys Knight](/wiki/Gladys_Knight \"Gladys Knight\"). McDonald arranged the song with David Blumberg and [Randy Waldman](/wiki/Randy_Waldman \"Randy Waldman\"). The song appears on [Ray Charles](/wiki/Ray_Charles \"Ray Charles\")β last album, *Genius Loves Company*.",
"In 2007, [Erykah Badu](/wiki/Erykah_Badu \"Erykah Badu\") released \"Honey\", a song created with \"Iβm In Love,\" originally recorded by Nancy Wilson (Music on My Mind), produced by McDonald and co\\-written by McDonald, Fritz Baskett and David Shields. In 2008 the song was part of Badu's CD *New Amerykah Vol. 1*. The lead single, \"Honey\" reached No. 22 on the *[Billboard](/wiki/Billboard_%28magazine%29 \"Billboard (magazine)\")* R\\&B/Hip Hop Charts.{{cite web\\|url\\={{BillboardURLbyName\\|artist\\=erykah badu\\|chart\\=all}} \\|title\\=Top Hip\\-Hop and R\\&B Songs \\& Singles Charts \\|publisher\\=Billboard.com \\|date\\=2011\\-05\\-14 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-18}}",
"In 2008, McDonald filmed and recorded a multi\\-media performance at the El Portal Theatre in North Hollywood, California. McDonald documents stories of Los Angelesβ rich recording history with music classics he's associated with: \"[Sara Smile](/wiki/Sara_Smile \"Sara Smile\")\"/ [Hall \\& Oates](/wiki/Hall_%26_Oates \"Hall & Oates\") (recorded at Larrabee Studios), \"[Summer Breeze](/wiki/Summer_Breeze_%28song%29 \"Summer Breeze (song)\")\"/[Seals \\& Crofts](/wiki/Seals_%26_Crofts \"Seals & Crofts\") (recorded at the Sound Factory), \"Best Of My Love\" / [The Emotions](/wiki/The_Emotions \"The Emotions\") (recorded at Hollywood Sound Recorders) and \"[How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)](/wiki/How_Sweet_It_Is_%28To_Be_Loved_by_You%29 \"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)\")\"/ [James Taylor](/wiki/James_Taylor \"James Taylor\") (recorded at Warner Brothers Recording Studios).",
"In 2010, McDonald was co\\-writer and co\\-publisher of the No. 1 *Billboard* single \"[Everything To Me](/wiki/Everything_to_Me_%28Monica_song%29 \"Everything to Me (Monica song)\")\" recorded by [Monica](/wiki/Monica_%28singer%29 \"Monica (singer)\") for her 2010 album *[Still Standing](/wiki/Still_Standing_%28Monica_album%29 \"Still Standing (Monica album)\")*. The song remained at No. 1 on the R\\&B/Hip Hop Charts for seven consecutive weeks.",
"In September 2011, in response to Japan's natural disasters, McDonald recorded three songs for the \"Jazz for Japan\" all\\-star benefit album on Avatar Records. All proceeds from the recording project were to go directly to Japanese relief funds.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/jazz\\-for\\-japan\\-mw0002146945 \\|title\\=All Music: Jazz for Japan \\|author\\= \\|website\\=allmusic.com \\|access\\-date\\=January 22, 2021}} McDonald was joined by notable jazz musicians including [George Duke](/wiki/George_Duke \"George Duke\"), [Nathan East](/wiki/Nathan_East \"Nathan East\"), Herman Jackson, [Boney James](/wiki/Boney_James \"Boney James\"), Ndugu Chancler, [Billy Childs](/wiki/Billy_Childs \"Billy Childs\"), [Christian McBride](/wiki/Christian_McBride \"Christian McBride\"), [Marcus Miller](/wiki/Marcus_Miller \"Marcus Miller\") and [David T. Walker](/wiki/David_T._Walker \"David T. Walker\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.asmac.org/templates/System/details.asp?id\\=39902\\&PID\\=478631 \\|title\\=Clarence McDonald \\|publisher\\=Asmac.org \\|date\\=1968\\-01\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904125830/http://www.asmac.org/templates/System/details.asp?id\\=39902\\&PID\\=478631 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-04 }}\nHe died on July 21, 2021, at the age of 76\\.[Clarence McDonald, Grammy\\-Winning Keyboardist and Producer, Dies at 76](https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/clarence-mcdonald-dead-keyboardist-producer-grammy-winner-1234989098/)",
""
] |
Plot
----
In [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), California, Seth is one of many [angels](/wiki/Angel "Angel") who watch over humans, protecting them in unseen ways. His main responsibility is to appear to those who are [close to death](/wiki/Near-death_experience "Near-death experience") and [guide](/wiki/Psychopomp "Psychopomp") them to the next life.
During this task, Seth and one of his fellow angels, [Cassiel](/wiki/Cassiel "Cassiel"), ask people what their favorite thing in life was. Despite these daily encounters, they have trouble understanding human beings and their ways, as angels lack human senses.
While waiting to escort a man undergoing heart surgery to the other world, Seth is impressed by the vigorous efforts of the surgeon, Maggie Rice, to save the ill\-fated man's life and her sincere anguish at her failure to do so. Seth soon becomes focused on Maggie and becomes visible to her. They develop a connection, which soon turns to mutual attraction, although she is already involved with one of her colleagues, Jordan Ferris.
Seth then meets Nathaniel Messinger, one of Maggie's patients, who senses Seth's presence. He tells him that he, too, had once been an angel. But, as [free will](/wiki/Free_will "Free will") is granted equally to mortals and angels, Nathaniel decided to become human by "[falling](/wiki/Fallen_angel "Fallen angel")". Seth begins to consider being with Maggie, and she learns that he is an angel.
[225px\|thumb\|[Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe "Lake Tahoe") is featured in the film.](/wiki/File:A_view_of_Lake_Tahoe_from_Crystal_bay.JPG "A view of Lake Tahoe from Crystal bay.JPG")
Seth becomes human by jumping from the top of a skyscraper. Immediately upon awakening, he starts to experience many human feelings and sensations that he had never been able to understand, beginning with physical pain. As a human, Seth heads to the hospital to see Maggie but is told she has gone to her uncle's mountain cabin at Lake Tahoe.
Penniless and naΓ―ve, he cannot pay for the journey and gets mugged. He eventually hitches a ride to [Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe "Lake Tahoe") and appears, soaked and cold, at Maggie's doorstep. She realizes he has become mortal for her love, and they have sex. The next morning, as Seth is showering, Maggie rides her bicycle to a local store. On her way back, happy and fulfilled, she rides her bicycle with her eyes closed and her arms wide open. Her happiness is cut short when she fails to notice a [logging truck](/wiki/Logging_truck "Logging truck") crossing her path and is gravely wounded in the collision.
Seth senses that Maggie is in trouble and runs to her aid. He arrives in time for her to tell him she sees the angel who has come to accompany her. Although Seth can no longer see angels, he senses one nearby and frantically begs Maggie not to look at them. She tells him she is not afraid anymore and that when they ask her what her favorite thing in life was, she will say it was Seth, and she then dies.
Grieving and alone, Seth is visited by Cassiel. He asks if he is being punished for becoming human, which Cassiel assures him is not the case. Sometime later, Seth expresses his joy in being human and the fact that he has accepted his new life by running into the ocean, feeling the waves at dawn, in sight of the angels.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), California, Seth is one of many [angels](/wiki/Angel \"Angel\") who watch over humans, protecting them in unseen ways. His main responsibility is to appear to those who are [close to death](/wiki/Near-death_experience \"Near-death experience\") and [guide](/wiki/Psychopomp \"Psychopomp\") them to the next life.",
"During this task, Seth and one of his fellow angels, [Cassiel](/wiki/Cassiel \"Cassiel\"), ask people what their favorite thing in life was. Despite these daily encounters, they have trouble understanding human beings and their ways, as angels lack human senses.",
"While waiting to escort a man undergoing heart surgery to the other world, Seth is impressed by the vigorous efforts of the surgeon, Maggie Rice, to save the ill\\-fated man's life and her sincere anguish at her failure to do so. Seth soon becomes focused on Maggie and becomes visible to her. They develop a connection, which soon turns to mutual attraction, although she is already involved with one of her colleagues, Jordan Ferris.",
"Seth then meets Nathaniel Messinger, one of Maggie's patients, who senses Seth's presence. He tells him that he, too, had once been an angel. But, as [free will](/wiki/Free_will \"Free will\") is granted equally to mortals and angels, Nathaniel decided to become human by \"[falling](/wiki/Fallen_angel \"Fallen angel\")\". Seth begins to consider being with Maggie, and she learns that he is an angel.",
"[225px\\|thumb\\|[Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe \"Lake Tahoe\") is featured in the film.](/wiki/File:A_view_of_Lake_Tahoe_from_Crystal_bay.JPG \"A view of Lake Tahoe from Crystal bay.JPG\")\nSeth becomes human by jumping from the top of a skyscraper. Immediately upon awakening, he starts to experience many human feelings and sensations that he had never been able to understand, beginning with physical pain. As a human, Seth heads to the hospital to see Maggie but is told she has gone to her uncle's mountain cabin at Lake Tahoe.",
"Penniless and naΓ―ve, he cannot pay for the journey and gets mugged. He eventually hitches a ride to [Lake Tahoe](/wiki/Lake_Tahoe \"Lake Tahoe\") and appears, soaked and cold, at Maggie's doorstep. She realizes he has become mortal for her love, and they have sex. The next morning, as Seth is showering, Maggie rides her bicycle to a local store. On her way back, happy and fulfilled, she rides her bicycle with her eyes closed and her arms wide open. Her happiness is cut short when she fails to notice a [logging truck](/wiki/Logging_truck \"Logging truck\") crossing her path and is gravely wounded in the collision.",
"Seth senses that Maggie is in trouble and runs to her aid. He arrives in time for her to tell him she sees the angel who has come to accompany her. Although Seth can no longer see angels, he senses one nearby and frantically begs Maggie not to look at them. She tells him she is not afraid anymore and that when they ask her what her favorite thing in life was, she will say it was Seth, and she then dies.",
"Grieving and alone, Seth is visited by Cassiel. He asks if he is being punished for becoming human, which Cassiel assures him is not the case. Sometime later, Seth expresses his joy in being human and the fact that he has accepted his new life by running into the ocean, feeling the waves at dawn, in sight of the angels.",
""
] |
History
-------
### 15th through 17th centuries
[235px\|thumb\|left\|The Bay of Horta showing the main settlement as it appeared in 1589](/wiki/File:Fayal_earl_of_cumberland_1589.JPG "Fayal earl of cumberland 1589.JPG")
In 1467 the [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people "Flemish people") nobleman [Josse van Huerter](/wiki/Josse_van_Huerter "Josse van Huerter") returned to Faial on a second expedition, this time disembarking along the shore of what would be known as Horta Bay. He built a small chapel which would later form the nucleus of a small community known as **Horta**, a name possibly derived from the transliteration of his name. In the [Portuguese language](/wiki/Portuguese_language "Portuguese language") the word *horta* means "[orchard](/wiki/Orchard "Orchard")," another possible origin of the settlement's name. The [infante](/wiki/Infante "Infante") [D. Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Viseu "Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu"), [Duke of Viseu](/wiki/Duke_of_Viseu "Duke of Viseu"), granted Huerter the first [captaincy](/wiki/Captaincy "Captaincy") of the island on February 2, 1468\.
Unlike on other Azorean islands, Flemish peasants and business interests were not the first settlers of Faial. The first Faialense settlers were generally farmers from continental Portugalβparticularly northern Portugalβhoping to escape poverty. Huerter eventually cultivated new business opportunities in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders"), attracting a second wave of Flemish settlers under the stewardship of [Willem van der Haegen](/wiki/Willem_van_der_Haegen "Willem van der Haegen") (later transliterated to *Guilherme da Silveira*), who brought Flemish administrators, tradesmen, settlers, and other compatriots to settle on Faial.
Huerter's son Joss de Utra (who would become the second [Captain\-General](/wiki/Captain-General "Captain-General")) and his daughter D. Joana de Macedo (who married [Martin Behaim](/wiki/Martin_Behaim "Martin Behaim") at the Santa Cruz chapel) continued living on Faial long after van Huerter's death. In 1498 King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") decreed Horta elevated to the status of *vila* (*town*), as its center had grown to the north from the area around the Santa Cruz chapel. The island prospered by exporting [wheat](/wiki/Wheat "Wheat") and [woad](/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria "Isatis tinctoria")\-derived dyes.
On June 28, 1514, the parish of Matriz do SΓ£o Salvador da Horta was constituted and services were begun. In 1567 the cornerstone of what would be the Fort of Santa Cruz was laid. Horta's increasing population compelled the creation of the parishes of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (July 30, 1568\) and Nossa Senhora da Angustias (November 28, 1684\) by the [diocese](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Angra "Roman Catholic Diocese of Angra") of [Angra](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo "Angra do HeroΓsmo"). As two nuclei developed around Santa Cruz and Porto Pim, growth also extended around the older Matriz, where the Tower Clock now stands, and the public square, where *Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches* now exists. Public buildings were erected between *Rua Visconde Leite Perry* and *Rua Arriage Nunes* and eventually the town hall and court offices moved to the former Jesuit College, after the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus") were expelled from Portugal in 1758\.
In 1583βduring the beginning of the [Iberian Union](/wiki/Iberian_Union "Iberian Union")βSpanish soldiers under the command of [D. Pedro de Toledo](/wiki/Pedro_de_Toledo_Osorio%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Villafranca "Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca") landed in Pasteleiro on Faial's southwestern coast. After skirmishing at the doors of the fort, the Spanish executed Captain of Faial AntΓ³nio Guedes de Sousa. Four years later [George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland](/wiki/George_Clifford%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Cumberland "George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland")βwhile commanding a fleet of 13 British ships in the [Azores Voyage of 1589](/wiki/Azores_Voyage_of_1589 "Azores Voyage of 1589")βcaptured a Spanish ship and then plundered Faial's churches and convents, profaning them and destroying [reliquaries](/wiki/Reliquary "Reliquary") and [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix "Crucifix"). The British captured several artillery pieces and set fire to houses within the Fort of Santa Cruz. In 1597 a new British [force](/wiki/Islands_Voyage "Islands Voyage") under [Walter Raleigh](/wiki/Walter_Raleigh "Walter Raleigh"), second in command to [Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex "Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex"), sacked and burned religious buildings and churches in Horta and the neighboring parishes of [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos "Flamengos"), [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 "Feteira (Horta)"), and [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife "Praia do Almoxarife"). The constant threat of [privateers](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") and pirates forced the construction of several forts and lookouts.
In 1643, Horta had about 2579 inhabitants and 610 homes. In 1675 D. Frei Lourenço, [Bishop of Angra](/wiki/Bishop_of_Angra "Bishop of Angra"), authorized the renovation and re\-ornamentation of the chapel of Santa Cruz. This work was completed in 1688\.
### 18th and 19th centuries
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Horta was a small town extending along the shoreline. It was peppered by various convents and churches, but little commerce and almost no industry. However, due to its central location in the Azores and Atlantic Ocean, it prospered as a stopover on important commercial routes between Europe and the [Americas](/wiki/Americas "Americas"). For a time Horta was a center of commerce and travel, particularly as a gateway for Azorean orange exports and exports of wine from [Pico Island](/wiki/Pico_Island "Pico Island"), as well as an important stop for North American whalers, and later as a refueling port for coal\-powered ships during their transatlantic passages.{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=MΓ³nica \|editor1\-first\=Maria Filomena \|editor2\-last\=Silveira e Sousa \|editor2\-first\=Paulo \|title\=Os Dabney: Uma FamΓlia Americana nos AΓ§ores (The Dabneys: An American Family in the Azores) \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=Tinta da China Ediçáes \|location\=Lisbon \|isbn\=978\-989\-671\-006\-4 \|pages\=9β41 \|language\=pt}}
[thumb\|235px\|left\|A vista of the village of Horta, Faial from the New Bedford Whaling Museum, c.1842 (Purrington \& Russel)](/wiki/File:Horta_purrington_%26_russel.jpg "Horta purrington & russel.jpg")
In 1804 John Bass Dabney (1766β1826\), the United States Consul General in the Azores, married Roxanne Lewis and moved to a home in Horta. Their son Charles William Dabney (who later married Francis Alsop Pomeroy) succeeded his father in this position and played an important part in the history and economy of Horta and Faial. This was helped by the construction of a commercial port in 1876 and the installation of transatlantic [telegraph](/wiki/Telegraph "Telegraph") cables in 1893\. The Dabney family steered the island's economy for 83 years with good effect on the dynamic growth of the port, the export of [oranges](/wiki/Orange_%28fruit%29 "Orange (fruit)") and [Verdelho](/wiki/Verdelho "Verdelho") wine from Pico, and commerce related to the whaling industry.
On September 26, 1814, the American privateer [brig](/wiki/Brig "Brig") *[General Armstrong](/wiki/General_Armstrong "General Armstrong")*, under the command of [Samuel Chester Reid](/wiki/Samuel_Chester_Reid "Samuel Chester Reid"), was sunk by three ships of the British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") under the command of Robert Lloyd.Carlos Melo Bento (2008\), p.80\-81 After being forced to scuttle his ship, Reid formally protested the ship's destruction in a neutral port, criticizing Portuguese incapacity to defend their own waters. Her principal piece of [naval artillery](/wiki/Naval_artillery "Naval artillery"), the cannon "Long Tom", was later recovered from Horta Bay. It was eventually offered to [General Batcheller](/wiki/George_Sherman_Batcheller "George Sherman Batcheller"), the [United States Minister](/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Portugal "List of ambassadors of the United States to Portugal") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), in compensation. General Batcheller returned to Horta to pick up the cannon and delivered it to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") on board the ship USS *Vega* on or about April 18, 1893\.{{citation needed\|date\=August 2014}}
On July 4, 1833, the *vila* of Horta, through the initiative of the [Duke d'Γvila and Bolama](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Jos%C3%A9_de_%C3%81vila%2C_1st_Duke_of_%C3%81vila_and_Bolama "AntΓ³nio JosΓ© de Γvila, 1st Duke of Γvila and Bolama"), was elevated to the status of city and the district capital as a reward for Faial's support of [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Wars "Liberal Wars") forces during the [Portuguese Liberal Revolution](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820 "Liberal Revolution of 1820"). The city hall's coat of arms were changed to read βVery Loyal City of Hortaβ by decree of King [LuΓs I of Portugal](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_I_of_Portugal "LuΓs I of Portugal") on May 3, 1865\.
Construction of Horta's commercial port in 1876 increased the city's international importance. On August 23, 1893, the first telegraph cables linking Horta (Alagoa) and Lisbon (Carcavelos) made Horta a link in transatlantic communication. The presence of several foreign cable companies in Horta increased the economic activity and development, urban growth, and frequency of cultural and sporting activities on the island. Between 1893 and 1969 Horta was an important post in intercontinental communications.
### 20th century
[thumb\|A view of Horta harbour from the German battleship {{SMS\|Schlesien\|\|2}} before the outbreak of World War II](/wiki/File:Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg "Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg")
Horta entered into the annals of early aviation history when [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") Captain [Albert Cushing Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read "Albert Cushing Read") completed the first Atlantic leg of the first [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight "Transatlantic flight") when he landed his [Curtiss NC\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_NC-4 "Curtiss NC-4") [floatplane](/wiki/Floatplane "Floatplane") in the Bay of Horta in May 1919\.
In 1921 Dutch seagoing [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat") began using Horta as a stopover. After a hiatus during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), they returned during the period of European reconstruction.
After 1939 Horta was a scheduled waypoint on the transatlantic [flying boat](/wiki/Flying_boat "Flying boat") routes between [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), including the [Pan Am Clipper](/wiki/Pan_Am_Clipper "Pan Am Clipper") fleet which docked in Horta harbour.
By 1960 yachts started using Horta's sheltered port during transatlantic voyages.
On 24 August 1971, in the civil parish of Castelo Branco, [President of Portugal](/wiki/President_of_Portugal "President of Portugal") [Américo TomÑs](/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s "Américo TomÑs") inaugurated the [Horta Airport](/wiki/Horta_Airport "Horta Airport"). Since 1972 the *Sociedade Açoreana de Transportes Aéreos* (which was the forerunner of [SATA Air Azores](/wiki/SATA_Air_A%C3%A7ores "SATA Air Açores")) has provided scheduled flights from Horta to the islands of the *triangle* (Central Group). During the 1980s [TAP Air Portugal](/wiki/TAP_Air_Portugal "TAP Air Portugal"), the national [flag carrier](/wiki/Flag_carrier "Flag carrier"), established direct service from Horta to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), while further fleet improvements allowed SATA to directly link Horta with all Azorean islands. Following major renovations in December 2001, the airport was designated an [international airport](/wiki/International_airport "International airport"), although no foreign airlines have scheduled or charter flights arriving at Horta Airport.
Periodic improvements to Horta harbour allowed the city to become a stopover for yachts and cruise ships and provide ongoing assistance to transatlantic voyagers. This was facilitated when the municipal authority inaugurated a 300\-slip [marina](/wiki/Marina "Marina") on 3 June 1986\. Horta harbour is a fleet centre for the Azorean ferry lines [Transmaçor](/wiki/Transma%C3%A7or "Transmaçor") and Atlanticoline, resulting in new investments and the construction of a secondary pier for inter\-island passenger traffic.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### 15th through 17th centuries",
"[235px\\|thumb\\|left\\|The Bay of Horta showing the main settlement as it appeared in 1589](/wiki/File:Fayal_earl_of_cumberland_1589.JPG \"Fayal earl of cumberland 1589.JPG\") \nIn 1467 the [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people \"Flemish people\") nobleman [Josse van Huerter](/wiki/Josse_van_Huerter \"Josse van Huerter\") returned to Faial on a second expedition, this time disembarking along the shore of what would be known as Horta Bay. He built a small chapel which would later form the nucleus of a small community known as **Horta**, a name possibly derived from the transliteration of his name. In the [Portuguese language](/wiki/Portuguese_language \"Portuguese language\") the word *horta* means \"[orchard](/wiki/Orchard \"Orchard\"),\" another possible origin of the settlement's name. The [infante](/wiki/Infante \"Infante\") [D. Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Viseu \"Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu\"), [Duke of Viseu](/wiki/Duke_of_Viseu \"Duke of Viseu\"), granted Huerter the first [captaincy](/wiki/Captaincy \"Captaincy\") of the island on February 2, 1468\\.",
"Unlike on other Azorean islands, Flemish peasants and business interests were not the first settlers of Faial. The first Faialense settlers were generally farmers from continental Portugalβparticularly northern Portugalβhoping to escape poverty. Huerter eventually cultivated new business opportunities in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"), attracting a second wave of Flemish settlers under the stewardship of [Willem van der Haegen](/wiki/Willem_van_der_Haegen \"Willem van der Haegen\") (later transliterated to *Guilherme da Silveira*), who brought Flemish administrators, tradesmen, settlers, and other compatriots to settle on Faial.",
"Huerter's son Joss de Utra (who would become the second [Captain\\-General](/wiki/Captain-General \"Captain-General\")) and his daughter D. Joana de Macedo (who married [Martin Behaim](/wiki/Martin_Behaim \"Martin Behaim\") at the Santa Cruz chapel) continued living on Faial long after van Huerter's death. In 1498 King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") decreed Horta elevated to the status of *vila* (*town*), as its center had grown to the north from the area around the Santa Cruz chapel. The island prospered by exporting [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\") and [woad](/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria \"Isatis tinctoria\")\\-derived dyes.",
"On June 28, 1514, the parish of Matriz do SΓ£o Salvador da Horta was constituted and services were begun. In 1567 the cornerstone of what would be the Fort of Santa Cruz was laid. Horta's increasing population compelled the creation of the parishes of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (July 30, 1568\\) and Nossa Senhora da Angustias (November 28, 1684\\) by the [diocese](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Angra \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Angra\") of [Angra](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo \"Angra do HeroΓsmo\"). As two nuclei developed around Santa Cruz and Porto Pim, growth also extended around the older Matriz, where the Tower Clock now stands, and the public square, where *Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches* now exists. Public buildings were erected between *Rua Visconde Leite Perry* and *Rua Arriage Nunes* and eventually the town hall and court offices moved to the former Jesuit College, after the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\") were expelled from Portugal in 1758\\.",
"In 1583βduring the beginning of the [Iberian Union](/wiki/Iberian_Union \"Iberian Union\")βSpanish soldiers under the command of [D. Pedro de Toledo](/wiki/Pedro_de_Toledo_Osorio%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Villafranca \"Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca\") landed in Pasteleiro on Faial's southwestern coast. After skirmishing at the doors of the fort, the Spanish executed Captain of Faial AntΓ³nio Guedes de Sousa. Four years later [George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland](/wiki/George_Clifford%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Cumberland \"George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland\")βwhile commanding a fleet of 13 British ships in the [Azores Voyage of 1589](/wiki/Azores_Voyage_of_1589 \"Azores Voyage of 1589\")βcaptured a Spanish ship and then plundered Faial's churches and convents, profaning them and destroying [reliquaries](/wiki/Reliquary \"Reliquary\") and [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\"). The British captured several artillery pieces and set fire to houses within the Fort of Santa Cruz. In 1597 a new British [force](/wiki/Islands_Voyage \"Islands Voyage\") under [Walter Raleigh](/wiki/Walter_Raleigh \"Walter Raleigh\"), second in command to [Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex \"Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex\"), sacked and burned religious buildings and churches in Horta and the neighboring parishes of [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos \"Flamengos\"), [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 \"Feteira (Horta)\"), and [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife \"Praia do Almoxarife\"). The constant threat of [privateers](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") and pirates forced the construction of several forts and lookouts.",
"In 1643, Horta had about 2579 inhabitants and 610 homes. In 1675 D. Frei Lourenço, [Bishop of Angra](/wiki/Bishop_of_Angra \"Bishop of Angra\"), authorized the renovation and re\\-ornamentation of the chapel of Santa Cruz. This work was completed in 1688\\.",
"### 18th and 19th centuries",
"During the 18th and 19th centuries, Horta was a small town extending along the shoreline. It was peppered by various convents and churches, but little commerce and almost no industry. However, due to its central location in the Azores and Atlantic Ocean, it prospered as a stopover on important commercial routes between Europe and the [Americas](/wiki/Americas \"Americas\"). For a time Horta was a center of commerce and travel, particularly as a gateway for Azorean orange exports and exports of wine from [Pico Island](/wiki/Pico_Island \"Pico Island\"), as well as an important stop for North American whalers, and later as a refueling port for coal\\-powered ships during their transatlantic passages.{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=MΓ³nica \\|editor1\\-first\\=Maria Filomena \\|editor2\\-last\\=Silveira e Sousa \\|editor2\\-first\\=Paulo \\|title\\=Os Dabney: Uma FamΓlia Americana nos AΓ§ores (The Dabneys: An American Family in the Azores) \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Tinta da China Ediçáes \\|location\\=Lisbon \\|isbn\\=978\\-989\\-671\\-006\\-4 \\|pages\\=9β41 \\|language\\=pt}}",
"[thumb\\|235px\\|left\\|A vista of the village of Horta, Faial from the New Bedford Whaling Museum, c.1842 (Purrington \\& Russel)](/wiki/File:Horta_purrington_%26_russel.jpg \"Horta purrington & russel.jpg\")",
"In 1804 John Bass Dabney (1766β1826\\), the United States Consul General in the Azores, married Roxanne Lewis and moved to a home in Horta. Their son Charles William Dabney (who later married Francis Alsop Pomeroy) succeeded his father in this position and played an important part in the history and economy of Horta and Faial. This was helped by the construction of a commercial port in 1876 and the installation of transatlantic [telegraph](/wiki/Telegraph \"Telegraph\") cables in 1893\\. The Dabney family steered the island's economy for 83 years with good effect on the dynamic growth of the port, the export of [oranges](/wiki/Orange_%28fruit%29 \"Orange (fruit)\") and [Verdelho](/wiki/Verdelho \"Verdelho\") wine from Pico, and commerce related to the whaling industry.",
"On September 26, 1814, the American privateer [brig](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\") *[General Armstrong](/wiki/General_Armstrong \"General Armstrong\")*, under the command of [Samuel Chester Reid](/wiki/Samuel_Chester_Reid \"Samuel Chester Reid\"), was sunk by three ships of the British [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") under the command of Robert Lloyd.Carlos Melo Bento (2008\\), p.80\\-81 After being forced to scuttle his ship, Reid formally protested the ship's destruction in a neutral port, criticizing Portuguese incapacity to defend their own waters. Her principal piece of [naval artillery](/wiki/Naval_artillery \"Naval artillery\"), the cannon \"Long Tom\", was later recovered from Horta Bay. It was eventually offered to [General Batcheller](/wiki/George_Sherman_Batcheller \"George Sherman Batcheller\"), the [United States Minister](/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Portugal \"List of ambassadors of the United States to Portugal\") in [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), in compensation. General Batcheller returned to Horta to pick up the cannon and delivered it to [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") on board the ship USS *Vega* on or about April 18, 1893\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2014}}",
"On July 4, 1833, the *vila* of Horta, through the initiative of the [Duke d'Γvila and Bolama](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Jos%C3%A9_de_%C3%81vila%2C_1st_Duke_of_%C3%81vila_and_Bolama \"AntΓ³nio JosΓ© de Γvila, 1st Duke of Γvila and Bolama\"), was elevated to the status of city and the district capital as a reward for Faial's support of [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Wars \"Liberal Wars\") forces during the [Portuguese Liberal Revolution](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1820 \"Liberal Revolution of 1820\"). The city hall's coat of arms were changed to read βVery Loyal City of Hortaβ by decree of King [LuΓs I of Portugal](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_I_of_Portugal \"LuΓs I of Portugal\") on May 3, 1865\\.",
"Construction of Horta's commercial port in 1876 increased the city's international importance. On August 23, 1893, the first telegraph cables linking Horta (Alagoa) and Lisbon (Carcavelos) made Horta a link in transatlantic communication. The presence of several foreign cable companies in Horta increased the economic activity and development, urban growth, and frequency of cultural and sporting activities on the island. Between 1893 and 1969 Horta was an important post in intercontinental communications.",
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|A view of Horta harbour from the German battleship {{SMS\\|Schlesien\\|\\|2}} before the outbreak of World War II](/wiki/File:Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg \"Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg\")",
"Horta entered into the annals of early aviation history when [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") Captain [Albert Cushing Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read \"Albert Cushing Read\") completed the first Atlantic leg of the first [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight \"Transatlantic flight\") when he landed his [Curtiss NC\\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_NC-4 \"Curtiss NC-4\") [floatplane](/wiki/Floatplane \"Floatplane\") in the Bay of Horta in May 1919\\.",
"In 1921 Dutch seagoing [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\") began using Horta as a stopover. After a hiatus during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), they returned during the period of European reconstruction.",
"After 1939 Horta was a scheduled waypoint on the transatlantic [flying boat](/wiki/Flying_boat \"Flying boat\") routes between [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), including the [Pan Am Clipper](/wiki/Pan_Am_Clipper \"Pan Am Clipper\") fleet which docked in Horta harbour.",
"By 1960 yachts started using Horta's sheltered port during transatlantic voyages.",
"On 24 August 1971, in the civil parish of Castelo Branco, [President of Portugal](/wiki/President_of_Portugal \"President of Portugal\") [Américo TomÑs](/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s \"Américo TomÑs\") inaugurated the [Horta Airport](/wiki/Horta_Airport \"Horta Airport\"). Since 1972 the *Sociedade Açoreana de Transportes Aéreos* (which was the forerunner of [SATA Air Azores](/wiki/SATA_Air_A%C3%A7ores \"SATA Air Açores\")) has provided scheduled flights from Horta to the islands of the *triangle* (Central Group). During the 1980s [TAP Air Portugal](/wiki/TAP_Air_Portugal \"TAP Air Portugal\"), the national [flag carrier](/wiki/Flag_carrier \"Flag carrier\"), established direct service from Horta to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), while further fleet improvements allowed SATA to directly link Horta with all Azorean islands. Following major renovations in December 2001, the airport was designated an [international airport](/wiki/International_airport \"International airport\"), although no foreign airlines have scheduled or charter flights arriving at Horta Airport.",
"Periodic improvements to Horta harbour allowed the city to become a stopover for yachts and cruise ships and provide ongoing assistance to transatlantic voyagers. This was facilitated when the municipal authority inaugurated a 300\\-slip [marina](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") on 3 June 1986\\. Horta harbour is a fleet centre for the Azorean ferry lines [Transmaçor](/wiki/Transma%C3%A7or \"Transmaçor\") and Atlanticoline, resulting in new investments and the construction of a secondary pier for inter\\-island passenger traffic.",
""
] |
### 15th through 17th centuries
[235px\|thumb\|left\|The Bay of Horta showing the main settlement as it appeared in 1589](/wiki/File:Fayal_earl_of_cumberland_1589.JPG "Fayal earl of cumberland 1589.JPG")
In 1467 the [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people "Flemish people") nobleman [Josse van Huerter](/wiki/Josse_van_Huerter "Josse van Huerter") returned to Faial on a second expedition, this time disembarking along the shore of what would be known as Horta Bay. He built a small chapel which would later form the nucleus of a small community known as **Horta**, a name possibly derived from the transliteration of his name. In the [Portuguese language](/wiki/Portuguese_language "Portuguese language") the word *horta* means "[orchard](/wiki/Orchard "Orchard")," another possible origin of the settlement's name. The [infante](/wiki/Infante "Infante") [D. Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Viseu "Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu"), [Duke of Viseu](/wiki/Duke_of_Viseu "Duke of Viseu"), granted Huerter the first [captaincy](/wiki/Captaincy "Captaincy") of the island on February 2, 1468\.
Unlike on other Azorean islands, Flemish peasants and business interests were not the first settlers of Faial. The first Faialense settlers were generally farmers from continental Portugalβparticularly northern Portugalβhoping to escape poverty. Huerter eventually cultivated new business opportunities in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders"), attracting a second wave of Flemish settlers under the stewardship of [Willem van der Haegen](/wiki/Willem_van_der_Haegen "Willem van der Haegen") (later transliterated to *Guilherme da Silveira*), who brought Flemish administrators, tradesmen, settlers, and other compatriots to settle on Faial.
Huerter's son Joss de Utra (who would become the second [Captain\-General](/wiki/Captain-General "Captain-General")) and his daughter D. Joana de Macedo (who married [Martin Behaim](/wiki/Martin_Behaim "Martin Behaim") at the Santa Cruz chapel) continued living on Faial long after van Huerter's death. In 1498 King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") decreed Horta elevated to the status of *vila* (*town*), as its center had grown to the north from the area around the Santa Cruz chapel. The island prospered by exporting [wheat](/wiki/Wheat "Wheat") and [woad](/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria "Isatis tinctoria")\-derived dyes.
On June 28, 1514, the parish of Matriz do SΓ£o Salvador da Horta was constituted and services were begun. In 1567 the cornerstone of what would be the Fort of Santa Cruz was laid. Horta's increasing population compelled the creation of the parishes of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (July 30, 1568\) and Nossa Senhora da Angustias (November 28, 1684\) by the [diocese](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Angra "Roman Catholic Diocese of Angra") of [Angra](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo "Angra do HeroΓsmo"). As two nuclei developed around Santa Cruz and Porto Pim, growth also extended around the older Matriz, where the Tower Clock now stands, and the public square, where *Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches* now exists. Public buildings were erected between *Rua Visconde Leite Perry* and *Rua Arriage Nunes* and eventually the town hall and court offices moved to the former Jesuit College, after the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus "Society of Jesus") were expelled from Portugal in 1758\.
In 1583βduring the beginning of the [Iberian Union](/wiki/Iberian_Union "Iberian Union")βSpanish soldiers under the command of [D. Pedro de Toledo](/wiki/Pedro_de_Toledo_Osorio%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Villafranca "Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca") landed in Pasteleiro on Faial's southwestern coast. After skirmishing at the doors of the fort, the Spanish executed Captain of Faial AntΓ³nio Guedes de Sousa. Four years later [George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland](/wiki/George_Clifford%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Cumberland "George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland")βwhile commanding a fleet of 13 British ships in the [Azores Voyage of 1589](/wiki/Azores_Voyage_of_1589 "Azores Voyage of 1589")βcaptured a Spanish ship and then plundered Faial's churches and convents, profaning them and destroying [reliquaries](/wiki/Reliquary "Reliquary") and [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix "Crucifix"). The British captured several artillery pieces and set fire to houses within the Fort of Santa Cruz. In 1597 a new British [force](/wiki/Islands_Voyage "Islands Voyage") under [Walter Raleigh](/wiki/Walter_Raleigh "Walter Raleigh"), second in command to [Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex "Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex"), sacked and burned religious buildings and churches in Horta and the neighboring parishes of [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos "Flamengos"), [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 "Feteira (Horta)"), and [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife "Praia do Almoxarife"). The constant threat of [privateers](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") and pirates forced the construction of several forts and lookouts.
In 1643, Horta had about 2579 inhabitants and 610 homes. In 1675 D. Frei Lourenço, [Bishop of Angra](/wiki/Bishop_of_Angra "Bishop of Angra"), authorized the renovation and re\-ornamentation of the chapel of Santa Cruz. This work was completed in 1688\.
|
[
"### 15th through 17th centuries",
"[235px\\|thumb\\|left\\|The Bay of Horta showing the main settlement as it appeared in 1589](/wiki/File:Fayal_earl_of_cumberland_1589.JPG \"Fayal earl of cumberland 1589.JPG\") \nIn 1467 the [Flemish](/wiki/Flemish_people \"Flemish people\") nobleman [Josse van Huerter](/wiki/Josse_van_Huerter \"Josse van Huerter\") returned to Faial on a second expedition, this time disembarking along the shore of what would be known as Horta Bay. He built a small chapel which would later form the nucleus of a small community known as **Horta**, a name possibly derived from the transliteration of his name. In the [Portuguese language](/wiki/Portuguese_language \"Portuguese language\") the word *horta* means \"[orchard](/wiki/Orchard \"Orchard\"),\" another possible origin of the settlement's name. The [infante](/wiki/Infante \"Infante\") [D. Fernando](/wiki/Ferdinand%2C_Duke_of_Viseu \"Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu\"), [Duke of Viseu](/wiki/Duke_of_Viseu \"Duke of Viseu\"), granted Huerter the first [captaincy](/wiki/Captaincy \"Captaincy\") of the island on February 2, 1468\\.",
"Unlike on other Azorean islands, Flemish peasants and business interests were not the first settlers of Faial. The first Faialense settlers were generally farmers from continental Portugalβparticularly northern Portugalβhoping to escape poverty. Huerter eventually cultivated new business opportunities in [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"), attracting a second wave of Flemish settlers under the stewardship of [Willem van der Haegen](/wiki/Willem_van_der_Haegen \"Willem van der Haegen\") (later transliterated to *Guilherme da Silveira*), who brought Flemish administrators, tradesmen, settlers, and other compatriots to settle on Faial.",
"Huerter's son Joss de Utra (who would become the second [Captain\\-General](/wiki/Captain-General \"Captain-General\")) and his daughter D. Joana de Macedo (who married [Martin Behaim](/wiki/Martin_Behaim \"Martin Behaim\") at the Santa Cruz chapel) continued living on Faial long after van Huerter's death. In 1498 King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") decreed Horta elevated to the status of *vila* (*town*), as its center had grown to the north from the area around the Santa Cruz chapel. The island prospered by exporting [wheat](/wiki/Wheat \"Wheat\") and [woad](/wiki/Isatis_tinctoria \"Isatis tinctoria\")\\-derived dyes.",
"On June 28, 1514, the parish of Matriz do SΓ£o Salvador da Horta was constituted and services were begun. In 1567 the cornerstone of what would be the Fort of Santa Cruz was laid. Horta's increasing population compelled the creation of the parishes of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (July 30, 1568\\) and Nossa Senhora da Angustias (November 28, 1684\\) by the [diocese](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Angra \"Roman Catholic Diocese of Angra\") of [Angra](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo \"Angra do HeroΓsmo\"). As two nuclei developed around Santa Cruz and Porto Pim, growth also extended around the older Matriz, where the Tower Clock now stands, and the public square, where *Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches* now exists. Public buildings were erected between *Rua Visconde Leite Perry* and *Rua Arriage Nunes* and eventually the town hall and court offices moved to the former Jesuit College, after the [Jesuits](/wiki/Society_of_Jesus \"Society of Jesus\") were expelled from Portugal in 1758\\.",
"In 1583βduring the beginning of the [Iberian Union](/wiki/Iberian_Union \"Iberian Union\")βSpanish soldiers under the command of [D. Pedro de Toledo](/wiki/Pedro_de_Toledo_Osorio%2C_5th_Marquess_of_Villafranca \"Pedro de Toledo Osorio, 5th Marquess of Villafranca\") landed in Pasteleiro on Faial's southwestern coast. After skirmishing at the doors of the fort, the Spanish executed Captain of Faial AntΓ³nio Guedes de Sousa. Four years later [George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland](/wiki/George_Clifford%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Cumberland \"George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland\")βwhile commanding a fleet of 13 British ships in the [Azores Voyage of 1589](/wiki/Azores_Voyage_of_1589 \"Azores Voyage of 1589\")βcaptured a Spanish ship and then plundered Faial's churches and convents, profaning them and destroying [reliquaries](/wiki/Reliquary \"Reliquary\") and [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\"). The British captured several artillery pieces and set fire to houses within the Fort of Santa Cruz. In 1597 a new British [force](/wiki/Islands_Voyage \"Islands Voyage\") under [Walter Raleigh](/wiki/Walter_Raleigh \"Walter Raleigh\"), second in command to [Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex \"Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex\"), sacked and burned religious buildings and churches in Horta and the neighboring parishes of [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos \"Flamengos\"), [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 \"Feteira (Horta)\"), and [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife \"Praia do Almoxarife\"). The constant threat of [privateers](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") and pirates forced the construction of several forts and lookouts.",
"In 1643, Horta had about 2579 inhabitants and 610 homes. In 1675 D. Frei Lourenço, [Bishop of Angra](/wiki/Bishop_of_Angra \"Bishop of Angra\"), authorized the renovation and re\\-ornamentation of the chapel of Santa Cruz. This work was completed in 1688\\.",
""
] |
### 20th century
[thumb\|A view of Horta harbour from the German battleship {{SMS\|Schlesien\|\|2}} before the outbreak of World War II](/wiki/File:Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg "Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg")
Horta entered into the annals of early aviation history when [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") Captain [Albert Cushing Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read "Albert Cushing Read") completed the first Atlantic leg of the first [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight "Transatlantic flight") when he landed his [Curtiss NC\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_NC-4 "Curtiss NC-4") [floatplane](/wiki/Floatplane "Floatplane") in the Bay of Horta in May 1919\.
In 1921 Dutch seagoing [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat") began using Horta as a stopover. After a hiatus during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), they returned during the period of European reconstruction.
After 1939 Horta was a scheduled waypoint on the transatlantic [flying boat](/wiki/Flying_boat "Flying boat") routes between [North America](/wiki/North_America "North America") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), including the [Pan Am Clipper](/wiki/Pan_Am_Clipper "Pan Am Clipper") fleet which docked in Horta harbour.
By 1960 yachts started using Horta's sheltered port during transatlantic voyages.
On 24 August 1971, in the civil parish of Castelo Branco, [President of Portugal](/wiki/President_of_Portugal "President of Portugal") [Américo TomÑs](/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s "Américo TomÑs") inaugurated the [Horta Airport](/wiki/Horta_Airport "Horta Airport"). Since 1972 the *Sociedade Açoreana de Transportes Aéreos* (which was the forerunner of [SATA Air Azores](/wiki/SATA_Air_A%C3%A7ores "SATA Air Açores")) has provided scheduled flights from Horta to the islands of the *triangle* (Central Group). During the 1980s [TAP Air Portugal](/wiki/TAP_Air_Portugal "TAP Air Portugal"), the national [flag carrier](/wiki/Flag_carrier "Flag carrier"), established direct service from Horta to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon "Lisbon"), while further fleet improvements allowed SATA to directly link Horta with all Azorean islands. Following major renovations in December 2001, the airport was designated an [international airport](/wiki/International_airport "International airport"), although no foreign airlines have scheduled or charter flights arriving at Horta Airport.
Periodic improvements to Horta harbour allowed the city to become a stopover for yachts and cruise ships and provide ongoing assistance to transatlantic voyagers. This was facilitated when the municipal authority inaugurated a 300\-slip [marina](/wiki/Marina "Marina") on 3 June 1986\. Horta harbour is a fleet centre for the Azorean ferry lines [Transmaçor](/wiki/Transma%C3%A7or "Transmaçor") and Atlanticoline, resulting in new investments and the construction of a secondary pier for inter\-island passenger traffic.
|
[
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|A view of Horta harbour from the German battleship {{SMS\\|Schlesien\\|\\|2}} before the outbreak of World War II](/wiki/File:Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg \"Horta-Azores-SMS-Schlesien-Schuhmacher.jpg\")",
"Horta entered into the annals of early aviation history when [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") Captain [Albert Cushing Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read \"Albert Cushing Read\") completed the first Atlantic leg of the first [transatlantic flight](/wiki/Transatlantic_flight \"Transatlantic flight\") when he landed his [Curtiss NC\\-4](/wiki/Curtiss_NC-4 \"Curtiss NC-4\") [floatplane](/wiki/Floatplane \"Floatplane\") in the Bay of Horta in May 1919\\.",
"In 1921 Dutch seagoing [tugboats](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\") began using Horta as a stopover. After a hiatus during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), they returned during the period of European reconstruction.",
"After 1939 Horta was a scheduled waypoint on the transatlantic [flying boat](/wiki/Flying_boat \"Flying boat\") routes between [North America](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), including the [Pan Am Clipper](/wiki/Pan_Am_Clipper \"Pan Am Clipper\") fleet which docked in Horta harbour.",
"By 1960 yachts started using Horta's sheltered port during transatlantic voyages.",
"On 24 August 1971, in the civil parish of Castelo Branco, [President of Portugal](/wiki/President_of_Portugal \"President of Portugal\") [Américo TomÑs](/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s \"Américo TomÑs\") inaugurated the [Horta Airport](/wiki/Horta_Airport \"Horta Airport\"). Since 1972 the *Sociedade Açoreana de Transportes Aéreos* (which was the forerunner of [SATA Air Azores](/wiki/SATA_Air_A%C3%A7ores \"SATA Air Açores\")) has provided scheduled flights from Horta to the islands of the *triangle* (Central Group). During the 1980s [TAP Air Portugal](/wiki/TAP_Air_Portugal \"TAP Air Portugal\"), the national [flag carrier](/wiki/Flag_carrier \"Flag carrier\"), established direct service from Horta to [Lisbon](/wiki/Lisbon \"Lisbon\"), while further fleet improvements allowed SATA to directly link Horta with all Azorean islands. Following major renovations in December 2001, the airport was designated an [international airport](/wiki/International_airport \"International airport\"), although no foreign airlines have scheduled or charter flights arriving at Horta Airport.",
"Periodic improvements to Horta harbour allowed the city to become a stopover for yachts and cruise ships and provide ongoing assistance to transatlantic voyagers. This was facilitated when the municipal authority inaugurated a 300\\-slip [marina](/wiki/Marina \"Marina\") on 3 June 1986\\. Horta harbour is a fleet centre for the Azorean ferry lines [Transmaçor](/wiki/Transma%C3%A7or \"Transmaçor\") and Atlanticoline, resulting in new investments and the construction of a secondary pier for inter\\-island passenger traffic.",
""
] |
Geography
---------
### Physical geography
{{Main\|Faial Island}}
### Climate
Horta has the typical [humid subtropical climate](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate "Humid subtropical climate") with significant [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_climate "Mediterranean climate") influences associated with the Azores. Horta, along with nearby [Madalena](/wiki/Madalena%2C_Azores "Madalena, Azores") is one of the Azorean cities most prone to high temperatures, and unlike [Angra do HeroΓsmo](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo "Angra do HeroΓsmo") and [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada "Ponta Delgada"), temperatures above {{convert\|30\|C\|F}} have been recorded on a few occasions. Averages, however, are extremely similar to the aforementioned cities. Precipitation averages about {{convert\|962\|mm\|in}} per year and is concentrated from September to February. On average November is the wettest month, while July is the driest. Temperatures are mild to warm year\-round and average {{convert\|20\|C\|F}} in the daytime and {{convert\|15\|C\|F}} at night.
{{Weather box
\|location \= Horta (Monte da Guia), elevation: 62 m or 203 ft, 1971\-1994 normals, 1961\-1990 extremes
\|single line \= Yes
\|metric first \= Yes
\|Jan record high C \= 21\.1
\|Feb record high C \= 21\.1
\|Mar record high C \= 21\.1
\|Apr record high C \= 25\.0
\|May record high C \= 24\.5
\|Jun record high C \= 27\.8
\|Jul record high C \= 30\.6
\|Aug record high C \= 31\.1
\|Sep record high C \= 30\.0
\|Oct record high C \= 27\.8
\|Nov record high C \= 25\.0
\|Dec record high C \= 23\.9
\|year record high C \= 31\.1
\|Jan high C \= 16\.4
\|Feb high C \= 16\.0
\|Mar high C \= 16\.5
\|Apr high C \= 17\.3
\|May high C \= 19\.0
\|Jun high C \= 21\.4
\|Jul high C \= 24\.3
\|Aug high C \= 25\.5
\|Sep high C \= 24\.2
\|Oct high C \= 21\.4
\|Nov high C \= 19\.0
\|Dec high C \= 17\.3
\|year high C \=
\|Jan mean C \= 14\.3
\|Feb mean C \= 13\.7
\|Mar mean C \= 14\.2
\|Apr mean C \= 14\.9
\|May mean C \= 16\.5
\|Jun mean C \= 18\.8
\|Jul mean C \= 21\.4
\|Aug mean C \= 22\.4
\|Sep mean C \= 21\.5
\|Oct mean C \= 18\.9
\|Nov mean C \= 16\.9
\|Dec mean C \= 15\.2
\|year mean C \=
\|Jan low C \= 12\.1
\|Feb low C \= 11\.4
\|Mar low C \= 12\.0
\|Apr low C \= 12\.5
\|May low C \= 13\.9
\|Jun low C \= 16\.2
\|Jul low C \= 18\.5
\|Aug low C \= 19\.4
\|Sep low C \= 18\.7
\|Oct low C \= 16\.5
\|Nov low C \= 14\.7
\|Dec low C \= 13\.1
\|year low C \=
\|Jan record low C \= 3\.3
\|Feb record low C \= 3\.9
\|Mar record low C \= 5\.0
\|Apr record low C \= 5\.0
\|May record low C \= 8\.3
\|Jun record low C \= 11\.1
\|Jul record low C \= 13\.9
\|Aug record low C \= 15\.0
\|Sep record low C \= 11\.1
\|Oct record low C \= 10\.6
\|Nov record low C \= 8\.9
\|Dec record low C \= 3\.9
\|year record low C \= 3\.3
\|rain colour\=green
\|Jan rain mm \= 90\.0
\|Feb rain mm \= 94\.0
\|Mar rain mm \= 74\.9
\|Apr rain mm \= 63\.4
\|May rain mm \= 58\.7
\|Jun rain mm \= 47\.2
\|Jul rain mm \= 33\.5
\|Aug rain mm \= 54\.5
\|Sep rain mm \= 95\.6
\|Oct rain mm \= 115\.3
\|Nov rain mm \= 123\.8
\|Dec rain mm \= 111\.1
\|year rain mm \=
\|Jan humidity \= 80
\|Feb humidity \= 80
\|Mar humidity \= 80
\|Apr humidity \= 79
\|May humidity \= 81
\|Jun humidity \= 81
\|Jul humidity \= 80
\|Aug humidity \= 80
\|Sep humidity \= 80
\|Oct humidity \= 79
\|Nov humidity \= 80
\|Dec humidity \= 81
\|Jan sun \= 91
\|Feb sun \= 95
\|Mar sun \= 120
\|Apr sun \= 155
\|May sun \= 182
\|Jun sun \= 174
\|Jul sun \= 232
\|Aug sun \= 238
\|Sep sun \= 178
\|Oct sun \= 144
\|Nov sun \= 103
\|Dec sun \= 83
\|source 1 \= \[\[IPMA]] (normals \& precipitation){{cite web \|title\=Atlas ClimΓ‘tico IbΓ©rico \|url\=http://www.ipma.pt/export/sites/ipma/bin/docs/publicacoes/atlas.clima.ilhas.iberico.2011\.pdf \|publisher\=\[\[IPMA]], \[\[AEMET]] \|access\-date\=6 December 2020}}
\|source 2 \= \[\[NOAA]] (sunshine hours \& humidity),{{cite web\|url \= ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\-Normals/TABLES/REG\_VI/PO/08506\.TXT \|title \= Horta Climate Normals 1961\-1990 \|publisher \= \[\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \|access\-date \= December 18, 2012}} Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System (extremes){{cite web
\|url\=http://www.ucm.es/info/cif/station/po\-horta.htm \|title\=PORTUGAL \- HORTA \- ACORES \|access\-date\=3 November 2011 \|publisher\=Centro de Investigaciones FitosociolΓ³gicas}}
\|date\=November 2011
}}
### Human geography
{{Historical populations\|align\=right
\| title \= Population of
Horta{{citation\|url\=http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid\=INE\&xpgid\=ine\_publicacoes\&PUBLICACOESpub\_boui\=122114780\&PUBLICACOESmodo\=2\|title\=Censos 2011 \- Resultadas Preliminares\|trans\-title\=2011 Census \- Preliminary Results\|publisher\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica\|location\=Lisbon, Portugal\|language\=pt\|access\-date\=1 July 2011\|year\=2010\|editor\=INE\|editor\-link\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica (Portugal)}}
(1849 \- 2011\)
\| 1849 \| 24763
\| 1900 \| 22075
\| 1930 \| 21510
\| 1960 \| 20281
\| 1981 \| 15489
\| 1991 \| 14920
\| 2001 \| 15063
\| 2004 \| 15224
\| 2011 \| 15038
\|2021\|14331}}
Three parishes comprise the urban area of the city of Horta (the urbanized area and historical center): [AngΓΊstias](/wiki/Ang%C3%BAstias "AngΓΊstias"), [Conceição](/wiki/Concei%C3%A7%C3%A3o_%28Horta%29 "Conceição (Horta)"), and [Matriz](/wiki/Matriz_%28Horta%29 "Matriz (Horta)"). The remaining parishes comprising the rest of the municipality are located along the Regional E.R.1\-1Βͺ road network, and includes lands from the ocean to the central volcano (with the exception of Flamengos, which is the only landlocked parish). Faial Island, comprising Horta's urbanized area and the parishes, has an area of {{convert\|173\.06\|km2\|mi2}}
* [Capelo](/wiki/Capelo "Capelo") \- located in the western portion of the island that includes the most recent historic volcanism on the island; location of the Capelinhos Volcano and Recreational Forest Park
* [Castelo Branco](/wiki/Castelo_Branco_%28Horta%29 "Castelo Branco (Horta)") \- located on the southern coastal area between Capelo and Feteiras; location of Horta International Airport
* [Cedros](/wiki/Cedros_%28Horta%29 "Cedros (Horta)") \- largest civil parish and agricultural lands, located on the northern coast between Capelo and SalΓ£o
* [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 "Feteira (Horta)") \- southern parish located between the urbanized core of Horta and Castelo Branco; primarily agricultural activities in transition into suburban community of Horta
* [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos "Flamengos") \- the only landlocked civil parish on the island, established by original settlers from the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries "Low Countries") of Europe
* [Pedro Miguel](/wiki/Pedro_Miguel "Pedro Miguel") \- located to the north of Praia do Almoxarife, along the eastern coast
* [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife "Praia do Almoxarife") \- original settlers disembarked along the beach of Praia do Almoxarife during the original 1465 and 1467 expeditions; currently the main tourist beach community on the island
* [Praia do Norte](/wiki/Praia_do_Norte "Praia do Norte") \- located between Cedros and Capelo, a zone affected by historic volcanism from the Capelo Volcanic Complex
* [Ribeirinha](/wiki/Ribeirinha_%28Horta%29 "Ribeirinha (Horta)") \- a civil parish occupying the ancient geological zone that formed the island of Faial
* [SalΓ£o](/wiki/Sal%C3%A3o "SalΓ£o") \- settled by Spanish during the Iberian Union, and located between Cedros and Ribeirinha
In 2011, the national census discovered a resident population of 15,038: a slight decrease from the 2001 population (15,063 inhabitants). Yet, the number of aggregate families grew significantly (4795 to 5465 families reporting their participation in such groups), an increase from 2\.8 to 3\.1 people per family. Similarly, there has been a 21\.69% increase in the number occupied buildings within the municipality.
#### City of Horta
{{Quote box\|width \= 23em\|align \= right\|quote \= I love Horta like \[\[loquat]]s! I had a longing of what was, I don't know how, of here. Everything imagined is more or less frustrated when we comprehend: but in Horta, no, it is exceeded. At the end of the Rua do Mar are the built\-up homes; over the unique celebretated road of the town are the alleyways that descend to the coast and provide a modest contribution to the fires and transit. \|source\= β\[\[Vitorino NemΓ©sio]]{{cite book \|first\=Vitorino \|last\=NemΓ©sio \|author\-link\=Vitorino NemΓ©sio \|title\=O CorsΓ‘rio das Ilhas \|trans\-title\=Corsair of the Islands \|language\=Portuguese \|year\=1998 \|orig\-year\=1955 \|isbn\=972\-27\-0888\-0 \|publisher\=Imprensa Nacional \- Casa da Moeda }} }}
[thumb\|right\|235px\|Horta and its marina from Monte da Guia](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Horta_desde_Monte_da_Guia%2C_isla_de_Fayal%2C_Azores%2C_Portugal%2C_2020-07-27%2C_DD_04-06_HDR.jpg "Vista de Horta desde Monte da Guia, isla de Fayal, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 04-06 HDR.jpg")
[thumb\|235px\|right\|The centre of Horta, with a view that includes the CΓ’mara Municipal (left foreground) and [Carmo Church](/wiki/Convent_of_Carmo_%28Horta%29 "Convent of Carmo (Horta)") (right background)](/wiki/File:Cidade_da_Horta_vista_da_Ba%C3%ADa_da_Horta%2C_ilha_do_Faial%2C_A%C3%A7ores%2C_Portugal.JPG "Cidade da Horta vista da BaΓa da Horta, ilha do Faial, AΓ§ores, Portugal.JPG")
From Espalamaca or Monte da Guia, the city of Horta is typical of insular Portuguese coastal communities and the urban traditions of the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"). The city is seaward looking, much like Angra do HeroΓsmo or [Velas](/wiki/Velas%2C_Azores "Velas, Azores"). It is rounded by several volcanic cones located to its southern and eastern margins, the most prominent being Monte da Guaia, Monte do Carneiro, and Monte Escuro. Horta is centered along its principal avenueβreferred to as either Avenida Marginal or Avenida D. Infante Henriquesβand cut by several smaller roads. The city's historical center lies to the north near Espalamaca, with a grouping of northβsouth and eastβwest roads developed during initial colonization. The population of Horta's urban center during the first decade of the 21st century was about 7,000\.
Horta grew from streets such as:
* Rua Vista Alegre/Ladeira da Paiva/travessa Almeida Garrett (that includes the Church Matriz, and Convent of Saint John);
* Rua Advogado Graça/Travessa do Poiso Novo (where the original Casa da CÒmara and Convent of Glory were situated);
* Rua de SΓ£o Paulo;
* Rua de SΓ£o Pedro and Travessa da MisericΓ³rdia; and,
* Rua Dr. Azevedo and Calçada M. Vila, near the entrance to the Largo do Colégio.
* Rua de SΓ£o JoΓ£o
* Rua Ten. AragΓ£o (currently between the ImpΓ©rio dos Nobres and the Sociedade Amor da PΓ‘tria)
* Rua da Conceição/Alameda Barão de Roches/Rua D. Pedro IV/Rua E. Rebelo, with the Pelourinho, the Casa da CÒmara and older urban prison (Cadeia), the Convent of Glory, this area constituted the original Vila of Horta. The oldest dwellings and the older ornate façades are located in this area.
* Rua Maestro Simaria, located near the Rua Serpa Pinto, and the ancient Largo do ColΓ©gio JesuΓta;
* Rua Conselheiro Miguel da Silveira, and open to the Avenida Marginal.
These streets formed from the central colony along hills parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ocean. Littoral growth was made cautiously until the town square, civic center, town hall, and local water wells were built along the seashore in both directions. Religious institutions generally mark the extent of urbanizedβrural limits (as the [Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo](/wiki/Convent_of_Nossa_Senhora_do_Carmo_%28Horta%29 "Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (Horta)") and Convent of the Capuchos do today to the northeast).
Modern Horta grew beyond the limits of this early colonization. A secondary nucleus grew in the area of Porto Pim, and infilling occurred sporadically until a crescent formed along the banks of the east coast, only contained by Ponte de Espalamaca to the north and open ocean to the south. The cinder cones in the south likely protected settlers and ships from the north Atlantic weather systems. Horta grew slowly into the river valleys of Faial's interior, linking the parishes of Flamengos to the west and Feteira to the southwest to form an incomplete urbanized mass. The nodes of growth basically follow the road network, including the recently completed "Scute" (freeway) that bypasses the southern E.R.1\-1Βͺ road between Angustias and Feteira.
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"### Physical geography",
"{{Main\\|Faial Island}}",
"### Climate",
"Horta has the typical [humid subtropical climate](/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate \"Humid subtropical climate\") with significant [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean_climate \"Mediterranean climate\") influences associated with the Azores. Horta, along with nearby [Madalena](/wiki/Madalena%2C_Azores \"Madalena, Azores\") is one of the Azorean cities most prone to high temperatures, and unlike [Angra do HeroΓsmo](/wiki/Angra_do_Hero%C3%ADsmo \"Angra do HeroΓsmo\") and [Ponta Delgada](/wiki/Ponta_Delgada \"Ponta Delgada\"), temperatures above {{convert\\|30\\|C\\|F}} have been recorded on a few occasions. Averages, however, are extremely similar to the aforementioned cities. Precipitation averages about {{convert\\|962\\|mm\\|in}} per year and is concentrated from September to February. On average November is the wettest month, while July is the driest. Temperatures are mild to warm year\\-round and average {{convert\\|20\\|C\\|F}} in the daytime and {{convert\\|15\\|C\\|F}} at night.",
"{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= Horta (Monte da Guia), elevation: 62 m or 203 ft, 1971\\-1994 normals, 1961\\-1990 extremes\n\\|single line \\= Yes\n\\|metric first \\= Yes",
"\\|Jan record high C \\= 21\\.1\n\\|Feb record high C \\= 21\\.1\n\\|Mar record high C \\= 21\\.1\n\\|Apr record high C \\= 25\\.0\n\\|May record high C \\= 24\\.5\n\\|Jun record high C \\= 27\\.8\n\\|Jul record high C \\= 30\\.6\n\\|Aug record high C \\= 31\\.1\n\\|Sep record high C \\= 30\\.0\n\\|Oct record high C \\= 27\\.8\n\\|Nov record high C \\= 25\\.0\n\\|Dec record high C \\= 23\\.9\n\\|year record high C \\= 31\\.1",
"\\|Jan high C \\= 16\\.4\n\\|Feb high C \\= 16\\.0\n\\|Mar high C \\= 16\\.5\n\\|Apr high C \\= 17\\.3\n\\|May high C \\= 19\\.0\n\\|Jun high C \\= 21\\.4\n\\|Jul high C \\= 24\\.3\n\\|Aug high C \\= 25\\.5\n\\|Sep high C \\= 24\\.2\n\\|Oct high C \\= 21\\.4\n\\|Nov high C \\= 19\\.0\n\\|Dec high C \\= 17\\.3\n\\|year high C \\=",
"\\|Jan mean C \\= 14\\.3\n\\|Feb mean C \\= 13\\.7\n\\|Mar mean C \\= 14\\.2\n\\|Apr mean C \\= 14\\.9\n\\|May mean C \\= 16\\.5\n\\|Jun mean C \\= 18\\.8\n\\|Jul mean C \\= 21\\.4\n\\|Aug mean C \\= 22\\.4\n\\|Sep mean C \\= 21\\.5\n\\|Oct mean C \\= 18\\.9\n\\|Nov mean C \\= 16\\.9\n\\|Dec mean C \\= 15\\.2\n\\|year mean C \\=",
"\\|Jan low C \\= 12\\.1\n\\|Feb low C \\= 11\\.4\n\\|Mar low C \\= 12\\.0\n\\|Apr low C \\= 12\\.5\n\\|May low C \\= 13\\.9\n\\|Jun low C \\= 16\\.2\n\\|Jul low C \\= 18\\.5\n\\|Aug low C \\= 19\\.4\n\\|Sep low C \\= 18\\.7\n\\|Oct low C \\= 16\\.5\n\\|Nov low C \\= 14\\.7\n\\|Dec low C \\= 13\\.1\n\\|year low C \\=",
"\\|Jan record low C \\= 3\\.3\n\\|Feb record low C \\= 3\\.9\n\\|Mar record low C \\= 5\\.0\n\\|Apr record low C \\= 5\\.0\n\\|May record low C \\= 8\\.3\n\\|Jun record low C \\= 11\\.1\n\\|Jul record low C \\= 13\\.9\n\\|Aug record low C \\= 15\\.0\n\\|Sep record low C \\= 11\\.1\n\\|Oct record low C \\= 10\\.6\n\\|Nov record low C \\= 8\\.9\n\\|Dec record low C \\= 3\\.9\n\\|year record low C \\= 3\\.3",
"\\|rain colour\\=green\n\\|Jan rain mm \\= 90\\.0\n\\|Feb rain mm \\= 94\\.0\n\\|Mar rain mm \\= 74\\.9\n\\|Apr rain mm \\= 63\\.4\n\\|May rain mm \\= 58\\.7\n\\|Jun rain mm \\= 47\\.2\n\\|Jul rain mm \\= 33\\.5\n\\|Aug rain mm \\= 54\\.5\n\\|Sep rain mm \\= 95\\.6\n\\|Oct rain mm \\= 115\\.3\n\\|Nov rain mm \\= 123\\.8\n\\|Dec rain mm \\= 111\\.1\n\\|year rain mm \\=",
"\\|Jan humidity \\= 80\n\\|Feb humidity \\= 80\n\\|Mar humidity \\= 80\n\\|Apr humidity \\= 79\n\\|May humidity \\= 81\n\\|Jun humidity \\= 81\n\\|Jul humidity \\= 80\n\\|Aug humidity \\= 80\n\\|Sep humidity \\= 80\n\\|Oct humidity \\= 79\n\\|Nov humidity \\= 80\n\\|Dec humidity \\= 81",
"\\|Jan sun \\= 91\n\\|Feb sun \\= 95\n\\|Mar sun \\= 120\n\\|Apr sun \\= 155\n\\|May sun \\= 182\n\\|Jun sun \\= 174\n\\|Jul sun \\= 232\n\\|Aug sun \\= 238\n\\|Sep sun \\= 178\n\\|Oct sun \\= 144\n\\|Nov sun \\= 103\n\\|Dec sun \\= 83",
"\\|source 1 \\= \\[\\[IPMA]] (normals \\& precipitation){{cite web \\|title\\=Atlas ClimΓ‘tico IbΓ©rico \\|url\\=http://www.ipma.pt/export/sites/ipma/bin/docs/publicacoes/atlas.clima.ilhas.iberico.2011\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IPMA]], \\[\\[AEMET]] \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2020}}\n\\|source 2 \\= \\[\\[NOAA]] (sunshine hours \\& humidity),{{cite web\\|url \\= ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO\\-Normals/TABLES/REG\\_VI/PO/08506\\.TXT \\|title \\= Horta Climate Normals 1961\\-1990 \\|publisher \\= \\[\\[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] \\|access\\-date \\= December 18, 2012}} Worldwide Bioclimatic Classification System (extremes){{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.ucm.es/info/cif/station/po\\-horta.htm \\|title\\=PORTUGAL \\- HORTA \\- ACORES \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2011 \\|publisher\\=Centro de Investigaciones FitosociolΓ³gicas}}\n\\|date\\=November 2011\n}}",
"### Human geography",
"{{Historical populations\\|align\\=right\n\\| title \\= Population of \nHorta{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid\\=INE\\&xpgid\\=ine\\_publicacoes\\&PUBLICACOESpub\\_boui\\=122114780\\&PUBLICACOESmodo\\=2\\|title\\=Censos 2011 \\- Resultadas Preliminares\\|trans\\-title\\=2011 Census \\- Preliminary Results\\|publisher\\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica\\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal\\|language\\=pt\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2011\\|year\\=2010\\|editor\\=INE\\|editor\\-link\\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica (Portugal)}} \n(1849 \\- 2011\\)\n\\| 1849 \\| 24763\n\\| 1900 \\| 22075\n\\| 1930 \\| 21510\n\\| 1960 \\| 20281\n\\| 1981 \\| 15489\n\\| 1991 \\| 14920\n\\| 2001 \\| 15063\n\\| 2004 \\| 15224\n\\| 2011 \\| 15038\n\\|2021\\|14331}}\nThree parishes comprise the urban area of the city of Horta (the urbanized area and historical center): [AngΓΊstias](/wiki/Ang%C3%BAstias \"AngΓΊstias\"), [Conceição](/wiki/Concei%C3%A7%C3%A3o_%28Horta%29 \"Conceição (Horta)\"), and [Matriz](/wiki/Matriz_%28Horta%29 \"Matriz (Horta)\"). The remaining parishes comprising the rest of the municipality are located along the Regional E.R.1\\-1Βͺ road network, and includes lands from the ocean to the central volcano (with the exception of Flamengos, which is the only landlocked parish). Faial Island, comprising Horta's urbanized area and the parishes, has an area of {{convert\\|173\\.06\\|km2\\|mi2}}",
"* [Capelo](/wiki/Capelo \"Capelo\") \\- located in the western portion of the island that includes the most recent historic volcanism on the island; location of the Capelinhos Volcano and Recreational Forest Park\n* [Castelo Branco](/wiki/Castelo_Branco_%28Horta%29 \"Castelo Branco (Horta)\") \\- located on the southern coastal area between Capelo and Feteiras; location of Horta International Airport\n* [Cedros](/wiki/Cedros_%28Horta%29 \"Cedros (Horta)\") \\- largest civil parish and agricultural lands, located on the northern coast between Capelo and SalΓ£o\n* [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 \"Feteira (Horta)\") \\- southern parish located between the urbanized core of Horta and Castelo Branco; primarily agricultural activities in transition into suburban community of Horta\n* [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos \"Flamengos\") \\- the only landlocked civil parish on the island, established by original settlers from the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries \"Low Countries\") of Europe\n* [Pedro Miguel](/wiki/Pedro_Miguel \"Pedro Miguel\") \\- located to the north of Praia do Almoxarife, along the eastern coast\n* [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife \"Praia do Almoxarife\") \\- original settlers disembarked along the beach of Praia do Almoxarife during the original 1465 and 1467 expeditions; currently the main tourist beach community on the island\n* [Praia do Norte](/wiki/Praia_do_Norte \"Praia do Norte\") \\- located between Cedros and Capelo, a zone affected by historic volcanism from the Capelo Volcanic Complex\n* [Ribeirinha](/wiki/Ribeirinha_%28Horta%29 \"Ribeirinha (Horta)\") \\- a civil parish occupying the ancient geological zone that formed the island of Faial\n* [SalΓ£o](/wiki/Sal%C3%A3o \"SalΓ£o\") \\- settled by Spanish during the Iberian Union, and located between Cedros and Ribeirinha",
"In 2011, the national census discovered a resident population of 15,038: a slight decrease from the 2001 population (15,063 inhabitants). Yet, the number of aggregate families grew significantly (4795 to 5465 families reporting their participation in such groups), an increase from 2\\.8 to 3\\.1 people per family. Similarly, there has been a 21\\.69% increase in the number occupied buildings within the municipality.",
"#### City of Horta",
"{{Quote box\\|width \\= 23em\\|align \\= right\\|quote \\= I love Horta like \\[\\[loquat]]s! I had a longing of what was, I don't know how, of here. Everything imagined is more or less frustrated when we comprehend: but in Horta, no, it is exceeded. At the end of the Rua do Mar are the built\\-up homes; over the unique celebretated road of the town are the alleyways that descend to the coast and provide a modest contribution to the fires and transit. \\|source\\= β\\[\\[Vitorino NemΓ©sio]]{{cite book \\|first\\=Vitorino \\|last\\=NemΓ©sio \\|author\\-link\\=Vitorino NemΓ©sio \\|title\\=O CorsΓ‘rio das Ilhas \\|trans\\-title\\=Corsair of the Islands \\|language\\=Portuguese \\|year\\=1998 \\|orig\\-year\\=1955 \\|isbn\\=972\\-27\\-0888\\-0 \\|publisher\\=Imprensa Nacional \\- Casa da Moeda }} }}\n[thumb\\|right\\|235px\\|Horta and its marina from Monte da Guia](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Horta_desde_Monte_da_Guia%2C_isla_de_Fayal%2C_Azores%2C_Portugal%2C_2020-07-27%2C_DD_04-06_HDR.jpg \"Vista de Horta desde Monte da Guia, isla de Fayal, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 04-06 HDR.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|235px\\|right\\|The centre of Horta, with a view that includes the CΓ’mara Municipal (left foreground) and [Carmo Church](/wiki/Convent_of_Carmo_%28Horta%29 \"Convent of Carmo (Horta)\") (right background)](/wiki/File:Cidade_da_Horta_vista_da_Ba%C3%ADa_da_Horta%2C_ilha_do_Faial%2C_A%C3%A7ores%2C_Portugal.JPG \"Cidade da Horta vista da BaΓa da Horta, ilha do Faial, AΓ§ores, Portugal.JPG\")",
"From Espalamaca or Monte da Guia, the city of Horta is typical of insular Portuguese coastal communities and the urban traditions of the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"). The city is seaward looking, much like Angra do HeroΓsmo or [Velas](/wiki/Velas%2C_Azores \"Velas, Azores\"). It is rounded by several volcanic cones located to its southern and eastern margins, the most prominent being Monte da Guaia, Monte do Carneiro, and Monte Escuro. Horta is centered along its principal avenueβreferred to as either Avenida Marginal or Avenida D. Infante Henriquesβand cut by several smaller roads. The city's historical center lies to the north near Espalamaca, with a grouping of northβsouth and eastβwest roads developed during initial colonization. The population of Horta's urban center during the first decade of the 21st century was about 7,000\\.",
"Horta grew from streets such as:\n* Rua Vista Alegre/Ladeira da Paiva/travessa Almeida Garrett (that includes the Church Matriz, and Convent of Saint John);\n* Rua Advogado GraΓ§a/Travessa do Poiso Novo (where the original Casa da CΓ’mara and Convent of Glory were situated);\n* Rua de SΓ£o Paulo;\n* Rua de SΓ£o Pedro and Travessa da MisericΓ³rdia; and,\n* Rua Dr. Azevedo and CalΓ§ada M. Vila, near the entrance to the Largo do ColΓ©gio.\n* Rua de SΓ£o JoΓ£o\n* Rua Ten. AragΓ£o (currently between the ImpΓ©rio dos Nobres and the Sociedade Amor da PΓ‘tria)\n* Rua da Conceição/Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches/Rua D. Pedro IV/Rua E. Rebelo, with the Pelourinho, the Casa da CΓ’mara and older urban prison (Cadeia), the Convent of Glory, this area constituted the original Vila of Horta. The oldest dwellings and the older ornate faΓ§ades are located in this area.\n* Rua Maestro Simaria, located near the Rua Serpa Pinto, and the ancient Largo do ColΓ©gio JesuΓta;\n* Rua Conselheiro Miguel da Silveira, and open to the Avenida Marginal.",
"These streets formed from the central colony along hills parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ocean. Littoral growth was made cautiously until the town square, civic center, town hall, and local water wells were built along the seashore in both directions. Religious institutions generally mark the extent of urbanizedβrural limits (as the [Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo](/wiki/Convent_of_Nossa_Senhora_do_Carmo_%28Horta%29 \"Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (Horta)\") and Convent of the Capuchos do today to the northeast).",
"Modern Horta grew beyond the limits of this early colonization. A secondary nucleus grew in the area of Porto Pim, and infilling occurred sporadically until a crescent formed along the banks of the east coast, only contained by Ponte de Espalamaca to the north and open ocean to the south. The cinder cones in the south likely protected settlers and ships from the north Atlantic weather systems. Horta grew slowly into the river valleys of Faial's interior, linking the parishes of Flamengos to the west and Feteira to the southwest to form an incomplete urbanized mass. The nodes of growth basically follow the road network, including the recently completed \"Scute\" (freeway) that bypasses the southern E.R.1\\-1Βͺ road between Angustias and Feteira.",
""
] |
### Human geography
{{Historical populations\|align\=right
\| title \= Population of
Horta{{citation\|url\=http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid\=INE\&xpgid\=ine\_publicacoes\&PUBLICACOESpub\_boui\=122114780\&PUBLICACOESmodo\=2\|title\=Censos 2011 \- Resultadas Preliminares\|trans\-title\=2011 Census \- Preliminary Results\|publisher\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica\|location\=Lisbon, Portugal\|language\=pt\|access\-date\=1 July 2011\|year\=2010\|editor\=INE\|editor\-link\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica (Portugal)}}
(1849 \- 2011\)
\| 1849 \| 24763
\| 1900 \| 22075
\| 1930 \| 21510
\| 1960 \| 20281
\| 1981 \| 15489
\| 1991 \| 14920
\| 2001 \| 15063
\| 2004 \| 15224
\| 2011 \| 15038
\|2021\|14331}}
Three parishes comprise the urban area of the city of Horta (the urbanized area and historical center): [AngΓΊstias](/wiki/Ang%C3%BAstias "AngΓΊstias"), [Conceição](/wiki/Concei%C3%A7%C3%A3o_%28Horta%29 "Conceição (Horta)"), and [Matriz](/wiki/Matriz_%28Horta%29 "Matriz (Horta)"). The remaining parishes comprising the rest of the municipality are located along the Regional E.R.1\-1Βͺ road network, and includes lands from the ocean to the central volcano (with the exception of Flamengos, which is the only landlocked parish). Faial Island, comprising Horta's urbanized area and the parishes, has an area of {{convert\|173\.06\|km2\|mi2}}
* [Capelo](/wiki/Capelo "Capelo") \- located in the western portion of the island that includes the most recent historic volcanism on the island; location of the Capelinhos Volcano and Recreational Forest Park
* [Castelo Branco](/wiki/Castelo_Branco_%28Horta%29 "Castelo Branco (Horta)") \- located on the southern coastal area between Capelo and Feteiras; location of Horta International Airport
* [Cedros](/wiki/Cedros_%28Horta%29 "Cedros (Horta)") \- largest civil parish and agricultural lands, located on the northern coast between Capelo and SalΓ£o
* [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 "Feteira (Horta)") \- southern parish located between the urbanized core of Horta and Castelo Branco; primarily agricultural activities in transition into suburban community of Horta
* [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos "Flamengos") \- the only landlocked civil parish on the island, established by original settlers from the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries "Low Countries") of Europe
* [Pedro Miguel](/wiki/Pedro_Miguel "Pedro Miguel") \- located to the north of Praia do Almoxarife, along the eastern coast
* [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife "Praia do Almoxarife") \- original settlers disembarked along the beach of Praia do Almoxarife during the original 1465 and 1467 expeditions; currently the main tourist beach community on the island
* [Praia do Norte](/wiki/Praia_do_Norte "Praia do Norte") \- located between Cedros and Capelo, a zone affected by historic volcanism from the Capelo Volcanic Complex
* [Ribeirinha](/wiki/Ribeirinha_%28Horta%29 "Ribeirinha (Horta)") \- a civil parish occupying the ancient geological zone that formed the island of Faial
* [SalΓ£o](/wiki/Sal%C3%A3o "SalΓ£o") \- settled by Spanish during the Iberian Union, and located between Cedros and Ribeirinha
In 2011, the national census discovered a resident population of 15,038: a slight decrease from the 2001 population (15,063 inhabitants). Yet, the number of aggregate families grew significantly (4795 to 5465 families reporting their participation in such groups), an increase from 2\.8 to 3\.1 people per family. Similarly, there has been a 21\.69% increase in the number occupied buildings within the municipality.
#### City of Horta
{{Quote box\|width \= 23em\|align \= right\|quote \= I love Horta like \[\[loquat]]s! I had a longing of what was, I don't know how, of here. Everything imagined is more or less frustrated when we comprehend: but in Horta, no, it is exceeded. At the end of the Rua do Mar are the built\-up homes; over the unique celebretated road of the town are the alleyways that descend to the coast and provide a modest contribution to the fires and transit. \|source\= β\[\[Vitorino NemΓ©sio]]{{cite book \|first\=Vitorino \|last\=NemΓ©sio \|author\-link\=Vitorino NemΓ©sio \|title\=O CorsΓ‘rio das Ilhas \|trans\-title\=Corsair of the Islands \|language\=Portuguese \|year\=1998 \|orig\-year\=1955 \|isbn\=972\-27\-0888\-0 \|publisher\=Imprensa Nacional \- Casa da Moeda }} }}
[thumb\|right\|235px\|Horta and its marina from Monte da Guia](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Horta_desde_Monte_da_Guia%2C_isla_de_Fayal%2C_Azores%2C_Portugal%2C_2020-07-27%2C_DD_04-06_HDR.jpg "Vista de Horta desde Monte da Guia, isla de Fayal, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 04-06 HDR.jpg")
[thumb\|235px\|right\|The centre of Horta, with a view that includes the CΓ’mara Municipal (left foreground) and [Carmo Church](/wiki/Convent_of_Carmo_%28Horta%29 "Convent of Carmo (Horta)") (right background)](/wiki/File:Cidade_da_Horta_vista_da_Ba%C3%ADa_da_Horta%2C_ilha_do_Faial%2C_A%C3%A7ores%2C_Portugal.JPG "Cidade da Horta vista da BaΓa da Horta, ilha do Faial, AΓ§ores, Portugal.JPG")
From Espalamaca or Monte da Guia, the city of Horta is typical of insular Portuguese coastal communities and the urban traditions of the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"). The city is seaward looking, much like Angra do HeroΓsmo or [Velas](/wiki/Velas%2C_Azores "Velas, Azores"). It is rounded by several volcanic cones located to its southern and eastern margins, the most prominent being Monte da Guaia, Monte do Carneiro, and Monte Escuro. Horta is centered along its principal avenueβreferred to as either Avenida Marginal or Avenida D. Infante Henriquesβand cut by several smaller roads. The city's historical center lies to the north near Espalamaca, with a grouping of northβsouth and eastβwest roads developed during initial colonization. The population of Horta's urban center during the first decade of the 21st century was about 7,000\.
Horta grew from streets such as:
* Rua Vista Alegre/Ladeira da Paiva/travessa Almeida Garrett (that includes the Church Matriz, and Convent of Saint John);
* Rua Advogado Graça/Travessa do Poiso Novo (where the original Casa da CÒmara and Convent of Glory were situated);
* Rua de SΓ£o Paulo;
* Rua de SΓ£o Pedro and Travessa da MisericΓ³rdia; and,
* Rua Dr. Azevedo and Calçada M. Vila, near the entrance to the Largo do Colégio.
* Rua de SΓ£o JoΓ£o
* Rua Ten. AragΓ£o (currently between the ImpΓ©rio dos Nobres and the Sociedade Amor da PΓ‘tria)
* Rua da Conceição/Alameda Barão de Roches/Rua D. Pedro IV/Rua E. Rebelo, with the Pelourinho, the Casa da CÒmara and older urban prison (Cadeia), the Convent of Glory, this area constituted the original Vila of Horta. The oldest dwellings and the older ornate façades are located in this area.
* Rua Maestro Simaria, located near the Rua Serpa Pinto, and the ancient Largo do ColΓ©gio JesuΓta;
* Rua Conselheiro Miguel da Silveira, and open to the Avenida Marginal.
These streets formed from the central colony along hills parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ocean. Littoral growth was made cautiously until the town square, civic center, town hall, and local water wells were built along the seashore in both directions. Religious institutions generally mark the extent of urbanizedβrural limits (as the [Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo](/wiki/Convent_of_Nossa_Senhora_do_Carmo_%28Horta%29 "Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (Horta)") and Convent of the Capuchos do today to the northeast).
Modern Horta grew beyond the limits of this early colonization. A secondary nucleus grew in the area of Porto Pim, and infilling occurred sporadically until a crescent formed along the banks of the east coast, only contained by Ponte de Espalamaca to the north and open ocean to the south. The cinder cones in the south likely protected settlers and ships from the north Atlantic weather systems. Horta grew slowly into the river valleys of Faial's interior, linking the parishes of Flamengos to the west and Feteira to the southwest to form an incomplete urbanized mass. The nodes of growth basically follow the road network, including the recently completed "Scute" (freeway) that bypasses the southern E.R.1\-1Βͺ road between Angustias and Feteira.
|
[
"### Human geography",
"{{Historical populations\\|align\\=right\n\\| title \\= Population of \nHorta{{citation\\|url\\=http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid\\=INE\\&xpgid\\=ine\\_publicacoes\\&PUBLICACOESpub\\_boui\\=122114780\\&PUBLICACOESmodo\\=2\\|title\\=Censos 2011 \\- Resultadas Preliminares\\|trans\\-title\\=2011 Census \\- Preliminary Results\\|publisher\\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica\\|location\\=Lisbon, Portugal\\|language\\=pt\\|access\\-date\\=1 July 2011\\|year\\=2010\\|editor\\=INE\\|editor\\-link\\=Instituto Nacional de EstatΓstica (Portugal)}} \n(1849 \\- 2011\\)\n\\| 1849 \\| 24763\n\\| 1900 \\| 22075\n\\| 1930 \\| 21510\n\\| 1960 \\| 20281\n\\| 1981 \\| 15489\n\\| 1991 \\| 14920\n\\| 2001 \\| 15063\n\\| 2004 \\| 15224\n\\| 2011 \\| 15038\n\\|2021\\|14331}}\nThree parishes comprise the urban area of the city of Horta (the urbanized area and historical center): [AngΓΊstias](/wiki/Ang%C3%BAstias \"AngΓΊstias\"), [Conceição](/wiki/Concei%C3%A7%C3%A3o_%28Horta%29 \"Conceição (Horta)\"), and [Matriz](/wiki/Matriz_%28Horta%29 \"Matriz (Horta)\"). The remaining parishes comprising the rest of the municipality are located along the Regional E.R.1\\-1Βͺ road network, and includes lands from the ocean to the central volcano (with the exception of Flamengos, which is the only landlocked parish). Faial Island, comprising Horta's urbanized area and the parishes, has an area of {{convert\\|173\\.06\\|km2\\|mi2}}",
"* [Capelo](/wiki/Capelo \"Capelo\") \\- located in the western portion of the island that includes the most recent historic volcanism on the island; location of the Capelinhos Volcano and Recreational Forest Park\n* [Castelo Branco](/wiki/Castelo_Branco_%28Horta%29 \"Castelo Branco (Horta)\") \\- located on the southern coastal area between Capelo and Feteiras; location of Horta International Airport\n* [Cedros](/wiki/Cedros_%28Horta%29 \"Cedros (Horta)\") \\- largest civil parish and agricultural lands, located on the northern coast between Capelo and SalΓ£o\n* [Feteira](/wiki/Feteira_%28Horta%29 \"Feteira (Horta)\") \\- southern parish located between the urbanized core of Horta and Castelo Branco; primarily agricultural activities in transition into suburban community of Horta\n* [Flamengos](/wiki/Flamengos \"Flamengos\") \\- the only landlocked civil parish on the island, established by original settlers from the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries \"Low Countries\") of Europe\n* [Pedro Miguel](/wiki/Pedro_Miguel \"Pedro Miguel\") \\- located to the north of Praia do Almoxarife, along the eastern coast\n* [Praia do Almoxarife](/wiki/Praia_do_Almoxarife \"Praia do Almoxarife\") \\- original settlers disembarked along the beach of Praia do Almoxarife during the original 1465 and 1467 expeditions; currently the main tourist beach community on the island\n* [Praia do Norte](/wiki/Praia_do_Norte \"Praia do Norte\") \\- located between Cedros and Capelo, a zone affected by historic volcanism from the Capelo Volcanic Complex\n* [Ribeirinha](/wiki/Ribeirinha_%28Horta%29 \"Ribeirinha (Horta)\") \\- a civil parish occupying the ancient geological zone that formed the island of Faial\n* [SalΓ£o](/wiki/Sal%C3%A3o \"SalΓ£o\") \\- settled by Spanish during the Iberian Union, and located between Cedros and Ribeirinha",
"In 2011, the national census discovered a resident population of 15,038: a slight decrease from the 2001 population (15,063 inhabitants). Yet, the number of aggregate families grew significantly (4795 to 5465 families reporting their participation in such groups), an increase from 2\\.8 to 3\\.1 people per family. Similarly, there has been a 21\\.69% increase in the number occupied buildings within the municipality.",
"#### City of Horta",
"{{Quote box\\|width \\= 23em\\|align \\= right\\|quote \\= I love Horta like \\[\\[loquat]]s! I had a longing of what was, I don't know how, of here. Everything imagined is more or less frustrated when we comprehend: but in Horta, no, it is exceeded. At the end of the Rua do Mar are the built\\-up homes; over the unique celebretated road of the town are the alleyways that descend to the coast and provide a modest contribution to the fires and transit. \\|source\\= β\\[\\[Vitorino NemΓ©sio]]{{cite book \\|first\\=Vitorino \\|last\\=NemΓ©sio \\|author\\-link\\=Vitorino NemΓ©sio \\|title\\=O CorsΓ‘rio das Ilhas \\|trans\\-title\\=Corsair of the Islands \\|language\\=Portuguese \\|year\\=1998 \\|orig\\-year\\=1955 \\|isbn\\=972\\-27\\-0888\\-0 \\|publisher\\=Imprensa Nacional \\- Casa da Moeda }} }}\n[thumb\\|right\\|235px\\|Horta and its marina from Monte da Guia](/wiki/File:Vista_de_Horta_desde_Monte_da_Guia%2C_isla_de_Fayal%2C_Azores%2C_Portugal%2C_2020-07-27%2C_DD_04-06_HDR.jpg \"Vista de Horta desde Monte da Guia, isla de Fayal, Azores, Portugal, 2020-07-27, DD 04-06 HDR.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|235px\\|right\\|The centre of Horta, with a view that includes the CΓ’mara Municipal (left foreground) and [Carmo Church](/wiki/Convent_of_Carmo_%28Horta%29 \"Convent of Carmo (Horta)\") (right background)](/wiki/File:Cidade_da_Horta_vista_da_Ba%C3%ADa_da_Horta%2C_ilha_do_Faial%2C_A%C3%A7ores%2C_Portugal.JPG \"Cidade da Horta vista da BaΓa da Horta, ilha do Faial, AΓ§ores, Portugal.JPG\")",
"From Espalamaca or Monte da Guia, the city of Horta is typical of insular Portuguese coastal communities and the urban traditions of the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") and [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"). The city is seaward looking, much like Angra do HeroΓsmo or [Velas](/wiki/Velas%2C_Azores \"Velas, Azores\"). It is rounded by several volcanic cones located to its southern and eastern margins, the most prominent being Monte da Guaia, Monte do Carneiro, and Monte Escuro. Horta is centered along its principal avenueβreferred to as either Avenida Marginal or Avenida D. Infante Henriquesβand cut by several smaller roads. The city's historical center lies to the north near Espalamaca, with a grouping of northβsouth and eastβwest roads developed during initial colonization. The population of Horta's urban center during the first decade of the 21st century was about 7,000\\.",
"Horta grew from streets such as:\n* Rua Vista Alegre/Ladeira da Paiva/travessa Almeida Garrett (that includes the Church Matriz, and Convent of Saint John);\n* Rua Advogado GraΓ§a/Travessa do Poiso Novo (where the original Casa da CΓ’mara and Convent of Glory were situated);\n* Rua de SΓ£o Paulo;\n* Rua de SΓ£o Pedro and Travessa da MisericΓ³rdia; and,\n* Rua Dr. Azevedo and CalΓ§ada M. Vila, near the entrance to the Largo do ColΓ©gio.\n* Rua de SΓ£o JoΓ£o\n* Rua Ten. AragΓ£o (currently between the ImpΓ©rio dos Nobres and the Sociedade Amor da PΓ‘tria)\n* Rua da Conceição/Alameda BarΓ£o de Roches/Rua D. Pedro IV/Rua E. Rebelo, with the Pelourinho, the Casa da CΓ’mara and older urban prison (Cadeia), the Convent of Glory, this area constituted the original Vila of Horta. The oldest dwellings and the older ornate faΓ§ades are located in this area.\n* Rua Maestro Simaria, located near the Rua Serpa Pinto, and the ancient Largo do ColΓ©gio JesuΓta;\n* Rua Conselheiro Miguel da Silveira, and open to the Avenida Marginal.",
"These streets formed from the central colony along hills parallel to each other and perpendicular to the ocean. Littoral growth was made cautiously until the town square, civic center, town hall, and local water wells were built along the seashore in both directions. Religious institutions generally mark the extent of urbanizedβrural limits (as the [Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo](/wiki/Convent_of_Nossa_Senhora_do_Carmo_%28Horta%29 \"Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (Horta)\") and Convent of the Capuchos do today to the northeast).",
"Modern Horta grew beyond the limits of this early colonization. A secondary nucleus grew in the area of Porto Pim, and infilling occurred sporadically until a crescent formed along the banks of the east coast, only contained by Ponte de Espalamaca to the north and open ocean to the south. The cinder cones in the south likely protected settlers and ships from the north Atlantic weather systems. Horta grew slowly into the river valleys of Faial's interior, linking the parishes of Flamengos to the west and Feteira to the southwest to form an incomplete urbanized mass. The nodes of growth basically follow the road network, including the recently completed \"Scute\" (freeway) that bypasses the southern E.R.1\\-1Βͺ road between Angustias and Feteira.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Precursors and foundation
[thumb\|280px\|[Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi "Umberto Bossi") at the first rally in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida "Pontida"), 1990](/wiki/File:Umberto_Bossi%2C_Pontida%2C_1990.jpg "Umberto Bossi, Pontida, 1990.jpg")
At the [1983 general election](/wiki/1983_Italian_general_election "1983 Italian general election"), *[Liga Veneta](/wiki/Liga_Veneta "Liga Veneta")* ("Venetian League", based in [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto")) elected a [deputy](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 "Chamber of Deputies (Italy)"), [Achille Tramarin](/wiki/Achille_Tramarin "Achille Tramarin"); and a [senator](/wiki/Senate_of_the_Republic_%28Italy%29 "Senate of the Republic (Italy)"), [Graziano Girardi](/wiki/Graziano_Girardi "Graziano Girardi"). At the [1987 general election](/wiki/1987_Italian_general_election "1987 Italian general election"), another regional party, *[Lega Lombarda](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda "Lega Lombarda")* ("Lombard League", based in [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy")) gained national prominence when its leader [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi "Umberto Bossi") was elected to the Italian Senate. The two parties, along with other regionalist outfits, ran as *[Alleanza Nord](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda_%E2%80%93_Alleanza_Nord "Lega Lombarda β Alleanza Nord")* ("Northern Alliance") during the [1989 European Parliament election](/wiki/1989_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "1989 European Parliament election in Italy"), gaining 1\.8% of the vote.
Lega Nord, which was first launched as a reform of Alleanza Nord in December 1989, was officially established as a party in February 1991 through the merger of various regional parties, notably including Lega Lombarda and Liga Veneta. These continue to exist as "national sections" of the main party, which presents itself in regional and local contests as "Lega LombardaβLega Nord", "Liga VenetaβLega Nord", "Lega Nordβ[Piemont](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Piemont "Lega Nord Piemont")" and so on.{{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|page\=88}}{{cite book \|first1\=Paul \|last1\=Ginsborg \|title\=L'Italia del tempo presente \|year\=1996 \|publisher\=Einaudi \|location\=Turin \|pages\=336β337, 534β535}}{{cite book \|first1\=Giorgio \|last1\=Galli \|title\=I partiti politici italiani \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=379β380, 384}}
The foundational inspiration for the original regional parties and the unified party was the [medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") political alliance of northern Italy known as the [Lombard League](/wiki/Lombard_League "Lombard League") (1167β1250\), the consciousness that the northern ethnicities of the Italian peninsula are descendants of [Gaulish](/wiki/Gauls "Gauls") and [Lombardic](/wiki/Lombards "Lombards") populations β historically, northern Italians were called "Lombards" and the entire northern portion of the peninsula was called "[Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy_%28historical_region%29 "Lombardy (historical region)")" β, and that they are ethnically different from the Greco\-Roman population of the central\-southern half of the peninsula ("Italy" proper).{{cite journal\|title\=Come si chiama questa Terra?\|url\=https://archivio.associazionegilbertooneto.org/ARCHIVIO/PDF/Quad\_02\.pdf\|author\=Gilberto Oneto\|journal\=Quaderni Padani\|number\=2\|year\=1995}}{{cite journal\|title\=La "Terra di Mezzo". Il recupero del celtismo padano\|url\=https://archivio.associazionegilbertooneto.org/ARCHIVIO/PDF/Quad\_02\.pdf\|author\=Maurizio Montagna\|journal\=Quaderni Padani\|number\=2\|year\=1995}} The Lega Nord party conveyed resentment against [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome")'s [centralism](/wiki/Centralisation "Centralisation") and the Italian government (epitomised by the popular slogan *Roma Ladrona*, meaning "Rome the Big Thief"), common in northern Italy as many northerners felt that the government wasted resources collected mostly from northerners' taxes, especially for sustaining the economies of Rome and southern Italy.{{cite book \|first1\=Paolo \|last1\=Rumiz \|title\=La secessione leggera. Dove nasce la rabbia del profondo Nord \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Feltrinelli \|location\=Milan \|pages\=10β13}} Resentment against [illegal immigrants](/wiki/Illegal_immigration "Illegal immigration") was also exploited. The party's electoral successes began approximately at a time when public disillusionment with the established political parties was at its height: the *[Tangentopoli](/wiki/Tangentopoli "Tangentopoli")* corruption scandals, which involved most of the established parties, broke out from 1992 onwards. Contrary to what many pundits observed at the beginning of the 1990s, Lega Nord became a stable political force in the Italian political scene.
Lega Nord's first electoral breakthrough was at the 1990 regional elections, but it was with the [1992 general election](/wiki/1992_Italian_general_election "1992 Italian general election") that the party emerged as a leading political actor. Having gained 8\.7% of the vote, 56 deputies and 26 senators,{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=263β266}} it became the fourth largest party of the country and within the Italian Parliament. In 1993, [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 "Marco Formentini (politician)") (a [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics") member of the party) was elected mayor of [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"), the party won 49\.3% in the provincial election of [Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese "Province of Varese"){{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|page\=90}} and by the end of the yearβbefore [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi "Silvio Berlusconi") launched his own political career and partyβit was estimated around 16β18% in electoral surveys (half of that support was later siphoned by Berlusconi).{{cite book \|first1\=Ilvo \|last1\=Diamanti \|author\-link\=Ilvo Diamanti \|title\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|page\=67}}
### First alliance with Berlusconi
{{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2019}}In early 1994, some days before the announcement of the BossiβBerlusconi pact which led to the formation of the [Pole of Freedoms](/wiki/Pole_of_Freedoms "Pole of Freedoms"), [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni"), Bossi's number two, signed an agreement with [Mario Segni](/wiki/Mario_Segni "Mario Segni")'s centrist [Pact for Italy](/wiki/Pact_for_Italy "Pact for Italy"), which was later cancelled.{{cite book \|first1\=Giorgio \|last1\=Galli \|title\=I partiti politici italiani \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=394β395}}{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=79β82}}
The party thus fought the [1994 general election](/wiki/1994_Italian_general_election "1994 Italian general election") in alliance with Berlusconi's [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia "Forza Italia") (FI) within the Pole of Freedoms coalition. Lega Nord gained just 8\.4% of the vote, but thanks to a generous division of candidacies in Northern single\-seats constituencies its parliamentary representation was almost doubled to 117 deputies and 56 senators.{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=267β273}} The position of President Chamber of Deputies was thus given to a LN member, [Irene Pivetti](/wiki/Irene_Pivetti "Irene Pivetti"), a young woman hailing from the Catholic faction of the party.
After the election, the League joined FI, [National Alliance](/wiki/National_Alliance_%28Italy%29 "National Alliance (Italy)") (AN) and the [Christian Democratic Centre](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Centre "Christian Democratic Centre") (CCD) to form a coalition government under Berlusconi and the party obtained five ministries in [Berlusconi's first cabinet](/wiki/Berlusconi_I_Cabinet "Berlusconi I Cabinet"): Interior for Roberto Maroni (who was also Deputy Prime Minister), Budget for [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini "Giancarlo Pagliarini"), Industry for [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti "Vito Gnutti"), European affairs for [Domenico Comino](/wiki/Domenico_Comino "Domenico Comino") and Institutional Reforms for [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni "Francesco Speroni"). However, the alliance with Berlusconi and the government itself were both short\-lived: the latter collapsed before the end of the year, with the League being instrumental in its demise.
The last straw was a proposed pension reform, which would have hurt some of the key constituencies of the LN, but the government was never a cohesive one and relations among coalition partners, especially those between the LN and the centralist AN, were quite tense all the time. When Bossi finally decided to withdraw from the government in December, Maroni vocally disagreed and walked out.
In January 1995, the League gave a vote of confidence to the newly formed [cabinet](/wiki/Dini_Cabinet "Dini Cabinet") led by [Lamberto Dini](/wiki/Lamberto_Dini "Lamberto Dini"), along with the [Italian People's Party](/wiki/Italian_People%27s_Party_%281994%29 "Italian People's Party (1994)") and the [Democratic Party of the Left](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Left "Democratic Party of the Left"). This caused several splinter groups to leave the party, including the [Federalist Party](/wiki/Federalist_Party_%28Italy%29 "Federalist Party (Italy)") (which was actually founded in June 1994\) of [Gianfranco Miglio](/wiki/Gianfranco_Miglio "Gianfranco Miglio"), the [Federalists and Liberal Democrats](/wiki/Federalists_and_Liberal_Democrats "Federalists and Liberal Democrats") of [Franco Rocchetta](/wiki/Franco_Rocchetta "Franco Rocchetta"), [Lucio Malan](/wiki/Lucio_Malan "Lucio Malan") and [Furio Gubetti](/wiki/Furio_Gubetti "Furio Gubetti"){{cite news \|first\=Gianna \|last\=Fregonara \|title\=Maroni e Bossi vanno alla conta \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/gennaio/09/Maroni\_Bossi\_vanno\_alla\_conta\_co\_0\_9501094060\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=9 January 1995}} and the [Federalist Italian League](/wiki/Federalist_Italian_League "Federalist Italian League") of [Luigi Negri](/wiki/Luigi_Negri_%28politician%29 "Luigi Negri (politician)") and [Sergio Cappelli](/wiki/Sergio_Cappelli "Sergio Cappelli"). All these groups later merged into FI while a few other MPs, including [Pierluigi Petrini](/wiki/Pierluigi_Petrini "Pierluigi Petrini"), floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies, joined the centre\-left. By 1996, a total of 40 deputies and 17 senators had left the party while Maroni had instead returned to the party's fold after months of coldness with Bossi.{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=94β999}}
Between 1995 and 1998, Lega Nord joined centre\-left governing coalitions in many local contexts, notably including the [Province of Padua](/wiki/Province_of_Padua "Province of Padua") to the city of [Udine](/wiki/Udine "Udine").
### Padanian separatism
{{Main\|Padanian nationalism\|Padanian Declaration of Independence}}
{{Further\|Lega Nord\#1997 Padanian Parliament election}}{{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2019}}
After a big success at the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Italian_general_election "1996 Italian general election"), its best result so far (10\.1%, 59 deputies and 27 senators),{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=273β276}} Lega Nord announced that it wanted the secession of [northern Italy](/wiki/Northern_Italy "Northern Italy") under the name of [Padania](/wiki/Padania "Padania"). On 13 September 1996, Bossi took an ampoule of water from the springs of the [Po River](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 "Po (river)") (called *Padus* in [Latin](/wiki/Latin "Latin"), whence "Padania"), which was poured into the sea of [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") two days later as a symbolic act of birth of the new nation. The Po River was deified by the party (*Dio Po*, "Po God") and the "Ampoule Rite" was conducted as a yearly Pagan rite by the party's leaders until the 2010s; in its early phase, the party supported a [Celtic Druidic](/wiki/Druidry_%28modern%29 "Druidry (modern)") form of religion against Roman Catholicism and some party leaders married with Druidic rites. The party gave "Padania", previously referring to the [Po Valley](/wiki/Po_Valley "Po Valley"), a broader meaning covering entire Northern Italy that has steadily gained currency, at least among its followers. The party even organised a referendum on independence and elections for a [Padanian Parliament](/wiki/Padanian_Parliament "Padanian Parliament").
The years between 1996 and 1998 were particularly good for the League, which was the largest party in many provinces of northern Italy and was able to prevail in single\-seat constituencies and provincial elections by running alone against both the centre\-right and the centre\-left. The party also tried to expand its reach through a number of Padanian\-styled associations and media endeavours (under the supervision of [Davide Caparini](/wiki/Davide_Caparini "Davide Caparini")), notably including *[La Padania](/wiki/La_Padania "La Padania")* daily, *Il Sole delle Alpi* weekly, the *Lega Nord Flash* periodical, the TelePadania TV channel, the Radio Padania Libera and the Bruno Salvadori publishing house.
However, after the 1996 election, which Lega Nord had fought outside the two big coalitions, the differences between those who supported a new alliance with Berlusconi (Vito Gnutti, Domenico Comino, [Fabrizio Comencini](/wiki/Fabrizio_Comencini "Fabrizio Comencini") and more) and those who preferred to enter [Romano Prodi](/wiki/Romano_Prodi "Romano Prodi")'s [Olive Tree](/wiki/The_Olive_Tree_%28political_coalition%29 "The Olive Tree (political coalition)") (Marco Formentini, Irene Pivetti and others) re\-emerged. A total of 15 deputies and 9 senators left the party to join either centre\-right or centre\-left parties.{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=120β121}} Pivetti left a few months after the election.{{cite news \|title\=Pivetti: sono disgustata. Ci riprovo da sola \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1996/settembre/14/Pivetti\_sono\_disgustata\_riprovo\_sola\_co\_0\_9609149762\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=14 September 1996}} Comencini left in 1998 to launch [Liga Veneta Repubblica](/wiki/Liga_Veneta_Repubblica "Liga Veneta Repubblica"){{cite news \|first\=Marisa \|last\=Fumagalli \|title\=Rinasce la 'Liga Veneta Repubblica' \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1998/ottobre/05/Rinasce\_Liga\_Veneta\_Repubblica\_\_co\_0\_9810052496\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=5 October 1998}} with the mid\-term goal of joining forces with FI in Veneto.{{cite news \|first\=Enrico \|last\=Caiano \|title\=Patto Liga β Forza Italia: "Sovranita' ai veneti" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/agosto/04/Patto\_Liga\_Forza\_Italia\_Sovranita\_co\_0\_9908042271\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 August 1999}} Gnutti and Comino were expelled in 1999 after they had formed local alliances with the centre\-right.{{cite news \|first\=Fabio \|last\=Cavalera \|title\=Lega, la "polveriera" puo' esplodere \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/18/Lega\_polveriera\_puo\_esplodere\_co\_0\_9907184550\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=18 July 1999}}{{cite news \|first\=Enrico \|last\=Caiano \|title\=Gnutti: sΓ¬, lavoro a un nuovo Carroccio che punti al federalismo \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/28/Gnutti\_lavoro\_nuovo\_Carroccio\_che\_co\_0\_9907285615\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 July 1999}} Formentini also left in 1999 in order to join Prodi's [Democrats](/wiki/The_Democrats_%28Italy%29 "The Democrats (Italy)").{{cite news \|first\=Enrico \|last\=Caiano \|title\=Formentini: Umberto ha sbagliato \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/26/Formentini\_Umberto\_sbagliato\_co\_0\_9907265286\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 July 1999}}{{cite news \|first\=Fabio \|last\=Cavalera \|title\=Formentini: Bossi sbaglia, Lega addio \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/settembre/25/Formentini\_Bossi\_sbaglia\_Lega\_addio\_co\_0\_9909256175\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=25 September 1999}}
As a result, the party suffered a huge setback at the [1999 European Parliament election](/wiki/1999_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "1999 European Parliament election in Italy") in which it garnered a mere 4\.5% of the vote. Since then, the League de\-emphasised demands for independence in order to rather focus on [devolution](/wiki/Devolution "Devolution") and federal reform, paving the way for a return to coalition politics.
### House of Freedoms
[thumb\|180px\|Umberto Bossi, 2001](/wiki/File:Umberto_Bossi_1994.jpg "Umberto Bossi 1994.jpg")
After the defeat at the 1999 European Parliament election, senior members of the party thought it was not possible to achieve anything if the party continued to stay outside the two big coalitions. Some, including Maroni, who despite 1994β1995 row with Bossi had always been left\-leaning in the heart, preferred an alliance with the centre\-left. Bossi asked Maroni to negotiate an agreement with [Massimo D'Alema](/wiki/Massimo_D%27Alema "Massimo D'Alema"), who had described Lega Nord as "a rib of the left". These talks were successful and Maroni was indicated as the joint candidate for [President of Lombardy](/wiki/President_of_Lombardy "President of Lombardy") for the [2000 regional election](/wiki/2000_Lombard_regional_election "2000 Lombard regional election"). Despite this, Bossi decided instead to approach Berlusconi, who was the front\-runner in the upcoming [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Italian_general_election "2001 Italian general election").{{cite book \|first1\=Giorgio \|last1\=Galli \|title\=I partiti politici italiani \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=432β433}}{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=122β127, 307β312}} The centre\-right coalition won the 2000 regional elections and the League entered the regional governments of Lombardy, Veneto, [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont") and [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria "Liguria").
One year later, Lega Nord was part of Berlusconi's [House of Freedoms](/wiki/House_of_Freedoms "House of Freedoms") in the 2001 general election. According to its leader, the alliance was a "broad democratic arch, composed of the democratic right, namely AN, the great democratic centre, namely Forza Italia, CCD and [CDU](/wiki/United_Christian_Democrats "United Christian Democrats"), and the democratic left represented by the League, the New PSI, the PRI and, at least I hope so, [Cossiga](/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga "Francesco Cossiga")".{{cite web \|author\=Di Stefano Marroni \|url\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2001/01/25/polo\-lo\-sgarbo\-di\-bossi.html \|title\=Polo, lo sgarbo di Bossi β la Repubblica.it \|language\=it \|website\=la Repubblica \|date\=25 January 2001 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \|author\=QuestIT s.r.l. \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/gennaio/25/Debutta\_arco\_democratico\_Martusciello\_anti\_co\_8\_010125309\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}
The coalition won handily the election, but the LN was further reduced to 3\.9% while being returned in Parliament thanks to the victories scored by the League members in single\-seat constituencies. In 2001β2006, although severely reduced in its parliamentary representation, the party controlled three key ministries: Justice with [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli "Roberto Castelli"), Labour and Social affairs with Roberto Maroni and Institutional Reforms and Devolution with Umberto Bossi (replaced by [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli "Roberto Calderoli") in June 2004\). In March 2004, Bossi suffered a stroke that led many to question over the party's survival, but that ultimately confirmed Lega Nord's strength due to a very organised structure and a cohesive set of leaders.{{Citation needed\|date\=August 2019}}
In government, the LN was widely considered the staunchest ally of Berlusconi and formed the so\-called "axis of the North" along with FI (whose strongholds included Lombardy and Veneto as well as [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily")) through the special relationship between Bossi, Berlusconi and [Giulio Tremonti](/wiki/Giulio_Tremonti "Giulio Tremonti") while AN and the [Union of Christian and Centre Democrats](/wiki/Union_of_the_Centre_%282002%29 "Union of the Centre (2002)") (UDC), the party emerged from the merger of the CCD and the CDU in late 2002, became the natural representatives of Southern interests.{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/giugno/10/Maggioranza\_alla\_prova\_della\_verifica\_co\_0\_030610015\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/giugno/12/Non\_vanno\_piu\_bene\_romani\_co\_0\_030612017\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/settembre/10/centristi\_puntano\_piedi\_sul\_Mezzogiorno\_co\_0\_030910007\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/gennaio/27/ultima\_trincea\_dell\_Udc\_contro\_co\_9\_040127035\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/giugno/19/Contro\_accerchiamento\_Resiste\_asse\_del\_co\_9\_040619051\.shtml \|title\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \|website\=Corriere della Sera \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}}
During the five years in government with the centre\-right, the Parliament passed an important constitutional reform, which included [federalism](/wiki/Federalism "Federalism") and more powers for the Prime Minister. The alliance that Lega Nord forged with the [Movement for Autonomy](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Autonomies "Movement for the Autonomies") (MpA) and the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party "Sardinian Action Party") (PSd'Az) for the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Italian_general_election "2006 Italian general election") was not successful in convincing Southern voters to approve the reform, which was rejected in the [2006 constitutional referendum](/wiki/2006_Italian_constitutional_referendum "2006 Italian constitutional referendum").{{Cite web \| url\=https://elezionistorico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel\=F\&dtel\=25/06/2006\&tpa\=Y\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \| title\=Dipartimento per gli Affari Interni e Territoriali}}
### Fourth Berlusconi government
{{More citations needed section\|date\=August 2019}}In the aftermath of the fall of [Romano Prodi's government](/wiki/Prodi_II_Cabinet "Prodi II Cabinet") in January 2008, which led [President](/wiki/President_of_Italy "President of Italy") [Giorgio Napolitano](/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano "Giorgio Napolitano") to call an early election, the centre\-right was re\-organised by Berlusconi as [The People of Freedom](/wiki/The_People_of_Freedom "The People of Freedom") (PdL), now without the support of the UDC. Lega Nord ran the election in coalition with the PdL and the MpA, gaining a stunning 8\.3% of the vote (\+4\.2pp) and obtaining 60 deputies (\+37\) and 26 senators (\+13\).
Following this result, since May 2008 the party was represented in [Berlusconi's fourth cabinet](/wiki/Berlusconi_IV_Cabinet "Berlusconi IV Cabinet") by four ministers (Roberto Maroni, Interior; [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia"), Agriculture; Umberto Bossi, Reforms and Federalism; and Roberto Calderoli, Legislative simplification) and five under\-secretaries (Roberto Castelli, Infrastructures; [Michelino Davico](/wiki/Michelino_Davico "Michelino Davico"), Interior; [Daniele Molgora](/wiki/Daniele_Molgora "Daniele Molgora"), Economy and Finances; [Francesca Martini](/wiki/Francesca_Martini "Francesca Martini"), Health; and [Maurizio Balocchi](/wiki/Maurizio_Balocchi "Maurizio Balocchi"), Legislative simplification).
In April 2009, a bill introducing a path towards [fiscal federalism](/wiki/Fiscal_federalism "Fiscal federalism") was approved by the Senate after having passed by the Chamber. The bill gained bipartisan support by [Italy of Values](/wiki/Italy_of_Values "Italy of Values"), which voted in favour of the measure; and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Italy%29 "Democratic Party (Italy)") (PD), which chose not to oppose the measure.{{cite news \|first\=Paolo \|last\=Foschi \|title\=Ultimo sì al Senato, via al federalismo fiscale \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/aprile/30/Ultimo\_Senato\_via\_federalismo\_fiscale\_co\_8\_090430002\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=30 April 2009}} As of late March 2011, all the most important decrees of the reform were approved by the Parliament and Bossi publicly praised the Democrats' leader [Pier Luigi Bersani](/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Bersani "Pier Luigi Bersani") for not having opposed the decisive decree on regional and provincial fiscality.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Calderoli: noi e il Pd? C' è stata una vera svolta \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/marzo/25/Calderoli\_noi\_stata\_una\_vera\_co\_8\_110325008\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=25 March 2011}}{{cite news \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi \|title\=Bossi: federalismo grazie al Pd Ho detto io a Bersani di astenersi \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/marzo/27/Bossi\_federalismo\_grazie\_detto\_Bersani\_co\_8\_110327036\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=27 March 2011}} Lega Nord influenced the government also on illegal immigration, especially when dealing with immigrants coming from the sea. While the [UNCHR](/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees "United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees") and [Catholic bishops](/wiki/Italian_Episcopal_Conference "Italian Episcopal Conference") expressed some concerns over the handling of asylum seekers,{{cite news \|first\=Fiorenza \|last\=Sarzanini \|title\=Clandestini riaccompagnati in Libia Maroni applaude, l'Onu protesta \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/08/Clandestini\_riaccompagnati\_Libia\_Maroni\_applaude\_co\_8\_090508016\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=8 May 2009}} Maroni's decision to send back to [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya") the boats full of illegal immigrants was praised also by some leading Democrats, notably including [Piero Fassino](/wiki/Piero_Fassino "Piero Fassino");{{cite news \|first\=Aldo \|last\=Cazzullo \|title\=Fassino: la sinistra cambi Nel Paese c' è il rischio di una guerra tra poveri \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/10/Fassino\_sinistra\_cambi\_Nel\_Paese\_co\_8\_090510006\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=10 May 2009}}{{cite news \|first\=Gianna \|last\=Fregonara \|title\=Il Pd e il caso Fassino Parisi apre, no dalemiano \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/11/caso\_Fassino\_Parisi\_apre\_dalemiano\_co\_8\_090511014\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=11 May 2009}} and it was backed by some 76% of Italians according to a poll.{{cite web \|author\=Aldo Ferrari Nasi \|url\=http://archivio.sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it/asp/visualizza\_sondaggio.asp?idsondaggio\=3400 \|title\=Sondaggio politico\-elettorale sull'immigrazione clandestina \|publisher\=Sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it \|date\=12 May 2009 \|access\-date\=20 June 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510233806/http://archivio.sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it/asp/visualizza\_sondaggio.asp?idsondaggio\=3400 \|archive\-date\=10 May 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
In agreement with the PdL,{{cite news \|first\=Lorenzo \|last\=Fuccaro \|title\=Il Pdl a Pd e Udc: basta tensioni Regionali, il Veneto alla Lega \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/17/Pdl\_Udc\_basta\_tensioni\_Regionali\_co\_8\_091217033\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=17 December 2009}} [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia") was candidate for [President](/wiki/President_of_Veneto "President of Veneto") in [Veneto](/wiki/2010_Venetian_regional_election "2010 Venetian regional election"){{cite news \|first\=Elsa \|last\=Muschella \|title\=Veneto, sì a Zaia. E Zingaretti al Pd: corro nel Lazio \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/20/Veneto\_Zaia\_Zingaretti\_corro\_nel\_co\_9\_091220001\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 December 2009}} and [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota "Roberto Cota") in [Piedmont](/wiki/2010_Piedmontese_regional_election "2010 Piedmontese regional election"){{cite news \|first\=Aldo \|last\=Cazzullo \|title\=Cota, "lotta" a Cavour e ai Savoia "I meridionali di qui voteranno me" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/19/Cota\_lotta\_Cavour\_Savoia\_meridionali\_co\_9\_091219024\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=19 December 2009}} in the [2010 regional elections](/wiki/2010_Italian_regional_elections "2010 Italian regional elections") while in the other Northern regions, including [Lombardy](/wiki/2010_Lombard_regional_election "2010 Lombard regional election"), the League supported candidates of the PdL. Both Zaia and Cota were elected. The party became the largest in Veneto with 35\.2% and the second\-largest in Lombardy with 26\.2% while getting stronger all around the North and in some regions of central Italy.
In November 2011, Berlusconi resigned and was replaced by [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti "Mario Monti"). The League was the only major party to oppose Monti's [technocratic](/wiki/Technocracy "Technocracy") [government](/wiki/Monti_Cabinet "Monti Cabinet").
### From Bossi to Maroni
{{Weasel words\|section\|date\= June 2022}}
{{Further\|Lega Nord\#2008β2011 developments}}
[thumb\|180px\|[Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni"), 2010](/wiki/File:Roberto_Maroni_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg "Roberto Maroni 2010 (cropped).jpg")
Throughout 2011, the party was riven in internal disputes, which Bossi's weak\-as\-ever leadership was not able to stop. Roberto Maroni, a moderate figure who had been the party's number two since the start, was clearly Bossi's most likely successor. The rise of Maroni and his fellow *maroniani* was obstacled by a group of Bossi's loyalists, whom journalists called the "magic circle". The leaders of this group were [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni "Marco Reguzzoni") (floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies) and [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro "Rosi Mauro").
After being temporarily forbidden from speaking at the party's public meetings,{{cite news \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi \|title\=Bossi, l'offensiva anti Maroni Vietati tutti gli incontri pubblici \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/gennaio/14/Bossi\_offensiva\_anti\_Maroni\_Vietati\_co\_8\_120114027\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=14 January 2012}} Maroni gained the upper hand in January 2012\.{{cite news \|first\=Paolo \|last\=Bracalini \|title\=Bossi stoppa la rivolta della Lega e firma un armistizio con Maroni \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/bossi\_stoppa\_rivolta\_lega\_e\_firma\_armistizio\_maroni/15\-01\-2012/articolo\-id\=566965\-page\=0\-comments\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[Il Giornale]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=15 January 2012}} During a factional rally in [Varese](/wiki/Varese "Varese"), he launched direct attacks on Reguzzoni and Mauro in the presence of a puzzled Bossi. On that occasion, Maroni called for the celebration of party congresses and closed his speech paraphrasing [Scipio Slataper](/wiki/Scipio_Slataper "Scipio Slataper") and [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara "Che Guevara") (the latter being one of his youth's heroes): "We are barbarians, dreaming barbarians. We are realistic, we dream the impossible".{{cite web \|title\=Per una Lega unita e per una Padania libera e indipendente \|url\=http://www.radioradicale.it/scheda/343749 \|publisher\=\[\[Radio Radicale]] \|date\=18 January 2012}} On 20 January, Bossi replaced Reguzzoni as leader in the Chamber with [Gianpaolo Dozzo](/wiki/Gianpaolo_Dozzo "Gianpaolo Dozzo").{{cite news \|first\=Sergio \|last\=Rame \|title\=Dozzo Γ¨ capogruppo al posto di Reguzzoni: la Lega ritrova l'unitΓ ? \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/dozzo\_e\_capogruppoal\_posto\_reguzzonila\_lega\_ritrova\_unita/manifestazione\-marco\_reguzzoni\-umberto\_bossi\-roberto\_maroni\-lega\_nord/20\-01\-2012/articolo\-id\=567982\-page\=0\-comments\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[Il Giornale]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 January 2012}} Two days later, the federal council of the party scheduled provincial congresses by April and national (regional) congresses by June.{{cite news \|title\=Maroni annuncia su Facebook 'Ora i congressi' \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/milano/maroni\_annuncia\_facebook\_ora\_congressi/23\-01\-2012/articolo\-id\=568397\-page\=0\-comments\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[Il Giornale]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=23 January 2012}} Maroni, whose flock included people as diverse as [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi "Flavio Tosi"), a conservative liberal; and [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini"), then a left\-winger,{{cite news \|first1\=Maurizio \|last1\=Giannattasio \|title\=Salvini, leghista\-comunista: ho "convertito" 10 religiosi \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/26/Salvini\_leghista\_comunista\_convertito\_religiosi\_co\_9\_080426116\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 April 2008}}{{cite news \|first1\=Antonino \|last1\=D'Anna \|title\=La rivincita dei cattolici leghisti Borghezio il tramite col Vaticano \|url\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/la\-rivincita\-dei\-cattolici\-leghisti240312\.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120701102642/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/la\-rivincita\-dei\-cattolici\-leghisti240312\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=1 July 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[Affaritaliani]] \|date\=22 March 2012}} strengthened his grip on the party.
On 3 April, a corruption scandal hit the magic circle and consequently the entire party. The party's treasurer [Francesco Belsito](/wiki/Francesco_Belsito "Francesco Belsito") was charged with money\-laundering, embezzlement and fraud of the LN's expenses. Among other things, he was accused of having taken money away from the party's chest and paid it out to Bossi's family and other members of the magic circle, notably including Mauro.{{cite news \|first1\=Luigu \|last1\=Ferrarella \|first2\=Giuseppe \|last2\=Guastalla \|title\=Lavori alla villa di Gemonio con i rimborsi della Lega \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/04/Lavori\_alla\_villa\_Gemonio\_con\_co\_9\_120404024\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 April 2012}} Maroni, who had already called for Belsito's resignation as early as in January, asked for his immediate replacement. Belsito resigned a few hours later and was replaced by [Stefano Stefani](/wiki/Stefano_Stefani "Stefano Stefani").{{cite news \|first1\=Claudio \|last1\=Del Frate \|title\=Maroni: dobbiamo fare pulizia E il Cavaliere difende il Senatur \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/04/Maroni\_dobbiamo\_fare\_pulizia\_Cavaliere\_co\_9\_120404088\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 April 2012}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Via Bellerio, ore 16\.30\. Il Senatur si dimette \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/06/Via\_Bellerio\_ore\_Senatur\_dimette\_co\_8\_120406004\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=6 April 2012}}
More shockingly, on 5 April, Bossi resigned as the federal secretary. The party's federal council then appointed a triumvirate composed of Maroni, Calderoli and [Manuela Dal Lago](/wiki/Manuela_Dal_Lago "Manuela Dal Lago"), who would lead the party until a new federal congress was held. Bossi, however, was then elected the federal president. On 12 April, the federal council expelled both Belsito and Mauro and decided that a federal congress would be held at the end of June.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Maroni: "Via loro, o lascio" Espulsi Belsito e Rosi Mauro \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/13/Maroni\_Via\_loro\_lascio\_Espulsi\_co\_9\_120413102\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=13 April 2012}} In the 6β7 May local elections, the League was crushed almost everywhere{{cite news \|first1\=Dino \|last1\=Martirano \|title\=Schiaffo a Pdl e Lega, regge il Pd \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/maggio/08/Schiaffo\_Pdl\_Lega\_regge\_Pd\_co\_8\_120508015\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=8 May 2012}} while retaining the city of Verona, where Tosi, the incumbent mayor, was re\-elected by a landslide;{{cite news \|first1\=Giuseppe \|last1\=Sarcina \|title\=Verona Brinda Tosi, l'anti Bossi: "Il futuro Γ¨ qui" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/maggio/08/Verona\_Brinda\_Tosi\_anti\_Bossi\_co\_8\_120508039\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan}} and a few other strongholds.
The BossiβBelsito scandal finally resulted, on 7 August 2019, in a sentence by [Italy's highest court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 "Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)"), according to which the LN was to pay back 49 million euros.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-italy\-politics\-league\-court/italys\-top\-court\-upholds\-seizure\-of\-league\-funds\-over\-corruption\-idUSKCN1UX0ZB \|title\=Italy's top court upholds seizure of League funds over corruption \|date\=7 August 2019 \|access\-date\=8 August 2019}}
### Leadership of Maroni
At the beginning of June, after having secured the leadership of several national sections of the party, Maroni and his followers scored two big victories at the congresses of the two largest "nations", Lombardy and Veneto: Matteo Salvini was elected secretary of Lega Lombarda with 74% of the votes{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=La prima vittoria di Maroni Ma Bossi: non\-andrΓ² in pensione \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/giugno/03/prima\_vittoria\_Maroni\_Bossi\_non\_co\_8\_120603018\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=3 June 2012}} while Flavio Tosi fended off a challenge by the [Venetists](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism")' and Bossi's loyalists' standard\-bearer [Massimo Bitonci](/wiki/Massimo_Bitonci "Massimo Bitonci"), defeating him 57%β43%.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Bis di Maroni al congresso veneto Tosi vince ma la "Liga" si spacca \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/giugno/04/Bis\_Maroni\_congresso\_veneto\_Tosi\_co\_8\_120604031\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 June 2012}}
[thumb\|250px\|Roberto Maroni speaks at the federal congress in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"), 1 July 2012](/wiki/File:Discorso_Maroni_al_congresso_federale_Lega_Nord_2012.jpg "Discorso Maroni al congresso federale Lega Nord 2012.jpg")
On 1 July, Maroni was virtually unanimously elected federal secretary. The party's constitution was changed in order to make Bossi federal president for life, to restructure the federal organisation and to give more autonomy to the national sections, in fact transforming the federation into a confederation.{{cite news \|first1\=Claudio \|last1\=Del Frate \|title\=Maroni leader della Lega: "Via da Roma" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/luglio/02/Maroni\_leader\_della\_Lega\_Via\_co\_9\_120702035\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=2 July 2012}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=La regia di Zaia per il cambio di stagione "Basta riserva indiana, ora concretezza" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/luglio/02/regia\_Zaia\_per\_cambio\_stagione\_co\_9\_120702026\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=2 July 2012}}
At the [2013 general election](/wiki/2013_Italian_general_election "2013 Italian general election"), which saw the rise of the [Five Star Movement](/wiki/Five_Star_Movement "Five Star Movement") (M5S), the League won a mere 4\.1% of the vote (β4\.2pp).[Corriere della Sera](http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/camera/index.shtml) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310135414/http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/camera/index.shtml \|date\=10 March 2013 }}. Corriere.it. Retrieved 24 August 2013\. However, in the simultaneous [2013 regional election in Lombardy](/wiki/2013_Lombard_regional_election "2013 Lombard regional election") the party won the big prize: Maroni was elected President by defeating his Democratic opponent 42\.8% to 38\.2%. The League, which retrieved 12\.9% in Lombardy in the general election, garnered 23\.2% (combined result of party list, 13\.0% and Maroni's personal list, 10\.2%) in the regional election.[LOMBARDIA: Risultati elezioni regionali β Elezioni 2013](http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/SEAS/regionali/20130224000000_71_REGIONE_3.shtml) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711091851/http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/SEAS/regionali/20130224000000\_71\_REGIONE\_3\.shtml \|date\=11 July 2015 }}. Corriere.it. Retrieved 24 August 2013\. All three big regions of the North were thus governed by the League.
In September 2013, Maroni announced he would soon leave the party's leadership.{{cite news \|first1\=Anna \|last1\=Gandolfi \|title\=L'annuncio di Maroni: lascio la segreteria entro Natale \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/settembre/02/annuncio\_Maroni\_lascio\_segreteria\_entro\_co\_0\_20130902\_7b471db2\-1393\-11e3\-b851\-d970976d2918\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=2 September 2013}}{{cite news \|author\=Albertino \|title\=Maroni abdica. Tosi va verso la Balena Verde. La Lega non\-si sa \|url\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2013/09/maroni\-abdica\-tosi\-va\-verso\-la\-balena\-verde\-la\-lega\-non\-si\-sa/ \|newspaper\=\[\[L'intraprendente]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=3 September 2013}} A congress was scheduled for mid December and in accordance to the new rules set for the [leadership election](/wiki/2013_Lega_Nord_leadership_election "2013 Lega Nord leadership election") five candidates filed their bid to become secretary: Umberto Bossi, Matteo Salvini, [Giacomo Stucchi](/wiki/Giacomo_Stucchi "Giacomo Stucchi"), [Manes Bernardini](/wiki/Manes_Bernardini "Manes Bernardini") and [Roberto Stefanazzi](/wiki/Roberto_Stefanazzi "Roberto Stefanazzi").{{cite news \|first1\=Cesare \|last1\=Zapperi \|title\=Stucchi scende in campo per il fronte anti\-Salvini \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/novembre/12/Stucchi\_scende\_campo\_per\_fronte\_co\_0\_20131112\_3bd7a334\-4b62\-11e3\-94e1\-503ecbe82dc7\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=12 November 2013}} Of these, only Bossi and Salvini gathered the 1,000 necessary signatures by party members to take part to the internal "primary" and Salvini collected four times the signatures gathered by Bossi.{{cite news \|title\=Segreteria Lega, in corsa Salvini e Bossi \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/2013/11/28/italia/politica/segreteria\-lega\-in\-corsa\-salvini\-e\-bossi\-YwZ8k8e7ft4OQE3wLMHSTO/pagina.html \|work\=\[\[La Stampa]] \|location\=Turin \|date\=28 November 2013}}
### Leadership of Salvini
[thumb\|180px\|[Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini"), 2018](/wiki/File:Matteo_Salvini_Viminale_%28cropped%29.jpg "Matteo Salvini Viminale (cropped).jpg")
On 7 December, Salvini, endorsed by Maroni and most leading members (including Tosi, who had renounced a bid of his own), trounced Bossi with 82% of the vote in the "primary".{{cite news \|title\=Lega: primarie, a Salvini l'81,66% dei voti a Bossi il 18,34% \|url\=http://www.adnkronos.com/IGN/News/Politica/Lega\-primarie\-a\-Salvini\-l8166\-dei\-voti\-a\-Bossi\-il\-1834\_32965449296\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Adnkronos]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=8 December 2013}} His election was ratified a week later by the party's federal congress in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin").{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Parte l'era di Salvini E Bossi difende l'euro \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/dicembre/16/Parte\_era\_Salvini\_Bossi\_difende\_co\_0\_20131216\_cee787e8\-661a\-11e3\-9ab1\-d0a8f0dc30ed.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=16 December 2013}} Under Salvini, the party embraced a very critical view of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mattinonline.ch/matteo\-salvini\-basta\-essere\-succubi\-dellunione\-europea\-e\-di\-roma/ \|title\=Matteo Salvini: "Basta essere succubi dell'Unione Europea e di Roma" Mattinonline \|website\=Mattinonline.ch \|date\=16 December 2013 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}} especially of the [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro"), which he described a "crime against mankind".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/web/notizie/rubriche/politica/2013/12/15/Lega\-Salvini\-contro\-euro\-Crimine\-contro\-umanita\-\_9781968\.html \|title\=Lega, Salvini contro euro: 'Crimine contro l'umanitΓ ' \|work\=ANSA.it \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} Ahead of the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2014 European Parliament election in Italy"), Salvini started to cooperate with [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen "Marine Le Pen"), leader of the French [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 "National Rally (France)"); and [Geert Wilders](/wiki/Geert_Wilders "Geert Wilders"), leader of the Dutch [Party for Freedom](/wiki/Party_for_Freedom "Party for Freedom").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2013\-12\-13/\-europa\-marine\-pen\-preferisce\-salvini\-e\-lega\-nord\-beppe\-grillo\-\-210854\.shtml?uuid\=ABCNPxj \|title\=Europa, Marine Le Pen preferisce Salvini e la Lega Nord a Beppe Grillo \|work\=Il Sole 24 ORE \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\-al\-congresso\-della\-lega\-marine\-le\-pen\-e\-wilders/ \|title\=Salvini: "Al congresso della Lega Marine Le Pen e Wilders" \| L'Indipendenza Nuova \|website\=Lindipendenza.com \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118180126/http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\-al\-congresso\-della\-lega\-marine\-le\-pen\-e\-wilders/ \|archive\-date\=18 November 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\-lega\-ha\-terreno\-comune\-con\-le\-pen\-il\-23\-no\-euro\-day\-20131114\_085012\.shtml \|title\=askanews \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117090525/http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\-lega\-ha\-terreno\-comune\-con\-le\-pen\-il\-23\-no\-euro\-day\-20131114\_085012\.shtml \|archive\-date\=17 November 2013}} All this was criticised by Bossi, who re\-called his left\-wing roots;{{cite web \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2014/04/03/news/umberto\_bossi\_il\_blitz\_del\_ros\_colpa\_dei\_servizi\_la\_gente\_si\_incazza\-82617710/ \|title\=Umberto Bossi: "Il blitz del Ros? Colpa dei Servizi, la gente si incazza" \|author\=di LAVINIA RIVARA \|date\=3 April 2014 \|work\=la Repubblica \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/bossi\-con\-le\-pen\-alleanza\-transitoria\-boso\-la\-lega\-non\-e\-di\-destra/ \|title\=Bossi: con Le Pen alleanza transitoria. Boso: la Lega non Γ¨ di destra \| L'Indipendenza Nuova \|website\=Lindipendenza.com \|date\=29 May 2014 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331194736/http://lindipendenza.com/bossi\-con\-le\-pen\-alleanza\-transitoria\-boso\-la\-lega\-non\-e\-di\-destra/ \|archive\-date\=31 March 2016}} and Tosi, who represented the party's centrist wing and defended the Euro.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2014\-02\-05/tosi\-non\-si\-puo\-uscire\-euro\-italia\-sarebbe\-preda\-speculazioni\-162427\.shtml?uuid\=ABm2Vfu \|title\=Tosi: non si puΓ² uscire dall'euro. L'Italia sarebbe preda di speculazioni \|work\=Il Sole 24 ORE \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}
In the European election, the party, which ran on a "Stop the Euro" ticket, emphasised [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism "Euroscepticism") and welcomed candidates from other anti\-Euro and/or autonomist movements, notably including [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol")'s [Freiheitlichen](/wiki/Die_Freiheitlichen "Die Freiheitlichen"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\-6842ea78\-18ff\-4644\-9f74\-94fe3384a6b3\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090834/http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\-6842ea78\-18ff\-4644\-9f74\-94fe3384a6b3\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=7 April 2014 \|title\=Salvini: nuovo simbolo Lega per Europee \|work\=rainews \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2014/03/31/lega\-nuovo\-simbolo\-per\-le\-europee\-via\-scritta\-padania\-al\-suo\-posto\-basta\-euro/933161/ \|title\=Europee 2014, nuovo simbolo Lega. Via scritta "Padania", al suo posto "Basta euro" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \|author\=RQuotidiano \|work\=Il Fatto Quotidiano \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=31 March 2014 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/lombardia/notizie/2014/03/31/salvini\-simbolo\-lega\-con\-basta\-euro\_e1c158f9\-4274\-4f66\-8156\-0026e5a23811\.html \|title\=Salvini: simbolo Lega con 'Basta euro' \|work\=ANSA.it \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=31 March 2014 }} obtained 6\.2% of the vote and five [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament "Member of the European Parliament").{{cite web \|url\=http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \|title\=\[Scrutini] Europee β Elezioni del 25 maggio 2014 β Ministero dell'Interno \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=20 August 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820195718/http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \|url\-status\=dead }} The result was far worse than that of the previous [European election in 2009](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2009 European Parliament election in Italy") (β4\.0pp), but better than that of 2013 general election (\+2\.1pp). The LN came third with 15\.2% in Veneto (where Tosi obtained many more votes than Salvini, showing his popular support once for all and proving how the party was far from united on the anti\-Euro stance),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2014/05/la\-grande\-vittoria\-politica\-di\-tosi/ \|title\=La grande vittoria (politica) di Tosi \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=26 May 2014 }} ahead of the new [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 "Forza Italia (2013)") (FI) and the other PdL's spin\-offs; and fourth in Lombardy with 14\.6%. Salvini was triumphant, despite the party had [lost](/wiki/2014_Piedmontese_regional_election "2014 Piedmontese regional election") Piedmont to the Democrats after Cota had been forced to resign due to irregularities committed by one of its supporting lists in filing the slates for the 2010 election and had decided not to stand. Moreover, Bitonci was elected mayor of [Padua](/wiki/Padua "Padua"), a centre\-left stronghold.
The party's federal congress, summoned in Padua in July 2014, approved Salvini's political line, especially a plan for the introduction of a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax") and the creation of a sister party in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy")\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy "Insular Italy").{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/luglio/21/Salvini\_avverte\_nuova\_Lega\_corre\_co\_0\_20140721\_7fa8c8fe\-1097\-11e4\-80f9\-2e3c33391d10\.shtml \|title\=Salvini avverte: la nuova Lega corre da sola \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} In November, the [Emilia\-Romagna regional election](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election "2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election") represented a major step for Salvini's "national project": the LN, which won 19\.4% of the vote, was the [region](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna")'s second\-largest and resulted far ahead of FI, paving the way for a bid for the leadership of the [centre\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_in_Italy "Centre-right in Italy").{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/24/Lega\_doppia\_Forza\_Italia\_urlo\_co\_0\_20141124\_68460c56\-73a9\-11e4\-b779\-766ff3003bac.shtml \|title\=La Lega doppia Forza Italia L?urlo di Salvini: "Γ storico" \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} In December, [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini "Us with Salvini") (NcS) was launched. The party's growing popularity among voters was reflected also by a constant rise in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2018_Italian_general_election "Opinion polling for the 2018 Italian general election").
In March 2015, after a long struggle between Tosi and Zaia, who was backed by Salvini, over the party's candidates in the upcoming [regional election in Veneto](/wiki/2015_Venetian_regional_election "2015 Venetian regional election"), Tosi was removed from national secretary of Liga Veneta and ejected from the federal party altogether.{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2015/marzo/11/Salvini\_rottura\_nella\_Lega\_Tosi\_co\_0\_20150311\_19ef6226\-c7bb\-11e4\-80a1\-d57600bcc7ce.shtml \|title\=Salvini e la rottura nella Lega: Tosi non Γ¨ piΓΉ un militante del partito \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} However, the [2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections "2015 Italian regional elections") were another success for the LN, especially in Veneto, where Zaia was handily re\-elected with 50\.1% of the vote (Tosi got 11\.9%) and the combined score of party's and Zaia's personal lists was 40\.9%. The party also came second in [Liguria](/wiki/2015_Ligurian_regional_election "2015 Ligurian regional election") (22\.3%) and [Tuscany](/wiki/2015_Tuscan_regional_election "2015 Tuscan regional election") (16\.2%), third in [Marche](/wiki/2015_Marche_regional_election "2015 Marche regional election") (13\.0%) and [Umbria](/wiki/2015_Umbrian_regional_election "2015 Umbrian regional election") (14\.0%).
After the [2016 local elections](/wiki/2016_Italian_local_elections "2016 Italian local elections") in which the party ran below expectations in Lombardy (while doing well in Venetoβthanks to Zaia, Emilia\-Romagna and Tuscany) and the NcS performed badly,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lettera43\.it/politica/il\-fallimento\-di\-salvini\-leader\-del\-centrodestra\_43675250391\.htm \|title\=Il fallimento di Salvini leader del centrodestra \|date\=20 June 2016 \|access\-date\=22 June 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926103602/http://www.lettera43\.it/politica/il\-fallimento\-di\-salvini\-leader\-del\-centrodestra\_43675250391\.htm \|archive\-date\=26 September 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://formiche.net/2016/06/20/ecco\-come\-ballottaggi\-ridimensionano\-matteo\-salvini/ \|title\=Ecco come i ballottaggi ridimensionano Matteo Salvini \|first\=Pietro Di \|last\=Michele \|date\=20 June 2016 \|website\=Formiche.net}}{{cite web \|url\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2016/7\-giugno\-2016/lega\-miete\-consensi\-comuni\-pd\-soffre\-grillini\-non\-sfondano\-240526451658\.shtml \|title\=La Lega miete consensi nei Comuni Il Pd soffre, i grillini non\-sfondano \|first\=Marco \|last\=Bonet\|date\=7 June 2016 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\-lega\-di\-zaia\-vince\-su\-quella\-di\-salvini\-1\.4949687 \|title\=La Lega di Zaia vince su quella di Salvini \|first\=SocietΓ Editrice Athesis \|last\=S.p.A. \|access\-date\=22 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=19 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119072135/https://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\-lega\-di\-zaia\-vince\-su\-quella\-di\-salvini\-1\.4949687 \|url\-status\=dead }} Salvini's political line came under pressure from Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi "Paolo Grimoldi"), the new leader of Lega Lombarda. In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election "2017 Lega Nord leadership election"), Salvini, who was focused on becoming the leader of the centre\-right{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/speciali/referendum/2016/11/11/referendum\-berlusconi\-dopo\-412\-cambiare\-italicum\-e\-votare\_c30e6b23\-8384\-4167\-8ed1\-ea5c2bd88caf.html \|title\=Salvini: "Io candidato premier? Se chiedono ci sono. Col no si va a votare" β Referendum \|date\=11 November 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\_novembre\_12/matteo\-salvini\-firenze\-pronto\-candidarmi\-come\-premier\-8bf1731c\-a8e9\-11e6\-b875\-b27331f307f4\.shtml \|title\=Matteo Salvini a Firenze: "Pronto a candidarmi come premier" \|first\=Annalisa \|last\=Grandi\|date\=11 December 2016 }} and possibly changing the LN's name by ditching the word "North",{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\_ottobre\_25/lega\-congresso\-togliere\-parola\-nord\-e56a6d54\-9a25\-11e6\-939e\-ec3a0eea054f.shtml \|title\=Lega, un congresso per togliere la parola Nord \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi\|date\=24 October 2016 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/salvini\-vuole\-togliere\-nord\-nome\-lega\-1323142\.html\|title\=Salvini vuole togliere il "Nord" al nome della Lega\|first\=Ivan\|last\=Francese\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=25 October 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\-nord\-cambia\-nome\-addio\-nord.html\|title\=Clamoroso Salvini, addio Lega Nord. Mossa\-terremoto, caos nel partito\|website\=www.liberoquotidiano.it\|access\-date\=12 March 2019\|archive\-date\=12 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140733/http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\-nord\-cambia\-nome\-addio\-nord.html\|url\-status\=dead}} was re\-elected leader of the party with 82\.7% of the vote against his opponent [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava "Gianni Fava")'s 17\.3%.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_maggio\_14/bossi\-se\-vince\-salvini\-lega\-finita\-io\-valutero\-d660bdcc\-38b8\-11e7\-8530\-ea2b12fbdf2c.shtml\|title\=Salvini stravince le primarie Bossi: "La Lega Γ¨ finita, io valuterΓ²"\|last\=Zapperi\|first\=Cesare\|date\=14 May 2017}} Consequently, Salvini launched his campaign to become [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy "Prime Minister of Italy").
In the meantime, the LN campaigned heavily for [Veneto](/wiki/2017_Venetian_autonomy_referendum "2017 Venetian autonomy referendum")'s and [Lombardy](/wiki/2017_Lombard_autonomy_referendum "2017 Lombard autonomy referendum")'s autonomy referendums, which took place on 22 October. In Veneto, the turnout was 57\.2% and those who voted "yes" reached 98\.1% whereas in Lombardy the figures were 38\.3% and 95\.3%.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/world/europe/lombardy\-veneto\-referendums.html \|title\=Italian Regions of Lombardy and Veneto Vote for More Autonomy \|first\=Elisabetta \|last\=Povoledo \|date\=22 October 2017 \|newspaper\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \|last1\=Sanderson \|first1\=Rachel \|date\=23 October 2017 \|title\=Italy's richest regions vote overwhelmingly for greater autonomy \|website\=Financial Times \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\-b7dc\-11e7\-8c12\-5661783e5589 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\-b7dc\-11e7\-8c12\-5661783e5589 \|archive\-date\=10 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21730602\-unlike\-catalonia\-no\-one\-asking\-independence\-yet\-northern\-italy\-votes\-more\-autonomy \|title\=Northern Italy votes for more autonomy\|newspaper\=The Economist\|date\=26 October 2017}} When the referendums were over, with strong opposition by Bossi, Salvini persuaded the party's federal council to style the party simply as "Lega", including NcS, in the upcoming general election.["Italy's rebranded Lega seeks national posture for 2018 vote"](http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy-rebranded-lega-seeks-national-posture-2018-vote-article-1.3713674) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519032906/http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy\-rebranded\-lega\-seeks\-national\-posture\-2018\-vote\-article\-1\.3713674 \|date\=19 May 2018 }}.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018\-02\-20/italy\-s\-northern\-league\-is\-suddenly\-in\-love\-with\-the\-south \|title\=Italy's Northern League Is Suddenly in Love With the South \|date\=20 February 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|publisher\=Bloomberg L.P.}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_ottobre\_28/lega\-toglie\-parola\-nord\-calderoli\-salvini\-bossi\-71d8cdd6\-bb4e\-11e7\-8ef5\-94a13146dc45\.shtml \|title\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: "Fascista" \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi\|newspaper\=Corriere della Sera \|date\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/10/27/news/lega\_nord\_nuovo\_simbolo\-179501278 \|title\=Lega, nuovo simbolo senza "nord". Salvini: "SarΓ valido per tutta Italia" \|date\=27 October 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_ottobre\_28/lega\-toglie\-parola\-nord\-calderoli\-salvini\-bossi\-71d8cdd6\-bb4e\-11e7\-8ef5\-94a13146dc45\.shtml \|title\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: "Fascista" \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-italy\-election\-league/italys\-league\-leaves\-northern\-bastions\-bangs\-anti\-migrant\-drum\-idUSKBN1FT1Q9 \|title\=Italy's League leaves northern bastions, bangs anti\-migrant drum \|date\=9 February 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|agency\=Reuters\|newspaper\=Reuters }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2013/12/07/primarie\-lega\-salvini\-vince\-82\-bossi\-fermo\-18\_n\_4404640\.html \|title\=Primarie Lega, vince Matteo Salvini con l'82%. Umberto Bossi si ferma al 18% \|date\=7 December 2013 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_settembre\_17/bossi\-lega\-pontida\-salvini\-solitudina\-ormai\-devo\-andar\-via\-b27e8798\-9be8\-11e7\-99a4\-e70f8a929b5c.shtml \|title\=La solitudine di Bossi: "Non Γ¨ piΓΉ Pontida, ormai devo andar via" \|first\=Marco Cremonesi, dal nostro inviato a \|last\=Pontida \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=17 September 2017 }} Additionally, Salvini toned down his stances against the European Union and the Euro in order to make an alliance with FI possible.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/lega\-e\-m5s\-ammainano\-bandiera\-anti\-euro\-1409067\.html\|title\=Lega e M5s ammainano la bandiera anti euro\|first\=Pasquale\|last\=Napolitano\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=14 June 2017}}{{cite news \|url\=https://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\-OITTP \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170851/http://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\-OITTP \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=3 September 2017 \|title\=Salvini: Lega non\-proporrΓ referendum su euro, "non\-si puΓ² fare" \|first\=Reuters \|last\=Editorial\|newspaper\=Reuters \|date\=3 September 2017 }}
Despite misgivings by Bossi and the Padanist old guard, the party still had a strong [autonomist](/wiki/Autonomism_%28political_doctrine%29 "Autonomism (political doctrine)") outlook in the northern regions,{{Cite web \| url\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/economia/18\_ottobre\_23/onda\-sovranista\-88df1d68\-d6c4\-11e8\-86b1\-93f92584e776\.shtml \| title\=Veneto, Lega pigliatutto anche in Trentino fra sovranismo e autonomismo\| date\=23 October 2018}} especially in Veneto where [Venetian nationalism](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism") was stronger than ever before.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.limesonline.com/perche\-il\-veneto\-non\-si\-sente\-italia/100953 \| title\=PerchΓ© il Veneto non si sente Italia\| date\=8 August 2017}}{{Cite web\| url\=https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\-di\-soligo/17934\-veneto\-texas\-d\-italia\-intervista\-a\-giovanni\-collot\-di\-conegliano\| title\="Veneto Texas d'Italia": l'Analista politico Giovanni Collot di Conegliano in redazione\| date\=17 September 2017\| access\-date\=24 October 2018\| archive\-date\=6 February 2020\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206175023/https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\-di\-soligo/17934\-veneto\-texas\-d\-italia\-intervista\-a\-giovanni\-collot\-di\-conegliano\| url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web \| url\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/referendum\-autonomia\-lombardia\-e\-veneto/notizie/venezia\-06\-07\-t1corriereveneto\-web\-veneto\-f4d4bac2\-b7bd\-11e7\-a918\-737504981ad0\.shtml \| title\=La questione Veneta\| date\=23 October 2017}} Additionally, the League maintained its power base in the North, where it continued to get most of its support.
### Yellow\-green coalition
{{See also\|2018 Italian government formation\|First Conte government}}
[thumb\|220px\|Placard for the [2018 electoral campaign](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election "2018 Italian general election"), resembling [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump")'s one in [2016](/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign%2C_2016 "Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016")](/wiki/File:Salvini_Premier.jpg "Salvini Premier.jpg")
The League ran in the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election "2018 Italian general election") within the four\-party [centre\-right coalition](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 "Centre-right coalition (Italy)"), also composed of FI, [Brothers of Italy](/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy "Brothers of Italy") (FdI) and [Us with Italy](/wiki/Us_with_Italy "Us with Italy") (NcI), which formed a joint list with the [Union of the Centre](/wiki/Union_of_the_Centre_%282002%29 "Union of the Centre (2002)") (UdC). In a further effort to broaden its base, the League welcomed in its electoral slates several independents, notably including [Giulia Bongiorno](/wiki/Giulia_Bongiorno "Giulia Bongiorno"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/18\_gennaio\_19/elezioni\-2018\-bongiorno\-va\-la\-lega\-salvini\-e142d7fa\-fc96\-11e7\-80a4\-a8d109924739\.shtml \|title\=Bongiorno va con la Lega: "Salvini Γ¨ concreto, come Andreotti" \|first\=Dino \|last\=Martirano \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=18 January 2018 }} and [Alberto Bagnai](/wiki/Alberto_Bagnai "Alberto Bagnai"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/elezioni\-2018/notizie/lega\-borghi\-bagnai\-candidati\-sfida\-due\-economisti\-anti\-euro\-elezioni\-2018\-92e5ba6e\-004c\-11e8\-9961\-f20884a97d4b.shtml \|title\=Lega, Borghi e Bagnai candidati: la sfida dei due economisti anti euro \|first\=Claudio \|last\=Bozza \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=23 January 2018 }} as well as a wide range of minor parties, including the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party "Sardinian Action Party") (PSd'Az),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.unionesarda.it/articolo/politica\_italiana/2018/01/24/lega\_psd\_az\_oggi\_l\_accordo\_salvini\_arrivato\_a\_cagliari\-1\-689984\.html \|title\=Lega\-Psd'Az, arriva l'accordo: Salvini a Cagliari β Politica β L'Unione Sarda.it \|date\=24 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} the [Italian Liberal Party](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party_%281997%29 "Italian Liberal Party (1997)") (PLI){{cite web \|url\=https://www.agenziagiornalisticaopinione.it/lancio\-dagenzia/lega\-elezioni\-raggiunto\-laccordo\-partito\-liberale\-italiano \|title\=lega \* elezioni: "raggiunto l'accordo con il partito liberale italiano" β Agenzia giornalistica Opinione \|date\=31 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} and the [National Movement for Sovereignty](/wiki/National_Movement_for_Sovereignty "National Movement for Sovereignty") (MNS).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.movimento\-nazionale.it/news/candidati\-del\-movimento\-nazionale\-per\-la\-sovranita\-2 \|publisher\=Movimento\-nazionale.it \|date\=30 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|title\=CANDIDATI DEL MOVIMENTO NAZIONALE PER LA SOVRANITA' β Movimento Nazionale per la SovranitΓ \|archive\-date\=2 March 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302012311/http://www.movimento\-nazionale.it/news/candidati\-del\-movimento\-nazionale\-per\-la\-sovranita\-2/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The League obtained a resounding success, becoming the third largest party in Italy with 17\.4% of the vote (\+13\.3pp). The ticket won most of its votes in the North (including 32\.2% in Veneto, 28\.0% in Lombardy, 26\.7% in Trentino, 25\.8% in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia and 22\.6% in Piedmont) while making inroads elsewhere, especially in central Italy (notably 20\.2% in Umbria), the upper part of the South (13\.8% in [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo "Abruzzo")) and [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia "Sardinia") (10\.8%).
In the simultaneous [regional election in Lombardy](/wiki/2018_Lombard_regional_election "2018 Lombard regional election"), LN's [Attilio Fontana](/wiki/Attilio_Fontana "Attilio Fontana") ran for President after Maroni, increasingly critical of Salvini,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ilfoglio.it/politica/2018/01/11/news/io\-salvini\-il\-cav\-e\-renzi\-il\-gran\-manifesto\-anti\-populista\-di\-maroni\-172516/ \|title\=Io, Salvini, il Cav. e Renzi. Il gran manifesto anti populista di Maroni \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/18\_gennaio\_11/lega\-l\-affondo\-maroni\-a227da28\-f6a8\-11e7\-b0f9\-ae3913959e9e.shtml \|title\=Maroni: "Con me Salvini si Γ¨ comportato da stalinista" \|first\=Redazione \|last\=Politica \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} chose not to run for a second term and step aside from politics.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2018\-01\-08/maroni\-la\-rinuncia\-corsa\-lombardia\-071748\.shtml \|title\=Maroni rinuncia alla Lombardia, Fontana in pole per la successione \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} Fontana was elected with 49\.8% of the vote and the party scored 29\.4%. In late April in the [regional election in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia](/wiki/2018_Friuli-Venezia_Giulia_regional_election "2018 Friuli-Venezia Giulia regional election"), LN's [Massimiliano Fedriga](/wiki/Massimiliano_Fedriga "Massimiliano Fedriga") was elected with 57\.1% of the vote and the party scored 34\.9%.
As neither of the three main groupings (the centre\-right, the PD\-led [centre\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_coalition_%28Italy%29 "Centre-left coalition (Italy)") and the M5S) obtained a majority of seats in Parliament, the League entered in coalition talks with the M5S which was the most voted party with 32\.7% of the vote. The talks resulted in the proposal of the so\-called "government of change" under the leadership of [Giuseppe Conte](/wiki/Giuseppe_Conte "Giuseppe Conte"), a law professor close to the M5S.["Conte says to be Italians' defence lawyer in govt of change"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2018/05/23/conte-says-to-be-italians-defence-lawyer-in-govt-of-change_3294ff64-f175-4f2d-8323-c775d270645c.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204540/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2018/05/23/conte\-says\-to\-be\-italians\-defence\-lawyer\-in\-govt\-of\-change\_3294ff64\-f175\-4f2d\-8323\-c775d270645c.html \|date\=29 May 2018 }}. After some bickering with President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella "Sergio Mattarella"),["Mattarella meets Conte, 'vetoed' Savona"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/mattarella-meets-conte-vetoed-savona_48b12bb2-f239-462d-83db-fca1f68d70b6.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204506/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/mattarella\-meets\-conte\-vetoed\-savona\_48b12bb2\-f239\-462d\-83db\-fca1f68d70b6\.html \|date\=29 May 2018 }}.["Conte drops govt bid"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/conte-drops-govt-bid_e9254d0f-03bd-4699-8599-8ec8edbcf626.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204539/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/conte\-drops\-govt\-bid\_e9254d0f\-03bd\-4699\-8599\-8ec8edbcf626\.html \|date\=29 May 2018 }}. Conte's [government](/wiki/First_Conte_government "First Conte government"), which was dubbed by the media as Western European "first all\-populist government", was sworn in on 1 June. The cabinet featured Salvini as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior, [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti "Giancarlo Giorgetti") as Secretary of the Council and four other League members (plus an independent close to the party) as ministers.["Governo Conte, la lista di tutti i ministri: Salvini allβInterno e Di Maio al Welfare. Saranno vicepremier"](https://roma.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18_maggio_31/governo-conte-moavero-milanesi-esteri-savona-affari-europei-564a07a8-64f7-11e8-95f7-d0bed95533ca.shtml) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601060250/https://roma.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18\_maggio\_31/governo\-conte\-moavero\-milanesi\-esteri\-savona\-affari\-europei\-564a07a8\-64f7\-11e8\-95f7\-d0bed95533ca.shtml \|date\=1 June 2018 }}.
During 2019, along with the LN's membership recruitment in the Centre\-North, the party launched a parallel drive in the Centre\-South for the LSP,{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.tpi.it/2018/07/08/doppie\-tessere\-lega\-salvini \| title\=Lo strano caso delle doppie tessere della Lega: CosΓ¬ Salvini si Γ¨ fatto due partiti\| date\=8 July 2018}} practically supplanting NcS. It was a sign that the LSP, whose party constitution had been published in the *[Gazzetta Ufficiale](/wiki/Gazzetta_Ufficiale "Gazzetta Ufficiale")* in December 2017{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/vediMenuHTML;jsessionid\=zLkAYtiVQi8t\+yqW\+98Yfw\_\_.ntc\-as1\-guri2a?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta\=2017\-12\-14\&atto.codiceRedazionale\=17A08410\&tipoSerie\=serie\_generale\&tipoVigenza\=originario\|title\=\*\*\* ATTO COMPLETO \*\*\*\|website\=www.gazzettaufficiale.it}} and had been described as a "parallel party",{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/centrodestra\-salvini\-seppellisce\-il\-vecchio\-carroccio\-e\-fonda\-un\-altro\-partito\-dfa2c0d9\-9f75\-4983\-95ae\-110f83bbbb4b.html \| title\=Centrodestra. Salvini seppellisce il vecchio Carroccio e fonda un altro partito\| date\=24 January 2018}}{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/premium/articoli/soldi\-e\-poltrone\-salvini\-schiera\-il\-partito\-parallelo \| title\=Lega, Salvini schiera il "partito parallelo" per seppellire il vecchio Carroccio su cui pendono sequestri e confische}} might eventually replace both the LN and NcS. In the meantime, the parties' joint parliamentary groups were named "LeagueβSalvini Premier" in the Chamber{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.camera.it/leg18/1083 \| title\=XVIII Legislatura β Deputati e Organi β Modifiche intervenute}} and "LeagueβSalvini PremierβSardinian Action Party" in the Senate.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.senato.it/Leg18/4839 \| title\=Senato.it β Senato della Repubblica senato.it β Variazioni dei Gruppi parlamentari}} According to some news sources, Salvini wanted to launch a brand\-new party and absorb most of the centre\-right parties into it.{{Cite web \| url\=https://milano.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18\_agosto\_31/partito\-unico\-centrodestra\-piano\-salvini\-il\-5\-settembre\-3999f4ee\-aca8\-11e8\-a56f\-72aa622a097c.shtml \| title\=Il piano di Salvini dopo il 5 settembre: Partito unico del centrodestra\| date\=31 August 2018}}{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\-il\-piano\-segreto\-per\-un\-partito\-unico\-del\-centrodestra\-a\-settembre\-557650\.html \| title\=Salvini, il piano per un partito unico del centrodestra e Palazzo Chigi β Affaritaliani.it\| date\=31 August 2018}}{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/13373027/matteo\-salvini\-rivoluzione\-partito\-unico\-centrodestra\-retroscena\-data\-tribunale\-riesame\-addio\-lega.html \| title\=Rivoluzione Salvini: "Nasce il suo nuovo partito". Il retroscena: Segnatevi la data, qui cambia tutto}}
Since the government's formation, the party was regularly the country's largest party in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_next_Italian_general_election "Opinion polling for the next Italian general election"), at around or over 30%. The party's strength was confirmed in October by the [Trentino\-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol provincial elections](/wiki/2018_Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol_provincial_elections "2018 Trentino-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol provincial elections"): in [Trentino](/wiki/Trentino "Trentino") LN's [Maurizio Fugatti](/wiki/Maurizio_Fugatti "Maurizio Fugatti") was elected President with 46\.7% of the vote and the party scored 27\.1% (despite competition from several autonomist parties), while in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol") it came third with 11\.1% (being the most voted in [Bolzano](/wiki/Bolzano "Bolzano") and, more generally, among Italian\-speakers), leading it to replace the PD as junior partner of the [South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party "South Tyrolean People's Party") in the provincial government coalition.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/politica/2019/01/07/alto\-adige\-svp\-approva\-giunta\-con\-lega\_f325d105\-7456\-4dd1\-8bb9\-d6b8de1e2441\.html\|title\=Alto Adige, Svp approva giunta con Lega β Politica\|date\=7 January 2019\|website\=ANSA.it}}
In the [2019 European Parliament election in Italy](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2019 European Parliament election in Italy"), the League won 34\.3% of the vote, winning for the first time a plurality of the electorate, while the M5S stopped at 17\.1%.{{cite web \| last1\=Amaro \| first1\=Silvia \| title\=Italy's anti\-immigration Lega party enjoys EU election triumph \| url\=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/27/italy\-european\-election\-results.html \| date\=27 May 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[CNBC]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Castelfranco \| first1\=Sabina \| title\=In Italy, Anti\-Migrant Populist Wins Big \| url\=https://www.voanews.com/a/in\-italy\-anti\-migrant\-populist\-wins\-big/4933943\.html \| date\=27 May 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[Voice of America]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \| last1\=Balmer \| first1\=Crispian \| last2\=Amante \| first2\=Angelo \| title\=Italy's ruling League triumphs in EU vote as 5\-Star slumps \| url\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-eu\-election\-italy/italys\-ruling\-league\-triumphs\-in\-eu\-vote\-as\-5\-star\-slumps\-idUKKCN1SW0WZ \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527030420/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\-eu\-election\-italy/italys\-ruling\-league\-triumphs\-in\-eu\-vote\-as\-5\-star\-slumps\-idUKKCN1SW0WZ \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-date\=27 May 2019 \| date\=26 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Reuters]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Follain \| first1\=John \| last2\=Totaro \| first2\=Lorenzo \| title\=Salvini Pulls Rank After Trouncing Five Star in EU Vote \| url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019\-05\-26/salvini\-s\-league\-set\-to\-surge\-but\-premiership\-may\-elude\-him \| date\=26 May 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[Bloomberg News]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}} The election thus weakened the M5S and strengthened Salvini's position within the government.{{cite web \| last1\=Ritter \| first1\=Karl \| last2\=Barry \| first2\=Colleen \| title\=European victory gives Salvini more leverage in Italy \| url\=https://apnews.com/dfd4f5206e5b4152b7dcb337e5fa0356 \| date\=27 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Sciorilli Borrelli \| first1\=Silvia \| last2\=Barigazzi \| first2\=Jacopo \| title\=Salvini wins big β but only in Italy \| url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/european\-parliament\-election\-2019\-matteo\-salvinis\-wins\-big\-but\-only\-in\-italy/ \| date\=27 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Politico]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \| last1\=Galofaro \| first1\=Antonino \| title\=La double victoire de Matteo Salvini \| url\=https://www.letemps.ch/monde/double\-victoire\-matteo\-salvini \| date\=27 May 2019 \| newspaper\=\[\[Le Temps]] \| access\-date\=29 May 2019 \| language\=fr}} At the European level, Salvini worked to create a pan\-European alliance of nationalist political parties, the [European Alliance of Peoples and Nations](/wiki/European_Alliance_of_Peoples_and_Nations "European Alliance of Peoples and Nations"),{{cite news \| last1\=Parodi \| first1\=Emilio \| title\=Nationalist EU parties plan to join forces after May elections \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-eu\-election\-italy/nationalist\-eu\-parties\-plan\-to\-join\-forces\-after\-may\-elections\-idUSKCN1RK10F \| date\=8 April 2019 \| work\=\[\[Reuters]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Barry \| first1\=Colleen \| title\=Italy emerges as ground zero for European extremist populism \| url\=https://www.apnews.com/6ad43709411a4526a0e520869652158e \| date\=3 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Barry \| first1\=Colleen \| title\=Italy's Salvini stakes out post as Europe's populist leader \| url\=https://www.apnews.com/3376a808df2641cf9da01476bcf7a1e9 \| date\=19 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| title\=Salvini seeks European nationalist unity at Milan rally \| url\=https://www.france24\.com/en/20190518\-salvini\-seeks\-european\-nationalist\-unity\-milan\-rally \| date\=18 May 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[France 24]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \| last1\=Giuffrida \| first1\=Angela \| title\=Europe's far\-right leaders unite with a vow to 'change history' \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/may/18/europe\-far\-right\-leaders\-unite\-milan\-vow\-to\-change\-history \| date\=18 May 2019 \| newspaper\=\[\[The Guardian]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}} and he continued these efforts after the election through the [Identity and Democracy Party](/wiki/Identity_and_Democracy_Party "Identity and Democracy Party").{{cite news \| last1\=Guarascio \| first1\=Francesco \| title\=Europe's rising far\-right tries to bury differences to wield clout \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-eu\-election\-right/europes\-rising\-far\-right\-tries\-to\-bury\-differences\-to\-wield\-clout\-idUSKCN1SX1EP \| date\=27 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Reuters]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Hinnant \| first1\=Lori \| title\=Macron vs. Salvini: Two leaders face off over EU's future \| url\=https://www.apnews.com/6152801851684d879999dbcdc62c1e0f \| date\=27 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \| last1\=Squires \| first1\=Nick \| title\=How a triumphant Matteo Salvini plans to build a new coalition of eurosceptics with Nigel Farage and Marine Le Pen \| url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/05/27/matteo\-salvini\-triumphs\-european\-elections\-taking\-nearly\-35/ \| date\=28 May 2019 \| newspaper\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \| last1\=Barry \| first1\=Colleen \| title\=Salvini vows to unite EU populists yet lacks partners \| url\=https://www.apnews.com/f4c8b3c5e07e4924833ff072aed10783 \| date\=28 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Associated Press]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}} In the election the party performed strongly in its northern strongholds, especially Veneto (49\.9%) and Lombardy (43\.4%), obtaining as usual most of its votes in small towns, as well as increasing its share of vote all around the country. The party also obtained notable results in some of the places associated with the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis "European migrant crisis"), from north to south, such as [Bardonecchia](/wiki/Bardonecchia "Bardonecchia"), [Ventimiglia](/wiki/Ventimiglia "Ventimiglia"), [Riace](/wiki/Riace "Riace") and [Lampedusa](/wiki/Lampedusa "Lampedusa").{{cite web \| title\=Italy's migrant 'hot spots' vote for anti\-immigration League \| url\=https://www.thelocal.it/20190527/matteo\-salvini\-league\-italy\-eu\-election\-migrants\-lampedusa\-riace\-ventimiglia \| date\=27 May 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[The Local]] (from \[\[Agence France\-Presse]]) \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \| title\=Italy's dominant Salvini is small town phenomenon, polling data shows \| url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-eu\-election\-salvini\-vote/italys\-dominant\-salvini\-is\-small\-town\-phenomenon\-polling\-data\-shows\-idUSKCN1SX1HT \| date\=27 May 2019 \| work\=\[\[Reuters]] \| access\-date\=28 May 2019}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.welt.de/politik/ausland/live194004943/Juso\-Chef\-Kuehnert\-spricht\-von\-politischem\-Gaffertum\-nach\-der\-Wahl.html\|title\=Juso\-Chef: KΓΌhnert spricht von "politischem Gaffertum" nach der Wahl\|last\=WELT\|date\=2019\-05\-29\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-18}}
In July 2019, a case of attempted Russia\-linked corruption by the League was made public by voice recordings acquired by [BuzzFeed](/wiki/BuzzFeed "BuzzFeed"). The recordings showed Gianluca Savoini, a LN member, meeting with unspecified Russian agents in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), at the same time when Salvini was also in Moscow on an official trip. The meeting centered around providing the party with $65 million of illegal funding by Russia. The matter was made part of a larger investigation by Italian authorities into the League's finances.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/matteo\-salvinis\-party\-under\-investigation\-for\-alleged\-russian\-oil\-deal \|title\=Italian prosecutors investigate League over alleged Russian oil deal claims \|date\=11 July 2019 \|access\-date\=8 August 2019}}{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/albertonardelli/salvini\-russia\-oil\-deal\-secret\-recording \|title\=Revealed: The Explosive Secret Recording That Shows How Russia Tried To Funnel Millions To The "European Trump" \|website\=\[\[BuzzFeed News]] \|date\=10 July 2019 \|access\-date\=8 August 2019}} In February 2019 the Italian magazine *[L'Espresso](/wiki/L%27espresso "L'espresso")* had already published an investigation revealing another 3 million euro funding scheme,{{Cite web\|url\=http://espresso.repubblica.it/inchieste/2019/02/20/news/esclusivo\-lega\-milioni\-russia\-1\.331835\|title\=Esclusivo \- La trattativa segreta per finanziare con soldi russi la Lega di Matteo Salvini\|date\=2019\-02\-21\|website\=L'Espresso\|language\=it\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-23}} paid for by Kremlin\-linked entities and disguised as a diesel sale. That scheme involved the Russian state\-owned oil company [Rosneft](/wiki/Rosneft "Rosneft") selling 3 million dollars worth of diesel to an Italian company. Allegedly, the money was to be transferred from Rosneft to the League through a Russian subsidy of the Italian bank [Intesa Sanpaolo](/wiki/Intesa_Sanpaolo "Intesa Sanpaolo"), in which LN's federal council member Andrea Mascetti was a board member. The money was supposed to fund the coming [European election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election "2019 European Parliament election") campaign. Italian authorities are currently investigating the matter. The League was also an official cooperation partner of the Russian governing party [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia "United Russia").
On 8 August 2019, Salvini announced his intention to leave the coalition with the Five Stars and called for a snap general election.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/09/italys\-matteo\-salvini\-calls\-for\-fresh\-elections\-as\-coalition\-fractures \|title\=Italy's Matteo Salvini calls for fresh elections as coalition fractures \|date\= 9 August 2019 \|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} However, after successful talks between the M5S, and the PD, a [new government](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet "Conte II Cabinet") led by Conte was formed. The League thus returned to opposition, together with its electoral allies of the centre\-right coalition.
The first election after the formation of Conte's second government was the [2019 Umbrian regional election](/wiki/2019_Umbrian_regional_election "2019 Umbrian regional election"). In a traditional stronghold of the centre\-left, the League won 37\.0% of the vote and its candidate [Donatella Tesei](/wiki/Donatella_Tesei "Donatella Tesei") was elected President with 57\.6% of the vote and a 20% lead over Vincenzo Bianconi, who was the candidate of a joint list of centre\-left and M5S.{{cite news \|last1\=Giuffrida \|first1\=Angela \|title\=Salvini's coalition sweeps to power in Umbria elections \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/28/matteo\-salvinis\-coalition\-sweeps\-to\-power\-in\-umbria\-elections \|access\-date\=28 October 2019 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=28 October 2019}}
### 2019 federal congress
During a federal congress on 21 December 2019, the party's constitution undwerwent some major changes, including reduced powers for the federal president, the extension of the federal secretary's and federal council's terms from three to five years, the introduction of "dual membership" and the faculty given to the federal council to grant the use of the party's symbol to other political movements.[Lega, "sΓ¬" al nuovo statuto. Bossi: "Salvini non puΓ² imporre nulla"](https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/politica/congresso-lega-statuto-1.4948731) With the end of its membership drive in August 2020, the LSP, until then present only in central\-southern Italy, became active throughout Italy. The LN, unable to be dissolved because of its burden of β¬49 million debt to the Italian state, was instead formally kept alive, while its cards were donated to former activists.[Salvini "chiude" la vecchia Lega: ecco il nuovo partito nazionale](https://www.today.it/politica/salvini-nuova-lega.html)[La nuova Lega e la vecchia Lega](https://www.ilpost.it/2020/08/04/lega-nord-lega-salvini-premier/)
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Precursors and foundation",
"[thumb\\|280px\\|[Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi \"Umberto Bossi\") at the first rally in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida \"Pontida\"), 1990](/wiki/File:Umberto_Bossi%2C_Pontida%2C_1990.jpg \"Umberto Bossi, Pontida, 1990.jpg\")\nAt the [1983 general election](/wiki/1983_Italian_general_election \"1983 Italian general election\"), *[Liga Veneta](/wiki/Liga_Veneta \"Liga Veneta\")* (\"Venetian League\", based in [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\")) elected a [deputy](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 \"Chamber of Deputies (Italy)\"), [Achille Tramarin](/wiki/Achille_Tramarin \"Achille Tramarin\"); and a [senator](/wiki/Senate_of_the_Republic_%28Italy%29 \"Senate of the Republic (Italy)\"), [Graziano Girardi](/wiki/Graziano_Girardi \"Graziano Girardi\"). At the [1987 general election](/wiki/1987_Italian_general_election \"1987 Italian general election\"), another regional party, *[Lega Lombarda](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda \"Lega Lombarda\")* (\"Lombard League\", based in [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\")) gained national prominence when its leader [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi \"Umberto Bossi\") was elected to the Italian Senate. The two parties, along with other regionalist outfits, ran as *[Alleanza Nord](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda_%E2%80%93_Alleanza_Nord \"Lega Lombarda β Alleanza Nord\")* (\"Northern Alliance\") during the [1989 European Parliament election](/wiki/1989_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"1989 European Parliament election in Italy\"), gaining 1\\.8% of the vote.",
"Lega Nord, which was first launched as a reform of Alleanza Nord in December 1989, was officially established as a party in February 1991 through the merger of various regional parties, notably including Lega Lombarda and Liga Veneta. These continue to exist as \"national sections\" of the main party, which presents itself in regional and local contests as \"Lega LombardaβLega Nord\", \"Liga VenetaβLega Nord\", \"Lega Nordβ[Piemont](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Piemont \"Lega Nord Piemont\")\" and so on.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|page\\=88}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Paul \\|last1\\=Ginsborg \\|title\\=L'Italia del tempo presente \\|year\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Einaudi \\|location\\=Turin \\|pages\\=336β337, 534β535}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Giorgio \\|last1\\=Galli \\|title\\=I partiti politici italiani \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=379β380, 384}}",
"The foundational inspiration for the original regional parties and the unified party was the [medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") political alliance of northern Italy known as the [Lombard League](/wiki/Lombard_League \"Lombard League\") (1167β1250\\), the consciousness that the northern ethnicities of the Italian peninsula are descendants of [Gaulish](/wiki/Gauls \"Gauls\") and [Lombardic](/wiki/Lombards \"Lombards\") populations β historically, northern Italians were called \"Lombards\" and the entire northern portion of the peninsula was called \"[Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy_%28historical_region%29 \"Lombardy (historical region)\")\" β, and that they are ethnically different from the Greco\\-Roman population of the central\\-southern half of the peninsula (\"Italy\" proper).{{cite journal\\|title\\=Come si chiama questa Terra?\\|url\\=https://archivio.associazionegilbertooneto.org/ARCHIVIO/PDF/Quad\\_02\\.pdf\\|author\\=Gilberto Oneto\\|journal\\=Quaderni Padani\\|number\\=2\\|year\\=1995}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=La \"Terra di Mezzo\". Il recupero del celtismo padano\\|url\\=https://archivio.associazionegilbertooneto.org/ARCHIVIO/PDF/Quad\\_02\\.pdf\\|author\\=Maurizio Montagna\\|journal\\=Quaderni Padani\\|number\\=2\\|year\\=1995}} The Lega Nord party conveyed resentment against [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\")'s [centralism](/wiki/Centralisation \"Centralisation\") and the Italian government (epitomised by the popular slogan *Roma Ladrona*, meaning \"Rome the Big Thief\"), common in northern Italy as many northerners felt that the government wasted resources collected mostly from northerners' taxes, especially for sustaining the economies of Rome and southern Italy.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Paolo \\|last1\\=Rumiz \\|title\\=La secessione leggera. Dove nasce la rabbia del profondo Nord \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Feltrinelli \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=10β13}} Resentment against [illegal immigrants](/wiki/Illegal_immigration \"Illegal immigration\") was also exploited. The party's electoral successes began approximately at a time when public disillusionment with the established political parties was at its height: the *[Tangentopoli](/wiki/Tangentopoli \"Tangentopoli\")* corruption scandals, which involved most of the established parties, broke out from 1992 onwards. Contrary to what many pundits observed at the beginning of the 1990s, Lega Nord became a stable political force in the Italian political scene.",
"Lega Nord's first electoral breakthrough was at the 1990 regional elections, but it was with the [1992 general election](/wiki/1992_Italian_general_election \"1992 Italian general election\") that the party emerged as a leading political actor. Having gained 8\\.7% of the vote, 56 deputies and 26 senators,{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=263β266}} it became the fourth largest party of the country and within the Italian Parliament. In 1993, [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 \"Marco Formentini (politician)\") (a [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\") member of the party) was elected mayor of [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"), the party won 49\\.3% in the provincial election of [Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese \"Province of Varese\"){{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|page\\=90}} and by the end of the yearβbefore [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi \"Silvio Berlusconi\") launched his own political career and partyβit was estimated around 16β18% in electoral surveys (half of that support was later siphoned by Berlusconi).{{cite book \\|first1\\=Ilvo \\|last1\\=Diamanti \\|author\\-link\\=Ilvo Diamanti \\|title\\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|page\\=67}}",
"### First alliance with Berlusconi",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2019}}In early 1994, some days before the announcement of the BossiβBerlusconi pact which led to the formation of the [Pole of Freedoms](/wiki/Pole_of_Freedoms \"Pole of Freedoms\"), [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\"), Bossi's number two, signed an agreement with [Mario Segni](/wiki/Mario_Segni \"Mario Segni\")'s centrist [Pact for Italy](/wiki/Pact_for_Italy \"Pact for Italy\"), which was later cancelled.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Giorgio \\|last1\\=Galli \\|title\\=I partiti politici italiani \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=394β395}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=79β82}}",
"The party thus fought the [1994 general election](/wiki/1994_Italian_general_election \"1994 Italian general election\") in alliance with Berlusconi's [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia \"Forza Italia\") (FI) within the Pole of Freedoms coalition. Lega Nord gained just 8\\.4% of the vote, but thanks to a generous division of candidacies in Northern single\\-seats constituencies its parliamentary representation was almost doubled to 117 deputies and 56 senators.{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=267β273}} The position of President Chamber of Deputies was thus given to a LN member, [Irene Pivetti](/wiki/Irene_Pivetti \"Irene Pivetti\"), a young woman hailing from the Catholic faction of the party.",
"After the election, the League joined FI, [National Alliance](/wiki/National_Alliance_%28Italy%29 \"National Alliance (Italy)\") (AN) and the [Christian Democratic Centre](/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Centre \"Christian Democratic Centre\") (CCD) to form a coalition government under Berlusconi and the party obtained five ministries in [Berlusconi's first cabinet](/wiki/Berlusconi_I_Cabinet \"Berlusconi I Cabinet\"): Interior for Roberto Maroni (who was also Deputy Prime Minister), Budget for [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini \"Giancarlo Pagliarini\"), Industry for [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti \"Vito Gnutti\"), European affairs for [Domenico Comino](/wiki/Domenico_Comino \"Domenico Comino\") and Institutional Reforms for [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni \"Francesco Speroni\"). However, the alliance with Berlusconi and the government itself were both short\\-lived: the latter collapsed before the end of the year, with the League being instrumental in its demise.",
"The last straw was a proposed pension reform, which would have hurt some of the key constituencies of the LN, but the government was never a cohesive one and relations among coalition partners, especially those between the LN and the centralist AN, were quite tense all the time. When Bossi finally decided to withdraw from the government in December, Maroni vocally disagreed and walked out.",
"In January 1995, the League gave a vote of confidence to the newly formed [cabinet](/wiki/Dini_Cabinet \"Dini Cabinet\") led by [Lamberto Dini](/wiki/Lamberto_Dini \"Lamberto Dini\"), along with the [Italian People's Party](/wiki/Italian_People%27s_Party_%281994%29 \"Italian People's Party (1994)\") and the [Democratic Party of the Left](/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_the_Left \"Democratic Party of the Left\"). This caused several splinter groups to leave the party, including the [Federalist Party](/wiki/Federalist_Party_%28Italy%29 \"Federalist Party (Italy)\") (which was actually founded in June 1994\\) of [Gianfranco Miglio](/wiki/Gianfranco_Miglio \"Gianfranco Miglio\"), the [Federalists and Liberal Democrats](/wiki/Federalists_and_Liberal_Democrats \"Federalists and Liberal Democrats\") of [Franco Rocchetta](/wiki/Franco_Rocchetta \"Franco Rocchetta\"), [Lucio Malan](/wiki/Lucio_Malan \"Lucio Malan\") and [Furio Gubetti](/wiki/Furio_Gubetti \"Furio Gubetti\"){{cite news \\|first\\=Gianna \\|last\\=Fregonara \\|title\\=Maroni e Bossi vanno alla conta \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/gennaio/09/Maroni\\_Bossi\\_vanno\\_alla\\_conta\\_co\\_0\\_9501094060\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=9 January 1995}} and the [Federalist Italian League](/wiki/Federalist_Italian_League \"Federalist Italian League\") of [Luigi Negri](/wiki/Luigi_Negri_%28politician%29 \"Luigi Negri (politician)\") and [Sergio Cappelli](/wiki/Sergio_Cappelli \"Sergio Cappelli\"). All these groups later merged into FI while a few other MPs, including [Pierluigi Petrini](/wiki/Pierluigi_Petrini \"Pierluigi Petrini\"), floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies, joined the centre\\-left. By 1996, a total of 40 deputies and 17 senators had left the party while Maroni had instead returned to the party's fold after months of coldness with Bossi.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=94β999}}",
"Between 1995 and 1998, Lega Nord joined centre\\-left governing coalitions in many local contexts, notably including the [Province of Padua](/wiki/Province_of_Padua \"Province of Padua\") to the city of [Udine](/wiki/Udine \"Udine\").",
"### Padanian separatism",
"{{Main\\|Padanian nationalism\\|Padanian Declaration of Independence}}\n{{Further\\|Lega Nord\\#1997 Padanian Parliament election}}{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2019}}\nAfter a big success at the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Italian_general_election \"1996 Italian general election\"), its best result so far (10\\.1%, 59 deputies and 27 senators),{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=273β276}} Lega Nord announced that it wanted the secession of [northern Italy](/wiki/Northern_Italy \"Northern Italy\") under the name of [Padania](/wiki/Padania \"Padania\"). On 13 September 1996, Bossi took an ampoule of water from the springs of the [Po River](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 \"Po (river)\") (called *Padus* in [Latin](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\"), whence \"Padania\"), which was poured into the sea of [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") two days later as a symbolic act of birth of the new nation. The Po River was deified by the party (*Dio Po*, \"Po God\") and the \"Ampoule Rite\" was conducted as a yearly Pagan rite by the party's leaders until the 2010s; in its early phase, the party supported a [Celtic Druidic](/wiki/Druidry_%28modern%29 \"Druidry (modern)\") form of religion against Roman Catholicism and some party leaders married with Druidic rites. The party gave \"Padania\", previously referring to the [Po Valley](/wiki/Po_Valley \"Po Valley\"), a broader meaning covering entire Northern Italy that has steadily gained currency, at least among its followers. The party even organised a referendum on independence and elections for a [Padanian Parliament](/wiki/Padanian_Parliament \"Padanian Parliament\").",
"The years between 1996 and 1998 were particularly good for the League, which was the largest party in many provinces of northern Italy and was able to prevail in single\\-seat constituencies and provincial elections by running alone against both the centre\\-right and the centre\\-left. The party also tried to expand its reach through a number of Padanian\\-styled associations and media endeavours (under the supervision of [Davide Caparini](/wiki/Davide_Caparini \"Davide Caparini\")), notably including *[La Padania](/wiki/La_Padania \"La Padania\")* daily, *Il Sole delle Alpi* weekly, the *Lega Nord Flash* periodical, the TelePadania TV channel, the Radio Padania Libera and the Bruno Salvadori publishing house.",
"However, after the 1996 election, which Lega Nord had fought outside the two big coalitions, the differences between those who supported a new alliance with Berlusconi (Vito Gnutti, Domenico Comino, [Fabrizio Comencini](/wiki/Fabrizio_Comencini \"Fabrizio Comencini\") and more) and those who preferred to enter [Romano Prodi](/wiki/Romano_Prodi \"Romano Prodi\")'s [Olive Tree](/wiki/The_Olive_Tree_%28political_coalition%29 \"The Olive Tree (political coalition)\") (Marco Formentini, Irene Pivetti and others) re\\-emerged. A total of 15 deputies and 9 senators left the party to join either centre\\-right or centre\\-left parties.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=120β121}} Pivetti left a few months after the election.{{cite news \\|title\\=Pivetti: sono disgustata. Ci riprovo da sola \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1996/settembre/14/Pivetti\\_sono\\_disgustata\\_riprovo\\_sola\\_co\\_0\\_9609149762\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=14 September 1996}} Comencini left in 1998 to launch [Liga Veneta Repubblica](/wiki/Liga_Veneta_Repubblica \"Liga Veneta Repubblica\"){{cite news \\|first\\=Marisa \\|last\\=Fumagalli \\|title\\=Rinasce la 'Liga Veneta Repubblica' \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1998/ottobre/05/Rinasce\\_Liga\\_Veneta\\_Repubblica\\_\\_co\\_0\\_9810052496\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=5 October 1998}} with the mid\\-term goal of joining forces with FI in Veneto.{{cite news \\|first\\=Enrico \\|last\\=Caiano \\|title\\=Patto Liga β Forza Italia: \"Sovranita' ai veneti\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/agosto/04/Patto\\_Liga\\_Forza\\_Italia\\_Sovranita\\_co\\_0\\_9908042271\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 August 1999}} Gnutti and Comino were expelled in 1999 after they had formed local alliances with the centre\\-right.{{cite news \\|first\\=Fabio \\|last\\=Cavalera \\|title\\=Lega, la \"polveriera\" puo' esplodere \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/18/Lega\\_polveriera\\_puo\\_esplodere\\_co\\_0\\_9907184550\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=18 July 1999}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Enrico \\|last\\=Caiano \\|title\\=Gnutti: sΓ¬, lavoro a un nuovo Carroccio che punti al federalismo \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/28/Gnutti\\_lavoro\\_nuovo\\_Carroccio\\_che\\_co\\_0\\_9907285615\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 July 1999}} Formentini also left in 1999 in order to join Prodi's [Democrats](/wiki/The_Democrats_%28Italy%29 \"The Democrats (Italy)\").{{cite news \\|first\\=Enrico \\|last\\=Caiano \\|title\\=Formentini: Umberto ha sbagliato \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/luglio/26/Formentini\\_Umberto\\_sbagliato\\_co\\_0\\_9907265286\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 July 1999}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Fabio \\|last\\=Cavalera \\|title\\=Formentini: Bossi sbaglia, Lega addio \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/settembre/25/Formentini\\_Bossi\\_sbaglia\\_Lega\\_addio\\_co\\_0\\_9909256175\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=25 September 1999}}",
"As a result, the party suffered a huge setback at the [1999 European Parliament election](/wiki/1999_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"1999 European Parliament election in Italy\") in which it garnered a mere 4\\.5% of the vote. Since then, the League de\\-emphasised demands for independence in order to rather focus on [devolution](/wiki/Devolution \"Devolution\") and federal reform, paving the way for a return to coalition politics.",
"### House of Freedoms",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Umberto Bossi, 2001](/wiki/File:Umberto_Bossi_1994.jpg \"Umberto Bossi 1994.jpg\")\nAfter the defeat at the 1999 European Parliament election, senior members of the party thought it was not possible to achieve anything if the party continued to stay outside the two big coalitions. Some, including Maroni, who despite 1994β1995 row with Bossi had always been left\\-leaning in the heart, preferred an alliance with the centre\\-left. Bossi asked Maroni to negotiate an agreement with [Massimo D'Alema](/wiki/Massimo_D%27Alema \"Massimo D'Alema\"), who had described Lega Nord as \"a rib of the left\". These talks were successful and Maroni was indicated as the joint candidate for [President of Lombardy](/wiki/President_of_Lombardy \"President of Lombardy\") for the [2000 regional election](/wiki/2000_Lombard_regional_election \"2000 Lombard regional election\"). Despite this, Bossi decided instead to approach Berlusconi, who was the front\\-runner in the upcoming [2001 general election](/wiki/2001_Italian_general_election \"2001 Italian general election\").{{cite book \\|first1\\=Giorgio \\|last1\\=Galli \\|title\\=I partiti politici italiani \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=432β433}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=122β127, 307β312}} The centre\\-right coalition won the 2000 regional elections and the League entered the regional governments of Lombardy, Veneto, [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\") and [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria \"Liguria\").",
"One year later, Lega Nord was part of Berlusconi's [House of Freedoms](/wiki/House_of_Freedoms \"House of Freedoms\") in the 2001 general election. According to its leader, the alliance was a \"broad democratic arch, composed of the democratic right, namely AN, the great democratic centre, namely Forza Italia, CCD and [CDU](/wiki/United_Christian_Democrats \"United Christian Democrats\"), and the democratic left represented by the League, the New PSI, the PRI and, at least I hope so, [Cossiga](/wiki/Francesco_Cossiga \"Francesco Cossiga\")\".{{cite web \\|author\\=Di Stefano Marroni \\|url\\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2001/01/25/polo\\-lo\\-sgarbo\\-di\\-bossi.html \\|title\\=Polo, lo sgarbo di Bossi β la Repubblica.it \\|language\\=it \\|website\\=la Repubblica \\|date\\=25 January 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \\|author\\=QuestIT s.r.l. \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/gennaio/25/Debutta\\_arco\\_democratico\\_Martusciello\\_anti\\_co\\_8\\_010125309\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}",
"The coalition won handily the election, but the LN was further reduced to 3\\.9% while being returned in Parliament thanks to the victories scored by the League members in single\\-seat constituencies. In 2001β2006, although severely reduced in its parliamentary representation, the party controlled three key ministries: Justice with [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli \"Roberto Castelli\"), Labour and Social affairs with Roberto Maroni and Institutional Reforms and Devolution with Umberto Bossi (replaced by [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli \"Roberto Calderoli\") in June 2004\\). In March 2004, Bossi suffered a stroke that led many to question over the party's survival, but that ultimately confirmed Lega Nord's strength due to a very organised structure and a cohesive set of leaders.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=August 2019}}",
"In government, the LN was widely considered the staunchest ally of Berlusconi and formed the so\\-called \"axis of the North\" along with FI (whose strongholds included Lombardy and Veneto as well as [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\")) through the special relationship between Bossi, Berlusconi and [Giulio Tremonti](/wiki/Giulio_Tremonti \"Giulio Tremonti\") while AN and the [Union of Christian and Centre Democrats](/wiki/Union_of_the_Centre_%282002%29 \"Union of the Centre (2002)\") (UDC), the party emerged from the merger of the CCD and the CDU in late 2002, became the natural representatives of Southern interests.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/giugno/10/Maggioranza\\_alla\\_prova\\_della\\_verifica\\_co\\_0\\_030610015\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/giugno/12/Non\\_vanno\\_piu\\_bene\\_romani\\_co\\_0\\_030612017\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2003/settembre/10/centristi\\_puntano\\_piedi\\_sul\\_Mezzogiorno\\_co\\_0\\_030910007\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/gennaio/27/ultima\\_trincea\\_dell\\_Udc\\_contro\\_co\\_9\\_040127035\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/giugno/19/Contro\\_accerchiamento\\_Resiste\\_asse\\_del\\_co\\_9\\_040619051\\.shtml \\|title\\=Archivio Corriere della Sera \\|website\\=Corriere della Sera \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}}",
"During the five years in government with the centre\\-right, the Parliament passed an important constitutional reform, which included [federalism](/wiki/Federalism \"Federalism\") and more powers for the Prime Minister. The alliance that Lega Nord forged with the [Movement for Autonomy](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Autonomies \"Movement for the Autonomies\") (MpA) and the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party \"Sardinian Action Party\") (PSd'Az) for the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Italian_general_election \"2006 Italian general election\") was not successful in convincing Southern voters to approve the reform, which was rejected in the [2006 constitutional referendum](/wiki/2006_Italian_constitutional_referendum \"2006 Italian constitutional referendum\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://elezionistorico.interno.gov.it/index.php?tpel\\=F\\&dtel\\=25/06/2006\\&tpa\\=Y\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\| title\\=Dipartimento per gli Affari Interni e Territoriali}}",
"### Fourth Berlusconi government",
"{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=August 2019}}In the aftermath of the fall of [Romano Prodi's government](/wiki/Prodi_II_Cabinet \"Prodi II Cabinet\") in January 2008, which led [President](/wiki/President_of_Italy \"President of Italy\") [Giorgio Napolitano](/wiki/Giorgio_Napolitano \"Giorgio Napolitano\") to call an early election, the centre\\-right was re\\-organised by Berlusconi as [The People of Freedom](/wiki/The_People_of_Freedom \"The People of Freedom\") (PdL), now without the support of the UDC. Lega Nord ran the election in coalition with the PdL and the MpA, gaining a stunning 8\\.3% of the vote (\\+4\\.2pp) and obtaining 60 deputies (\\+37\\) and 26 senators (\\+13\\).",
"Following this result, since May 2008 the party was represented in [Berlusconi's fourth cabinet](/wiki/Berlusconi_IV_Cabinet \"Berlusconi IV Cabinet\") by four ministers (Roberto Maroni, Interior; [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\"), Agriculture; Umberto Bossi, Reforms and Federalism; and Roberto Calderoli, Legislative simplification) and five under\\-secretaries (Roberto Castelli, Infrastructures; [Michelino Davico](/wiki/Michelino_Davico \"Michelino Davico\"), Interior; [Daniele Molgora](/wiki/Daniele_Molgora \"Daniele Molgora\"), Economy and Finances; [Francesca Martini](/wiki/Francesca_Martini \"Francesca Martini\"), Health; and [Maurizio Balocchi](/wiki/Maurizio_Balocchi \"Maurizio Balocchi\"), Legislative simplification).",
"In April 2009, a bill introducing a path towards [fiscal federalism](/wiki/Fiscal_federalism \"Fiscal federalism\") was approved by the Senate after having passed by the Chamber. The bill gained bipartisan support by [Italy of Values](/wiki/Italy_of_Values \"Italy of Values\"), which voted in favour of the measure; and the [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Italy%29 \"Democratic Party (Italy)\") (PD), which chose not to oppose the measure.{{cite news \\|first\\=Paolo \\|last\\=Foschi \\|title\\=Ultimo sì al Senato, via al federalismo fiscale \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/aprile/30/Ultimo\\_Senato\\_via\\_federalismo\\_fiscale\\_co\\_8\\_090430002\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=30 April 2009}} As of late March 2011, all the most important decrees of the reform were approved by the Parliament and Bossi publicly praised the Democrats' leader [Pier Luigi Bersani](/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Bersani \"Pier Luigi Bersani\") for not having opposed the decisive decree on regional and provincial fiscality.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Calderoli: noi e il Pd? C' è stata una vera svolta \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/marzo/25/Calderoli\\_noi\\_stata\\_una\\_vera\\_co\\_8\\_110325008\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=25 March 2011}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Bossi: federalismo grazie al Pd Ho detto io a Bersani di astenersi \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/marzo/27/Bossi\\_federalismo\\_grazie\\_detto\\_Bersani\\_co\\_8\\_110327036\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=27 March 2011}} Lega Nord influenced the government also on illegal immigration, especially when dealing with immigrants coming from the sea. While the [UNCHR](/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees \"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees\") and [Catholic bishops](/wiki/Italian_Episcopal_Conference \"Italian Episcopal Conference\") expressed some concerns over the handling of asylum seekers,{{cite news \\|first\\=Fiorenza \\|last\\=Sarzanini \\|title\\=Clandestini riaccompagnati in Libia Maroni applaude, l'Onu protesta \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/08/Clandestini\\_riaccompagnati\\_Libia\\_Maroni\\_applaude\\_co\\_8\\_090508016\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=8 May 2009}} Maroni's decision to send back to [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\") the boats full of illegal immigrants was praised also by some leading Democrats, notably including [Piero Fassino](/wiki/Piero_Fassino \"Piero Fassino\");{{cite news \\|first\\=Aldo \\|last\\=Cazzullo \\|title\\=Fassino: la sinistra cambi Nel Paese c' è il rischio di una guerra tra poveri \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/10/Fassino\\_sinistra\\_cambi\\_Nel\\_Paese\\_co\\_8\\_090510006\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=10 May 2009}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Gianna \\|last\\=Fregonara \\|title\\=Il Pd e il caso Fassino Parisi apre, no dalemiano \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/maggio/11/caso\\_Fassino\\_Parisi\\_apre\\_dalemiano\\_co\\_8\\_090511014\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=11 May 2009}} and it was backed by some 76% of Italians according to a poll.{{cite web \\|author\\=Aldo Ferrari Nasi \\|url\\=http://archivio.sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it/asp/visualizza\\_sondaggio.asp?idsondaggio\\=3400 \\|title\\=Sondaggio politico\\-elettorale sull'immigrazione clandestina \\|publisher\\=Sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it \\|date\\=12 May 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510233806/http://archivio.sondaggipoliticoelettorali.it/asp/visualizza\\_sondaggio.asp?idsondaggio\\=3400 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 May 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In agreement with the PdL,{{cite news \\|first\\=Lorenzo \\|last\\=Fuccaro \\|title\\=Il Pdl a Pd e Udc: basta tensioni Regionali, il Veneto alla Lega \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/17/Pdl\\_Udc\\_basta\\_tensioni\\_Regionali\\_co\\_8\\_091217033\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=17 December 2009}} [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\") was candidate for [President](/wiki/President_of_Veneto \"President of Veneto\") in [Veneto](/wiki/2010_Venetian_regional_election \"2010 Venetian regional election\"){{cite news \\|first\\=Elsa \\|last\\=Muschella \\|title\\=Veneto, sì a Zaia. E Zingaretti al Pd: corro nel Lazio \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/20/Veneto\\_Zaia\\_Zingaretti\\_corro\\_nel\\_co\\_9\\_091220001\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 December 2009}} and [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota \"Roberto Cota\") in [Piedmont](/wiki/2010_Piedmontese_regional_election \"2010 Piedmontese regional election\"){{cite news \\|first\\=Aldo \\|last\\=Cazzullo \\|title\\=Cota, \"lotta\" a Cavour e ai Savoia \"I meridionali di qui voteranno me\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/19/Cota\\_lotta\\_Cavour\\_Savoia\\_meridionali\\_co\\_9\\_091219024\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=19 December 2009}} in the [2010 regional elections](/wiki/2010_Italian_regional_elections \"2010 Italian regional elections\") while in the other Northern regions, including [Lombardy](/wiki/2010_Lombard_regional_election \"2010 Lombard regional election\"), the League supported candidates of the PdL. Both Zaia and Cota were elected. The party became the largest in Veneto with 35\\.2% and the second\\-largest in Lombardy with 26\\.2% while getting stronger all around the North and in some regions of central Italy.",
"In November 2011, Berlusconi resigned and was replaced by [Mario Monti](/wiki/Mario_Monti \"Mario Monti\"). The League was the only major party to oppose Monti's [technocratic](/wiki/Technocracy \"Technocracy\") [government](/wiki/Monti_Cabinet \"Monti Cabinet\").",
"### From Bossi to Maroni",
"{{Weasel words\\|section\\|date\\= June 2022}}\n{{Further\\|Lega Nord\\#2008β2011 developments}}\n[thumb\\|180px\\|[Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\"), 2010](/wiki/File:Roberto_Maroni_2010_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Roberto Maroni 2010 (cropped).jpg\")\nThroughout 2011, the party was riven in internal disputes, which Bossi's weak\\-as\\-ever leadership was not able to stop. Roberto Maroni, a moderate figure who had been the party's number two since the start, was clearly Bossi's most likely successor. The rise of Maroni and his fellow *maroniani* was obstacled by a group of Bossi's loyalists, whom journalists called the \"magic circle\". The leaders of this group were [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni \"Marco Reguzzoni\") (floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies) and [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro \"Rosi Mauro\").",
"After being temporarily forbidden from speaking at the party's public meetings,{{cite news \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Bossi, l'offensiva anti Maroni Vietati tutti gli incontri pubblici \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/gennaio/14/Bossi\\_offensiva\\_anti\\_Maroni\\_Vietati\\_co\\_8\\_120114027\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=14 January 2012}} Maroni gained the upper hand in January 2012\\.{{cite news \\|first\\=Paolo \\|last\\=Bracalini \\|title\\=Bossi stoppa la rivolta della Lega e firma un armistizio con Maroni \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/bossi\\_stoppa\\_rivolta\\_lega\\_e\\_firma\\_armistizio\\_maroni/15\\-01\\-2012/articolo\\-id\\=566965\\-page\\=0\\-comments\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Il Giornale]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=15 January 2012}} During a factional rally in [Varese](/wiki/Varese \"Varese\"), he launched direct attacks on Reguzzoni and Mauro in the presence of a puzzled Bossi. On that occasion, Maroni called for the celebration of party congresses and closed his speech paraphrasing [Scipio Slataper](/wiki/Scipio_Slataper \"Scipio Slataper\") and [Che Guevara](/wiki/Che_Guevara \"Che Guevara\") (the latter being one of his youth's heroes): \"We are barbarians, dreaming barbarians. We are realistic, we dream the impossible\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Per una Lega unita e per una Padania libera e indipendente \\|url\\=http://www.radioradicale.it/scheda/343749 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Radio Radicale]] \\|date\\=18 January 2012}} On 20 January, Bossi replaced Reguzzoni as leader in the Chamber with [Gianpaolo Dozzo](/wiki/Gianpaolo_Dozzo \"Gianpaolo Dozzo\").{{cite news \\|first\\=Sergio \\|last\\=Rame \\|title\\=Dozzo Γ¨ capogruppo al posto di Reguzzoni: la Lega ritrova l'unitΓ ? \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/dozzo\\_e\\_capogruppoal\\_posto\\_reguzzonila\\_lega\\_ritrova\\_unita/manifestazione\\-marco\\_reguzzoni\\-umberto\\_bossi\\-roberto\\_maroni\\-lega\\_nord/20\\-01\\-2012/articolo\\-id\\=567982\\-page\\=0\\-comments\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Il Giornale]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 January 2012}} Two days later, the federal council of the party scheduled provincial congresses by April and national (regional) congresses by June.{{cite news \\|title\\=Maroni annuncia su Facebook 'Ora i congressi' \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/milano/maroni\\_annuncia\\_facebook\\_ora\\_congressi/23\\-01\\-2012/articolo\\-id\\=568397\\-page\\=0\\-comments\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Il Giornale]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=23 January 2012}} Maroni, whose flock included people as diverse as [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi \"Flavio Tosi\"), a conservative liberal; and [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\"), then a left\\-winger,{{cite news \\|first1\\=Maurizio \\|last1\\=Giannattasio \\|title\\=Salvini, leghista\\-comunista: ho \"convertito\" 10 religiosi \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/26/Salvini\\_leghista\\_comunista\\_convertito\\_religiosi\\_co\\_9\\_080426116\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 April 2008}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Antonino \\|last1\\=D'Anna \\|title\\=La rivincita dei cattolici leghisti Borghezio il tramite col Vaticano \\|url\\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/la\\-rivincita\\-dei\\-cattolici\\-leghisti240312\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120701102642/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/la\\-rivincita\\-dei\\-cattolici\\-leghisti240312\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=1 July 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Affaritaliani]] \\|date\\=22 March 2012}} strengthened his grip on the party.",
"On 3 April, a corruption scandal hit the magic circle and consequently the entire party. The party's treasurer [Francesco Belsito](/wiki/Francesco_Belsito \"Francesco Belsito\") was charged with money\\-laundering, embezzlement and fraud of the LN's expenses. Among other things, he was accused of having taken money away from the party's chest and paid it out to Bossi's family and other members of the magic circle, notably including Mauro.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Luigu \\|last1\\=Ferrarella \\|first2\\=Giuseppe \\|last2\\=Guastalla \\|title\\=Lavori alla villa di Gemonio con i rimborsi della Lega \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/04/Lavori\\_alla\\_villa\\_Gemonio\\_con\\_co\\_9\\_120404024\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 April 2012}} Maroni, who had already called for Belsito's resignation as early as in January, asked for his immediate replacement. Belsito resigned a few hours later and was replaced by [Stefano Stefani](/wiki/Stefano_Stefani \"Stefano Stefani\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Claudio \\|last1\\=Del Frate \\|title\\=Maroni: dobbiamo fare pulizia E il Cavaliere difende il Senatur \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/04/Maroni\\_dobbiamo\\_fare\\_pulizia\\_Cavaliere\\_co\\_9\\_120404088\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 April 2012}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Via Bellerio, ore 16\\.30\\. Il Senatur si dimette \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/06/Via\\_Bellerio\\_ore\\_Senatur\\_dimette\\_co\\_8\\_120406004\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=6 April 2012}}",
"More shockingly, on 5 April, Bossi resigned as the federal secretary. The party's federal council then appointed a triumvirate composed of Maroni, Calderoli and [Manuela Dal Lago](/wiki/Manuela_Dal_Lago \"Manuela Dal Lago\"), who would lead the party until a new federal congress was held. Bossi, however, was then elected the federal president. On 12 April, the federal council expelled both Belsito and Mauro and decided that a federal congress would be held at the end of June.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Maroni: \"Via loro, o lascio\" Espulsi Belsito e Rosi Mauro \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/aprile/13/Maroni\\_Via\\_loro\\_lascio\\_Espulsi\\_co\\_9\\_120413102\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=13 April 2012}} In the 6β7 May local elections, the League was crushed almost everywhere{{cite news \\|first1\\=Dino \\|last1\\=Martirano \\|title\\=Schiaffo a Pdl e Lega, regge il Pd \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/maggio/08/Schiaffo\\_Pdl\\_Lega\\_regge\\_Pd\\_co\\_8\\_120508015\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=8 May 2012}} while retaining the city of Verona, where Tosi, the incumbent mayor, was re\\-elected by a landslide;{{cite news \\|first1\\=Giuseppe \\|last1\\=Sarcina \\|title\\=Verona Brinda Tosi, l'anti Bossi: \"Il futuro Γ¨ qui\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/maggio/08/Verona\\_Brinda\\_Tosi\\_anti\\_Bossi\\_co\\_8\\_120508039\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan}} and a few other strongholds.",
"The BossiβBelsito scandal finally resulted, on 7 August 2019, in a sentence by [Italy's highest court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 \"Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)\"), according to which the LN was to pay back 49 million euros.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-italy\\-politics\\-league\\-court/italys\\-top\\-court\\-upholds\\-seizure\\-of\\-league\\-funds\\-over\\-corruption\\-idUSKCN1UX0ZB \\|title\\=Italy's top court upholds seizure of League funds over corruption \\|date\\=7 August 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2019}}",
"### Leadership of Maroni",
"At the beginning of June, after having secured the leadership of several national sections of the party, Maroni and his followers scored two big victories at the congresses of the two largest \"nations\", Lombardy and Veneto: Matteo Salvini was elected secretary of Lega Lombarda with 74% of the votes{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=La prima vittoria di Maroni Ma Bossi: non\\-andrΓ² in pensione \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/giugno/03/prima\\_vittoria\\_Maroni\\_Bossi\\_non\\_co\\_8\\_120603018\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=3 June 2012}} while Flavio Tosi fended off a challenge by the [Venetists](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\")' and Bossi's loyalists' standard\\-bearer [Massimo Bitonci](/wiki/Massimo_Bitonci \"Massimo Bitonci\"), defeating him 57%β43%.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Bis di Maroni al congresso veneto Tosi vince ma la \"Liga\" si spacca \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/giugno/04/Bis\\_Maroni\\_congresso\\_veneto\\_Tosi\\_co\\_8\\_120604031\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 June 2012}}",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Roberto Maroni speaks at the federal congress in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"), 1 July 2012](/wiki/File:Discorso_Maroni_al_congresso_federale_Lega_Nord_2012.jpg \"Discorso Maroni al congresso federale Lega Nord 2012.jpg\")\nOn 1 July, Maroni was virtually unanimously elected federal secretary. The party's constitution was changed in order to make Bossi federal president for life, to restructure the federal organisation and to give more autonomy to the national sections, in fact transforming the federation into a confederation.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Claudio \\|last1\\=Del Frate \\|title\\=Maroni leader della Lega: \"Via da Roma\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/luglio/02/Maroni\\_leader\\_della\\_Lega\\_Via\\_co\\_9\\_120702035\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=2 July 2012}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=La regia di Zaia per il cambio di stagione \"Basta riserva indiana, ora concretezza\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2012/luglio/02/regia\\_Zaia\\_per\\_cambio\\_stagione\\_co\\_9\\_120702026\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=2 July 2012}}",
"At the [2013 general election](/wiki/2013_Italian_general_election \"2013 Italian general election\"), which saw the rise of the [Five Star Movement](/wiki/Five_Star_Movement \"Five Star Movement\") (M5S), the League won a mere 4\\.1% of the vote (β4\\.2pp).[Corriere della Sera](http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/camera/index.shtml) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310135414/http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/camera/index.shtml \\|date\\=10 March 2013 }}. Corriere.it. Retrieved 24 August 2013\\. However, in the simultaneous [2013 regional election in Lombardy](/wiki/2013_Lombard_regional_election \"2013 Lombard regional election\") the party won the big prize: Maroni was elected President by defeating his Democratic opponent 42\\.8% to 38\\.2%. The League, which retrieved 12\\.9% in Lombardy in the general election, garnered 23\\.2% (combined result of party list, 13\\.0% and Maroni's personal list, 10\\.2%) in the regional election.[LOMBARDIA: Risultati elezioni regionali β Elezioni 2013](http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/SEAS/regionali/20130224000000_71_REGIONE_3.shtml) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711091851/http://www.corriere.it/Speciali/Politica/2013/elezioni/SEAS/regionali/20130224000000\\_71\\_REGIONE\\_3\\.shtml \\|date\\=11 July 2015 }}. Corriere.it. Retrieved 24 August 2013\\. All three big regions of the North were thus governed by the League.",
"In September 2013, Maroni announced he would soon leave the party's leadership.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Anna \\|last1\\=Gandolfi \\|title\\=L'annuncio di Maroni: lascio la segreteria entro Natale \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/settembre/02/annuncio\\_Maroni\\_lascio\\_segreteria\\_entro\\_co\\_0\\_20130902\\_7b471db2\\-1393\\-11e3\\-b851\\-d970976d2918\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=2 September 2013}}{{cite news \\|author\\=Albertino \\|title\\=Maroni abdica. Tosi va verso la Balena Verde. La Lega non\\-si sa \\|url\\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2013/09/maroni\\-abdica\\-tosi\\-va\\-verso\\-la\\-balena\\-verde\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-si\\-sa/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[L'intraprendente]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=3 September 2013}} A congress was scheduled for mid December and in accordance to the new rules set for the [leadership election](/wiki/2013_Lega_Nord_leadership_election \"2013 Lega Nord leadership election\") five candidates filed their bid to become secretary: Umberto Bossi, Matteo Salvini, [Giacomo Stucchi](/wiki/Giacomo_Stucchi \"Giacomo Stucchi\"), [Manes Bernardini](/wiki/Manes_Bernardini \"Manes Bernardini\") and [Roberto Stefanazzi](/wiki/Roberto_Stefanazzi \"Roberto Stefanazzi\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Cesare \\|last1\\=Zapperi \\|title\\=Stucchi scende in campo per il fronte anti\\-Salvini \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/novembre/12/Stucchi\\_scende\\_campo\\_per\\_fronte\\_co\\_0\\_20131112\\_3bd7a334\\-4b62\\-11e3\\-94e1\\-503ecbe82dc7\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=12 November 2013}} Of these, only Bossi and Salvini gathered the 1,000 necessary signatures by party members to take part to the internal \"primary\" and Salvini collected four times the signatures gathered by Bossi.{{cite news \\|title\\=Segreteria Lega, in corsa Salvini e Bossi \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/2013/11/28/italia/politica/segreteria\\-lega\\-in\\-corsa\\-salvini\\-e\\-bossi\\-YwZ8k8e7ft4OQE3wLMHSTO/pagina.html \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Stampa]] \\|location\\=Turin \\|date\\=28 November 2013}}",
"### Leadership of Salvini",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|[Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\"), 2018](/wiki/File:Matteo_Salvini_Viminale_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Matteo Salvini Viminale (cropped).jpg\")\nOn 7 December, Salvini, endorsed by Maroni and most leading members (including Tosi, who had renounced a bid of his own), trounced Bossi with 82% of the vote in the \"primary\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Lega: primarie, a Salvini l'81,66% dei voti a Bossi il 18,34% \\|url\\=http://www.adnkronos.com/IGN/News/Politica/Lega\\-primarie\\-a\\-Salvini\\-l8166\\-dei\\-voti\\-a\\-Bossi\\-il\\-1834\\_32965449296\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Adnkronos]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=8 December 2013}} His election was ratified a week later by the party's federal congress in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Parte l'era di Salvini E Bossi difende l'euro \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/dicembre/16/Parte\\_era\\_Salvini\\_Bossi\\_difende\\_co\\_0\\_20131216\\_cee787e8\\-661a\\-11e3\\-9ab1\\-d0a8f0dc30ed.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=16 December 2013}} Under Salvini, the party embraced a very critical view of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mattinonline.ch/matteo\\-salvini\\-basta\\-essere\\-succubi\\-dellunione\\-europea\\-e\\-di\\-roma/ \\|title\\=Matteo Salvini: \"Basta essere succubi dell'Unione Europea e di Roma\" Mattinonline \\|website\\=Mattinonline.ch \\|date\\=16 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}} especially of the [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\"), which he described a \"crime against mankind\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/web/notizie/rubriche/politica/2013/12/15/Lega\\-Salvini\\-contro\\-euro\\-Crimine\\-contro\\-umanita\\-\\_9781968\\.html \\|title\\=Lega, Salvini contro euro: 'Crimine contro l'umanitΓ ' \\|work\\=ANSA.it \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} Ahead of the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2014 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Salvini started to cooperate with [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen \"Marine Le Pen\"), leader of the French [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 \"National Rally (France)\"); and [Geert Wilders](/wiki/Geert_Wilders \"Geert Wilders\"), leader of the Dutch [Party for Freedom](/wiki/Party_for_Freedom \"Party for Freedom\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2013\\-12\\-13/\\-europa\\-marine\\-pen\\-preferisce\\-salvini\\-e\\-lega\\-nord\\-beppe\\-grillo\\-\\-210854\\.shtml?uuid\\=ABCNPxj \\|title\\=Europa, Marine Le Pen preferisce Salvini e la Lega Nord a Beppe Grillo \\|work\\=Il Sole 24 ORE \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\\-al\\-congresso\\-della\\-lega\\-marine\\-le\\-pen\\-e\\-wilders/ \\|title\\=Salvini: \"Al congresso della Lega Marine Le Pen e Wilders\" \\| L'Indipendenza Nuova \\|website\\=Lindipendenza.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118180126/http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\\-al\\-congresso\\-della\\-lega\\-marine\\-le\\-pen\\-e\\-wilders/ \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\\-lega\\-ha\\-terreno\\-comune\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-il\\-23\\-no\\-euro\\-day\\-20131114\\_085012\\.shtml \\|title\\=askanews \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117090525/http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\\-lega\\-ha\\-terreno\\-comune\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-il\\-23\\-no\\-euro\\-day\\-20131114\\_085012\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2013}} All this was criticised by Bossi, who re\\-called his left\\-wing roots;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2014/04/03/news/umberto\\_bossi\\_il\\_blitz\\_del\\_ros\\_colpa\\_dei\\_servizi\\_la\\_gente\\_si\\_incazza\\-82617710/ \\|title\\=Umberto Bossi: \"Il blitz del Ros? Colpa dei Servizi, la gente si incazza\" \\|author\\=di LAVINIA RIVARA \\|date\\=3 April 2014 \\|work\\=la Repubblica \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/bossi\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-alleanza\\-transitoria\\-boso\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra/ \\|title\\=Bossi: con Le Pen alleanza transitoria. Boso: la Lega non Γ¨ di destra \\| L'Indipendenza Nuova \\|website\\=Lindipendenza.com \\|date\\=29 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331194736/http://lindipendenza.com/bossi\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-alleanza\\-transitoria\\-boso\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra/ \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2016}} and Tosi, who represented the party's centrist wing and defended the Euro.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2014\\-02\\-05/tosi\\-non\\-si\\-puo\\-uscire\\-euro\\-italia\\-sarebbe\\-preda\\-speculazioni\\-162427\\.shtml?uuid\\=ABm2Vfu \\|title\\=Tosi: non si puΓ² uscire dall'euro. L'Italia sarebbe preda di speculazioni \\|work\\=Il Sole 24 ORE \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}",
"In the European election, the party, which ran on a \"Stop the Euro\" ticket, emphasised [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism \"Euroscepticism\") and welcomed candidates from other anti\\-Euro and/or autonomist movements, notably including [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\")'s [Freiheitlichen](/wiki/Die_Freiheitlichen \"Die Freiheitlichen\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\\-6842ea78\\-18ff\\-4644\\-9f74\\-94fe3384a6b3\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090834/http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\\-6842ea78\\-18ff\\-4644\\-9f74\\-94fe3384a6b3\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2014 \\|title\\=Salvini: nuovo simbolo Lega per Europee \\|work\\=rainews \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2014/03/31/lega\\-nuovo\\-simbolo\\-per\\-le\\-europee\\-via\\-scritta\\-padania\\-al\\-suo\\-posto\\-basta\\-euro/933161/ \\|title\\=Europee 2014, nuovo simbolo Lega. Via scritta \"Padania\", al suo posto \"Basta euro\" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \\|author\\=RQuotidiano \\|work\\=Il Fatto Quotidiano \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=31 March 2014 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/lombardia/notizie/2014/03/31/salvini\\-simbolo\\-lega\\-con\\-basta\\-euro\\_e1c158f9\\-4274\\-4f66\\-8156\\-0026e5a23811\\.html \\|title\\=Salvini: simbolo Lega con 'Basta euro' \\|work\\=ANSA.it \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=31 March 2014 }} obtained 6\\.2% of the vote and five [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament \"Member of the European Parliament\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \\|title\\=\\[Scrutini] Europee β Elezioni del 25 maggio 2014 β Ministero dell'Interno \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820195718/http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The result was far worse than that of the previous [European election in 2009](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2009 European Parliament election in Italy\") (β4\\.0pp), but better than that of 2013 general election (\\+2\\.1pp). The LN came third with 15\\.2% in Veneto (where Tosi obtained many more votes than Salvini, showing his popular support once for all and proving how the party was far from united on the anti\\-Euro stance),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2014/05/la\\-grande\\-vittoria\\-politica\\-di\\-tosi/ \\|title\\=La grande vittoria (politica) di Tosi \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=26 May 2014 }} ahead of the new [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 \"Forza Italia (2013)\") (FI) and the other PdL's spin\\-offs; and fourth in Lombardy with 14\\.6%. Salvini was triumphant, despite the party had [lost](/wiki/2014_Piedmontese_regional_election \"2014 Piedmontese regional election\") Piedmont to the Democrats after Cota had been forced to resign due to irregularities committed by one of its supporting lists in filing the slates for the 2010 election and had decided not to stand. Moreover, Bitonci was elected mayor of [Padua](/wiki/Padua \"Padua\"), a centre\\-left stronghold.",
"The party's federal congress, summoned in Padua in July 2014, approved Salvini's political line, especially a plan for the introduction of a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\") and the creation of a sister party in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\")\\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy \"Insular Italy\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/luglio/21/Salvini\\_avverte\\_nuova\\_Lega\\_corre\\_co\\_0\\_20140721\\_7fa8c8fe\\-1097\\-11e4\\-80f9\\-2e3c33391d10\\.shtml \\|title\\=Salvini avverte: la nuova Lega corre da sola \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} In November, the [Emilia\\-Romagna regional election](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election \"2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election\") represented a major step for Salvini's \"national project\": the LN, which won 19\\.4% of the vote, was the [region](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\")'s second\\-largest and resulted far ahead of FI, paving the way for a bid for the leadership of the [centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_in_Italy \"Centre-right in Italy\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/24/Lega\\_doppia\\_Forza\\_Italia\\_urlo\\_co\\_0\\_20141124\\_68460c56\\-73a9\\-11e4\\-b779\\-766ff3003bac.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega doppia Forza Italia L?urlo di Salvini: \"Γ storico\" \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} In December, [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini \"Us with Salvini\") (NcS) was launched. The party's growing popularity among voters was reflected also by a constant rise in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2018_Italian_general_election \"Opinion polling for the 2018 Italian general election\").",
"In March 2015, after a long struggle between Tosi and Zaia, who was backed by Salvini, over the party's candidates in the upcoming [regional election in Veneto](/wiki/2015_Venetian_regional_election \"2015 Venetian regional election\"), Tosi was removed from national secretary of Liga Veneta and ejected from the federal party altogether.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2015/marzo/11/Salvini\\_rottura\\_nella\\_Lega\\_Tosi\\_co\\_0\\_20150311\\_19ef6226\\-c7bb\\-11e4\\-80a1\\-d57600bcc7ce.shtml \\|title\\=Salvini e la rottura nella Lega: Tosi non Γ¨ piΓΉ un militante del partito \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} However, the [2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections \"2015 Italian regional elections\") were another success for the LN, especially in Veneto, where Zaia was handily re\\-elected with 50\\.1% of the vote (Tosi got 11\\.9%) and the combined score of party's and Zaia's personal lists was 40\\.9%. The party also came second in [Liguria](/wiki/2015_Ligurian_regional_election \"2015 Ligurian regional election\") (22\\.3%) and [Tuscany](/wiki/2015_Tuscan_regional_election \"2015 Tuscan regional election\") (16\\.2%), third in [Marche](/wiki/2015_Marche_regional_election \"2015 Marche regional election\") (13\\.0%) and [Umbria](/wiki/2015_Umbrian_regional_election \"2015 Umbrian regional election\") (14\\.0%).",
"After the [2016 local elections](/wiki/2016_Italian_local_elections \"2016 Italian local elections\") in which the party ran below expectations in Lombardy (while doing well in Venetoβthanks to Zaia, Emilia\\-Romagna and Tuscany) and the NcS performed badly,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lettera43\\.it/politica/il\\-fallimento\\-di\\-salvini\\-leader\\-del\\-centrodestra\\_43675250391\\.htm \\|title\\=Il fallimento di Salvini leader del centrodestra \\|date\\=20 June 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926103602/http://www.lettera43\\.it/politica/il\\-fallimento\\-di\\-salvini\\-leader\\-del\\-centrodestra\\_43675250391\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://formiche.net/2016/06/20/ecco\\-come\\-ballottaggi\\-ridimensionano\\-matteo\\-salvini/ \\|title\\=Ecco come i ballottaggi ridimensionano Matteo Salvini \\|first\\=Pietro Di \\|last\\=Michele \\|date\\=20 June 2016 \\|website\\=Formiche.net}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2016/7\\-giugno\\-2016/lega\\-miete\\-consensi\\-comuni\\-pd\\-soffre\\-grillini\\-non\\-sfondano\\-240526451658\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega miete consensi nei Comuni Il Pd soffre, i grillini non\\-sfondano \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Bonet\\|date\\=7 June 2016 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\\-lega\\-di\\-zaia\\-vince\\-su\\-quella\\-di\\-salvini\\-1\\.4949687 \\|title\\=La Lega di Zaia vince su quella di Salvini \\|first\\=SocietΓ Editrice Athesis \\|last\\=S.p.A. \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119072135/https://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\\-lega\\-di\\-zaia\\-vince\\-su\\-quella\\-di\\-salvini\\-1\\.4949687 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Salvini's political line came under pressure from Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi \"Paolo Grimoldi\"), the new leader of Lega Lombarda. In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election \"2017 Lega Nord leadership election\"), Salvini, who was focused on becoming the leader of the centre\\-right{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/speciali/referendum/2016/11/11/referendum\\-berlusconi\\-dopo\\-412\\-cambiare\\-italicum\\-e\\-votare\\_c30e6b23\\-8384\\-4167\\-8ed1\\-ea5c2bd88caf.html \\|title\\=Salvini: \"Io candidato premier? Se chiedono ci sono. Col no si va a votare\" β Referendum \\|date\\=11 November 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\\_novembre\\_12/matteo\\-salvini\\-firenze\\-pronto\\-candidarmi\\-come\\-premier\\-8bf1731c\\-a8e9\\-11e6\\-b875\\-b27331f307f4\\.shtml \\|title\\=Matteo Salvini a Firenze: \"Pronto a candidarmi come premier\" \\|first\\=Annalisa \\|last\\=Grandi\\|date\\=11 December 2016 }} and possibly changing the LN's name by ditching the word \"North\",{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\\_ottobre\\_25/lega\\-congresso\\-togliere\\-parola\\-nord\\-e56a6d54\\-9a25\\-11e6\\-939e\\-ec3a0eea054f.shtml \\|title\\=Lega, un congresso per togliere la parola Nord \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi\\|date\\=24 October 2016 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/salvini\\-vuole\\-togliere\\-nord\\-nome\\-lega\\-1323142\\.html\\|title\\=Salvini vuole togliere il \"Nord\" al nome della Lega\\|first\\=Ivan\\|last\\=Francese\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=25 October 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\\-nord\\-cambia\\-nome\\-addio\\-nord.html\\|title\\=Clamoroso Salvini, addio Lega Nord. Mossa\\-terremoto, caos nel partito\\|website\\=www.liberoquotidiano.it\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140733/http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\\-nord\\-cambia\\-nome\\-addio\\-nord.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} was re\\-elected leader of the party with 82\\.7% of the vote against his opponent [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava \"Gianni Fava\")'s 17\\.3%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_maggio\\_14/bossi\\-se\\-vince\\-salvini\\-lega\\-finita\\-io\\-valutero\\-d660bdcc\\-38b8\\-11e7\\-8530\\-ea2b12fbdf2c.shtml\\|title\\=Salvini stravince le primarie Bossi: \"La Lega Γ¨ finita, io valuterΓ²\"\\|last\\=Zapperi\\|first\\=Cesare\\|date\\=14 May 2017}} Consequently, Salvini launched his campaign to become [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy \"Prime Minister of Italy\").",
"In the meantime, the LN campaigned heavily for [Veneto](/wiki/2017_Venetian_autonomy_referendum \"2017 Venetian autonomy referendum\")'s and [Lombardy](/wiki/2017_Lombard_autonomy_referendum \"2017 Lombard autonomy referendum\")'s autonomy referendums, which took place on 22 October. In Veneto, the turnout was 57\\.2% and those who voted \"yes\" reached 98\\.1% whereas in Lombardy the figures were 38\\.3% and 95\\.3%.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/world/europe/lombardy\\-veneto\\-referendums.html \\|title\\=Italian Regions of Lombardy and Veneto Vote for More Autonomy \\|first\\=Elisabetta \\|last\\=Povoledo \\|date\\=22 October 2017 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sanderson \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|date\\=23 October 2017 \\|title\\=Italy's richest regions vote overwhelmingly for greater autonomy \\|website\\=Financial Times \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\\-b7dc\\-11e7\\-8c12\\-5661783e5589 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\\-b7dc\\-11e7\\-8c12\\-5661783e5589 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21730602\\-unlike\\-catalonia\\-no\\-one\\-asking\\-independence\\-yet\\-northern\\-italy\\-votes\\-more\\-autonomy \\|title\\=Northern Italy votes for more autonomy\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|date\\=26 October 2017}} When the referendums were over, with strong opposition by Bossi, Salvini persuaded the party's federal council to style the party simply as \"Lega\", including NcS, in the upcoming general election.[\"Italy's rebranded Lega seeks national posture for 2018 vote\"](http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy-rebranded-lega-seeks-national-posture-2018-vote-article-1.3713674) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519032906/http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy\\-rebranded\\-lega\\-seeks\\-national\\-posture\\-2018\\-vote\\-article\\-1\\.3713674 \\|date\\=19 May 2018 }}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018\\-02\\-20/italy\\-s\\-northern\\-league\\-is\\-suddenly\\-in\\-love\\-with\\-the\\-south \\|title\\=Italy's Northern League Is Suddenly in Love With the South \\|date\\=20 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bloomberg L.P.}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_ottobre\\_28/lega\\-toglie\\-parola\\-nord\\-calderoli\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-71d8cdd6\\-bb4e\\-11e7\\-8ef5\\-94a13146dc45\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: \"Fascista\" \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi\\|newspaper\\=Corriere della Sera \\|date\\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/10/27/news/lega\\_nord\\_nuovo\\_simbolo\\-179501278 \\|title\\=Lega, nuovo simbolo senza \"nord\". Salvini: \"SarΓ valido per tutta Italia\" \\|date\\=27 October 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_ottobre\\_28/lega\\-toglie\\-parola\\-nord\\-calderoli\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-71d8cdd6\\-bb4e\\-11e7\\-8ef5\\-94a13146dc45\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: \"Fascista\" \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-italy\\-election\\-league/italys\\-league\\-leaves\\-northern\\-bastions\\-bangs\\-anti\\-migrant\\-drum\\-idUSKBN1FT1Q9 \\|title\\=Italy's League leaves northern bastions, bangs anti\\-migrant drum \\|date\\=9 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|agency\\=Reuters\\|newspaper\\=Reuters }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2013/12/07/primarie\\-lega\\-salvini\\-vince\\-82\\-bossi\\-fermo\\-18\\_n\\_4404640\\.html \\|title\\=Primarie Lega, vince Matteo Salvini con l'82%. Umberto Bossi si ferma al 18% \\|date\\=7 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_settembre\\_17/bossi\\-lega\\-pontida\\-salvini\\-solitudina\\-ormai\\-devo\\-andar\\-via\\-b27e8798\\-9be8\\-11e7\\-99a4\\-e70f8a929b5c.shtml \\|title\\=La solitudine di Bossi: \"Non Γ¨ piΓΉ Pontida, ormai devo andar via\" \\|first\\=Marco Cremonesi, dal nostro inviato a \\|last\\=Pontida \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=17 September 2017 }} Additionally, Salvini toned down his stances against the European Union and the Euro in order to make an alliance with FI possible.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/lega\\-e\\-m5s\\-ammainano\\-bandiera\\-anti\\-euro\\-1409067\\.html\\|title\\=Lega e M5s ammainano la bandiera anti euro\\|first\\=Pasquale\\|last\\=Napolitano\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=14 June 2017}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\\-OITTP \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170851/http://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\\-OITTP \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2017 \\|title\\=Salvini: Lega non\\-proporrΓ referendum su euro, \"non\\-si puΓ² fare\" \\|first\\=Reuters \\|last\\=Editorial\\|newspaper\\=Reuters \\|date\\=3 September 2017 }}",
"Despite misgivings by Bossi and the Padanist old guard, the party still had a strong [autonomist](/wiki/Autonomism_%28political_doctrine%29 \"Autonomism (political doctrine)\") outlook in the northern regions,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/economia/18\\_ottobre\\_23/onda\\-sovranista\\-88df1d68\\-d6c4\\-11e8\\-86b1\\-93f92584e776\\.shtml \\| title\\=Veneto, Lega pigliatutto anche in Trentino fra sovranismo e autonomismo\\| date\\=23 October 2018}} especially in Veneto where [Venetian nationalism](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\") was stronger than ever before.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.limesonline.com/perche\\-il\\-veneto\\-non\\-si\\-sente\\-italia/100953 \\| title\\=PerchΓ© il Veneto non si sente Italia\\| date\\=8 August 2017}}{{Cite web\\| url\\=https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\\-di\\-soligo/17934\\-veneto\\-texas\\-d\\-italia\\-intervista\\-a\\-giovanni\\-collot\\-di\\-conegliano\\| title\\=\"Veneto Texas d'Italia\": l'Analista politico Giovanni Collot di Conegliano in redazione\\| date\\=17 September 2017\\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2018\\| archive\\-date\\=6 February 2020\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206175023/https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\\-di\\-soligo/17934\\-veneto\\-texas\\-d\\-italia\\-intervista\\-a\\-giovanni\\-collot\\-di\\-conegliano\\| url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/referendum\\-autonomia\\-lombardia\\-e\\-veneto/notizie/venezia\\-06\\-07\\-t1corriereveneto\\-web\\-veneto\\-f4d4bac2\\-b7bd\\-11e7\\-a918\\-737504981ad0\\.shtml \\| title\\=La questione Veneta\\| date\\=23 October 2017}} Additionally, the League maintained its power base in the North, where it continued to get most of its support.",
"### Yellow\\-green coalition",
"{{See also\\|2018 Italian government formation\\|First Conte government}}\n[thumb\\|220px\\|Placard for the [2018 electoral campaign](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election \"2018 Italian general election\"), resembling [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\")'s one in [2016](/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign%2C_2016 \"Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016\")](/wiki/File:Salvini_Premier.jpg \"Salvini Premier.jpg\")\nThe League ran in the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election \"2018 Italian general election\") within the four\\-party [centre\\-right coalition](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 \"Centre-right coalition (Italy)\"), also composed of FI, [Brothers of Italy](/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy \"Brothers of Italy\") (FdI) and [Us with Italy](/wiki/Us_with_Italy \"Us with Italy\") (NcI), which formed a joint list with the [Union of the Centre](/wiki/Union_of_the_Centre_%282002%29 \"Union of the Centre (2002)\") (UdC). In a further effort to broaden its base, the League welcomed in its electoral slates several independents, notably including [Giulia Bongiorno](/wiki/Giulia_Bongiorno \"Giulia Bongiorno\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/18\\_gennaio\\_19/elezioni\\-2018\\-bongiorno\\-va\\-la\\-lega\\-salvini\\-e142d7fa\\-fc96\\-11e7\\-80a4\\-a8d109924739\\.shtml \\|title\\=Bongiorno va con la Lega: \"Salvini Γ¨ concreto, come Andreotti\" \\|first\\=Dino \\|last\\=Martirano \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=18 January 2018 }} and [Alberto Bagnai](/wiki/Alberto_Bagnai \"Alberto Bagnai\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/elezioni\\-2018/notizie/lega\\-borghi\\-bagnai\\-candidati\\-sfida\\-due\\-economisti\\-anti\\-euro\\-elezioni\\-2018\\-92e5ba6e\\-004c\\-11e8\\-9961\\-f20884a97d4b.shtml \\|title\\=Lega, Borghi e Bagnai candidati: la sfida dei due economisti anti euro \\|first\\=Claudio \\|last\\=Bozza \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=23 January 2018 }} as well as a wide range of minor parties, including the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party \"Sardinian Action Party\") (PSd'Az),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.unionesarda.it/articolo/politica\\_italiana/2018/01/24/lega\\_psd\\_az\\_oggi\\_l\\_accordo\\_salvini\\_arrivato\\_a\\_cagliari\\-1\\-689984\\.html \\|title\\=Lega\\-Psd'Az, arriva l'accordo: Salvini a Cagliari β Politica β L'Unione Sarda.it \\|date\\=24 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} the [Italian Liberal Party](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party_%281997%29 \"Italian Liberal Party (1997)\") (PLI){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.agenziagiornalisticaopinione.it/lancio\\-dagenzia/lega\\-elezioni\\-raggiunto\\-laccordo\\-partito\\-liberale\\-italiano \\|title\\=lega \\* elezioni: \"raggiunto l'accordo con il partito liberale italiano\" β Agenzia giornalistica Opinione \\|date\\=31 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} and the [National Movement for Sovereignty](/wiki/National_Movement_for_Sovereignty \"National Movement for Sovereignty\") (MNS).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.movimento\\-nazionale.it/news/candidati\\-del\\-movimento\\-nazionale\\-per\\-la\\-sovranita\\-2 \\|publisher\\=Movimento\\-nazionale.it \\|date\\=30 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|title\\=CANDIDATI DEL MOVIMENTO NAZIONALE PER LA SOVRANITA' β Movimento Nazionale per la SovranitΓ \\|archive\\-date\\=2 March 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302012311/http://www.movimento\\-nazionale.it/news/candidati\\-del\\-movimento\\-nazionale\\-per\\-la\\-sovranita\\-2/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The League obtained a resounding success, becoming the third largest party in Italy with 17\\.4% of the vote (\\+13\\.3pp). The ticket won most of its votes in the North (including 32\\.2% in Veneto, 28\\.0% in Lombardy, 26\\.7% in Trentino, 25\\.8% in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia and 22\\.6% in Piedmont) while making inroads elsewhere, especially in central Italy (notably 20\\.2% in Umbria), the upper part of the South (13\\.8% in [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo \"Abruzzo\")) and [Sardinia](/wiki/Sardinia \"Sardinia\") (10\\.8%).",
"In the simultaneous [regional election in Lombardy](/wiki/2018_Lombard_regional_election \"2018 Lombard regional election\"), LN's [Attilio Fontana](/wiki/Attilio_Fontana \"Attilio Fontana\") ran for President after Maroni, increasingly critical of Salvini,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ilfoglio.it/politica/2018/01/11/news/io\\-salvini\\-il\\-cav\\-e\\-renzi\\-il\\-gran\\-manifesto\\-anti\\-populista\\-di\\-maroni\\-172516/ \\|title\\=Io, Salvini, il Cav. e Renzi. Il gran manifesto anti populista di Maroni \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/18\\_gennaio\\_11/lega\\-l\\-affondo\\-maroni\\-a227da28\\-f6a8\\-11e7\\-b0f9\\-ae3913959e9e.shtml \\|title\\=Maroni: \"Con me Salvini si Γ¨ comportato da stalinista\" \\|first\\=Redazione \\|last\\=Politica \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} chose not to run for a second term and step aside from politics.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2018\\-01\\-08/maroni\\-la\\-rinuncia\\-corsa\\-lombardia\\-071748\\.shtml \\|title\\=Maroni rinuncia alla Lombardia, Fontana in pole per la successione \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} Fontana was elected with 49\\.8% of the vote and the party scored 29\\.4%. In late April in the [regional election in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia](/wiki/2018_Friuli-Venezia_Giulia_regional_election \"2018 Friuli-Venezia Giulia regional election\"), LN's [Massimiliano Fedriga](/wiki/Massimiliano_Fedriga \"Massimiliano Fedriga\") was elected with 57\\.1% of the vote and the party scored 34\\.9%.",
"As neither of the three main groupings (the centre\\-right, the PD\\-led [centre\\-left](/wiki/Centre-left_coalition_%28Italy%29 \"Centre-left coalition (Italy)\") and the M5S) obtained a majority of seats in Parliament, the League entered in coalition talks with the M5S which was the most voted party with 32\\.7% of the vote. The talks resulted in the proposal of the so\\-called \"government of change\" under the leadership of [Giuseppe Conte](/wiki/Giuseppe_Conte \"Giuseppe Conte\"), a law professor close to the M5S.[\"Conte says to be Italians' defence lawyer in govt of change\"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2018/05/23/conte-says-to-be-italians-defence-lawyer-in-govt-of-change_3294ff64-f175-4f2d-8323-c775d270645c.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204540/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2018/05/23/conte\\-says\\-to\\-be\\-italians\\-defence\\-lawyer\\-in\\-govt\\-of\\-change\\_3294ff64\\-f175\\-4f2d\\-8323\\-c775d270645c.html \\|date\\=29 May 2018 }}. After some bickering with President [Sergio Mattarella](/wiki/Sergio_Mattarella \"Sergio Mattarella\"),[\"Mattarella meets Conte, 'vetoed' Savona\"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/mattarella-meets-conte-vetoed-savona_48b12bb2-f239-462d-83db-fca1f68d70b6.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204506/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/mattarella\\-meets\\-conte\\-vetoed\\-savona\\_48b12bb2\\-f239\\-462d\\-83db\\-fca1f68d70b6\\.html \\|date\\=29 May 2018 }}.[\"Conte drops govt bid\"](http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/conte-drops-govt-bid_e9254d0f-03bd-4699-8599-8ec8edbcf626.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180529204539/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2018/05/27/conte\\-drops\\-govt\\-bid\\_e9254d0f\\-03bd\\-4699\\-8599\\-8ec8edbcf626\\.html \\|date\\=29 May 2018 }}. Conte's [government](/wiki/First_Conte_government \"First Conte government\"), which was dubbed by the media as Western European \"first all\\-populist government\", was sworn in on 1 June. The cabinet featured Salvini as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior, [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti \"Giancarlo Giorgetti\") as Secretary of the Council and four other League members (plus an independent close to the party) as ministers.[\"Governo Conte, la lista di tutti i ministri: Salvini allβInterno e Di Maio al Welfare. Saranno vicepremier\"](https://roma.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18_maggio_31/governo-conte-moavero-milanesi-esteri-savona-affari-europei-564a07a8-64f7-11e8-95f7-d0bed95533ca.shtml) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601060250/https://roma.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18\\_maggio\\_31/governo\\-conte\\-moavero\\-milanesi\\-esteri\\-savona\\-affari\\-europei\\-564a07a8\\-64f7\\-11e8\\-95f7\\-d0bed95533ca.shtml \\|date\\=1 June 2018 }}.",
"During 2019, along with the LN's membership recruitment in the Centre\\-North, the party launched a parallel drive in the Centre\\-South for the LSP,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.tpi.it/2018/07/08/doppie\\-tessere\\-lega\\-salvini \\| title\\=Lo strano caso delle doppie tessere della Lega: CosΓ¬ Salvini si Γ¨ fatto due partiti\\| date\\=8 July 2018}} practically supplanting NcS. It was a sign that the LSP, whose party constitution had been published in the *[Gazzetta Ufficiale](/wiki/Gazzetta_Ufficiale \"Gazzetta Ufficiale\")* in December 2017{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/vediMenuHTML;jsessionid\\=zLkAYtiVQi8t\\+yqW\\+98Yfw\\_\\_.ntc\\-as1\\-guri2a?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta\\=2017\\-12\\-14\\&atto.codiceRedazionale\\=17A08410\\&tipoSerie\\=serie\\_generale\\&tipoVigenza\\=originario\\|title\\=\\*\\*\\* ATTO COMPLETO \\*\\*\\*\\|website\\=www.gazzettaufficiale.it}} and had been described as a \"parallel party\",{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/centrodestra\\-salvini\\-seppellisce\\-il\\-vecchio\\-carroccio\\-e\\-fonda\\-un\\-altro\\-partito\\-dfa2c0d9\\-9f75\\-4983\\-95ae\\-110f83bbbb4b.html \\| title\\=Centrodestra. Salvini seppellisce il vecchio Carroccio e fonda un altro partito\\| date\\=24 January 2018}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/premium/articoli/soldi\\-e\\-poltrone\\-salvini\\-schiera\\-il\\-partito\\-parallelo \\| title\\=Lega, Salvini schiera il \"partito parallelo\" per seppellire il vecchio Carroccio su cui pendono sequestri e confische}} might eventually replace both the LN and NcS. In the meantime, the parties' joint parliamentary groups were named \"LeagueβSalvini Premier\" in the Chamber{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.camera.it/leg18/1083 \\| title\\=XVIII Legislatura β Deputati e Organi β Modifiche intervenute}} and \"LeagueβSalvini PremierβSardinian Action Party\" in the Senate.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.senato.it/Leg18/4839 \\| title\\=Senato.it β Senato della Repubblica senato.it β Variazioni dei Gruppi parlamentari}} According to some news sources, Salvini wanted to launch a brand\\-new party and absorb most of the centre\\-right parties into it.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://milano.corriere.it/notizie/politica/18\\_agosto\\_31/partito\\-unico\\-centrodestra\\-piano\\-salvini\\-il\\-5\\-settembre\\-3999f4ee\\-aca8\\-11e8\\-a56f\\-72aa622a097c.shtml \\| title\\=Il piano di Salvini dopo il 5 settembre: Partito unico del centrodestra\\| date\\=31 August 2018}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\\-il\\-piano\\-segreto\\-per\\-un\\-partito\\-unico\\-del\\-centrodestra\\-a\\-settembre\\-557650\\.html \\| title\\=Salvini, il piano per un partito unico del centrodestra e Palazzo Chigi β Affaritaliani.it\\| date\\=31 August 2018}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/13373027/matteo\\-salvini\\-rivoluzione\\-partito\\-unico\\-centrodestra\\-retroscena\\-data\\-tribunale\\-riesame\\-addio\\-lega.html \\| title\\=Rivoluzione Salvini: \"Nasce il suo nuovo partito\". Il retroscena: Segnatevi la data, qui cambia tutto}}",
"Since the government's formation, the party was regularly the country's largest party in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_next_Italian_general_election \"Opinion polling for the next Italian general election\"), at around or over 30%. The party's strength was confirmed in October by the [Trentino\\-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol provincial elections](/wiki/2018_Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol_provincial_elections \"2018 Trentino-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol provincial elections\"): in [Trentino](/wiki/Trentino \"Trentino\") LN's [Maurizio Fugatti](/wiki/Maurizio_Fugatti \"Maurizio Fugatti\") was elected President with 46\\.7% of the vote and the party scored 27\\.1% (despite competition from several autonomist parties), while in [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\") it came third with 11\\.1% (being the most voted in [Bolzano](/wiki/Bolzano \"Bolzano\") and, more generally, among Italian\\-speakers), leading it to replace the PD as junior partner of the [South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party \"South Tyrolean People's Party\") in the provincial government coalition.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/politica/2019/01/07/alto\\-adige\\-svp\\-approva\\-giunta\\-con\\-lega\\_f325d105\\-7456\\-4dd1\\-8bb9\\-d6b8de1e2441\\.html\\|title\\=Alto Adige, Svp approva giunta con Lega β Politica\\|date\\=7 January 2019\\|website\\=ANSA.it}}",
"In the [2019 European Parliament election in Italy](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2019 European Parliament election in Italy\"), the League won 34\\.3% of the vote, winning for the first time a plurality of the electorate, while the M5S stopped at 17\\.1%.{{cite web \\| last1\\=Amaro \\| first1\\=Silvia \\| title\\=Italy's anti\\-immigration Lega party enjoys EU election triumph \\| url\\=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/27/italy\\-european\\-election\\-results.html \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[CNBC]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Castelfranco \\| first1\\=Sabina \\| title\\=In Italy, Anti\\-Migrant Populist Wins Big \\| url\\=https://www.voanews.com/a/in\\-italy\\-anti\\-migrant\\-populist\\-wins\\-big/4933943\\.html \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Voice of America]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \\| last1\\=Balmer \\| first1\\=Crispian \\| last2\\=Amante \\| first2\\=Angelo \\| title\\=Italy's ruling League triumphs in EU vote as 5\\-Star slumps \\| url\\=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-eu\\-election\\-italy/italys\\-ruling\\-league\\-triumphs\\-in\\-eu\\-vote\\-as\\-5\\-star\\-slumps\\-idUKKCN1SW0WZ \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527030420/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk\\-eu\\-election\\-italy/italys\\-ruling\\-league\\-triumphs\\-in\\-eu\\-vote\\-as\\-5\\-star\\-slumps\\-idUKKCN1SW0WZ \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-date\\=27 May 2019 \\| date\\=26 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Follain \\| first1\\=John \\| last2\\=Totaro \\| first2\\=Lorenzo \\| title\\=Salvini Pulls Rank After Trouncing Five Star in EU Vote \\| url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019\\-05\\-26/salvini\\-s\\-league\\-set\\-to\\-surge\\-but\\-premiership\\-may\\-elude\\-him \\| date\\=26 May 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}} The election thus weakened the M5S and strengthened Salvini's position within the government.{{cite web \\| last1\\=Ritter \\| first1\\=Karl \\| last2\\=Barry \\| first2\\=Colleen \\| title\\=European victory gives Salvini more leverage in Italy \\| url\\=https://apnews.com/dfd4f5206e5b4152b7dcb337e5fa0356 \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Sciorilli Borrelli \\| first1\\=Silvia \\| last2\\=Barigazzi \\| first2\\=Jacopo \\| title\\=Salvini wins big β but only in Italy \\| url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/european\\-parliament\\-election\\-2019\\-matteo\\-salvinis\\-wins\\-big\\-but\\-only\\-in\\-italy/ \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Politico]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \\| last1\\=Galofaro \\| first1\\=Antonino \\| title\\=La double victoire de Matteo Salvini \\| url\\=https://www.letemps.ch/monde/double\\-victoire\\-matteo\\-salvini \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[Le Temps]] \\| access\\-date\\=29 May 2019 \\| language\\=fr}} At the European level, Salvini worked to create a pan\\-European alliance of nationalist political parties, the [European Alliance of Peoples and Nations](/wiki/European_Alliance_of_Peoples_and_Nations \"European Alliance of Peoples and Nations\"),{{cite news \\| last1\\=Parodi \\| first1\\=Emilio \\| title\\=Nationalist EU parties plan to join forces after May elections \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-eu\\-election\\-italy/nationalist\\-eu\\-parties\\-plan\\-to\\-join\\-forces\\-after\\-may\\-elections\\-idUSKCN1RK10F \\| date\\=8 April 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Barry \\| first1\\=Colleen \\| title\\=Italy emerges as ground zero for European extremist populism \\| url\\=https://www.apnews.com/6ad43709411a4526a0e520869652158e \\| date\\=3 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Barry \\| first1\\=Colleen \\| title\\=Italy's Salvini stakes out post as Europe's populist leader \\| url\\=https://www.apnews.com/3376a808df2641cf9da01476bcf7a1e9 \\| date\\=19 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| title\\=Salvini seeks European nationalist unity at Milan rally \\| url\\=https://www.france24\\.com/en/20190518\\-salvini\\-seeks\\-european\\-nationalist\\-unity\\-milan\\-rally \\| date\\=18 May 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[France 24]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \\| last1\\=Giuffrida \\| first1\\=Angela \\| title\\=Europe's far\\-right leaders unite with a vow to 'change history' \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/may/18/europe\\-far\\-right\\-leaders\\-unite\\-milan\\-vow\\-to\\-change\\-history \\| date\\=18 May 2019 \\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Guardian]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}} and he continued these efforts after the election through the [Identity and Democracy Party](/wiki/Identity_and_Democracy_Party \"Identity and Democracy Party\").{{cite news \\| last1\\=Guarascio \\| first1\\=Francesco \\| title\\=Europe's rising far\\-right tries to bury differences to wield clout \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-eu\\-election\\-right/europes\\-rising\\-far\\-right\\-tries\\-to\\-bury\\-differences\\-to\\-wield\\-clout\\-idUSKCN1SX1EP \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Hinnant \\| first1\\=Lori \\| title\\=Macron vs. Salvini: Two leaders face off over EU's future \\| url\\=https://www.apnews.com/6152801851684d879999dbcdc62c1e0f \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \\| last1\\=Squires \\| first1\\=Nick \\| title\\=How a triumphant Matteo Salvini plans to build a new coalition of eurosceptics with Nigel Farage and Marine Le Pen \\| url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/05/27/matteo\\-salvini\\-triumphs\\-european\\-elections\\-taking\\-nearly\\-35/ \\| date\\=28 May 2019 \\| newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite web \\| last1\\=Barry \\| first1\\=Colleen \\| title\\=Salvini vows to unite EU populists yet lacks partners \\| url\\=https://www.apnews.com/f4c8b3c5e07e4924833ff072aed10783 \\| date\\=28 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Associated Press]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}} In the election the party performed strongly in its northern strongholds, especially Veneto (49\\.9%) and Lombardy (43\\.4%), obtaining as usual most of its votes in small towns, as well as increasing its share of vote all around the country. The party also obtained notable results in some of the places associated with the [European migrant crisis](/wiki/European_migrant_crisis \"European migrant crisis\"), from north to south, such as [Bardonecchia](/wiki/Bardonecchia \"Bardonecchia\"), [Ventimiglia](/wiki/Ventimiglia \"Ventimiglia\"), [Riace](/wiki/Riace \"Riace\") and [Lampedusa](/wiki/Lampedusa \"Lampedusa\").{{cite web \\| title\\=Italy's migrant 'hot spots' vote for anti\\-immigration League \\| url\\=https://www.thelocal.it/20190527/matteo\\-salvini\\-league\\-italy\\-eu\\-election\\-migrants\\-lampedusa\\-riace\\-ventimiglia \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[The Local]] (from \\[\\[Agence France\\-Presse]]) \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{cite news \\| title\\=Italy's dominant Salvini is small town phenomenon, polling data shows \\| url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-eu\\-election\\-salvini\\-vote/italys\\-dominant\\-salvini\\-is\\-small\\-town\\-phenomenon\\-polling\\-data\\-shows\\-idUSKCN1SX1HT \\| date\\=27 May 2019 \\| work\\=\\[\\[Reuters]] \\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.welt.de/politik/ausland/live194004943/Juso\\-Chef\\-Kuehnert\\-spricht\\-von\\-politischem\\-Gaffertum\\-nach\\-der\\-Wahl.html\\|title\\=Juso\\-Chef: KΓΌhnert spricht von \"politischem Gaffertum\" nach der Wahl\\|last\\=WELT\\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-29\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-18}}",
"In July 2019, a case of attempted Russia\\-linked corruption by the League was made public by voice recordings acquired by [BuzzFeed](/wiki/BuzzFeed \"BuzzFeed\"). The recordings showed Gianluca Savoini, a LN member, meeting with unspecified Russian agents in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), at the same time when Salvini was also in Moscow on an official trip. The meeting centered around providing the party with $65 million of illegal funding by Russia. The matter was made part of a larger investigation by Italian authorities into the League's finances.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/matteo\\-salvinis\\-party\\-under\\-investigation\\-for\\-alleged\\-russian\\-oil\\-deal \\|title\\=Italian prosecutors investigate League over alleged Russian oil deal claims \\|date\\=11 July 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2019}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/albertonardelli/salvini\\-russia\\-oil\\-deal\\-secret\\-recording \\|title\\=Revealed: The Explosive Secret Recording That Shows How Russia Tried To Funnel Millions To The \"European Trump\" \\|website\\=\\[\\[BuzzFeed News]] \\|date\\=10 July 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=8 August 2019}} In February 2019 the Italian magazine *[L'Espresso](/wiki/L%27espresso \"L'espresso\")* had already published an investigation revealing another 3 million euro funding scheme,{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://espresso.repubblica.it/inchieste/2019/02/20/news/esclusivo\\-lega\\-milioni\\-russia\\-1\\.331835\\|title\\=Esclusivo \\- La trattativa segreta per finanziare con soldi russi la Lega di Matteo Salvini\\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-21\\|website\\=L'Espresso\\|language\\=it\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-23}} paid for by Kremlin\\-linked entities and disguised as a diesel sale. That scheme involved the Russian state\\-owned oil company [Rosneft](/wiki/Rosneft \"Rosneft\") selling 3 million dollars worth of diesel to an Italian company. Allegedly, the money was to be transferred from Rosneft to the League through a Russian subsidy of the Italian bank [Intesa Sanpaolo](/wiki/Intesa_Sanpaolo \"Intesa Sanpaolo\"), in which LN's federal council member Andrea Mascetti was a board member. The money was supposed to fund the coming [European election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election \"2019 European Parliament election\") campaign. Italian authorities are currently investigating the matter. The League was also an official cooperation partner of the Russian governing party [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia \"United Russia\").",
"On 8 August 2019, Salvini announced his intention to leave the coalition with the Five Stars and called for a snap general election.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/09/italys\\-matteo\\-salvini\\-calls\\-for\\-fresh\\-elections\\-as\\-coalition\\-fractures \\|title\\=Italy's Matteo Salvini calls for fresh elections as coalition fractures \\|date\\= 9 August 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} However, after successful talks between the M5S, and the PD, a [new government](/wiki/Conte_II_Cabinet \"Conte II Cabinet\") led by Conte was formed. The League thus returned to opposition, together with its electoral allies of the centre\\-right coalition.",
"The first election after the formation of Conte's second government was the [2019 Umbrian regional election](/wiki/2019_Umbrian_regional_election \"2019 Umbrian regional election\"). In a traditional stronghold of the centre\\-left, the League won 37\\.0% of the vote and its candidate [Donatella Tesei](/wiki/Donatella_Tesei \"Donatella Tesei\") was elected President with 57\\.6% of the vote and a 20% lead over Vincenzo Bianconi, who was the candidate of a joint list of centre\\-left and M5S.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Giuffrida \\|first1\\=Angela \\|title\\=Salvini's coalition sweeps to power in Umbria elections \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/28/matteo\\-salvinis\\-coalition\\-sweeps\\-to\\-power\\-in\\-umbria\\-elections \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2019 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=28 October 2019}}",
"### 2019 federal congress",
"During a federal congress on 21 December 2019, the party's constitution undwerwent some major changes, including reduced powers for the federal president, the extension of the federal secretary's and federal council's terms from three to five years, the introduction of \"dual membership\" and the faculty given to the federal council to grant the use of the party's symbol to other political movements.[Lega, \"sΓ¬\" al nuovo statuto. Bossi: \"Salvini non puΓ² imporre nulla\"](https://www.ilgiorno.it/milano/politica/congresso-lega-statuto-1.4948731) With the end of its membership drive in August 2020, the LSP, until then present only in central\\-southern Italy, became active throughout Italy. The LN, unable to be dissolved because of its burden of β¬49 million debt to the Italian state, was instead formally kept alive, while its cards were donated to former activists.[Salvini \"chiude\" la vecchia Lega: ecco il nuovo partito nazionale](https://www.today.it/politica/salvini-nuova-lega.html)[La nuova Lega e la vecchia Lega](https://www.ilpost.it/2020/08/04/lega-nord-lega-salvini-premier/)",
""
] |
### Leadership of Salvini
[thumb\|180px\|[Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini"), 2018](/wiki/File:Matteo_Salvini_Viminale_%28cropped%29.jpg "Matteo Salvini Viminale (cropped).jpg")
On 7 December, Salvini, endorsed by Maroni and most leading members (including Tosi, who had renounced a bid of his own), trounced Bossi with 82% of the vote in the "primary".{{cite news \|title\=Lega: primarie, a Salvini l'81,66% dei voti a Bossi il 18,34% \|url\=http://www.adnkronos.com/IGN/News/Politica/Lega\-primarie\-a\-Salvini\-l8166\-dei\-voti\-a\-Bossi\-il\-1834\_32965449296\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Adnkronos]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=8 December 2013}} His election was ratified a week later by the party's federal congress in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin").{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Parte l'era di Salvini E Bossi difende l'euro \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/dicembre/16/Parte\_era\_Salvini\_Bossi\_difende\_co\_0\_20131216\_cee787e8\-661a\-11e3\-9ab1\-d0a8f0dc30ed.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=16 December 2013}} Under Salvini, the party embraced a very critical view of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.mattinonline.ch/matteo\-salvini\-basta\-essere\-succubi\-dellunione\-europea\-e\-di\-roma/ \|title\=Matteo Salvini: "Basta essere succubi dell'Unione Europea e di Roma" Mattinonline \|website\=Mattinonline.ch \|date\=16 December 2013 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016}} especially of the [euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro"), which he described a "crime against mankind".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/web/notizie/rubriche/politica/2013/12/15/Lega\-Salvini\-contro\-euro\-Crimine\-contro\-umanita\-\_9781968\.html \|title\=Lega, Salvini contro euro: 'Crimine contro l'umanitΓ ' \|work\=ANSA.it \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} Ahead of the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2014 European Parliament election in Italy"), Salvini started to cooperate with [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen "Marine Le Pen"), leader of the French [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 "National Rally (France)"); and [Geert Wilders](/wiki/Geert_Wilders "Geert Wilders"), leader of the Dutch [Party for Freedom](/wiki/Party_for_Freedom "Party for Freedom").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2013\-12\-13/\-europa\-marine\-pen\-preferisce\-salvini\-e\-lega\-nord\-beppe\-grillo\-\-210854\.shtml?uuid\=ABCNPxj \|title\=Europa, Marine Le Pen preferisce Salvini e la Lega Nord a Beppe Grillo \|work\=Il Sole 24 ORE \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\-al\-congresso\-della\-lega\-marine\-le\-pen\-e\-wilders/ \|title\=Salvini: "Al congresso della Lega Marine Le Pen e Wilders" \| L'Indipendenza Nuova \|website\=Lindipendenza.com \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118180126/http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\-al\-congresso\-della\-lega\-marine\-le\-pen\-e\-wilders/ \|archive\-date\=18 November 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\-lega\-ha\-terreno\-comune\-con\-le\-pen\-il\-23\-no\-euro\-day\-20131114\_085012\.shtml \|title\=askanews \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117090525/http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\-lega\-ha\-terreno\-comune\-con\-le\-pen\-il\-23\-no\-euro\-day\-20131114\_085012\.shtml \|archive\-date\=17 November 2013}} All this was criticised by Bossi, who re\-called his left\-wing roots;{{cite web \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2014/04/03/news/umberto\_bossi\_il\_blitz\_del\_ros\_colpa\_dei\_servizi\_la\_gente\_si\_incazza\-82617710/ \|title\=Umberto Bossi: "Il blitz del Ros? Colpa dei Servizi, la gente si incazza" \|author\=di LAVINIA RIVARA \|date\=3 April 2014 \|work\=la Repubblica \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/bossi\-con\-le\-pen\-alleanza\-transitoria\-boso\-la\-lega\-non\-e\-di\-destra/ \|title\=Bossi: con Le Pen alleanza transitoria. Boso: la Lega non Γ¨ di destra \| L'Indipendenza Nuova \|website\=Lindipendenza.com \|date\=29 May 2014 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331194736/http://lindipendenza.com/bossi\-con\-le\-pen\-alleanza\-transitoria\-boso\-la\-lega\-non\-e\-di\-destra/ \|archive\-date\=31 March 2016}} and Tosi, who represented the party's centrist wing and defended the Euro.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2014\-02\-05/tosi\-non\-si\-puo\-uscire\-euro\-italia\-sarebbe\-preda\-speculazioni\-162427\.shtml?uuid\=ABm2Vfu \|title\=Tosi: non si puΓ² uscire dall'euro. L'Italia sarebbe preda di speculazioni \|work\=Il Sole 24 ORE \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}
In the European election, the party, which ran on a "Stop the Euro" ticket, emphasised [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism "Euroscepticism") and welcomed candidates from other anti\-Euro and/or autonomist movements, notably including [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol")'s [Freiheitlichen](/wiki/Die_Freiheitlichen "Die Freiheitlichen"),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\-6842ea78\-18ff\-4644\-9f74\-94fe3384a6b3\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090834/http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\-6842ea78\-18ff\-4644\-9f74\-94fe3384a6b3\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=7 April 2014 \|title\=Salvini: nuovo simbolo Lega per Europee \|work\=rainews \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2014/03/31/lega\-nuovo\-simbolo\-per\-le\-europee\-via\-scritta\-padania\-al\-suo\-posto\-basta\-euro/933161/ \|title\=Europee 2014, nuovo simbolo Lega. Via scritta "Padania", al suo posto "Basta euro" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \|author\=RQuotidiano \|work\=Il Fatto Quotidiano \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=31 March 2014 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/lombardia/notizie/2014/03/31/salvini\-simbolo\-lega\-con\-basta\-euro\_e1c158f9\-4274\-4f66\-8156\-0026e5a23811\.html \|title\=Salvini: simbolo Lega con 'Basta euro' \|work\=ANSA.it \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=31 March 2014 }} obtained 6\.2% of the vote and five [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament "Member of the European Parliament").{{cite web \|url\=http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \|title\=\[Scrutini] Europee β Elezioni del 25 maggio 2014 β Ministero dell'Interno \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=20 August 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820195718/http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \|url\-status\=dead }} The result was far worse than that of the previous [European election in 2009](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2009 European Parliament election in Italy") (β4\.0pp), but better than that of 2013 general election (\+2\.1pp). The LN came third with 15\.2% in Veneto (where Tosi obtained many more votes than Salvini, showing his popular support once for all and proving how the party was far from united on the anti\-Euro stance),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2014/05/la\-grande\-vittoria\-politica\-di\-tosi/ \|title\=La grande vittoria (politica) di Tosi \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=26 May 2014 }} ahead of the new [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 "Forza Italia (2013)") (FI) and the other PdL's spin\-offs; and fourth in Lombardy with 14\.6%. Salvini was triumphant, despite the party had [lost](/wiki/2014_Piedmontese_regional_election "2014 Piedmontese regional election") Piedmont to the Democrats after Cota had been forced to resign due to irregularities committed by one of its supporting lists in filing the slates for the 2010 election and had decided not to stand. Moreover, Bitonci was elected mayor of [Padua](/wiki/Padua "Padua"), a centre\-left stronghold.
The party's federal congress, summoned in Padua in July 2014, approved Salvini's political line, especially a plan for the introduction of a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax") and the creation of a sister party in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy")\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy "Insular Italy").{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/luglio/21/Salvini\_avverte\_nuova\_Lega\_corre\_co\_0\_20140721\_7fa8c8fe\-1097\-11e4\-80f9\-2e3c33391d10\.shtml \|title\=Salvini avverte: la nuova Lega corre da sola \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} In November, the [Emilia\-Romagna regional election](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election "2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election") represented a major step for Salvini's "national project": the LN, which won 19\.4% of the vote, was the [region](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna")'s second\-largest and resulted far ahead of FI, paving the way for a bid for the leadership of the [centre\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_in_Italy "Centre-right in Italy").{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/24/Lega\_doppia\_Forza\_Italia\_urlo\_co\_0\_20141124\_68460c56\-73a9\-11e4\-b779\-766ff3003bac.shtml \|title\=La Lega doppia Forza Italia L?urlo di Salvini: "Γ storico" \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} In December, [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini "Us with Salvini") (NcS) was launched. The party's growing popularity among voters was reflected also by a constant rise in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2018_Italian_general_election "Opinion polling for the 2018 Italian general election").
In March 2015, after a long struggle between Tosi and Zaia, who was backed by Salvini, over the party's candidates in the upcoming [regional election in Veneto](/wiki/2015_Venetian_regional_election "2015 Venetian regional election"), Tosi was removed from national secretary of Liga Veneta and ejected from the federal party altogether.{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2015/marzo/11/Salvini\_rottura\_nella\_Lega\_Tosi\_co\_0\_20150311\_19ef6226\-c7bb\-11e4\-80a1\-d57600bcc7ce.shtml \|title\=Salvini e la rottura nella Lega: Tosi non Γ¨ piΓΉ un militante del partito \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} However, the [2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections "2015 Italian regional elections") were another success for the LN, especially in Veneto, where Zaia was handily re\-elected with 50\.1% of the vote (Tosi got 11\.9%) and the combined score of party's and Zaia's personal lists was 40\.9%. The party also came second in [Liguria](/wiki/2015_Ligurian_regional_election "2015 Ligurian regional election") (22\.3%) and [Tuscany](/wiki/2015_Tuscan_regional_election "2015 Tuscan regional election") (16\.2%), third in [Marche](/wiki/2015_Marche_regional_election "2015 Marche regional election") (13\.0%) and [Umbria](/wiki/2015_Umbrian_regional_election "2015 Umbrian regional election") (14\.0%).
After the [2016 local elections](/wiki/2016_Italian_local_elections "2016 Italian local elections") in which the party ran below expectations in Lombardy (while doing well in Venetoβthanks to Zaia, Emilia\-Romagna and Tuscany) and the NcS performed badly,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lettera43\.it/politica/il\-fallimento\-di\-salvini\-leader\-del\-centrodestra\_43675250391\.htm \|title\=Il fallimento di Salvini leader del centrodestra \|date\=20 June 2016 \|access\-date\=22 June 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926103602/http://www.lettera43\.it/politica/il\-fallimento\-di\-salvini\-leader\-del\-centrodestra\_43675250391\.htm \|archive\-date\=26 September 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=http://formiche.net/2016/06/20/ecco\-come\-ballottaggi\-ridimensionano\-matteo\-salvini/ \|title\=Ecco come i ballottaggi ridimensionano Matteo Salvini \|first\=Pietro Di \|last\=Michele \|date\=20 June 2016 \|website\=Formiche.net}}{{cite web \|url\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2016/7\-giugno\-2016/lega\-miete\-consensi\-comuni\-pd\-soffre\-grillini\-non\-sfondano\-240526451658\.shtml \|title\=La Lega miete consensi nei Comuni Il Pd soffre, i grillini non\-sfondano \|first\=Marco \|last\=Bonet\|date\=7 June 2016 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\-lega\-di\-zaia\-vince\-su\-quella\-di\-salvini\-1\.4949687 \|title\=La Lega di Zaia vince su quella di Salvini \|first\=SocietΓ Editrice Athesis \|last\=S.p.A. \|access\-date\=22 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=19 November 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119072135/https://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\-lega\-di\-zaia\-vince\-su\-quella\-di\-salvini\-1\.4949687 \|url\-status\=dead }} Salvini's political line came under pressure from Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi "Paolo Grimoldi"), the new leader of Lega Lombarda. In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election "2017 Lega Nord leadership election"), Salvini, who was focused on becoming the leader of the centre\-right{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/speciali/referendum/2016/11/11/referendum\-berlusconi\-dopo\-412\-cambiare\-italicum\-e\-votare\_c30e6b23\-8384\-4167\-8ed1\-ea5c2bd88caf.html \|title\=Salvini: "Io candidato premier? Se chiedono ci sono. Col no si va a votare" β Referendum \|date\=11 November 2016}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\_novembre\_12/matteo\-salvini\-firenze\-pronto\-candidarmi\-come\-premier\-8bf1731c\-a8e9\-11e6\-b875\-b27331f307f4\.shtml \|title\=Matteo Salvini a Firenze: "Pronto a candidarmi come premier" \|first\=Annalisa \|last\=Grandi\|date\=11 December 2016 }} and possibly changing the LN's name by ditching the word "North",{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\_ottobre\_25/lega\-congresso\-togliere\-parola\-nord\-e56a6d54\-9a25\-11e6\-939e\-ec3a0eea054f.shtml \|title\=Lega, un congresso per togliere la parola Nord \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi\|date\=24 October 2016 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/salvini\-vuole\-togliere\-nord\-nome\-lega\-1323142\.html\|title\=Salvini vuole togliere il "Nord" al nome della Lega\|first\=Ivan\|last\=Francese\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=25 October 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\-nord\-cambia\-nome\-addio\-nord.html\|title\=Clamoroso Salvini, addio Lega Nord. Mossa\-terremoto, caos nel partito\|website\=www.liberoquotidiano.it\|access\-date\=12 March 2019\|archive\-date\=12 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140733/http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\-nord\-cambia\-nome\-addio\-nord.html\|url\-status\=dead}} was re\-elected leader of the party with 82\.7% of the vote against his opponent [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava "Gianni Fava")'s 17\.3%.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_maggio\_14/bossi\-se\-vince\-salvini\-lega\-finita\-io\-valutero\-d660bdcc\-38b8\-11e7\-8530\-ea2b12fbdf2c.shtml\|title\=Salvini stravince le primarie Bossi: "La Lega Γ¨ finita, io valuterΓ²"\|last\=Zapperi\|first\=Cesare\|date\=14 May 2017}} Consequently, Salvini launched his campaign to become [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy "Prime Minister of Italy").
In the meantime, the LN campaigned heavily for [Veneto](/wiki/2017_Venetian_autonomy_referendum "2017 Venetian autonomy referendum")'s and [Lombardy](/wiki/2017_Lombard_autonomy_referendum "2017 Lombard autonomy referendum")'s autonomy referendums, which took place on 22 October. In Veneto, the turnout was 57\.2% and those who voted "yes" reached 98\.1% whereas in Lombardy the figures were 38\.3% and 95\.3%.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/world/europe/lombardy\-veneto\-referendums.html \|title\=Italian Regions of Lombardy and Veneto Vote for More Autonomy \|first\=Elisabetta \|last\=Povoledo \|date\=22 October 2017 \|newspaper\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \|last1\=Sanderson \|first1\=Rachel \|date\=23 October 2017 \|title\=Italy's richest regions vote overwhelmingly for greater autonomy \|website\=Financial Times \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\-b7dc\-11e7\-8c12\-5661783e5589 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\-b7dc\-11e7\-8c12\-5661783e5589 \|archive\-date\=10 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21730602\-unlike\-catalonia\-no\-one\-asking\-independence\-yet\-northern\-italy\-votes\-more\-autonomy \|title\=Northern Italy votes for more autonomy\|newspaper\=The Economist\|date\=26 October 2017}} When the referendums were over, with strong opposition by Bossi, Salvini persuaded the party's federal council to style the party simply as "Lega", including NcS, in the upcoming general election.["Italy's rebranded Lega seeks national posture for 2018 vote"](http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy-rebranded-lega-seeks-national-posture-2018-vote-article-1.3713674) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519032906/http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy\-rebranded\-lega\-seeks\-national\-posture\-2018\-vote\-article\-1\.3713674 \|date\=19 May 2018 }}.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018\-02\-20/italy\-s\-northern\-league\-is\-suddenly\-in\-love\-with\-the\-south \|title\=Italy's Northern League Is Suddenly in Love With the South \|date\=20 February 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|publisher\=Bloomberg L.P.}}{{cite news \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_ottobre\_28/lega\-toglie\-parola\-nord\-calderoli\-salvini\-bossi\-71d8cdd6\-bb4e\-11e7\-8ef5\-94a13146dc45\.shtml \|title\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: "Fascista" \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi\|newspaper\=Corriere della Sera \|date\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/10/27/news/lega\_nord\_nuovo\_simbolo\-179501278 \|title\=Lega, nuovo simbolo senza "nord". Salvini: "SarΓ valido per tutta Italia" \|date\=27 October 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_ottobre\_28/lega\-toglie\-parola\-nord\-calderoli\-salvini\-bossi\-71d8cdd6\-bb4e\-11e7\-8ef5\-94a13146dc45\.shtml \|title\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: "Fascista" \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-italy\-election\-league/italys\-league\-leaves\-northern\-bastions\-bangs\-anti\-migrant\-drum\-idUSKBN1FT1Q9 \|title\=Italy's League leaves northern bastions, bangs anti\-migrant drum \|date\=9 February 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|agency\=Reuters\|newspaper\=Reuters }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2013/12/07/primarie\-lega\-salvini\-vince\-82\-bossi\-fermo\-18\_n\_4404640\.html \|title\=Primarie Lega, vince Matteo Salvini con l'82%. Umberto Bossi si ferma al 18% \|date\=7 December 2013 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_settembre\_17/bossi\-lega\-pontida\-salvini\-solitudina\-ormai\-devo\-andar\-via\-b27e8798\-9be8\-11e7\-99a4\-e70f8a929b5c.shtml \|title\=La solitudine di Bossi: "Non Γ¨ piΓΉ Pontida, ormai devo andar via" \|first\=Marco Cremonesi, dal nostro inviato a \|last\=Pontida \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=17 September 2017 }} Additionally, Salvini toned down his stances against the European Union and the Euro in order to make an alliance with FI possible.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/lega\-e\-m5s\-ammainano\-bandiera\-anti\-euro\-1409067\.html\|title\=Lega e M5s ammainano la bandiera anti euro\|first\=Pasquale\|last\=Napolitano\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=14 June 2017}}{{cite news \|url\=https://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\-OITTP \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170851/http://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\-OITTP \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=3 September 2017 \|title\=Salvini: Lega non\-proporrΓ referendum su euro, "non\-si puΓ² fare" \|first\=Reuters \|last\=Editorial\|newspaper\=Reuters \|date\=3 September 2017 }}
Despite misgivings by Bossi and the Padanist old guard, the party still had a strong [autonomist](/wiki/Autonomism_%28political_doctrine%29 "Autonomism (political doctrine)") outlook in the northern regions,{{Cite web \| url\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/economia/18\_ottobre\_23/onda\-sovranista\-88df1d68\-d6c4\-11e8\-86b1\-93f92584e776\.shtml \| title\=Veneto, Lega pigliatutto anche in Trentino fra sovranismo e autonomismo\| date\=23 October 2018}} especially in Veneto where [Venetian nationalism](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism") was stronger than ever before.{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.limesonline.com/perche\-il\-veneto\-non\-si\-sente\-italia/100953 \| title\=PerchΓ© il Veneto non si sente Italia\| date\=8 August 2017}}{{Cite web\| url\=https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\-di\-soligo/17934\-veneto\-texas\-d\-italia\-intervista\-a\-giovanni\-collot\-di\-conegliano\| title\="Veneto Texas d'Italia": l'Analista politico Giovanni Collot di Conegliano in redazione\| date\=17 September 2017\| access\-date\=24 October 2018\| archive\-date\=6 February 2020\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206175023/https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\-di\-soligo/17934\-veneto\-texas\-d\-italia\-intervista\-a\-giovanni\-collot\-di\-conegliano\| url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web \| url\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/referendum\-autonomia\-lombardia\-e\-veneto/notizie/venezia\-06\-07\-t1corriereveneto\-web\-veneto\-f4d4bac2\-b7bd\-11e7\-a918\-737504981ad0\.shtml \| title\=La questione Veneta\| date\=23 October 2017}} Additionally, the League maintained its power base in the North, where it continued to get most of its support.
|
[
"### Leadership of Salvini",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|[Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\"), 2018](/wiki/File:Matteo_Salvini_Viminale_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Matteo Salvini Viminale (cropped).jpg\")\nOn 7 December, Salvini, endorsed by Maroni and most leading members (including Tosi, who had renounced a bid of his own), trounced Bossi with 82% of the vote in the \"primary\".{{cite news \\|title\\=Lega: primarie, a Salvini l'81,66% dei voti a Bossi il 18,34% \\|url\\=http://www.adnkronos.com/IGN/News/Politica/Lega\\-primarie\\-a\\-Salvini\\-l8166\\-dei\\-voti\\-a\\-Bossi\\-il\\-1834\\_32965449296\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Adnkronos]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=8 December 2013}} His election was ratified a week later by the party's federal congress in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Parte l'era di Salvini E Bossi difende l'euro \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2013/dicembre/16/Parte\\_era\\_Salvini\\_Bossi\\_difende\\_co\\_0\\_20131216\\_cee787e8\\-661a\\-11e3\\-9ab1\\-d0a8f0dc30ed.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=16 December 2013}} Under Salvini, the party embraced a very critical view of the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mattinonline.ch/matteo\\-salvini\\-basta\\-essere\\-succubi\\-dellunione\\-europea\\-e\\-di\\-roma/ \\|title\\=Matteo Salvini: \"Basta essere succubi dell'Unione Europea e di Roma\" Mattinonline \\|website\\=Mattinonline.ch \\|date\\=16 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016}} especially of the [euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\"), which he described a \"crime against mankind\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/web/notizie/rubriche/politica/2013/12/15/Lega\\-Salvini\\-contro\\-euro\\-Crimine\\-contro\\-umanita\\-\\_9781968\\.html \\|title\\=Lega, Salvini contro euro: 'Crimine contro l'umanitΓ ' \\|work\\=ANSA.it \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} Ahead of the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2014 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Salvini started to cooperate with [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen \"Marine Le Pen\"), leader of the French [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 \"National Rally (France)\"); and [Geert Wilders](/wiki/Geert_Wilders \"Geert Wilders\"), leader of the Dutch [Party for Freedom](/wiki/Party_for_Freedom \"Party for Freedom\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2013\\-12\\-13/\\-europa\\-marine\\-pen\\-preferisce\\-salvini\\-e\\-lega\\-nord\\-beppe\\-grillo\\-\\-210854\\.shtml?uuid\\=ABCNPxj \\|title\\=Europa, Marine Le Pen preferisce Salvini e la Lega Nord a Beppe Grillo \\|work\\=Il Sole 24 ORE \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\\-al\\-congresso\\-della\\-lega\\-marine\\-le\\-pen\\-e\\-wilders/ \\|title\\=Salvini: \"Al congresso della Lega Marine Le Pen e Wilders\" \\| L'Indipendenza Nuova \\|website\\=Lindipendenza.com \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118180126/http://www.lindipendenza.com/salvini\\-al\\-congresso\\-della\\-lega\\-marine\\-le\\-pen\\-e\\-wilders/ \\|archive\\-date\\=18 November 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\\-lega\\-ha\\-terreno\\-comune\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-il\\-23\\-no\\-euro\\-day\\-20131114\\_085012\\.shtml \\|title\\=askanews \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117090525/http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/top10/salvini\\-lega\\-ha\\-terreno\\-comune\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-il\\-23\\-no\\-euro\\-day\\-20131114\\_085012\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=17 November 2013}} All this was criticised by Bossi, who re\\-called his left\\-wing roots;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2014/04/03/news/umberto\\_bossi\\_il\\_blitz\\_del\\_ros\\_colpa\\_dei\\_servizi\\_la\\_gente\\_si\\_incazza\\-82617710/ \\|title\\=Umberto Bossi: \"Il blitz del Ros? Colpa dei Servizi, la gente si incazza\" \\|author\\=di LAVINIA RIVARA \\|date\\=3 April 2014 \\|work\\=la Repubblica \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lindipendenza.com/bossi\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-alleanza\\-transitoria\\-boso\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra/ \\|title\\=Bossi: con Le Pen alleanza transitoria. Boso: la Lega non Γ¨ di destra \\| L'Indipendenza Nuova \\|website\\=Lindipendenza.com \\|date\\=29 May 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331194736/http://lindipendenza.com/bossi\\-con\\-le\\-pen\\-alleanza\\-transitoria\\-boso\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra/ \\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2016}} and Tosi, who represented the party's centrist wing and defended the Euro.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2014\\-02\\-05/tosi\\-non\\-si\\-puo\\-uscire\\-euro\\-italia\\-sarebbe\\-preda\\-speculazioni\\-162427\\.shtml?uuid\\=ABm2Vfu \\|title\\=Tosi: non si puΓ² uscire dall'euro. L'Italia sarebbe preda di speculazioni \\|work\\=Il Sole 24 ORE \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}",
"In the European election, the party, which ran on a \"Stop the Euro\" ticket, emphasised [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism \"Euroscepticism\") and welcomed candidates from other anti\\-Euro and/or autonomist movements, notably including [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\")'s [Freiheitlichen](/wiki/Die_Freiheitlichen \"Die Freiheitlichen\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\\-6842ea78\\-18ff\\-4644\\-9f74\\-94fe3384a6b3\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090834/http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/ContentItem\\-6842ea78\\-18ff\\-4644\\-9f74\\-94fe3384a6b3\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2014 \\|title\\=Salvini: nuovo simbolo Lega per Europee \\|work\\=rainews \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2014/03/31/lega\\-nuovo\\-simbolo\\-per\\-le\\-europee\\-via\\-scritta\\-padania\\-al\\-suo\\-posto\\-basta\\-euro/933161/ \\|title\\=Europee 2014, nuovo simbolo Lega. Via scritta \"Padania\", al suo posto \"Basta euro\" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \\|author\\=RQuotidiano \\|work\\=Il Fatto Quotidiano \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=31 March 2014 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/lombardia/notizie/2014/03/31/salvini\\-simbolo\\-lega\\-con\\-basta\\-euro\\_e1c158f9\\-4274\\-4f66\\-8156\\-0026e5a23811\\.html \\|title\\=Salvini: simbolo Lega con 'Basta euro' \\|work\\=ANSA.it \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=31 March 2014 }} obtained 6\\.2% of the vote and five [MEPs](/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament \"Member of the European Parliament\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \\|title\\=\\[Scrutini] Europee β Elezioni del 25 maggio 2014 β Ministero dell'Interno \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 August 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820195718/http://elezioni.interno.it/europee/scrutini/20140525/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The result was far worse than that of the previous [European election in 2009](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2009 European Parliament election in Italy\") (β4\\.0pp), but better than that of 2013 general election (\\+2\\.1pp). The LN came third with 15\\.2% in Veneto (where Tosi obtained many more votes than Salvini, showing his popular support once for all and proving how the party was far from united on the anti\\-Euro stance),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lintraprendente.it/2014/05/la\\-grande\\-vittoria\\-politica\\-di\\-tosi/ \\|title\\=La grande vittoria (politica) di Tosi \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=26 May 2014 }} ahead of the new [Forza Italia](/wiki/Forza_Italia_%282013%29 \"Forza Italia (2013)\") (FI) and the other PdL's spin\\-offs; and fourth in Lombardy with 14\\.6%. Salvini was triumphant, despite the party had [lost](/wiki/2014_Piedmontese_regional_election \"2014 Piedmontese regional election\") Piedmont to the Democrats after Cota had been forced to resign due to irregularities committed by one of its supporting lists in filing the slates for the 2010 election and had decided not to stand. Moreover, Bitonci was elected mayor of [Padua](/wiki/Padua \"Padua\"), a centre\\-left stronghold.",
"The party's federal congress, summoned in Padua in July 2014, approved Salvini's political line, especially a plan for the introduction of a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\") and the creation of a sister party in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\")\\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy \"Insular Italy\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/luglio/21/Salvini\\_avverte\\_nuova\\_Lega\\_corre\\_co\\_0\\_20140721\\_7fa8c8fe\\-1097\\-11e4\\-80f9\\-2e3c33391d10\\.shtml \\|title\\=Salvini avverte: la nuova Lega corre da sola \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} In November, the [Emilia\\-Romagna regional election](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election \"2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election\") represented a major step for Salvini's \"national project\": the LN, which won 19\\.4% of the vote, was the [region](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\")'s second\\-largest and resulted far ahead of FI, paving the way for a bid for the leadership of the [centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_in_Italy \"Centre-right in Italy\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/24/Lega\\_doppia\\_Forza\\_Italia\\_urlo\\_co\\_0\\_20141124\\_68460c56\\-73a9\\-11e4\\-b779\\-766ff3003bac.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega doppia Forza Italia L?urlo di Salvini: \"Γ storico\" \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} In December, [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini \"Us with Salvini\") (NcS) was launched. The party's growing popularity among voters was reflected also by a constant rise in [opinion polls](/wiki/Opinion_polling_for_the_2018_Italian_general_election \"Opinion polling for the 2018 Italian general election\").",
"In March 2015, after a long struggle between Tosi and Zaia, who was backed by Salvini, over the party's candidates in the upcoming [regional election in Veneto](/wiki/2015_Venetian_regional_election \"2015 Venetian regional election\"), Tosi was removed from national secretary of Liga Veneta and ejected from the federal party altogether.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2015/marzo/11/Salvini\\_rottura\\_nella\\_Lega\\_Tosi\\_co\\_0\\_20150311\\_19ef6226\\-c7bb\\-11e4\\-80a1\\-d57600bcc7ce.shtml \\|title\\=Salvini e la rottura nella Lega: Tosi non Γ¨ piΓΉ un militante del partito \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} However, the [2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections \"2015 Italian regional elections\") were another success for the LN, especially in Veneto, where Zaia was handily re\\-elected with 50\\.1% of the vote (Tosi got 11\\.9%) and the combined score of party's and Zaia's personal lists was 40\\.9%. The party also came second in [Liguria](/wiki/2015_Ligurian_regional_election \"2015 Ligurian regional election\") (22\\.3%) and [Tuscany](/wiki/2015_Tuscan_regional_election \"2015 Tuscan regional election\") (16\\.2%), third in [Marche](/wiki/2015_Marche_regional_election \"2015 Marche regional election\") (13\\.0%) and [Umbria](/wiki/2015_Umbrian_regional_election \"2015 Umbrian regional election\") (14\\.0%).",
"After the [2016 local elections](/wiki/2016_Italian_local_elections \"2016 Italian local elections\") in which the party ran below expectations in Lombardy (while doing well in Venetoβthanks to Zaia, Emilia\\-Romagna and Tuscany) and the NcS performed badly,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lettera43\\.it/politica/il\\-fallimento\\-di\\-salvini\\-leader\\-del\\-centrodestra\\_43675250391\\.htm \\|title\\=Il fallimento di Salvini leader del centrodestra \\|date\\=20 June 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926103602/http://www.lettera43\\.it/politica/il\\-fallimento\\-di\\-salvini\\-leader\\-del\\-centrodestra\\_43675250391\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=26 September 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://formiche.net/2016/06/20/ecco\\-come\\-ballottaggi\\-ridimensionano\\-matteo\\-salvini/ \\|title\\=Ecco come i ballottaggi ridimensionano Matteo Salvini \\|first\\=Pietro Di \\|last\\=Michele \\|date\\=20 June 2016 \\|website\\=Formiche.net}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2016/7\\-giugno\\-2016/lega\\-miete\\-consensi\\-comuni\\-pd\\-soffre\\-grillini\\-non\\-sfondano\\-240526451658\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega miete consensi nei Comuni Il Pd soffre, i grillini non\\-sfondano \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Bonet\\|date\\=7 June 2016 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\\-lega\\-di\\-zaia\\-vince\\-su\\-quella\\-di\\-salvini\\-1\\.4949687 \\|title\\=La Lega di Zaia vince su quella di Salvini \\|first\\=SocietΓ Editrice Athesis \\|last\\=S.p.A. \\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=19 November 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119072135/https://www.ilgiornaledivicenza.it/home/veneto/la\\-lega\\-di\\-zaia\\-vince\\-su\\-quella\\-di\\-salvini\\-1\\.4949687 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Salvini's political line came under pressure from Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi \"Paolo Grimoldi\"), the new leader of Lega Lombarda. In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election \"2017 Lega Nord leadership election\"), Salvini, who was focused on becoming the leader of the centre\\-right{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/speciali/referendum/2016/11/11/referendum\\-berlusconi\\-dopo\\-412\\-cambiare\\-italicum\\-e\\-votare\\_c30e6b23\\-8384\\-4167\\-8ed1\\-ea5c2bd88caf.html \\|title\\=Salvini: \"Io candidato premier? Se chiedono ci sono. Col no si va a votare\" β Referendum \\|date\\=11 November 2016}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\\_novembre\\_12/matteo\\-salvini\\-firenze\\-pronto\\-candidarmi\\-come\\-premier\\-8bf1731c\\-a8e9\\-11e6\\-b875\\-b27331f307f4\\.shtml \\|title\\=Matteo Salvini a Firenze: \"Pronto a candidarmi come premier\" \\|first\\=Annalisa \\|last\\=Grandi\\|date\\=11 December 2016 }} and possibly changing the LN's name by ditching the word \"North\",{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/16\\_ottobre\\_25/lega\\-congresso\\-togliere\\-parola\\-nord\\-e56a6d54\\-9a25\\-11e6\\-939e\\-ec3a0eea054f.shtml \\|title\\=Lega, un congresso per togliere la parola Nord \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi\\|date\\=24 October 2016 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/salvini\\-vuole\\-togliere\\-nord\\-nome\\-lega\\-1323142\\.html\\|title\\=Salvini vuole togliere il \"Nord\" al nome della Lega\\|first\\=Ivan\\|last\\=Francese\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=25 October 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\\-nord\\-cambia\\-nome\\-addio\\-nord.html\\|title\\=Clamoroso Salvini, addio Lega Nord. Mossa\\-terremoto, caos nel partito\\|website\\=www.liberoquotidiano.it\\|access\\-date\\=12 March 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140733/http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12001736/lega\\-nord\\-cambia\\-nome\\-addio\\-nord.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} was re\\-elected leader of the party with 82\\.7% of the vote against his opponent [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava \"Gianni Fava\")'s 17\\.3%.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_maggio\\_14/bossi\\-se\\-vince\\-salvini\\-lega\\-finita\\-io\\-valutero\\-d660bdcc\\-38b8\\-11e7\\-8530\\-ea2b12fbdf2c.shtml\\|title\\=Salvini stravince le primarie Bossi: \"La Lega Γ¨ finita, io valuterΓ²\"\\|last\\=Zapperi\\|first\\=Cesare\\|date\\=14 May 2017}} Consequently, Salvini launched his campaign to become [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy \"Prime Minister of Italy\").",
"In the meantime, the LN campaigned heavily for [Veneto](/wiki/2017_Venetian_autonomy_referendum \"2017 Venetian autonomy referendum\")'s and [Lombardy](/wiki/2017_Lombard_autonomy_referendum \"2017 Lombard autonomy referendum\")'s autonomy referendums, which took place on 22 October. In Veneto, the turnout was 57\\.2% and those who voted \"yes\" reached 98\\.1% whereas in Lombardy the figures were 38\\.3% and 95\\.3%.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/world/europe/lombardy\\-veneto\\-referendums.html \\|title\\=Italian Regions of Lombardy and Veneto Vote for More Autonomy \\|first\\=Elisabetta \\|last\\=Povoledo \\|date\\=22 October 2017 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Sanderson \\|first1\\=Rachel \\|date\\=23 October 2017 \\|title\\=Italy's richest regions vote overwhelmingly for greater autonomy \\|website\\=Financial Times \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\\-b7dc\\-11e7\\-8c12\\-5661783e5589 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/38f625f6\\-b7dc\\-11e7\\-8c12\\-5661783e5589 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21730602\\-unlike\\-catalonia\\-no\\-one\\-asking\\-independence\\-yet\\-northern\\-italy\\-votes\\-more\\-autonomy \\|title\\=Northern Italy votes for more autonomy\\|newspaper\\=The Economist\\|date\\=26 October 2017}} When the referendums were over, with strong opposition by Bossi, Salvini persuaded the party's federal council to style the party simply as \"Lega\", including NcS, in the upcoming general election.[\"Italy's rebranded Lega seeks national posture for 2018 vote\"](http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy-rebranded-lega-seeks-national-posture-2018-vote-article-1.3713674) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519032906/http://www.nydailynews.com/newswires/news/world/italy\\-rebranded\\-lega\\-seeks\\-national\\-posture\\-2018\\-vote\\-article\\-1\\.3713674 \\|date\\=19 May 2018 }}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018\\-02\\-20/italy\\-s\\-northern\\-league\\-is\\-suddenly\\-in\\-love\\-with\\-the\\-south \\|title\\=Italy's Northern League Is Suddenly in Love With the South \\|date\\=20 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|publisher\\=Bloomberg L.P.}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_ottobre\\_28/lega\\-toglie\\-parola\\-nord\\-calderoli\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-71d8cdd6\\-bb4e\\-11e7\\-8ef5\\-94a13146dc45\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: \"Fascista\" \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi\\|newspaper\\=Corriere della Sera \\|date\\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/10/27/news/lega\\_nord\\_nuovo\\_simbolo\\-179501278 \\|title\\=Lega, nuovo simbolo senza \"nord\". Salvini: \"SarΓ valido per tutta Italia\" \\|date\\=27 October 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_ottobre\\_28/lega\\-toglie\\-parola\\-nord\\-calderoli\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-71d8cdd6\\-bb4e\\-11e7\\-8ef5\\-94a13146dc45\\.shtml \\|title\\=La Lega cambia il simbolo: via la parola Nord. Bossi a Salvini: \"Fascista\" \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=27 October 2017 }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-italy\\-election\\-league/italys\\-league\\-leaves\\-northern\\-bastions\\-bangs\\-anti\\-migrant\\-drum\\-idUSKBN1FT1Q9 \\|title\\=Italy's League leaves northern bastions, bangs anti\\-migrant drum \\|date\\=9 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|agency\\=Reuters\\|newspaper\\=Reuters }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2013/12/07/primarie\\-lega\\-salvini\\-vince\\-82\\-bossi\\-fermo\\-18\\_n\\_4404640\\.html \\|title\\=Primarie Lega, vince Matteo Salvini con l'82%. Umberto Bossi si ferma al 18% \\|date\\=7 December 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_settembre\\_17/bossi\\-lega\\-pontida\\-salvini\\-solitudina\\-ormai\\-devo\\-andar\\-via\\-b27e8798\\-9be8\\-11e7\\-99a4\\-e70f8a929b5c.shtml \\|title\\=La solitudine di Bossi: \"Non Γ¨ piΓΉ Pontida, ormai devo andar via\" \\|first\\=Marco Cremonesi, dal nostro inviato a \\|last\\=Pontida \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=17 September 2017 }} Additionally, Salvini toned down his stances against the European Union and the Euro in order to make an alliance with FI possible.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/lega\\-e\\-m5s\\-ammainano\\-bandiera\\-anti\\-euro\\-1409067\\.html\\|title\\=Lega e M5s ammainano la bandiera anti euro\\|first\\=Pasquale\\|last\\=Napolitano\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=14 June 2017}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\\-OITTP \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903170851/http://it.reuters.com/article/topNews/idITKCN1BE0K5\\-OITTP \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=3 September 2017 \\|title\\=Salvini: Lega non\\-proporrΓ referendum su euro, \"non\\-si puΓ² fare\" \\|first\\=Reuters \\|last\\=Editorial\\|newspaper\\=Reuters \\|date\\=3 September 2017 }}",
"Despite misgivings by Bossi and the Padanist old guard, the party still had a strong [autonomist](/wiki/Autonomism_%28political_doctrine%29 \"Autonomism (political doctrine)\") outlook in the northern regions,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/economia/18\\_ottobre\\_23/onda\\-sovranista\\-88df1d68\\-d6c4\\-11e8\\-86b1\\-93f92584e776\\.shtml \\| title\\=Veneto, Lega pigliatutto anche in Trentino fra sovranismo e autonomismo\\| date\\=23 October 2018}} especially in Veneto where [Venetian nationalism](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\") was stronger than ever before.{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.limesonline.com/perche\\-il\\-veneto\\-non\\-si\\-sente\\-italia/100953 \\| title\\=PerchΓ© il Veneto non si sente Italia\\| date\\=8 August 2017}}{{Cite web\\| url\\=https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\\-di\\-soligo/17934\\-veneto\\-texas\\-d\\-italia\\-intervista\\-a\\-giovanni\\-collot\\-di\\-conegliano\\| title\\=\"Veneto Texas d'Italia\": l'Analista politico Giovanni Collot di Conegliano in redazione\\| date\\=17 September 2017\\| access\\-date\\=24 October 2018\\| archive\\-date\\=6 February 2020\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206175023/https://www.qdpnews.it/pieve\\-di\\-soligo/17934\\-veneto\\-texas\\-d\\-italia\\-intervista\\-a\\-giovanni\\-collot\\-di\\-conegliano\\| url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/referendum\\-autonomia\\-lombardia\\-e\\-veneto/notizie/venezia\\-06\\-07\\-t1corriereveneto\\-web\\-veneto\\-f4d4bac2\\-b7bd\\-11e7\\-a918\\-737504981ad0\\.shtml \\| title\\=La questione Veneta\\| date\\=23 October 2017}} Additionally, the League maintained its power base in the North, where it continued to get most of its support.",
""
] |
Ideology
--------
[thumb\|160px\|Statue of [Alberto da Giussano](/wiki/Alberto_da_Giussano "Alberto da Giussano"), the [Medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") knight who inspired Umberto Bossi](/wiki/File:Alberto_da_Giussano_4.jpg "Alberto da Giussano 4.jpg")
The party's ideology is a combination of [political federalism](/wiki/Federalism "Federalism"), [fiscal federalism](/wiki/Fiscal_federalism "Fiscal federalism"), [regionalism](/wiki/Regionalism_%28politics%29 "Regionalism (politics)") and defense of [northern Italian](/wiki/Northern_Italy "Northern Italy") traditions. The historical goal of the party is to transform [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") into a [federated state](/wiki/Federated_state "Federated state"), letting [Padania](/wiki/Padania "Padania") keep more tax revenues collected there under a regime of fiscal federalism. Through Lega Nord, federalism has become a major issue in the country. This is also the main difference between the Lega Nord and most European regionalist parties ([South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party "South Tyrolean People's Party"),{{cite book \|first1\=Paolo \|last1\=Rumiz \|title\=La secessione leggera. Dove nasce la rabbia del profondo Nord \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Feltrinelli \|location\=Milan \|page\=171}} [Basque Nationalist Party](/wiki/Basque_Nationalist_Party "Basque Nationalist Party"), [Republican Left of Catalonia](/wiki/Republican_Left_of_Catalonia "Republican Left of Catalonia"), [Scottish National Party](/wiki/Scottish_National_Party "Scottish National Party"), [Vlaams Belang](/wiki/Vlaams_Belang "Vlaams Belang") and the like), which focus on special rights for their own regions.{{cite book \|first1\=Umberto \|last1\=Bossi \|author\-link1\=Umberto Bossi \|first2\=Daniele \|last2\=Vimercati \|title\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=25β35, 194β205}}{{cite book \|first1\=Gianfranco \|last1\=Miglio \|title\=Come cambiare. Le mie riforme \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Mondadori \|location\=Milan \|pages\=31β40}}{{cite book \|first1\=Elio \|last1\=Bonifazi \|first2\=Alberto \|last2\=Pellegrino \|title\=Educazione civica e costituzionale \|year\=1996 \|publisher\=Bulgarini \|location\=Florence \|pages\=79, 128β129}}
The original programme of the party identified "federalist libertarianism" as ideology.{{cite book \|first1\=Francesco \|last1\=Jori \|title\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Marsilio \|location\=Venice \|page\=77}} In fact, the party has often varied its tone and policies, replacing its original [libertarianism](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") and [social liberalism](/wiki/Social_liberalism "Social liberalism") with a more [socially conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism "Social conservatism") approach, alternating [anti\-clericalism](/wiki/Anti-clericalism "Anti-clericalism"){{cite book\|last\=Chaintera\-Stutte\|first\=Patricia\|chapter\=Leadership, Ideology and Anti\-European Politics in the Italian Lega Nord\|editor1\=Daniele Caramani\|editor2\=Yves MΓ©ny\|title\=Challenges to Consensual Politics: Democracy, Identity, and Populist Protest in the Alpine Region\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Rwofe0Zg8MQC\&pg\=PA120\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Peter Lang\|isbn\=978\-90\-5201\-250\-6\|page\=120}} with a pro\-Catholic Church stance and [Europeanism](/wiki/Europeanism "Europeanism") with a marked [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism "Euroscepticism"){{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=49β52}}{{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|page\=87}} and ultimately abandoning much of its original [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism "Pacifism") and uncompromising [environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism "Environmentalism").{{cite web \|first\=Davide \|last\=Romano \|url\=http://politicaesocieta.blogosfere.it/2008/09/romanzo\-padano\-la\-lega\-di\-bossi\-berlusconi\-seduttore\-e\-maroni\-ex\-venduto\-parla\-davide\-romano.html \|title\=Romanzo padano, la Lega di Bossi: Berlusconi seduttore e Maroni ex venduto. Parla Davide Romano \|publisher\=Politica e SocietΓ 2\.0 \|date\=29 September 2009 \|access\-date\=20 April 2009 \|archive\-date\=23 March 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323064906/http://politicaesocieta.blogosfere.it/2008/09/romanzo\-padano\-la\-lega\-di\-bossi\-berlusconi\-seduttore\-e\-maroni\-ex\-venduto\-parla\-davide\-romano.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Lega Nord is now often regarded as a [right\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populism "Right-wing populism") party.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,719842,00\.html \|title\=Continent of Fear: The Rise of Europe's Right\-Wing Populists \|work\=Der Spiegel \|access\-date\=3 January 2015\|date\=28 September 2010 }} Party leaders generally reject the "right\-wing" label,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilfoglio.it/soloqui/8528 \|title\=CosΓ¬ la Lega conquista nuovi elettori (non\-solo al nord) \|work\=Il Foglio \|access\-date\=3 January 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521161601/http://www.ilfoglio.it/soloqui/8528 \|archive\-date\=21 May 2014}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.asca.it/news\-Lega\_Nord\_\_Maroni\_ne\_\_destra\_ne\_\_sinistra\_\_alleanze\_dopo\_congresso\-1156873\.html \|title\=Lega Nord: Maroni ne' destra ne' sinistra, alleanze dopo congresso \|publisher\=asca.it \|access\-date\=3 January 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521161933/http://www.asca.it/news\-Lega\_Nord\_\_Maroni\_ne\_\_destra\_ne\_\_sinistra\_\_alleanze\_dopo\_congresso\-1156873\.html \|archive\-date\=21 May 2014}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.termometropolitico.it/109110\_intervista\-matteo\-salvini\-lega\-renzi\-peggio\-di\-monti\-vergognoso\-con\-la\-merkel.html \|title\=INTERVISTA Matteo Salvini (Lega): "Renzi? Peggio di Monti, vergognoso con la Merkel \|publisher\=termometropolitico.it \|access\-date\=3 January 2015\|date\=20 March 2014 }} though not the "[populist](/wiki/Populism "Populism")" label.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/12498\-europee\-salvini\-sono\-referendum\-meglio\-populista\-che\-fesso \|title\=Lega Nord \|publisher\=leganord.org \|access\-date\=3 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=24 June 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624192026/https://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/12498\-europee\-salvini\-sono\-referendum\-meglio\-populista\-che\-fesso \|url\-status\=dead }} In 2008, [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi "Umberto Bossi") explained in an interview that Lega Nord is "libertarian, but also socialist" and that the right\-wing ideology he prefers is an anti\-statist one with a "libertarian idea of a state which does not weigh on citizens". When asked to tell his most preferred politician of the 20th century, he said [Giacomo Matteotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti "Giacomo Matteotti"), a [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party") MP who was killed by [Fascist](/wiki/National_Fascist_Party "National Fascist Party") squads in 1925 and remembered his anti\-fascist and left\-wing roots.{{cite web \|first\=Umberto \|last\=Bossi \|author\-link\=Umberto Bossi \|title\=Ecco l'intervista integrale della Iena Enrico Lucci a Umberto Bossi \|url\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/iene\-bossi\-intervista300908\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Affaritaliani]] \|date\=30 September 2008 \|access\-date\=1 October 2008 \|archive\-date\=13 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213135833/https://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/iene\-bossi\-intervista300908\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}
Lega Nord's political culture was a mix of northern Italian pride or even [Padanian nationalism](/wiki/Padanian_nationalism "Padanian nationalism"), often with claims of a proud [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") heritage; resentment of perceived [southern Italian](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") habits and [Roman](/wiki/Rome "Rome") authorities; distrust of the Republic of Italy and especially its [flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Italy "Flag of Italy"); and some support for the [free market](/wiki/Free_market "Free market"), anti\-[statism](/wiki/Statism "Statism"), anti\-[globalism](/wiki/Globalism "Globalism") and [separatism](/wiki/Separatism "Separatism") or [secessionism](/wiki/Secession "Secession"). The party boasts historical references to the anti\-[imperialist](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire "Holy Roman Empire") [Lombard League](/wiki/Lombard_League "Lombard League") and [Alberto da Giussano](/wiki/Alberto_da_Giussano "Alberto da Giussano") (stylised in the party's symbol), the hero of the wars against [Frederick I Barbarossa](/wiki/Frederick_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor").{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=23β24}} These historical references are the base for the party's anti\-[monopolism](/wiki/Monopoly "Monopoly") and anti\-[centralism](/wiki/Centralisation "Centralisation").
Lega Nord has long maintained an anti\-[southern Italian](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") stance. Party members have been known to oppose large\-scale southern Italian migration to northern Italian cities, stereotyping southern Italians as welfare abusers, criminals and detrimental to Northern society. Party members have often attributed Italy's economic stagnation and the disparity of the [North\-South divide in the Italian economy](/wiki/Economy_of_Italy%23Southern_question "Economy of Italy#Southern question") to supposed negative characteristics of the southern Italians, such as lack of education, laziness, or criminality.{{cite book \|last1\=Tambini \|first1\=Damian \|title\=Nationalism in Italian Politics: The Stories of the Northern League, 1980β2000 \|date\=6 December 2012 \|publisher\=Routledge \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=pW009kl\_z2AC\&q\=northern\+league\+terroni\&pg\=PT25\|isbn\=9781134540013 }}{{cite news \|last1\=Willey \|first1\=David \|title\=The rise and fall of Northern League founder Umberto Bossi \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine\-17703460 \|access\-date\=28 October 2015 \|work\=BBC News \|date\=14 April 2012}}{{cite news \|last1\=Pullella \|first1\=Philip \|title\=Italy unity anniversary divides more than unites \|url\=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSLNE72706B20110308 \|access\-date\=28 October 2015 \|work\=Reuters \|date\=8 March 2011}} Some LN members have been known to publicly deploy the offensive slur *[terrone](/wiki/Terrone "Terrone")* ("earthling", "mulatto"), a common pejorative term for southern Italians.{{cite book \|last1\=Russo Bullaro \|first1\=Grace \|title\=From Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema : Shifting Demographics and Changing Images in a Multi\-cultural Globalized Society \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=Troubador Publishing Ltd \|pages\=179β81 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=yBTMi\_XXCgYC\&q\=northern\+league\+terroni\&pg\=PA180\|isbn\=9781848761766 }}{{cite book \|last1\=Garau \|first1\=Eva \|title\=Politics of National Identity in Italy: Immigration and 'ItalianitΓ ' \|date\=17 December 2014 \|publisher\=Routledge \|pages\=110β11 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=c2vfBQAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA110 \|access\-date\=28 October 2015\|isbn\=9781317557661 }}
At times, it has seemed possible that the League might unite with similar leagues in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy") and [southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy"), but it has not succeeded in doing so. The party continues dialogue with regionalist parties throughout Italy, notably the [South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party "South Tyrolean People's Party"), the [Valdostan Union](/wiki/Valdostan_Union "Valdostan Union"), the [Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party](/wiki/Trentino_Tyrolean_Autonomist_Party "Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party"), the [Movement for the Autonomies](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Autonomies "Movement for the Autonomies") and the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party "Sardinian Action Party"); and it has some figures from the South in its parliamentary ranks. Notably, [Angela Maraventano](/wiki/Angela_Maraventano "Angela Maraventano"), former deputy mayor of [Lampedusa](/wiki/Lampedusa "Lampedusa"), was a senator of Lega Nord. Although it is no longer a member of the [European Free Alliance](/wiki/European_Free_Alliance "European Free Alliance"), the party has ties with many regionalist parties around Europe, including left\-wing parties such as the Republican Left of Catalonia.{{cite news \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi \|title\=Bossi, show su Padania e Cavaliere: lo controlliamo, senza Lega va a casa \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/02/Bossi\_show\_Padania\_Cavaliere\_controlliamo\_co\_9\_091202003\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=2 December 2009}} Lega Nord has some ties also with the [Ticino League](/wiki/Ticino_League "Ticino League") from [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland").
### Catch\-all nature
Lega Nord aims at uniting all those northern Italians who support autonomy and federalism for their land. For this reason, it has tended to be a multi\-ideological [catch\-all party](/wiki/Big_tent "Big tent"), especially at its beginnings,{{Citation \|first1\=Robert \|last1\=Leonardi \|first2\=Monique \|last2\=Kovacs \|title\=The Lega Nord: the rise of a new Italian catch\-all party \|journal\=Italian Politics: A Review \|volume\=8 \|year\=1993}}{{cite web \|url\=http://europe.demsoc.org/2014/04/22/lega\-nord/ \|title\=Lega Nord β The Democratic Society \|website\=Europe.demsoc.org \|date\=22 April 2014 \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318055501/http://europe.demsoc.org/2014/04/22/lega\-nord/ \|archive\-date\=18 March 2016 \|url\-status\=dead}} following what Bossi stated in 1982 to his early followers: "It does not matter how old are you, what your job is and what your political tendency: what matters is that you and we are all Lombard. \[...] It is as Lombards, indeed, that we have a fundamental common goal in face of which our division in parties should fall behind".{{cite book \|first1\=David \|last1\=Parenzo \|first2\=Davide \|last2\=Romano \|title\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|page\=19}} Roberto Biorcio, a political scientist, wrote: "The political commitment of Umberto Bossi was influenced by his encounter with [Bruno Salvadori](/wiki/Bruno_Salvadori "Bruno Salvadori"), leader of the [Valdostan Union](/wiki/Valdostan_Union "Valdostan Union") \[...]. The convictions of Salvadori on federalism, the self\-determination of the peoples (the so\-called nations without state) and the belonging to a people on the basis of cultural criteria and not on blood, were adopted by the future leader of the League".{{cite book \|first1\=Roberto \|last1\=Biorcio \|title\=La rivincita del Nord. La Lega dalla contestazione al governo \|year\=2010 \|publisher\=Laterza \|location\=Rome\-Bari \|pages\=137β138}}
Since the beginning the electorate of the party has been very diverse on a [left\-right scale](/wiki/Political_spectrum "Political spectrum"). At the [1992 general election](/wiki/1992_Italian_general_election "1992 Italian general election"), for instance, 25\.4% of the party supporters were former [Christian Democratic](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 "Christian Democracy (Italy)") voters, 18\.5% [Communists](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party "Italian Communist Party"), 12\.5% [Socialists](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party") and 6\.6% former voters of the post\-fascist [Italian Social Movement](/wiki/Italian_Social_Movement "Italian Social Movement").{{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=87β88}} According to a 1996 Abacus poll, 28\.7% of LN voters identified as [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism"), 26\.3% as [right\-wingers](/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") and 22\.1% as [left\-wingers](/wiki/Left-wing_politics "Left-wing politics").{{cite web \|url\=https://formazioneonline.unisalento.it/pluginfile.php/23746/mod\_resource/content/1/Biorcio1999\_LegaNord.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154607/https://formazioneonline.unisalento.it/pluginfile.php/23746/mod\_resource/content/1/Biorcio1999\_LegaNord.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=8 August 2017 \|title\=La Lega Nord e la transizione italiana}}
It is quite difficult to define it in the left\-right spectrum because it is variously conservative, centrist and left\-wing with regard to different issues. For example, the party supports both liberal ideas such as [deregulation](/wiki/Deregulation "Deregulation") and [social\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy") positions such as the defense of workers' wages and pensions. This is because Lega Nord, as a "people's party" representing the North as a whole, includes both [liberal\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism "Liberal conservatism") and social\-democratic factions.{{cite news \|first1\=Mark \|last1\=Duff \|title\=Italy's Northern League reviews support for Berlusconi \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-13845525 \|work\=BBC News \|location\=London \|date\=20 June 2011}}{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2014\|reason\=Ref does not really support the statement. According to the BBC article, the Lega "claims to be a broad church". A LN politician is quoted who claims that the party has people both from the left and the right. This is however only reported as a LN claim, it is not attested by the BBC author. Moreover there is no mention at all of "liberal\-conservative" or "social\-democratic" factions.}} As Lega Nord, the party could be seen as a cross\-class entity uniting northern Italians, whether working class or petit bourgeois, around a sense of opposition to both the powerful forces of capital and a centralising state based in Rome which redistributes resources towards southern Italy.{{cite book \|last\=Biorcio \|first\=Roberto \|chapter\=The Lega Nord and the Italian media system \|editor1\=Gianpietro Mazzoleni \|editor2\=Julianne Stewart \|editor3\=Bruce Horsfield \|title\=The Media and Neo\-populism: A Contemporary Comparative Analysis \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YdG5cLc\_Pi4C\&pg\=PA72 \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=Greenwood Publishing Group \|isbn\=978\-0\-275\-97492\-3 \|pages\=72β73}}
Generally speaking, the party supports the [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy "Social market economy") and other typical issues of [Christian\-democratic](/wiki/Christian_democracy "Christian democracy") parties{{cite web \|last1\=Ronchi \|first1\=Fabio \|title\=La Lega Nord ai raggi X \|url\=https://www.youtrend.it/2010/03/17/la\-lega\-nord\-ai\-raggi\-x \|website\=YouTrend \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|language\=it\-IT \|date\=17 March 2010 \|archive\-date\=6 May 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506172409/https://www.youtrend.it/2010/03/17/la\-lega\-nord\-ai\-raggi\-x/ \|url\-status\=dead }} and has been described as a "neo\-[labour party](/wiki/Labour_movement "Labour movement")" by some commentators{{cite news \|first\=Dario \|last\=Di Vico \|title\=Fabbriche e Gazebo: la Lega modello Pci \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/giugno/10/Fabbriche\_Gazebo\_Lega\_modello\_Pci\_co\_8\_090610031\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=10 June 2009}} and also by some of its members.{{cite book \|first1\=Francesco \|last1\=Jori \|title\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Marsilio \|location\=Venice \|page\=18}}{{cite news \|first\=Luca \|last\=Zaia \|author\-link\=Luca Zaia \|url\=http://rassegna.governo.it/testo.asp?d\=38010215 \|title\=Siamo i nuovi laburisti, sfonderemo al Centro e al Sud e vogliamo una poltrona Ue \|publisher\=\[\[Quotidiano Nazionale]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=16 June 2009}} Lega Nord is [populist](/wiki/Populism "Populism") in the sense that it is an anti\-monopolist and anti\-[elitist](/wiki/Elitism "Elitism") popular and participative party (it is one of the few Italian political parties not to permit [freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry "Freemasonry") to join), fighting against the "vested interests", once identified by Bossi in "[Agnelli](/wiki/Agnelli_family "Agnelli family"), the [Pope](/wiki/Pope "Pope") and the [Mafia](/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia "Sicilian Mafia")". The party is also libertarian populist in its promotion of small ownership, small and medium\-sized enterprise, [small government](/wiki/Small_government "Small government") as opposed to governmental [bureaucracy](/wiki/Bureaucracy "Bureaucracy"), waste of public funds, [pork barrel](/wiki/Pork_barrel "Pork barrel") spending and corruption.{{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=86β87, 96}} These are the main reasons why the party is strong in the North despite being obscured (especially at the beginning of its history) and badly presented by national media, television and newspapers.{{cite book \|first1\=Aldo \|last1\=Bonomi \|title\=Prefazione β Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|page\=X}} According to a number of scholars, Lega Nord is an example of a [right\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populism "Right-wing populism"),{{citation \|first\=Amir \|last\=Abedi \|title\=Anti\-Political Establishment Parties: A comparative analysis \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2004 \|page\=13 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=y\_27NbOL0l8C\&q\=lega\+nord\+right\-wing\+populist\&pg\=PA13 \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-31961\-4}}{{Citation \|first\=Hans\-Georg \|last\=Betz \|title\=Mobilising Resentment in the Alps: The Swiss SVP, the Italian Lega Nord and the Austrian FPΓ \|work\=Challenges to Consensual Politics \|publisher\=P.I.E.βPeter Lang \|year\=2005 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Rwofe0Zg8MQC\&q\=lega\+nord\+right\-wing\+populist \|isbn\=9789052012506}} [radical right](/wiki/Radical_right_%28Europe%29 "Radical right (Europe)"),{{Citation \|first\=Andrej \|last\=Zaslove \|title\=One Foot in One Foot Out: can radical right populist parties govern? \|publisher\=Political Studies Association \|year\=2008 \|url\=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2008/pps/Zaslove.pdf}}{{dead link\|date\=December 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}{{citation \|first\=Gilles \|last\=Ivaldi \|title\=The Populist Radical Right in European Elections 1979β2009 \|work\=The Extreme Right in Europe \|publisher\=Vandenhoeck \& Ruprecht \|year\=2011 \|page\=18 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RBnmachN8vkC\&q\=Lega\+Nord\+radical\+right\&pg\=PA22 \|isbn\=978\-3\-525\-36922\-7}}{{Cite journal\|last\=Zulianello\|first\=Mattia\|date\=2019\|title\=Varieties of Populist Parties and Party Systems in Europe: From State\-of\-the\-Art to the Application of a Novel Classification Scheme to 66 Parties in 33 Countries\|journal\=Government and Opposition\|volume\=55\|issue\=2\|pages\=327β347\|doi\=10\.1017/gov.2019\.21\|doi\-access\=free\|hdl\=11368/3001222\|hdl\-access\=free}} or [far\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics "Far-right politics") party{{Citation \|first\=Michael \|last\=Huysseune \|title\=Federalism and the Extreme Right in Italy \|journal\=FΓ©dΓ©ralisme RΓ©gionalisme \|volume\=2 \|year\=2001β2002 \|url\=http://popups.ulg.ac.be/federalisme/document.php?id\=250\#tocto2 \|access\-date\=13 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823082532/http://popups.ulg.ac.be/federalisme/document.php?id\=250\#tocto2 \|archive\-date\=23 August 2011 \|url\-status\=live}} while some see significant differences to typical European radical right\-wing populist parties,{{citation \|first\=Hans\-Georg \|last\=Betz \|title\=Radical right\-wing populism in Western Europe \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|year\=1994 \|page\=64 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LwTTwbtNyxUC\&q\=lega\+nord\+right\-wing\+populist\&pg\=PA64 \|isbn\=978\-0\-312\-08390\-8}} or reject the label of radical right as inadequate to describe the party's ideology.{{citation \|first\=Duncan \|last\=McDonnell \|title\=A Weekend in Padania: Regionalist Populism and the Lega Nord \|journal\=Politics \|volume\=26 \|issue\=2 \|date\=April 2006 \|pages\=126β132 \|doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-9256\.2006\.00259\.x\|hdl\=2318/69762 \|s2cid\=145674115 \|hdl\-access\=free }}
According to many observers, under [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini") the party lurched to the right, but both Salvini, a former communist; and [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia") insist the party is "neither right nor left"{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/27/Salvini\_per\_ora\_avanti\_solo\_co\_0\_20141127\_6dbd835e\-7600\-11e4\-8dd1\-b9af854f838d.shtml \|title\=Salvini (per ora) va avanti da solo "Mancano squadra e schema" \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iltempo.it/adn\-kronos/2014/11/27/lega\-zaia\-non\-e\-di\-destra\-ne\-di\-sinistra\-1\.1350361?localLinksEnabled\=false \|title\=Lega: Zaia, non è di destra nè di sinistra \|author\=Adnkronos \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018133553/http://www.iltempo.it/adn\-kronos/2014/11/27/lega\-zaia\-non\-e\-di\-destra\-ne\-di\-sinistra\-1\.1350361?localLinksEnabled\=false \|archive\-date\=18 October 2015}} while [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni"), another former leftist, stated that "we are a big political movement which has in its platform issues and people of right and left".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.formiche.net/2014/11/25/lega\-chi\-nongioisce\-successo\-matteo\-salvini/ \|title\=Ecco chi non\-gioisce troppo nella Lega per il successo di Matteo Salvini \|work\=Formiche \|access\-date\=9 June 2015\|date\=25 November 2014 }}
### Platform and policies
The party usually takes a [socially conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism "Social conservatism") stance on social issues, such as abortion, [euthanasia](/wiki/Euthanasia "Euthanasia"), medical embryonic [stem cell](/wiki/Stem_cell "Stem cell") research, [artificial insemination](/wiki/Artificial_insemination "Artificial insemination"), [same\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage "Same-sex marriage") (although there is an association called *Los Padania*, where "Los" stands for "free sexual orientation", linked to the party and Lega Nord was once in favour of same\-sex marriage){{cite news \|title\=Il Carroccio: matrimoni gay nella Repubblica Padana \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1998/aprile/05/Carroccio\_matrimoni\_gay\_nella\_Repubblica\_co\_0\_9804052417\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=5 April 1998}} and drug use (although it did once support the legalization of [marijuana](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 "Cannabis (drug)") along with [Marco Pannella](/wiki/Marco_Pannella "Marco Pannella")'s [Radicals](/wiki/Italian_Radicals "Italian Radicals")).{{Citation needed \|date\=October 2022}} Despite this, the party has been home to some [social liberals](/wiki/Social_liberalism "Social liberalism"), namely [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini "Giancarlo Pagliarini"), [Rossana Boldi](/wiki/Rossana_Boldi "Rossana Boldi"), [Giovanna Bianchi Clerici](/wiki/Giovanna_Bianchi_Clerici "Giovanna Bianchi Clerici"){{cite news \|first1\=Margherita \|last1\=De Bac \|first2\=Virginia \|last2\=Piccolillo \|title\=Fecondazione un fronte del sì tra le donne della Cdl \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/maggio/01/Fecondazione\_fronte\_del\_tra\_donne\_co\_8\_050501066\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=1 May 2005}} and to some extent [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli "Roberto Castelli").
The party has often espoused [criticism of Islam](/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam "Criticism of Islam"){{cite journal \|last1\=Amiel \|first1\=Sandrine\|title\=Salvini claims he is saving Europe from Islam, what are the facts?
\|journal\=Euronews \|date\=May 2019 \|volume\=16 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=1β29 \|url\= https://www.euronews.com/2019/05/03/europe\-will\-become\-an\-islamic\-caliphate\-if\-we\-don\-t\-take\-back\-control\-salvini\-tells\-hunga \|access\-date\=July 31, 2020}} and has styled itself as a defender of "[Judeo\-Christian](/wiki/Judeo-Christian "Judeo-Christian") values". In 2018 the party made a proposal to make it mandatory for [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix "Crucifix") to be displayed in all public spaces, including ports, schools, embassies and prisons, with fines of up to β¬1,000 for failing to comply.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/26/pope\-francis\-adviser\-decries\-matteo\-salvini\-policy\-on\-crucifix\|title\=Pope Francis adviser decries Matteo Salvini's 'co\-option' of crucifix\|date\=26 July 2018\|website\=the Guardian}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neaj47/the\-far\-right\-is\-trying\-to\-make\-crucifixes\-mandatory\-across\-italy\|title\=The far right is trying to make crucifixes mandatory across Italy\|website\=www.vice.com\|date\=11 April 2019 }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/994234/italy\-news\-crucifix\-law\-matteo\-salvini\-christian\-news\|title\=Italy plans MANDATORY crucifixes in public buildings \- with a Β£890 fine for non\-compliance\|first\=Harvey\|last\=Gavin\|date\=25 July 2018\|website\=Express.co.uk}}
[thumb\|200px\|Campervan of Lega Nord for the [2005 Tuscan regional election](/wiki/2005_Tuscan_regional_election "2005 Tuscan regional election") in [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence")](/wiki/File:Camper_pubblicitario_Lega_Nord_Toscana_a_Firenze.jpg "Camper pubblicitario Lega Nord Toscana a Firenze.jpg")
Lega Nord has long opposed [statism](/wiki/Statism "Statism") and supports lower taxes, especially for families and small entrepreneurs,{{cite news \|first\=Angelo \|last\=Panebianco \|author\-link\=Angelo Panebianco \|title\=I confini della Lega \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1993/giugno/15/confini\_della\_LEGA\_co\_0\_93061516126\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=15 June 1993}} most recently in the form of a 15% [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax") for all.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\-intervista\-proposta\-choc\-tasse1206\.html \|title\=Salvini: ecco il mio Centrodestra. Choc sulle tasse, aliquota unica \|work\=Affaritaliani.it \|date\=12 June 2014 \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=21 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621154201/http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\-intervista\-proposta\-choc\-tasse1206\.html \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/07/italys\-election\-everything\-you\-need\-to\-know \|title\=Italy's Election: everything you need to know \|newspaper\=The Guardian\|date\=4 March 2018 \|last1\=Henley \|first1\=Jon }} In earlier times, the party campaigned for a stop of the flow of public money in help to big businesses facing crisis as for [FIAT](/wiki/Fiat_Automobiles "Fiat Automobiles"){{cite web \|url\=http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo\_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight\=0\&idAtto\=3250\&stile\=6 \|title\=9/01519/013 : CAMERA β ITER ATTO \|publisher\=\[\[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)\|Chamber of Deputies]] \|date\=31 July 2008}} and [Alitalia](/wiki/Alitalia "Alitalia").{{cite web \|first\=Giacomo \|last\=Stucchi \|title\=Stucchi (Lega Nord): "Su Alitalia staremo in guardia piΓΉ dell'Ue" \|url\=http://intervistestucchi.blogspot.com/2008/06/stucchi\-lega\-nord\-su\-alitalia\-staremo.html \|publisher\=Intervistestucchi.blogspot.com \|date\=23 February 2004}}{{cite news \|first\=Marco \|last\=Castoro \|title\=Al diavolo Alitalia, che fallisca! La Lega boccia l'assistenzialismo \|url\=http://www.marcocastoro.it/?p\=2080\#more\-2080 \|publisher\=\[\[Italia Oggi]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=20 September 2008}} Other key policies include the legalisation, regulation and taxation of [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution "Prostitution") in [brothels](/wiki/Brothel "Brothel"),{{cite web \|url\=http://leganord.org/notizie2/10659\-prostituzione\-lega\-presenta\-legge\-per\-regolamentazione \|title\=Prostituzione: Lega presenta legge per regolamentazione β Lega Salvini Premier \|website\=leganord.org \|access\-date\=2 March 2018 \|archive\-date\=15 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215165513/https://leganord.org/notizie2/10659\-prostituzione\-lega\-presenta\-legge\-per\-regolamentazione \|url\-status\=dead }} the direct election of prosecutors{{cite news \|first\=Maria Antonietta \|last\=CalabrΓ² \|title\=La Lega: pm eletti dal popolo Pdl diviso, no dai democratici \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/agosto/26/Lega\_eletti\_dal\_popolo\_Pdl\_co\_9\_080826096\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 August 2008}} and a regionalised judiciary and [Constitutional Court](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Italy "Constitutional Court of Italy").
In its political programme, the party is committed to the [environment](/wiki/Natural_environment "Natural environment"), supporting public green areas, the establishment of natural parks, recycling and the end (or regulation) of the construction of sheds in country areas, especially in Veneto.{{cite news \|first\=Gian Antonio \|last\=Stella \|title\="Basta capannoni, sono inutili" Il Veneto e i 200Β km di cemento \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/settembre/18/Basta\_capannoni\_sono\_inutili\_Veneto\_co\_9\_040918030\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=18 September 2004}} Lega Nord, which has a strong agricultural wing, also supports the protection of traditional food, opposes [GMOs](/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism "Genetically modified organism") and has campaigned for a revision of the quota system of the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy "Common Agricultural Policy").
In foreign policy, the League has never had a particularly pro\-United States stance, although it admires the [American federal political system](/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States "Politics of the United States"). The party's MPs opposed both the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War") in 1991 and the [NATO](/wiki/NATO "NATO") intervention in [Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo_War "Kosovo War") in 1999 in the name of [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism "Pacifism") and Bossi personally met [Slobodan MiloΕ‘eviΔ](/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 "Slobodan MiloΕ‘eviΔ") during that war.{{cite news \|first\=Massimo \|last\=Nava \|title\=Bossi: La Serbia inviterΓ Annan \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/aprile/24/Bossi\_Serbia\_invitera\_Annan\_\_co\_0\_9904241451\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=24 April 1999}}{{cite news \|first\=Paolo \|last\=Rumiz \|title\=L'Europa profonda che odia l'America \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/online/dossier/rumi/rumi/rumi.html \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=11 April 1999}} However, after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks "September 11 attacks") and the emergence of [Islamic terrorism](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism "Islamic terrorism"), the League became a supporter of the American efforts in the [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror "War on Terror"),{{cite news \|first\=Maria \|last\=Latella \|title\=Lega, il partito filo Milosevic ora dΓ il via libera all'America \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/ottobre/10/Lega\_partito\_filo\_Milosevic\_ora\_co\_0\_0110104176\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=10 October 2001}}{{cite news \|first\=Daria \|last\=Gorodisky \|title\=I Poli trovano l'intesa, sΓ¬ all'intervento militare \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/novembre/08/Poli\_trovano\_intesa\_all\_intervento\_co\_0\_0111087026\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=8 November 2001}}{{cite news \|first\=Roberto \|last\=Zuccolini \|title\=SΓ¬ a maggioranza, via alla "missione Afghanistan" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2002/ottobre/04/maggioranza\_via\_alla\_missione\_Afghanistan\_co\_0\_0210043126\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 October 2002}}{{cite news \|title\=Calderoli: Bush regali l'atomica ad Ahmadinejad \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2006/settembre/07/Calderoli\_Bush\_regali\_atomica\_Ahmadinejad\_co\_9\_060907127\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=7 September 2006}} while expressing several reservations about the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War "Iraq War") and the American policy in its aftermath.{{cite news \|first\=Monica \|last\=Guerzoni \|title\=Lo strappo della Lega sulla missione italiana \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/aprile/22/strappo\_della\_Lega\_sulla\_missione\_co\_9\_040422002\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=22 April 2004}}{{cite news \|first\=Franco \|last\=Massimo \|author\-link\=Massimo Franco\|title\=La Lega tende a smarcarsi. Inviti alla cautela sugli ostaggi \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/aprile/22/Lega\_tende\_smarcarsi\_Inviti\_alla\_co\_9\_040422006\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=22 April 2004}}{{cite news \|first\=Livia \|last\=Michilli \|title\=Calderoli: andiamocene. Il Polo lo frena Rifinanziamento, il centrosinistra diviso \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/luglio/09/Calderoli\_andiamocene\_Polo\_frena\_Rifinanziamento\_co\_8\_050709028\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=9 July 2005}} The League is also a staunch supporter of [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel").{{cite news \|first1\=Dario \|last1\=Di Vico \|title\=Attraverso Maroni e Israele La Lega "scopre" la Politica Estera \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/17/attraverso\_Maroni\_Israele\_Lega\_scopre\_co\_9\_110617081\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=17 June 2011}} In 2011, the party was severely opposed to the Italian participation in the [war in Libya](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282011%29 "Libyan Civil War (2011)"){{cite news \|first1\=Virginia \|last1\=Piccolillo \|title\=Calderoli e il no della Lega "Il mio voto non\-lo avranno" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/aprile/26/Calderoli\_della\_Lega\_mio\_voto\_co\_8\_110426025\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 April 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Dino \|last1\=Maritano \|title\=Raid in Libia, no di Bossi. Il Pd: si rivoti \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/aprile/27/Raid\_Libia\_Bossi\_rivoti\_co\_8\_110427027\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=27 April 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Pontida, la sfida di Bossi "Berlusconi leader? Vedremo" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/20/Pontida\_sfida\_Bossi\_Berlusconi\_leader\_co\_8\_110620016\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 June 2011}} while in 2014 it opposed the sanctions on [Russia](/wiki/Russia "Russia"), a key economic partner of Lombard and Venetian entrepreneurs and a likely ally in the fight against Islamic terrorism and the [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lapadania.net/Detail\_News\_Display?ID%3D3674 \|title\=ESISTE \|access\-date\=11 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016223536/http://www.lapadania.net/Detail\_News\_Display?ID\=3674 \|archive\-date\=16 October 2014}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/13155\-ucraina\-pini\-ln\-stupide\-sanzioni\-priorita\-e\-lotta\-isis \|title\=Lega Nord \|last\=Cordua \|first\=Davide \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=15 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215165510/https://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/13155\-ucraina\-pini\-ln\-stupide\-sanzioni\-priorita\-e\-lotta\-isis \|url\-status\=dead }} At times, the party has adopted [anti\-globalist](/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement "Anti-globalization movement"){{cite journal \|last\=Zaslove \|first\=Andrej \|title\=Exclusion, community, and a populist political economy: the radical right as an anti\-globalization movement \|journal\=\[\[Comparative European Politics]] \|volume\=6 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=169β189\|doi\=10\.1057/palgrave.cep.6110126 \|date\=July 2008 \|s2cid\=144465005 }} views.
Through the *Associazione Umanitaria Padana*, Lega Nord participates in humanitarian projects which are intended to respect local cultures, traditions and identities. The campaigns are carried out in poor countries or in those that have suffered from war or natural catastrophes. Locations of missions include [Darfur](/wiki/Darfur "Darfur"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"), [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") and [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/ \|title\=Umanitaria Padana \|publisher\=Umanitaria Padana \|access\-date\=12 January 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725082707/http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/ \|archive\-date\=25 July 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} The association is led by [Sara Fumagalli](/wiki/Sara_Fumagalli "Sara Fumagalli"), wife of Roberto Castelli and born\-again Catholic after a pilgrimage in [Medjugorje](/wiki/Medjugorje "Medjugorje").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/articoli/Monzaclub%20n%2038\.pdf \|title\=Sara Fumagalli. Una guerriera per la pace \|publisher\=Umanitaria Padana \|access\-date\=12 January 2009 \|archive\-date\=6 February 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206081530/http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/articoli/Monzaclub%20n%2038\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite news \|title\=Castelli va a Medjugorje. L'ex ministro: a piedi nudi per sciogliere un mio voto \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2007/aprile/16/Castelli\_Medjugorje\_ministro\_piedi\_nudi\_co\_9\_070416113\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=16 April 2007}}
#### Federalism vs. separatism
[thumb\|200px\|The [Sun of the Alps](/wiki/Sun_of_the_Alps "Sun of the Alps"), the proposed flag for [Padania](/wiki/Padania "Padania") by Lega Nord](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Padania.svg "Flag of Padania.svg")
The exact program of Lega Nord was not clear in the early years as some opponents claimed it wanted secession of [Padania](/wiki/Padania "Padania") while at other times it appeared to be requesting only autonomy for Northern regions. The League eventually settled on [federalism](/wiki/Federalism "Federalism"), which rapidly became a buzzword and a popular issue in most Italian political parties.{{cite book \|first1\=Ilvo \|last1\=Diamanti \|author\-link\=Ilvo Diamanti \|title\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=68β71}}{{cite book \|first1\=Maurizio \|last1\=Ridolfi \|title\=Storia dei partiti politici. L'Italia dal Risorgimento alla Repubblica \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Bruno Mondadori \|location\=Milan \|pages\=219β220}}
By 1996, the party switched to open [separatism](/wiki/Separatism "Separatism"), calling for the independence of Padania. The party's constitution was reformed accordingly and still proclaims at article 1 that the LN's fundamental goal is "the achievement of the independence of Padania, through democratic means, and its international recognition as independent and sovereign federal republic".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leganord.org/phocadownload/ilmovimento/statuto/Statuto.pdf \|title\=STATUTO DELLA LEGA NORD PER L'INDIPENDENZA DELLA PADANIA \|website\=Leganord.org \|access\-date\=2 April 2016 \|archive\-date\=6 July 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706125429/http://www.leganord.org/phocadownload/ilmovimento/statuto/Statuto.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} A voluntary group of militants, the "Green Volunteers", often referred as "green shirts" (green being the colour of Padania), was also established, but it has since been active mainly in [civil defense](/wiki/Civil_defense "Civil defense") and [emergency management](/wiki/Emergency_management "Emergency management"). In September 1996 in Venice, the party unilaterally proclaimed the independence of Padania at which time while reading the [Padanian Declaration of Independence](/wiki/Padanian_Declaration_of_Independence "Padanian Declaration of Independence") Bossi announced: {{blockquote\|We the peoples of Padania solemnly declare that Padania is an independent and sovereign federal republic. We mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honour.{{cite web \|author\=alkhan \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=hCRjBaZI4sA \|title\=Umberto Bossi β Dichiarazione di indipendenza della Padania1 \|via\=YouTube \|date\=1 July 2006 \|access\-date\=2011\-06\-28}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\|date\=February 2022}}{{cite web \|author\=alkhan \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=UaDpz5Sppvc \|title\=Umberto Bossi β Dichiarazione di indipendenza della Padania2 \|via\=YouTube \|access\-date\=28 June 2011}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\|date\=February 2022}}}}
The renewed alliance with Berlusconi in 2001 forced the party to tone down its separatism and Padania became the name of a proposed "macro\-region", based on the ideas of Miglio: the establishment an Italian federal republic, divided into three "macro\-regions" ("Padania", "Etruria" and the "South") and some autonomous regions. A new buzzword, [devolution](/wiki/Devolution "Devolution") (often used in English), was also introduced, but with less success than "federalism". This evolution caused some criticism within party ranks and led to the formation of some minor breakaway groups.{{cite book \|first1\=Pietro \|last1\=Ignazi \|title\=Partiti politici in Italia \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=97β98}} Moreover, the peculiarity of the LN among European regionalist parties is that its main goal has long been the transformation of Italy into a federal state instead of simply demanding special rights and autonomy for Northern regions. Despite this, the party's constitution continues to declare that the independence of Padania is one of the party's final goal.
#### Euroscepticism vs. Europeanism
Lega Nord often criticises the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") (it was the only party in the Italian Parliament, along with the [Communist Refoundation Party](/wiki/Communist_Refoundation_Party "Communist Refoundation Party"), to vote against the [Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe](/wiki/Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe "Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe"), but it voted in favour of the [Treaty of Lisbon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon "Treaty of Lisbon")){{cite news \|first\=Maurizio \|last\=Caprara \|title\=Passa all'unanimitΓ il Trattato europeo \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/luglio/24/Passa\_all\_unanimita\_Trattato\_europeo\_co\_9\_080724090\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=24 July 2008}} and opposes what it calls the "[European superstate](/wiki/European_superstate "European superstate")", favoring instead a "Europe of the Regions".{{cite book \|first1\=Umberto \|last1\=Bossi \|author\-link1\=Umberto Bossi \|first2\=Daniele \|last2\=Vimercati \|title\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=194β205}}{{cite web \|title\=Sintesi posizioni Lega Nord sull'Unione Europea \|url\=http://www.padaniaoffice.org/pdf/affari\_istituz/doc\_politici/Punti\_LN\_Europa.pdf \|publisher\=Lega Nord \|date\=10 March 2004 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727161710/http://www.padaniaoffice.org/pdf/affari\_istituz/doc\_politici/Punti\_LN\_Europa.pdf \|archive\-date\=27 July 2011}}{{cite news \|first\=Giancarlo \|last\=Pagliarini \|author\-link\=Giancarlo Pagliarini \|url\=http://www.giovanipadani.leganord.org/articoli.asp?ID\=2846 \|title\=SΓ¬ all'Europa, ma che sia quella delle Regioni \|publisher\=\[\[La Padania]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=1 February 2005 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707005508/http://www.giovanipadani.leganord.org/articoli.asp?ID\=2846 \|archive\-date\=7 July 2010}} Especially under the leadership of [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini") and the influence of professor [Claudio Borghi](/wiki/Claudio_Borghi_%28politician%29 "Claudio Borghi (politician)"), the party has proposed the abandonment of the [Euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro") by Italy, although this has been opposed by some party heavyweights, notably including [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi "Flavio Tosi").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.larena.it/stories/Home/639157\_tosi\_uscire\_dalleuro\_io\_dico\_no\_salvini\_si\_deve\_uscire/ \|title\=L'Arena.it β Il giornale di Verona β Notizie, Cronaca, Sport, Cultura su Verona e Provincia \|author\=vambrosi \|work\=L'Arena.it \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019182652/http://www.larena.it/stories/Home/639157\_tosi\_uscire\_dalleuro\_io\_dico\_no\_salvini\_si\_deve\_uscire/ \|archive\-date\=19 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iltempo.it/politica/2014/07/21/e\-nella\-lega\-litigano\-salvini\-e\-tosi\-1\.1273315 \|title\=E nella Lega litigano Salvini e Tosi \|author\=Gianni Di Capua \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=24 September 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924045929/http://www.iltempo.it/politica/2014/07/21/e\-nella\-lega\-litigano\-salvini\-e\-tosi\-1\.1273315 \|url\-status\=dead }} In an October 2012 interview, Salvini said that "I in Milan want \[the euro], because here we are in Europe. The South, however, is like Greece and needs another currency, the euro can't afford it."{{Cite web \|title\=I meridionali stiano "senza l'euro, non se lo meritano" \|url\=https://www.milanotoday.it/politica/salvini\-euro\-sud.html \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-02 \|website\=MilanoToday \|language\=it}}
However, according to [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni") the party is not Eurosceptic and stands for a "new Europeanism". In a public speech in 2012, he said to party activists: "We should start looking at Padania in a Northern, European perspective. \[...] The project of Padania is not anti\-European, this is a new Europeanism which looks at the future: a Europe of the regions, a Europe of the peoples, a truly federal Europe". Moreover, under Maroni the party has supported the direct election of the [President of the European Commission](/wiki/President_of_the_European_Commission "President of the European Commission"), more powers for the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament"), acceleration of the four unions (political, economic, banking and fiscal), [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28eurozone%29 "Eurobond (eurozone)") and project bonds, the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank "European Central Bank") as [lender of last resort](/wiki/Lender_of_last_resort "Lender of last resort") and the "centrality of Italy in European politics".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.prov\-como.leganord.org/news/63\-programma\-lega\-nord\-elezioni\-politiche\-2013 \|title\=Lega Nord Como Progamma Lega Nord Elezioni Politiche 2013 \|publisher\=Lega Nord \|year\=2013 \|access\-date\=19 September 2013 \|archive\-date\=22 April 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422020934/http://www.prov\-como.leganord.org/news/63\-programma\-lega\-nord\-elezioni\-politiche\-2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
#### Illegal immigration
[thumb\|180px\|Matteo Salvini speaks in a Lega Nord rally in [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin"), 2013](/wiki/File:Manifestazione_Lega_Nord%2C_Torino_2013_51.JPG "Manifestazione Lega Nord, Torino 2013 51.JPG")
The party takes a tough stance on crime, [illegal immigration](/wiki/Illegal_immigration "Illegal immigration"),{{Cite news \|url\=http://euobserver.com/justice/32181 \|title\=Barroso warns of extremism in immigration debate \|date\=14 April 2011 \|first\=Valentina \|last\=Pop \|newspaper\=EU Observer \|access\-date\=10 January 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110163739/http://euobserver.com/justice/32181 \|archive\-date\=10 January 2014 \|url\-status\=live}} especially from Muslim countries, and terrorism. It supports the promotion of immigration from non\-Muslim countries in order to protect the "Christian identity" of Italy and Europe, which according to party officials should be based on "Judeo\-Christian heritage".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leganord.org/elezioni/2008/lega/default.asp \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20080311121249/http://www.leganord.org/elezioni/2008/lega/default.asp \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=11 March 2008 \|title\=Movimento politico Lega Nord per l'indipendenza della Padania: programmi ed iniziative del partito \|publisher\=Lega Nord \|year\=2008}} The party has been labeled as "[nationalist](/wiki/Nationalism "Nationalism")",{{cite book \|last1\=Cepernich \|first1\=Cristopher \|title\=The Italian General Election of 2018 \|chapter\=Digital Campaigning: The Communication Strategies of the Leaders on Facebook \|editor1\-last\=Ceccarini \|editor1\-first\=L. \|editor2\-last\=Newell \|editor2\-first\=J. \|date\=2019 \|pages\=217β243 \|doi\=10\.1007/978\-3\-030\-13617\-8\_10 \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan\|isbn\=978\-3\-030\-13616\-1\|s2cid\=159273871 }} "[xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobia "Xenophobia")"{{cite news \|first1\=Aidan \|last1\=Lewis \|title\=Italy's Northern League resurgent \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7350691\.stm \|work\=BBC News \|location\=London \|date\=17 April 2008}}{{cite news \|first1\=Iain \|last1\=Rogers \|title\=League allies may hinder Italy's Berlusconi: reports \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\-dyn/content/article/2008/04/15/AR2008041500577\_pf.html \|newspaper\=The Washington Post \|location\=Washington, DC \|date\=15 April 2008}} and "anti\-[immigration](/wiki/Immigration "Immigration")".{{cite news \|first1\=Elisabeth \|last1\=Rosenthal \|title\=Italy Arrests Hundreds of Immigrants \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/16/world/europe/16italy.html?scp\=9\&sq\=northern%20league%20anti\-immigrant\&st\=cse \|work\=The New York Times \|location\=New York \|date\=15 May 2008}}{{cite book \|first\=Sonia \|last\=Alonso \|title\=Challenging the State: Devolution and the Battle for Partisan Credibility β A Comparison of Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=JhNwQ3CV0hQC \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-969157\-9 \|doi\=10\.1093/acprof:oso/9780199691579\.001\.0001 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|year\=2012 \|page\=216}}{{cite book \|first\=David \|last\=Art \|title\=Inside the Radical Right: The Development of Anti\-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9dUTXJakqLoC \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=9780511976254 \|doi\=10\.1017/CBO9780511976254 \|year\=2011 \|pages\=216 et seqq., especially p. 226}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Geddes \|first1\=Andrew \|title\=Il rombo dei cannoni? \[Cannon thunders?] Immigration and the Centre\-Right in Italy \|journal\=Journal of European Public Policy \|date\=April 2008 \|volume\=15 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=349β366 \|doi\=10\.1080/13501760701847416 \|s2cid\=143708920}}{{cite journal \|last1\=Shin \|first1\=Michael E. \|last2\=Agnew \|first2\=John \|editor1\-last\=Leib \|editor1\-first\=Jonathan \|title\=Spatial regression for electoral studies: The case of the Italian Lega Nord \|journal\=Revitalizing Electoral Geography \|date\=8 April 2011 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=71β85 \|doi\=10\.4324/9781315606293 \|publisher\=Routledge \|location\=London\|isbn\=9781315606293}}{{cite book \|last1\=Zaslove \|first1\=Andrej \|title\=The Re\-invention of the European Radical Right: Populism, Regionalism, and the Italian Lega Nord \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=McGill\-Queen's Press \- MQUP \|isbn\=978\-0\-7735\-3851\-1 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6JSTpSX8q44C \|access\-date\=12 December 2019 \|language\=en \|at\=passim, especially pp. 29, 119β121, 130}} In 1992, the League was compared by *[Le Nouvel Observateur](/wiki/L%27Obs "L'Obs")* to some national populist parties of the European far\-right, including France's [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 "National Rally (France)"), the [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria "Freedom Party of Austria") and the [Vlaams Blok](/wiki/Vlaams_Blok "Vlaams Blok"), claiming that "the League rejects any association with neo\-fascists but plays on themes of xenophobia regionalism and trivial racism".{{cite news \|first1\=Gianna \|last1\=Fregonara \|title\=Un giornale francese lo mette nella casa europea dei Le Pen \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1992/aprile/19/giornale\_francese\_mette\_nella\_casa\_co\_0\_9204193761\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=19 April 1992}}
In 2002, the [European Commission against Racism and Intolerance](/wiki/European_Commission_against_Racism_and_Intolerance "European Commission against Racism and Intolerance") (ECRI) denounced the party, saying that "exponents of the Lega Nord \[...] have been particularly active in resorting to racist and xenophobic propaganda, although members of other parties have also made use of xenophobic or otherwise intolerant political discourse".{{cite web \|title\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance β Second Report on Italy \|url\=https://rm.coe.int/second\-report\-on\-italy/16808b582e \|website\=coe.int \|publisher\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance \|access\-date\=3 July 2019 \|location\=Strasbourg \|page\=24 \|date\=23 April 2002}} In 2006 the ECRI noticed that "some members of the Northern League have intensified the use of racist and xenophobic discourse". While noting that those expressing themselves this way were mostly local representatives, according to the ECRI "representatives exercising important political functions at national level have also resorted to racist and xenophobic discourse. Such discourse has continued to target essentially non\-EU immigrants, but also other members of minority groups, such as [Roma](/wiki/Roma_people "Roma people") and [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti "Sinti")". The ECRI also recalled that "in December 2004, the first instance court of [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona") found six local representatives of Lega Nord guilty of [incitement to racial hatred](/wiki/Incitement_to_ethnic_or_racial_hatred "Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred") in connection with a campaign organised in order to send a group of Sinti away from a local temporary settlement".{{cite web \|title\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance β Third Report on Italy \|url\=https://rm.coe.int/third\-report\-on\-italy/16808b5831 \|website\=coe.int \|publisher\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance \|access\-date\=3 July 2019 \|location\=Strasbourg \|pages\=22β23 \|date\=16 May 2006}} However, the [Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 "Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)") cancelled the sentence in 2007\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/2008/06/sezioni/cronaca/sicurezza\-politica\-10/cassazione\-tosi/cassazione\-tosi.html \|title\=Cassazione, se i nomadi sono ladri Γ¨ legittima la discriminazione \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=29 June 2008}}
Although several LN members speak strongly against illegal immigrants (Bossi suggested in 2003 opening fire on the boats of illegal immigrants from Africa, whom he described as *bingo\-bongos*;{{cite news \|first\=Giovanna \|last\=Pajetta \|title\=Bossi prende il cannone \|url\=http://it.geocities.com/ilgruppodellatanadelgiaguaro/forum\_libero/messaggi/58\.htm \|date\=17 June 2003 \|work\=\[\[il manifesto]] \|location\=Rome \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218090812/http://it.geocities.com/ilgruppodellatanadelgiaguaro/forum\_libero/messaggi/58\.htm \|archive\-date\=18 February 2006}} and [Giancarlo Gentilini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Gentilini "Giancarlo Gentilini") labeled foreigners as "immigrant slackers", saying that "we should dress them up like hares and bang\-bang\-bang"),{{cite news \|first1\=Emilio \|last1\=Marrese \|title\=Ramadan, sindaco nega lo spazio Benetton concede il palazzetto \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/immitreviso/ramadan/ramadan.html \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=13 December 2002}} the party's official line is more moderate. In a 2010 interview after some riots in Milan between South American and North African immigrants, Maroni, then Minister of the Interior, stated that "the police state is not the solution" to integration problems and calling for a "new model of integration" maintained that "we should think that, other than a permit of stay, a job and a house, there are further conditions that today are missing for integration to succeed".{{cite news \|first\=Giangiacomo \|last\=Schiavi \|title\=Maroni: niente rastrellamenti serve una nuova integrazione \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2010/febbraio/15/Maroni\_niente\_rastrellamenti\_serve\_una\_co\_8\_100215021\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=15 February 2010}} Bossi endorsed the position.{{cite news \|first\=Michele \|last\=Focarete \|title\=Bossi: "Immigrati, no ai rastrellamenti" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2010/febbraio/16/Bossi\_Immigrati\_rastrellamenti\_\_co\_8\_100216022\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=16 February 2010}}
Lega Nord rejects all charges of xenophobia, instead claiming that the North is the victim of discrimination and racism.{{cite book \|first1\=Umberto \|last1\=Bossi \|author\-link1\=Umberto Bossi \|first2\=Daniele \|last2\=Vimercati \|title\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Sperling \& Kupfer \|location\=Milan \|pages\=141β150}}{{cite news \|first\=Guido \|last\=Passalacqua \|title\=Bossi si infuria: siete voi i razzisti \|url\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2000/11/22/bossi\-si\-infuria\-siete\-voi\-razzisti.html \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=22 November 2000}} After more than fifteen years of government by Lega Nord, the [Province of Treviso](/wiki/Province_of_Treviso "Province of Treviso") was widely considered the place in Italy where immigrants are best integrated.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.giovaniemissione.it/index.php?option\=content\&task\=view\&id\=780 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128164935/http://www.giovaniemissione.it/index.php?option\=content\&task\=view\&id\=780 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=28 January 2012 \|first\=Tiziana \|last\=Cavallo \|title\=Rapporto / Integrazione immigrati \|publisher\=\[\[Nigrizia]] \|location\=Verona \|date\=23 March 2006}}{{cite news \|title\=Immigrati, ben integrati in Veneto ok anche Marche ed Emilia Romagna \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/2006/c/sezioni/cronaca/caritas/caritas/caritas.html?ref\=search \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=22 March 2006}} Similar things can be said about the city of [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona"),{{cite news \|first\=Duilio \|last\=Colonna \|title\=Integrazione, la cittΓ Γ¨ ospitale con gli stranieri \|url\=http://www.veronasera.it/News/CRONACA/13\-07\-2010\_14\.17/Integrazione\_la\_citt%C3%A0\_%C3%A8\_ospitale\_con\_gli\_stranieri\_01738\.htm \|publisher\=Verona Sera \|location\=Verona \|date\=13 July 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305101037/http://www.veronasera.it/News/CRONACA/13\-07\-2010\_14\.17/Integrazione\_la\_citt%C3%A0\_%C3%A8\_ospitale\_con\_gli\_stranieri\_01738\.htm \|archive\-date\=5 March 2012}} governed by [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi "Flavio Tosi"), who evolved from being a hardliner to be one of the most popular mayors of Italy.{{cite news \|first\=Paolo \|last\=Biondani \|title\=Mi manda Maroni \|url\=http://rassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=14WLUI \|newspaper\=\[\[L'Espresso]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=6 October 2011 \|page\=59 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425132507/http://rassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=14WLUI \|archive\-date\=25 April 2012 \|language\=it}}{{cite news \|title\=Sindaci piΓΉ amati, Piero Fassino scalza Tosi dal primo posto \|url\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2011/13\-ottobre\-2011/sindaci\-piu\-amati\-piero\-fassino\-scalza\-tosi\-primo\-posto\-1901810186747\.shtml \|newspaper\=\[\[Corriere della Sera\|Corriere del Veneto]] \|location\=Padua \|date\=13 October 2011}} Moreover, the first and so far only [black](/wiki/Black_people "Black people") mayor in Italy belongs to the League: [Sandy Cane](/wiki/Sandy_Cane "Sandy Cane") (whose mother is Italian and father is an [African American](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans")){{cite news \|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/5496550/Unlikely\-champion\-of\-Italys\-anti\-immigration\-party\-is\-black\-and\-half\-American.html \|title\=Unlikely champion of Italy's anti\-immigration party is black and half\-American \|work\=The Daily Telegraph \|date\=11 June 2009 \|location\=London \|first\=Nick \|last\=Squires}} was elected mayor in [ViggiΓΉ](/wiki/Viggi%C3%B9 "ViggiΓΉ") in 2009\. In an interview with *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent "The Independent")*, Cane said that the League does not include racist or xenophobic members.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/antiimmigration\-party\-member\-becomes\-italys\-first\-black\-mayor\-1701893\.html \|title\=Anti\-immigration party member becomes Italy's first black mayor \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|date\=10 June 2009 \|location\=London \|first\=Michael \|last\=Day}} She eventually left the League in 2014\.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.varesenews.it/2014/10/sandy\-cane\-do\-l\-addio\-alla\-lega\-e\-vi\-spiego\-il\-perche/341677/ \|title\=Lascio la Lega e vi spiego perche' \|publisher\=\[\[Varese News]] \|year\=2014}} More recently, [Hajer Fezzani](/wiki/Hajer_Fezzani "Hajer Fezzani"), a [Tunisian](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia")\-born lapsed Muslim, was appointed local coordinator in [Malnate](/wiki/Malnate "Malnate");{{cite news \|first\=Tommaso \|last\=Guidotti \|title\=Un tunisina alla guida della Lega Nord: "Il mio sogno Γ¨ incontrare Bossi" \|url\=http://www3\.varesenews.it/varese/articolo.php?id\=198159 \|publisher\=Varese Laghi \|location\=Varese \|date\=10 March 2011}} [Souad Sbai](/wiki/Souad_Sbai "Souad Sbai"), president of the association "Moroccan women in Italy" and former deputy of [The People of Freedom](/wiki/The_People_of_Freedom "The People of Freedom"), joined the party;{{cite web \|url\=http://lapadania.net/Detail\_News\_Display?ID%3D3015 \|title\=ESISTE \|access\-date\=11 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016223452/http://lapadania.net/Detail\_News\_Display?ID\=3015 \|archive\-date\=16 October 2014}} and most notably [Toni Iwobi](/wiki/Toni_Iwobi "Toni Iwobi"), a [Nigerian](/wiki/Nigeria "Nigeria")\-born long\-time party member, was appointed at the head of the party's department on immigration ("Tony will do more for legal immigrants in a month than what Kyenge has done in an entire life", Salvini said during the press conference){{cite web \|url\=http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/11700208/Immigrati\-\-Salvini\-\-Iwobi\-fara.html \|title\=Immigrati: Salvini, Iwobi farΓ di piΓΉ della Kyenge \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} and became the first [person of colour](/wiki/Person_of_colour "Person of colour") to be elected a senator of Italy after 2018 general election.[Nigeriano, immigrato, titolare d'azienda: eletto dalla Lega il primo senatore di colore](http://milano.repubblica.it/cronaca/2018/03/06/news/bergamo_eletto_il_primo_senatore_italiano_nero_e_leghista-190601497/) Milano.repubblica.it. Retrieved 6 March 2018
### International affiliation
Lega Nord was originally a member of the [European Free Alliance](/wiki/European_Free_Alliance "European Free Alliance") (EFA) and its first two MEPs, [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni "Francesco Speroni") and [Luigi Moretti](/wiki/Luigi_Moretti_%28politician%29 "Luigi Moretti (politician)"), joined the [Rainbow Group](/wiki/Rainbow_Group_%281989%E2%80%9394%29 "Rainbow Group (1989β94)") in the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") during the fourth parliamentary term (1989β1994\). Between 1994 and 1997, it was a member of the group of the [European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party](/wiki/European_Liberal_Democrat_and_Reform_Party_%28European_Parliament_group%29 "European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (European Parliament group)") (ELDR)[http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress\-in\-torquay\-9\-10\-december\-1993](http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress-in-torquay-9-10-december-1993) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006094300/http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress\-in\-torquay\-9\-10\-december\-1993\|date\=6 October 2009}}[History of ELDR](http://www.leeds.ac.uk/politics/cbl/int/party/eldrhis.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221935/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/politics/cbl/int/party/eldrhis.htm \|date\=3 March 2016 }}. University of Leeds. Retrieved 24 August 2013\. and one MEP of Lega Nord, [Raimondo Fassa](/wiki/Raimondo_Fassa "Raimondo Fassa"), continued to sit in the ELDR group until 1999\. During the sixth parliamentary term (1999β2004\), it was briefly a component of the [Technical Group of Independents](/wiki/Technical_Group_of_Independents_%281999%E2%80%932001%29 "Technical Group of Independents (1999β2001)") (TGI) along with [Italian Radicals](/wiki/Italian_Radicals "Italian Radicals") and then returned to the [Non\-Inscrits](/wiki/Non-Inscrits "Non-Inscrits").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\=EN\&id\=1101 \|title\=European Parliament: Luigi Moretti \|publisher\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\=EN\&id\=997 \|title\=European Parliament: Francesco Speroni \|publisher\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\=EN\&id\=2036 \|title\=European Parliament: Umberto Bossi \|publisher\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\=EN\&id\=1954 \|title\=European Parliament: Raimondo Fassa \|publisher\=European Parliament}}
Following the [2004 European Parliament election](/wiki/2004_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2004 European Parliament election in Italy"), Lega Nord joined the [Independence/Democracy](/wiki/Independence/Democracy "Independence/Democracy") (I/D) group and later the [Union for Europe of the Nations](/wiki/Union_for_Europe_of_the_Nations "Union for Europe of the Nations") (UEN), a seemingly awkward affiliation for a party proposing a "Europe of the Regions"βbut in the Lega Nord's view a state's "regions" are populated by "nations" such as the Catalans or the Lombards. The party was affiliated to the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe "Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe") (ALDE) in the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe") until 2006, when its members joined the [European Democrat Group](/wiki/European_Conservatives_Group "European Conservatives Group") (EDG), a diverse group stretching from the [British Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") to [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia "United Russia").{{cite web \|url\=http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/ALMemberDetails.asp?MemberID\=5791 \|title\=Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe: Roberto Maroni \|publisher\=Assembly.coe.int \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722013239/http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/ALMemberDetails.asp?MemberID\=5791 \|archive\-date\=22 July 2011}}
Following the [2009 European Parliament election](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2009 European Parliament election in Italy"), Lega Nord joined the newly formed the [Europe of Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/Europe_of_Freedom_and_Democracy "Europe of Freedom and Democracy") (EFD) group. One year after the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2014 European Parliament election in Italy"), the party was a founding member of the [Europe of Nations and Freedom](/wiki/Europe_of_Nations_and_Freedom "Europe of Nations and Freedom") (ENL) group. After the [2019 European Parliament election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2019 European Parliament election in Italy"), Lega Nord co\-founded the [Identity and Democracy](/wiki/Identity_and_Democracy "Identity and Democracy") (ID) group, alongside the French [National Rally](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 "National Rally (France)"), the [Danish People's Party](/wiki/Danish_People%27s_Party "Danish People's Party"), the [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria "Freedom Party of Austria"), the [Conservative People's Party of Estonia](/wiki/Conservative_People%27s_Party_of_Estonia "Conservative People's Party of Estonia"), the [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party "Finns Party"), the Belgian [Vlaams Belang](/wiki/Vlaams_Belang "Vlaams Belang"), the Czech [Freedom and Direct Democracy](/wiki/Freedom_and_Direct_Democracy "Freedom and Direct Democracy") party, and [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany "Alternative for Germany"). Outside of its European parliamentary group, Lega also has contacts with the Spanish [Vox](/wiki/Vox_%28political_party%29 "Vox (political party)"),{{cite news\|work\=a Vanguardia\|title\=Abascal y Salvini se reΓΊnen en Roma para hablar de inmigraciΓ³n\|date\=20 September 2019\|url\=https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20190920/47503462802/abascal\-salvini\-roma\-inmigracion.html}} the Dutch [Forum for Democracy](/wiki/Forum_for_Democracy "Forum for Democracy"), the [Sweden Democrats](/wiki/Sweden_Democrats "Sweden Democrats"), the Hungarian [Fidesz](/wiki/Fidesz "Fidesz"),{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Politico]]\|date\=2 May 2019\|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/orban\-salvini\-flirt\-with\-alliance\-after\-eu\-election/\|title\=OrbΓ‘n, Salvini flirt with alliance after EU election}} and the Polish [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice "Law and Justice") party.{{cite news\|work\=\[\[Politico]]\|date\=19 April 2019\|url\=https://www.politico.eu/article/matteo\-salvini\-jaroslaw\-kaczynski\-italy\-poland\-eu\-pledges\-italo\-polish\-axis\-after\-warsaw\-talks/\|title\=Italian and Polish leaders to discuss European election axis}} In March 2017 the LN signed a cooperation protocol with [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia "United Russia").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.ft.com/content/0d33d22c\-0280\-11e7\-ace0\-1ce02ef0def9 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/0d33d22c\-0280\-11e7\-ace0\-1ce02ef0def9 \|archive\-date\=10 December 2022 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Putin's party signs deal with Italy's far\-right Lega Nord \|first1\=Max \|last1\=Seddon \|first2\=James \|last2\=Politi \|work\=Financial Times \|date\=6 March 2017}}
The party has also been active in [counter\-jihad](/wiki/Counter-jihad "Counter-jihad") networks, and in 2016 signed the "Prague Declaration" as part of the Fortress Europe group alongside the [Pegida](/wiki/Pegida "Pegida") movement and other groups against the "Islamic conquest of Europe".{{cite book\|title\='Green Crescent, Crimson Cross': The Transatlantic 'Counterjihad' and the New Political Theology\|url\=https://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3780/1/Pertwee\_\_green\-crescent\-crimson\-cross.pdf\|pages\=3, 101\|last\=Pertwee\|first\=Ed\|date\=October 2017\|publisher\=London School of Economics}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FAxZEAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT18\|first\=Anita\|last\=Nissen\|title\=Europeanisation of the Contemporary Far Right: Generation Identity and Fortress Europe\|page\=18\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2022\|isbn\=9781000547085}}
|
[
"Ideology\n--------",
"[thumb\\|160px\\|Statue of [Alberto da Giussano](/wiki/Alberto_da_Giussano \"Alberto da Giussano\"), the [Medieval](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") knight who inspired Umberto Bossi](/wiki/File:Alberto_da_Giussano_4.jpg \"Alberto da Giussano 4.jpg\")",
"The party's ideology is a combination of [political federalism](/wiki/Federalism \"Federalism\"), [fiscal federalism](/wiki/Fiscal_federalism \"Fiscal federalism\"), [regionalism](/wiki/Regionalism_%28politics%29 \"Regionalism (politics)\") and defense of [northern Italian](/wiki/Northern_Italy \"Northern Italy\") traditions. The historical goal of the party is to transform [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") into a [federated state](/wiki/Federated_state \"Federated state\"), letting [Padania](/wiki/Padania \"Padania\") keep more tax revenues collected there under a regime of fiscal federalism. Through Lega Nord, federalism has become a major issue in the country. This is also the main difference between the Lega Nord and most European regionalist parties ([South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party \"South Tyrolean People's Party\"),{{cite book \\|first1\\=Paolo \\|last1\\=Rumiz \\|title\\=La secessione leggera. Dove nasce la rabbia del profondo Nord \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Feltrinelli \\|location\\=Milan \\|page\\=171}} [Basque Nationalist Party](/wiki/Basque_Nationalist_Party \"Basque Nationalist Party\"), [Republican Left of Catalonia](/wiki/Republican_Left_of_Catalonia \"Republican Left of Catalonia\"), [Scottish National Party](/wiki/Scottish_National_Party \"Scottish National Party\"), [Vlaams Belang](/wiki/Vlaams_Belang \"Vlaams Belang\") and the like), which focus on special rights for their own regions.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Umberto \\|last1\\=Bossi \\|author\\-link1\\=Umberto Bossi \\|first2\\=Daniele \\|last2\\=Vimercati \\|title\\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=25β35, 194β205}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Gianfranco \\|last1\\=Miglio \\|title\\=Come cambiare. Le mie riforme \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Mondadori \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=31β40}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Elio \\|last1\\=Bonifazi \\|first2\\=Alberto \\|last2\\=Pellegrino \\|title\\=Educazione civica e costituzionale \\|year\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Bulgarini \\|location\\=Florence \\|pages\\=79, 128β129}}",
"The original programme of the party identified \"federalist libertarianism\" as ideology.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last1\\=Jori \\|title\\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Marsilio \\|location\\=Venice \\|page\\=77}} In fact, the party has often varied its tone and policies, replacing its original [libertarianism](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") and [social liberalism](/wiki/Social_liberalism \"Social liberalism\") with a more [socially conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism \"Social conservatism\") approach, alternating [anti\\-clericalism](/wiki/Anti-clericalism \"Anti-clericalism\"){{cite book\\|last\\=Chaintera\\-Stutte\\|first\\=Patricia\\|chapter\\=Leadership, Ideology and Anti\\-European Politics in the Italian Lega Nord\\|editor1\\=Daniele Caramani\\|editor2\\=Yves MΓ©ny\\|title\\=Challenges to Consensual Politics: Democracy, Identity, and Populist Protest in the Alpine Region\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Rwofe0Zg8MQC\\&pg\\=PA120\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Peter Lang\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-5201\\-250\\-6\\|page\\=120}} with a pro\\-Catholic Church stance and [Europeanism](/wiki/Europeanism \"Europeanism\") with a marked [Euroscepticism](/wiki/Euroscepticism \"Euroscepticism\"){{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=49β52}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|page\\=87}} and ultimately abandoning much of its original [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism \"Pacifism\") and uncompromising [environmentalism](/wiki/Environmentalism \"Environmentalism\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Davide \\|last\\=Romano \\|url\\=http://politicaesocieta.blogosfere.it/2008/09/romanzo\\-padano\\-la\\-lega\\-di\\-bossi\\-berlusconi\\-seduttore\\-e\\-maroni\\-ex\\-venduto\\-parla\\-davide\\-romano.html \\|title\\=Romanzo padano, la Lega di Bossi: Berlusconi seduttore e Maroni ex venduto. Parla Davide Romano \\|publisher\\=Politica e SocietΓ 2\\.0 \\|date\\=29 September 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 March 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323064906/http://politicaesocieta.blogosfere.it/2008/09/romanzo\\-padano\\-la\\-lega\\-di\\-bossi\\-berlusconi\\-seduttore\\-e\\-maroni\\-ex\\-venduto\\-parla\\-davide\\-romano.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Lega Nord is now often regarded as a [right\\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populism \"Right-wing populism\") party.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,719842,00\\.html \\|title\\=Continent of Fear: The Rise of Europe's Right\\-Wing Populists \\|work\\=Der Spiegel \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015\\|date\\=28 September 2010 }} Party leaders generally reject the \"right\\-wing\" label,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilfoglio.it/soloqui/8528 \\|title\\=CosΓ¬ la Lega conquista nuovi elettori (non\\-solo al nord) \\|work\\=Il Foglio \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521161601/http://www.ilfoglio.it/soloqui/8528 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2014}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.asca.it/news\\-Lega\\_Nord\\_\\_Maroni\\_ne\\_\\_destra\\_ne\\_\\_sinistra\\_\\_alleanze\\_dopo\\_congresso\\-1156873\\.html \\|title\\=Lega Nord: Maroni ne' destra ne' sinistra, alleanze dopo congresso \\|publisher\\=asca.it \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521161933/http://www.asca.it/news\\-Lega\\_Nord\\_\\_Maroni\\_ne\\_\\_destra\\_ne\\_\\_sinistra\\_\\_alleanze\\_dopo\\_congresso\\-1156873\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=21 May 2014}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.termometropolitico.it/109110\\_intervista\\-matteo\\-salvini\\-lega\\-renzi\\-peggio\\-di\\-monti\\-vergognoso\\-con\\-la\\-merkel.html \\|title\\=INTERVISTA Matteo Salvini (Lega): \"Renzi? Peggio di Monti, vergognoso con la Merkel \\|publisher\\=termometropolitico.it \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015\\|date\\=20 March 2014 }} though not the \"[populist](/wiki/Populism \"Populism\")\" label.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/12498\\-europee\\-salvini\\-sono\\-referendum\\-meglio\\-populista\\-che\\-fesso \\|title\\=Lega Nord \\|publisher\\=leganord.org \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190624192026/https://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/12498\\-europee\\-salvini\\-sono\\-referendum\\-meglio\\-populista\\-che\\-fesso \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In 2008, [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi \"Umberto Bossi\") explained in an interview that Lega Nord is \"libertarian, but also socialist\" and that the right\\-wing ideology he prefers is an anti\\-statist one with a \"libertarian idea of a state which does not weigh on citizens\". When asked to tell his most preferred politician of the 20th century, he said [Giacomo Matteotti](/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti \"Giacomo Matteotti\"), a [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\") MP who was killed by [Fascist](/wiki/National_Fascist_Party \"National Fascist Party\") squads in 1925 and remembered his anti\\-fascist and left\\-wing roots.{{cite web \\|first\\=Umberto \\|last\\=Bossi \\|author\\-link\\=Umberto Bossi \\|title\\=Ecco l'intervista integrale della Iena Enrico Lucci a Umberto Bossi \\|url\\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/iene\\-bossi\\-intervista300908\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Affaritaliani]] \\|date\\=30 September 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213135833/https://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/iene\\-bossi\\-intervista300908\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Lega Nord's political culture was a mix of northern Italian pride or even [Padanian nationalism](/wiki/Padanian_nationalism \"Padanian nationalism\"), often with claims of a proud [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") heritage; resentment of perceived [southern Italian](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") habits and [Roman](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") authorities; distrust of the Republic of Italy and especially its [flag](/wiki/Flag_of_Italy \"Flag of Italy\"); and some support for the [free market](/wiki/Free_market \"Free market\"), anti\\-[statism](/wiki/Statism \"Statism\"), anti\\-[globalism](/wiki/Globalism \"Globalism\") and [separatism](/wiki/Separatism \"Separatism\") or [secessionism](/wiki/Secession \"Secession\"). The party boasts historical references to the anti\\-[imperialist](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire \"Holy Roman Empire\") [Lombard League](/wiki/Lombard_League \"Lombard League\") and [Alberto da Giussano](/wiki/Alberto_da_Giussano \"Alberto da Giussano\") (stylised in the party's symbol), the hero of the wars against [Frederick I Barbarossa](/wiki/Frederick_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor\").{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=23β24}} These historical references are the base for the party's anti\\-[monopolism](/wiki/Monopoly \"Monopoly\") and anti\\-[centralism](/wiki/Centralisation \"Centralisation\").",
"Lega Nord has long maintained an anti\\-[southern Italian](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") stance. Party members have been known to oppose large\\-scale southern Italian migration to northern Italian cities, stereotyping southern Italians as welfare abusers, criminals and detrimental to Northern society. Party members have often attributed Italy's economic stagnation and the disparity of the [North\\-South divide in the Italian economy](/wiki/Economy_of_Italy%23Southern_question \"Economy of Italy#Southern question\") to supposed negative characteristics of the southern Italians, such as lack of education, laziness, or criminality.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Tambini \\|first1\\=Damian \\|title\\=Nationalism in Italian Politics: The Stories of the Northern League, 1980β2000 \\|date\\=6 December 2012 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=pW009kl\\_z2AC\\&q\\=northern\\+league\\+terroni\\&pg\\=PT25\\|isbn\\=9781134540013 }}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Willey \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=The rise and fall of Northern League founder Umberto Bossi \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine\\-17703460 \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2015 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=14 April 2012}}{{cite news \\|last1\\=Pullella \\|first1\\=Philip \\|title\\=Italy unity anniversary divides more than unites \\|url\\=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSLNE72706B20110308 \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2015 \\|work\\=Reuters \\|date\\=8 March 2011}} Some LN members have been known to publicly deploy the offensive slur *[terrone](/wiki/Terrone \"Terrone\")* (\"earthling\", \"mulatto\"), a common pejorative term for southern Italians.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Russo Bullaro \\|first1\\=Grace \\|title\\=From Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema : Shifting Demographics and Changing Images in a Multi\\-cultural Globalized Society \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Troubador Publishing Ltd \\|pages\\=179β81 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=yBTMi\\_XXCgYC\\&q\\=northern\\+league\\+terroni\\&pg\\=PA180\\|isbn\\=9781848761766 }}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Garau \\|first1\\=Eva \\|title\\=Politics of National Identity in Italy: Immigration and 'ItalianitΓ ' \\|date\\=17 December 2014 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|pages\\=110β11 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=c2vfBQAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA110 \\|access\\-date\\=28 October 2015\\|isbn\\=9781317557661 }}",
"At times, it has seemed possible that the League might unite with similar leagues in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\") and [southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\"), but it has not succeeded in doing so. The party continues dialogue with regionalist parties throughout Italy, notably the [South Tyrolean People's Party](/wiki/South_Tyrolean_People%27s_Party \"South Tyrolean People's Party\"), the [Valdostan Union](/wiki/Valdostan_Union \"Valdostan Union\"), the [Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party](/wiki/Trentino_Tyrolean_Autonomist_Party \"Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party\"), the [Movement for the Autonomies](/wiki/Movement_for_the_Autonomies \"Movement for the Autonomies\") and the [Sardinian Action Party](/wiki/Sardinian_Action_Party \"Sardinian Action Party\"); and it has some figures from the South in its parliamentary ranks. Notably, [Angela Maraventano](/wiki/Angela_Maraventano \"Angela Maraventano\"), former deputy mayor of [Lampedusa](/wiki/Lampedusa \"Lampedusa\"), was a senator of Lega Nord. Although it is no longer a member of the [European Free Alliance](/wiki/European_Free_Alliance \"European Free Alliance\"), the party has ties with many regionalist parties around Europe, including left\\-wing parties such as the Republican Left of Catalonia.{{cite news \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Bossi, show su Padania e Cavaliere: lo controlliamo, senza Lega va a casa \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/dicembre/02/Bossi\\_show\\_Padania\\_Cavaliere\\_controlliamo\\_co\\_9\\_091202003\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=2 December 2009}} Lega Nord has some ties also with the [Ticino League](/wiki/Ticino_League \"Ticino League\") from [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\").",
"### Catch\\-all nature",
"Lega Nord aims at uniting all those northern Italians who support autonomy and federalism for their land. For this reason, it has tended to be a multi\\-ideological [catch\\-all party](/wiki/Big_tent \"Big tent\"), especially at its beginnings,{{Citation \\|first1\\=Robert \\|last1\\=Leonardi \\|first2\\=Monique \\|last2\\=Kovacs \\|title\\=The Lega Nord: the rise of a new Italian catch\\-all party \\|journal\\=Italian Politics: A Review \\|volume\\=8 \\|year\\=1993}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://europe.demsoc.org/2014/04/22/lega\\-nord/ \\|title\\=Lega Nord β The Democratic Society \\|website\\=Europe.demsoc.org \\|date\\=22 April 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318055501/http://europe.demsoc.org/2014/04/22/lega\\-nord/ \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} following what Bossi stated in 1982 to his early followers: \"It does not matter how old are you, what your job is and what your political tendency: what matters is that you and we are all Lombard. \\[...] It is as Lombards, indeed, that we have a fundamental common goal in face of which our division in parties should fall behind\".{{cite book \\|first1\\=David \\|last1\\=Parenzo \\|first2\\=Davide \\|last2\\=Romano \\|title\\=Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|page\\=19}} Roberto Biorcio, a political scientist, wrote: \"The political commitment of Umberto Bossi was influenced by his encounter with [Bruno Salvadori](/wiki/Bruno_Salvadori \"Bruno Salvadori\"), leader of the [Valdostan Union](/wiki/Valdostan_Union \"Valdostan Union\") \\[...]. The convictions of Salvadori on federalism, the self\\-determination of the peoples (the so\\-called nations without state) and the belonging to a people on the basis of cultural criteria and not on blood, were adopted by the future leader of the League\".{{cite book \\|first1\\=Roberto \\|last1\\=Biorcio \\|title\\=La rivincita del Nord. La Lega dalla contestazione al governo \\|year\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Laterza \\|location\\=Rome\\-Bari \\|pages\\=137β138}}",
"Since the beginning the electorate of the party has been very diverse on a [left\\-right scale](/wiki/Political_spectrum \"Political spectrum\"). At the [1992 general election](/wiki/1992_Italian_general_election \"1992 Italian general election\"), for instance, 25\\.4% of the party supporters were former [Christian Democratic](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 \"Christian Democracy (Italy)\") voters, 18\\.5% [Communists](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party \"Italian Communist Party\"), 12\\.5% [Socialists](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\") and 6\\.6% former voters of the post\\-fascist [Italian Social Movement](/wiki/Italian_Social_Movement \"Italian Social Movement\").{{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=87β88}} According to a 1996 Abacus poll, 28\\.7% of LN voters identified as [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\"), 26\\.3% as [right\\-wingers](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") and 22\\.1% as [left\\-wingers](/wiki/Left-wing_politics \"Left-wing politics\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://formazioneonline.unisalento.it/pluginfile.php/23746/mod\\_resource/content/1/Biorcio1999\\_LegaNord.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154607/https://formazioneonline.unisalento.it/pluginfile.php/23746/mod\\_resource/content/1/Biorcio1999\\_LegaNord.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=8 August 2017 \\|title\\=La Lega Nord e la transizione italiana}}",
"It is quite difficult to define it in the left\\-right spectrum because it is variously conservative, centrist and left\\-wing with regard to different issues. For example, the party supports both liberal ideas such as [deregulation](/wiki/Deregulation \"Deregulation\") and [social\\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") positions such as the defense of workers' wages and pensions. This is because Lega Nord, as a \"people's party\" representing the North as a whole, includes both [liberal\\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism \"Liberal conservatism\") and social\\-democratic factions.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Mark \\|last1\\=Duff \\|title\\=Italy's Northern League reviews support for Berlusconi \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-13845525 \\|work\\=BBC News \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=20 June 2011}}{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2014\\|reason\\=Ref does not really support the statement. According to the BBC article, the Lega \"claims to be a broad church\". A LN politician is quoted who claims that the party has people both from the left and the right. This is however only reported as a LN claim, it is not attested by the BBC author. Moreover there is no mention at all of \"liberal\\-conservative\" or \"social\\-democratic\" factions.}} As Lega Nord, the party could be seen as a cross\\-class entity uniting northern Italians, whether working class or petit bourgeois, around a sense of opposition to both the powerful forces of capital and a centralising state based in Rome which redistributes resources towards southern Italy.{{cite book \\|last\\=Biorcio \\|first\\=Roberto \\|chapter\\=The Lega Nord and the Italian media system \\|editor1\\=Gianpietro Mazzoleni \\|editor2\\=Julianne Stewart \\|editor3\\=Bruce Horsfield \\|title\\=The Media and Neo\\-populism: A Contemporary Comparative Analysis \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YdG5cLc\\_Pi4C\\&pg\\=PA72 \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Greenwood Publishing Group \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-275\\-97492\\-3 \\|pages\\=72β73}}",
"Generally speaking, the party supports the [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy \"Social market economy\") and other typical issues of [Christian\\-democratic](/wiki/Christian_democracy \"Christian democracy\") parties{{cite web \\|last1\\=Ronchi \\|first1\\=Fabio \\|title\\=La Lega Nord ai raggi X \\|url\\=https://www.youtrend.it/2010/03/17/la\\-lega\\-nord\\-ai\\-raggi\\-x \\|website\\=YouTrend \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|language\\=it\\-IT \\|date\\=17 March 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 May 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506172409/https://www.youtrend.it/2010/03/17/la\\-lega\\-nord\\-ai\\-raggi\\-x/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} and has been described as a \"neo\\-[labour party](/wiki/Labour_movement \"Labour movement\")\" by some commentators{{cite news \\|first\\=Dario \\|last\\=Di Vico \\|title\\=Fabbriche e Gazebo: la Lega modello Pci \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2009/giugno/10/Fabbriche\\_Gazebo\\_Lega\\_modello\\_Pci\\_co\\_8\\_090610031\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=10 June 2009}} and also by some of its members.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last1\\=Jori \\|title\\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Marsilio \\|location\\=Venice \\|page\\=18}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Luca \\|last\\=Zaia \\|author\\-link\\=Luca Zaia \\|url\\=http://rassegna.governo.it/testo.asp?d\\=38010215 \\|title\\=Siamo i nuovi laburisti, sfonderemo al Centro e al Sud e vogliamo una poltrona Ue \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Quotidiano Nazionale]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=16 June 2009}} Lega Nord is [populist](/wiki/Populism \"Populism\") in the sense that it is an anti\\-monopolist and anti\\-[elitist](/wiki/Elitism \"Elitism\") popular and participative party (it is one of the few Italian political parties not to permit [freemasons](/wiki/Freemasonry \"Freemasonry\") to join), fighting against the \"vested interests\", once identified by Bossi in \"[Agnelli](/wiki/Agnelli_family \"Agnelli family\"), the [Pope](/wiki/Pope \"Pope\") and the [Mafia](/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia \"Sicilian Mafia\")\". The party is also libertarian populist in its promotion of small ownership, small and medium\\-sized enterprise, [small government](/wiki/Small_government \"Small government\") as opposed to governmental [bureaucracy](/wiki/Bureaucracy \"Bureaucracy\"), waste of public funds, [pork barrel](/wiki/Pork_barrel \"Pork barrel\") spending and corruption.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=86β87, 96}} These are the main reasons why the party is strong in the North despite being obscured (especially at the beginning of its history) and badly presented by national media, television and newspapers.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Aldo \\|last1\\=Bonomi \\|title\\=Prefazione β Romanzo padano. Da Bossi a Bossi. Storia della Lega \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|page\\=X}} According to a number of scholars, Lega Nord is an example of a [right\\-wing populist](/wiki/Right-wing_populism \"Right-wing populism\"),{{citation \\|first\\=Amir \\|last\\=Abedi \\|title\\=Anti\\-Political Establishment Parties: A comparative analysis \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2004 \\|page\\=13 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y\\_27NbOL0l8C\\&q\\=lega\\+nord\\+right\\-wing\\+populist\\&pg\\=PA13 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-31961\\-4}}{{Citation \\|first\\=Hans\\-Georg \\|last\\=Betz \\|title\\=Mobilising Resentment in the Alps: The Swiss SVP, the Italian Lega Nord and the Austrian FPΓ \\|work\\=Challenges to Consensual Politics \\|publisher\\=P.I.E.βPeter Lang \\|year\\=2005 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Rwofe0Zg8MQC\\&q\\=lega\\+nord\\+right\\-wing\\+populist \\|isbn\\=9789052012506}} [radical right](/wiki/Radical_right_%28Europe%29 \"Radical right (Europe)\"),{{Citation \\|first\\=Andrej \\|last\\=Zaslove \\|title\\=One Foot in One Foot Out: can radical right populist parties govern? \\|publisher\\=Political Studies Association \\|year\\=2008 \\|url\\=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2008/pps/Zaslove.pdf}}{{dead link\\|date\\=December 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}{{citation \\|first\\=Gilles \\|last\\=Ivaldi \\|title\\=The Populist Radical Right in European Elections 1979β2009 \\|work\\=The Extreme Right in Europe \\|publisher\\=Vandenhoeck \\& Ruprecht \\|year\\=2011 \\|page\\=18 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RBnmachN8vkC\\&q\\=Lega\\+Nord\\+radical\\+right\\&pg\\=PA22 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-525\\-36922\\-7}}{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Zulianello\\|first\\=Mattia\\|date\\=2019\\|title\\=Varieties of Populist Parties and Party Systems in Europe: From State\\-of\\-the\\-Art to the Application of a Novel Classification Scheme to 66 Parties in 33 Countries\\|journal\\=Government and Opposition\\|volume\\=55\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=327β347\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/gov.2019\\.21\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|hdl\\=11368/3001222\\|hdl\\-access\\=free}} or [far\\-right](/wiki/Far-right_politics \"Far-right politics\") party{{Citation \\|first\\=Michael \\|last\\=Huysseune \\|title\\=Federalism and the Extreme Right in Italy \\|journal\\=FΓ©dΓ©ralisme RΓ©gionalisme \\|volume\\=2 \\|year\\=2001β2002 \\|url\\=http://popups.ulg.ac.be/federalisme/document.php?id\\=250\\#tocto2 \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823082532/http://popups.ulg.ac.be/federalisme/document.php?id\\=250\\#tocto2 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 August 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} while some see significant differences to typical European radical right\\-wing populist parties,{{citation \\|first\\=Hans\\-Georg \\|last\\=Betz \\|title\\=Radical right\\-wing populism in Western Europe \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|year\\=1994 \\|page\\=64 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LwTTwbtNyxUC\\&q\\=lega\\+nord\\+right\\-wing\\+populist\\&pg\\=PA64 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-312\\-08390\\-8}} or reject the label of radical right as inadequate to describe the party's ideology.{{citation \\|first\\=Duncan \\|last\\=McDonnell \\|title\\=A Weekend in Padania: Regionalist Populism and the Lega Nord \\|journal\\=Politics \\|volume\\=26 \\|issue\\=2 \\|date\\=April 2006 \\|pages\\=126β132 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-9256\\.2006\\.00259\\.x\\|hdl\\=2318/69762 \\|s2cid\\=145674115 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free }}",
"According to many observers, under [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\") the party lurched to the right, but both Salvini, a former communist; and [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\") insist the party is \"neither right nor left\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/27/Salvini\\_per\\_ora\\_avanti\\_solo\\_co\\_0\\_20141127\\_6dbd835e\\-7600\\-11e4\\-8dd1\\-b9af854f838d.shtml \\|title\\=Salvini (per ora) va avanti da solo \"Mancano squadra e schema\" \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iltempo.it/adn\\-kronos/2014/11/27/lega\\-zaia\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra\\-ne\\-di\\-sinistra\\-1\\.1350361?localLinksEnabled\\=false \\|title\\=Lega: Zaia, non è di destra nè di sinistra \\|author\\=Adnkronos \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018133553/http://www.iltempo.it/adn\\-kronos/2014/11/27/lega\\-zaia\\-non\\-e\\-di\\-destra\\-ne\\-di\\-sinistra\\-1\\.1350361?localLinksEnabled\\=false \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2015}} while [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\"), another former leftist, stated that \"we are a big political movement which has in its platform issues and people of right and left\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.formiche.net/2014/11/25/lega\\-chi\\-nongioisce\\-successo\\-matteo\\-salvini/ \\|title\\=Ecco chi non\\-gioisce troppo nella Lega per il successo di Matteo Salvini \\|work\\=Formiche \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015\\|date\\=25 November 2014 }}",
"### Platform and policies",
"The party usually takes a [socially conservative](/wiki/Social_conservatism \"Social conservatism\") stance on social issues, such as abortion, [euthanasia](/wiki/Euthanasia \"Euthanasia\"), medical embryonic [stem cell](/wiki/Stem_cell \"Stem cell\") research, [artificial insemination](/wiki/Artificial_insemination \"Artificial insemination\"), [same\\-sex marriage](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage \"Same-sex marriage\") (although there is an association called *Los Padania*, where \"Los\" stands for \"free sexual orientation\", linked to the party and Lega Nord was once in favour of same\\-sex marriage){{cite news \\|title\\=Il Carroccio: matrimoni gay nella Repubblica Padana \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1998/aprile/05/Carroccio\\_matrimoni\\_gay\\_nella\\_Repubblica\\_co\\_0\\_9804052417\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=5 April 1998}} and drug use (although it did once support the legalization of [marijuana](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 \"Cannabis (drug)\") along with [Marco Pannella](/wiki/Marco_Pannella \"Marco Pannella\")'s [Radicals](/wiki/Italian_Radicals \"Italian Radicals\")).{{Citation needed \\|date\\=October 2022}} Despite this, the party has been home to some [social liberals](/wiki/Social_liberalism \"Social liberalism\"), namely [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini \"Giancarlo Pagliarini\"), [Rossana Boldi](/wiki/Rossana_Boldi \"Rossana Boldi\"), [Giovanna Bianchi Clerici](/wiki/Giovanna_Bianchi_Clerici \"Giovanna Bianchi Clerici\"){{cite news \\|first1\\=Margherita \\|last1\\=De Bac \\|first2\\=Virginia \\|last2\\=Piccolillo \\|title\\=Fecondazione un fronte del sì tra le donne della Cdl \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/maggio/01/Fecondazione\\_fronte\\_del\\_tra\\_donne\\_co\\_8\\_050501066\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=1 May 2005}} and to some extent [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli \"Roberto Castelli\").",
"The party has often espoused [criticism of Islam](/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam \"Criticism of Islam\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Amiel \\|first1\\=Sandrine\\|title\\=Salvini claims he is saving Europe from Islam, what are the facts?\n \\|journal\\=Euronews \\|date\\=May 2019 \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=1β29 \\|url\\= https://www.euronews.com/2019/05/03/europe\\-will\\-become\\-an\\-islamic\\-caliphate\\-if\\-we\\-don\\-t\\-take\\-back\\-control\\-salvini\\-tells\\-hunga \\|access\\-date\\=July 31, 2020}} and has styled itself as a defender of \"[Judeo\\-Christian](/wiki/Judeo-Christian \"Judeo-Christian\") values\". In 2018 the party made a proposal to make it mandatory for [crucifixes](/wiki/Crucifix \"Crucifix\") to be displayed in all public spaces, including ports, schools, embassies and prisons, with fines of up to β¬1,000 for failing to comply.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/26/pope\\-francis\\-adviser\\-decries\\-matteo\\-salvini\\-policy\\-on\\-crucifix\\|title\\=Pope Francis adviser decries Matteo Salvini's 'co\\-option' of crucifix\\|date\\=26 July 2018\\|website\\=the Guardian}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.vice.com/en/article/neaj47/the\\-far\\-right\\-is\\-trying\\-to\\-make\\-crucifixes\\-mandatory\\-across\\-italy\\|title\\=The far right is trying to make crucifixes mandatory across Italy\\|website\\=www.vice.com\\|date\\=11 April 2019 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/994234/italy\\-news\\-crucifix\\-law\\-matteo\\-salvini\\-christian\\-news\\|title\\=Italy plans MANDATORY crucifixes in public buildings \\- with a Β£890 fine for non\\-compliance\\|first\\=Harvey\\|last\\=Gavin\\|date\\=25 July 2018\\|website\\=Express.co.uk}}",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|Campervan of Lega Nord for the [2005 Tuscan regional election](/wiki/2005_Tuscan_regional_election \"2005 Tuscan regional election\") in [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\")](/wiki/File:Camper_pubblicitario_Lega_Nord_Toscana_a_Firenze.jpg \"Camper pubblicitario Lega Nord Toscana a Firenze.jpg\")\nLega Nord has long opposed [statism](/wiki/Statism \"Statism\") and supports lower taxes, especially for families and small entrepreneurs,{{cite news \\|first\\=Angelo \\|last\\=Panebianco \\|author\\-link\\=Angelo Panebianco \\|title\\=I confini della Lega \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1993/giugno/15/confini\\_della\\_LEGA\\_co\\_0\\_93061516126\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=15 June 1993}} most recently in the form of a 15% [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\") for all.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\\-intervista\\-proposta\\-choc\\-tasse1206\\.html \\|title\\=Salvini: ecco il mio Centrodestra. Choc sulle tasse, aliquota unica \\|work\\=Affaritaliani.it \\|date\\=12 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621154201/http://www.affaritaliani.it/politica/salvini\\-intervista\\-proposta\\-choc\\-tasse1206\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/07/italys\\-election\\-everything\\-you\\-need\\-to\\-know \\|title\\=Italy's Election: everything you need to know \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian\\|date\\=4 March 2018 \\|last1\\=Henley \\|first1\\=Jon }} In earlier times, the party campaigned for a stop of the flow of public money in help to big businesses facing crisis as for [FIAT](/wiki/Fiat_Automobiles \"Fiat Automobiles\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://banchedati.camera.it/sindacatoispettivo\\_16/showXhtml.asp?highLight\\=0\\&idAtto\\=3250\\&stile\\=6 \\|title\\=9/01519/013 : CAMERA β ITER ATTO \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)\\|Chamber of Deputies]] \\|date\\=31 July 2008}} and [Alitalia](/wiki/Alitalia \"Alitalia\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Giacomo \\|last\\=Stucchi \\|title\\=Stucchi (Lega Nord): \"Su Alitalia staremo in guardia piΓΉ dell'Ue\" \\|url\\=http://intervistestucchi.blogspot.com/2008/06/stucchi\\-lega\\-nord\\-su\\-alitalia\\-staremo.html \\|publisher\\=Intervistestucchi.blogspot.com \\|date\\=23 February 2004}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Castoro \\|title\\=Al diavolo Alitalia, che fallisca! La Lega boccia l'assistenzialismo \\|url\\=http://www.marcocastoro.it/?p\\=2080\\#more\\-2080 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Italia Oggi]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=20 September 2008}} Other key policies include the legalisation, regulation and taxation of [prostitution](/wiki/Prostitution \"Prostitution\") in [brothels](/wiki/Brothel \"Brothel\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://leganord.org/notizie2/10659\\-prostituzione\\-lega\\-presenta\\-legge\\-per\\-regolamentazione \\|title\\=Prostituzione: Lega presenta legge per regolamentazione β Lega Salvini Premier \\|website\\=leganord.org \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215165513/https://leganord.org/notizie2/10659\\-prostituzione\\-lega\\-presenta\\-legge\\-per\\-regolamentazione \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} the direct election of prosecutors{{cite news \\|first\\=Maria Antonietta \\|last\\=CalabrΓ² \\|title\\=La Lega: pm eletti dal popolo Pdl diviso, no dai democratici \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/agosto/26/Lega\\_eletti\\_dal\\_popolo\\_Pdl\\_co\\_9\\_080826096\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 August 2008}} and a regionalised judiciary and [Constitutional Court](/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Italy \"Constitutional Court of Italy\").",
"In its political programme, the party is committed to the [environment](/wiki/Natural_environment \"Natural environment\"), supporting public green areas, the establishment of natural parks, recycling and the end (or regulation) of the construction of sheds in country areas, especially in Veneto.{{cite news \\|first\\=Gian Antonio \\|last\\=Stella \\|title\\=\"Basta capannoni, sono inutili\" Il Veneto e i 200Β km di cemento \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/settembre/18/Basta\\_capannoni\\_sono\\_inutili\\_Veneto\\_co\\_9\\_040918030\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=18 September 2004}} Lega Nord, which has a strong agricultural wing, also supports the protection of traditional food, opposes [GMOs](/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism \"Genetically modified organism\") and has campaigned for a revision of the quota system of the [Common Agricultural Policy](/wiki/Common_Agricultural_Policy \"Common Agricultural Policy\").",
"In foreign policy, the League has never had a particularly pro\\-United States stance, although it admires the [American federal political system](/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States \"Politics of the United States\"). The party's MPs opposed both the [Gulf War](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\") in 1991 and the [NATO](/wiki/NATO \"NATO\") intervention in [Kosovo](/wiki/Kosovo_War \"Kosovo War\") in 1999 in the name of [pacifism](/wiki/Pacifism \"Pacifism\") and Bossi personally met [Slobodan MiloΕ‘eviΔ](/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87 \"Slobodan MiloΕ‘eviΔ\") during that war.{{cite news \\|first\\=Massimo \\|last\\=Nava \\|title\\=Bossi: La Serbia inviterΓ Annan \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1999/aprile/24/Bossi\\_Serbia\\_invitera\\_Annan\\_\\_co\\_0\\_9904241451\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=24 April 1999}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Paolo \\|last\\=Rumiz \\|title\\=L'Europa profonda che odia l'America \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/online/dossier/rumi/rumi/rumi.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=11 April 1999}} However, after the [September 11 attacks](/wiki/September_11_attacks \"September 11 attacks\") and the emergence of [Islamic terrorism](/wiki/Islamic_terrorism \"Islamic terrorism\"), the League became a supporter of the American efforts in the [War on Terror](/wiki/War_on_Terror \"War on Terror\"),{{cite news \\|first\\=Maria \\|last\\=Latella \\|title\\=Lega, il partito filo Milosevic ora dΓ il via libera all'America \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/ottobre/10/Lega\\_partito\\_filo\\_Milosevic\\_ora\\_co\\_0\\_0110104176\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=10 October 2001}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Daria \\|last\\=Gorodisky \\|title\\=I Poli trovano l'intesa, sΓ¬ all'intervento militare \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2001/novembre/08/Poli\\_trovano\\_intesa\\_all\\_intervento\\_co\\_0\\_0111087026\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=8 November 2001}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Roberto \\|last\\=Zuccolini \\|title\\=SΓ¬ a maggioranza, via alla \"missione Afghanistan\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2002/ottobre/04/maggioranza\\_via\\_alla\\_missione\\_Afghanistan\\_co\\_0\\_0210043126\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 October 2002}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Calderoli: Bush regali l'atomica ad Ahmadinejad \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2006/settembre/07/Calderoli\\_Bush\\_regali\\_atomica\\_Ahmadinejad\\_co\\_9\\_060907127\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=7 September 2006}} while expressing several reservations about the [Iraq War](/wiki/Iraq_War \"Iraq War\") and the American policy in its aftermath.{{cite news \\|first\\=Monica \\|last\\=Guerzoni \\|title\\=Lo strappo della Lega sulla missione italiana \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/aprile/22/strappo\\_della\\_Lega\\_sulla\\_missione\\_co\\_9\\_040422002\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=22 April 2004}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Franco \\|last\\=Massimo \\|author\\-link\\=Massimo Franco\\|title\\=La Lega tende a smarcarsi. Inviti alla cautela sugli ostaggi \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/aprile/22/Lega\\_tende\\_smarcarsi\\_Inviti\\_alla\\_co\\_9\\_040422006\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=22 April 2004}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Livia \\|last\\=Michilli \\|title\\=Calderoli: andiamocene. Il Polo lo frena Rifinanziamento, il centrosinistra diviso \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2005/luglio/09/Calderoli\\_andiamocene\\_Polo\\_frena\\_Rifinanziamento\\_co\\_8\\_050709028\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=9 July 2005}} The League is also a staunch supporter of [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Dario \\|last1\\=Di Vico \\|title\\=Attraverso Maroni e Israele La Lega \"scopre\" la Politica Estera \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/17/attraverso\\_Maroni\\_Israele\\_Lega\\_scopre\\_co\\_9\\_110617081\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=17 June 2011}} In 2011, the party was severely opposed to the Italian participation in the [war in Libya](/wiki/Libyan_Civil_War_%282011%29 \"Libyan Civil War (2011)\"){{cite news \\|first1\\=Virginia \\|last1\\=Piccolillo \\|title\\=Calderoli e il no della Lega \"Il mio voto non\\-lo avranno\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/aprile/26/Calderoli\\_della\\_Lega\\_mio\\_voto\\_co\\_8\\_110426025\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 April 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Dino \\|last1\\=Maritano \\|title\\=Raid in Libia, no di Bossi. Il Pd: si rivoti \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/aprile/27/Raid\\_Libia\\_Bossi\\_rivoti\\_co\\_8\\_110427027\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=27 April 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Pontida, la sfida di Bossi \"Berlusconi leader? Vedremo\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/20/Pontida\\_sfida\\_Bossi\\_Berlusconi\\_leader\\_co\\_8\\_110620016\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 June 2011}} while in 2014 it opposed the sanctions on [Russia](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\"), a key economic partner of Lombard and Venetian entrepreneurs and a likely ally in the fight against Islamic terrorism and the [Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant](/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant \"Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lapadania.net/Detail\\_News\\_Display?ID%3D3674 \\|title\\=ESISTE \\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016223536/http://www.lapadania.net/Detail\\_News\\_Display?ID\\=3674 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2014}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/13155\\-ucraina\\-pini\\-ln\\-stupide\\-sanzioni\\-priorita\\-e\\-lotta\\-isis \\|title\\=Lega Nord \\|last\\=Cordua \\|first\\=Davide \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215165510/https://www.leganord.org/index.php/notizie2/13155\\-ucraina\\-pini\\-ln\\-stupide\\-sanzioni\\-priorita\\-e\\-lotta\\-isis \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} At times, the party has adopted [anti\\-globalist](/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement \"Anti-globalization movement\"){{cite journal \\|last\\=Zaslove \\|first\\=Andrej \\|title\\=Exclusion, community, and a populist political economy: the radical right as an anti\\-globalization movement \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Comparative European Politics]] \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=169β189\\|doi\\=10\\.1057/palgrave.cep.6110126 \\|date\\=July 2008 \\|s2cid\\=144465005 }} views.",
"Through the *Associazione Umanitaria Padana*, Lega Nord participates in humanitarian projects which are intended to respect local cultures, traditions and identities. The campaigns are carried out in poor countries or in those that have suffered from war or natural catastrophes. Locations of missions include [Darfur](/wiki/Darfur \"Darfur\"), [Iraq](/wiki/Iraq \"Iraq\"), [Afghanistan](/wiki/Afghanistan \"Afghanistan\") and [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast \"Ivory Coast\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/ \\|title\\=Umanitaria Padana \\|publisher\\=Umanitaria Padana \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725082707/http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/ \\|archive\\-date\\=25 July 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} The association is led by [Sara Fumagalli](/wiki/Sara_Fumagalli \"Sara Fumagalli\"), wife of Roberto Castelli and born\\-again Catholic after a pilgrimage in [Medjugorje](/wiki/Medjugorje \"Medjugorje\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/articoli/Monzaclub%20n%2038\\.pdf \\|title\\=Sara Fumagalli. Una guerriera per la pace \\|publisher\\=Umanitaria Padana \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 February 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206081530/http://www.umanitariapadanaonlus.net/articoli/Monzaclub%20n%2038\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite news \\|title\\=Castelli va a Medjugorje. L'ex ministro: a piedi nudi per sciogliere un mio voto \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2007/aprile/16/Castelli\\_Medjugorje\\_ministro\\_piedi\\_nudi\\_co\\_9\\_070416113\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=16 April 2007}}",
"#### Federalism vs. separatism",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|The [Sun of the Alps](/wiki/Sun_of_the_Alps \"Sun of the Alps\"), the proposed flag for [Padania](/wiki/Padania \"Padania\") by Lega Nord](/wiki/File:Flag_of_Padania.svg \"Flag of Padania.svg\")\nThe exact program of Lega Nord was not clear in the early years as some opponents claimed it wanted secession of [Padania](/wiki/Padania \"Padania\") while at other times it appeared to be requesting only autonomy for Northern regions. The League eventually settled on [federalism](/wiki/Federalism \"Federalism\"), which rapidly became a buzzword and a popular issue in most Italian political parties.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Ilvo \\|last1\\=Diamanti \\|author\\-link\\=Ilvo Diamanti \\|title\\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=68β71}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Maurizio \\|last1\\=Ridolfi \\|title\\=Storia dei partiti politici. L'Italia dal Risorgimento alla Repubblica \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Bruno Mondadori \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=219β220}}",
"By 1996, the party switched to open [separatism](/wiki/Separatism \"Separatism\"), calling for the independence of Padania. The party's constitution was reformed accordingly and still proclaims at article 1 that the LN's fundamental goal is \"the achievement of the independence of Padania, through democratic means, and its international recognition as independent and sovereign federal republic\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leganord.org/phocadownload/ilmovimento/statuto/Statuto.pdf \\|title\\=STATUTO DELLA LEGA NORD PER L'INDIPENDENZA DELLA PADANIA \\|website\\=Leganord.org \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706125429/http://www.leganord.org/phocadownload/ilmovimento/statuto/Statuto.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} A voluntary group of militants, the \"Green Volunteers\", often referred as \"green shirts\" (green being the colour of Padania), was also established, but it has since been active mainly in [civil defense](/wiki/Civil_defense \"Civil defense\") and [emergency management](/wiki/Emergency_management \"Emergency management\"). In September 1996 in Venice, the party unilaterally proclaimed the independence of Padania at which time while reading the [Padanian Declaration of Independence](/wiki/Padanian_Declaration_of_Independence \"Padanian Declaration of Independence\") Bossi announced: {{blockquote\\|We the peoples of Padania solemnly declare that Padania is an independent and sovereign federal republic. We mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honour.{{cite web \\|author\\=alkhan \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=hCRjBaZI4sA \\|title\\=Umberto Bossi β Dichiarazione di indipendenza della Padania1 \\|via\\=YouTube \\|date\\=1 July 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-06\\-28}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\\|date\\=February 2022}}{{cite web \\|author\\=alkhan \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=UaDpz5Sppvc \\|title\\=Umberto Bossi β Dichiarazione di indipendenza della Padania2 \\|via\\=YouTube \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2011}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links\\|date\\=February 2022}}}}",
"The renewed alliance with Berlusconi in 2001 forced the party to tone down its separatism and Padania became the name of a proposed \"macro\\-region\", based on the ideas of Miglio: the establishment an Italian federal republic, divided into three \"macro\\-regions\" (\"Padania\", \"Etruria\" and the \"South\") and some autonomous regions. A new buzzword, [devolution](/wiki/Devolution \"Devolution\") (often used in English), was also introduced, but with less success than \"federalism\". This evolution caused some criticism within party ranks and led to the formation of some minor breakaway groups.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Pietro \\|last1\\=Ignazi \\|title\\=Partiti politici in Italia \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=97β98}} Moreover, the peculiarity of the LN among European regionalist parties is that its main goal has long been the transformation of Italy into a federal state instead of simply demanding special rights and autonomy for Northern regions. Despite this, the party's constitution continues to declare that the independence of Padania is one of the party's final goal.",
"#### Euroscepticism vs. Europeanism",
"Lega Nord often criticises the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") (it was the only party in the Italian Parliament, along with the [Communist Refoundation Party](/wiki/Communist_Refoundation_Party \"Communist Refoundation Party\"), to vote against the [Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe](/wiki/Treaty_establishing_a_Constitution_for_Europe \"Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe\"), but it voted in favour of the [Treaty of Lisbon](/wiki/Treaty_of_Lisbon \"Treaty of Lisbon\")){{cite news \\|first\\=Maurizio \\|last\\=Caprara \\|title\\=Passa all'unanimitΓ il Trattato europeo \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/luglio/24/Passa\\_all\\_unanimita\\_Trattato\\_europeo\\_co\\_9\\_080724090\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=24 July 2008}} and opposes what it calls the \"[European superstate](/wiki/European_superstate \"European superstate\")\", favoring instead a \"Europe of the Regions\".{{cite book \\|first1\\=Umberto \\|last1\\=Bossi \\|author\\-link1\\=Umberto Bossi \\|first2\\=Daniele \\|last2\\=Vimercati \\|title\\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=194β205}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Sintesi posizioni Lega Nord sull'Unione Europea \\|url\\=http://www.padaniaoffice.org/pdf/affari\\_istituz/doc\\_politici/Punti\\_LN\\_Europa.pdf \\|publisher\\=Lega Nord \\|date\\=10 March 2004 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727161710/http://www.padaniaoffice.org/pdf/affari\\_istituz/doc\\_politici/Punti\\_LN\\_Europa.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2011}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Giancarlo \\|last\\=Pagliarini \\|author\\-link\\=Giancarlo Pagliarini \\|url\\=http://www.giovanipadani.leganord.org/articoli.asp?ID\\=2846 \\|title\\=SΓ¬ all'Europa, ma che sia quella delle Regioni \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[La Padania]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=1 February 2005 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707005508/http://www.giovanipadani.leganord.org/articoli.asp?ID\\=2846 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 July 2010}} Especially under the leadership of [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\") and the influence of professor [Claudio Borghi](/wiki/Claudio_Borghi_%28politician%29 \"Claudio Borghi (politician)\"), the party has proposed the abandonment of the [Euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") by Italy, although this has been opposed by some party heavyweights, notably including [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi \"Flavio Tosi\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.larena.it/stories/Home/639157\\_tosi\\_uscire\\_dalleuro\\_io\\_dico\\_no\\_salvini\\_si\\_deve\\_uscire/ \\|title\\=L'Arena.it β Il giornale di Verona β Notizie, Cronaca, Sport, Cultura su Verona e Provincia \\|author\\=vambrosi \\|work\\=L'Arena.it \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019182652/http://www.larena.it/stories/Home/639157\\_tosi\\_uscire\\_dalleuro\\_io\\_dico\\_no\\_salvini\\_si\\_deve\\_uscire/ \\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iltempo.it/politica/2014/07/21/e\\-nella\\-lega\\-litigano\\-salvini\\-e\\-tosi\\-1\\.1273315 \\|title\\=E nella Lega litigano Salvini e Tosi \\|author\\=Gianni Di Capua \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924045929/http://www.iltempo.it/politica/2014/07/21/e\\-nella\\-lega\\-litigano\\-salvini\\-e\\-tosi\\-1\\.1273315 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In an October 2012 interview, Salvini said that \"I in Milan want \\[the euro], because here we are in Europe. The South, however, is like Greece and needs another currency, the euro can't afford it.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=I meridionali stiano \"senza l'euro, non se lo meritano\" \\|url\\=https://www.milanotoday.it/politica/salvini\\-euro\\-sud.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=MilanoToday \\|language\\=it}}",
"However, according to [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\") the party is not Eurosceptic and stands for a \"new Europeanism\". In a public speech in 2012, he said to party activists: \"We should start looking at Padania in a Northern, European perspective. \\[...] The project of Padania is not anti\\-European, this is a new Europeanism which looks at the future: a Europe of the regions, a Europe of the peoples, a truly federal Europe\". Moreover, under Maroni the party has supported the direct election of the [President of the European Commission](/wiki/President_of_the_European_Commission \"President of the European Commission\"), more powers for the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\"), acceleration of the four unions (political, economic, banking and fiscal), [Eurobonds](/wiki/Eurobond_%28eurozone%29 \"Eurobond (eurozone)\") and project bonds, the [European Central Bank](/wiki/European_Central_Bank \"European Central Bank\") as [lender of last resort](/wiki/Lender_of_last_resort \"Lender of last resort\") and the \"centrality of Italy in European politics\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.prov\\-como.leganord.org/news/63\\-programma\\-lega\\-nord\\-elezioni\\-politiche\\-2013 \\|title\\=Lega Nord Como Progamma Lega Nord Elezioni Politiche 2013 \\|publisher\\=Lega Nord \\|year\\=2013 \\|access\\-date\\=19 September 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 April 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422020934/http://www.prov\\-como.leganord.org/news/63\\-programma\\-lega\\-nord\\-elezioni\\-politiche\\-2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"#### Illegal immigration",
"[thumb\\|180px\\|Matteo Salvini speaks in a Lega Nord rally in [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\"), 2013](/wiki/File:Manifestazione_Lega_Nord%2C_Torino_2013_51.JPG \"Manifestazione Lega Nord, Torino 2013 51.JPG\")\nThe party takes a tough stance on crime, [illegal immigration](/wiki/Illegal_immigration \"Illegal immigration\"),{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://euobserver.com/justice/32181 \\|title\\=Barroso warns of extremism in immigration debate \\|date\\=14 April 2011 \\|first\\=Valentina \\|last\\=Pop \\|newspaper\\=EU Observer \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110163739/http://euobserver.com/justice/32181 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} especially from Muslim countries, and terrorism. It supports the promotion of immigration from non\\-Muslim countries in order to protect the \"Christian identity\" of Italy and Europe, which according to party officials should be based on \"Judeo\\-Christian heritage\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leganord.org/elezioni/2008/lega/default.asp \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20080311121249/http://www.leganord.org/elezioni/2008/lega/default.asp \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=11 March 2008 \\|title\\=Movimento politico Lega Nord per l'indipendenza della Padania: programmi ed iniziative del partito \\|publisher\\=Lega Nord \\|year\\=2008}} The party has been labeled as \"[nationalist](/wiki/Nationalism \"Nationalism\")\",{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cepernich \\|first1\\=Cristopher \\|title\\=The Italian General Election of 2018 \\|chapter\\=Digital Campaigning: The Communication Strategies of the Leaders on Facebook \\|editor1\\-last\\=Ceccarini \\|editor1\\-first\\=L. \\|editor2\\-last\\=Newell \\|editor2\\-first\\=J. \\|date\\=2019 \\|pages\\=217β243 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/978\\-3\\-030\\-13617\\-8\\_10 \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-030\\-13616\\-1\\|s2cid\\=159273871 }} \"[xenophobic](/wiki/Xenophobia \"Xenophobia\")\"{{cite news \\|first1\\=Aidan \\|last1\\=Lewis \\|title\\=Italy's Northern League resurgent \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7350691\\.stm \\|work\\=BBC News \\|location\\=London \\|date\\=17 April 2008}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Iain \\|last1\\=Rogers \\|title\\=League allies may hinder Italy's Berlusconi: reports \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp\\-dyn/content/article/2008/04/15/AR2008041500577\\_pf.html \\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post \\|location\\=Washington, DC \\|date\\=15 April 2008}} and \"anti\\-[immigration](/wiki/Immigration \"Immigration\")\".{{cite news \\|first1\\=Elisabeth \\|last1\\=Rosenthal \\|title\\=Italy Arrests Hundreds of Immigrants \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/16/world/europe/16italy.html?scp\\=9\\&sq\\=northern%20league%20anti\\-immigrant\\&st\\=cse \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|location\\=New York \\|date\\=15 May 2008}}{{cite book \\|first\\=Sonia \\|last\\=Alonso \\|title\\=Challenging the State: Devolution and the Battle for Partisan Credibility β A Comparison of Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=JhNwQ3CV0hQC \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-969157\\-9 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/acprof:oso/9780199691579\\.001\\.0001 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|year\\=2012 \\|page\\=216}}{{cite book \\|first\\=David \\|last\\=Art \\|title\\=Inside the Radical Right: The Development of Anti\\-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9dUTXJakqLoC \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=9780511976254 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/CBO9780511976254 \\|year\\=2011 \\|pages\\=216 et seqq., especially p. 226}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Geddes \\|first1\\=Andrew \\|title\\=Il rombo dei cannoni? \\[Cannon thunders?] Immigration and the Centre\\-Right in Italy \\|journal\\=Journal of European Public Policy \\|date\\=April 2008 \\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=349β366 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/13501760701847416 \\|s2cid\\=143708920}}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Shin \\|first1\\=Michael E. \\|last2\\=Agnew \\|first2\\=John \\|editor1\\-last\\=Leib \\|editor1\\-first\\=Jonathan \\|title\\=Spatial regression for electoral studies: The case of the Italian Lega Nord \\|journal\\=Revitalizing Electoral Geography \\|date\\=8 April 2011 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=71β85 \\|doi\\=10\\.4324/9781315606293 \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|location\\=London\\|isbn\\=9781315606293}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Zaslove \\|first1\\=Andrej \\|title\\=The Re\\-invention of the European Radical Right: Populism, Regionalism, and the Italian Lega Nord \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=McGill\\-Queen's Press \\- MQUP \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7735\\-3851\\-1 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6JSTpSX8q44C \\|access\\-date\\=12 December 2019 \\|language\\=en \\|at\\=passim, especially pp. 29, 119β121, 130}} In 1992, the League was compared by *[Le Nouvel Observateur](/wiki/L%27Obs \"L'Obs\")* to some national populist parties of the European far\\-right, including France's [National Front](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 \"National Rally (France)\"), the [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria \"Freedom Party of Austria\") and the [Vlaams Blok](/wiki/Vlaams_Blok \"Vlaams Blok\"), claiming that \"the League rejects any association with neo\\-fascists but plays on themes of xenophobia regionalism and trivial racism\".{{cite news \\|first1\\=Gianna \\|last1\\=Fregonara \\|title\\=Un giornale francese lo mette nella casa europea dei Le Pen \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1992/aprile/19/giornale\\_francese\\_mette\\_nella\\_casa\\_co\\_0\\_9204193761\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=19 April 1992}}",
"In 2002, the [European Commission against Racism and Intolerance](/wiki/European_Commission_against_Racism_and_Intolerance \"European Commission against Racism and Intolerance\") (ECRI) denounced the party, saying that \"exponents of the Lega Nord \\[...] have been particularly active in resorting to racist and xenophobic propaganda, although members of other parties have also made use of xenophobic or otherwise intolerant political discourse\".{{cite web \\|title\\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance β Second Report on Italy \\|url\\=https://rm.coe.int/second\\-report\\-on\\-italy/16808b582e \\|website\\=coe.int \\|publisher\\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance \\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2019 \\|location\\=Strasbourg \\|page\\=24 \\|date\\=23 April 2002}} In 2006 the ECRI noticed that \"some members of the Northern League have intensified the use of racist and xenophobic discourse\". While noting that those expressing themselves this way were mostly local representatives, according to the ECRI \"representatives exercising important political functions at national level have also resorted to racist and xenophobic discourse. Such discourse has continued to target essentially non\\-EU immigrants, but also other members of minority groups, such as [Roma](/wiki/Roma_people \"Roma people\") and [Sinti](/wiki/Sinti \"Sinti\")\". The ECRI also recalled that \"in December 2004, the first instance court of [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\") found six local representatives of Lega Nord guilty of [incitement to racial hatred](/wiki/Incitement_to_ethnic_or_racial_hatred \"Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred\") in connection with a campaign organised in order to send a group of Sinti away from a local temporary settlement\".{{cite web \\|title\\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance β Third Report on Italy \\|url\\=https://rm.coe.int/third\\-report\\-on\\-italy/16808b5831 \\|website\\=coe.int \\|publisher\\=European Commission against Racism and Intolerance \\|access\\-date\\=3 July 2019 \\|location\\=Strasbourg \\|pages\\=22β23 \\|date\\=16 May 2006}} However, the [Court of Cassation](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cassation_%28Italy%29 \"Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy)\") cancelled the sentence in 2007\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/2008/06/sezioni/cronaca/sicurezza\\-politica\\-10/cassazione\\-tosi/cassazione\\-tosi.html \\|title\\=Cassazione, se i nomadi sono ladri Γ¨ legittima la discriminazione \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=29 June 2008}}",
"Although several LN members speak strongly against illegal immigrants (Bossi suggested in 2003 opening fire on the boats of illegal immigrants from Africa, whom he described as *bingo\\-bongos*;{{cite news \\|first\\=Giovanna \\|last\\=Pajetta \\|title\\=Bossi prende il cannone \\|url\\=http://it.geocities.com/ilgruppodellatanadelgiaguaro/forum\\_libero/messaggi/58\\.htm \\|date\\=17 June 2003 \\|work\\=\\[\\[il manifesto]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218090812/http://it.geocities.com/ilgruppodellatanadelgiaguaro/forum\\_libero/messaggi/58\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2006}} and [Giancarlo Gentilini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Gentilini \"Giancarlo Gentilini\") labeled foreigners as \"immigrant slackers\", saying that \"we should dress them up like hares and bang\\-bang\\-bang\"),{{cite news \\|first1\\=Emilio \\|last1\\=Marrese \\|title\\=Ramadan, sindaco nega lo spazio Benetton concede il palazzetto \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/immitreviso/ramadan/ramadan.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=13 December 2002}} the party's official line is more moderate. In a 2010 interview after some riots in Milan between South American and North African immigrants, Maroni, then Minister of the Interior, stated that \"the police state is not the solution\" to integration problems and calling for a \"new model of integration\" maintained that \"we should think that, other than a permit of stay, a job and a house, there are further conditions that today are missing for integration to succeed\".{{cite news \\|first\\=Giangiacomo \\|last\\=Schiavi \\|title\\=Maroni: niente rastrellamenti serve una nuova integrazione \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2010/febbraio/15/Maroni\\_niente\\_rastrellamenti\\_serve\\_una\\_co\\_8\\_100215021\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=15 February 2010}} Bossi endorsed the position.{{cite news \\|first\\=Michele \\|last\\=Focarete \\|title\\=Bossi: \"Immigrati, no ai rastrellamenti\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2010/febbraio/16/Bossi\\_Immigrati\\_rastrellamenti\\_\\_co\\_8\\_100216022\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=16 February 2010}}",
"Lega Nord rejects all charges of xenophobia, instead claiming that the North is the victim of discrimination and racism.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Umberto \\|last1\\=Bossi \\|author\\-link1\\=Umberto Bossi \\|first2\\=Daniele \\|last2\\=Vimercati \\|title\\=Vento dal Nord. La mia Lega, la mia vita \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Sperling \\& Kupfer \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=141β150}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Guido \\|last\\=Passalacqua \\|title\\=Bossi si infuria: siete voi i razzisti \\|url\\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2000/11/22/bossi\\-si\\-infuria\\-siete\\-voi\\-razzisti.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=22 November 2000}} After more than fifteen years of government by Lega Nord, the [Province of Treviso](/wiki/Province_of_Treviso \"Province of Treviso\") was widely considered the place in Italy where immigrants are best integrated.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.giovaniemissione.it/index.php?option\\=content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=780 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128164935/http://www.giovaniemissione.it/index.php?option\\=content\\&task\\=view\\&id\\=780 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2012 \\|first\\=Tiziana \\|last\\=Cavallo \\|title\\=Rapporto / Integrazione immigrati \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Nigrizia]] \\|location\\=Verona \\|date\\=23 March 2006}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Immigrati, ben integrati in Veneto ok anche Marche ed Emilia Romagna \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/2006/c/sezioni/cronaca/caritas/caritas/caritas.html?ref\\=search \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=22 March 2006}} Similar things can be said about the city of [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\"),{{cite news \\|first\\=Duilio \\|last\\=Colonna \\|title\\=Integrazione, la cittΓ Γ¨ ospitale con gli stranieri \\|url\\=http://www.veronasera.it/News/CRONACA/13\\-07\\-2010\\_14\\.17/Integrazione\\_la\\_citt%C3%A0\\_%C3%A8\\_ospitale\\_con\\_gli\\_stranieri\\_01738\\.htm \\|publisher\\=Verona Sera \\|location\\=Verona \\|date\\=13 July 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305101037/http://www.veronasera.it/News/CRONACA/13\\-07\\-2010\\_14\\.17/Integrazione\\_la\\_citt%C3%A0\\_%C3%A8\\_ospitale\\_con\\_gli\\_stranieri\\_01738\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=5 March 2012}} governed by [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi \"Flavio Tosi\"), who evolved from being a hardliner to be one of the most popular mayors of Italy.{{cite news \\|first\\=Paolo \\|last\\=Biondani \\|title\\=Mi manda Maroni \\|url\\=http://rassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=14WLUI \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[L'Espresso]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=6 October 2011 \\|page\\=59 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425132507/http://rassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=14WLUI \\|archive\\-date\\=25 April 2012 \\|language\\=it}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Sindaci piΓΉ amati, Piero Fassino scalza Tosi dal primo posto \\|url\\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2011/13\\-ottobre\\-2011/sindaci\\-piu\\-amati\\-piero\\-fassino\\-scalza\\-tosi\\-primo\\-posto\\-1901810186747\\.shtml \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera\\|Corriere del Veneto]] \\|location\\=Padua \\|date\\=13 October 2011}} Moreover, the first and so far only [black](/wiki/Black_people \"Black people\") mayor in Italy belongs to the League: [Sandy Cane](/wiki/Sandy_Cane \"Sandy Cane\") (whose mother is Italian and father is an [African American](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\")){{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/5496550/Unlikely\\-champion\\-of\\-Italys\\-anti\\-immigration\\-party\\-is\\-black\\-and\\-half\\-American.html \\|title\\=Unlikely champion of Italy's anti\\-immigration party is black and half\\-American \\|work\\=The Daily Telegraph \\|date\\=11 June 2009 \\|location\\=London \\|first\\=Nick \\|last\\=Squires}} was elected mayor in [ViggiΓΉ](/wiki/Viggi%C3%B9 \"ViggiΓΉ\") in 2009\\. In an interview with *[The Independent](/wiki/The_Independent \"The Independent\")*, Cane said that the League does not include racist or xenophobic members.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/antiimmigration\\-party\\-member\\-becomes\\-italys\\-first\\-black\\-mayor\\-1701893\\.html \\|title\\=Anti\\-immigration party member becomes Italy's first black mayor \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|date\\=10 June 2009 \\|location\\=London \\|first\\=Michael \\|last\\=Day}} She eventually left the League in 2014\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.varesenews.it/2014/10/sandy\\-cane\\-do\\-l\\-addio\\-alla\\-lega\\-e\\-vi\\-spiego\\-il\\-perche/341677/ \\|title\\=Lascio la Lega e vi spiego perche' \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Varese News]] \\|year\\=2014}} More recently, [Hajer Fezzani](/wiki/Hajer_Fezzani \"Hajer Fezzani\"), a [Tunisian](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\")\\-born lapsed Muslim, was appointed local coordinator in [Malnate](/wiki/Malnate \"Malnate\");{{cite news \\|first\\=Tommaso \\|last\\=Guidotti \\|title\\=Un tunisina alla guida della Lega Nord: \"Il mio sogno Γ¨ incontrare Bossi\" \\|url\\=http://www3\\.varesenews.it/varese/articolo.php?id\\=198159 \\|publisher\\=Varese Laghi \\|location\\=Varese \\|date\\=10 March 2011}} [Souad Sbai](/wiki/Souad_Sbai \"Souad Sbai\"), president of the association \"Moroccan women in Italy\" and former deputy of [The People of Freedom](/wiki/The_People_of_Freedom \"The People of Freedom\"), joined the party;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://lapadania.net/Detail\\_News\\_Display?ID%3D3015 \\|title\\=ESISTE \\|access\\-date\\=11 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016223452/http://lapadania.net/Detail\\_News\\_Display?ID\\=3015 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 October 2014}} and most notably [Toni Iwobi](/wiki/Toni_Iwobi \"Toni Iwobi\"), a [Nigerian](/wiki/Nigeria \"Nigeria\")\\-born long\\-time party member, was appointed at the head of the party's department on immigration (\"Tony will do more for legal immigrants in a month than what Kyenge has done in an entire life\", Salvini said during the press conference){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/11700208/Immigrati\\-\\-Salvini\\-\\-Iwobi\\-fara.html \\|title\\=Immigrati: Salvini, Iwobi farΓ di piΓΉ della Kyenge \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} and became the first [person of colour](/wiki/Person_of_colour \"Person of colour\") to be elected a senator of Italy after 2018 general election.[Nigeriano, immigrato, titolare d'azienda: eletto dalla Lega il primo senatore di colore](http://milano.repubblica.it/cronaca/2018/03/06/news/bergamo_eletto_il_primo_senatore_italiano_nero_e_leghista-190601497/) Milano.repubblica.it. Retrieved 6 March 2018",
"### International affiliation",
"Lega Nord was originally a member of the [European Free Alliance](/wiki/European_Free_Alliance \"European Free Alliance\") (EFA) and its first two MEPs, [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni \"Francesco Speroni\") and [Luigi Moretti](/wiki/Luigi_Moretti_%28politician%29 \"Luigi Moretti (politician)\"), joined the [Rainbow Group](/wiki/Rainbow_Group_%281989%E2%80%9394%29 \"Rainbow Group (1989β94)\") in the [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") during the fourth parliamentary term (1989β1994\\). Between 1994 and 1997, it was a member of the group of the [European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party](/wiki/European_Liberal_Democrat_and_Reform_Party_%28European_Parliament_group%29 \"European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (European Parliament group)\") (ELDR)[http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress\\-in\\-torquay\\-9\\-10\\-december\\-1993](http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress-in-torquay-9-10-december-1993) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006094300/http://www.eldr.eu/en/congress/2006/05/congress\\-in\\-torquay\\-9\\-10\\-december\\-1993\\|date\\=6 October 2009}}[History of ELDR](http://www.leeds.ac.uk/politics/cbl/int/party/eldrhis.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221935/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/politics/cbl/int/party/eldrhis.htm \\|date\\=3 March 2016 }}. University of Leeds. Retrieved 24 August 2013\\. and one MEP of Lega Nord, [Raimondo Fassa](/wiki/Raimondo_Fassa \"Raimondo Fassa\"), continued to sit in the ELDR group until 1999\\. During the sixth parliamentary term (1999β2004\\), it was briefly a component of the [Technical Group of Independents](/wiki/Technical_Group_of_Independents_%281999%E2%80%932001%29 \"Technical Group of Independents (1999β2001)\") (TGI) along with [Italian Radicals](/wiki/Italian_Radicals \"Italian Radicals\") and then returned to the [Non\\-Inscrits](/wiki/Non-Inscrits \"Non-Inscrits\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\\=EN\\&id\\=1101 \\|title\\=European Parliament: Luigi Moretti \\|publisher\\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\\=EN\\&id\\=997 \\|title\\=European Parliament: Francesco Speroni \\|publisher\\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\\=EN\\&id\\=2036 \\|title\\=European Parliament: Umberto Bossi \\|publisher\\=European Parliament}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/archive/alphaOrder/view.do?language\\=EN\\&id\\=1954 \\|title\\=European Parliament: Raimondo Fassa \\|publisher\\=European Parliament}}",
"Following the [2004 European Parliament election](/wiki/2004_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2004 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Lega Nord joined the [Independence/Democracy](/wiki/Independence/Democracy \"Independence/Democracy\") (I/D) group and later the [Union for Europe of the Nations](/wiki/Union_for_Europe_of_the_Nations \"Union for Europe of the Nations\") (UEN), a seemingly awkward affiliation for a party proposing a \"Europe of the Regions\"βbut in the Lega Nord's view a state's \"regions\" are populated by \"nations\" such as the Catalans or the Lombards. The party was affiliated to the [Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe](/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe \"Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe\") (ALDE) in the [Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe](/wiki/Parliamentary_Assembly_of_the_Council_of_Europe \"Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\") until 2006, when its members joined the [European Democrat Group](/wiki/European_Conservatives_Group \"European Conservatives Group\") (EDG), a diverse group stretching from the [British Conservative Party](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") to [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia \"United Russia\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/ALMemberDetails.asp?MemberID\\=5791 \\|title\\=Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe: Roberto Maroni \\|publisher\\=Assembly.coe.int \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722013239/http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/AssemblyList/ALMemberDetails.asp?MemberID\\=5791 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 July 2011}}",
"Following the [2009 European Parliament election](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2009 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Lega Nord joined the newly formed the [Europe of Freedom and Democracy](/wiki/Europe_of_Freedom_and_Democracy \"Europe of Freedom and Democracy\") (EFD) group. One year after the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2014 European Parliament election in Italy\"), the party was a founding member of the [Europe of Nations and Freedom](/wiki/Europe_of_Nations_and_Freedom \"Europe of Nations and Freedom\") (ENL) group. After the [2019 European Parliament election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2019 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Lega Nord co\\-founded the [Identity and Democracy](/wiki/Identity_and_Democracy \"Identity and Democracy\") (ID) group, alongside the French [National Rally](/wiki/National_Rally_%28France%29 \"National Rally (France)\"), the [Danish People's Party](/wiki/Danish_People%27s_Party \"Danish People's Party\"), the [Freedom Party of Austria](/wiki/Freedom_Party_of_Austria \"Freedom Party of Austria\"), the [Conservative People's Party of Estonia](/wiki/Conservative_People%27s_Party_of_Estonia \"Conservative People's Party of Estonia\"), the [Finns Party](/wiki/Finns_Party \"Finns Party\"), the Belgian [Vlaams Belang](/wiki/Vlaams_Belang \"Vlaams Belang\"), the Czech [Freedom and Direct Democracy](/wiki/Freedom_and_Direct_Democracy \"Freedom and Direct Democracy\") party, and [Alternative for Germany](/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany \"Alternative for Germany\"). Outside of its European parliamentary group, Lega also has contacts with the Spanish [Vox](/wiki/Vox_%28political_party%29 \"Vox (political party)\"),{{cite news\\|work\\=a Vanguardia\\|title\\=Abascal y Salvini se reΓΊnen en Roma para hablar de inmigraciΓ³n\\|date\\=20 September 2019\\|url\\=https://www.lavanguardia.com/politica/20190920/47503462802/abascal\\-salvini\\-roma\\-inmigracion.html}} the Dutch [Forum for Democracy](/wiki/Forum_for_Democracy \"Forum for Democracy\"), the [Sweden Democrats](/wiki/Sweden_Democrats \"Sweden Democrats\"), the Hungarian [Fidesz](/wiki/Fidesz \"Fidesz\"),{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Politico]]\\|date\\=2 May 2019\\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/orban\\-salvini\\-flirt\\-with\\-alliance\\-after\\-eu\\-election/\\|title\\=OrbΓ‘n, Salvini flirt with alliance after EU election}} and the Polish [Law and Justice](/wiki/Law_and_Justice \"Law and Justice\") party.{{cite news\\|work\\=\\[\\[Politico]]\\|date\\=19 April 2019\\|url\\=https://www.politico.eu/article/matteo\\-salvini\\-jaroslaw\\-kaczynski\\-italy\\-poland\\-eu\\-pledges\\-italo\\-polish\\-axis\\-after\\-warsaw\\-talks/\\|title\\=Italian and Polish leaders to discuss European election axis}} In March 2017 the LN signed a cooperation protocol with [United Russia](/wiki/United_Russia \"United Russia\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.ft.com/content/0d33d22c\\-0280\\-11e7\\-ace0\\-1ce02ef0def9 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/0d33d22c\\-0280\\-11e7\\-ace0\\-1ce02ef0def9 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 December 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Putin's party signs deal with Italy's far\\-right Lega Nord \\|first1\\=Max \\|last1\\=Seddon \\|first2\\=James \\|last2\\=Politi \\|work\\=Financial Times \\|date\\=6 March 2017}}",
"The party has also been active in [counter\\-jihad](/wiki/Counter-jihad \"Counter-jihad\") networks, and in 2016 signed the \"Prague Declaration\" as part of the Fortress Europe group alongside the [Pegida](/wiki/Pegida \"Pegida\") movement and other groups against the \"Islamic conquest of Europe\".{{cite book\\|title\\='Green Crescent, Crimson Cross': The Transatlantic 'Counterjihad' and the New Political Theology\\|url\\=https://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3780/1/Pertwee\\_\\_green\\-crescent\\-crimson\\-cross.pdf\\|pages\\=3, 101\\|last\\=Pertwee\\|first\\=Ed\\|date\\=October 2017\\|publisher\\=London School of Economics}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FAxZEAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT18\\|first\\=Anita\\|last\\=Nissen\\|title\\=Europeanisation of the Contemporary Far Right: Generation Identity and Fortress Europe\\|page\\=18\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2022\\|isbn\\=9781000547085}}",
""
] |
Factions
--------
Although there are almost no official factions within the party, it is possible to distinguish several tendencies or wings.
### Regional and ideological divides
[thumb\|250px\|"Festival of the Padanian Peoples" in [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice"), 2011](/wiki/File:Folla_alla_festa_dei_popoli_padani%2C_Venezia%2C_2011.jpg "Folla alla festa dei popoli padani, Venezia, 2011.jpg")
The wing from the [province of Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese "Province of Varese") and more broadly the bulk of the original [Lega Lombarda](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda "Lega Lombarda") (including [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi "Umberto Bossi"), [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni") and [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 "Marco Formentini (politician)")) has tended to be the left\-wing of the party while that from the [province of Bergamo](/wiki/Province_of_Bergamo "Province of Bergamo") (notably [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli "Roberto Calderoli")) has tended to be more conservative. In fact, both Bossi and Maroni hailed from the [far\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics "Far-left politics") of the political spectrum, having been active in the [Italian Communist Party](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party "Italian Communist Party"),{{cite journal \| url\=https://journals.openedition.org/qds/1498 \| doi\=10\.4000/qds.1498 \| title\=Etnografia della Lega Nord. Partecipazione e linguaggio politico in quattro sezioni piemontesi \| date\=1998 \| last1\=Marzano \| first1\=Marco \| journal\=Quaderni di Sociologia \| issue\=17 \| pages\=166β198 \| doi\-access\=free }}{{cite web \| url\=https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2011\-09\-19/bossi\-compie\-anni\-vita\-134121\_PRN.shtml \| title\=Bossi compie 70 anni, la storia del \- Ecco una conferma per chi crede \- Il Sole 24 ORE }} *[il manifesto](/wiki/Il_manifesto "Il manifesto")* movement, the [Party of Proletarian Unity](/wiki/Proletarian_Unity_Party_%28Italy%29 "Proletarian Unity Party (Italy)"), [Proletarian Democracy](/wiki/Proletarian_Democracy "Proletarian Democracy") and the [Greens](/wiki/Federation_of_Green_Lists "Federation of Green Lists") before starting Lega Lombarda;{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=22β23, 57}}{{cite book \|first1\=Michele \|last1\=De Lucia \|title\=Dossier Bossi\-Lega Nord \|year\=2011 \|publisher\=Kaos \|location\=Milan \|page\=1}} and conceived Lega Nord as a centre\-left (and to some extent [social\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy")) political force.{{cite news \|first\=Gianna \|last\=Fregonara \|title\=Bossi riaccoglie Maroni e torna alle origini \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/maggio/08/Bossi\_riaccoglie\_Maroni\_torna\_alle\_co\_0\_9505087057\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=8 May 1995}}{{cite news \|first\=Gianfranco \|last\=Ballardin \|title\=Maroni: solo, ma vado al congresso \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/gennaio/28/Maroni\_solo\_vado\_congresso\_co\_0\_9501287416\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=28 January 1995}} From the left came also Marco Formentini, a long\-time member of the left\-wing of the [Italian Socialist Party](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party");{{cite news \|first\=Elio \|last\=Girompini \|title\=Il cuore socialista di Marco Formentini \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1993/novembre/29/cuore\_socialista\_Marco\_Formentini\_co\_0\_9311299676\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=29 November 1993}} and [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro "Rosi Mauro"), a trade unionist of the metal workers' section of the [Italian Labour Union](/wiki/Italian_Labour_Union "Italian Labour Union") and later leader of the Padanian Trade Union (SinPa).{{cite news \|first\=Enrico \|last\=Marro \|title\=Cremaschi e il boom della Lega operaia: "Marxisti di destra. E Tremonti non\-sbaglia" \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/17/Cremaschi\_boom\_della\_Lega\_operaia\_co\_9\_080417090\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=17 April 2008}}
Since its foundation, [Liga Veneta](/wiki/Liga_Veneta "Liga Veneta") was instead characterised as a liberal, [centrist](/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") and economically [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") outfit due to the political upbringing of its early leaders and a more conservative electoral base. In the early 1990s, the League took votes especially from the Communists and the Socialists in western and central [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy"), while the party electorally replaced [Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 "Christian Democracy (Italy)") in eastern Lombardy and [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto").{{cite web \|first\=Massimiliano \|last\=Finazzer \|title\=Analisi dello scontro tra la Lega Lombarda e la Liga Veneta La strategia di Bossi del blocco padano \|url\=http://www.radioradicale.it/scheda/104709/105181\-analisi\-dello\-scontro\-tra\-la\-lega\-lombarda\-e\-la\-liga\-veneta\-la\-strategia\-di\-bossi\-del\-blocco\-padano \|publisher\=\[\[Radio Radicale]] \|date\=17 September 1998}}{{cite book \|first1\=Ilvo \|last1\=Diamanti \|author\-link\=Ilvo Diamanti \|title\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=Il Mulino \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=55β83}}
Lega Lombarda also included [liberal\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism "Liberal conservatism") figures such as [Gianfranco Miglio](/wiki/Gianfranco_Miglio "Gianfranco Miglio") and [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti "Vito Gnutti"), both former [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 "Christian Democracy (Italy)"), while [Giovanni Meo Zilio](/wiki/Giovanni_Meo_Zilio "Giovanni Meo Zilio"), a [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party") partisan during the [Italian Resistance](/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement "Italian resistance movement"), was one of the founding fathers of Liga Veneta.
In [Emilia\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna"), a left\-wing heartland, the party has many former Communists in its ranks and many others have Communist upbringings.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Imarisio \|title\=Emilia, dove il rosso diventa Lega \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/19/Emilia\_dove\_rosso\_diventa\_Lega\_co\_9\_080419145\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=19 April 2008}}{{cite news \|first1\=Michele \|last1\=Brambilla \|title\=Reggio o Bologna, la guerra fratricida della Lega in Emilia \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201010articoli/59905girata.asp \|work\=\[\[La Stampa]] \|location\=Turin \|date\=28 October 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031014550/http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201010articoli/59905girata.asp \|archive\-date\=31 October 2010}}{{cite news \|first1\=Olivio \|last1\=Romanini \|title\=Bernardini: "Scoprii la Lega sulla Smemoranda" \|url\=http://corrieredibologna.corriere.it/bologna/notizie/politica/2011/24\-marzo\-2011/bernardini\-scoprii\-legasulla\-smemoranda\-190297103799\.shtml \|newspaper\=\[\[Corriere della Sera\|Corriere di Bologna]] \|location\=Bologna \|date\=24 March 2011}} However, with the passing of time the party underwent a process of homogenisation.
Between Maroni and Calderoli, there has been a liberal centrist wing including [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli "Roberto Castelli"), a conspicuous group of former [Liberals](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party "Italian Liberal Party") ([Manuela Dal Lago](/wiki/Manuela_Dal_Lago "Manuela Dal Lago"), [Daniele Molgora](/wiki/Daniele_Molgora "Daniele Molgora"), [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni "Francesco Speroni") and more) and a new generation of *leghisti* ([Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota "Roberto Cota"), [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti "Giancarlo Giorgetti"), [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni "Marco Reguzzoni"), [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia") and others).
### Issue\-oriented groups
The League is home also to some issue\-oriented groups. First, there is a group of [Christian democrats](/wiki/Christian_democracy "Christian democracy"), most of whom are affiliated to the Padanian Catholics, founded by late [Roberto Ronchi](/wiki/Roberto_Ronchi "Roberto Ronchi") and currently led by [Giuseppe Leoni](/wiki/Giuseppe_Leoni "Giuseppe Leoni"). Another leading Catholic is [Massimo Polledri](/wiki/Massimo_Polledri "Massimo Polledri").{{cite news \|first1\=Carlo \|last1\=Puca \|title\=Dove vuole arrivare la Balena verde \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=ZM31W \|work\=\[\[Panorama (Italian magazine)\|Panorama]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=11 May 2011}} Many *leghisti* are committed to [Catholic social teaching](/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching "Catholic social teaching") and the [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy "Social market economy") and several party members are former members or voters of Christian Democracy.
There is a [right\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics "Right-wing politics") which is represented mainly by [Mario Borghezio](/wiki/Mario_Borghezio "Mario Borghezio"), a former [Monarchist](/wiki/Monarchist_National_Party "Monarchist National Party") and *[Ordine Nuovo](/wiki/Ordine_Nuovo "Ordine Nuovo")* member who is the leader of Christian Padania, which is a key advocate of [social conservatism](/wiki/Social_conservatism "Social conservatism") within party ranks and has some links with the traditionalist [Society of St. Pius X](/wiki/Society_of_St._Pius_X "Society of St. Pius X").{{Citation needed \|date\=September 2019}}
[thumb\|250px\|Traditional rally of Lega Nord in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida "Pontida"), 2011](/wiki/File:Raduno_Lega_Nord_a_Pontida_2011.jpg "Raduno Lega Nord a Pontida 2011.jpg")
Third and fourth, the party has always included also a group of [libertarians](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism"), whose leading members [Leonardo Facco](/wiki/Leonardo_Facco "Leonardo Facco"), [Gilberto Oneto](/wiki/Gilberto_Oneto "Gilberto Oneto") and [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini "Giancarlo Pagliarini") have since left the party; and an Independentist Unit.{{cite news \|first\=Gian Guido \|last\=Vecchi \|title\=Bossi multato dai suoi \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/novembre/21/Bossi\_multato\_dai\_suoi\_co\_2\_951121488\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=21 November 1995}} The independentist wing crosses all the other factions and tendencies and in fact includes Borghezio and [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni "Francesco Speroni"), among others. Oneto, father of [Padanian nationalism](/wiki/Padanian_nationalism "Padanian nationalism"); and Pagliarini were also close to this group.{{cite news \|first\=Alessandro \|last\=Trocino \|title\=La Lega delusa punta tutto sul referendum \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2006/aprile/11/Lega\_delusa\_punta\_tutto\_sul\_co\_9\_060411103\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=11 April 2006}}{{cite news \|first\=Alessandro \|last\=Trocino \|title\=La mozione della Lega: pronti a correre da soli \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2007/febbraio/10/mozione\_della\_Lega\_pronti\_correre\_co\_9\_070210114\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=10 February 2007}}
Finally, the party is home to an agricultural wing, which is particularly strong in southern [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy"), [Emilia\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna") and [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto") and is represented by the *Cobas del latte*, a farmers' trade union; the Land Movement, whose leader was [Giovanni Robusti](/wiki/Giovanni_Robusti "Giovanni Robusti");{{cite web \|url\=http://www.leganord.org/ilmovimento/storia/03\_lega\_nord\_storia96\_98\.pdf \|title\=Cronistoria della Lega Nord 1996β1998 \|publisher\=Lega Nord \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612225329/http://leganord.org/ilmovimento/storia/03\_lega\_nord\_storia96\_98\.pdf \|archive\-date\=12 June 2010}} and politicians such as [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia"), a former Minister of Agriculture, [Fabio Rainieri](/wiki/Fabio_Rainieri "Fabio Rainieri"), one of the leader of [Lega Nord Emilia](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Emilia "Lega Nord Emilia"); and [Erminio Boso](/wiki/Erminio_Boso "Erminio Boso"), a historic and now marginal figure from [Trentino](/wiki/Trentino "Trentino").
### 1997 Padanian Parliament election
In October 1997, Lega Nord organised what it called "the first elections to the Padanian Parliament". Roughly 4 million northern Italians (6Β million according to the party) went to the polls and chose between a number of Padanian parties. This is a short resume of the affiliations of leading party members:{{cite news \|first1\=Fabio \|last1\=Cavalera \|title\=Tra le 43 liste gli "italiani" Pannella e Dalla Chiesa \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/24/Tra\_liste\_gli\_italiani\_Pannella\_co\_0\_9710242051\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=24 October 1997}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Dal Fior \|title\=I lumbard al primo voto: favorito Formentini nei 200 seggi gazebo \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/26/lumbard\_primo\_voto\_favorito\_Formentini\_co\_0\_9710261576\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=26 October 1997}}{{cite news \|first1\=Venanzio \|last1\=Postiglione \|title\=Nei gazebo vincono Centro e ultra' \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/28/Nei\_gazebo\_vincono\_Centro\_ultra\_co\_0\_9710281499\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=28 October 1997}}{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=111β112}}{{cite news \|first\=Gian Guido \|last\=Vecchi \|title\=Lista Dalla Chiesa alle elezioni padane \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/settembre/20/Lista\_Dalla\_Chiesa\_alle\_elezioni\_co\_0\_97092014632\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 September 1997}}
* [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 "Marco Formentini (politician)"), [Giovanni Meo Zilio](/wiki/Giovanni_Meo_Zilio "Giovanni Meo Zilio"), [Roberto Bernardelli](/wiki/Roberto_Bernardelli "Roberto Bernardelli"), [Franco Colleoni](/wiki/Franco_Colleoni "Franco Colleoni") and [Mariella Mazzetto](/wiki/Mariella_Mazzetto "Mariella Mazzetto"), with the support of [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni"),{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.ilpost.it/2018/01/13/roberto\-maroni\-lombardia \| title\=Una vita da Roberto Maroni\| date\=13 January 2018}} launched the [Europeanist](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism "Pro-Europeanism") and [social\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy "Social democracy") **European Democrats β Padanian Labour** (52 seats out of 210\);
* [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti "Vito Gnutti"), [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini "Giancarlo Pagliarini"), [Domenico Comino](/wiki/Domenico_Comino "Domenico Comino"), [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota "Roberto Cota") and [Massimo Zanello](/wiki/Massimo_Zanello "Massimo Zanello") led the [liberal\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism "Liberal conservatism") **Liberal Democrats β Forza Padania** (50\);
* [Oreste Rossi](/wiki/Oreste_Rossi "Oreste Rossi"), [Enzo Flego](/wiki/Enzo_Flego "Enzo Flego") and [Walter Gherardini](/wiki/Walter_Gherardini "Walter Gherardini") formed the [national\-conservative](/wiki/National_conservatism "National conservatism") **Padanian Right** (27\);
* [Roberto Ronchi](/wiki/Roberto_Ronchi "Roberto Ronchi") and [Giuseppe Leoni](/wiki/Giuseppe_Leoni "Giuseppe Leoni") founded the [Christian democratic](/wiki/Christian_democracy "Christian democracy") **Padanian Catholics** (20\);
* A group of Venetian *leghisti* formed the [Venetist](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism") **Padanian Lions** (14\);
* [Leonardo Facco](/wiki/Leonardo_Facco "Leonardo Facco"), [Leopoldo Siegel](/wiki/Leopoldo_Siegel "Leopoldo Siegel") and [Marco Pottino](/wiki/Marco_Pottino "Marco Pottino") launched **Libertarian and Liberal Padania** (12\);
* [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini") and [Mauro Manfredini](/wiki/Mauro_Manfredini "Mauro Manfredini") were candidates of the **Padanian Communists** (5\);
* [Erminio Boso](/wiki/Erminio_Boso "Erminio Boso") led the [agrarian](/wiki/Agrarianism "Agrarianism") conservative **Padanian Union β Agriculture, Environment, Hunting, Fishing** (5\);
* [Benedetto Della Vedova](/wiki/Benedetto_Della_Vedova "Benedetto Della Vedova"), a [Radical](/wiki/Italian_Radicals "Italian Radicals") politician, was elected at the head of an anti\-[prohibitionist](/wiki/Prohibitionism "Prohibitionism") and free market [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") list in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") while [Nando Dalla Chiesa](/wiki/Nando_Dalla_Chiesa "Nando Dalla Chiesa"), a [Green](/wiki/Federation_of_the_Greens "Federation of the Greens") MP, was an unsuccessful candidate in Milan too.
### Differing viewpoints on coalitions
During the years in government in Rome (2001β2006\), in the party there were different viewpoints on coalitions: some, led by Calderoli and Castelli (with the backing of Bossi), vigorously supported the alliance with the centre\-right while others, represented by Maroni and Giorgetti, were less warm about it.{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=152β153, 158β159, 168}}{{cite news \|first\=Guido \|last\=Passalacqua \|title\=Maroni contro Calderoli, l'enigma Γ¨ Giorgetti \|url\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2004/05/14/maroni\-contro\-calderoli\-enigma\-giorgetti.mi\_020maroni.html \|newspaper\=\[\[La Repubblica]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=14 May 2004}}{{cite news \|first\=Alessandro \|last\=Trocino \|title\=Un'ora di cammino al giorno, Bossi prepara il rientro \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/ottobre/21/ora\_cammino\_giorno\_Bossi\_prepara\_co\_9\_041021057\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=21 October 2004}} Some of them spoke about joining the centre\-left some time after the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Italian_general_election "2006 Italian general election"), which they were certain to lose. This idea was ascribed to the fact that without any support from the left it seemed even more difficult to win the constitutional referendum which would have turned Italy into a federal state.{{cite book \|first1\=Adalberto \|last1\=Signore \|first2\=Alessandro \|last2\=Trocino \|title\=Razza padana \|year\=2008 \|publisher\=BUR \|location\=Milan \|pages\=122β127, 312β313}}
Similar differences emerged during (and within) Berlusconi's fourth government (2008β2011\). While Calderoli was again a keen supporter of the arrangement, Maroni was far less warm on Berlusconi and at times evoked an alliance with the centre\-left [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Italy%29 "Democratic Party (Italy)"). Calderoli's line had the backing of [Federico Bricolo](/wiki/Federico_Bricolo "Federico Bricolo"), Cota, Reguzzoni and chiefly Bossi while Maroni was backed by Giorgetti, Speroni, Zaia and Tosi.{{cite news \|title\=La Lega Γ¨ sull'orlo della spaccatura. Calderoli contro Maroni. Insider choc \|url\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\_maroni\_calderoli\_spaccatura\_bossi010211\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Affaritaliani]] \|date\=1 February 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204025227/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\_maroni\_calderoli\_spaccatura\_bossi010211\.html \|archive\-date\=4 February 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Il Senatur insegue la riforma e diventa "garante" del no alle urne \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/febbraio/05/Senatur\_insegue\_riforma\_diventa\_garante\_co\_8\_110205011\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=5 February 2011}} However, the alliance with the centre\-right continued at the regional/local level (Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy and others municipalities) after 2011 and has become a virtually permanent feature of Lega Nord's electoral politics.
### 2008β2011 developments
Since 2008, besides the traditional regional divides, the party was increasingly divided among three groups. The first was the so\-called "magic circle", that was to say Bossi's inner circle, notably including [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni "Marco Reguzzoni"), [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro "Rosi Mauro") and [Federico Bricolo](/wiki/Federico_Bricolo "Federico Bricolo"). The second was formed around [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli "Roberto Calderoli"), who was the powerful coordinator of Lega Nord's national secretariats and had among his closest supporters [Giacomo Stucchi](/wiki/Giacomo_Stucchi "Giacomo Stucchi") and [Davide Boni](/wiki/Davide_Boni "Davide Boni"). The third one was led by [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni "Roberto Maroni"), who tended to be more independent from Bossi and was somewhat critical of the centre\-right affiliation of the party; and it included [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti "Giancarlo Giorgetti"), [Attilio Fontana](/wiki/Attilio_Fontana "Attilio Fontana"), [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini "Matteo Salvini") and [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi "Flavio Tosi").{{cite news \|first1\=Giuliano \|last1\=Zulin \|title\=Colpi bassi nella Lega per il dopo\-Bossi \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=Y36T0 \|work\=\[\[Libero (newspaper)\|Libero]] \|date\=10 March 2011 \|location\=Milan}}{{cite news \|title\=Reguzzoni\-Mauro, i bossiani non\-amati dalla Lega \|url\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\_mappa\_potere100311\.html \|publisher\=\[\[Affaritaliani]] \|date\=12 March 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319070442/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\_mappa\_potere100311\.html \|archive\-date\=19 March 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Matteo \|last1\=Pandini \|title\=Umberto sistema i conti a Roma. A Milano i suoi litigano ancora \|work\=\[\[Libero (newspaper)\|Libero]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=4 May 2011}} [Gian Paolo Gobbo](/wiki/Gian_Paolo_Gobbo "Gian Paolo Gobbo") and [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia "Luca Zaia"), leaders of the party in Veneto, although very loyal to Bossi, tended to be independent from "federal" factions and were engaged in a long power struggle with Flavio Tosi (see [Liga Veneta\#Factions](/wiki/Liga_Veneta%23Factions "Liga Veneta#Factions")).{{cite news \|first1\=Lillo \|last1\=Aldegheri \|title\=La Lega si spacca sull'UnitΓ Gobbo, nuovo attacco a Tosi \|url\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2011/25\-gennaio\-2011/lega\-si\-spacca\-sull\-unita\-gobbo\-nuovo\-attacco\-tosi\-181325186254\.shtml \|newspaper\=\[\[Corriere della Sera\|Corriere del Veneto]] \|location\=Padua \|date\=25 January 2011}} Indeed, *[Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera "Corriere della Sera")* identified four main groups: the magic circle, *maroniani*, *calderoliani* and "Venetians" (or, better, [Venetists](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism")),{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Difesa dei "piccoli" e un orizzonte di alleanza che non\-va oltre il 2011 \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=11BFBJ \|work\=Corriere della Sera \|location\=Milan \|date\=19 June 2011}} leaving aside the core independentists (see [Lega Nord\#Issue\-oriented groups](/wiki/Lega_Nord%23Issue-oriented_groups "Lega Nord#Issue-oriented groups")). [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota "Roberto Cota"), leader of [Lega Nord Piemont](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Piemont "Lega Nord Piemont"), the third largest national section of Lega Nord, was very close to Bossi and was part of the magic circle, but since his election as President of [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont") became more independent.{{cite news \|first1\=Michele \|last1\=Brambilla \|title\=Il Capo stanco e i "pretoriani" del cerchio magico \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201009articoli/58493girata.asp \|work\=\[\[La Stampa]] \|location\=Turin \|date\=13 September 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011141007/http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201009articoli/58493girata.asp \|archive\-date\=11 October 2011}} Equidistant from the main factions were also [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli "Roberto Castelli") and [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni "Francesco Speroni").
[thumb\|250px\|Traditional rally of Lega Nord in Pontida, 2013](/wiki/File:Raduno_di_Pontida_2013_60.JPG "Raduno di Pontida 2013 60.JPG")
By 2011, *maroniani* clearly became the strongest faction within the party and Maroni, who was acclaimed at the traditional rally in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida "Pontida") in June, became Bossi's obvious successor.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Imarisio \|title\=Quello striscione della base per Maroni \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/20/Quello\_striscione\_della\_base\_per\_co\_8\_110620018\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Paolo \|last1\=Bracalini \|title\=Il popolo lumbard ha scelto: "Bobo, sarai il nostro premier" \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/il\_popolo\_lumbard\_ha\_scelto\_bobo\_sarai\_nostro\_premier/20\-06\-2011/articolo\-id\=530336\-page\=0\-comments\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[Il Giornale]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Francesco \|last1\=Borgonovo \|title\=La trota Γ¨ Maroni. Bobo parla da leader. Del centrodestra \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=11BZ8E \|work\=\[\[Libero (newspaper)\|Libero]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=20 June 2011}} *Maroniani* commanded wide support among rank\-and\-file members and were well represented in all regions,{{cite news \|first1\=Cristina \|last1\=Giudici \|title\=Maroni, il piΓΉ italiano dei leghisti e il suo esercito di leghisti italiani \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=YAM15 \|work\=\[\[Il Foglio]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=18 March 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Alessandro \|last1\=Da Rold \|title\=In Veneto la spunta Tosi (per ora). Congresso dopo le amministrative \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=YLZFP \|publisher\=\[\[Il Riformista]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=30 March 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Salvatore \|last1\=Merlo \|title\=CosΓ¬ dietro la baruffa tra Bossi e il Cav. cresce l'egemonia di Maroni \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=ZGQUU \|work\=\[\[Il Foglio]] \|location\=Rome \|date\=30 April 2011}} notably including Veneto, where Tosi was loyal to Maroni despite being a [conservative\-liberal](/wiki/Conservative_liberalism "Conservative liberalism").{{cite news \|first1\=Alessandro \|last1\=Zuin \|title\=Il caso Lega. Se ai congressi gli uomini del capo adesso perdono \|url\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/elezioni2011/notizie/caso\-lega\-190760946109\.shtml \|publisher\=Corriere del Veneto \|location\=Padua \|date\=31 May 2011}} Maroni and Calderoli, who had been on opposite sides for years, joined forces against the magic circle and its influence on Bossi.{{cite news \|first1\=Francesco \|last1\=Verderami \|title\="Poi alle elezioni da soli", ma lo scopo del Carroccio Γ¨ trattare su Palazzo Chigi \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/maggio/12/Poi\_alle\_elezioni\_soli\_scopo\_co\_8\_110512035\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=12 May 2011}} After Pontida 2011, Mauro and Reguzzoni tried to convince Bossi to remove Giorgetti from the leadership of Lega Lombarda, but this move was strongly opposed by Maroni and Calderoli, who were supported in this also by Cota and most Venetians.{{cite news \|first1\=Matteo \|last1\=Pandini \|title\=Nella Lega volano gli stracci \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=11D33M \|work\=\[\[Libero (newspaper)\|Libero]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=21 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Paolo \|last1\=Bracalini \|title\=MacchΓ© unita, ora la Lega rischia di implodere: Γ¨ scoppiata la guerra sui vertici in Lombardia \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/macche\_unita\_lega\_scoppia\_e\_guerra\_vertici\_lombardia/21\-06\-2011/articolo\-id\=530502\-page\=0\-comments\=1 \|newspaper\=\[\[Il Giornale]] \|location\=Milan}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Nervi tesi dopo Pontida. Accuse e liti in casa \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/21/Nervi\_tesi\_dopo\_Pontida\_Accuse\_co\_8\_110621025\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=21 June 2011}} The attempted "coup d'etat" produced an umparalleled backclash against the magic circle: 49 deputies out of 59 wanted to replace Reguzzoni as floor leader in the [Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 "Chamber of Deputies (Italy)") with Stucchi, but Bossi imposed the *status quo*.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Ma il Carroccio resta in fibrillazione: Reguzzoni ora Γ¨ un caso \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/22/Carroccio\_resta\_fibrillazione\_Reguzzoni\_ora\_co\_9\_110622006\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=22 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Alessandro \|last1\=Trocino \|title\=Tregua armata nella Lega. E Castelli: romani arretrati \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/23/Tregua\_armata\_nella\_Lega\_Castelli\_co\_8\_110623025\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=23 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=UnitΓ fragile. Maroni: non Γ¨ andata come volevo \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/23/Unita\_fragile\_Maroni\_non\_andata\_co\_8\_110623027\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=23 June 2011}}{{cite news \|first1\=Giuliano \|last1\=Zulin \|title\=Bossi spara sui suoi, ora la Lega rischia grosso \|url\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\=search\¤tArticle\=11GT4S \|work\=\[\[Libero (newspaper)\|Libero]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=June 2011}}
After earning resounding victories in the provincial congresses of [Verona](/wiki/Province_of_Verona "Province of Verona"), [Belluno](/wiki/Province_of_Belluno "Province of Belluno") and eastern Veneto during the first half of 2011, *maroniani* (with the support of *calderoliani*) prevailed also in [Brescia](/wiki/Province_of_Brescia "Province of Brescia") and [Val Camonica](/wiki/Val_Camonica "Val Camonica"), defeating the candidates of the magic circle by landslides.{{cite news \|first1\=Giuseppe \|last1\=Spatola \|title\=Lega, Maroni prende Brescia Sfida a tre per Varese \|url\=http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/294147\_lega\_nord\_sempre\_pi\_divisacaso\_brescia\_in\_via\_bellerio/ \|publisher\=\[\[Brescia Oggi]] \|location\=Brescia \|date\=5 October 2011 \|access\-date\=5 November 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407032929/http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/294147\_lega\_nord\_sempre\_pi\_divisacaso\_brescia\_in\_via\_bellerio/ \|archive\-date\=7 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news \|first1\=Giuseppe \|last1\=Spatola \|title\=La svolta leghista, in Valle vince Antonini \|url\=http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/291335\_la\_svolta\_leghista\_invalle\_vince\_antonini/ \|publisher\=\[\[Brescia Oggi]] \|location\=Brescia \|date\=26 September 2011 \|access\-date\=5 November 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407032945/http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/291335\_la\_svolta\_leghista\_invalle\_vince\_antonini/ \|archive\-date\=7 April 2012 \|url\-status\=dead}} In October, fearing a remake in [Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese "Province of Varese"), his homeprovince, Bossi imposed his candidate, who was declared elected without a vote. In the event, Bossi was openly contested by many delegates at the congress and there had been an open vote, *maroniani* would have won.{{cite news \|first1\=Marco \|last1\=Cremonesi \|title\=Spintoni e tessere strappate Critiche al leader: basta capetti \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/ottobre/10/Spintoni\_tessere\_strappate\_Critiche\_leader\_co\_8\_111010020\.shtml \|work\=\[\[Corriere della Sera]] \|location\=Milan \|date\=10 October 2011}} These party infightings ended with Bossi's demise in February 2012 (see [Lega Nord\#From Bossi to Maroni](/wiki/Lega_Nord%23From_Bossi_to_Maroni "Lega Nord#From Bossi to Maroni")).
### 2013β2018 developments
Since Salvini's rise to leadership in 2013, the party sported the usual regional and ideological divides and especially that between Salvini and Tosi as the former displayed a more populist attitude, strongly opposed the [Euro](/wiki/Euro "Euro") and nominally supported separatism while the latter presented himself as a more centrist figure, supported European integration, was soft on independence and unveiled a liberal program{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ricostruiamoilpaese.it/noi/ \|title\=Noi siamo per \|access\-date\=9 June 2015 \|archive\-date\=18 October 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018133553/https://www.ricostruiamoilpaese.it/noi/ \|url\-status\=dead }} for his intended run in a putative "[centre\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 "Centre-right coalition (Italy)") prime\-ministerial [primary election](/wiki/Partisan_primary "Partisan primary")".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/2013/10/06/italia/politica/tosi\-primarie\-anche\-nel\-centrodestra\-76TpDVnwuQ7xBGttFjZJiM/pagina.html \|title\=Tosi: "Primarie anche nel centrodestra" \|date\=6 October 2013 \|work\=La Stampa \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilgazzettino.it/NORDEST/PRIMOPIANO/primarie\_tosi\_candidato\_leader\_centrodestra\_lega\_divisa/notizie/770277\.shtml \|title\="Io leader del centrodestra" Tosi alle primarie anche contro Salvini \|date\=28 June 2014 \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} As leader of Liga Veneta, Tosi, who was ejected from Lega Nord in March 2015, was confronted by the [Venetist](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism "Venetian nationalism") and separatist wings of the regional party,{{cite web \|url\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/17/mille\_beghe\_venete\_nella\_Lega\_co\_0\_20141117\_3efed89a\-6e23\-11e4\-9041\-ccd06dcb9d60\.shtml \|title\=Le mille beghe venete nella Lega di Salvini (che sale nei sondaggi) \|access\-date\=9 June 2015}} having in Zaia and [Massimo Bitonci](/wiki/Massimo_Bitonci "Massimo Bitonci") their leading members (see [Liga Veneta\#Factions](/wiki/Liga_Veneta%23Factions "Liga Veneta#Factions")). Curiously enough, those Venetists did not oppose Salvini's "Italian nationalist" turn.
Since 2014, Salvini started to build a network of supporters in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy")\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy "Insular Italy") with the creation of [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini "Us with Salvini"), a sister party to Lega Nord. This was broadly accepted by Venetians, but it was increasingly opposed by key Lombard figures, including Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi "Paolo Grimoldi") (leader of Lega Lombarda), who criticised the LN's right\-wing turn and its focus on the South while reclaiming the federalist and autonomist identity of the LN.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2016/06/21/matteo\-salvini\-flop\-urne\_n\_10594850\.html \|title\=Lega Nord, dopo le urne tramonta la pax salviniana: il segretario sul banco degli imputati per il flop al Sud e la linea lepenista \|website\=LβHuffington Post\|date\=21 June 2016 }}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/nella\-lega\-allarme\-salvini\-sotto\-accusa\-cos\-perdiamo\-voti\-1274061\.html\|title\=Nella Lega in allarme Salvini Γ¨ sotto accusa: "CosΓ¬ perdiamo voti"\|first\=Paolo\|last\=Bracalini\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=21 June 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/tutta\-colpa\-salvini\-bossi\-guida\-fronte\-contro\-capo\-leghista\-1274517\.html\|title\="Tutta colpa di Salvini". Bossi guida il fronte contro il capo leghista\|first\=Paolo\|last\=Bracalini\|website\=ilGiornale.it\|date\=22 June 2016}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ilfoglio.it/politica/2017/03/20/news/pezzi\-grossi\-leghisti\-dicono\-che\-salvini\-non\-deve\-piu\-seguire\-il\-modello\-le\-pen\-125992/\|title\=Pezzi grossi leghisti dicono che Salvini non deve piΓΉ seguire il modello Le Pen\|website\=www.ilfoglio.it}}
In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election "2017 Lega Nord leadership election"), Salvini easily fended off the challenge posed by [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava "Gianni Fava"), Lombard minister of Agriculture in the old social\-democratic tradition, representing the federalist/autonomist/separatist wing of the party. Fava, who was anti\-[prohibition of drugs](/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs "Prohibition of drugs"), pro\-[civil unions](/wiki/Civil_union "Civil union") for [same\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship "Same-sex relationship"), pro\-[Atlanticism](/wiki/Atlanticism "Atlanticism"), and anti\-National Front ("\[it] is one of the most centralist and conservative blocs in Europe, what has it to do with us?"), recalled an old activist saying "let's hurry up in making Padania, that I want to return voting for the left" and added "this was the League and it has to be like this anew".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/11/italia/politica/fava\-sfido\-salvini\-perch\-la\-lega\-non\-perda\-le\-sue\-radici\-voglio\-un\-congresso\-vero\-mh6Emx5KmkMHKcMdHn10II/pagina.html \|title\=Fava: "Sfido Salvini perchΓ© la Lega non\-perda le sue radici. Voglio un congresso vero" \|website\=La Stampa\|date\=12 April 2017 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/04/11/news/lega\_spunta\_l\_anti\-salvini\_gianni\_fava\_giunta\_maroni\_sfida\_il\_segretario\_al\_congresso\-162765692 \|title\=Lega, spunta l'anti\-Salvini. Gianni Fava (giunta Maroni) sfida il segretario al congresso \|date\=11 April 2017}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2017\-05\-09/sfida\-salvini\-fava\-alleanze\-e\-ue\-lega\-elegge\-suo\-segretario\-113645\.shtml?uuid\=AE59vxIB\|title\=Sfida Salvini\-Fava su alleanze e Ue, la Lega elegge il suo segretario\|website\=Il Sole 24 ORE\|date\=9 May 2017}} After [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen "Marine Le Pen")'s defeat by [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron "Emmanuel Macron") in the second round of the [French presidential election](/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election "2017 French presidential election"), Maroni declared that the "tactical and not strategic" alliance with Le Pen, "who wants to go back to national states", was over and that "we should return to our origins of post\-ideological movement, neither right nor left".{{cite web \|url\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\_maggio\_11/maroni\-fase\-lepenista\-conclusa\-273354ca\-35b8\-11e7\-ae5c\-ac92466523f8\.shtml \|title\=Maroni: "Fase lepenista conclusa, sbagliato disprezzare FI La Lega torni alle origini" \|first\=Marco \|last\=Cremonesi\|date\=5 October 2017 }} Maroni added that "the League is not right\-wing, we have done things in Lombardy that the red regions would dream of, from the baby bonus to the welfare. Typically left\-wing policies. For us there are the Lombards, not those of right or left". Finally, reminding Salvini's left\-wing roots, he remarked that "those are the origins" and that also Salvini would eventually share his views.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/05/16/italia/politica/maroni\-la\-lega\-non\-pu\-stare\-a\-destra\-non\-sono\-agli\-ordini\-di\-salvini\-FDwA8QDVnMpQELO0l15GWI/pagina.html \|title\=Maroni: "La Lega non\-puΓ² stare a destra. Non sono agli ordini di Salvini" \|website\=La Stampa\|date\=16 May 2017 }} More worryingly for party's unity, Bossi threatened to leave the party and form an alternative movement with [Roberto Bernardelli](/wiki/Roberto_Bernardelli "Roberto Bernardelli")'s [Padanian Union](/wiki/Padanian_Union "Padanian Union").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/bossi\-minaccia\-di\-lasciare\-lega\-salvini\-brutta\-copia\-rensi\-carroccio\-finito\-27e07c14\-22ee\-4644\-b121\-0c265a0147fb.html\|title\=Bossi minaccia di lasciare la Lega: Salvini brutta copia di Renzi. Con lui Carroccio finito\|website\=rainews\|date\=15 May 2017 }}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12384953/umberto\-bossi\-addio\-lega\-nord\-movimento\-roberto\-bernardello\-tanko\-serenissimi\-matteo\-salvini.html\|title\=Ricordate il tanko? Mossa clamorosa di Bossi: lo vuole usare per fare fuori Matteo Salvini\|website\=www.liberoquotidiano.it}}
The tensions between Salvini and Maroni culminated in latter's decision not to run for a second term as President of Lombardy in 2018\. On that occasion, Maroni was very critical of Salvini in an interview with *[Il Foglio](/wiki/Il_Foglio "Il Foglio")*. As a result, very few *maroniani* were selected as candidates for the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election "2018 Italian general election"){{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/bongiorno\-bagnai\-tutti\-i\-candidati\-lega\-1488411\.html \|title\=Da Bongiorno a Bagnai: tutti i candidati della Lega \|access\-date\=2 March 2018\|date\=29 January 2018 }} and Fava was also excluded.{{cite web \|url\=http://gazzettadimantova.gelocal.it/mantova/cronaca/2018/01/28/news/fava\-fuori\-dalla\-corsa\-non\-mi\-candidano\-ma\-non\-mi\-arrendo\-1\.16406743 \|title\=Fava fuori dalla corsa: "Non mi candidano ma non\-mi arrendo" β Cronaca β Gazzetta di Mantova \|date\=28 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} Bossi, who had not left the party, was selected by Salvini to lead the LN's list for the Senate in [Varese](/wiki/Varese "Varese"),{{cite web \|url\=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2018/01/28/elezioni\-salvini\-bossi\-candidato\-a\-varese\-maroni\-ci\-aiutera\-grillo\-sa\-che\-governo\-m5s\-e\-calamita\-naturale/4122252 \|title\=Elezioni, Salvini: "Bossi? Candidato a Varese, Maroni ci aiuterΓ . Grillo? Sa che governo M5s Γ¨ calamitΓ naturale" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \|date\=28 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} but he was challenged also by [Gianluigi Paragone](/wiki/Gianluigi_Paragone "Gianluigi Paragone"), a former LN member who had switched to the [Five Star Movement](/wiki/Five_Star_Movement "Five Star Movement");{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ilgiorno.it/varese/politica/elezioni\-politiche\-2018\-1\.3693100 \|title\=Elezioni politiche 2018, i candidati a Varese: la Lega punta su Bossi al Senato β Il Giorno \|last\=R.V. \|date\=30 January 2018 \|access\-date\=2 March 2018}} and [Great North](/wiki/Great_North "Great North"), a party launched by Bernardelli and [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni "Marco Reguzzoni").
|
[
"Factions\n--------",
"Although there are almost no official factions within the party, it is possible to distinguish several tendencies or wings.",
"### Regional and ideological divides",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|\"Festival of the Padanian Peoples\" in [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\"), 2011](/wiki/File:Folla_alla_festa_dei_popoli_padani%2C_Venezia%2C_2011.jpg \"Folla alla festa dei popoli padani, Venezia, 2011.jpg\")\nThe wing from the [province of Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese \"Province of Varese\") and more broadly the bulk of the original [Lega Lombarda](/wiki/Lega_Lombarda \"Lega Lombarda\") (including [Umberto Bossi](/wiki/Umberto_Bossi \"Umberto Bossi\"), [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\") and [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 \"Marco Formentini (politician)\")) has tended to be the left\\-wing of the party while that from the [province of Bergamo](/wiki/Province_of_Bergamo \"Province of Bergamo\") (notably [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli \"Roberto Calderoli\")) has tended to be more conservative. In fact, both Bossi and Maroni hailed from the [far\\-left](/wiki/Far-left_politics \"Far-left politics\") of the political spectrum, having been active in the [Italian Communist Party](/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party \"Italian Communist Party\"),{{cite journal \\| url\\=https://journals.openedition.org/qds/1498 \\| doi\\=10\\.4000/qds.1498 \\| title\\=Etnografia della Lega Nord. Partecipazione e linguaggio politico in quattro sezioni piemontesi \\| date\\=1998 \\| last1\\=Marzano \\| first1\\=Marco \\| journal\\=Quaderni di Sociologia \\| issue\\=17 \\| pages\\=166β198 \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://st.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2011\\-09\\-19/bossi\\-compie\\-anni\\-vita\\-134121\\_PRN.shtml \\| title\\=Bossi compie 70 anni, la storia del \\- Ecco una conferma per chi crede \\- Il Sole 24 ORE }} *[il manifesto](/wiki/Il_manifesto \"Il manifesto\")* movement, the [Party of Proletarian Unity](/wiki/Proletarian_Unity_Party_%28Italy%29 \"Proletarian Unity Party (Italy)\"), [Proletarian Democracy](/wiki/Proletarian_Democracy \"Proletarian Democracy\") and the [Greens](/wiki/Federation_of_Green_Lists \"Federation of Green Lists\") before starting Lega Lombarda;{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=22β23, 57}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Michele \\|last1\\=De Lucia \\|title\\=Dossier Bossi\\-Lega Nord \\|year\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=Kaos \\|location\\=Milan \\|page\\=1}} and conceived Lega Nord as a centre\\-left (and to some extent [social\\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\")) political force.{{cite news \\|first\\=Gianna \\|last\\=Fregonara \\|title\\=Bossi riaccoglie Maroni e torna alle origini \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/maggio/08/Bossi\\_riaccoglie\\_Maroni\\_torna\\_alle\\_co\\_0\\_9505087057\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=8 May 1995}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Gianfranco \\|last\\=Ballardin \\|title\\=Maroni: solo, ma vado al congresso \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/gennaio/28/Maroni\\_solo\\_vado\\_congresso\\_co\\_0\\_9501287416\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=28 January 1995}} From the left came also Marco Formentini, a long\\-time member of the left\\-wing of the [Italian Socialist Party](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\");{{cite news \\|first\\=Elio \\|last\\=Girompini \\|title\\=Il cuore socialista di Marco Formentini \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1993/novembre/29/cuore\\_socialista\\_Marco\\_Formentini\\_co\\_0\\_9311299676\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=29 November 1993}} and [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro \"Rosi Mauro\"), a trade unionist of the metal workers' section of the [Italian Labour Union](/wiki/Italian_Labour_Union \"Italian Labour Union\") and later leader of the Padanian Trade Union (SinPa).{{cite news \\|first\\=Enrico \\|last\\=Marro \\|title\\=Cremaschi e il boom della Lega operaia: \"Marxisti di destra. E Tremonti non\\-sbaglia\" \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/17/Cremaschi\\_boom\\_della\\_Lega\\_operaia\\_co\\_9\\_080417090\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=17 April 2008}}",
"Since its foundation, [Liga Veneta](/wiki/Liga_Veneta \"Liga Veneta\") was instead characterised as a liberal, [centrist](/wiki/Centrism \"Centrism\") and economically [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") outfit due to the political upbringing of its early leaders and a more conservative electoral base. In the early 1990s, the League took votes especially from the Communists and the Socialists in western and central [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\"), while the party electorally replaced [Christian Democracy](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 \"Christian Democracy (Italy)\") in eastern Lombardy and [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\").{{cite web \\|first\\=Massimiliano \\|last\\=Finazzer \\|title\\=Analisi dello scontro tra la Lega Lombarda e la Liga Veneta La strategia di Bossi del blocco padano \\|url\\=http://www.radioradicale.it/scheda/104709/105181\\-analisi\\-dello\\-scontro\\-tra\\-la\\-lega\\-lombarda\\-e\\-la\\-liga\\-veneta\\-la\\-strategia\\-di\\-bossi\\-del\\-blocco\\-padano \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Radio Radicale]] \\|date\\=17 September 1998}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Ilvo \\|last1\\=Diamanti \\|author\\-link\\=Ilvo Diamanti \\|title\\=Bianco, rosso, verde... e azzurro \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=Il Mulino \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=55β83}}",
"Lega Lombarda also included [liberal\\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism \"Liberal conservatism\") figures such as [Gianfranco Miglio](/wiki/Gianfranco_Miglio \"Gianfranco Miglio\") and [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti \"Vito Gnutti\"), both former [Christian Democrats](/wiki/Christian_Democracy_%28Italy%29 \"Christian Democracy (Italy)\"), while [Giovanni Meo Zilio](/wiki/Giovanni_Meo_Zilio \"Giovanni Meo Zilio\"), a [Socialist](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\") partisan during the [Italian Resistance](/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement \"Italian resistance movement\"), was one of the founding fathers of Liga Veneta.",
"In [Emilia\\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\"), a left\\-wing heartland, the party has many former Communists in its ranks and many others have Communist upbringings.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Imarisio \\|title\\=Emilia, dove il rosso diventa Lega \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2008/aprile/19/Emilia\\_dove\\_rosso\\_diventa\\_Lega\\_co\\_9\\_080419145\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=19 April 2008}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Michele \\|last1\\=Brambilla \\|title\\=Reggio o Bologna, la guerra fratricida della Lega in Emilia \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201010articoli/59905girata.asp \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Stampa]] \\|location\\=Turin \\|date\\=28 October 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031014550/http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201010articoli/59905girata.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2010}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Olivio \\|last1\\=Romanini \\|title\\=Bernardini: \"Scoprii la Lega sulla Smemoranda\" \\|url\\=http://corrieredibologna.corriere.it/bologna/notizie/politica/2011/24\\-marzo\\-2011/bernardini\\-scoprii\\-legasulla\\-smemoranda\\-190297103799\\.shtml \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera\\|Corriere di Bologna]] \\|location\\=Bologna \\|date\\=24 March 2011}} However, with the passing of time the party underwent a process of homogenisation.",
"Between Maroni and Calderoli, there has been a liberal centrist wing including [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli \"Roberto Castelli\"), a conspicuous group of former [Liberals](/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party \"Italian Liberal Party\") ([Manuela Dal Lago](/wiki/Manuela_Dal_Lago \"Manuela Dal Lago\"), [Daniele Molgora](/wiki/Daniele_Molgora \"Daniele Molgora\"), [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni \"Francesco Speroni\") and more) and a new generation of *leghisti* ([Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota \"Roberto Cota\"), [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti \"Giancarlo Giorgetti\"), [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni \"Marco Reguzzoni\"), [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\") and others).",
"### Issue\\-oriented groups",
"The League is home also to some issue\\-oriented groups. First, there is a group of [Christian democrats](/wiki/Christian_democracy \"Christian democracy\"), most of whom are affiliated to the Padanian Catholics, founded by late [Roberto Ronchi](/wiki/Roberto_Ronchi \"Roberto Ronchi\") and currently led by [Giuseppe Leoni](/wiki/Giuseppe_Leoni \"Giuseppe Leoni\"). Another leading Catholic is [Massimo Polledri](/wiki/Massimo_Polledri \"Massimo Polledri\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Carlo \\|last1\\=Puca \\|title\\=Dove vuole arrivare la Balena verde \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=ZM31W \\|work\\=\\[\\[Panorama (Italian magazine)\\|Panorama]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=11 May 2011}} Many *leghisti* are committed to [Catholic social teaching](/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching \"Catholic social teaching\") and the [social market economy](/wiki/Social_market_economy \"Social market economy\") and several party members are former members or voters of Christian Democracy.",
"There is a [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing_politics \"Right-wing politics\") which is represented mainly by [Mario Borghezio](/wiki/Mario_Borghezio \"Mario Borghezio\"), a former [Monarchist](/wiki/Monarchist_National_Party \"Monarchist National Party\") and *[Ordine Nuovo](/wiki/Ordine_Nuovo \"Ordine Nuovo\")* member who is the leader of Christian Padania, which is a key advocate of [social conservatism](/wiki/Social_conservatism \"Social conservatism\") within party ranks and has some links with the traditionalist [Society of St. Pius X](/wiki/Society_of_St._Pius_X \"Society of St. Pius X\").{{Citation needed \\|date\\=September 2019}}",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Traditional rally of Lega Nord in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida \"Pontida\"), 2011](/wiki/File:Raduno_Lega_Nord_a_Pontida_2011.jpg \"Raduno Lega Nord a Pontida 2011.jpg\")\nThird and fourth, the party has always included also a group of [libertarians](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\"), whose leading members [Leonardo Facco](/wiki/Leonardo_Facco \"Leonardo Facco\"), [Gilberto Oneto](/wiki/Gilberto_Oneto \"Gilberto Oneto\") and [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini \"Giancarlo Pagliarini\") have since left the party; and an Independentist Unit.{{cite news \\|first\\=Gian Guido \\|last\\=Vecchi \\|title\\=Bossi multato dai suoi \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1995/novembre/21/Bossi\\_multato\\_dai\\_suoi\\_co\\_2\\_951121488\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=21 November 1995}} The independentist wing crosses all the other factions and tendencies and in fact includes Borghezio and [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni \"Francesco Speroni\"), among others. Oneto, father of [Padanian nationalism](/wiki/Padanian_nationalism \"Padanian nationalism\"); and Pagliarini were also close to this group.{{cite news \\|first\\=Alessandro \\|last\\=Trocino \\|title\\=La Lega delusa punta tutto sul referendum \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2006/aprile/11/Lega\\_delusa\\_punta\\_tutto\\_sul\\_co\\_9\\_060411103\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=11 April 2006}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Alessandro \\|last\\=Trocino \\|title\\=La mozione della Lega: pronti a correre da soli \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2007/febbraio/10/mozione\\_della\\_Lega\\_pronti\\_correre\\_co\\_9\\_070210114\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=10 February 2007}}",
"Finally, the party is home to an agricultural wing, which is particularly strong in southern [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\"), [Emilia\\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\") and [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\") and is represented by the *Cobas del latte*, a farmers' trade union; the Land Movement, whose leader was [Giovanni Robusti](/wiki/Giovanni_Robusti \"Giovanni Robusti\");{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.leganord.org/ilmovimento/storia/03\\_lega\\_nord\\_storia96\\_98\\.pdf \\|title\\=Cronistoria della Lega Nord 1996β1998 \\|publisher\\=Lega Nord \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612225329/http://leganord.org/ilmovimento/storia/03\\_lega\\_nord\\_storia96\\_98\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=12 June 2010}} and politicians such as [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\"), a former Minister of Agriculture, [Fabio Rainieri](/wiki/Fabio_Rainieri \"Fabio Rainieri\"), one of the leader of [Lega Nord Emilia](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Emilia \"Lega Nord Emilia\"); and [Erminio Boso](/wiki/Erminio_Boso \"Erminio Boso\"), a historic and now marginal figure from [Trentino](/wiki/Trentino \"Trentino\").",
"### 1997 Padanian Parliament election",
"In October 1997, Lega Nord organised what it called \"the first elections to the Padanian Parliament\". Roughly 4 million northern Italians (6Β million according to the party) went to the polls and chose between a number of Padanian parties. This is a short resume of the affiliations of leading party members:{{cite news \\|first1\\=Fabio \\|last1\\=Cavalera \\|title\\=Tra le 43 liste gli \"italiani\" Pannella e Dalla Chiesa \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/24/Tra\\_liste\\_gli\\_italiani\\_Pannella\\_co\\_0\\_9710242051\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=24 October 1997}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Dal Fior \\|title\\=I lumbard al primo voto: favorito Formentini nei 200 seggi gazebo \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/26/lumbard\\_primo\\_voto\\_favorito\\_Formentini\\_co\\_0\\_9710261576\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=26 October 1997}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Venanzio \\|last1\\=Postiglione \\|title\\=Nei gazebo vincono Centro e ultra' \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/ottobre/28/Nei\\_gazebo\\_vincono\\_Centro\\_ultra\\_co\\_0\\_9710281499\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=28 October 1997}}{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=111β112}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Gian Guido \\|last\\=Vecchi \\|title\\=Lista Dalla Chiesa alle elezioni padane \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/1997/settembre/20/Lista\\_Dalla\\_Chiesa\\_alle\\_elezioni\\_co\\_0\\_97092014632\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 September 1997}}\n* [Marco Formentini](/wiki/Marco_Formentini_%28politician%29 \"Marco Formentini (politician)\"), [Giovanni Meo Zilio](/wiki/Giovanni_Meo_Zilio \"Giovanni Meo Zilio\"), [Roberto Bernardelli](/wiki/Roberto_Bernardelli \"Roberto Bernardelli\"), [Franco Colleoni](/wiki/Franco_Colleoni \"Franco Colleoni\") and [Mariella Mazzetto](/wiki/Mariella_Mazzetto \"Mariella Mazzetto\"), with the support of [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\"),{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.ilpost.it/2018/01/13/roberto\\-maroni\\-lombardia \\| title\\=Una vita da Roberto Maroni\\| date\\=13 January 2018}} launched the [Europeanist](/wiki/Pro-Europeanism \"Pro-Europeanism\") and [social\\-democratic](/wiki/Social_democracy \"Social democracy\") **European Democrats β Padanian Labour** (52 seats out of 210\\);\n* [Vito Gnutti](/wiki/Vito_Gnutti \"Vito Gnutti\"), [Giancarlo Pagliarini](/wiki/Giancarlo_Pagliarini \"Giancarlo Pagliarini\"), [Domenico Comino](/wiki/Domenico_Comino \"Domenico Comino\"), [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota \"Roberto Cota\") and [Massimo Zanello](/wiki/Massimo_Zanello \"Massimo Zanello\") led the [liberal\\-conservative](/wiki/Liberal_conservatism \"Liberal conservatism\") **Liberal Democrats β Forza Padania** (50\\);\n* [Oreste Rossi](/wiki/Oreste_Rossi \"Oreste Rossi\"), [Enzo Flego](/wiki/Enzo_Flego \"Enzo Flego\") and [Walter Gherardini](/wiki/Walter_Gherardini \"Walter Gherardini\") formed the [national\\-conservative](/wiki/National_conservatism \"National conservatism\") **Padanian Right** (27\\);\n* [Roberto Ronchi](/wiki/Roberto_Ronchi \"Roberto Ronchi\") and [Giuseppe Leoni](/wiki/Giuseppe_Leoni \"Giuseppe Leoni\") founded the [Christian democratic](/wiki/Christian_democracy \"Christian democracy\") **Padanian Catholics** (20\\);\n* A group of Venetian *leghisti* formed the [Venetist](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\") **Padanian Lions** (14\\);\n* [Leonardo Facco](/wiki/Leonardo_Facco \"Leonardo Facco\"), [Leopoldo Siegel](/wiki/Leopoldo_Siegel \"Leopoldo Siegel\") and [Marco Pottino](/wiki/Marco_Pottino \"Marco Pottino\") launched **Libertarian and Liberal Padania** (12\\);\n* [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\") and [Mauro Manfredini](/wiki/Mauro_Manfredini \"Mauro Manfredini\") were candidates of the **Padanian Communists** (5\\);\n* [Erminio Boso](/wiki/Erminio_Boso \"Erminio Boso\") led the [agrarian](/wiki/Agrarianism \"Agrarianism\") conservative **Padanian Union β Agriculture, Environment, Hunting, Fishing** (5\\);\n* [Benedetto Della Vedova](/wiki/Benedetto_Della_Vedova \"Benedetto Della Vedova\"), a [Radical](/wiki/Italian_Radicals \"Italian Radicals\") politician, was elected at the head of an anti\\-[prohibitionist](/wiki/Prohibitionism \"Prohibitionism\") and free market [libertarian](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") list in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") while [Nando Dalla Chiesa](/wiki/Nando_Dalla_Chiesa \"Nando Dalla Chiesa\"), a [Green](/wiki/Federation_of_the_Greens \"Federation of the Greens\") MP, was an unsuccessful candidate in Milan too.",
"### Differing viewpoints on coalitions",
"During the years in government in Rome (2001β2006\\), in the party there were different viewpoints on coalitions: some, led by Calderoli and Castelli (with the backing of Bossi), vigorously supported the alliance with the centre\\-right while others, represented by Maroni and Giorgetti, were less warm about it.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=152β153, 158β159, 168}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Guido \\|last\\=Passalacqua \\|title\\=Maroni contro Calderoli, l'enigma Γ¨ Giorgetti \\|url\\=http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/2004/05/14/maroni\\-contro\\-calderoli\\-enigma\\-giorgetti.mi\\_020maroni.html \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[La Repubblica]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=14 May 2004}}{{cite news \\|first\\=Alessandro \\|last\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Un'ora di cammino al giorno, Bossi prepara il rientro \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2004/ottobre/21/ora\\_cammino\\_giorno\\_Bossi\\_prepara\\_co\\_9\\_041021057\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=21 October 2004}} Some of them spoke about joining the centre\\-left some time after the [2006 general election](/wiki/2006_Italian_general_election \"2006 Italian general election\"), which they were certain to lose. This idea was ascribed to the fact that without any support from the left it seemed even more difficult to win the constitutional referendum which would have turned Italy into a federal state.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Adalberto \\|last1\\=Signore \\|first2\\=Alessandro \\|last2\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Razza padana \\|year\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=BUR \\|location\\=Milan \\|pages\\=122β127, 312β313}}",
"Similar differences emerged during (and within) Berlusconi's fourth government (2008β2011\\). While Calderoli was again a keen supporter of the arrangement, Maroni was far less warm on Berlusconi and at times evoked an alliance with the centre\\-left [Democratic Party](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28Italy%29 \"Democratic Party (Italy)\"). Calderoli's line had the backing of [Federico Bricolo](/wiki/Federico_Bricolo \"Federico Bricolo\"), Cota, Reguzzoni and chiefly Bossi while Maroni was backed by Giorgetti, Speroni, Zaia and Tosi.{{cite news \\|title\\=La Lega Γ¨ sull'orlo della spaccatura. Calderoli contro Maroni. Insider choc \\|url\\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\\_maroni\\_calderoli\\_spaccatura\\_bossi010211\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Affaritaliani]] \\|date\\=1 February 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204025227/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\\_maroni\\_calderoli\\_spaccatura\\_bossi010211\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=4 February 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Il Senatur insegue la riforma e diventa \"garante\" del no alle urne \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/febbraio/05/Senatur\\_insegue\\_riforma\\_diventa\\_garante\\_co\\_8\\_110205011\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=5 February 2011}} However, the alliance with the centre\\-right continued at the regional/local level (Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy and others municipalities) after 2011 and has become a virtually permanent feature of Lega Nord's electoral politics.",
"### 2008β2011 developments",
"Since 2008, besides the traditional regional divides, the party was increasingly divided among three groups. The first was the so\\-called \"magic circle\", that was to say Bossi's inner circle, notably including [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni \"Marco Reguzzoni\"), [Rosi Mauro](/wiki/Rosi_Mauro \"Rosi Mauro\") and [Federico Bricolo](/wiki/Federico_Bricolo \"Federico Bricolo\"). The second was formed around [Roberto Calderoli](/wiki/Roberto_Calderoli \"Roberto Calderoli\"), who was the powerful coordinator of Lega Nord's national secretariats and had among his closest supporters [Giacomo Stucchi](/wiki/Giacomo_Stucchi \"Giacomo Stucchi\") and [Davide Boni](/wiki/Davide_Boni \"Davide Boni\"). The third one was led by [Roberto Maroni](/wiki/Roberto_Maroni \"Roberto Maroni\"), who tended to be more independent from Bossi and was somewhat critical of the centre\\-right affiliation of the party; and it included [Giancarlo Giorgetti](/wiki/Giancarlo_Giorgetti \"Giancarlo Giorgetti\"), [Attilio Fontana](/wiki/Attilio_Fontana \"Attilio Fontana\"), [Matteo Salvini](/wiki/Matteo_Salvini \"Matteo Salvini\") and [Flavio Tosi](/wiki/Flavio_Tosi \"Flavio Tosi\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Giuliano \\|last1\\=Zulin \\|title\\=Colpi bassi nella Lega per il dopo\\-Bossi \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=Y36T0 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Libero (newspaper)\\|Libero]] \\|date\\=10 March 2011 \\|location\\=Milan}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Reguzzoni\\-Mauro, i bossiani non\\-amati dalla Lega \\|url\\=http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\\_mappa\\_potere100311\\.html \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Affaritaliani]] \\|date\\=12 March 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319070442/http://affaritaliani.libero.it/politica/lega\\_mappa\\_potere100311\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 March 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Matteo \\|last1\\=Pandini \\|title\\=Umberto sistema i conti a Roma. A Milano i suoi litigano ancora \\|work\\=\\[\\[Libero (newspaper)\\|Libero]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=4 May 2011}} [Gian Paolo Gobbo](/wiki/Gian_Paolo_Gobbo \"Gian Paolo Gobbo\") and [Luca Zaia](/wiki/Luca_Zaia \"Luca Zaia\"), leaders of the party in Veneto, although very loyal to Bossi, tended to be independent from \"federal\" factions and were engaged in a long power struggle with Flavio Tosi (see [Liga Veneta\\#Factions](/wiki/Liga_Veneta%23Factions \"Liga Veneta#Factions\")).{{cite news \\|first1\\=Lillo \\|last1\\=Aldegheri \\|title\\=La Lega si spacca sull'UnitΓ Gobbo, nuovo attacco a Tosi \\|url\\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/2011/25\\-gennaio\\-2011/lega\\-si\\-spacca\\-sull\\-unita\\-gobbo\\-nuovo\\-attacco\\-tosi\\-181325186254\\.shtml \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera\\|Corriere del Veneto]] \\|location\\=Padua \\|date\\=25 January 2011}} Indeed, *[Corriere della Sera](/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera \"Corriere della Sera\")* identified four main groups: the magic circle, *maroniani*, *calderoliani* and \"Venetians\" (or, better, [Venetists](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\")),{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Difesa dei \"piccoli\" e un orizzonte di alleanza che non\\-va oltre il 2011 \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=11BFBJ \\|work\\=Corriere della Sera \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=19 June 2011}} leaving aside the core independentists (see [Lega Nord\\#Issue\\-oriented groups](/wiki/Lega_Nord%23Issue-oriented_groups \"Lega Nord#Issue-oriented groups\")). [Roberto Cota](/wiki/Roberto_Cota \"Roberto Cota\"), leader of [Lega Nord Piemont](/wiki/Lega_Nord_Piemont \"Lega Nord Piemont\"), the third largest national section of Lega Nord, was very close to Bossi and was part of the magic circle, but since his election as President of [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\") became more independent.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Michele \\|last1\\=Brambilla \\|title\\=Il Capo stanco e i \"pretoriani\" del cerchio magico \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201009articoli/58493girata.asp \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Stampa]] \\|location\\=Turin \\|date\\=13 September 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011141007/http://www.lastampa.it/redazione/cmsSezioni/politica/201009articoli/58493girata.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2011}} Equidistant from the main factions were also [Roberto Castelli](/wiki/Roberto_Castelli \"Roberto Castelli\") and [Francesco Speroni](/wiki/Francesco_Speroni \"Francesco Speroni\").",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|Traditional rally of Lega Nord in Pontida, 2013](/wiki/File:Raduno_di_Pontida_2013_60.JPG \"Raduno di Pontida 2013 60.JPG\")\nBy 2011, *maroniani* clearly became the strongest faction within the party and Maroni, who was acclaimed at the traditional rally in [Pontida](/wiki/Pontida \"Pontida\") in June, became Bossi's obvious successor.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Imarisio \\|title\\=Quello striscione della base per Maroni \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/20/Quello\\_striscione\\_della\\_base\\_per\\_co\\_8\\_110620018\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Paolo \\|last1\\=Bracalini \\|title\\=Il popolo lumbard ha scelto: \"Bobo, sarai il nostro premier\" \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/il\\_popolo\\_lumbard\\_ha\\_scelto\\_bobo\\_sarai\\_nostro\\_premier/20\\-06\\-2011/articolo\\-id\\=530336\\-page\\=0\\-comments\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Il Giornale]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last1\\=Borgonovo \\|title\\=La trota Γ¨ Maroni. Bobo parla da leader. Del centrodestra \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=11BZ8E \\|work\\=\\[\\[Libero (newspaper)\\|Libero]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=20 June 2011}} *Maroniani* commanded wide support among rank\\-and\\-file members and were well represented in all regions,{{cite news \\|first1\\=Cristina \\|last1\\=Giudici \\|title\\=Maroni, il piΓΉ italiano dei leghisti e il suo esercito di leghisti italiani \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=YAM15 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Il Foglio]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=18 March 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Alessandro \\|last1\\=Da Rold \\|title\\=In Veneto la spunta Tosi (per ora). Congresso dopo le amministrative \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=YLZFP \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Il Riformista]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=30 March 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Salvatore \\|last1\\=Merlo \\|title\\=CosΓ¬ dietro la baruffa tra Bossi e il Cav. cresce l'egemonia di Maroni \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=ZGQUU \\|work\\=\\[\\[Il Foglio]] \\|location\\=Rome \\|date\\=30 April 2011}} notably including Veneto, where Tosi was loyal to Maroni despite being a [conservative\\-liberal](/wiki/Conservative_liberalism \"Conservative liberalism\").{{cite news \\|first1\\=Alessandro \\|last1\\=Zuin \\|title\\=Il caso Lega. Se ai congressi gli uomini del capo adesso perdono \\|url\\=http://corrieredelveneto.corriere.it/veneto/notizie/politica/elezioni2011/notizie/caso\\-lega\\-190760946109\\.shtml \\|publisher\\=Corriere del Veneto \\|location\\=Padua \\|date\\=31 May 2011}} Maroni and Calderoli, who had been on opposite sides for years, joined forces against the magic circle and its influence on Bossi.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last1\\=Verderami \\|title\\=\"Poi alle elezioni da soli\", ma lo scopo del Carroccio Γ¨ trattare su Palazzo Chigi \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/maggio/12/Poi\\_alle\\_elezioni\\_soli\\_scopo\\_co\\_8\\_110512035\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=12 May 2011}} After Pontida 2011, Mauro and Reguzzoni tried to convince Bossi to remove Giorgetti from the leadership of Lega Lombarda, but this move was strongly opposed by Maroni and Calderoli, who were supported in this also by Cota and most Venetians.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Matteo \\|last1\\=Pandini \\|title\\=Nella Lega volano gli stracci \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=11D33M \\|work\\=\\[\\[Libero (newspaper)\\|Libero]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=21 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Paolo \\|last1\\=Bracalini \\|title\\=MacchΓ© unita, ora la Lega rischia di implodere: Γ¨ scoppiata la guerra sui vertici in Lombardia \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/interni/macche\\_unita\\_lega\\_scoppia\\_e\\_guerra\\_vertici\\_lombardia/21\\-06\\-2011/articolo\\-id\\=530502\\-page\\=0\\-comments\\=1 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Il Giornale]] \\|location\\=Milan}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Nervi tesi dopo Pontida. Accuse e liti in casa \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/21/Nervi\\_tesi\\_dopo\\_Pontida\\_Accuse\\_co\\_8\\_110621025\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=21 June 2011}} The attempted \"coup d'etat\" produced an umparalleled backclash against the magic circle: 49 deputies out of 59 wanted to replace Reguzzoni as floor leader in the [Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 \"Chamber of Deputies (Italy)\") with Stucchi, but Bossi imposed the *status quo*.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Ma il Carroccio resta in fibrillazione: Reguzzoni ora Γ¨ un caso \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/22/Carroccio\\_resta\\_fibrillazione\\_Reguzzoni\\_ora\\_co\\_9\\_110622006\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=22 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Alessandro \\|last1\\=Trocino \\|title\\=Tregua armata nella Lega. E Castelli: romani arretrati \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/23/Tregua\\_armata\\_nella\\_Lega\\_Castelli\\_co\\_8\\_110623025\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=23 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=UnitΓ fragile. Maroni: non Γ¨ andata come volevo \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/giugno/23/Unita\\_fragile\\_Maroni\\_non\\_andata\\_co\\_8\\_110623027\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=23 June 2011}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Giuliano \\|last1\\=Zulin \\|title\\=Bossi spara sui suoi, ora la Lega rischia grosso \\|url\\=http://newrassegna.camera.it/chiosco\\_new/pagweb/immagineFrame.asp?comeFrom\\=search\\¤tArticle\\=11GT4S \\|work\\=\\[\\[Libero (newspaper)\\|Libero]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=June 2011}}",
"After earning resounding victories in the provincial congresses of [Verona](/wiki/Province_of_Verona \"Province of Verona\"), [Belluno](/wiki/Province_of_Belluno \"Province of Belluno\") and eastern Veneto during the first half of 2011, *maroniani* (with the support of *calderoliani*) prevailed also in [Brescia](/wiki/Province_of_Brescia \"Province of Brescia\") and [Val Camonica](/wiki/Val_Camonica \"Val Camonica\"), defeating the candidates of the magic circle by landslides.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Giuseppe \\|last1\\=Spatola \\|title\\=Lega, Maroni prende Brescia Sfida a tre per Varese \\|url\\=http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/294147\\_lega\\_nord\\_sempre\\_pi\\_divisacaso\\_brescia\\_in\\_via\\_bellerio/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Brescia Oggi]] \\|location\\=Brescia \\|date\\=5 October 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407032929/http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/294147\\_lega\\_nord\\_sempre\\_pi\\_divisacaso\\_brescia\\_in\\_via\\_bellerio/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news \\|first1\\=Giuseppe \\|last1\\=Spatola \\|title\\=La svolta leghista, in Valle vince Antonini \\|url\\=http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/291335\\_la\\_svolta\\_leghista\\_invalle\\_vince\\_antonini/ \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Brescia Oggi]] \\|location\\=Brescia \\|date\\=26 September 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407032945/http://www.bresciaoggi.it/stories/Home/291335\\_la\\_svolta\\_leghista\\_invalle\\_vince\\_antonini/ \\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In October, fearing a remake in [Varese](/wiki/Province_of_Varese \"Province of Varese\"), his homeprovince, Bossi imposed his candidate, who was declared elected without a vote. In the event, Bossi was openly contested by many delegates at the congress and there had been an open vote, *maroniani* would have won.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Marco \\|last1\\=Cremonesi \\|title\\=Spintoni e tessere strappate Critiche al leader: basta capetti \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2011/ottobre/10/Spintoni\\_tessere\\_strappate\\_Critiche\\_leader\\_co\\_8\\_111010020\\.shtml \\|work\\=\\[\\[Corriere della Sera]] \\|location\\=Milan \\|date\\=10 October 2011}} These party infightings ended with Bossi's demise in February 2012 (see [Lega Nord\\#From Bossi to Maroni](/wiki/Lega_Nord%23From_Bossi_to_Maroni \"Lega Nord#From Bossi to Maroni\")).",
"### 2013β2018 developments",
"Since Salvini's rise to leadership in 2013, the party sported the usual regional and ideological divides and especially that between Salvini and Tosi as the former displayed a more populist attitude, strongly opposed the [Euro](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") and nominally supported separatism while the latter presented himself as a more centrist figure, supported European integration, was soft on independence and unveiled a liberal program{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ricostruiamoilpaese.it/noi/ \\|title\\=Noi siamo per \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018133553/https://www.ricostruiamoilpaese.it/noi/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} for his intended run in a putative \"[centre\\-right](/wiki/Centre-right_coalition_%28Italy%29 \"Centre-right coalition (Italy)\") prime\\-ministerial [primary election](/wiki/Partisan_primary \"Partisan primary\")\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/2013/10/06/italia/politica/tosi\\-primarie\\-anche\\-nel\\-centrodestra\\-76TpDVnwuQ7xBGttFjZJiM/pagina.html \\|title\\=Tosi: \"Primarie anche nel centrodestra\" \\|date\\=6 October 2013 \\|work\\=La Stampa \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilgazzettino.it/NORDEST/PRIMOPIANO/primarie\\_tosi\\_candidato\\_leader\\_centrodestra\\_lega\\_divisa/notizie/770277\\.shtml \\|title\\=\"Io leader del centrodestra\" Tosi alle primarie anche contro Salvini \\|date\\=28 June 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} As leader of Liga Veneta, Tosi, who was ejected from Lega Nord in March 2015, was confronted by the [Venetist](/wiki/Venetian_nationalism \"Venetian nationalism\") and separatist wings of the regional party,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://archiviostorico.corriere.it/2014/novembre/17/mille\\_beghe\\_venete\\_nella\\_Lega\\_co\\_0\\_20141117\\_3efed89a\\-6e23\\-11e4\\-9041\\-ccd06dcb9d60\\.shtml \\|title\\=Le mille beghe venete nella Lega di Salvini (che sale nei sondaggi) \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2015}} having in Zaia and [Massimo Bitonci](/wiki/Massimo_Bitonci \"Massimo Bitonci\") their leading members (see [Liga Veneta\\#Factions](/wiki/Liga_Veneta%23Factions \"Liga Veneta#Factions\")). Curiously enough, those Venetists did not oppose Salvini's \"Italian nationalist\" turn.",
"Since 2014, Salvini started to build a network of supporters in [central](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\")\\-[southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") and the [Isles](/wiki/Insular_Italy \"Insular Italy\") with the creation of [Us with Salvini](/wiki/Us_with_Salvini \"Us with Salvini\"), a sister party to Lega Nord. This was broadly accepted by Venetians, but it was increasingly opposed by key Lombard figures, including Bossi, Maroni and [Paolo Grimoldi](/wiki/Paolo_Grimoldi \"Paolo Grimoldi\") (leader of Lega Lombarda), who criticised the LN's right\\-wing turn and its focus on the South while reclaiming the federalist and autonomist identity of the LN.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2016/06/21/matteo\\-salvini\\-flop\\-urne\\_n\\_10594850\\.html \\|title\\=Lega Nord, dopo le urne tramonta la pax salviniana: il segretario sul banco degli imputati per il flop al Sud e la linea lepenista \\|website\\=LβHuffington Post\\|date\\=21 June 2016 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/nella\\-lega\\-allarme\\-salvini\\-sotto\\-accusa\\-cos\\-perdiamo\\-voti\\-1274061\\.html\\|title\\=Nella Lega in allarme Salvini Γ¨ sotto accusa: \"CosΓ¬ perdiamo voti\"\\|first\\=Paolo\\|last\\=Bracalini\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=21 June 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/tutta\\-colpa\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-guida\\-fronte\\-contro\\-capo\\-leghista\\-1274517\\.html\\|title\\=\"Tutta colpa di Salvini\". Bossi guida il fronte contro il capo leghista\\|first\\=Paolo\\|last\\=Bracalini\\|website\\=ilGiornale.it\\|date\\=22 June 2016}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ilfoglio.it/politica/2017/03/20/news/pezzi\\-grossi\\-leghisti\\-dicono\\-che\\-salvini\\-non\\-deve\\-piu\\-seguire\\-il\\-modello\\-le\\-pen\\-125992/\\|title\\=Pezzi grossi leghisti dicono che Salvini non deve piΓΉ seguire il modello Le Pen\\|website\\=www.ilfoglio.it}}",
"In the [2017 leadership election](/wiki/2017_Lega_Nord_leadership_election \"2017 Lega Nord leadership election\"), Salvini easily fended off the challenge posed by [Gianni Fava](/wiki/Gianni_Fava \"Gianni Fava\"), Lombard minister of Agriculture in the old social\\-democratic tradition, representing the federalist/autonomist/separatist wing of the party. Fava, who was anti\\-[prohibition of drugs](/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs \"Prohibition of drugs\"), pro\\-[civil unions](/wiki/Civil_union \"Civil union\") for [same\\-sex couples](/wiki/Same-sex_relationship \"Same-sex relationship\"), pro\\-[Atlanticism](/wiki/Atlanticism \"Atlanticism\"), and anti\\-National Front (\"\\[it] is one of the most centralist and conservative blocs in Europe, what has it to do with us?\"), recalled an old activist saying \"let's hurry up in making Padania, that I want to return voting for the left\" and added \"this was the League and it has to be like this anew\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/04/11/italia/politica/fava\\-sfido\\-salvini\\-perch\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-perda\\-le\\-sue\\-radici\\-voglio\\-un\\-congresso\\-vero\\-mh6Emx5KmkMHKcMdHn10II/pagina.html \\|title\\=Fava: \"Sfido Salvini perchΓ© la Lega non\\-perda le sue radici. Voglio un congresso vero\" \\|website\\=La Stampa\\|date\\=12 April 2017 }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.repubblica.it/politica/2017/04/11/news/lega\\_spunta\\_l\\_anti\\-salvini\\_gianni\\_fava\\_giunta\\_maroni\\_sfida\\_il\\_segretario\\_al\\_congresso\\-162765692 \\|title\\=Lega, spunta l'anti\\-Salvini. Gianni Fava (giunta Maroni) sfida il segretario al congresso \\|date\\=11 April 2017}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2017\\-05\\-09/sfida\\-salvini\\-fava\\-alleanze\\-e\\-ue\\-lega\\-elegge\\-suo\\-segretario\\-113645\\.shtml?uuid\\=AE59vxIB\\|title\\=Sfida Salvini\\-Fava su alleanze e Ue, la Lega elegge il suo segretario\\|website\\=Il Sole 24 ORE\\|date\\=9 May 2017}} After [Marine Le Pen](/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen \"Marine Le Pen\")'s defeat by [Emmanuel Macron](/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron \"Emmanuel Macron\") in the second round of the [French presidential election](/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election \"2017 French presidential election\"), Maroni declared that the \"tactical and not strategic\" alliance with Le Pen, \"who wants to go back to national states\", was over and that \"we should return to our origins of post\\-ideological movement, neither right nor left\".{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.corriere.it/politica/17\\_maggio\\_11/maroni\\-fase\\-lepenista\\-conclusa\\-273354ca\\-35b8\\-11e7\\-ae5c\\-ac92466523f8\\.shtml \\|title\\=Maroni: \"Fase lepenista conclusa, sbagliato disprezzare FI La Lega torni alle origini\" \\|first\\=Marco \\|last\\=Cremonesi\\|date\\=5 October 2017 }} Maroni added that \"the League is not right\\-wing, we have done things in Lombardy that the red regions would dream of, from the baby bonus to the welfare. Typically left\\-wing policies. For us there are the Lombards, not those of right or left\". Finally, reminding Salvini's left\\-wing roots, he remarked that \"those are the origins\" and that also Salvini would eventually share his views.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/05/16/italia/politica/maroni\\-la\\-lega\\-non\\-pu\\-stare\\-a\\-destra\\-non\\-sono\\-agli\\-ordini\\-di\\-salvini\\-FDwA8QDVnMpQELO0l15GWI/pagina.html \\|title\\=Maroni: \"La Lega non\\-puΓ² stare a destra. Non sono agli ordini di Salvini\" \\|website\\=La Stampa\\|date\\=16 May 2017 }} More worryingly for party's unity, Bossi threatened to leave the party and form an alternative movement with [Roberto Bernardelli](/wiki/Roberto_Bernardelli \"Roberto Bernardelli\")'s [Padanian Union](/wiki/Padanian_Union \"Padanian Union\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/bossi\\-minaccia\\-di\\-lasciare\\-lega\\-salvini\\-brutta\\-copia\\-rensi\\-carroccio\\-finito\\-27e07c14\\-22ee\\-4644\\-b121\\-0c265a0147fb.html\\|title\\=Bossi minaccia di lasciare la Lega: Salvini brutta copia di Renzi. Con lui Carroccio finito\\|website\\=rainews\\|date\\=15 May 2017 }}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/politica/12384953/umberto\\-bossi\\-addio\\-lega\\-nord\\-movimento\\-roberto\\-bernardello\\-tanko\\-serenissimi\\-matteo\\-salvini.html\\|title\\=Ricordate il tanko? Mossa clamorosa di Bossi: lo vuole usare per fare fuori Matteo Salvini\\|website\\=www.liberoquotidiano.it}}",
"The tensions between Salvini and Maroni culminated in latter's decision not to run for a second term as President of Lombardy in 2018\\. On that occasion, Maroni was very critical of Salvini in an interview with *[Il Foglio](/wiki/Il_Foglio \"Il Foglio\")*. As a result, very few *maroniani* were selected as candidates for the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election \"2018 Italian general election\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/politica/bongiorno\\-bagnai\\-tutti\\-i\\-candidati\\-lega\\-1488411\\.html \\|title\\=Da Bongiorno a Bagnai: tutti i candidati della Lega \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018\\|date\\=29 January 2018 }} and Fava was also excluded.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://gazzettadimantova.gelocal.it/mantova/cronaca/2018/01/28/news/fava\\-fuori\\-dalla\\-corsa\\-non\\-mi\\-candidano\\-ma\\-non\\-mi\\-arrendo\\-1\\.16406743 \\|title\\=Fava fuori dalla corsa: \"Non mi candidano ma non\\-mi arrendo\" β Cronaca β Gazzetta di Mantova \\|date\\=28 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} Bossi, who had not left the party, was selected by Salvini to lead the LN's list for the Senate in [Varese](/wiki/Varese \"Varese\"),{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2018/01/28/elezioni\\-salvini\\-bossi\\-candidato\\-a\\-varese\\-maroni\\-ci\\-aiutera\\-grillo\\-sa\\-che\\-governo\\-m5s\\-e\\-calamita\\-naturale/4122252 \\|title\\=Elezioni, Salvini: \"Bossi? Candidato a Varese, Maroni ci aiuterΓ . Grillo? Sa che governo M5s Γ¨ calamitΓ naturale\" β Il Fatto Quotidiano \\|date\\=28 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} but he was challenged also by [Gianluigi Paragone](/wiki/Gianluigi_Paragone \"Gianluigi Paragone\"), a former LN member who had switched to the [Five Star Movement](/wiki/Five_Star_Movement \"Five Star Movement\");{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ilgiorno.it/varese/politica/elezioni\\-politiche\\-2018\\-1\\.3693100 \\|title\\=Elezioni politiche 2018, i candidati a Varese: la Lega punta su Bossi al Senato β Il Giorno \\|last\\=R.V. \\|date\\=30 January 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2018}} and [Great North](/wiki/Great_North \"Great North\"), a party launched by Bernardelli and [Marco Reguzzoni](/wiki/Marco_Reguzzoni \"Marco Reguzzoni\").",
""
] |
Popular support
---------------
Support for Lega Nord is diverse even within [Padania](/wiki/Padania "Padania") and has varied over time, reaching an early maximum of 10\.1% of the vote at the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Italian_general_election "1996 Italian general election") (around 25% north of the [Po River](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 "Po (river)")). That year, the League scored 29\.3% of the vote in [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto"), 25\.5% in [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy "Lombardy"), 23\.2% in [Friuli\-Venezia Giulia](/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia "Friuli-Venezia Giulia"), 18\.2% in [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont "Piedmont"), 13\.2% in [Trentino\-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol](/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol "Trentino-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol"), 10\.2% in [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria "Liguria"), 7\.2% in [Emilia\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna"), 1\.8% in [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany"), 1\.5% in the [Marche](/wiki/Marche "Marche") and 1\.0% in [Umbria](/wiki/Umbria "Umbria"). The party got 59 deputies and 27 senators (39 and 19, respectively, in single\-seat constituencies), helping the centre\-left to win due to its victories in some Northern constituencies characterised by three\-way races. The League won barely all the seats in the [provinces](/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy "Provinces of Italy") of the so\-called *Pedemontana*, the area at the feet of the [Prealps](/wiki/Prealps_%28disambiguation%29 "Prealps (disambiguation)"), from [Udine](/wiki/Province_of_Udine "Province of Udine") to [Cuneo](/wiki/Province_of_Cuneo "Province of Cuneo"), encompassing Friuli, Veneto, Trentino, Lombardy and Piedmont.{{cite book \|first1\=Piergiorgio \|last1\=Corbetta \|first2\=Maria Serena \|last2\=Piretti \|title\=Atlante storico\-elettorale d'Italia \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Zanichelli \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=182β187}}{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=C\&dtel\=21/04/1996\&tpa\=I\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \|title\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: House of Deputies 1996 \|publisher\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}}{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=S\&dtel\=21/04/1996\&tpa\=I\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \|title\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Senate 1996 \|publisher\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} Lega Nord is stronger in the areas of the late [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice") and among Catholics.{{cite book \|first1\=Francesco \|last1\=Jori \|title\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Marsilio \|location\=Venice \|page\=8}}
At the [2008 general election](/wiki/2008_Italian_general_election "2008 Italian general election"), Lega Nord scored 8\.3% at the national level, slightly below the result of 1996: 27\.1% in Veneto, 21\.6% in Lombardy, 13\.0% in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia, 12\.6% in Piedmont, 9\.4% in Trentino\-Alto Adige, 7\.8% in Emilia\-Romagna, 6\.8% in Liguria, 2\.2% in the Marche, 2\.0% in Tuscany and 1\.7% in Umbria.{{cite book \|first1\=Piergiorgio \|last1\=Corbetta \|first2\=Maria Serena \|last2\=Piretti \|title\=Atlante storico\-elettorale d'Italia \|year\=2009 \|publisher\=Zanichelli \|location\=Bologna \|pages\=200β205}}{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=C\&dtel\=13/04/2008\&tpa\=I\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \|title\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Chamber of Deputies 2008 \|publisher\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}}
At the [2009 European Parliament election](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2009 European Parliament election in Italy"), Lega Nord won 10\.2% of the vote: 28\.4% in Veneto, 22\.7% in Lombardy, 17\.5% in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia, 15\.7% in Piedmont, 9\.9% in Trentino\-Alto Adige, 11\.1% in Emilia\-Romagna, 9\.9% in Liguria, 5\.5% in the Marche, 4\.3% in Tuscany and 3\.6% in Umbria.{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=E\&dtel\=07/06/2009\&tpa\=Y\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \|title\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: European Parliament 2009 \|publisher\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} At the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2014 European Parliament election in Italy"), the party scored 15\.2% in Veneto and 14\.6% in Lombardy.{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=E\&dtel\=25/05/2014\&tpa\=I\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=S \|title\=::: Ministero dell'Interno ::: Archivio Storico delle Elezioni β Europee del 25 Maggio 2014 \|website\=elezionistorico.interno.it}}
At the [2010 regional elections](/wiki/2010_Italian_regional_elections "2010 Italian regional elections"), the party gained 35\.2% of the vote in Veneto, 26\.2% in Lombardy, 16\.7% in Piedmont, 13\.7% in Emilia\-Romagna, 10\.2% in Liguria, 6\.3% in the Marche, 6\.5% in Tuscany and 4\.3% in Umbria.{{cite web \|url\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\=R\&dtel\=28/03/2010\&tpa\=I\&tpe\=A\&lev0\=0\&levsut0\=0\&es0\=S\&ms\=N \|title\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Regional elections 2010 \|publisher\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} At the [2014](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election "2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election")β[2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections "2015 Italian regional elections"), it obtained 40\.9% in Veneto, 20\.3% in Liguria, 19\.4% in Emilia\-Romagna, 16\.2% in Tuscany, 14\.0% in Umbria and 13\.0% in Marche, marking its best results so far in those six regions.
The [2013 general election](/wiki/2013_Italian_general_election "2013 Italian general election") was not a good moment for the party, which gained meagre results, e.g. 12\.9% in Lombardy and 10\.5% in Veneto.
Five years later, the party obtained its best results so far in the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election "2018 Italian general election"): 17\.4% in Italy, 32\.2% in Veneto, 28\.0% in Lombardy, 26\.7% in Trentino, 25\.8% in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia, 22\.6% in Piedmont, 20\.2% in Umbria, 19\.9% in Liguria, 19\.2% in Emilia\-Romagna, as well as significant results in the South (5β10%).
In the [2019 European Parliament election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy "2019 European Parliament election in Italy") the party again increased its share of the vote: 34\.3% in Italy, 49\.9% in Veneto, 43\.4% in Lombardy, 42\.6% in Friuli\-Venezia Giulia, 37\.7% in Trentino, 38\.2% in Umbria, 38% in Marche, 37\.1% in Piedmont, 33\.9% in Liguria, 33\.8% in Emilia\-Romagna, 31\.5% in Tuscany, as well as 15\-25% in the South.
The electoral results of the LN in general ([Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 "Chamber of Deputies (Italy)")) and [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament "European Parliament") elections since 1989 are shown in the chart below.
{{Graph:Chart
\|width\=550
\|type\=rect
\|colors\=\#008000,\#008000
\|xAxisTitle\=Elections
\|xAxisAngle\=\-40
\|x\=1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
\|yAxisMin\=0
\|yAxisFormat\=%
\|yAxisTitle\=% of popular vote
\|y1\=0\.018, 0, 0, .087, 0, .084, 0, .101, 0, 0, 0\.045, 0, .039, 0, 0, 0\.05, 0, .041, 0, .083, 0\.102, 0, 0, 0, .041, 0\.062, 0, 0, 0, .174, 0\.343
\|y2\=,,,,, .066,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
}}
|
[
"Popular support\n---------------",
"Support for Lega Nord is diverse even within [Padania](/wiki/Padania \"Padania\") and has varied over time, reaching an early maximum of 10\\.1% of the vote at the [1996 general election](/wiki/1996_Italian_general_election \"1996 Italian general election\") (around 25% north of the [Po River](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 \"Po (river)\")). That year, the League scored 29\\.3% of the vote in [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\"), 25\\.5% in [Lombardy](/wiki/Lombardy \"Lombardy\"), 23\\.2% in [Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia](/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia \"Friuli-Venezia Giulia\"), 18\\.2% in [Piedmont](/wiki/Piedmont \"Piedmont\"), 13\\.2% in [Trentino\\-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol](/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige/S%C3%BCdtirol \"Trentino-Alto Adige/SΓΌdtirol\"), 10\\.2% in [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria \"Liguria\"), 7\\.2% in [Emilia\\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\"), 1\\.8% in [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\"), 1\\.5% in the [Marche](/wiki/Marche \"Marche\") and 1\\.0% in [Umbria](/wiki/Umbria \"Umbria\"). The party got 59 deputies and 27 senators (39 and 19, respectively, in single\\-seat constituencies), helping the centre\\-left to win due to its victories in some Northern constituencies characterised by three\\-way races. The League won barely all the seats in the [provinces](/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy \"Provinces of Italy\") of the so\\-called *Pedemontana*, the area at the feet of the [Prealps](/wiki/Prealps_%28disambiguation%29 \"Prealps (disambiguation)\"), from [Udine](/wiki/Province_of_Udine \"Province of Udine\") to [Cuneo](/wiki/Province_of_Cuneo \"Province of Cuneo\"), encompassing Friuli, Veneto, Trentino, Lombardy and Piedmont.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Piergiorgio \\|last1\\=Corbetta \\|first2\\=Maria Serena \\|last2\\=Piretti \\|title\\=Atlante storico\\-elettorale d'Italia \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Zanichelli \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=182β187}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=C\\&dtel\\=21/04/1996\\&tpa\\=I\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\|title\\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: House of Deputies 1996 \\|publisher\\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=S\\&dtel\\=21/04/1996\\&tpa\\=I\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\|title\\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Senate 1996 \\|publisher\\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} Lega Nord is stronger in the areas of the late [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\") and among Catholics.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Francesco \\|last1\\=Jori \\|title\\=Dalla Εiga alla Lega. Storia, movimenti, protagonisti \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Marsilio \\|location\\=Venice \\|page\\=8}}",
"At the [2008 general election](/wiki/2008_Italian_general_election \"2008 Italian general election\"), Lega Nord scored 8\\.3% at the national level, slightly below the result of 1996: 27\\.1% in Veneto, 21\\.6% in Lombardy, 13\\.0% in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia, 12\\.6% in Piedmont, 9\\.4% in Trentino\\-Alto Adige, 7\\.8% in Emilia\\-Romagna, 6\\.8% in Liguria, 2\\.2% in the Marche, 2\\.0% in Tuscany and 1\\.7% in Umbria.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Piergiorgio \\|last1\\=Corbetta \\|first2\\=Maria Serena \\|last2\\=Piretti \\|title\\=Atlante storico\\-elettorale d'Italia \\|year\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Zanichelli \\|location\\=Bologna \\|pages\\=200β205}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=C\\&dtel\\=13/04/2008\\&tpa\\=I\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\|title\\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Chamber of Deputies 2008 \\|publisher\\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}}",
"At the [2009 European Parliament election](/wiki/2009_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2009 European Parliament election in Italy\"), Lega Nord won 10\\.2% of the vote: 28\\.4% in Veneto, 22\\.7% in Lombardy, 17\\.5% in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia, 15\\.7% in Piedmont, 9\\.9% in Trentino\\-Alto Adige, 11\\.1% in Emilia\\-Romagna, 9\\.9% in Liguria, 5\\.5% in the Marche, 4\\.3% in Tuscany and 3\\.6% in Umbria.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=E\\&dtel\\=07/06/2009\\&tpa\\=Y\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\|title\\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: European Parliament 2009 \\|publisher\\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} At the [2014 European Parliament election](/wiki/2014_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2014 European Parliament election in Italy\"), the party scored 15\\.2% in Veneto and 14\\.6% in Lombardy.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=E\\&dtel\\=25/05/2014\\&tpa\\=I\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=S \\|title\\=::: Ministero dell'Interno ::: Archivio Storico delle Elezioni β Europee del 25 Maggio 2014 \\|website\\=elezionistorico.interno.it}}",
"At the [2010 regional elections](/wiki/2010_Italian_regional_elections \"2010 Italian regional elections\"), the party gained 35\\.2% of the vote in Veneto, 26\\.2% in Lombardy, 16\\.7% in Piedmont, 13\\.7% in Emilia\\-Romagna, 10\\.2% in Liguria, 6\\.3% in the Marche, 6\\.5% in Tuscany and 4\\.3% in Umbria.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://elezionistorico.interno.it/index.php?tpel\\=R\\&dtel\\=28/03/2010\\&tpa\\=I\\&tpe\\=A\\&lev0\\=0\\&levsut0\\=0\\&es0\\=S\\&ms\\=N \\|title\\=Ministry of the Interior β Historical Archive of Elections: Regional elections 2010 \\|publisher\\=Elezionistorico.interno.it}} At the [2014](/wiki/2014_Emilia-Romagna_regional_election \"2014 Emilia-Romagna regional election\")β[2015 regional elections](/wiki/2015_Italian_regional_elections \"2015 Italian regional elections\"), it obtained 40\\.9% in Veneto, 20\\.3% in Liguria, 19\\.4% in Emilia\\-Romagna, 16\\.2% in Tuscany, 14\\.0% in Umbria and 13\\.0% in Marche, marking its best results so far in those six regions.",
"The [2013 general election](/wiki/2013_Italian_general_election \"2013 Italian general election\") was not a good moment for the party, which gained meagre results, e.g. 12\\.9% in Lombardy and 10\\.5% in Veneto.",
"Five years later, the party obtained its best results so far in the [2018 general election](/wiki/2018_Italian_general_election \"2018 Italian general election\"): 17\\.4% in Italy, 32\\.2% in Veneto, 28\\.0% in Lombardy, 26\\.7% in Trentino, 25\\.8% in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia, 22\\.6% in Piedmont, 20\\.2% in Umbria, 19\\.9% in Liguria, 19\\.2% in Emilia\\-Romagna, as well as significant results in the South (5β10%).",
"In the [2019 European Parliament election](/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Italy \"2019 European Parliament election in Italy\") the party again increased its share of the vote: 34\\.3% in Italy, 49\\.9% in Veneto, 43\\.4% in Lombardy, 42\\.6% in Friuli\\-Venezia Giulia, 37\\.7% in Trentino, 38\\.2% in Umbria, 38% in Marche, 37\\.1% in Piedmont, 33\\.9% in Liguria, 33\\.8% in Emilia\\-Romagna, 31\\.5% in Tuscany, as well as 15\\-25% in the South.",
"The electoral results of the LN in general ([Chamber of Deputies](/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_%28Italy%29 \"Chamber of Deputies (Italy)\")) and [European Parliament](/wiki/European_Parliament \"European Parliament\") elections since 1989 are shown in the chart below.",
"{{Graph:Chart\n\\|width\\=550\n\\|type\\=rect\n\\|colors\\=\\#008000,\\#008000\n\\|xAxisTitle\\=Elections\n\\|xAxisAngle\\=\\-40\n\\|x\\=1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019\n\\|yAxisMin\\=0\n\\|yAxisFormat\\=%\n\\|yAxisTitle\\=% of popular vote\n\\|y1\\=0\\.018, 0, 0, .087, 0, .084, 0, .101, 0, 0, 0\\.045, 0, .039, 0, 0, 0\\.05, 0, .041, 0, .083, 0\\.102, 0, 0, 0, .041, 0\\.062, 0, 0, 0, .174, 0\\.343\n\\|y2\\=,,,,, .066,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, \n}}",
""
] |
History
-------
The lands and barony of Grougar can be traced in the Register of the [Great Seal of Scotland](/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland "Great Seal of Scotland") as from 1315\. The earliest reference occurs between 1315 and 1321 when King Robert the Bruce granted a charter to Sir Robert Cunningham of the lands of [Lambrachton](/wiki/Lambroughton "Lambroughton") and of Grugar in Cunningham \[RGS.I.53].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the [Great Seal of Scotland](/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland "Great Seal of Scotland"), Volume 1, Entry 53\. Grougar remained in the hands of the Cunningham family until 19 January 1479 when Robert Cunningham resigned the lands of Grugar, which with the lands and barony of Snawde, the lands of Westbarns, lands of Carale, and the lands of Grugar, were incorporated into the lands and barony of Grougar, Ayrshire, by [King James III](/wiki/King_James_III "King James III") and granted to Sir Robert Logan \[RGS.II.1411].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 2, Entry 1411\.
Grougar had returned into the hands of its former owners the Logans a long established Ayrshire family and remained with them until the late sixteenth century. The principal branch of the family was the Logans of Restalrig near Edinburgh. One of its most prominent members was Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig who married Katherine Stewart, daughter of King Robert II of Scotland, and in 1400 became Admiral of Scotland.
On 18 May 1490, [King James IV](/wiki/King_James_IV "King James IV"), granted Sir John Logan, son and heir apparent of Robert Logan of Restalrig and his wife Isabell, the lands of Grougar in the lordship of Cunningham, Ayrshire \[RGS.II.1951].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 2, Entry 1951\. On 2 January 1540, King James V granted Robert Logan, son and heir apparent of Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, the lands and barony of Restalrig, and the lands and barony of Grougar with its mill etc. in the bailiary of Cunningham, which Robert Logan the elder and his wife Lady Elizabeth Hume had resigned, to be incorporated in the free barony of Restalrig \[RGS.III.2056].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 3, Entry 2056\. The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland records that on 13 August 1540, King James V granted Robert Logan, son and heir apparent of Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, the lands of Grogar with its mill, tenantries, etc., in the lordship of Cunningham \[RGS.III.2188].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 3, Entry 2188\.
Sir David Hamilton expanded the family's landholdings and accompanied King James V on his matrimonial voyage to France when he married Magdalene daughter of King Francis I of France. When the Earl of Hertford invaded Scotland in 1544 the town and castle of Preston was destroyed. Later Sir David was created Knight Banneret and Marischal Deputy of Scotland. Sir David also is noted as an early adherent of Protestantism in Scotland. He married Janet Baillie and they had 13 children of whom George, the eldest succeeded.
However, by the late sixteenth century Grougar was in the hands of a branch of the Graham family. The Grahams also are of Anglo\-Norman origin who settled in Scotland in the early twelfth century during the reign of King [David I of Scotland](/wiki/David_I_of_Scotland "David I of Scotland"). On 18 February 1581 [King James VI](/wiki/King_James_VI "King James VI") confirmed a charter by Robert Graham of Knockdolian allocating certain land within the barony of Grougar to Thomas Lyon of Glamis and his wife Lady Agnes Gray \[RGS.V.111].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 5, Entry 111\. Robert Graham seem to have owned lands within the barony of Grougar by 1581 and ten years later the complete barony was his as on 3 March 1591 King James VI granted, for good service, the lands and barony of Grougar with its mill etc., in the bailiary of Cunningham, to John Graham of Knockdolian and his wife Lady Helen Kennedy \[RGS.V.1834].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 5, Entry 1834\.
On his death John Graham of Knockdolian passed Grougar to his brother Robert according to an entry in the Inquisitionum ad Capellam Regis Retornatarum Abbreviatio, on 16 April 1606, Robert Graham of Grougar was served heir to his brother Lord John Graham of Knockdolian, in the lands and barony of Grougar in the bailiary of Cunningham \[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 85]. Robert Graham evidently already owned land in south Ayrshire which he sold according to a deed in the National Archives of Scotland β on 30 April 1606, Robert Graham of Grougar, husband of Margaret Montgomerie, sold land in the parish of Colmonell \[NRS.GD109\.672].
The Grahams rule as Barons of Grougar was relatively brief as in 1613 the barony was granted to a branch of the Clan Campbell headed by Sir Hugh Campbell, first Lord Loudoun, [Sheriff of Ayr](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Ayr "Sheriff of Ayr") and a Privy Councillor in Scotland.
On 27 July 1613, King James VI granted the barony of Grougar with its fortalice, manor place, mill, mill\-lands, tenantry, etc., in the bailiary of Cunningham, Ayrshire, to Hugh, Lord Loudoun, and his heirs, formerly held by Robert Graham, Earl of Montrose, Lord Graham and Mugdock, lands in the nearby parish of Auchinleck, formerly held by Claud, Earl of Abercorn, were then incorporated in the free barony of Grougar \[RGS.VII.896].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 896\. This grant was confirmed on 23 December 1613 \[RGS.VII.967].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 967\.
However Lord Loudoun's ownership of Grougar was very brief as within three years it was granted to the Boyds of Kilmarnock. King James VI granted Robert, Lord Boyd, the lands and barony of Grougar, which Hugh, Lord Loudoun, had resigned, 30 January 1616 \[RGS.VII.1372].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 1372\. [Robert Boyd, 7th Lord Boyd](/wiki/Robert_Boyd%2C_7th_Lord_Boyd "Robert Boyd, 7th Lord Boyd"), was born in November 1595 elder son of Thomas, 6th Lord Boyd, and died on 28 August 1628\. On 11 December 1617, King James VI confirmed a charter of Robert, Lord Boyd, who under his marriage contract of 9 December 1617 granted his future wife Lady Christine Hamilton, Lady Lindsay, daughter of Thomas, Lord Binning president of the College of Justice and Secretary of State, the lands and barony of Grougar \[RGS.VII.1733].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 1733\. However, on 3 August 1619, the king confirmed Robert, Lord Boyd, with the lands and barony of Grougar \[RGS.VII.2069].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 2069\.
[Robert Boyd, 8th Lord Boyd](/wiki/Robert_Boyd%2C_8th_Lord_Boyd "Robert Boyd, 8th Lord Boyd"), was born in 1618, he was a Justice of the Peace for Cunningham by 1634; he subscribed to the [Scottish Covenant](/wiki/Scottish_Covenant "Scottish Covenant") in 1638, he married Anna Fleming and died on 17 November 1640 and having no children his lands and titles went to his uncle James Boyd.
[James Boyd, 9th Lord Boyd](/wiki/James_Boyd%2C_9th_Lord_Boyd "James Boyd, 9th Lord Boyd"), was born around 1600; he was a Royalist during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638β1651\. James Boyd married Catherine, second daughter of John Crayke in York before 1640\. He died in 1654 leaving a son William and three daughters.
On 28 February 1655, William, 10th Lord Boyd, was served heir to his father James, Lord Boyd, in the lordship and barony of Kilmarnock which included the 40 pound land of the old extent and barony of Grougar \[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 473]. Charles II created him [Earl of Kilmarnock](/wiki/Earl_of_Kilmarnock "Earl of Kilmarnock") in 1661\. Lord Boyd was a Commissioner of Excise for Ayr, a Justice of the Peace for Lanark, Dumbarton and Ayr. He married Lady Jean Cunningham, eldest daughter of [William Cunningham, 9th Earl of Glencairn](/wiki/William_Cunningham%2C_9th_Earl_of_Glencairn "William Cunningham, 9th Earl of Glencairn") and they had five sons and three daughters of whom William succeeded his father when he died in March 1692\.
On 11 August 1682, William, Lord Boyd, eldest son of William, Earl of Kilmarnock, was granted the lands of Kilmarnock \[RGS.68\.140].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 68, Entry 140\. On 20 July 1699, William, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock, was served heir to his father William, 2nd Earl of Kilmarnock, in various lands including the above lands in the barony of Grougar \[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 698]. The 3rd Earl voted for the Union with England in 1707 and was a staunch Hanoverian. He raised 500 men to oppose the Jacobites in 1715\. He died on 22 November 1717 and was succeeded by his son William.
[William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock](/wiki/William_Boyd%2C_4th_Earl_of_Kilmarnock "William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock"), was Grand Master Mason of Scotland in 1742\. He, unlike his father, was a Jacobite and fought for Bonnie Prince Charlie with the rank of General and commander of the Horse Grenadier Guards. The Earl was captured at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 and later executed in London.
William Boyd, Earl of Kilmarnock, was executed as a Jacobite rebel in 1748, and his titles and lands in Ayrshire, Stirlingshire, and West Lothian were forfeited to the Crown on account of his treason. His son and heir James, Lord Boyd, who had fought for King George at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden "Battle of Culloden") managed to regain some of the forfeited lands but he sold them in 1758\. Lord Boyd was Grand Master Mason of Scotland in 1751\.
The titles and lands of the Jacobite aristocrats and landowners who had supported and participated in the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 "Jacobite rising of 1745") were forfeited to the Crown and the lands were subsequently sold off to speculators, one of whom was Sir George Colebrooke.
Sir George Colebrooke, born 1729, was Chairman of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company "East India Company"), a merchant banker and a Member of Parliament. He was also a land speculator in New England, the Ohio Valley, Scotland and the West Indies, and also in raw materials which led to his downfall around 1777\. Grougar would have been sold to William Blane around this time. In 1770 the lands of Grougar were owned by Sir George Colebrooke and were valued at Β£1497\.16\.0 according to Loretta R. Timberley's βA Directory of Landownership in Scotland c1770β \[Scottish Record Society, Edinburgh, 1976] Both Sir George Colebrooke and William Blane leased the various farmlands within the barony to tenant farmers. An insight into this practice can be had through an examination of the financial records, especially tacks (leases), of William Blane of Grougar which survive for the period 1796 to 1797 \[NRS.GD237\.21\.19].
Grougar remained the property of members of the Blane family for nearly a century. A later William Blane extended his landholdings in the 1820s and 1830s through Crown Charters. He was granted a Crown Charter of the lands of Kirkdomine in 1825 \[RGS.175\.6];Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 175, Entry 6\. another of the lands of Lammochie in 1830/1834 \[NAS.195\.9/205\.23]. By the time of the New Statistical Account of 1845 one of the chief landowners in the parish of Kilmarnock was William Blane of Grougar. On 27 July 1857, a Crown Charter was granted in favour of William Blane of the lands and barony of Grougar to the trustees of William Blane \[NAS. Ref. C2/258/130]. Eventually on 1 December 1881 the Trustees of William Blane sold the lands and barony of Grougar.
Grougar was sold to John White of Ardarroch, who as John White of Grougar and Ardarroch had arms bearing "an eagle displayed between three quatrefoils azure, on a chief of the second a besant between two garbs of the first". \[James Balfour Paul's βAn Ordinary of Armsβ] Grougar remained in the hands of John White until 22 November 1904, when his trustees disposed of Grougar to [William Cavendish\-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland](/wiki/William_Cavendish-Bentinck%2C_6th_Duke_of_Portland "William Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland"). On 13 September 1918, the Duke of Portland subscribed to a disposition and trust deed of the Barony of Grougar. From the Welbeck Estates Company Limited, the trustees acting under disposition and deed of trust by the Duke of Portland, the barony was acquired by Professor David Ian McLean. In 2015 the Barony was assigned to his daughter Dr. Lianne Jennifer McLean on the occasion of her wedding to Mr. Jon Loewen.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The lands and barony of Grougar can be traced in the Register of the [Great Seal of Scotland](/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland \"Great Seal of Scotland\") as from 1315\\. The earliest reference occurs between 1315 and 1321 when King Robert the Bruce granted a charter to Sir Robert Cunningham of the lands of [Lambrachton](/wiki/Lambroughton \"Lambroughton\") and of Grugar in Cunningham \\[RGS.I.53].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the [Great Seal of Scotland](/wiki/Great_Seal_of_Scotland \"Great Seal of Scotland\"), Volume 1, Entry 53\\. Grougar remained in the hands of the Cunningham family until 19 January 1479 when Robert Cunningham resigned the lands of Grugar, which with the lands and barony of Snawde, the lands of Westbarns, lands of Carale, and the lands of Grugar, were incorporated into the lands and barony of Grougar, Ayrshire, by [King James III](/wiki/King_James_III \"King James III\") and granted to Sir Robert Logan \\[RGS.II.1411].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 2, Entry 1411\\.",
"Grougar had returned into the hands of its former owners the Logans a long established Ayrshire family and remained with them until the late sixteenth century. The principal branch of the family was the Logans of Restalrig near Edinburgh. One of its most prominent members was Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig who married Katherine Stewart, daughter of King Robert II of Scotland, and in 1400 became Admiral of Scotland.",
"On 18 May 1490, [King James IV](/wiki/King_James_IV \"King James IV\"), granted Sir John Logan, son and heir apparent of Robert Logan of Restalrig and his wife Isabell, the lands of Grougar in the lordship of Cunningham, Ayrshire \\[RGS.II.1951].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 2, Entry 1951\\. On 2 January 1540, King James V granted Robert Logan, son and heir apparent of Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, the lands and barony of Restalrig, and the lands and barony of Grougar with its mill etc. in the bailiary of Cunningham, which Robert Logan the elder and his wife Lady Elizabeth Hume had resigned, to be incorporated in the free barony of Restalrig \\[RGS.III.2056].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 3, Entry 2056\\. The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland records that on 13 August 1540, King James V granted Robert Logan, son and heir apparent of Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, the lands of Grogar with its mill, tenantries, etc., in the lordship of Cunningham \\[RGS.III.2188].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 3, Entry 2188\\.",
"Sir David Hamilton expanded the family's landholdings and accompanied King James V on his matrimonial voyage to France when he married Magdalene daughter of King Francis I of France. When the Earl of Hertford invaded Scotland in 1544 the town and castle of Preston was destroyed. Later Sir David was created Knight Banneret and Marischal Deputy of Scotland. Sir David also is noted as an early adherent of Protestantism in Scotland. He married Janet Baillie and they had 13 children of whom George, the eldest succeeded.",
"However, by the late sixteenth century Grougar was in the hands of a branch of the Graham family. The Grahams also are of Anglo\\-Norman origin who settled in Scotland in the early twelfth century during the reign of King [David I of Scotland](/wiki/David_I_of_Scotland \"David I of Scotland\"). On 18 February 1581 [King James VI](/wiki/King_James_VI \"King James VI\") confirmed a charter by Robert Graham of Knockdolian allocating certain land within the barony of Grougar to Thomas Lyon of Glamis and his wife Lady Agnes Gray \\[RGS.V.111].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 5, Entry 111\\. Robert Graham seem to have owned lands within the barony of Grougar by 1581 and ten years later the complete barony was his as on 3 March 1591 King James VI granted, for good service, the lands and barony of Grougar with its mill etc., in the bailiary of Cunningham, to John Graham of Knockdolian and his wife Lady Helen Kennedy \\[RGS.V.1834].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 5, Entry 1834\\.",
"On his death John Graham of Knockdolian passed Grougar to his brother Robert according to an entry in the Inquisitionum ad Capellam Regis Retornatarum Abbreviatio, on 16 April 1606, Robert Graham of Grougar was served heir to his brother Lord John Graham of Knockdolian, in the lands and barony of Grougar in the bailiary of Cunningham \\[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 85]. Robert Graham evidently already owned land in south Ayrshire which he sold according to a deed in the National Archives of Scotland β on 30 April 1606, Robert Graham of Grougar, husband of Margaret Montgomerie, sold land in the parish of Colmonell \\[NRS.GD109\\.672].",
"The Grahams rule as Barons of Grougar was relatively brief as in 1613 the barony was granted to a branch of the Clan Campbell headed by Sir Hugh Campbell, first Lord Loudoun, [Sheriff of Ayr](/wiki/Sheriff_of_Ayr \"Sheriff of Ayr\") and a Privy Councillor in Scotland.",
"On 27 July 1613, King James VI granted the barony of Grougar with its fortalice, manor place, mill, mill\\-lands, tenantry, etc., in the bailiary of Cunningham, Ayrshire, to Hugh, Lord Loudoun, and his heirs, formerly held by Robert Graham, Earl of Montrose, Lord Graham and Mugdock, lands in the nearby parish of Auchinleck, formerly held by Claud, Earl of Abercorn, were then incorporated in the free barony of Grougar \\[RGS.VII.896].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 896\\. This grant was confirmed on 23 December 1613 \\[RGS.VII.967].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 967\\.",
"However Lord Loudoun's ownership of Grougar was very brief as within three years it was granted to the Boyds of Kilmarnock. King James VI granted Robert, Lord Boyd, the lands and barony of Grougar, which Hugh, Lord Loudoun, had resigned, 30 January 1616 \\[RGS.VII.1372].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 1372\\. [Robert Boyd, 7th Lord Boyd](/wiki/Robert_Boyd%2C_7th_Lord_Boyd \"Robert Boyd, 7th Lord Boyd\"), was born in November 1595 elder son of Thomas, 6th Lord Boyd, and died on 28 August 1628\\. On 11 December 1617, King James VI confirmed a charter of Robert, Lord Boyd, who under his marriage contract of 9 December 1617 granted his future wife Lady Christine Hamilton, Lady Lindsay, daughter of Thomas, Lord Binning president of the College of Justice and Secretary of State, the lands and barony of Grougar \\[RGS.VII.1733].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 1733\\. However, on 3 August 1619, the king confirmed Robert, Lord Boyd, with the lands and barony of Grougar \\[RGS.VII.2069].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 7, Entry 2069\\.",
"[Robert Boyd, 8th Lord Boyd](/wiki/Robert_Boyd%2C_8th_Lord_Boyd \"Robert Boyd, 8th Lord Boyd\"), was born in 1618, he was a Justice of the Peace for Cunningham by 1634; he subscribed to the [Scottish Covenant](/wiki/Scottish_Covenant \"Scottish Covenant\") in 1638, he married Anna Fleming and died on 17 November 1640 and having no children his lands and titles went to his uncle James Boyd.",
"[James Boyd, 9th Lord Boyd](/wiki/James_Boyd%2C_9th_Lord_Boyd \"James Boyd, 9th Lord Boyd\"), was born around 1600; he was a Royalist during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638β1651\\. James Boyd married Catherine, second daughter of John Crayke in York before 1640\\. He died in 1654 leaving a son William and three daughters.",
"On 28 February 1655, William, 10th Lord Boyd, was served heir to his father James, Lord Boyd, in the lordship and barony of Kilmarnock which included the 40 pound land of the old extent and barony of Grougar \\[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 473]. Charles II created him [Earl of Kilmarnock](/wiki/Earl_of_Kilmarnock \"Earl of Kilmarnock\") in 1661\\. Lord Boyd was a Commissioner of Excise for Ayr, a Justice of the Peace for Lanark, Dumbarton and Ayr. He married Lady Jean Cunningham, eldest daughter of [William Cunningham, 9th Earl of Glencairn](/wiki/William_Cunningham%2C_9th_Earl_of_Glencairn \"William Cunningham, 9th Earl of Glencairn\") and they had five sons and three daughters of whom William succeeded his father when he died in March 1692\\.",
"On 11 August 1682, William, Lord Boyd, eldest son of William, Earl of Kilmarnock, was granted the lands of Kilmarnock \\[RGS.68\\.140].Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 68, Entry 140\\. On 20 July 1699, William, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock, was served heir to his father William, 2nd Earl of Kilmarnock, in various lands including the above lands in the barony of Grougar \\[NAS. Retours, Ayr, 698]. The 3rd Earl voted for the Union with England in 1707 and was a staunch Hanoverian. He raised 500 men to oppose the Jacobites in 1715\\. He died on 22 November 1717 and was succeeded by his son William.",
"[William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock](/wiki/William_Boyd%2C_4th_Earl_of_Kilmarnock \"William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock\"), was Grand Master Mason of Scotland in 1742\\. He, unlike his father, was a Jacobite and fought for Bonnie Prince Charlie with the rank of General and commander of the Horse Grenadier Guards. The Earl was captured at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 and later executed in London.",
"William Boyd, Earl of Kilmarnock, was executed as a Jacobite rebel in 1748, and his titles and lands in Ayrshire, Stirlingshire, and West Lothian were forfeited to the Crown on account of his treason. His son and heir James, Lord Boyd, who had fought for King George at the [Battle of Culloden](/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden \"Battle of Culloden\") managed to regain some of the forfeited lands but he sold them in 1758\\. Lord Boyd was Grand Master Mason of Scotland in 1751\\.",
"The titles and lands of the Jacobite aristocrats and landowners who had supported and participated in the [Jacobite rising of 1745](/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 \"Jacobite rising of 1745\") were forfeited to the Crown and the lands were subsequently sold off to speculators, one of whom was Sir George Colebrooke.",
"Sir George Colebrooke, born 1729, was Chairman of the [East India Company](/wiki/East_India_Company \"East India Company\"), a merchant banker and a Member of Parliament. He was also a land speculator in New England, the Ohio Valley, Scotland and the West Indies, and also in raw materials which led to his downfall around 1777\\. Grougar would have been sold to William Blane around this time. In 1770 the lands of Grougar were owned by Sir George Colebrooke and were valued at Β£1497\\.16\\.0 according to Loretta R. Timberley's βA Directory of Landownership in Scotland c1770β \\[Scottish Record Society, Edinburgh, 1976] Both Sir George Colebrooke and William Blane leased the various farmlands within the barony to tenant farmers. An insight into this practice can be had through an examination of the financial records, especially tacks (leases), of William Blane of Grougar which survive for the period 1796 to 1797 \\[NRS.GD237\\.21\\.19].",
"Grougar remained the property of members of the Blane family for nearly a century. A later William Blane extended his landholdings in the 1820s and 1830s through Crown Charters. He was granted a Crown Charter of the lands of Kirkdomine in 1825 \\[RGS.175\\.6];Registrum magni sigilli regum Scotorum β The Register of the Great Seal of Scotland, Volume 175, Entry 6\\. another of the lands of Lammochie in 1830/1834 \\[NAS.195\\.9/205\\.23]. By the time of the New Statistical Account of 1845 one of the chief landowners in the parish of Kilmarnock was William Blane of Grougar. On 27 July 1857, a Crown Charter was granted in favour of William Blane of the lands and barony of Grougar to the trustees of William Blane \\[NAS. Ref. C2/258/130]. Eventually on 1 December 1881 the Trustees of William Blane sold the lands and barony of Grougar.",
"Grougar was sold to John White of Ardarroch, who as John White of Grougar and Ardarroch had arms bearing \"an eagle displayed between three quatrefoils azure, on a chief of the second a besant between two garbs of the first\". \\[James Balfour Paul's βAn Ordinary of Armsβ] Grougar remained in the hands of John White until 22 November 1904, when his trustees disposed of Grougar to [William Cavendish\\-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland](/wiki/William_Cavendish-Bentinck%2C_6th_Duke_of_Portland \"William Cavendish-Bentinck, 6th Duke of Portland\"). On 13 September 1918, the Duke of Portland subscribed to a disposition and trust deed of the Barony of Grougar. From the Welbeck Estates Company Limited, the trustees acting under disposition and deed of trust by the Duke of Portland, the barony was acquired by Professor David Ian McLean. In 2015 the Barony was assigned to his daughter Dr. Lianne Jennifer McLean on the occasion of her wedding to Mr. Jon Loewen.",
""
] |
Journey to the United States
----------------------------
In 1760, the [Qianlong Emperor](/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor "Qianlong Emperor") adopted a closed border policy in response to the increasing influence of Westerners in China.{{Cite journal\|last\=Haddad\|first\=John\|date\=2011\|title\=The Chinese Lady and China for the Ladies: Race, Gender, and Public Exhibition in Jacksonian America\|url\=https://www.chsa.org/wp\-content/uploads/2012/01/2011HP\_02\_Haddad.pdf\|journal\=The Journal of the Chinese Historical Society of America\|pages\=5β19\|via\=Chinese Historical Society of America and UCLA Asian American Studies}} This policy was in effect until the mid\-1800s, and meant that Westerners were only allowed to set foot on the southern port of Canton.
While it is not clear how Moy was able to leave China and find her way to the U.S., her journey is widely attributed to two American merchants, the brothers Nathaniel and Frederic Carne. In the early 1800s, the Carne brothers worked with ship captain B. T. Obear to start a new business and draw further attention to Chinese goods in New York. Debating on a means to elevate their business, the Carne brothers concluded that exhibiting a Chinese woman in New York among a decor of Chinese furnishings would be an effective marketing strategy. They hoped that interacting with an exotic Chinese woman would lead Westerners to develop a fascination with Chinese goods.
[thumb\|The ship manifest for the *Washington* listed "Auphinoy" or "Auphmoy" from Canton.](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_ship_manifest.png "Afong Moy ship manifest.png")
It is believed that through newspapers and promotional materials, Captain Obear contacted Moy's father, and succeeded in reaching an agreement to bring Moy to the U.S. Some sources suggest that Moy was the daughter of a privileged family, and that her father accepted payments for her temporary move to the United States.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.headstuff.org/culture/history/first\-chinese\-woman\-america/\|title\=The First Chinese Woman in America\|last\=Sun\|first\=Derek\|date\=2016\|website\=HeadStuff\|access\-date\=11 March 2019}} Other sources hint that she had left China to earn money to send back to her parents in Guangzhou, who were unable to support her.{{Cite book\|url\=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text\-idx?c\=acls;idno\=heb90023 \|title\=Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s\-1920s\|last\=Moon\|first\=Krystyn\|publisher\=Rutgers UP\|year\=2006\|isbn\=9780813535074 \|access\-date\=8 April 2019}} Obear promised to return Moy on his next voyage to Canton in two years (however, Captain Obear re\-embarked to Canton in April 1835, and Moy did not accompany him). On 17 October 1834, Moy arrived in the United States aboard Captain Obear's ship, the *Washington*. She was listed on the passenger list as "Auphinoy"/"Auphmoy".{{cite book \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=aKGjSK51OZsC\&dq\=Afong\+Moy\&pg\=PA60 \|pages\= 59β62 \|title\= Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s\-1920s \|year\= 2005 \|publisher\= Rutgers University Press \|author\= Krystyn R. Moon \|isbn\= 0813535077 \|accessdate\= 8 December 2014}}
Upon her arrival in New York, Moy was identified by local newspapers as "Julia Foochee ching\-chang king", the daughter of "Hong wang\-tzang tzee\-king";{{Cite book\|title\=The Romance of China: Excursions to China in US Culture 1776\-1876\|last\=Haddad\|first\=John\|publisher\=Columbia University Press\|year\=2008\|isbn\=9780231130943 \|chapter\=Chapter 3 \|url\=http://www.gutenberg\-e.org/haj01/}}{{cite book \|last1\=Davis \|first1\=Nancy E. \|title\=The Chinese lady : Afong Moy in early America \|date\=2019 \|location\=New York, NY \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=9780190645236 \|pages\=33β34}}{{cite news \|title\=Extraordinary Arrival \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/310589094/?terms\=Julia%20Foochee\&match\=1 \|access\-date\=14 August 2021 \|work\=Carlisle Weekly Herald \|date\=29 Oct 1834 \|language\=en \|page\=2}} "Miss Ching\-Chang\-foo"; "Miss Keo\-O\-Kwang King"; and other variations. It was after her arrival to the United States that she adopted the name Afong Moy, possibly on the request of the Carne brothers. This may have been a [romanization](/wiki/Romanization "Romanization") of a nickname with the Chinese prefix {{transl\|zh\|a\-}} ({{lang\|zh\|\[\[wikt:ιΏ\|ιΏ]]}}). Initially, Moy could not speak English, but could communicate effectively through her interpreter, a Chinese man named "Atung" or "Acong".
### Experience in the United States
#### Early years and fame
[thumb\|Afong Moy as depicted in an 1835 advertisement in *[The Charleston Mercury](/wiki/The_Charleston_Mercury "The Charleston Mercury")*](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_in_The_Charleston_Mercury.jpg "Afong Moy in The Charleston Mercury.jpg")
On 6 November 1834, Moy gave her first performance at an exhibition hall at No. 8 Park Palace, and advertisements of her performance soon began to appear in local newspapers. These advertisements described Moy as 19 years of age, 4 feet 10 inches in height, "dressed in her national costume", with feet that were "but four inches in length". One paper advertised Moy as a Chinese lady "in native costume who showed New York belles how different ladies could look in widely separated regions".{{Cite book\|title\=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: v. 1: The Qing Period, 1644\-1911\|last\=Lee\|first\=Lily Xiao Hong\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2015\|url\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317475880}} From 10 November onwards, Moy was exhibited to the general public between 10Β am and 2Β pm, and then again from 5Β pm to 9Β pm, for the price of 50Β cents. She would sit upon a throne of "rich and costly materials" in a Chinese setting, the centerpiece of a room of Chinese furnishings, handicrafts, and decorative objects. On stage, she would use [chopsticks](/wiki/Chopsticks "Chopsticks"), explain Chinese social practices, and sing traditional Chinese songs. She would sometimes display her bound feet by elevating them on a cushion or walking around the room. She performed at various venues in 1834, including the American Museum, [Peale's Museum](/wiki/Peale_Museum%2C_New_York_City "Peale Museum, New York City"), and the [Brooklyn Institute](/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum "Brooklyn Museum").{{Cite book\|title\=Marginal Sights: Staging the Chinese in America\|last\=Moy\|first\=James S.\|publisher\=University of Iowa\|year\=1996\|isbn\=0877454272}}
Evidence suggests that Moy's opinions were respected in her exhibitions, and that Moy had the agency to reject audience requests.
As her exhibition in New York gained fame, Moy embarked on a trip across the United States, visiting major cities including [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut "New Haven, Connecticut"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston%2C_West_Virginia "Charleston, West Virginia"), [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), and [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"). In March 1835, she performed in Washington for an entire month, where her exhibition was hailed as an "unprecedented novelty".{{Cite journal\|last\=Zhang\|first\=Tao\|date\=2015\|title\=The Start of American Accommodation of the Chinese: Afong Moy's Experience from 1834 to 1850\|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal\-of\-american\-studies/article/start\-of\-american\-accommodation\-of\-the\-chinese\-afong\-moys\-experience\-from\-1834\-to\-1850/5E719CAE8C8AB3869BC36A230ADF30EF\|journal\=Journal of American Studies\|volume\=49\|issue\=3\|pages\=475β503\|doi\=10\.1017/S0021875814001819\|s2cid\=146466330\|via\=Cambridge Core}} In Washington, Moy met U.S. President Andrew Jackson in early March. The New York firm Risso and Browne published a lithograph of her, titled "The Chinese Lady".
In 1836, an advertisement in *[The Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")* said that Moy had visited "nearly every City in the Union" and was returning to New York to "say farewell" before returning to China. By this point she could speak some English. An advertisement in *[The Pittsburgh Gazette](/wiki/The_Pittsburgh_Gazette "The Pittsburgh Gazette")* said that she intended to return to China soon on the *Mary Ballard*. But in December, she was still in the United States; supposedly she had not been able to find a ship back to China, but more likely the claimed plans for departure were just an advertising tactic to increase ticket sales. She reappeared in New York in April 1837, as advertised in *The Long\-Island Star*, which said again that she planned to return to China soon.{{cite news \|title\=24 Apr 1837, Page 4 \- The Long\-Island Star \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/118040658/ \|access\-date\=3 March 2021 \|work\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}} She is not mentioned again until the following year.
#### Decline
In April 1838, the media reported that Moy was faced with financial difficulties. Rumors were circulated that she had been discarded in New Jersey by her guardians, who had "stolen" her from China and feared prosecution if they brought her back.{{cite news \|title\=12 May 1838, 2 \- The Native American \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/354105768/ \|access\-date\=7 March 2021 \|work\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}} Descriptions of her situation were distressing to the extent that local residents considered financing her return to China. Moy's guardian, Caleb E. Taylor, rebuked these claims, although Moy did not continue to put on exhibitions.
Following press coverage of Moy's situation, the authorities of [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey "Monmouth County, New Jersey"), boarded her in the local poorhouse at public expense. She remained there until sometime before April 1848, when "a company of persons redeemed her, by defraying the expenses of her maintenance and giving security for the future". Moy's removal from the poorhouse was intended to return her to the exhibition hall. In 1847, the public were once again able to attend her shows.
After more shows in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, Moy performed at a venue on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., in November 1849\. In this performance, her name was advertised as Afong Moy Nanchoy, suggesting that she had been married, possibly to a man who was also of Cantonese origin. Her last recorded exhibition was in the New York City Hotel in April 1850\. Following this performance, records of Moy completely disappear. Some sources suggest that she had left the United States to tour Europe.
|
[
"Journey to the United States\n----------------------------",
"In 1760, the [Qianlong Emperor](/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor \"Qianlong Emperor\") adopted a closed border policy in response to the increasing influence of Westerners in China.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Haddad\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=2011\\|title\\=The Chinese Lady and China for the Ladies: Race, Gender, and Public Exhibition in Jacksonian America\\|url\\=https://www.chsa.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2012/01/2011HP\\_02\\_Haddad.pdf\\|journal\\=The Journal of the Chinese Historical Society of America\\|pages\\=5β19\\|via\\=Chinese Historical Society of America and UCLA Asian American Studies}} This policy was in effect until the mid\\-1800s, and meant that Westerners were only allowed to set foot on the southern port of Canton.",
"While it is not clear how Moy was able to leave China and find her way to the U.S., her journey is widely attributed to two American merchants, the brothers Nathaniel and Frederic Carne. In the early 1800s, the Carne brothers worked with ship captain B. T. Obear to start a new business and draw further attention to Chinese goods in New York. Debating on a means to elevate their business, the Carne brothers concluded that exhibiting a Chinese woman in New York among a decor of Chinese furnishings would be an effective marketing strategy. They hoped that interacting with an exotic Chinese woman would lead Westerners to develop a fascination with Chinese goods.",
"[thumb\\|The ship manifest for the *Washington* listed \"Auphinoy\" or \"Auphmoy\" from Canton.](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_ship_manifest.png \"Afong Moy ship manifest.png\")\nIt is believed that through newspapers and promotional materials, Captain Obear contacted Moy's father, and succeeded in reaching an agreement to bring Moy to the U.S. Some sources suggest that Moy was the daughter of a privileged family, and that her father accepted payments for her temporary move to the United States.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.headstuff.org/culture/history/first\\-chinese\\-woman\\-america/\\|title\\=The First Chinese Woman in America\\|last\\=Sun\\|first\\=Derek\\|date\\=2016\\|website\\=HeadStuff\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2019}} Other sources hint that she had left China to earn money to send back to her parents in Guangzhou, who were unable to support her.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text\\-idx?c\\=acls;idno\\=heb90023 \\|title\\=Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s\\-1920s\\|last\\=Moon\\|first\\=Krystyn\\|publisher\\=Rutgers UP\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=9780813535074 \\|access\\-date\\=8 April 2019}} Obear promised to return Moy on his next voyage to Canton in two years (however, Captain Obear re\\-embarked to Canton in April 1835, and Moy did not accompany him). On 17 October 1834, Moy arrived in the United States aboard Captain Obear's ship, the *Washington*. She was listed on the passenger list as \"Auphinoy\"/\"Auphmoy\".{{cite book \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=aKGjSK51OZsC\\&dq\\=Afong\\+Moy\\&pg\\=PA60 \\|pages\\= 59β62 \\|title\\= Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s\\-1920s \\|year\\= 2005 \\|publisher\\= Rutgers University Press \\|author\\= Krystyn R. Moon \\|isbn\\= 0813535077 \\|accessdate\\= 8 December 2014}}",
"Upon her arrival in New York, Moy was identified by local newspapers as \"Julia Foochee ching\\-chang king\", the daughter of \"Hong wang\\-tzang tzee\\-king\";{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Romance of China: Excursions to China in US Culture 1776\\-1876\\|last\\=Haddad\\|first\\=John\\|publisher\\=Columbia University Press\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=9780231130943 \\|chapter\\=Chapter 3 \\|url\\=http://www.gutenberg\\-e.org/haj01/}}{{cite book \\|last1\\=Davis \\|first1\\=Nancy E. \\|title\\=The Chinese lady : Afong Moy in early America \\|date\\=2019 \\|location\\=New York, NY \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=9780190645236 \\|pages\\=33β34}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Extraordinary Arrival \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/310589094/?terms\\=Julia%20Foochee\\&match\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2021 \\|work\\=Carlisle Weekly Herald \\|date\\=29 Oct 1834 \\|language\\=en \\|page\\=2}} \"Miss Ching\\-Chang\\-foo\"; \"Miss Keo\\-O\\-Kwang King\"; and other variations. It was after her arrival to the United States that she adopted the name Afong Moy, possibly on the request of the Carne brothers. This may have been a [romanization](/wiki/Romanization \"Romanization\") of a nickname with the Chinese prefix {{transl\\|zh\\|a\\-}} ({{lang\\|zh\\|\\[\\[wikt:ιΏ\\|ιΏ]]}}). Initially, Moy could not speak English, but could communicate effectively through her interpreter, a Chinese man named \"Atung\" or \"Acong\".",
"### Experience in the United States",
"#### Early years and fame",
"[thumb\\|Afong Moy as depicted in an 1835 advertisement in *[The Charleston Mercury](/wiki/The_Charleston_Mercury \"The Charleston Mercury\")*](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_in_The_Charleston_Mercury.jpg \"Afong Moy in The Charleston Mercury.jpg\")\nOn 6 November 1834, Moy gave her first performance at an exhibition hall at No. 8 Park Palace, and advertisements of her performance soon began to appear in local newspapers. These advertisements described Moy as 19 years of age, 4 feet 10 inches in height, \"dressed in her national costume\", with feet that were \"but four inches in length\". One paper advertised Moy as a Chinese lady \"in native costume who showed New York belles how different ladies could look in widely separated regions\".{{Cite book\\|title\\=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: v. 1: The Qing Period, 1644\\-1911\\|last\\=Lee\\|first\\=Lily Xiao Hong\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2015\\|url\\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317475880}} From 10 November onwards, Moy was exhibited to the general public between 10Β am and 2Β pm, and then again from 5Β pm to 9Β pm, for the price of 50Β cents. She would sit upon a throne of \"rich and costly materials\" in a Chinese setting, the centerpiece of a room of Chinese furnishings, handicrafts, and decorative objects. On stage, she would use [chopsticks](/wiki/Chopsticks \"Chopsticks\"), explain Chinese social practices, and sing traditional Chinese songs. She would sometimes display her bound feet by elevating them on a cushion or walking around the room. She performed at various venues in 1834, including the American Museum, [Peale's Museum](/wiki/Peale_Museum%2C_New_York_City \"Peale Museum, New York City\"), and the [Brooklyn Institute](/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum \"Brooklyn Museum\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Marginal Sights: Staging the Chinese in America\\|last\\=Moy\\|first\\=James S.\\|publisher\\=University of Iowa\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=0877454272}}",
"Evidence suggests that Moy's opinions were respected in her exhibitions, and that Moy had the agency to reject audience requests.",
"As her exhibition in New York gained fame, Moy embarked on a trip across the United States, visiting major cities including [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut \"New Haven, Connecticut\"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston%2C_West_Virginia \"Charleston, West Virginia\"), [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), and [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"). In March 1835, she performed in Washington for an entire month, where her exhibition was hailed as an \"unprecedented novelty\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Zhang\\|first\\=Tao\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=The Start of American Accommodation of the Chinese: Afong Moy's Experience from 1834 to 1850\\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal\\-of\\-american\\-studies/article/start\\-of\\-american\\-accommodation\\-of\\-the\\-chinese\\-afong\\-moys\\-experience\\-from\\-1834\\-to\\-1850/5E719CAE8C8AB3869BC36A230ADF30EF\\|journal\\=Journal of American Studies\\|volume\\=49\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=475β503\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0021875814001819\\|s2cid\\=146466330\\|via\\=Cambridge Core}} In Washington, Moy met U.S. President Andrew Jackson in early March. The New York firm Risso and Browne published a lithograph of her, titled \"The Chinese Lady\".",
"In 1836, an advertisement in *[The Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")* said that Moy had visited \"nearly every City in the Union\" and was returning to New York to \"say farewell\" before returning to China. By this point she could speak some English. An advertisement in *[The Pittsburgh Gazette](/wiki/The_Pittsburgh_Gazette \"The Pittsburgh Gazette\")* said that she intended to return to China soon on the *Mary Ballard*. But in December, she was still in the United States; supposedly she had not been able to find a ship back to China, but more likely the claimed plans for departure were just an advertising tactic to increase ticket sales. She reappeared in New York in April 1837, as advertised in *The Long\\-Island Star*, which said again that she planned to return to China soon.{{cite news \\|title\\=24 Apr 1837, Page 4 \\- The Long\\-Island Star \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/118040658/ \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2021 \\|work\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}} She is not mentioned again until the following year.",
"#### Decline",
"In April 1838, the media reported that Moy was faced with financial difficulties. Rumors were circulated that she had been discarded in New Jersey by her guardians, who had \"stolen\" her from China and feared prosecution if they brought her back.{{cite news \\|title\\=12 May 1838, 2 \\- The Native American \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/354105768/ \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2021 \\|work\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}} Descriptions of her situation were distressing to the extent that local residents considered financing her return to China. Moy's guardian, Caleb E. Taylor, rebuked these claims, although Moy did not continue to put on exhibitions.",
"Following press coverage of Moy's situation, the authorities of [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Monmouth County, New Jersey\"), boarded her in the local poorhouse at public expense. She remained there until sometime before April 1848, when \"a company of persons redeemed her, by defraying the expenses of her maintenance and giving security for the future\". Moy's removal from the poorhouse was intended to return her to the exhibition hall. In 1847, the public were once again able to attend her shows.",
"After more shows in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, Moy performed at a venue on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., in November 1849\\. In this performance, her name was advertised as Afong Moy Nanchoy, suggesting that she had been married, possibly to a man who was also of Cantonese origin. Her last recorded exhibition was in the New York City Hotel in April 1850\\. Following this performance, records of Moy completely disappear. Some sources suggest that she had left the United States to tour Europe.",
""
] |
### Experience in the United States
#### Early years and fame
[thumb\|Afong Moy as depicted in an 1835 advertisement in *[The Charleston Mercury](/wiki/The_Charleston_Mercury "The Charleston Mercury")*](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_in_The_Charleston_Mercury.jpg "Afong Moy in The Charleston Mercury.jpg")
On 6 November 1834, Moy gave her first performance at an exhibition hall at No. 8 Park Palace, and advertisements of her performance soon began to appear in local newspapers. These advertisements described Moy as 19 years of age, 4 feet 10 inches in height, "dressed in her national costume", with feet that were "but four inches in length". One paper advertised Moy as a Chinese lady "in native costume who showed New York belles how different ladies could look in widely separated regions".{{Cite book\|title\=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: v. 1: The Qing Period, 1644\-1911\|last\=Lee\|first\=Lily Xiao Hong\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=2015\|url\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317475880}} From 10 November onwards, Moy was exhibited to the general public between 10Β am and 2Β pm, and then again from 5Β pm to 9Β pm, for the price of 50Β cents. She would sit upon a throne of "rich and costly materials" in a Chinese setting, the centerpiece of a room of Chinese furnishings, handicrafts, and decorative objects. On stage, she would use [chopsticks](/wiki/Chopsticks "Chopsticks"), explain Chinese social practices, and sing traditional Chinese songs. She would sometimes display her bound feet by elevating them on a cushion or walking around the room. She performed at various venues in 1834, including the American Museum, [Peale's Museum](/wiki/Peale_Museum%2C_New_York_City "Peale Museum, New York City"), and the [Brooklyn Institute](/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum "Brooklyn Museum").{{Cite book\|title\=Marginal Sights: Staging the Chinese in America\|last\=Moy\|first\=James S.\|publisher\=University of Iowa\|year\=1996\|isbn\=0877454272}}
Evidence suggests that Moy's opinions were respected in her exhibitions, and that Moy had the agency to reject audience requests.
As her exhibition in New York gained fame, Moy embarked on a trip across the United States, visiting major cities including [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut "New Haven, Connecticut"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore "Baltimore"), [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia "Richmond, Virginia"), [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston%2C_West_Virginia "Charleston, West Virginia"), [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), and [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"). In March 1835, she performed in Washington for an entire month, where her exhibition was hailed as an "unprecedented novelty".{{Cite journal\|last\=Zhang\|first\=Tao\|date\=2015\|title\=The Start of American Accommodation of the Chinese: Afong Moy's Experience from 1834 to 1850\|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal\-of\-american\-studies/article/start\-of\-american\-accommodation\-of\-the\-chinese\-afong\-moys\-experience\-from\-1834\-to\-1850/5E719CAE8C8AB3869BC36A230ADF30EF\|journal\=Journal of American Studies\|volume\=49\|issue\=3\|pages\=475β503\|doi\=10\.1017/S0021875814001819\|s2cid\=146466330\|via\=Cambridge Core}} In Washington, Moy met U.S. President Andrew Jackson in early March. The New York firm Risso and Browne published a lithograph of her, titled "The Chinese Lady".
In 1836, an advertisement in *[The Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")* said that Moy had visited "nearly every City in the Union" and was returning to New York to "say farewell" before returning to China. By this point she could speak some English. An advertisement in *[The Pittsburgh Gazette](/wiki/The_Pittsburgh_Gazette "The Pittsburgh Gazette")* said that she intended to return to China soon on the *Mary Ballard*. But in December, she was still in the United States; supposedly she had not been able to find a ship back to China, but more likely the claimed plans for departure were just an advertising tactic to increase ticket sales. She reappeared in New York in April 1837, as advertised in *The Long\-Island Star*, which said again that she planned to return to China soon.{{cite news \|title\=24 Apr 1837, Page 4 \- The Long\-Island Star \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/118040658/ \|access\-date\=3 March 2021 \|work\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}} She is not mentioned again until the following year.
#### Decline
In April 1838, the media reported that Moy was faced with financial difficulties. Rumors were circulated that she had been discarded in New Jersey by her guardians, who had "stolen" her from China and feared prosecution if they brought her back.{{cite news \|title\=12 May 1838, 2 \- The Native American \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/354105768/ \|access\-date\=7 March 2021 \|work\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}} Descriptions of her situation were distressing to the extent that local residents considered financing her return to China. Moy's guardian, Caleb E. Taylor, rebuked these claims, although Moy did not continue to put on exhibitions.
Following press coverage of Moy's situation, the authorities of [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey "Monmouth County, New Jersey"), boarded her in the local poorhouse at public expense. She remained there until sometime before April 1848, when "a company of persons redeemed her, by defraying the expenses of her maintenance and giving security for the future". Moy's removal from the poorhouse was intended to return her to the exhibition hall. In 1847, the public were once again able to attend her shows.
After more shows in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, Moy performed at a venue on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., in November 1849\. In this performance, her name was advertised as Afong Moy Nanchoy, suggesting that she had been married, possibly to a man who was also of Cantonese origin. Her last recorded exhibition was in the New York City Hotel in April 1850\. Following this performance, records of Moy completely disappear. Some sources suggest that she had left the United States to tour Europe.
|
[
"### Experience in the United States",
"#### Early years and fame",
"[thumb\\|Afong Moy as depicted in an 1835 advertisement in *[The Charleston Mercury](/wiki/The_Charleston_Mercury \"The Charleston Mercury\")*](/wiki/File:Afong_Moy_in_The_Charleston_Mercury.jpg \"Afong Moy in The Charleston Mercury.jpg\")\nOn 6 November 1834, Moy gave her first performance at an exhibition hall at No. 8 Park Palace, and advertisements of her performance soon began to appear in local newspapers. These advertisements described Moy as 19 years of age, 4 feet 10 inches in height, \"dressed in her national costume\", with feet that were \"but four inches in length\". One paper advertised Moy as a Chinese lady \"in native costume who showed New York belles how different ladies could look in widely separated regions\".{{Cite book\\|title\\=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: v. 1: The Qing Period, 1644\\-1911\\|last\\=Lee\\|first\\=Lily Xiao Hong\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=2015\\|url\\=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317475880}} From 10 November onwards, Moy was exhibited to the general public between 10Β am and 2Β pm, and then again from 5Β pm to 9Β pm, for the price of 50Β cents. She would sit upon a throne of \"rich and costly materials\" in a Chinese setting, the centerpiece of a room of Chinese furnishings, handicrafts, and decorative objects. On stage, she would use [chopsticks](/wiki/Chopsticks \"Chopsticks\"), explain Chinese social practices, and sing traditional Chinese songs. She would sometimes display her bound feet by elevating them on a cushion or walking around the room. She performed at various venues in 1834, including the American Museum, [Peale's Museum](/wiki/Peale_Museum%2C_New_York_City \"Peale Museum, New York City\"), and the [Brooklyn Institute](/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum \"Brooklyn Museum\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Marginal Sights: Staging the Chinese in America\\|last\\=Moy\\|first\\=James S.\\|publisher\\=University of Iowa\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=0877454272}}",
"Evidence suggests that Moy's opinions were respected in her exhibitions, and that Moy had the agency to reject audience requests.",
"As her exhibition in New York gained fame, Moy embarked on a trip across the United States, visiting major cities including [New Haven](/wiki/New_Haven%2C_Connecticut \"New Haven, Connecticut\"), [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\"), [Washington](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), [Baltimore](/wiki/Baltimore \"Baltimore\"), [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Virginia \"Richmond, Virginia\"), [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), [Charleston](/wiki/Charleston%2C_West_Virginia \"Charleston, West Virginia\"), [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), and [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"). In March 1835, she performed in Washington for an entire month, where her exhibition was hailed as an \"unprecedented novelty\".{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Zhang\\|first\\=Tao\\|date\\=2015\\|title\\=The Start of American Accommodation of the Chinese: Afong Moy's Experience from 1834 to 1850\\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal\\-of\\-american\\-studies/article/start\\-of\\-american\\-accommodation\\-of\\-the\\-chinese\\-afong\\-moys\\-experience\\-from\\-1834\\-to\\-1850/5E719CAE8C8AB3869BC36A230ADF30EF\\|journal\\=Journal of American Studies\\|volume\\=49\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=475β503\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/S0021875814001819\\|s2cid\\=146466330\\|via\\=Cambridge Core}} In Washington, Moy met U.S. President Andrew Jackson in early March. The New York firm Risso and Browne published a lithograph of her, titled \"The Chinese Lady\".",
"In 1836, an advertisement in *[The Evening Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")* said that Moy had visited \"nearly every City in the Union\" and was returning to New York to \"say farewell\" before returning to China. By this point she could speak some English. An advertisement in *[The Pittsburgh Gazette](/wiki/The_Pittsburgh_Gazette \"The Pittsburgh Gazette\")* said that she intended to return to China soon on the *Mary Ballard*. But in December, she was still in the United States; supposedly she had not been able to find a ship back to China, but more likely the claimed plans for departure were just an advertising tactic to increase ticket sales. She reappeared in New York in April 1837, as advertised in *The Long\\-Island Star*, which said again that she planned to return to China soon.{{cite news \\|title\\=24 Apr 1837, Page 4 \\- The Long\\-Island Star \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/118040658/ \\|access\\-date\\=3 March 2021 \\|work\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}} She is not mentioned again until the following year.",
"#### Decline",
"In April 1838, the media reported that Moy was faced with financial difficulties. Rumors were circulated that she had been discarded in New Jersey by her guardians, who had \"stolen\" her from China and feared prosecution if they brought her back.{{cite news \\|title\\=12 May 1838, 2 \\- The Native American \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/354105768/ \\|access\\-date\\=7 March 2021 \\|work\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}} Descriptions of her situation were distressing to the extent that local residents considered financing her return to China. Moy's guardian, Caleb E. Taylor, rebuked these claims, although Moy did not continue to put on exhibitions.",
"Following press coverage of Moy's situation, the authorities of [Monmouth County, New Jersey](/wiki/Monmouth_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Monmouth County, New Jersey\"), boarded her in the local poorhouse at public expense. She remained there until sometime before April 1848, when \"a company of persons redeemed her, by defraying the expenses of her maintenance and giving security for the future\". Moy's removal from the poorhouse was intended to return her to the exhibition hall. In 1847, the public were once again able to attend her shows.",
"After more shows in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, Moy performed at a venue on Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C., in November 1849\\. In this performance, her name was advertised as Afong Moy Nanchoy, suggesting that she had been married, possibly to a man who was also of Cantonese origin. Her last recorded exhibition was in the New York City Hotel in April 1850\\. Following this performance, records of Moy completely disappear. Some sources suggest that she had left the United States to tour Europe.",
""
] |
Acting career
-------------
### In Europe (1922β1934\)
[upright\|thumb\|{{center\|Lorre in ''\[\[M (1931 film)\|M]]'' (1931\)}}](/wiki/File:Mostro1.jpg "Mostro1.jpg")
[upright\|thumb\|{{center\|Lorre (left) in ''M'' (1931\)}}](/wiki/File:Mostro2.jpg "Mostro2.jpg")
Lorre began acting on stage in Vienna aged 17, where he worked with Viennese [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau "Art Nouveau") artist and [puppeteer](/wiki/Puppeteer "Puppeteer") [Richard Teschner](/wiki/Richard_Teschner "Richard Teschner"). He then moved to [Breslau](/wiki/Breslau "Breslau") and later to [ZΓΌrich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich "ZΓΌrich"). In the late 1920s, the actor["Per Lorre FAQ"](http://www.peterlorrebook.com/faq01.html#tall), Stephen D. Youngkin's Peter Lorre website moved to Berlin, where he worked with [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht "Bertolt Brecht"), including a role in Brecht's *[Man Equals Man](/wiki/Man_Equals_Man "Man Equals Man")* and as Dr. Nakamura in the musical *[Happy End](/wiki/Happy_End_%28musical%29 "Happy End (musical)")*.
The actor became much better known after director [Fritz Lang](/wiki/Fritz_Lang "Fritz Lang") cast him as [child\-killer](/wiki/Pedicide "Pedicide") Hans Beckert in *[M](/wiki/M_%281931_film%29 "M (1931 film)")* (1931\), a film reputedly inspired by the [Peter KΓΌrten](/wiki/Peter_K%C3%BCrten "Peter KΓΌrten") case.Sharon Packer [*Movies and the Modern Psyche*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CX4goUP_yh0C&pg=PA88), Westport, CN: Praeger, 2007, p. 88 Lang said that he had Lorre in mind for the part and did not give him a screen test because he was already convinced Lorre was perfect for the part.Barry Keith Grant (ed.) [*Fritz Lang: Interviews*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xxX-epJIzo0C&pg=PA78), University Press of Mississippi, 2003, p. 78 He also stated that the actor gave his best performance in *M* and that it was among the most distinguished in film history.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=64}} Sharon Packer observed that Lorre played the "loner, \[and] schizotypal murderer" with "raspy voice, bulging eyes, and emotive acting (a holdover from the silent screen) \[which] always make him memorable."
In 1932, Lorre appeared alongside [Hans Albers](/wiki/Hans_Albers "Hans Albers") in the science fiction film *[F.P.1 antwortet nicht](/wiki/F.P.1_antwortet_nicht "F.P.1 antwortet nicht")* about an artificial island in the mid\-[Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic "Atlantic").
When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, Lorre took refuge first in Paris and then London, where he was noticed by [Ivor Montagu](/wiki/Ivor_Montagu "Ivor Montagu"), associate producer for *[The Man Who Knew Too Much](/wiki/The_Man_Who_Knew_Too_Much_%281934_film%29 "The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)")* (1934\),{{Cite web \|last\=Reid \|first\=Brent \|date\=2019\-11\-19 \|title\=Alfred Hitchcock Collectors' Guide: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934\) \|url\=https://www.brentonfilm.com/alfred\-hitchcock\-collectors\-guide\-the\-man\-who\-knew\-too\-much\-1934 \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-02 \|website\=Brenton Film \|language\=en\-GB}} who reminded the film's director, [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock "Alfred Hitchcock"), about Lorre's performance in *M*. They considered him to play the [assassin](/wiki/Assassin "Assassin"), but wanted to use him in a larger role despite his limited command of English,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tcm.com/thismonth/article.jsp?cid\=104984\&mainArticleId\=201941 \|title\=The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934\) \|publisher\=Tcm.com \|access\-date\=June 11, 2009}} which Lorre overcame by learning much of his part phonetically. In *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian "The Guardian"),* September 2014, Michael Newton wrote, "Lorre cannot help but steal each scene; he's a physically present actor, often, you feel, surrounded as he is by the pallid English, the only one in the room with a body."{{cite news \|last1\=Newton \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Peter Lorre: master of the macabre \|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/sep/12/peter\-lorre\-master\-macabre\-bfi \|access\-date\=20 June 2024 \|work\=The Guardian \|date\=12 September 2014}}
Lorre and his first wife, actress [Celia Lovsky](/wiki/Celia_Lovsky "Celia Lovsky"), boarded the [Cunard\-White Star Liner](/wiki/Cunard-White_Star_Line "Cunard-White Star Line") [RMS Majestic](/wiki/RMS_Majestic_%281914%29 "RMS Majestic (1914)") in Southampton on July 18, 1934, to sail for New York a day after shooting had been completed on *The Man Who Knew Too Much*, having gained visitor's visas to the United States.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=98}}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.peterlorrebook.com/faq01\.html \| title\=The Lost One β A Life of Peter Lorre }}{{cite web \| url\=https://epdf.pub/the\-lost\-one\-a\-life\-of\-peter\-lorre.html \| title\=The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre \- PDF Free Download }}
After his first two American films, Lorre returned to England to feature in Hitchcock's *[Secret Agent](/wiki/Secret_Agent_%281936_film%29 "Secret Agent (1936 film)")* (1936\).Philip French ["Peter Lorre: a great screen actor remembered"](https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/31/peter-lorre-by-philip-french-m-huston-bogart-hitchcock-bacall), *The Observer*, August 31, 2014\.
### First years in Hollywood (1935β1940\)
Lorre settled in Hollywood and was soon under contract to [Columbia Pictures](/wiki/Columbia_Pictures "Columbia Pictures"), which had difficulty finding parts suitable for him. After some months of research, Lorre decided on *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment "Crime and Punishment")* by [Dostoevsky](/wiki/Dostoevsky "Dostoevsky") as a suitable project with himself in the central role. Columbia's head [Harry Cohn](/wiki/Harry_Cohn "Harry Cohn") agreed to make the film adaptation on the condition that he could lend Lorre to [Metro\-Goldwyn\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer"), possibly as a means of recouping the cost of Lorre not appearing in any of his films.Sarah Thomas [*Peter Lorre, Face Maker: Stardom and Performance Between Hollywood and Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQuleUmBXQC&pg=PA56), Berghahn Books, 2012, p. 56
For MGM's *[Mad Love](/wiki/Mad_Love_%281935_film%29 "Mad Love (1935 film)")* (1935\), set in Paris and directed by [Karl Freund](/wiki/Karl_Freund "Karl Freund"), Lorre's head was shaved for the role of Dr. Gogol, a demented surgeon who replaces the wrecked hands of a concert pianist with those of an executed knife murderer. An actress who works at the nearby [Grand Guignol](/wiki/Grand_Guignol "Grand Guignol") theater, who happens to be the pianist's wife, is the subject of Gogol's unwelcome infatuation.BartΕomiej Paszylk [*The Pleasure and Pain of Cult Horror Films: An Historical Survey*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SWCx_jpxkdwC&pg=PA34), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009, pp. 34β36 "Lorre triumphs superbly in a characterization that is sheer horror", *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter "The Hollywood Reporter")* commented. "There is perhaps no one who can be so repulsive and so utterly wicked. No one who can smile so disarmingly and still sneer. His face is his fortune".Gregory William Mank [*Hollywood Cauldron: Thirteen Horror Films from the Genre's Golden Age*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zyyf9E7OAlkC&pg=PA147), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1994 \[2001], p. 147
[left\|thumb\|upright\|[Edward Arnold](/wiki/Edward_Arnold_%28actor%29 "Edward Arnold (actor)") and Lorre in *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment_%281935_American_film%29 "Crime and Punishment (1935 American film)")* (1935\)](/wiki/File:Crime_and_Punishment_%28film%29_1935._Josef_von_Sternberg%2C_director._L_to_R_Edward_Arnold%2C_Peter_Lorre.jpg "Crime and Punishment (film) 1935. Josef von Sternberg, director. L to R Edward Arnold, Peter Lorre.jpg")
Lorre followed *Mad Love* with the lead role in *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment_%281935_American_film%29 "Crime and Punishment (1935 American film)")* (also 1935\) directed by [Josef von Sternberg](/wiki/Josef_von_Sternberg "Josef von Sternberg"). "Although Peter Lorre is occasionally able to give the film a frightening pathological significance," wrote [Andre Sennwald](/wiki/Andre_Sennwald "Andre Sennwald") in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* on the film's release, "this is scarcely Dostoievsky's drama of a tortured brain drifting into madness with a terrible secret."John Baxter [*Von Sternberg*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nuSpdN_zj5YC&pg=PA197), Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2010, p. 197 Columbia offered him a five\-year contract at $1,000 a week ({{Inflation\|US\|1000\|1935\|r\=0\|fmt\=eq}}), but he declined.David Shipman *The Great Movie Stars: 2, The International Years*, London: Macdonald, 1989, pp. 336β38
Returning from England after appearing in a second Hitchcock picture (*[Secret Agent](/wiki/Secret_Agent_%281936_film%29 "Secret Agent (1936 film)")*, 1936\), he was offered and accepted a 3\-year contract with [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Fox "20th Century Fox"). Starring in a series of [Mr. Moto](/wiki/Mr._Moto "Mr. Moto") movies, Lorre played [John P. Marquand](/wiki/John_P._Marquand "John P. Marquand")'s character, a Japanese detective and spy. Initially positive about the films, he soon grew frustrated. "The role is childish," he said, and eventually tended to dismiss the films entirely.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|pp\=156β57}} He twisted his shoulder during a stunt in *[Mr. Moto Takes a Vacation](/wiki/Mr._Moto_Takes_a_Vacation "Mr. Moto Takes a Vacation")* (1939\),{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=156}} the penultimate entry of the series. In 1939, he attended a lunch at the request of some visiting Japanese officials; Lorre wore a badge that read "Boycott Japanese goods."Leonard Lyons. "The New Yorker". *The Washington Post* (1923β1954\) \[Washington, D.C.] July 1, 1939, p. 6
[thumb\|right\|With [Sig Ruman](/wiki/Sig_Ruman "Sig Ruman") in *[Think Fast, Mr. Moto](/wiki/Think_Fast%2C_Mr._Moto "Think Fast, Mr. Moto")* (1937\)](/wiki/File:Think_Fast%2C_Mr._Moto_trailer.png "Think Fast, Mr. Moto trailer.png")
Late in 1938, [Universal Pictures](/wiki/Universal_Pictures "Universal Pictures") wanted to borrow Lorre from Fox for the top\-billed titular role ultimately performed by [Basil Rathbone](/wiki/Basil_Rathbone "Basil Rathbone") in *[Son of Frankenstein](/wiki/Son_of_Frankenstein "Son of Frankenstein")* (1939\) starring [Boris Karloff](/wiki/Boris_Karloff "Boris Karloff") as [Frankenstein's monster](/wiki/Frankenstein%27s_monster "Frankenstein's monster") and [Bela Lugosi](/wiki/Bela_Lugosi "Bela Lugosi") as [Ygor](/wiki/Igor_%28character%29 "Igor (character)"). Lorre declined the role because he thought his menacing parts were now behind him, although he was ill at this time.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=164}} He had tested successfully in 1937 for the role of [Quasimodo](/wiki/Quasimodo "Quasimodo") in an aborted MGM version of *[The Hunchback of Notre\-Dame](/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame")*, according to a Fox publicist one of two roles Lorre most wanted to play (the other was [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon")).{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=163}} Frustrated by broken promises from Fox, Lorre managed to end his contract.
After a brief period as a freelance, he signed for two pictures at [RKO](/wiki/RKO "RKO") in May 1940\.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|pp\=164β68}} In the first of these, Lorre appeared as the anonymous lead in the B\-picture *[Stranger on the Third Floor](/wiki/Stranger_on_the_Third_Floor "Stranger on the Third Floor")* (1940\), reputedly the first [film noir](/wiki/Film_noir "Film noir").Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward *Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style*, New York \& WoodstocK: Overlook Press, 1992, p. 269 The second RKO film, also in 1940, was *[You'll Find Out](/wiki/You%27ll_Find_Out "You'll Find Out")*, a musical comedy mystery vehicle for bandleader [Kay Kyser](/wiki/Kay_Kyser "Kay Kyser") in which Lorre spoofed his sinister image alongside horror stars Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=170}}
### Mainly at Warner Bros. (1941β1946\)
[upright\|thumb\|Left to right: [Sydney Greenstreet](/wiki/Sydney_Greenstreet "Sydney Greenstreet") and Lorre in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 "The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)")* (1941\), the first of their nine films together](/wiki/File:GutmanCairoMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg "GutmanCairoMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg")
[upright\|thumb\|Lorre in the 1941 trailer for *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 "The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)")*](/wiki/File:CreditLorreMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg "CreditLorreMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|[Humphrey Bogart](/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart "Humphrey Bogart"), [Mary Astor](/wiki/Mary_Astor "Mary Astor"), [Barton MacLane](/wiki/Barton_MacLane "Barton MacLane"), Lorre, and [Ward Bond](/wiki/Ward_Bond "Ward Bond") in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 "The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)")*](/wiki/File:Maltese-Falcon-Tell-the-Truth-1941.jpg "Maltese-Falcon-Tell-the-Truth-1941.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|With Humphrey Bogart in *The Maltese Falcon* (1941\)](/wiki/File:Peter_Lorre_and_Humphrey_Bogart_The_Maltese_Falcon_Still.jpg "Peter Lorre and Humphrey Bogart The Maltese Falcon Still.jpg")
In 1941, Lorre became a naturalized citizen of the United States.Jennifer Fay [*Theaters of Occupation: Hollywood and the Reeducation of Postwar Germany*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jzNtC1VK-48C&pg=PA65), Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2008, p. 65 Director [John Huston](/wiki/John_Huston "John Huston") saved him from more B\-pictures by casting him in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 "The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)")*.Sarah Thomas [*Peter Lorre, Face Maker: Stardom and Performance Between Hollywood and Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQuleUmBXQC&pg=PA90), Berghahn Books, 2012, p. 90{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=178}} Although [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. "Warner Bros.") was lukewarm, Huston was keen for him to play Joel Cairo, observing that Lorre "had that clear combination of braininess and real innocence, and sophistication... He's always doing two things at the same time, thinking one thing and saying something else."{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=178}} Lorre himself reminisced fondly in 1962 about the "stock company" he now found himself working with: [Humphrey Bogart](/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart "Humphrey Bogart"), [Sydney Greenstreet](/wiki/Sydney_Greenstreet "Sydney Greenstreet") and [Claude Rains](/wiki/Claude_Rains "Claude Rains"). In his view, the four of them had the rare ability to "switch an audience from laughter to seriousness."{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=162}}
Lorre was contracted to Warner on a picture\-by\-picture basis until 1943 when he signed a five\-year contract, renewable each year, which lasted until 1946\.
The year after *Maltese Falcon*, he portrayed the character Ugarte in *[Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 "Casablanca (film)")* (1942\). While Ugarte is a small part, it is he who provides Rick with the "Letters of Transit", a key plot device. Lorre made nine movies with Sydney Greenstreet counting *The Maltese Falcon* and *Casablanca*, a team which came to be called "Little Pete\-Big Syd", although they did not always have much screen time in joint scenes.Wesley Alan Britton [*Onscreen and Undercover: The Ultimate Book of Movie Espionage*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2YzSFuZeZZkC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46), Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006, p. 46 Most of these motion pictures were variations on *Casablanca*, including *[Background to Danger](/wiki/Background_to_Danger "Background to Danger")* (1943, with [George Raft](/wiki/George_Raft "George Raft")); *[Passage to Marseille](/wiki/Passage_to_Marseille "Passage to Marseille")* (1944\), reuniting them with Humphrey Bogart and Claude Rains; *[The Mask of Dimitrios](/wiki/The_Mask_of_Dimitrios "The Mask of Dimitrios")* (1944\); *[The Conspirators](/wiki/The_Conspirators_%281944_film%29 "The Conspirators (1944 film)")* (1944, with [Hedy Lamarr](/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr "Hedy Lamarr") and [Paul Henreid](/wiki/Paul_Henreid "Paul Henreid")); *[Hollywood Canteen](/wiki/Hollywood_Canteen_%28film%29 "Hollywood Canteen (film)")* (1944\); *[Three Strangers](/wiki/Three_Strangers "Three Strangers")* (1946\), a suspense film about three people who are joint partners on a winning lottery ticket, with third\-billed Lorre cast against type by director [Jean Negulesco](/wiki/Jean_Negulesco "Jean Negulesco") as the romantic lead, also starring [Geraldine Fitzgerald](/wiki/Geraldine_Fitzgerald "Geraldine Fitzgerald"); and Greenstreet and Lorre's final film together, suspense thriller *[The Verdict](/wiki/The_Verdict_%281946_film%29 "The Verdict (1946 film)")* (1946\), director [Don Siegel](/wiki/Don_Siegel "Don Siegel")'s first feature, with Greenstreet and Lorre finally billed first and second, respectively.
Lorre returned to comedy with the role of Dr. Einstein in [Frank Capra](/wiki/Frank_Capra "Frank Capra")'s version of *[Arsenic and Old Lace](/wiki/Arsenic_and_Old_Lace_%28film%29 "Arsenic and Old Lace (film)")* (released in 1944\) starring [Cary Grant](/wiki/Cary_Grant "Cary Grant") and [Raymond Massey](/wiki/Raymond_Massey "Raymond Massey"). Writing in 1944, film critic [Manny Farber](/wiki/Manny_Farber "Manny Farber") described what he called Lorre's "double\-take job", a characteristic dramatic flourish "where the actor's face changes rapidly from laughter, love or a security that he doesn't really feel to a face more sincerely menacing, fearful or deadpan."Farber, Manny, The New Republic, July 10, 1944
Lorre's last film for Warner was *[The Beast with Five Fingers](/wiki/The_Beast_with_Five_Fingers "The Beast with Five Fingers")* (1946\), a horror film in which he played a crazed astrologer who falls in love with a character played by [Andrea King](/wiki/Andrea_King "Andrea King"). Daniel Bubbeo, in *The Women of Warner Brothers*, thought Lorre's "wildly over\-the top performance" had "elevated the movie from minor horror to first\-rate camp."Daniel Bubbeo [*The Women of Warner Brothers: The Lives and Careers of 15 Leading Ladies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OfwMkz8vpIgC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002, p. 124
Lorre said his continuing friendship with Bertolt Brecht, in exile in California since 1941, had led studio head [Jack L. Warner](/wiki/Jack_L._Warner "Jack L. Warner") to 'graylist' him, and his contract with Warner Bros. was terminated on May 13, 1946\. Warner would be a "friendly" witness at his appearance before the [House Un\-American Activities Committee](/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee "House Un-American Activities Committee") in May 1947\.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=244}} Lorre himself was sympathetic to the short\-lived [Committee for the First Amendment](/wiki/Committee_for_the_First_Amendment "Committee for the First Amendment"), set up by John Huston and others, and added his name to advertisements in the trade press in support of the committee.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|pp\=298β299}}
### After World War II (1947β1964\)
[thumb\|left\|Lorre in *[Quicksand](/wiki/Quicksand_%281950_film%29 "Quicksand (1950 film)")*, 1950](/wiki/File:Peter_Lorre_in_Quicksand.jpg "Peter Lorre in Quicksand.jpg")
After World War II and the end of his Warner contract, Lorre's acting career in Hollywood experienced a downturnAnne Billson ["Peter Lorre: one of cinema's most deliciously sinister presences"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10703031/Peter-Lorre-one-of-cinemas-most-deliciously-sinister-presences.html), *The Sunday Telegraph*, March 23, 2014 He concentrated on radio and stage work. In 1949, he filed for bankruptcy.{{sfn\|Youngkin\|2005\|p\=309}} In the autumn of 1950, he traveled to [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") to make the film noir *[Der Verlorene](/wiki/Der_Verlorene "Der Verlorene")* (*The Lost One*, 1951\) which Lorre co\-wrote, directed and starred in. According to Gerd GemΓΌnden in *Continental Strangers: German Exile Cinema, 1933β1951*, with the exception of [Josef von BΓ‘ky](/wiki/Josef_von_B%C3%A1ky "Josef von BΓ‘ky")'s *Der Ruf* (*[The Last Illusion](/wiki/The_Last_Illusion "The Last Illusion")*, 1949\), it is the only film by an emigrant from Germany which uses a return to the country "addressing questions of guilt and responsibility; of accountability and justice." While it gained some critical approval, audiences avoided it and it did badly at the box office.Gerd GemΓΌnden [*Continental Strangers: German Exile Cinema, 1933β1951*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2NGrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161), New York: Coluimbia University Press, 2014, pp. 161β62
[right\|thumb\|[Vincent Price](/wiki/Vincent_Price "Vincent Price") holding a replica of Lorre's head to publicize *[Tales of Terror](/wiki/Tales_of_Terror "Tales of Terror")* (1962\)](/wiki/File:Vincent_Price_holding_replica_of_Peter_Lorre%27s_head.jpg "Vincent Price holding replica of Peter Lorre's head.jpg")
In February 1952, Lorre returned to the United States, where he resumed appearances as a character actor in television and feature films, often parodying his "creepy" image. He was the first actor to play a *[James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond "James Bond")* villain when he portrayed [Le Chiffre](/wiki/Le_Chiffre "Le Chiffre") in a 1954 [television adaptation](/wiki/Casino_Royale_%28Climax%21%29 "Casino Royale (Climax!)") of [Ian Fleming](/wiki/Ian_Fleming "Ian Fleming")'s novel *[Casino Royale](/wiki/Casino_Royale_%28novel%29 "Casino Royale (novel)")*, opposite [Barry Nelson](/wiki/Barry_Nelson "Barry Nelson") as an American [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond_%28film_character%29 "James Bond (film character)") referred to as "Jimmy Bond". Lorre starred alongside [Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas "Kirk Douglas") and [James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason "James Mason") in *[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea](/wiki/20%2C000_Leagues_Under_the_Sea_%281954_film%29 "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)")* (1954\) around this time. Lorre appeared in [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC")'s espionage drama *[Five Fingers](/wiki/Five_Fingers_%28American_TV_series%29 "Five Fingers (American TV series)")* (1959\), starring [David Hedison](/wiki/David_Hedison "David Hedison"), in the episode "Thin Ice", and, in 1960, in *[Rawhide](/wiki/Rawhide_%28TV_series%29 "Rawhide (TV series)")* as Victor Laurier in "The Incident of the Slavemaster" and in *[Wagon Train](/wiki/Wagon_Train "Wagon Train")* as Alexander Portlass in "The Alexander Portlass Story". Lorre appeared in six episodes of *[Playhouse 90](/wiki/Playhouse_90 "Playhouse 90")*{{cite news \|title\=Peter Lorre Says He's Very Well / Stars Tonight On Playhouse 90\|work\=\[\[Mansfield News Journal]]\|author\=Scheuer, Steven H.\|author\-link\=Steven H. Scheuer\|date\=February 24, 1960\|accessdate\=May 11, 2022\| url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59445140/peter\-lorre\-says\-hes\-very\-well\-stars/}} as well as two episodes of *[Alfred Hitchcock Presents](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock_Presents "Alfred Hitchcock Presents")* broadcast in 1957 and 1960, the latter a version of the [Roald Dahl](/wiki/Roald_Dahl "Roald Dahl") short story "[Man from the South](/wiki/Man_from_the_South%23Television_and_radio_adaptations "Man from the South#Television and radio adaptations")" starring [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen "Steve McQueen"), Lorre and McQueen's wife [Neile Adams](/wiki/Neile_Adams "Neile Adams"). He had a supporting role in the film *[Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea](/wiki/Voyage_to_the_Bottom_of_the_Sea "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea")* (1961\).
In Lorre's last years, he worked with [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman "Roger Corman") on several low\-budget films, including two of the director's [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe "Edgar Allan Poe") cycle: *[Tales of Terror](/wiki/Tales_of_Terror "Tales of Terror")* (1962\) with [Vincent Price](/wiki/Vincent_Price "Vincent Price") and [Basil Rathbone](/wiki/Basil_Rathbone "Basil Rathbone"); and *[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven_%281963_film%29 "The Raven (1963 film)")* (1963\), again with Price, as well as Boris Karloff and [Jack Nicholson](/wiki/Jack_Nicholson "Jack Nicholson"). He again worked with Price, Karloff and Rathbone in the [Jacques Tourneur](/wiki/Jacques_Tourneur "Jacques Tourneur")\-directed *[The Comedy of Terrors](/wiki/The_Comedy_of_Terrors "The Comedy of Terrors")* (1963\). He also appeared in a memorable 1962 episode of *[Route 66](/wiki/Route_66_%28TV_series%29 "Route 66 (TV series)")*, "Lizard's Leg and Owlet's Wing", with [Lon Chaney Jr.](/wiki/Lon_Chaney_Jr. "Lon Chaney Jr.") and Boris Karloff.
|
[
"Acting career\n-------------",
"### In Europe (1922β1934\\)",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|{{center\\|Lorre in ''\\[\\[M (1931 film)\\|M]]'' (1931\\)}}](/wiki/File:Mostro1.jpg \"Mostro1.jpg\")\n[upright\\|thumb\\|{{center\\|Lorre (left) in ''M'' (1931\\)}}](/wiki/File:Mostro2.jpg \"Mostro2.jpg\")",
"Lorre began acting on stage in Vienna aged 17, where he worked with Viennese [Art Nouveau](/wiki/Art_Nouveau \"Art Nouveau\") artist and [puppeteer](/wiki/Puppeteer \"Puppeteer\") [Richard Teschner](/wiki/Richard_Teschner \"Richard Teschner\"). He then moved to [Breslau](/wiki/Breslau \"Breslau\") and later to [ZΓΌrich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich \"ZΓΌrich\"). In the late 1920s, the actor[\"Per Lorre FAQ\"](http://www.peterlorrebook.com/faq01.html#tall), Stephen D. Youngkin's Peter Lorre website moved to Berlin, where he worked with [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht \"Bertolt Brecht\"), including a role in Brecht's *[Man Equals Man](/wiki/Man_Equals_Man \"Man Equals Man\")* and as Dr. Nakamura in the musical *[Happy End](/wiki/Happy_End_%28musical%29 \"Happy End (musical)\")*.",
"The actor became much better known after director [Fritz Lang](/wiki/Fritz_Lang \"Fritz Lang\") cast him as [child\\-killer](/wiki/Pedicide \"Pedicide\") Hans Beckert in *[M](/wiki/M_%281931_film%29 \"M (1931 film)\")* (1931\\), a film reputedly inspired by the [Peter KΓΌrten](/wiki/Peter_K%C3%BCrten \"Peter KΓΌrten\") case.Sharon Packer [*Movies and the Modern Psyche*](https://books.google.com/books?id=CX4goUP_yh0C&pg=PA88), Westport, CN: Praeger, 2007, p. 88 Lang said that he had Lorre in mind for the part and did not give him a screen test because he was already convinced Lorre was perfect for the part.Barry Keith Grant (ed.) [*Fritz Lang: Interviews*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xxX-epJIzo0C&pg=PA78), University Press of Mississippi, 2003, p. 78 He also stated that the actor gave his best performance in *M* and that it was among the most distinguished in film history.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=64}} Sharon Packer observed that Lorre played the \"loner, \\[and] schizotypal murderer\" with \"raspy voice, bulging eyes, and emotive acting (a holdover from the silent screen) \\[which] always make him memorable.\"",
"In 1932, Lorre appeared alongside [Hans Albers](/wiki/Hans_Albers \"Hans Albers\") in the science fiction film *[F.P.1 antwortet nicht](/wiki/F.P.1_antwortet_nicht \"F.P.1 antwortet nicht\")* about an artificial island in the mid\\-[Atlantic](/wiki/Atlantic \"Atlantic\").",
"When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, Lorre took refuge first in Paris and then London, where he was noticed by [Ivor Montagu](/wiki/Ivor_Montagu \"Ivor Montagu\"), associate producer for *[The Man Who Knew Too Much](/wiki/The_Man_Who_Knew_Too_Much_%281934_film%29 \"The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)\")* (1934\\),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Reid \\|first\\=Brent \\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-19 \\|title\\=Alfred Hitchcock Collectors' Guide: The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934\\) \\|url\\=https://www.brentonfilm.com/alfred\\-hitchcock\\-collectors\\-guide\\-the\\-man\\-who\\-knew\\-too\\-much\\-1934 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=Brenton Film \\|language\\=en\\-GB}} who reminded the film's director, [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock \"Alfred Hitchcock\"), about Lorre's performance in *M*. They considered him to play the [assassin](/wiki/Assassin \"Assassin\"), but wanted to use him in a larger role despite his limited command of English,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tcm.com/thismonth/article.jsp?cid\\=104984\\&mainArticleId\\=201941 \\|title\\=The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934\\) \\|publisher\\=Tcm.com \\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2009}} which Lorre overcame by learning much of his part phonetically. In *[The Guardian](/wiki/The_Guardian \"The Guardian\"),* September 2014, Michael Newton wrote, \"Lorre cannot help but steal each scene; he's a physically present actor, often, you feel, surrounded as he is by the pallid English, the only one in the room with a body.\"{{cite news \\|last1\\=Newton \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Peter Lorre: master of the macabre \\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/sep/12/peter\\-lorre\\-master\\-macabre\\-bfi \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2024 \\|work\\=The Guardian \\|date\\=12 September 2014}}",
"Lorre and his first wife, actress [Celia Lovsky](/wiki/Celia_Lovsky \"Celia Lovsky\"), boarded the [Cunard\\-White Star Liner](/wiki/Cunard-White_Star_Line \"Cunard-White Star Line\") [RMS Majestic](/wiki/RMS_Majestic_%281914%29 \"RMS Majestic (1914)\") in Southampton on July 18, 1934, to sail for New York a day after shooting had been completed on *The Man Who Knew Too Much*, having gained visitor's visas to the United States.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=98}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.peterlorrebook.com/faq01\\.html \\| title\\=The Lost One β A Life of Peter Lorre }}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://epdf.pub/the\\-lost\\-one\\-a\\-life\\-of\\-peter\\-lorre.html \\| title\\=The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre \\- PDF Free Download }}",
"After his first two American films, Lorre returned to England to feature in Hitchcock's *[Secret Agent](/wiki/Secret_Agent_%281936_film%29 \"Secret Agent (1936 film)\")* (1936\\).Philip French [\"Peter Lorre: a great screen actor remembered\"](https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/aug/31/peter-lorre-by-philip-french-m-huston-bogart-hitchcock-bacall), *The Observer*, August 31, 2014\\.",
"### First years in Hollywood (1935β1940\\)",
"Lorre settled in Hollywood and was soon under contract to [Columbia Pictures](/wiki/Columbia_Pictures \"Columbia Pictures\"), which had difficulty finding parts suitable for him. After some months of research, Lorre decided on *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment \"Crime and Punishment\")* by [Dostoevsky](/wiki/Dostoevsky \"Dostoevsky\") as a suitable project with himself in the central role. Columbia's head [Harry Cohn](/wiki/Harry_Cohn \"Harry Cohn\") agreed to make the film adaptation on the condition that he could lend Lorre to [Metro\\-Goldwyn\\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer \"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\"), possibly as a means of recouping the cost of Lorre not appearing in any of his films.Sarah Thomas [*Peter Lorre, Face Maker: Stardom and Performance Between Hollywood and Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQuleUmBXQC&pg=PA56), Berghahn Books, 2012, p. 56",
"For MGM's *[Mad Love](/wiki/Mad_Love_%281935_film%29 \"Mad Love (1935 film)\")* (1935\\), set in Paris and directed by [Karl Freund](/wiki/Karl_Freund \"Karl Freund\"), Lorre's head was shaved for the role of Dr. Gogol, a demented surgeon who replaces the wrecked hands of a concert pianist with those of an executed knife murderer. An actress who works at the nearby [Grand Guignol](/wiki/Grand_Guignol \"Grand Guignol\") theater, who happens to be the pianist's wife, is the subject of Gogol's unwelcome infatuation.BartΕomiej Paszylk [*The Pleasure and Pain of Cult Horror Films: An Historical Survey*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SWCx_jpxkdwC&pg=PA34), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2009, pp. 34β36 \"Lorre triumphs superbly in a characterization that is sheer horror\", *[The Hollywood Reporter](/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter \"The Hollywood Reporter\")* commented. \"There is perhaps no one who can be so repulsive and so utterly wicked. No one who can smile so disarmingly and still sneer. His face is his fortune\".Gregory William Mank [*Hollywood Cauldron: Thirteen Horror Films from the Genre's Golden Age*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zyyf9E7OAlkC&pg=PA147), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1994 \\[2001], p. 147\n[left\\|thumb\\|upright\\|[Edward Arnold](/wiki/Edward_Arnold_%28actor%29 \"Edward Arnold (actor)\") and Lorre in *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment_%281935_American_film%29 \"Crime and Punishment (1935 American film)\")* (1935\\)](/wiki/File:Crime_and_Punishment_%28film%29_1935._Josef_von_Sternberg%2C_director._L_to_R_Edward_Arnold%2C_Peter_Lorre.jpg \"Crime and Punishment (film) 1935. Josef von Sternberg, director. L to R Edward Arnold, Peter Lorre.jpg\")\nLorre followed *Mad Love* with the lead role in *[Crime and Punishment](/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment_%281935_American_film%29 \"Crime and Punishment (1935 American film)\")* (also 1935\\) directed by [Josef von Sternberg](/wiki/Josef_von_Sternberg \"Josef von Sternberg\"). \"Although Peter Lorre is occasionally able to give the film a frightening pathological significance,\" wrote [Andre Sennwald](/wiki/Andre_Sennwald \"Andre Sennwald\") in *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* on the film's release, \"this is scarcely Dostoievsky's drama of a tortured brain drifting into madness with a terrible secret.\"John Baxter [*Von Sternberg*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nuSpdN_zj5YC&pg=PA197), Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2010, p. 197 Columbia offered him a five\\-year contract at $1,000 a week ({{Inflation\\|US\\|1000\\|1935\\|r\\=0\\|fmt\\=eq}}), but he declined.David Shipman *The Great Movie Stars: 2, The International Years*, London: Macdonald, 1989, pp. 336β38",
"Returning from England after appearing in a second Hitchcock picture (*[Secret Agent](/wiki/Secret_Agent_%281936_film%29 \"Secret Agent (1936 film)\")*, 1936\\), he was offered and accepted a 3\\-year contract with [20th Century Fox](/wiki/20th_Century_Fox \"20th Century Fox\"). Starring in a series of [Mr. Moto](/wiki/Mr._Moto \"Mr. Moto\") movies, Lorre played [John P. Marquand](/wiki/John_P._Marquand \"John P. Marquand\")'s character, a Japanese detective and spy. Initially positive about the films, he soon grew frustrated. \"The role is childish,\" he said, and eventually tended to dismiss the films entirely.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|pp\\=156β57}} He twisted his shoulder during a stunt in *[Mr. Moto Takes a Vacation](/wiki/Mr._Moto_Takes_a_Vacation \"Mr. Moto Takes a Vacation\")* (1939\\),{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=156}} the penultimate entry of the series. In 1939, he attended a lunch at the request of some visiting Japanese officials; Lorre wore a badge that read \"Boycott Japanese goods.\"Leonard Lyons. \"The New Yorker\". *The Washington Post* (1923β1954\\) \\[Washington, D.C.] July 1, 1939, p. 6\n[thumb\\|right\\|With [Sig Ruman](/wiki/Sig_Ruman \"Sig Ruman\") in *[Think Fast, Mr. Moto](/wiki/Think_Fast%2C_Mr._Moto \"Think Fast, Mr. Moto\")* (1937\\)](/wiki/File:Think_Fast%2C_Mr._Moto_trailer.png \"Think Fast, Mr. Moto trailer.png\")\nLate in 1938, [Universal Pictures](/wiki/Universal_Pictures \"Universal Pictures\") wanted to borrow Lorre from Fox for the top\\-billed titular role ultimately performed by [Basil Rathbone](/wiki/Basil_Rathbone \"Basil Rathbone\") in *[Son of Frankenstein](/wiki/Son_of_Frankenstein \"Son of Frankenstein\")* (1939\\) starring [Boris Karloff](/wiki/Boris_Karloff \"Boris Karloff\") as [Frankenstein's monster](/wiki/Frankenstein%27s_monster \"Frankenstein's monster\") and [Bela Lugosi](/wiki/Bela_Lugosi \"Bela Lugosi\") as [Ygor](/wiki/Igor_%28character%29 \"Igor (character)\"). Lorre declined the role because he thought his menacing parts were now behind him, although he was ill at this time.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=164}} He had tested successfully in 1937 for the role of [Quasimodo](/wiki/Quasimodo \"Quasimodo\") in an aborted MGM version of *[The Hunchback of Notre\\-Dame](/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame \"The Hunchback of Notre-Dame\")*, according to a Fox publicist one of two roles Lorre most wanted to play (the other was [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\")).{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=163}} Frustrated by broken promises from Fox, Lorre managed to end his contract.",
"After a brief period as a freelance, he signed for two pictures at [RKO](/wiki/RKO \"RKO\") in May 1940\\.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|pp\\=164β68}} In the first of these, Lorre appeared as the anonymous lead in the B\\-picture *[Stranger on the Third Floor](/wiki/Stranger_on_the_Third_Floor \"Stranger on the Third Floor\")* (1940\\), reputedly the first [film noir](/wiki/Film_noir \"Film noir\").Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward *Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style*, New York \\& WoodstocK: Overlook Press, 1992, p. 269 The second RKO film, also in 1940, was *[You'll Find Out](/wiki/You%27ll_Find_Out \"You'll Find Out\")*, a musical comedy mystery vehicle for bandleader [Kay Kyser](/wiki/Kay_Kyser \"Kay Kyser\") in which Lorre spoofed his sinister image alongside horror stars Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=170}}",
"### Mainly at Warner Bros. (1941β1946\\)",
"[upright\\|thumb\\|Left to right: [Sydney Greenstreet](/wiki/Sydney_Greenstreet \"Sydney Greenstreet\") and Lorre in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 \"The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)\")* (1941\\), the first of their nine films together](/wiki/File:GutmanCairoMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg \"GutmanCairoMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg\")\n[upright\\|thumb\\|Lorre in the 1941 trailer for *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 \"The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)\")*](/wiki/File:CreditLorreMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg \"CreditLorreMaltFalc1941Trailer.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Humphrey Bogart](/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart \"Humphrey Bogart\"), [Mary Astor](/wiki/Mary_Astor \"Mary Astor\"), [Barton MacLane](/wiki/Barton_MacLane \"Barton MacLane\"), Lorre, and [Ward Bond](/wiki/Ward_Bond \"Ward Bond\") in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 \"The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)\")*](/wiki/File:Maltese-Falcon-Tell-the-Truth-1941.jpg \"Maltese-Falcon-Tell-the-Truth-1941.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|With Humphrey Bogart in *The Maltese Falcon* (1941\\)](/wiki/File:Peter_Lorre_and_Humphrey_Bogart_The_Maltese_Falcon_Still.jpg \"Peter Lorre and Humphrey Bogart The Maltese Falcon Still.jpg\")\nIn 1941, Lorre became a naturalized citizen of the United States.Jennifer Fay [*Theaters of Occupation: Hollywood and the Reeducation of Postwar Germany*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jzNtC1VK-48C&pg=PA65), Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2008, p. 65 Director [John Huston](/wiki/John_Huston \"John Huston\") saved him from more B\\-pictures by casting him in *[The Maltese Falcon](/wiki/The_Maltese_Falcon_%281941_film%29 \"The Maltese Falcon (1941 film)\")*.Sarah Thomas [*Peter Lorre, Face Maker: Stardom and Performance Between Hollywood and Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2zQuleUmBXQC&pg=PA90), Berghahn Books, 2012, p. 90{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=178}} Although [Warner Bros.](/wiki/Warner_Bros. \"Warner Bros.\") was lukewarm, Huston was keen for him to play Joel Cairo, observing that Lorre \"had that clear combination of braininess and real innocence, and sophistication... He's always doing two things at the same time, thinking one thing and saying something else.\"{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=178}} Lorre himself reminisced fondly in 1962 about the \"stock company\" he now found himself working with: [Humphrey Bogart](/wiki/Humphrey_Bogart \"Humphrey Bogart\"), [Sydney Greenstreet](/wiki/Sydney_Greenstreet \"Sydney Greenstreet\") and [Claude Rains](/wiki/Claude_Rains \"Claude Rains\"). In his view, the four of them had the rare ability to \"switch an audience from laughter to seriousness.\"{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=162}}",
"Lorre was contracted to Warner on a picture\\-by\\-picture basis until 1943 when he signed a five\\-year contract, renewable each year, which lasted until 1946\\.",
"The year after *Maltese Falcon*, he portrayed the character Ugarte in *[Casablanca](/wiki/Casablanca_%28film%29 \"Casablanca (film)\")* (1942\\). While Ugarte is a small part, it is he who provides Rick with the \"Letters of Transit\", a key plot device. Lorre made nine movies with Sydney Greenstreet counting *The Maltese Falcon* and *Casablanca*, a team which came to be called \"Little Pete\\-Big Syd\", although they did not always have much screen time in joint scenes.Wesley Alan Britton [*Onscreen and Undercover: The Ultimate Book of Movie Espionage*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2YzSFuZeZZkC&pg=PA46&lpg=PA46), Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006, p. 46 Most of these motion pictures were variations on *Casablanca*, including *[Background to Danger](/wiki/Background_to_Danger \"Background to Danger\")* (1943, with [George Raft](/wiki/George_Raft \"George Raft\")); *[Passage to Marseille](/wiki/Passage_to_Marseille \"Passage to Marseille\")* (1944\\), reuniting them with Humphrey Bogart and Claude Rains; *[The Mask of Dimitrios](/wiki/The_Mask_of_Dimitrios \"The Mask of Dimitrios\")* (1944\\); *[The Conspirators](/wiki/The_Conspirators_%281944_film%29 \"The Conspirators (1944 film)\")* (1944, with [Hedy Lamarr](/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr \"Hedy Lamarr\") and [Paul Henreid](/wiki/Paul_Henreid \"Paul Henreid\")); *[Hollywood Canteen](/wiki/Hollywood_Canteen_%28film%29 \"Hollywood Canteen (film)\")* (1944\\); *[Three Strangers](/wiki/Three_Strangers \"Three Strangers\")* (1946\\), a suspense film about three people who are joint partners on a winning lottery ticket, with third\\-billed Lorre cast against type by director [Jean Negulesco](/wiki/Jean_Negulesco \"Jean Negulesco\") as the romantic lead, also starring [Geraldine Fitzgerald](/wiki/Geraldine_Fitzgerald \"Geraldine Fitzgerald\"); and Greenstreet and Lorre's final film together, suspense thriller *[The Verdict](/wiki/The_Verdict_%281946_film%29 \"The Verdict (1946 film)\")* (1946\\), director [Don Siegel](/wiki/Don_Siegel \"Don Siegel\")'s first feature, with Greenstreet and Lorre finally billed first and second, respectively.",
"Lorre returned to comedy with the role of Dr. Einstein in [Frank Capra](/wiki/Frank_Capra \"Frank Capra\")'s version of *[Arsenic and Old Lace](/wiki/Arsenic_and_Old_Lace_%28film%29 \"Arsenic and Old Lace (film)\")* (released in 1944\\) starring [Cary Grant](/wiki/Cary_Grant \"Cary Grant\") and [Raymond Massey](/wiki/Raymond_Massey \"Raymond Massey\"). Writing in 1944, film critic [Manny Farber](/wiki/Manny_Farber \"Manny Farber\") described what he called Lorre's \"double\\-take job\", a characteristic dramatic flourish \"where the actor's face changes rapidly from laughter, love or a security that he doesn't really feel to a face more sincerely menacing, fearful or deadpan.\"Farber, Manny, The New Republic, July 10, 1944",
"Lorre's last film for Warner was *[The Beast with Five Fingers](/wiki/The_Beast_with_Five_Fingers \"The Beast with Five Fingers\")* (1946\\), a horror film in which he played a crazed astrologer who falls in love with a character played by [Andrea King](/wiki/Andrea_King \"Andrea King\"). Daniel Bubbeo, in *The Women of Warner Brothers*, thought Lorre's \"wildly over\\-the top performance\" had \"elevated the movie from minor horror to first\\-rate camp.\"Daniel Bubbeo [*The Women of Warner Brothers: The Lives and Careers of 15 Leading Ladies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OfwMkz8vpIgC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124), Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002, p. 124",
"Lorre said his continuing friendship with Bertolt Brecht, in exile in California since 1941, had led studio head [Jack L. Warner](/wiki/Jack_L._Warner \"Jack L. Warner\") to 'graylist' him, and his contract with Warner Bros. was terminated on May 13, 1946\\. Warner would be a \"friendly\" witness at his appearance before the [House Un\\-American Activities Committee](/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee \"House Un-American Activities Committee\") in May 1947\\.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=244}} Lorre himself was sympathetic to the short\\-lived [Committee for the First Amendment](/wiki/Committee_for_the_First_Amendment \"Committee for the First Amendment\"), set up by John Huston and others, and added his name to advertisements in the trade press in support of the committee.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|pp\\=298β299}}",
"### After World War II (1947β1964\\)",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Lorre in *[Quicksand](/wiki/Quicksand_%281950_film%29 \"Quicksand (1950 film)\")*, 1950](/wiki/File:Peter_Lorre_in_Quicksand.jpg \"Peter Lorre in Quicksand.jpg\")\nAfter World War II and the end of his Warner contract, Lorre's acting career in Hollywood experienced a downturnAnne Billson [\"Peter Lorre: one of cinema's most deliciously sinister presences\"](https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/starsandstories/10703031/Peter-Lorre-one-of-cinemas-most-deliciously-sinister-presences.html), *The Sunday Telegraph*, March 23, 2014 He concentrated on radio and stage work. In 1949, he filed for bankruptcy.{{sfn\\|Youngkin\\|2005\\|p\\=309}} In the autumn of 1950, he traveled to [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\") to make the film noir *[Der Verlorene](/wiki/Der_Verlorene \"Der Verlorene\")* (*The Lost One*, 1951\\) which Lorre co\\-wrote, directed and starred in. According to Gerd GemΓΌnden in *Continental Strangers: German Exile Cinema, 1933β1951*, with the exception of [Josef von BΓ‘ky](/wiki/Josef_von_B%C3%A1ky \"Josef von BΓ‘ky\")'s *Der Ruf* (*[The Last Illusion](/wiki/The_Last_Illusion \"The Last Illusion\")*, 1949\\), it is the only film by an emigrant from Germany which uses a return to the country \"addressing questions of guilt and responsibility; of accountability and justice.\" While it gained some critical approval, audiences avoided it and it did badly at the box office.Gerd GemΓΌnden [*Continental Strangers: German Exile Cinema, 1933β1951*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2NGrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA161), New York: Coluimbia University Press, 2014, pp. 161β62\n[right\\|thumb\\|[Vincent Price](/wiki/Vincent_Price \"Vincent Price\") holding a replica of Lorre's head to publicize *[Tales of Terror](/wiki/Tales_of_Terror \"Tales of Terror\")* (1962\\)](/wiki/File:Vincent_Price_holding_replica_of_Peter_Lorre%27s_head.jpg \"Vincent Price holding replica of Peter Lorre's head.jpg\")\nIn February 1952, Lorre returned to the United States, where he resumed appearances as a character actor in television and feature films, often parodying his \"creepy\" image. He was the first actor to play a *[James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond \"James Bond\")* villain when he portrayed [Le Chiffre](/wiki/Le_Chiffre \"Le Chiffre\") in a 1954 [television adaptation](/wiki/Casino_Royale_%28Climax%21%29 \"Casino Royale (Climax!)\") of [Ian Fleming](/wiki/Ian_Fleming \"Ian Fleming\")'s novel *[Casino Royale](/wiki/Casino_Royale_%28novel%29 \"Casino Royale (novel)\")*, opposite [Barry Nelson](/wiki/Barry_Nelson \"Barry Nelson\") as an American [James Bond](/wiki/James_Bond_%28film_character%29 \"James Bond (film character)\") referred to as \"Jimmy Bond\". Lorre starred alongside [Kirk Douglas](/wiki/Kirk_Douglas \"Kirk Douglas\") and [James Mason](/wiki/James_Mason \"James Mason\") in *[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea](/wiki/20%2C000_Leagues_Under_the_Sea_%281954_film%29 \"20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)\")* (1954\\) around this time. Lorre appeared in [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\")'s espionage drama *[Five Fingers](/wiki/Five_Fingers_%28American_TV_series%29 \"Five Fingers (American TV series)\")* (1959\\), starring [David Hedison](/wiki/David_Hedison \"David Hedison\"), in the episode \"Thin Ice\", and, in 1960, in *[Rawhide](/wiki/Rawhide_%28TV_series%29 \"Rawhide (TV series)\")* as Victor Laurier in \"The Incident of the Slavemaster\" and in *[Wagon Train](/wiki/Wagon_Train \"Wagon Train\")* as Alexander Portlass in \"The Alexander Portlass Story\". Lorre appeared in six episodes of *[Playhouse 90](/wiki/Playhouse_90 \"Playhouse 90\")*{{cite news \\|title\\=Peter Lorre Says He's Very Well / Stars Tonight On Playhouse 90\\|work\\=\\[\\[Mansfield News Journal]]\\|author\\=Scheuer, Steven H.\\|author\\-link\\=Steven H. Scheuer\\|date\\=February 24, 1960\\|accessdate\\=May 11, 2022\\| url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59445140/peter\\-lorre\\-says\\-hes\\-very\\-well\\-stars/}} as well as two episodes of *[Alfred Hitchcock Presents](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock_Presents \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\")* broadcast in 1957 and 1960, the latter a version of the [Roald Dahl](/wiki/Roald_Dahl \"Roald Dahl\") short story \"[Man from the South](/wiki/Man_from_the_South%23Television_and_radio_adaptations \"Man from the South#Television and radio adaptations\")\" starring [Steve McQueen](/wiki/Steve_McQueen \"Steve McQueen\"), Lorre and McQueen's wife [Neile Adams](/wiki/Neile_Adams \"Neile Adams\"). He had a supporting role in the film *[Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea](/wiki/Voyage_to_the_Bottom_of_the_Sea \"Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea\")* (1961\\).",
"In Lorre's last years, he worked with [Roger Corman](/wiki/Roger_Corman \"Roger Corman\") on several low\\-budget films, including two of the director's [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\") cycle: *[Tales of Terror](/wiki/Tales_of_Terror \"Tales of Terror\")* (1962\\) with [Vincent Price](/wiki/Vincent_Price \"Vincent Price\") and [Basil Rathbone](/wiki/Basil_Rathbone \"Basil Rathbone\"); and *[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven_%281963_film%29 \"The Raven (1963 film)\")* (1963\\), again with Price, as well as Boris Karloff and [Jack Nicholson](/wiki/Jack_Nicholson \"Jack Nicholson\"). He again worked with Price, Karloff and Rathbone in the [Jacques Tourneur](/wiki/Jacques_Tourneur \"Jacques Tourneur\")\\-directed *[The Comedy of Terrors](/wiki/The_Comedy_of_Terrors \"The Comedy of Terrors\")* (1963\\). He also appeared in a memorable 1962 episode of *[Route 66](/wiki/Route_66_%28TV_series%29 \"Route 66 (TV series)\")*, \"Lizard's Leg and Owlet's Wing\", with [Lon Chaney Jr.](/wiki/Lon_Chaney_Jr. \"Lon Chaney Jr.\") and Boris Karloff.",
""
] |
Career
------
Wilson founded the band [First Floor Power](/wiki/First_Floor_Power "First Floor Power") in 1997 and released two albums, *There Is Hope* and *Nerves*,{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/jenny\-wilson\-mn0000915218/biography \|title \= Jenny Wilson \| Biography \& History\|website \= \[\[AllMusic]]}} before leaving the band to go solo around 2004\. She also studied graphic design at [Konstfack](/wiki/Konstfack "Konstfack") for one year.
Wilson was signed to [The Knife](/wiki/The_Knife "The Knife")'s [Rabid Records](/wiki/Rabid_Records "Rabid Records"), and was a guest vocalist on The Knife's album *[Deep Cuts](/wiki/Deep_Cuts_%28The_Knife_album%29 "Deep Cuts (The Knife album)")*{{Cite web \|title\=Jenny Wilson \|url\=http://www.abc.net.au/rage/archive/s1976261\.htm \|publisher\=\[\[Rage (TV program)\|Rage]] \|date\=2 June 2007\|accessdate\=30 June 2010}} on the song *[You Take My Breath Away](/wiki/You_Take_My_Breath_Away_%28The_Knife_song%29 "You Take My Breath Away (The Knife song)")* which is about The Knife's [Karin Dreijer Andersson](/wiki/Karin_Dreijer_Andersson "Karin Dreijer Andersson") going to a [First Floor Power](/wiki/First_Floor_Power "First Floor Power") show. Wilson is also featured in the music video for the song.
Wilson's debut solo album *[Love and Youth](/wiki/Love_and_Youth "Love and Youth")* was released in 2005 in Sweden and then, in August 2006,{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/love\-youth\-mw0000560333 \| title\=Love \& Youth β Jenny Wilson \| Songs, Reviews, Credits\| website\=\[\[AllMusic]]}} in Australia on Hussle Recordings' album imprint (later to launch independently as [etcetc](/wiki/Etcetc "Etcetc")). The first single from the album, *Summertime β The Roughest Time*, received extensive airplay on [Triple J](/wiki/Triple_J "Triple J"). In 2010, her first album was included in *[NME](/wiki/NME "NME")'s* "The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard" list.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.nme.com/list/100\-lost\-albums\-you\-need\-to\-know\-1337 \| title\=The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard \| accessdate\=11 October 2018 \|publisher\=\[\[NME]]\| date\=3 August 2018}} It was chosen by Elly Jackson of [La Roux](/wiki/La_Roux "La Roux").
In November 2006, Wilson appeared on [Robyn](/wiki/Robyn "Robyn")'s promotional *[The Rakamonie EP](/wiki/The_Rakamonie_EP "The Rakamonie EP")*, featuring in a live recording of the song *List of Demands*.
On 25 February 2009, Wilson self\-released her second solo album *[Hardships!](/wiki/Hardships%21 "Hardships!")*{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/hardships%21\-mw0001300790 \|title \= Hardships! β Jenny Wilson \| Songs, Reviews, Credits\|website \= \[\[AllMusic]]}} on CD and [vinyl](/wiki/Vinyl_Record "Vinyl Record"). In January 2010 Wilson won a [European Border Breakers Award](/wiki/European_Border_Breakers_Award "European Border Breakers Award") for her international success.["European Border Breakers Awards 2010"](http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/prizes/ebba-2010_en.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209025707/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our\-programmes\-and\-actions/prizes/ebba\-2010\_en.htm \|date\=9 December 2012 }}, Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 February 2012
In the summer of 2010, Wilson was diagnosed with breast cancer. After undergoing chemotherapy she went into remission.{{cite web\|url\=http://blogg.cancerfonden.se/blog/2013/03/05/jenny\-wilson\-om\-cancern\-och\-superkraften/?fb\_action\_ids\=10151269414057130\&fb\_action\_types\=og.recommends\&fb\_source\=timeline\_og\&action\_object\_map\=%7B%2210151269414057130%22%3A130820177097214%7D\&action\_type\_map\=%7B%2210151269414057130%22%3A%22og.recommends%22%7D\&action\_ref\_map\=%5B%5D\|title\=Jenny Wilson om cancern och superkraften\|work\=Cancerfonden}}
In 2011 Wilson released her third album *Blazing*;{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/blazing\-mw0002142991 \| title\=Blazing β Jenny Wilson \| Songs, Reviews, Credits\| website\=\[\[AllMusic]]}} a re\-recorded counterpart to her previous album *Hardships!*
Wilson made a short film *Beyond that Wasteland*{{cite web\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2291046/\|title\=Beyond That Wasteland (2012\)\|date\=1 November 2012\|work\=IMDb}} with director Daniel Wirtberg in 2011; it was filmed in Iceland and premiered in Sweden in October 2012\.
Wilson began work on her fourth album *Demand The Impossible* in 2012 after finishing a Scandinavian tour for her previous album *Blazing*. However, she then found out that her cancer had returned. She continued to work on the new album whilst undergoing treatment and then during the recovery process.Interview with The 405: [http://www.thefourohfive.com/news/article/jenny\-wilson\-interviewed\-the\-scar\-is\-my\-autobiography{{Dead link\|date\=October 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](http://www.thefourohfive.com/news/article/jenny-wilson-interviewed-the-scar-is-my-autobiography{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) *Demand The Impossible* was released in 2013\.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.thefword.org.uk/2013/11/jenny\_wilson\_dti/ \|title \= To the riot, the survival and the fight\|date \= 2 November 2013}}
In 2018 Wilson announced her fifth album, *Exorcism*, released on 23 March.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.xlr8r.com/news/2018/01/jenny\-wilson\-announces\-new\-album\-exorcism\-and\-reveals\-powerful\-video/ \|title \= Jenny Wilson Announces New Album, EXORCISM, and Reveals Powerful Video\| date\=30 January 2018 }}{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.thelineofbestfit.com/new\-music/discovery/jenny\-wilson\-RAPIN \|title \= Jenny Wilson announces new album EXORCISM, reveals powerful video for "RAPIN\*"}}{{Cite web \| url\=http://www.gigslutz.co.uk/jenny\-wilson\-reveals\-exorcism\-tracklist/ \| title\=Jenny Wilson reveals 'EXORCISM' tracklist\| date\=2 January 2018}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Wilson founded the band [First Floor Power](/wiki/First_Floor_Power \"First Floor Power\") in 1997 and released two albums, *There Is Hope* and *Nerves*,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/jenny\\-wilson\\-mn0000915218/biography \\|title \\= Jenny Wilson \\| Biography \\& History\\|website \\= \\[\\[AllMusic]]}} before leaving the band to go solo around 2004\\. She also studied graphic design at [Konstfack](/wiki/Konstfack \"Konstfack\") for one year.",
"Wilson was signed to [The Knife](/wiki/The_Knife \"The Knife\")'s [Rabid Records](/wiki/Rabid_Records \"Rabid Records\"), and was a guest vocalist on The Knife's album *[Deep Cuts](/wiki/Deep_Cuts_%28The_Knife_album%29 \"Deep Cuts (The Knife album)\")*{{Cite web \\|title\\=Jenny Wilson \\|url\\=http://www.abc.net.au/rage/archive/s1976261\\.htm \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rage (TV program)\\|Rage]] \\|date\\=2 June 2007\\|accessdate\\=30 June 2010}} on the song *[You Take My Breath Away](/wiki/You_Take_My_Breath_Away_%28The_Knife_song%29 \"You Take My Breath Away (The Knife song)\")* which is about The Knife's [Karin Dreijer Andersson](/wiki/Karin_Dreijer_Andersson \"Karin Dreijer Andersson\") going to a [First Floor Power](/wiki/First_Floor_Power \"First Floor Power\") show. Wilson is also featured in the music video for the song.",
"Wilson's debut solo album *[Love and Youth](/wiki/Love_and_Youth \"Love and Youth\")* was released in 2005 in Sweden and then, in August 2006,{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/love\\-youth\\-mw0000560333 \\| title\\=Love \\& Youth β Jenny Wilson \\| Songs, Reviews, Credits\\| website\\=\\[\\[AllMusic]]}} in Australia on Hussle Recordings' album imprint (later to launch independently as [etcetc](/wiki/Etcetc \"Etcetc\")). The first single from the album, *Summertime β The Roughest Time*, received extensive airplay on [Triple J](/wiki/Triple_J \"Triple J\"). In 2010, her first album was included in *[NME](/wiki/NME \"NME\")'s* \"The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard\" list.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nme.com/list/100\\-lost\\-albums\\-you\\-need\\-to\\-know\\-1337 \\| title\\=The 100 Greatest Albums You've Never Heard \\| accessdate\\=11 October 2018 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[NME]]\\| date\\=3 August 2018}} It was chosen by Elly Jackson of [La Roux](/wiki/La_Roux \"La Roux\").",
"In November 2006, Wilson appeared on [Robyn](/wiki/Robyn \"Robyn\")'s promotional *[The Rakamonie EP](/wiki/The_Rakamonie_EP \"The Rakamonie EP\")*, featuring in a live recording of the song *List of Demands*.",
"On 25 February 2009, Wilson self\\-released her second solo album *[Hardships!](/wiki/Hardships%21 \"Hardships!\")*{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/hardships%21\\-mw0001300790 \\|title \\= Hardships! β Jenny Wilson \\| Songs, Reviews, Credits\\|website \\= \\[\\[AllMusic]]}} on CD and [vinyl](/wiki/Vinyl_Record \"Vinyl Record\"). In January 2010 Wilson won a [European Border Breakers Award](/wiki/European_Border_Breakers_Award \"European Border Breakers Award\") for her international success.[\"European Border Breakers Awards 2010\"](http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our-programmes-and-actions/prizes/ebba-2010_en.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209025707/http://ec.europa.eu/culture/our\\-programmes\\-and\\-actions/prizes/ebba\\-2010\\_en.htm \\|date\\=9 December 2012 }}, Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 February 2012",
"In the summer of 2010, Wilson was diagnosed with breast cancer. After undergoing chemotherapy she went into remission.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://blogg.cancerfonden.se/blog/2013/03/05/jenny\\-wilson\\-om\\-cancern\\-och\\-superkraften/?fb\\_action\\_ids\\=10151269414057130\\&fb\\_action\\_types\\=og.recommends\\&fb\\_source\\=timeline\\_og\\&action\\_object\\_map\\=%7B%2210151269414057130%22%3A130820177097214%7D\\&action\\_type\\_map\\=%7B%2210151269414057130%22%3A%22og.recommends%22%7D\\&action\\_ref\\_map\\=%5B%5D\\|title\\=Jenny Wilson om cancern och superkraften\\|work\\=Cancerfonden}}",
"In 2011 Wilson released her third album *Blazing*;{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.allmusic.com/album/blazing\\-mw0002142991 \\| title\\=Blazing β Jenny Wilson \\| Songs, Reviews, Credits\\| website\\=\\[\\[AllMusic]]}} a re\\-recorded counterpart to her previous album *Hardships!*",
"Wilson made a short film *Beyond that Wasteland*{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2291046/\\|title\\=Beyond That Wasteland (2012\\)\\|date\\=1 November 2012\\|work\\=IMDb}} with director Daniel Wirtberg in 2011; it was filmed in Iceland and premiered in Sweden in October 2012\\.",
"Wilson began work on her fourth album *Demand The Impossible* in 2012 after finishing a Scandinavian tour for her previous album *Blazing*. However, she then found out that her cancer had returned. She continued to work on the new album whilst undergoing treatment and then during the recovery process.Interview with The 405: [http://www.thefourohfive.com/news/article/jenny\\-wilson\\-interviewed\\-the\\-scar\\-is\\-my\\-autobiography{{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](http://www.thefourohfive.com/news/article/jenny-wilson-interviewed-the-scar-is-my-autobiography{{Dead link|date=October 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}) *Demand The Impossible* was released in 2013\\.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.thefword.org.uk/2013/11/jenny\\_wilson\\_dti/ \\|title \\= To the riot, the survival and the fight\\|date \\= 2 November 2013}}",
"In 2018 Wilson announced her fifth album, *Exorcism*, released on 23 March.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.xlr8r.com/news/2018/01/jenny\\-wilson\\-announces\\-new\\-album\\-exorcism\\-and\\-reveals\\-powerful\\-video/ \\|title \\= Jenny Wilson Announces New Album, EXORCISM, and Reveals Powerful Video\\| date\\=30 January 2018 }}{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.thelineofbestfit.com/new\\-music/discovery/jenny\\-wilson\\-RAPIN \\|title \\= Jenny Wilson announces new album EXORCISM, reveals powerful video for \"RAPIN\\*\"}}{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://www.gigslutz.co.uk/jenny\\-wilson\\-reveals\\-exorcism\\-tracklist/ \\| title\\=Jenny Wilson reveals 'EXORCISM' tracklist\\| date\\=2 January 2018}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
Henninger was born in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland") and educated in that city's public schools. He attended [Ann Arbor High School](/wiki/Ann_Arbor_High_School "Ann Arbor High School") for his college preparatory studies.
### Michigan
He enrolled at the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan") where he played football from [1893](/wiki/1893_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team "1893 Michigan Wolverines football team") to [1896](/wiki/1896_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team "1896 Michigan Wolverines football team"). He was captain of the [1895 Michigan team](/wiki/1895_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team "1895 Michigan Wolverines football team") that compiled an 8β1 record, won seven of their games by shutouts, and outscored their opponents by a combined score of 266 to 14\.{{cite web\|title\=1895 Football Team\|publisher\=University of Michigan, Bentley Historical Library\|url\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1895fbt.htm}} The sole loss of the 1895 season was a 4β0 setback against the [Harvard Crimson](/wiki/1895_Harvard_Crimson_football_team "1895 Harvard Crimson football team"), then one of the three great football powers. Michigan finished the season with a 12β0 win over Western rival, [Amos Alonzo Stagg](/wiki/Amos_Alonzo_Stagg "Amos Alonzo Stagg")'s [Chicago Maroons](/wiki/Chicago_Maroons_football "Chicago Maroons football"). A newspaper profile of Henninger in November 1895 said:
> "The University of Michigan team, captained by F. W. Henninger, is one of the strongest football elevens in the west. Henninger is a veteran of last year's eleven, is 5 feet 10 inches tall and weighs 180 pounds. He is an excellent field general, plays right guard and is said to be the strongest man on the team."{{cite news\|title\=FOUR CLEVER FOOTBALL CAPTAINS: Henninger, Van Doozer, Richards and Camp, All Have Strong Elevens\|newspaper\=Warren Ledger (PA)\|date\=1895\-11\-08}}
In his review of the 1895 season, [Edwin Denby](/wiki/Edwin_Denby_%28politician%29 "Edwin Denby (politician)") praised the team's four leaders, head coach [William McCauley](/wiki/William_McCauley_%28American_football%29 "William McCauley (American football)"), trainer [Keene Fitzpatrick](/wiki/Keene_Fitzpatrick "Keene Fitzpatrick"), manager [Charles A. Baird](/wiki/Charles_A._Baird "Charles A. Baird"), and Henninger as the team captain, for their "excellent support" of the team: "They have all won the high regard of the entire university and the sincere liking of those who have come in personal contact with them."{{cite book\|author\=Edwin Denby\|title\=The Football Season of 1895\|publisher\=The Palladium\|date\=1896 \|volume\=((vol.38\))\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=HncRAAAAMAAJ\|access\-date\=2009\-12\-18}} Henninger was also a director of the University of Michigan athletic association for three years while he was a student.{{cite news\|title\=F.W. Henninger, Old U. of M. Star, Dead\|newspaper\=Detroit Free Press\|date\=1919\-06\-03}}
Henninger studied [electrical engineering](/wiki/Electrical_engineering "Electrical engineering") at Michigan and received his bachelor's degree in 1897\. After graduating, Henninger served as an assistant football coach at Michigan from 1897 to 1899, including the [1898 Michigan team](/wiki/1898_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team "1898 Michigan Wolverines football team") that won the school's first [Western Conference](/wiki/Big_Ten_Conference "Big Ten Conference") championship.{{cite web\|title\=1897 Football Team\|url\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1897fbt.htm\|publisher\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}}{{cite web\|title\=1898 Football Team\|url\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1898fbt.htm\|publisher\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}}{{cite web\|title\=1899 Football Team\|url\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1899fbt.htm\|publisher\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}} He also returned in 1902 as an assistant coach under [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost "Fielding H. Yost").{{cite news\|title\=Veterans Give a Hand: Henninger at Ann Arbor; Knox Is Expected Today; Trainer Fitzpatrick Says Men Are in Finest Shape\|newspaper\=Detroit Free Press\|date\=1902\-10\-30}}
In November 1902, *The Michigan Alumnus* chose an All\-Michigan Team consisting of the greatest football players ever to play for the [Michigan Wolverines football](/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_football "Michigan Wolverines football") team. Henninger was selected as the right tackle on the All\-Michigan team. In selecting Henninger, the author wrote:
> "His method of charging into the line, either to break interference or to open up holes for the man with the ball was characteristic, and to his ability in the latter direction was due much of the success of his old team mate, Villa, a most persistent ground\-gainer. For years 'Pa' Henninger was a mainstay of the Michigan team, a familiar figure on every western gridiron, and a member of every All\-Michigan team by the process of natural selection."{{cite news\|author\=Frank Stanton Simons\|title\=An All\-Michigan Football Team\|publisher\=The Michigan Alumnus\|date\=November 1902\|pages\=44β45\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KRviAAAAMAAJ}}
Henninger was also selected by the student magazine, *The Inlander*, for its all\-time "All\-Michigan Team" in November 1904\.{{cite news\|title\=All\-Michigan Team\|year\=1904\|publisher\=The Inlander\|page\=93\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LN\_hAAAAMAAJ}}
### Business career
After graduating from Michigan, Henninger worked for the [Detroit United Railway](/wiki/Detroit_United_Railway "Detroit United Railway") for six years from 1897 to 1903\. He was in charge of the Motor Testing Department from 1897 to 1898, was made chief draftsman in 1898, and Superintendent of Car Inspectors from 1899 to 1903\.{{cite book\|title\=University of Michigan Department of Engineering General Announcement 1913\-1914\|publisher\=University of Michigan\|year\=1913\|page\=246\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eas\-h3ZkegYC}} He retired from the railway in 1903 to go into business for himself. At the time of his retirement from the railway, the 45 motor inspectors of the Detroit United Railway gave "a trolley party" in his honor. The party rode the trolley to [Birmingham, Michigan](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Michigan "Birmingham, Michigan"), where "supper was partaken at the Colonial Hotel." The inspectors presented Henninger with a solid diamond ring in a heavy gold setting with the Masonic emblem enameled on one side and the Elk's emblem on the other side.{{cite news\|title\=F.W. Henninger Wears A Diamond Ring Now: D.U.R. Motor Inspectors Gave It To Him Last Night; They Have Served Under Him as Chief Inspector\|newspaper\=Detroit Free Press\|date\=1903\-08\-09}}
After leaving the Detroit Urban Railway, Henninger formed his own company which he called the Bellevue Manufacturing Company in 1903 with offices at 343 Bellevue Avenue in Detroit. He was also an inventor of a machine called a wire insulating machine. He also served as the treasurer and eventually president of the Sheet Steel Stamping Company, vice president of Riverbank Corporation and treasurer of Seminoe Mining Company.{{cite book\|editor\=Albert Nelson Marquis\|title\=The Book of Detroiters\|year\=1914\|page\=237\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SRoVAAAAYAAJ\|edition\=second}} At the time of the [1910 United States census](/wiki/1910_United_States_census "1910 United States census"), he was living in Detroit, and his occupation was listed as the manager of a machine factory.Census entry for Frederick W. Henninger. Ancestry.com. 1910 United States Federal Census \[database on\-line]. Year: 1910; Census Place: Detroit Ward 1, Wayne, Michigan; Roll: T624\_679; Page: 1B; Enumeration District: 0007; Image: 690; FHL Number: 1374692\.
In July 1914, Henninger applied for a U.S. passport. He indicated in the application that he was a resident of Detroit engaged in the occupation of a manufacturer.U.S. Passport Application for Frederick W. Henninger, born February 2, 1873 in Cleveland, Ohio. Ancestry.com. U.S. Passport Applications, 1795\-1925 \[database on\-line]. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Washington D.C.; Passport Applications, January 2, 1906 \- March 31, 1925; ARC Identifier 583830 / MLR Number A1 534; NARA Series: M1490; Roll \#219\. In September 1914, he sailed from Liverpool, England, to New York on the [SS *Celtic*](/wiki/RMS_Celtic_%281901%29 "RMS Celtic (1901)").Ancestry.com. New York Passenger Lists, 1820\-1957 \[database on\-line]. Year: 1914; Microfilm Serial: T715; Microfilm Roll: T715\_2368; Line: 6; Page Number: 17\.
In a Draft Registration Card completed in September 1918, Heninger indicated that he was a self\-employed mechanical engineer working and living at 34 Westminster in Detroit.Draft Registration Card for Frederick William Henninger. Ancestry.com. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917\-1918 \[database on\-line]. Registration Location: Wayne County, Michigan; Roll: 2023749; Draft Board: 2\.
### Family and death
In January 1912, Henninger married Lorena Ketchum of Detroit. He was a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)"), [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism"), [Mason](/wiki/Freemasonry "Freemasonry"), [Shriner](/wiki/Ancient_Arabic_Order_of_the_Nobles_of_the_Mystic_Shrine "Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine") and [Elk](/wiki/Benevolent_and_Protective_Order_of_Elks "Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks"). He enjoyed fishing, hunting and other outdoor sports. Henninger died in May 1919 at age 46\. He was buried at Detroit's [Woodlawn Cemetery](/wiki/Woodlawn_Cemetery_%28Detroit%29 "Woodlawn Cemetery (Detroit)").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"Henninger was born in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\") and educated in that city's public schools. He attended [Ann Arbor High School](/wiki/Ann_Arbor_High_School \"Ann Arbor High School\") for his college preparatory studies.",
"### Michigan",
"He enrolled at the [University of Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\") where he played football from [1893](/wiki/1893_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team \"1893 Michigan Wolverines football team\") to [1896](/wiki/1896_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team \"1896 Michigan Wolverines football team\"). He was captain of the [1895 Michigan team](/wiki/1895_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team \"1895 Michigan Wolverines football team\") that compiled an 8β1 record, won seven of their games by shutouts, and outscored their opponents by a combined score of 266 to 14\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=1895 Football Team\\|publisher\\=University of Michigan, Bentley Historical Library\\|url\\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1895fbt.htm}} The sole loss of the 1895 season was a 4β0 setback against the [Harvard Crimson](/wiki/1895_Harvard_Crimson_football_team \"1895 Harvard Crimson football team\"), then one of the three great football powers. Michigan finished the season with a 12β0 win over Western rival, [Amos Alonzo Stagg](/wiki/Amos_Alonzo_Stagg \"Amos Alonzo Stagg\")'s [Chicago Maroons](/wiki/Chicago_Maroons_football \"Chicago Maroons football\"). A newspaper profile of Henninger in November 1895 said:\n> \"The University of Michigan team, captained by F. W. Henninger, is one of the strongest football elevens in the west. Henninger is a veteran of last year's eleven, is 5 feet 10 inches tall and weighs 180 pounds. He is an excellent field general, plays right guard and is said to be the strongest man on the team.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=FOUR CLEVER FOOTBALL CAPTAINS: Henninger, Van Doozer, Richards and Camp, All Have Strong Elevens\\|newspaper\\=Warren Ledger (PA)\\|date\\=1895\\-11\\-08}}",
"In his review of the 1895 season, [Edwin Denby](/wiki/Edwin_Denby_%28politician%29 \"Edwin Denby (politician)\") praised the team's four leaders, head coach [William McCauley](/wiki/William_McCauley_%28American_football%29 \"William McCauley (American football)\"), trainer [Keene Fitzpatrick](/wiki/Keene_Fitzpatrick \"Keene Fitzpatrick\"), manager [Charles A. Baird](/wiki/Charles_A._Baird \"Charles A. Baird\"), and Henninger as the team captain, for their \"excellent support\" of the team: \"They have all won the high regard of the entire university and the sincere liking of those who have come in personal contact with them.\"{{cite book\\|author\\=Edwin Denby\\|title\\=The Football Season of 1895\\|publisher\\=The Palladium\\|date\\=1896 \\|volume\\=((vol.38\\))\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=HncRAAAAMAAJ\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-12\\-18}} Henninger was also a director of the University of Michigan athletic association for three years while he was a student.{{cite news\\|title\\=F.W. Henninger, Old U. of M. Star, Dead\\|newspaper\\=Detroit Free Press\\|date\\=1919\\-06\\-03}}",
"Henninger studied [electrical engineering](/wiki/Electrical_engineering \"Electrical engineering\") at Michigan and received his bachelor's degree in 1897\\. After graduating, Henninger served as an assistant football coach at Michigan from 1897 to 1899, including the [1898 Michigan team](/wiki/1898_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team \"1898 Michigan Wolverines football team\") that won the school's first [Western Conference](/wiki/Big_Ten_Conference \"Big Ten Conference\") championship.{{cite web\\|title\\=1897 Football Team\\|url\\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1897fbt.htm\\|publisher\\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}}{{cite web\\|title\\=1898 Football Team\\|url\\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1898fbt.htm\\|publisher\\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}}{{cite web\\|title\\=1899 Football Team\\|url\\=https://bentley.umich.edu/athdept/football/fbteam/1899fbt.htm\\|publisher\\=Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan}} He also returned in 1902 as an assistant coach under [Fielding H. Yost](/wiki/Fielding_H._Yost \"Fielding H. Yost\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Veterans Give a Hand: Henninger at Ann Arbor; Knox Is Expected Today; Trainer Fitzpatrick Says Men Are in Finest Shape\\|newspaper\\=Detroit Free Press\\|date\\=1902\\-10\\-30}}",
"In November 1902, *The Michigan Alumnus* chose an All\\-Michigan Team consisting of the greatest football players ever to play for the [Michigan Wolverines football](/wiki/Michigan_Wolverines_football \"Michigan Wolverines football\") team. Henninger was selected as the right tackle on the All\\-Michigan team. In selecting Henninger, the author wrote:\n> \"His method of charging into the line, either to break interference or to open up holes for the man with the ball was characteristic, and to his ability in the latter direction was due much of the success of his old team mate, Villa, a most persistent ground\\-gainer. For years 'Pa' Henninger was a mainstay of the Michigan team, a familiar figure on every western gridiron, and a member of every All\\-Michigan team by the process of natural selection.\"{{cite news\\|author\\=Frank Stanton Simons\\|title\\=An All\\-Michigan Football Team\\|publisher\\=The Michigan Alumnus\\|date\\=November 1902\\|pages\\=44β45\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KRviAAAAMAAJ}}",
"Henninger was also selected by the student magazine, *The Inlander*, for its all\\-time \"All\\-Michigan Team\" in November 1904\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=All\\-Michigan Team\\|year\\=1904\\|publisher\\=The Inlander\\|page\\=93\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LN\\_hAAAAMAAJ}}",
"### Business career",
"After graduating from Michigan, Henninger worked for the [Detroit United Railway](/wiki/Detroit_United_Railway \"Detroit United Railway\") for six years from 1897 to 1903\\. He was in charge of the Motor Testing Department from 1897 to 1898, was made chief draftsman in 1898, and Superintendent of Car Inspectors from 1899 to 1903\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=University of Michigan Department of Engineering General Announcement 1913\\-1914\\|publisher\\=University of Michigan\\|year\\=1913\\|page\\=246\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eas\\-h3ZkegYC}} He retired from the railway in 1903 to go into business for himself. At the time of his retirement from the railway, the 45 motor inspectors of the Detroit United Railway gave \"a trolley party\" in his honor. The party rode the trolley to [Birmingham, Michigan](/wiki/Birmingham%2C_Michigan \"Birmingham, Michigan\"), where \"supper was partaken at the Colonial Hotel.\" The inspectors presented Henninger with a solid diamond ring in a heavy gold setting with the Masonic emblem enameled on one side and the Elk's emblem on the other side.{{cite news\\|title\\=F.W. Henninger Wears A Diamond Ring Now: D.U.R. Motor Inspectors Gave It To Him Last Night; They Have Served Under Him as Chief Inspector\\|newspaper\\=Detroit Free Press\\|date\\=1903\\-08\\-09}}",
"After leaving the Detroit Urban Railway, Henninger formed his own company which he called the Bellevue Manufacturing Company in 1903 with offices at 343 Bellevue Avenue in Detroit. He was also an inventor of a machine called a wire insulating machine. He also served as the treasurer and eventually president of the Sheet Steel Stamping Company, vice president of Riverbank Corporation and treasurer of Seminoe Mining Company.{{cite book\\|editor\\=Albert Nelson Marquis\\|title\\=The Book of Detroiters\\|year\\=1914\\|page\\=237\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SRoVAAAAYAAJ\\|edition\\=second}} At the time of the [1910 United States census](/wiki/1910_United_States_census \"1910 United States census\"), he was living in Detroit, and his occupation was listed as the manager of a machine factory.Census entry for Frederick W. Henninger. Ancestry.com. 1910 United States Federal Census \\[database on\\-line]. Year: 1910; Census Place: Detroit Ward 1, Wayne, Michigan; Roll: T624\\_679; Page: 1B; Enumeration District: 0007; Image: 690; FHL Number: 1374692\\.",
"In July 1914, Henninger applied for a U.S. passport. He indicated in the application that he was a resident of Detroit engaged in the occupation of a manufacturer.U.S. Passport Application for Frederick W. Henninger, born February 2, 1873 in Cleveland, Ohio. Ancestry.com. U.S. Passport Applications, 1795\\-1925 \\[database on\\-line]. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Washington D.C.; Passport Applications, January 2, 1906 \\- March 31, 1925; ARC Identifier 583830 / MLR Number A1 534; NARA Series: M1490; Roll \\#219\\. In September 1914, he sailed from Liverpool, England, to New York on the [SS *Celtic*](/wiki/RMS_Celtic_%281901%29 \"RMS Celtic (1901)\").Ancestry.com. New York Passenger Lists, 1820\\-1957 \\[database on\\-line]. Year: 1914; Microfilm Serial: T715; Microfilm Roll: T715\\_2368; Line: 6; Page Number: 17\\.",
"In a Draft Registration Card completed in September 1918, Heninger indicated that he was a self\\-employed mechanical engineer working and living at 34 Westminster in Detroit.Draft Registration Card for Frederick William Henninger. Ancestry.com. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917\\-1918 \\[database on\\-line]. Registration Location: Wayne County, Michigan; Roll: 2023749; Draft Board: 2\\.",
"### Family and death",
"In January 1912, Henninger married Lorena Ketchum of Detroit. He was a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\"), [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\"), [Mason](/wiki/Freemasonry \"Freemasonry\"), [Shriner](/wiki/Ancient_Arabic_Order_of_the_Nobles_of_the_Mystic_Shrine \"Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine\") and [Elk](/wiki/Benevolent_and_Protective_Order_of_Elks \"Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks\"). He enjoyed fishing, hunting and other outdoor sports. Henninger died in May 1919 at age 46\\. He was buried at Detroit's [Woodlawn Cemetery](/wiki/Woodlawn_Cemetery_%28Detroit%29 \"Woodlawn Cemetery (Detroit)\").",
""
] |
Historical context
------------------
### The Merovingian church
{{See also\|Frankish Church\|Christianity in Merovingian Gaul\|Christianization of the Franks}}Carolingian Christianity was heavily influenced by their predecessors, the [Merovingians](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty "Merovingian dynasty"). Christianity was first introduced to the Franks as they conquered Gaul and encountered [Gallo\-Roman](/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture "Gallo-Roman culture") culture, with [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I "Clovis I") converting to Christianity in 496\. The Merovingian kings worked closely with the Church, and bishops occupied spiritual and civic positions in Frankish society, as recorded in historical works such as those of [Gregory of Tours](/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours "Gregory of Tours"). The Church played an important role in Frankish politics during this period, with competing family members often having their rival relatives or political enemies [tonsured](/wiki/Tonsure "Tonsure") and exiled to a monastery.{{Cite book \|last\=Wickham \|first\=Chris \|title\=The Inheritance of Rome, A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 \|publisher\=Penguin Books \|year\=2009 \|location\=London \|pages\=111β129}}
The Merovingians were also instrumental in the Anglo\-Saxon conversion to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England "Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England"), with the wife of [Γthelberht of Kent](/wiki/%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent "Γthelberht of Kent") being the Merovingian princess [Bertha](/wiki/Bertha_of_Kent "Bertha of Kent"). [Queen Brunhild](/wiki/Brunhilda_of_Austrasia "Brunhilda of Austrasia") corresponded with [Pope Gregory the Great](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I "Pope Gregory I"), the latter praising her piety and requesting support for the mission's efforts to convert the Anglo\-Saxons to Christianity.{{Cite web \|last\=University \|first\=Center for Teaching and Learning at Columbia \|title\=A letter from Gregory I, pope (July 596\) \|url\=https://epistolae.ctl.columbia.edu/letter/328\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-04 \|website\=Epistolae \|language\=en}}
The period also saw the regular convening of [Frankish synods](/wiki/List_of_Frankish_synods "List of Frankish synods"), in which kings frequently exercised significant influence.{{Cite journal \|last\=Mascall \|first\=E. L. \|date\=1976 \|title\=Encyclopaedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Edited by Karl Rahner. Executive Editor: J. Cumming. London, Burns \& Oates, 1975\. Pp. xiv \+ 1842\. Β£10Β·00\. \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1017/s0036930600042782 \|journal\=Scottish Journal of Theology \|volume\=29 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=374β376 \|doi\=10\.1017/s0036930600042782 \|issn\=0036\-9306}} The practice fell into disuse during the aristocratic conflicts of the late seventh and early eighth centuries, however. In 742, the Anglo\-Saxon missionary [Boniface](/wiki/Saint_Boniface "Saint Boniface"), in conjunction with the Carolingian [mayors of the palace](/wiki/Mayor_of_the_palace "Mayor of the palace") [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short") and [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_%28mayor_of_the_palace%29 "Carloman (mayor of the palace)"), organised the first of a series of church councils with the express aim of remedying this deficiency.{{Cite book \|last\=Levison \|first\=Wilhelm \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45727680 \|title\=England and the Continent in the eighth century \|date\=1998 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=0\-585\-27808\-3 \|location\=Oxford \|pages\=83β87 \|oclc\=45727680}}
### Expansion of the Frankish realm
{{See also\|Carolingian dynasty\|Charlemagne}}As the Carolingians rose in power under the rule of [Charles Martel](/wiki/Charles_Martel "Charles Martel") as [mayor of the palace](/wiki/Mayor_of_the_palace "Mayor of the palace") (718\-741\), the Frankish realm began to grow considerably. Charles Martel emerged as the strongest political figure in Francia, and the Merovingian kings were increasingly relegated to figurehead positions.{{Cite book \|last\=Fouracre \|first\=Paul \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/809562997 \|title\=Frankish history : studies in the construction of power \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=Ashgate Variorum \|isbn\=978\-1\-4094\-5159\-4 \|location\=Farnham \|pages\=5β7 \|chapter\=The Long Shadow of the Merovingians \|oclc\=809562997}} He achieved great prestige from his defence against non\-Christian invaders throughout his rule and brought peripheral regions such as [Alemannia](/wiki/Alamannia "Alamannia") under Frankish control.{{Cite book \|last\=Fouracre \|first\=Paul \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29184676 \|title\=The New Cambridge medieval history. \|date\=1995β2005 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|others\=Rosamond McKitterick \|isbn\=0\-521\-36291\-1 \|location\=Cambridge \[England] \|pages\=93 \|chapter\=Frankish Gaul to 814 \|oclc\=29184676}} Clearly aware of this authority, Charles Martel established his own succession whereby, upon his death in 741, the realm was divided between his sons akin to what a king would do.{{Cite book \|last\=Fouracre \|first\=Paul \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/809562997 \|title\=Frankish history : studies in the construction of power \|date\=2013 \|publisher\=Ashgate Variorum \|isbn\=978\-1\-4094\-5159\-4 \|location\=Farnham \|pages\=10β15 \|chapter\=The Long Shadow of the Merovingians \|oclc\=809562997}} Charles Martel's rule had elevated his family to a more secure position of power. His son and successor [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short") continued these efforts and, following the abdication of his brother [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_%28mayor_of_the_palace%29 "Carloman (mayor of the palace)"), worked toward supplanting the Frankish king at the time, [Childeric III](/wiki/Childeric_III "Childeric III"). Pepin was successful in doing this and in 751 became the first official Carolingian king of [Francia](/wiki/Francia "Francia"). With the monarchy now held by the Carolingians, Pepin and later his son [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne") were responsible for further expansion of the Frankish realm.
Under Charlemagne (768\-814\), the Frankish realm reached its greatest territorial extent. Charlemagne's conquests led to the acquisition of the [Spanish March](/wiki/Spanish_March "Spanish March") in Catalonia, the lands of [Old Saxony](/wiki/Old_Saxony "Old Saxony"), north and central [Lombard](/wiki/Lombards "Lombards") Italy, and as far east as modern\-day Austria and Slovenia. Charlemagne exerted greater control over [Bavaria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria "Duchy of Bavaria"), which had previously been only nominally part of the Frankish kingdom.{{Cite journal \|last\=Airlie \|first\=Stuart \|date\=1999 \|title\=Narratives of Triumph and Rituals of Submission: Charlemagne's Mastering of Bavaria \|url\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/transactions\-of\-the\-royal\-historical\-society/article/abs/narratives\-of\-triumph\-and\-rituals\-of\-submission\-charlemagnes\-mastering\-of\-bavaria/E18AAD37B810330799C96031654F398E \|journal\=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society \|language\=en \|volume\=9 \|pages\=93β119 \|doi\=10\.2307/3679394 \|jstor\=3679394 \|s2cid\=191466039 \|issn\=1474\-0648}}
### Relations between the Franks and the papacy
{{See also\|Donation of Pepin\|Pope Adrian I}}The relationship between the Franks and the [papacy](/wiki/Pope "Pope") saw the two parties more involved in each other's affairs following the accession of [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short") to the Frankish throne in 751\. The Carolingians, who sought legitimacy to strengthen their newly acquired royal position, pursued this through religious sanction. With the assistance of Boniface, Pepin had initiated a number of reforms to the Frankish church including the correction of morals, the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline and the establishment of a church hierarchy.{{Cite book \|last\=Brown \|first\=Giles \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26855358 \|title\=Carolingian culture : emulation and innovation \|date\=1994 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|others\=Rosamond McKitterick \|isbn\=0\-521\-40524\-6 \|location\=Cambridge \[England] \|pages\=16β17 \|chapter\=Learning and scholarship in the Carolingian Renaissance \|oclc\=26855358}} Boniface visited Rome three times in order to gain papal endorsement for his missionary activities east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine"). Carolingian rulers also aimed to secure a good relationship with the pope to further consolidate their position. The papacy, disillusioned by its traditional alliance with the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") and under pressure from the [Lombards](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards "Kingdom of the Lombards"), was eager to forge a new alliance with the Franks.{{Cite book \|last\=Azzara \|first\=Claudio \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48532606 \|title\=Italy in the early Middle Ages : 476\-1000 \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|others\=Maria Cristina La Rocca \|isbn\=0\-19\-870047\-4 \|location\=Oxford \|pages\=111β115 \|oclc\=48532606}}
A new Franco\-papal alliance was forged around 753 when [Pope Stephen II](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II "Pope Stephen II") crossed the Alps and beseeched Pepin III's aid against Lombard encroachment.{{Cite book \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/440844192 \|title\=The New Cambridge medieval history. Vol. 2, C.700\-c.900 \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|others\=Rosamond McKitterick \|isbn\=978\-0\-511\-46887\-2 \|location\=Cambridge \|pages\=98 \|chapter\=Frankish Gaul to 814 \|oclc\=440844192}} Pepin obliged, apparently reluctantly, and his intervention in Italy established what is known as the [Donation of Pepin](/wiki/Donation_of_Pepin "Donation of Pepin") which denoted lands in central Italy to be controlled by the papacy directly, as well as setting a precedent for Frankish protection of papal interests. The lands guaranteed to the embryonic [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States "Papal States") via this donation would remain in papal hands for centuries to come, leaving an important legacy in Italian politics up until the twentieth century.
With the Donation of Pepin and the Frankish guarantee of papal interests established, further intervention was promised should the Lombards act against the papacy. Twenty years after Pepin's intervention in Italy, the Lombards once more threatened papal autonomy and the papacy requested Frankish assistance once more. [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"), the new king of the Franks, crossed the Alps as his father Pepin had done. This time, both Charlemagne and the Pope, [Adrian I](/wiki/Pope_Adrian_I "Pope Adrian I"), sought permanent resolution to the trouble with the Lombards. Pope Adrian's desired solution was to dismember the kingdom and place large portions of it under papal authority.{{Cite book \|last\=Delogu \|first\=Paolo \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/440844192 \|title\=The New Cambridge medieval history. Vol. 2, C.700\-c.900 \|date\=1995 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|others\=Rosamond McKitterick \|isbn\=978\-0\-511\-46887\-2 \|location\=Cambridge \|pages\=304 \|chapter\=Lombard and Carolingian Italy \|oclc\=440844192}} Charlemagne, instead, enforced his own solution which saw the exile of the Lombard king [Desiderius](/wiki/Desiderius "Desiderius") and the Lombard kingdom coming under his own direct control. Charlemagne thus assumed the title of "king of the Lombards".
Despite the disagreement on what would become of the Lombards, the Frankish court and the papacy continued to cooperate for mutual benefit. The Franks had become the de facto defenders of the church and of western orthodoxy. To further formalize this relationship, [Pope Leo III](/wiki/Pope_Leo_III "Pope Leo III") crowned Charlemagne as [Emperor of the Romans](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") in the year 800\. As emperors, the Franks could present themselves as defenders of Rome, and therefore of the papacy itself. This resulted in an official shift of allegiance of the popes from the Byzantine emperor to that of the newly crowned emperor in the West, which served to further divide the western and eastern churches. However, this new western focus ultimately helped the papacy secure greater authority for itself as a dominant power in the West, and in the ninth century, popes such as [Nicholas I](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_I "Pope Nicholas I") continued to involve themselves in Frankish politics.
### The Carolingian reforms
{{See also\|Carolingian Renaissance}}Charlemagne had a keen interest in reforming the church, and particularly in maintaining a church unified in practices. For example, when he and his courtiers discovered that there were differences between the legal and liturgical practices of the Frankish and Roman churches, he asked Pope Hadrian for an up\-to\-date book of canon law (the *Dionysio\-Hadriana*). The period also saw efforts to standardize monastic practice: in the early years of [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious "Louis the Pious")'s reign, his chief adviser [Benedict of Aniane](/wiki/Benedict_of_Aniane "Benedict of Aniane") encouraged a more uniform implementation of the [Rule of St. Benedict](/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict "Rule of Saint Benedict") across Frankish monasteries.{{Cite book \|last\=Kramer \|first\=Rutger \|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1088722830 \|title\=Rethinking authority in the Carolingian empire : ideals and expectations during the reign of Louis the Pious (813\-828\) \|date\=2019 \|isbn\=978\-90\-485\-3268\-1 \|location\=Amsterdam \|oclc\=1088722830}}
### Kingship and empire
Under the Carolingians, there were considerable developments in ideas about kingship and empire, though the extent to which they were ideologically driven remains a matter of contention between historians. [Francois\-Louis Ganshof](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis_Ganshof "François Louis Ganshof") has argued that, under Louis the Pious especially, there was a move towards a more abstract idea of kingship that appropriated Christian ideology, to such an extent that the idea of the 'state' (*[res publica](/wiki/Res_publica "Res publica")*) reappeared for the first time since the Roman Empire.
One example of this was a greater embrace of the imperial title, which, according to Ganshof, was recognised by Louis the Pious as having given him a more universal authority. Its Christian connotations meant that it awarded Louis authority and jurisdiction over all Christian peoples, as it was his duty to protect and defend Christendom, a concept apparently borrowed from later Christian Roman emperors such as [Theodosius I](/wiki/Theodosius_I "Theodosius I").{{Cite journal \|last\=Louis Ganshof \|first\=Francois \|date\=1957 \|title\=Louis the Pious Reconsidered \|journal\=History \|volume\=42 \|issue\=146 \|pages\=174β75}} Ganshof also points to the Aachen [Capitulary](/wiki/Capitulary "Capitulary") of 802 as demonstrating a remarkably more religious tone than any of Charlemagne's prior capitularies, to such an extent that Ganshof describes Charlemagne as sermonising, attempting to reinforce his role as the secular head of the Christian community.{{Cite book \|last\=Louis Ganshof \|first\=Francois \|title\=The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy \|publisher\=Longman \|year\=1971 \|pages\=244β45}}
Further evidence of the Carolingians appropriating theological concerns in their rule is the [General admonition](/wiki/Admonitio_generalis "Admonitio generalis"), issued in 789, which aimed to regulate educational and religious standards, including important Christian theological teachings such as the Trinity of the Father, Son and Holy spirit being parts of one God, and that Jesus was made flesh by the holy spirit, and that Mary was a Virgin. The involvement of the Carolingians in religious matters demonstrates the idea of the Carolingian empire being above all a Christian empire, and that as Christian kings they should be involved in religious matters directly and were responsible for correct worship among and the salvation of their people.
|
[
"Historical context\n------------------",
"### The Merovingian church",
"{{See also\\|Frankish Church\\|Christianity in Merovingian Gaul\\|Christianization of the Franks}}Carolingian Christianity was heavily influenced by their predecessors, the [Merovingians](/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty \"Merovingian dynasty\"). Christianity was first introduced to the Franks as they conquered Gaul and encountered [Gallo\\-Roman](/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture \"Gallo-Roman culture\") culture, with [Clovis I](/wiki/Clovis_I \"Clovis I\") converting to Christianity in 496\\. The Merovingian kings worked closely with the Church, and bishops occupied spiritual and civic positions in Frankish society, as recorded in historical works such as those of [Gregory of Tours](/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours \"Gregory of Tours\"). The Church played an important role in Frankish politics during this period, with competing family members often having their rival relatives or political enemies [tonsured](/wiki/Tonsure \"Tonsure\") and exiled to a monastery.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Wickham \\|first\\=Chris \\|title\\=The Inheritance of Rome, A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 \\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\|year\\=2009 \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=111β129}}",
"The Merovingians were also instrumental in the Anglo\\-Saxon conversion to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity_in_Anglo-Saxon_England \"Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England\"), with the wife of [Γthelberht of Kent](/wiki/%C3%86thelberht_of_Kent \"Γthelberht of Kent\") being the Merovingian princess [Bertha](/wiki/Bertha_of_Kent \"Bertha of Kent\"). [Queen Brunhild](/wiki/Brunhilda_of_Austrasia \"Brunhilda of Austrasia\") corresponded with [Pope Gregory the Great](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I \"Pope Gregory I\"), the latter praising her piety and requesting support for the mission's efforts to convert the Anglo\\-Saxons to Christianity.{{Cite web \\|last\\=University \\|first\\=Center for Teaching and Learning at Columbia \\|title\\=A letter from Gregory I, pope (July 596\\) \\|url\\=https://epistolae.ctl.columbia.edu/letter/328\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-04 \\|website\\=Epistolae \\|language\\=en}}",
"The period also saw the regular convening of [Frankish synods](/wiki/List_of_Frankish_synods \"List of Frankish synods\"), in which kings frequently exercised significant influence.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Mascall \\|first\\=E. L. \\|date\\=1976 \\|title\\=Encyclopaedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi. Edited by Karl Rahner. Executive Editor: J. Cumming. London, Burns \\& Oates, 1975\\. Pp. xiv \\+ 1842\\. Β£10Β·00\\. \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1017/s0036930600042782 \\|journal\\=Scottish Journal of Theology \\|volume\\=29 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=374β376 \\|doi\\=10\\.1017/s0036930600042782 \\|issn\\=0036\\-9306}} The practice fell into disuse during the aristocratic conflicts of the late seventh and early eighth centuries, however. In 742, the Anglo\\-Saxon missionary [Boniface](/wiki/Saint_Boniface \"Saint Boniface\"), in conjunction with the Carolingian [mayors of the palace](/wiki/Mayor_of_the_palace \"Mayor of the palace\") [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\") and [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_%28mayor_of_the_palace%29 \"Carloman (mayor of the palace)\"), organised the first of a series of church councils with the express aim of remedying this deficiency.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Levison \\|first\\=Wilhelm \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45727680 \\|title\\=England and the Continent in the eighth century \\|date\\=1998 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=0\\-585\\-27808\\-3 \\|location\\=Oxford \\|pages\\=83β87 \\|oclc\\=45727680}}",
"### Expansion of the Frankish realm",
"{{See also\\|Carolingian dynasty\\|Charlemagne}}As the Carolingians rose in power under the rule of [Charles Martel](/wiki/Charles_Martel \"Charles Martel\") as [mayor of the palace](/wiki/Mayor_of_the_palace \"Mayor of the palace\") (718\\-741\\), the Frankish realm began to grow considerably. Charles Martel emerged as the strongest political figure in Francia, and the Merovingian kings were increasingly relegated to figurehead positions.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Fouracre \\|first\\=Paul \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/809562997 \\|title\\=Frankish history : studies in the construction of power \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Ashgate Variorum \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4094\\-5159\\-4 \\|location\\=Farnham \\|pages\\=5β7 \\|chapter\\=The Long Shadow of the Merovingians \\|oclc\\=809562997}} He achieved great prestige from his defence against non\\-Christian invaders throughout his rule and brought peripheral regions such as [Alemannia](/wiki/Alamannia \"Alamannia\") under Frankish control.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Fouracre \\|first\\=Paul \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29184676 \\|title\\=The New Cambridge medieval history. \\|date\\=1995β2005 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|others\\=Rosamond McKitterick \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-36291\\-1 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\[England] \\|pages\\=93 \\|chapter\\=Frankish Gaul to 814 \\|oclc\\=29184676}} Clearly aware of this authority, Charles Martel established his own succession whereby, upon his death in 741, the realm was divided between his sons akin to what a king would do.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Fouracre \\|first\\=Paul \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/809562997 \\|title\\=Frankish history : studies in the construction of power \\|date\\=2013 \\|publisher\\=Ashgate Variorum \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4094\\-5159\\-4 \\|location\\=Farnham \\|pages\\=10β15 \\|chapter\\=The Long Shadow of the Merovingians \\|oclc\\=809562997}} Charles Martel's rule had elevated his family to a more secure position of power. His son and successor [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\") continued these efforts and, following the abdication of his brother [Carloman](/wiki/Carloman_%28mayor_of_the_palace%29 \"Carloman (mayor of the palace)\"), worked toward supplanting the Frankish king at the time, [Childeric III](/wiki/Childeric_III \"Childeric III\"). Pepin was successful in doing this and in 751 became the first official Carolingian king of [Francia](/wiki/Francia \"Francia\"). With the monarchy now held by the Carolingians, Pepin and later his son [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\") were responsible for further expansion of the Frankish realm.",
"Under Charlemagne (768\\-814\\), the Frankish realm reached its greatest territorial extent. Charlemagne's conquests led to the acquisition of the [Spanish March](/wiki/Spanish_March \"Spanish March\") in Catalonia, the lands of [Old Saxony](/wiki/Old_Saxony \"Old Saxony\"), north and central [Lombard](/wiki/Lombards \"Lombards\") Italy, and as far east as modern\\-day Austria and Slovenia. Charlemagne exerted greater control over [Bavaria](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bavaria \"Duchy of Bavaria\"), which had previously been only nominally part of the Frankish kingdom.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Airlie \\|first\\=Stuart \\|date\\=1999 \\|title\\=Narratives of Triumph and Rituals of Submission: Charlemagne's Mastering of Bavaria \\|url\\=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/transactions\\-of\\-the\\-royal\\-historical\\-society/article/abs/narratives\\-of\\-triumph\\-and\\-rituals\\-of\\-submission\\-charlemagnes\\-mastering\\-of\\-bavaria/E18AAD37B810330799C96031654F398E \\|journal\\=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=9 \\|pages\\=93β119 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3679394 \\|jstor\\=3679394 \\|s2cid\\=191466039 \\|issn\\=1474\\-0648}}",
"### Relations between the Franks and the papacy",
"{{See also\\|Donation of Pepin\\|Pope Adrian I}}The relationship between the Franks and the [papacy](/wiki/Pope \"Pope\") saw the two parties more involved in each other's affairs following the accession of [Pepin III](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\") to the Frankish throne in 751\\. The Carolingians, who sought legitimacy to strengthen their newly acquired royal position, pursued this through religious sanction. With the assistance of Boniface, Pepin had initiated a number of reforms to the Frankish church including the correction of morals, the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline and the establishment of a church hierarchy.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Brown \\|first\\=Giles \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26855358 \\|title\\=Carolingian culture : emulation and innovation \\|date\\=1994 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|others\\=Rosamond McKitterick \\|isbn\\=0\\-521\\-40524\\-6 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\[England] \\|pages\\=16β17 \\|chapter\\=Learning and scholarship in the Carolingian Renaissance \\|oclc\\=26855358}} Boniface visited Rome three times in order to gain papal endorsement for his missionary activities east of the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\"). Carolingian rulers also aimed to secure a good relationship with the pope to further consolidate their position. The papacy, disillusioned by its traditional alliance with the [Byzantine Empire](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") and under pressure from the [Lombards](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards \"Kingdom of the Lombards\"), was eager to forge a new alliance with the Franks.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Azzara \\|first\\=Claudio \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48532606 \\|title\\=Italy in the early Middle Ages : 476\\-1000 \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|others\\=Maria Cristina La Rocca \\|isbn\\=0\\-19\\-870047\\-4 \\|location\\=Oxford \\|pages\\=111β115 \\|oclc\\=48532606}}",
"A new Franco\\-papal alliance was forged around 753 when [Pope Stephen II](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II \"Pope Stephen II\") crossed the Alps and beseeched Pepin III's aid against Lombard encroachment.{{Cite book \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/440844192 \\|title\\=The New Cambridge medieval history. Vol. 2, C.700\\-c.900 \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|others\\=Rosamond McKitterick \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-511\\-46887\\-2 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|pages\\=98 \\|chapter\\=Frankish Gaul to 814 \\|oclc\\=440844192}} Pepin obliged, apparently reluctantly, and his intervention in Italy established what is known as the [Donation of Pepin](/wiki/Donation_of_Pepin \"Donation of Pepin\") which denoted lands in central Italy to be controlled by the papacy directly, as well as setting a precedent for Frankish protection of papal interests. The lands guaranteed to the embryonic [Papal States](/wiki/Papal_States \"Papal States\") via this donation would remain in papal hands for centuries to come, leaving an important legacy in Italian politics up until the twentieth century.",
"With the Donation of Pepin and the Frankish guarantee of papal interests established, further intervention was promised should the Lombards act against the papacy. Twenty years after Pepin's intervention in Italy, the Lombards once more threatened papal autonomy and the papacy requested Frankish assistance once more. [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"), the new king of the Franks, crossed the Alps as his father Pepin had done. This time, both Charlemagne and the Pope, [Adrian I](/wiki/Pope_Adrian_I \"Pope Adrian I\"), sought permanent resolution to the trouble with the Lombards. Pope Adrian's desired solution was to dismember the kingdom and place large portions of it under papal authority.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Delogu \\|first\\=Paolo \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/440844192 \\|title\\=The New Cambridge medieval history. Vol. 2, C.700\\-c.900 \\|date\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|others\\=Rosamond McKitterick \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-511\\-46887\\-2 \\|location\\=Cambridge \\|pages\\=304 \\|chapter\\=Lombard and Carolingian Italy \\|oclc\\=440844192}} Charlemagne, instead, enforced his own solution which saw the exile of the Lombard king [Desiderius](/wiki/Desiderius \"Desiderius\") and the Lombard kingdom coming under his own direct control. Charlemagne thus assumed the title of \"king of the Lombards\".",
"Despite the disagreement on what would become of the Lombards, the Frankish court and the papacy continued to cooperate for mutual benefit. The Franks had become the de facto defenders of the church and of western orthodoxy. To further formalize this relationship, [Pope Leo III](/wiki/Pope_Leo_III \"Pope Leo III\") crowned Charlemagne as [Emperor of the Romans](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") in the year 800\\. As emperors, the Franks could present themselves as defenders of Rome, and therefore of the papacy itself. This resulted in an official shift of allegiance of the popes from the Byzantine emperor to that of the newly crowned emperor in the West, which served to further divide the western and eastern churches. However, this new western focus ultimately helped the papacy secure greater authority for itself as a dominant power in the West, and in the ninth century, popes such as [Nicholas I](/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_I \"Pope Nicholas I\") continued to involve themselves in Frankish politics.",
"### The Carolingian reforms",
"{{See also\\|Carolingian Renaissance}}Charlemagne had a keen interest in reforming the church, and particularly in maintaining a church unified in practices. For example, when he and his courtiers discovered that there were differences between the legal and liturgical practices of the Frankish and Roman churches, he asked Pope Hadrian for an up\\-to\\-date book of canon law (the *Dionysio\\-Hadriana*). The period also saw efforts to standardize monastic practice: in the early years of [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious \"Louis the Pious\")'s reign, his chief adviser [Benedict of Aniane](/wiki/Benedict_of_Aniane \"Benedict of Aniane\") encouraged a more uniform implementation of the [Rule of St. Benedict](/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict \"Rule of Saint Benedict\") across Frankish monasteries.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kramer \\|first\\=Rutger \\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1088722830 \\|title\\=Rethinking authority in the Carolingian empire : ideals and expectations during the reign of Louis the Pious (813\\-828\\) \\|date\\=2019 \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-485\\-3268\\-1 \\|location\\=Amsterdam \\|oclc\\=1088722830}}",
"### Kingship and empire",
"Under the Carolingians, there were considerable developments in ideas about kingship and empire, though the extent to which they were ideologically driven remains a matter of contention between historians. [Francois\\-Louis Ganshof](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis_Ganshof \"François Louis Ganshof\") has argued that, under Louis the Pious especially, there was a move towards a more abstract idea of kingship that appropriated Christian ideology, to such an extent that the idea of the 'state' (*[res publica](/wiki/Res_publica \"Res publica\")*) reappeared for the first time since the Roman Empire.",
"One example of this was a greater embrace of the imperial title, which, according to Ganshof, was recognised by Louis the Pious as having given him a more universal authority. Its Christian connotations meant that it awarded Louis authority and jurisdiction over all Christian peoples, as it was his duty to protect and defend Christendom, a concept apparently borrowed from later Christian Roman emperors such as [Theodosius I](/wiki/Theodosius_I \"Theodosius I\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Louis Ganshof \\|first\\=Francois \\|date\\=1957 \\|title\\=Louis the Pious Reconsidered \\|journal\\=History \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=146 \\|pages\\=174β75}} Ganshof also points to the Aachen [Capitulary](/wiki/Capitulary \"Capitulary\") of 802 as demonstrating a remarkably more religious tone than any of Charlemagne's prior capitularies, to such an extent that Ganshof describes Charlemagne as sermonising, attempting to reinforce his role as the secular head of the Christian community.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Louis Ganshof \\|first\\=Francois \\|title\\=The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy \\|publisher\\=Longman \\|year\\=1971 \\|pages\\=244β45}}",
"Further evidence of the Carolingians appropriating theological concerns in their rule is the [General admonition](/wiki/Admonitio_generalis \"Admonitio generalis\"), issued in 789, which aimed to regulate educational and religious standards, including important Christian theological teachings such as the Trinity of the Father, Son and Holy spirit being parts of one God, and that Jesus was made flesh by the holy spirit, and that Mary was a Virgin. The involvement of the Carolingians in religious matters demonstrates the idea of the Carolingian empire being above all a Christian empire, and that as Christian kings they should be involved in religious matters directly and were responsible for correct worship among and the salvation of their people.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{see also\|Hal Prewitt}}For business history pre\-incorporation
### 1975β1980: Founding
The company was built on the early work of [Prewitt](/wiki/Hal_Prewitt "Hal Prewitt") using his business and [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer "Personal computer") development experiences. This was the period during the creation of the first [microcomputers](/wiki/Microcomputer "Microcomputer"), the launch of the [Altair 8800](/wiki/Altair_8800 "Altair 8800") and founding of [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft "Microsoft"). He was selling and programming [Minicomputers](/wiki/Minicomputers "Minicomputers") and assembling these [microcomputers](/wiki/Microcomputer "Microcomputer"), attaching [computer peripherals](/wiki/Computer_peripheral "Computer peripheral"), [programming](/wiki/Computer_programming "Computer programming") and building them into business [computer systems](/wiki/Computer_systems "Computer systems").
Core was created under a different [business model](/wiki/Business_model "Business model").{{cite web\|url\=http://coreinternational.info/198007\_Join\_Core\_Letter.pdf\|title\=Join Core circa 1980\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} Initially, it was marketed as an [association](/wiki/Voluntary_association "Voluntary association") and structured as a [for\-profit organization](/wiki/For-Profit_Organization "For-Profit Organization") specifically for users of the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110") and [IBM System/23](/wiki/IBM_System/23 "IBM System/23"). The objective was to sell by [mail\-order](/wiki/Mail-order "Mail-order") computer supplies, [pre\-developed](/wiki/Custom_software_development "Custom software development") ([off\-the\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf "Commercial off-the-shelf")) programs and hardware maintenance service. Supplies included [printer ribbons](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer "Dot matrix printer") and [paper](/wiki/Continuous_stationery "Continuous stationery"), [diskettes](/wiki/Floppy_disk "Floppy disk"), [tape cartridges](/wiki/Magnetic_tape_data_storage "Magnetic tape data storage"). Software ranged from simple mortgage interest calculations, word processing, games and utilities to advanced payroll, accounting and industry specific applications. Users wanted readily available, simple to install and support for software that was also low in cost. Core was able to fill this niche because [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") had developed the machines with engineering and scientific applications in mind, while business programs such as construction, agriculture, and manufacturing were not generally available. Computer maintenance was an insurance program that provided on\-site repairs and replacement parts, all provided by [IBM service](/wiki/IBM "IBM") but at a lower cost than available directly from [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM").
The company was very successful attracting users of the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110") as many [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") Sales Representatives referred their customers to the organization. While Core grew, profits were used for the continuing development of [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage").
### 1981β1983: Hard disk drives, LAN and PC for IBM 5100 series
These [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") machines had a [closed architecture](/wiki/Closed_architecture "Closed architecture"), with most of the design information unpublished and held secret.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/39841/closed\-architecture\|title\=Definition of closed architecture\|publisher\= PC Magazine\|accessdate\=October 30, 2013}} Computer systems of this design are extremely or most likely impossible to have the ability to swap components, obtain support from other vendors or upgrade to better configuration/another model unless that option is available from the original manufacturer. The [limitations](/wiki/Vendor_lock-in "Vendor lock-in") make a customer dependent on one vendor for products and services for the software and hardware parts of the system.
Core sensed an opportunity to provide greater and faster [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"). After a five\-year effort, in September 1982 they announced the availability of the first [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives "Hard disk drives"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1981\_5110\_Disk\_Brochure.pdf\|title\=Save IBM 5110/20's from junk yards of the world \|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} and [local area network (LAN)](/wiki/Local_area_network "Local area network"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1982\_Sept\_CORE\_Newsletter.pdf\|title\=September 1982 Core Newsletter\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} for the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110"). IBM systems as sold were storage limited and without a network option; the [5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 "IBM 5100") had tape with the [5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110") and [5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 "IBM 5120") restricted to 1\.2Β MB floppy disks. Core drives were available starting at 10Β MB and increased up to 160Β MB in removable and fixed configurations.
CoreNet, the [LAN](/wiki/Local_area_network "Local area network") built into each Core [storage system](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"), allowed interconnection of up to eight IBM 5100 Series systems, providing the ability to share storage and data. This configuration pre\-dated LANs of the period for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC "IBM PC") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible "IBM PC compatible").
In 1983, Core introduced two major solutions as IBM was withdrawing from marketing the IBM 5100 series. First, software called PC51 that would run allowed 5100 series computer programs written in BASIC to run unmodified on the IBM PC and compatibles under [MS\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS "MS-DOS"). And second, a LAN card for the IBM PC and compatibles that provided connection to the IBM 5100 Series network. These solutions allowed IBM 5110/5120 series users to add new technology and increase productivity while retaining their investment in equipment and software.
Core's development of their [storage systems](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"), LAN and PC51 software was major [technology](/wiki/Technology "Technology") [engineering](/wiki/Engineering "Engineering") feat without rivals. Due to the complexity and the successful [reverse engineering](/wiki/Reverse_engineering "Reverse engineering") of the systems, resulted in [captive market](/wiki/Captive_market "Captive market") as they were the only organization able to provide an upgrade path for these IBM owners.
### 1984β1986: Educating the marketplace, IBM VAD, hard disk drives, PC and backup
In 1984, CORE expanded its product focus and entered the [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer "Personal computer") (PC) marketplace. The company's first product introduced the year before, called PC\-51, was a completely new operating system (and language) for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC "IBM PC") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible "IBM PC compatible"). It enabled a PC to function like an IBM 5110/5120 system, demonstrating the company's strong software development capabilities. Not only did this allow users to continue using the application software they had already developed, but it increased processing speed by a factor of two to ten times, and reduced maintenance cost up to 90%.
This new product opened up an unexplored marketplace for CORE by allowing the company to become an IBM value\-added dealer [(VAD)](/wiki/Value-added_reseller "Value-added reseller") and sell both the IBM PC and CORE products individually and as a combined package. IBM authorized and promoted this relationship because it provided an upgrade path for their customers that was previously unavailable. As a result of the early development effort for the IBM 5100 series, CORE released its own family of high\-performance hard disk drives called the ATplus Series,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1984\_ATplus\_Brochure.pdf\|title\=ATplus\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} with better capacity, reliability and performance than IBM's drives.
A few weeks after the introduction of the new [IBM AT](/wiki/IBM_AT "IBM AT") in August 1984, CORE discovered problems in the factory\-issued hard disk drive. As the media and marketplace learned of IBM's disk problems, CORE was once again in a unique position to capitalize on an opportunity, without any significant competition. For more than six months the IBM AT the model with the [CMI](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. "Computer Memories Inc.") was in short supply.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6i4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=shortage\+IBM\+pc\+at\+infoworld\&pg\=PA33\|title\=Waiting for the AT Train\|date\=January 28, 1985\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} Delays were attributed to lack of drives, technical problems with the machine or some other undisclosed issues.
Core desired a major partner and selected [Control Data Corporation (CDC)](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation "Control Data Corporation") to assist with the introduction of the drives for the PC marketplace. The announcement{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\_PCW\_on\_ATplus\_Anouncm.pdf\|title\=Core, Control Data Offer AT Disk\-Upgrade Kits\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\_MM\_on\_ATplus\_Announcment.pdf\|title\=IBM VAD Sells own drives\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} was made in February 1985 and generated a significant amount of press coverage.
Core discovered that a general lack of understanding existed among the [news media](/wiki/News_media "News media") and users regarding technology of different computer and mass storage systems. Few understood the value of different systems to the end\-user or how to rate the many choices in the marketplace. In response, Core began placing considerable emphasis on user education, which resulted in a major contribution to computer industry. Directly from these efforts, the news media, [computer magazines](/wiki/Computer_magazines "Computer magazines"), product reviewers, dealers and computer manufactures started discussing, providing and promoting "[seek time](/wiki/Seek_time "Seek time")", "[access time](/wiki/Disk_access_time "Disk access time")", "[transfer time](/wiki/Data_transfer_rate_%28disk_drive%29 "Data transfer rate (disk drive)")" and how to value or understand [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives "Hard disk drives") importance in a [computer system](/wiki/Computer_system "Computer system"). The company believed the more end\-users learned about computers and the engineering behind Core products, the less these users wanted any other product.
Purchasers of the IBM AT were reporting some dealers{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qy8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=march%2010%2C%201986%20infoworld\&pg\=PA1\|title\=Dealers Pawn Off Inferior Drives\|date\=March 10, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Oi8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=infoworld\+march\+10,\+1986\+\+%22dealers\+pawn%22\&pg\=PA5\|title\=Substandard Components Still Surfacing\|date\=March 31, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} were installing inferior drives into the computer without disclosing the fact. To help buyers and for industry education, Core developed the DiskP program, later replaced by the COREtest{{cite web\|url\=http://sta.c64\.org/dosprg.html\|title\=Useful DOS Software\|publisher\=Joe Forster\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} (DOS based), to identify sub\-standard products by providing a visual demonstration of the speed and comparative measurements of hard disk drives and controllers. Many computer publications,{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Ty8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=Coretest\&pg\=PA43\|title\=Equity II Competes as a low\-priced clone\|date\=June 9, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.patsula.com/books/gb24\.pdf\|title\=Buying Computer Hardware\|publisher\=Patsula Media\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} hardware manufacturers, distributors, dealersBorrett, Lloyd. "["Megabyte Tarnish](http://www.borrett.id.au/computing/art-1985-09-01.htm)," *PC Australia*, September 1985; url accessed March 8, 2010 and independent evaluation firms{{cite web\|url\=http://www.everypatent.com/comp/pat5295247\.html\|title\=Patent 5295247\|publisher\=\[\[United States Patent Office]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} relied on COREtest for product comparison, which made COREtest the industry standard{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RjsEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=Coretest\+standard\&pg\=PA64\|title\=A User's View\| date\=June 11, 1990 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} and most often quoted benchmark. As these programs were provide without charge and freely available from [BBS](/wiki/Bulletin_board_system "Bulletin board system"), computer magazines and dealers, it is believed there was an installed base of over million copies worldwide promoting Core technology and education.
For more than two years, newspapers,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-03\-17\-fi\-12289\-story.html\|title\=Disk\-Drive Maker Put Its Eggs in One Basket\-\-and Fell\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|access\-date\=April 14, 2010 \| first\=James \| last\=Bates \| date\=March 17, 1987}} magazines and computer publications{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qS4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=%22stay\+away\+from\+this\+speed\+demon%22\&pg\=PA57\|title\=IBM PC AT\| date\=December 3, 1984 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5C4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=march%2011%201985%20PC%20AT%20infoworld%20cause%20concerns\&pg\=PA24\|title\=PC AT Problems Cause Concerns\| date\=March 11, 1985 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OC8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=IBM%20at%20drive%20problems%201985\&pg\=PA6\|title\=Drive Problems Continue in PC AT\|date\=November 18, 1985 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} ran stories on the IBM AT and [Computer Memories Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. "Computer Memories Inc.") (CMI) hard disk drives problems.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{see also\\|Hal Prewitt}}For business history pre\\-incorporation",
"### 1975β1980: Founding",
"The company was built on the early work of [Prewitt](/wiki/Hal_Prewitt \"Hal Prewitt\") using his business and [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\") development experiences. This was the period during the creation of the first [microcomputers](/wiki/Microcomputer \"Microcomputer\"), the launch of the [Altair 8800](/wiki/Altair_8800 \"Altair 8800\") and founding of [Microsoft](/wiki/Microsoft \"Microsoft\"). He was selling and programming [Minicomputers](/wiki/Minicomputers \"Minicomputers\") and assembling these [microcomputers](/wiki/Microcomputer \"Microcomputer\"), attaching [computer peripherals](/wiki/Computer_peripheral \"Computer peripheral\"), [programming](/wiki/Computer_programming \"Computer programming\") and building them into business [computer systems](/wiki/Computer_systems \"Computer systems\").",
"Core was created under a different [business model](/wiki/Business_model \"Business model\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://coreinternational.info/198007\\_Join\\_Core\\_Letter.pdf\\|title\\=Join Core circa 1980\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} Initially, it was marketed as an [association](/wiki/Voluntary_association \"Voluntary association\") and structured as a [for\\-profit organization](/wiki/For-Profit_Organization \"For-Profit Organization\") specifically for users of the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\") and [IBM System/23](/wiki/IBM_System/23 \"IBM System/23\"). The objective was to sell by [mail\\-order](/wiki/Mail-order \"Mail-order\") computer supplies, [pre\\-developed](/wiki/Custom_software_development \"Custom software development\") ([off\\-the\\-shelf](/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf \"Commercial off-the-shelf\")) programs and hardware maintenance service. Supplies included [printer ribbons](/wiki/Dot_matrix_printer \"Dot matrix printer\") and [paper](/wiki/Continuous_stationery \"Continuous stationery\"), [diskettes](/wiki/Floppy_disk \"Floppy disk\"), [tape cartridges](/wiki/Magnetic_tape_data_storage \"Magnetic tape data storage\"). Software ranged from simple mortgage interest calculations, word processing, games and utilities to advanced payroll, accounting and industry specific applications. Users wanted readily available, simple to install and support for software that was also low in cost. Core was able to fill this niche because [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") had developed the machines with engineering and scientific applications in mind, while business programs such as construction, agriculture, and manufacturing were not generally available. Computer maintenance was an insurance program that provided on\\-site repairs and replacement parts, all provided by [IBM service](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") but at a lower cost than available directly from [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\").",
"The company was very successful attracting users of the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\") as many [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") Sales Representatives referred their customers to the organization. While Core grew, profits were used for the continuing development of [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\").",
"### 1981β1983: Hard disk drives, LAN and PC for IBM 5100 series",
"These [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") machines had a [closed architecture](/wiki/Closed_architecture \"Closed architecture\"), with most of the design information unpublished and held secret.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/39841/closed\\-architecture\\|title\\=Definition of closed architecture\\|publisher\\= PC Magazine\\|accessdate\\=October 30, 2013}} Computer systems of this design are extremely or most likely impossible to have the ability to swap components, obtain support from other vendors or upgrade to better configuration/another model unless that option is available from the original manufacturer. The [limitations](/wiki/Vendor_lock-in \"Vendor lock-in\") make a customer dependent on one vendor for products and services for the software and hardware parts of the system.",
"Core sensed an opportunity to provide greater and faster [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"). After a five\\-year effort, in September 1982 they announced the availability of the first [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives \"Hard disk drives\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1981\\_5110\\_Disk\\_Brochure.pdf\\|title\\=Save IBM 5110/20's from junk yards of the world \\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} and [local area network (LAN)](/wiki/Local_area_network \"Local area network\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1982\\_Sept\\_CORE\\_Newsletter.pdf\\|title\\=September 1982 Core Newsletter\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} for the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\"). IBM systems as sold were storage limited and without a network option; the [5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\") had tape with the [5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\") and [5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 \"IBM 5120\") restricted to 1\\.2Β MB floppy disks. Core drives were available starting at 10Β MB and increased up to 160Β MB in removable and fixed configurations.",
"CoreNet, the [LAN](/wiki/Local_area_network \"Local area network\") built into each Core [storage system](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"), allowed interconnection of up to eight IBM 5100 Series systems, providing the ability to share storage and data. This configuration pre\\-dated LANs of the period for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible \"IBM PC compatible\").",
"In 1983, Core introduced two major solutions as IBM was withdrawing from marketing the IBM 5100 series. First, software called PC51 that would run allowed 5100 series computer programs written in BASIC to run unmodified on the IBM PC and compatibles under [MS\\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS \"MS-DOS\"). And second, a LAN card for the IBM PC and compatibles that provided connection to the IBM 5100 Series network. These solutions allowed IBM 5110/5120 series users to add new technology and increase productivity while retaining their investment in equipment and software.",
"Core's development of their [storage systems](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"), LAN and PC51 software was major [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\") [engineering](/wiki/Engineering \"Engineering\") feat without rivals. Due to the complexity and the successful [reverse engineering](/wiki/Reverse_engineering \"Reverse engineering\") of the systems, resulted in [captive market](/wiki/Captive_market \"Captive market\") as they were the only organization able to provide an upgrade path for these IBM owners.",
"### 1984β1986: Educating the marketplace, IBM VAD, hard disk drives, PC and backup",
"In 1984, CORE expanded its product focus and entered the [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\") (PC) marketplace. The company's first product introduced the year before, called PC\\-51, was a completely new operating system (and language) for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible \"IBM PC compatible\"). It enabled a PC to function like an IBM 5110/5120 system, demonstrating the company's strong software development capabilities. Not only did this allow users to continue using the application software they had already developed, but it increased processing speed by a factor of two to ten times, and reduced maintenance cost up to 90%.",
"This new product opened up an unexplored marketplace for CORE by allowing the company to become an IBM value\\-added dealer [(VAD)](/wiki/Value-added_reseller \"Value-added reseller\") and sell both the IBM PC and CORE products individually and as a combined package. IBM authorized and promoted this relationship because it provided an upgrade path for their customers that was previously unavailable. As a result of the early development effort for the IBM 5100 series, CORE released its own family of high\\-performance hard disk drives called the ATplus Series,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1984\\_ATplus\\_Brochure.pdf\\|title\\=ATplus\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} with better capacity, reliability and performance than IBM's drives.",
"A few weeks after the introduction of the new [IBM AT](/wiki/IBM_AT \"IBM AT\") in August 1984, CORE discovered problems in the factory\\-issued hard disk drive. As the media and marketplace learned of IBM's disk problems, CORE was once again in a unique position to capitalize on an opportunity, without any significant competition. For more than six months the IBM AT the model with the [CMI](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. \"Computer Memories Inc.\") was in short supply.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6i4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=shortage\\+IBM\\+pc\\+at\\+infoworld\\&pg\\=PA33\\|title\\=Waiting for the AT Train\\|date\\=January 28, 1985\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} Delays were attributed to lack of drives, technical problems with the machine or some other undisclosed issues.",
"Core desired a major partner and selected [Control Data Corporation (CDC)](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation \"Control Data Corporation\") to assist with the introduction of the drives for the PC marketplace. The announcement{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\\_PCW\\_on\\_ATplus\\_Anouncm.pdf\\|title\\=Core, Control Data Offer AT Disk\\-Upgrade Kits\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\\_MM\\_on\\_ATplus\\_Announcment.pdf\\|title\\=IBM VAD Sells own drives\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} was made in February 1985 and generated a significant amount of press coverage.",
"Core discovered that a general lack of understanding existed among the [news media](/wiki/News_media \"News media\") and users regarding technology of different computer and mass storage systems. Few understood the value of different systems to the end\\-user or how to rate the many choices in the marketplace. In response, Core began placing considerable emphasis on user education, which resulted in a major contribution to computer industry. Directly from these efforts, the news media, [computer magazines](/wiki/Computer_magazines \"Computer magazines\"), product reviewers, dealers and computer manufactures started discussing, providing and promoting \"[seek time](/wiki/Seek_time \"Seek time\")\", \"[access time](/wiki/Disk_access_time \"Disk access time\")\", \"[transfer time](/wiki/Data_transfer_rate_%28disk_drive%29 \"Data transfer rate (disk drive)\")\" and how to value or understand [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives \"Hard disk drives\") importance in a [computer system](/wiki/Computer_system \"Computer system\"). The company believed the more end\\-users learned about computers and the engineering behind Core products, the less these users wanted any other product.",
"Purchasers of the IBM AT were reporting some dealers{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qy8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=march%2010%2C%201986%20infoworld\\&pg\\=PA1\\|title\\=Dealers Pawn Off Inferior Drives\\|date\\=March 10, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Oi8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=infoworld\\+march\\+10,\\+1986\\+\\+%22dealers\\+pawn%22\\&pg\\=PA5\\|title\\=Substandard Components Still Surfacing\\|date\\=March 31, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} were installing inferior drives into the computer without disclosing the fact. To help buyers and for industry education, Core developed the DiskP program, later replaced by the COREtest{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sta.c64\\.org/dosprg.html\\|title\\=Useful DOS Software\\|publisher\\=Joe Forster\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} (DOS based), to identify sub\\-standard products by providing a visual demonstration of the speed and comparative measurements of hard disk drives and controllers. Many computer publications,{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Ty8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=Coretest\\&pg\\=PA43\\|title\\=Equity II Competes as a low\\-priced clone\\|date\\=June 9, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.patsula.com/books/gb24\\.pdf\\|title\\=Buying Computer Hardware\\|publisher\\=Patsula Media\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} hardware manufacturers, distributors, dealersBorrett, Lloyd. \"[\"Megabyte Tarnish](http://www.borrett.id.au/computing/art-1985-09-01.htm),\" *PC Australia*, September 1985; url accessed March 8, 2010 and independent evaluation firms{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.everypatent.com/comp/pat5295247\\.html\\|title\\=Patent 5295247\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Patent Office]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} relied on COREtest for product comparison, which made COREtest the industry standard{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RjsEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=Coretest\\+standard\\&pg\\=PA64\\|title\\=A User's View\\| date\\=June 11, 1990 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} and most often quoted benchmark. As these programs were provide without charge and freely available from [BBS](/wiki/Bulletin_board_system \"Bulletin board system\"), computer magazines and dealers, it is believed there was an installed base of over million copies worldwide promoting Core technology and education.",
"For more than two years, newspapers,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-03\\-17\\-fi\\-12289\\-story.html\\|title\\=Disk\\-Drive Maker Put Its Eggs in One Basket\\-\\-and Fell\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=April 14, 2010 \\| first\\=James \\| last\\=Bates \\| date\\=March 17, 1987}} magazines and computer publications{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qS4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=%22stay\\+away\\+from\\+this\\+speed\\+demon%22\\&pg\\=PA57\\|title\\=IBM PC AT\\| date\\=December 3, 1984 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5C4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=march%2011%201985%20PC%20AT%20infoworld%20cause%20concerns\\&pg\\=PA24\\|title\\=PC AT Problems Cause Concerns\\| date\\=March 11, 1985 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OC8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=IBM%20at%20drive%20problems%201985\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title\\=Drive Problems Continue in PC AT\\|date\\=November 18, 1985 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} ran stories on the IBM AT and [Computer Memories Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. \"Computer Memories Inc.\") (CMI) hard disk drives problems.",
""
] |
### 1981β1983: Hard disk drives, LAN and PC for IBM 5100 series
These [IBM](/wiki/IBM "IBM") machines had a [closed architecture](/wiki/Closed_architecture "Closed architecture"), with most of the design information unpublished and held secret.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/39841/closed\-architecture\|title\=Definition of closed architecture\|publisher\= PC Magazine\|accessdate\=October 30, 2013}} Computer systems of this design are extremely or most likely impossible to have the ability to swap components, obtain support from other vendors or upgrade to better configuration/another model unless that option is available from the original manufacturer. The [limitations](/wiki/Vendor_lock-in "Vendor lock-in") make a customer dependent on one vendor for products and services for the software and hardware parts of the system.
Core sensed an opportunity to provide greater and faster [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"). After a five\-year effort, in September 1982 they announced the availability of the first [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives "Hard disk drives"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1981\_5110\_Disk\_Brochure.pdf\|title\=Save IBM 5110/20's from junk yards of the world \|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} and [local area network (LAN)](/wiki/Local_area_network "Local area network"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1982\_Sept\_CORE\_Newsletter.pdf\|title\=September 1982 Core Newsletter\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} for the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110"). IBM systems as sold were storage limited and without a network option; the [5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 "IBM 5100") had tape with the [5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 "IBM 5110") and [5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 "IBM 5120") restricted to 1\.2Β MB floppy disks. Core drives were available starting at 10Β MB and increased up to 160Β MB in removable and fixed configurations.
CoreNet, the [LAN](/wiki/Local_area_network "Local area network") built into each Core [storage system](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"), allowed interconnection of up to eight IBM 5100 Series systems, providing the ability to share storage and data. This configuration pre\-dated LANs of the period for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC "IBM PC") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible "IBM PC compatible").
In 1983, Core introduced two major solutions as IBM was withdrawing from marketing the IBM 5100 series. First, software called PC51 that would run allowed 5100 series computer programs written in BASIC to run unmodified on the IBM PC and compatibles under [MS\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS "MS-DOS"). And second, a LAN card for the IBM PC and compatibles that provided connection to the IBM 5100 Series network. These solutions allowed IBM 5110/5120 series users to add new technology and increase productivity while retaining their investment in equipment and software.
Core's development of their [storage systems](/wiki/Computer_data_storage "Computer data storage"), LAN and PC51 software was major [technology](/wiki/Technology "Technology") [engineering](/wiki/Engineering "Engineering") feat without rivals. Due to the complexity and the successful [reverse engineering](/wiki/Reverse_engineering "Reverse engineering") of the systems, resulted in [captive market](/wiki/Captive_market "Captive market") as they were the only organization able to provide an upgrade path for these IBM owners.
|
[
"### 1981β1983: Hard disk drives, LAN and PC for IBM 5100 series",
"These [IBM](/wiki/IBM \"IBM\") machines had a [closed architecture](/wiki/Closed_architecture \"Closed architecture\"), with most of the design information unpublished and held secret.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/39841/closed\\-architecture\\|title\\=Definition of closed architecture\\|publisher\\= PC Magazine\\|accessdate\\=October 30, 2013}} Computer systems of this design are extremely or most likely impossible to have the ability to swap components, obtain support from other vendors or upgrade to better configuration/another model unless that option is available from the original manufacturer. The [limitations](/wiki/Vendor_lock-in \"Vendor lock-in\") make a customer dependent on one vendor for products and services for the software and hardware parts of the system.",
"Core sensed an opportunity to provide greater and faster [computer data storage](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"). After a five\\-year effort, in September 1982 they announced the availability of the first [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives \"Hard disk drives\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1981\\_5110\\_Disk\\_Brochure.pdf\\|title\\=Save IBM 5110/20's from junk yards of the world \\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} and [local area network (LAN)](/wiki/Local_area_network \"Local area network\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1982\\_Sept\\_CORE\\_Newsletter.pdf\\|title\\=September 1982 Core Newsletter\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} for the [IBM 5100 Series](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\"). IBM systems as sold were storage limited and without a network option; the [5100](/wiki/IBM_5100 \"IBM 5100\") had tape with the [5110](/wiki/IBM_5110 \"IBM 5110\") and [5120](/wiki/IBM_5120 \"IBM 5120\") restricted to 1\\.2Β MB floppy disks. Core drives were available starting at 10Β MB and increased up to 160Β MB in removable and fixed configurations.",
"CoreNet, the [LAN](/wiki/Local_area_network \"Local area network\") built into each Core [storage system](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"), allowed interconnection of up to eight IBM 5100 Series systems, providing the ability to share storage and data. This configuration pre\\-dated LANs of the period for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible \"IBM PC compatible\").",
"In 1983, Core introduced two major solutions as IBM was withdrawing from marketing the IBM 5100 series. First, software called PC51 that would run allowed 5100 series computer programs written in BASIC to run unmodified on the IBM PC and compatibles under [MS\\-DOS](/wiki/MS-DOS \"MS-DOS\"). And second, a LAN card for the IBM PC and compatibles that provided connection to the IBM 5100 Series network. These solutions allowed IBM 5110/5120 series users to add new technology and increase productivity while retaining their investment in equipment and software.",
"Core's development of their [storage systems](/wiki/Computer_data_storage \"Computer data storage\"), LAN and PC51 software was major [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\") [engineering](/wiki/Engineering \"Engineering\") feat without rivals. Due to the complexity and the successful [reverse engineering](/wiki/Reverse_engineering \"Reverse engineering\") of the systems, resulted in [captive market](/wiki/Captive_market \"Captive market\") as they were the only organization able to provide an upgrade path for these IBM owners.",
""
] |
### 1984β1986: Educating the marketplace, IBM VAD, hard disk drives, PC and backup
In 1984, CORE expanded its product focus and entered the [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer "Personal computer") (PC) marketplace. The company's first product introduced the year before, called PC\-51, was a completely new operating system (and language) for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC "IBM PC") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible "IBM PC compatible"). It enabled a PC to function like an IBM 5110/5120 system, demonstrating the company's strong software development capabilities. Not only did this allow users to continue using the application software they had already developed, but it increased processing speed by a factor of two to ten times, and reduced maintenance cost up to 90%.
This new product opened up an unexplored marketplace for CORE by allowing the company to become an IBM value\-added dealer [(VAD)](/wiki/Value-added_reseller "Value-added reseller") and sell both the IBM PC and CORE products individually and as a combined package. IBM authorized and promoted this relationship because it provided an upgrade path for their customers that was previously unavailable. As a result of the early development effort for the IBM 5100 series, CORE released its own family of high\-performance hard disk drives called the ATplus Series,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1984\_ATplus\_Brochure.pdf\|title\=ATplus\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} with better capacity, reliability and performance than IBM's drives.
A few weeks after the introduction of the new [IBM AT](/wiki/IBM_AT "IBM AT") in August 1984, CORE discovered problems in the factory\-issued hard disk drive. As the media and marketplace learned of IBM's disk problems, CORE was once again in a unique position to capitalize on an opportunity, without any significant competition. For more than six months the IBM AT the model with the [CMI](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. "Computer Memories Inc.") was in short supply.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6i4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=shortage\+IBM\+pc\+at\+infoworld\&pg\=PA33\|title\=Waiting for the AT Train\|date\=January 28, 1985\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} Delays were attributed to lack of drives, technical problems with the machine or some other undisclosed issues.
Core desired a major partner and selected [Control Data Corporation (CDC)](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation "Control Data Corporation") to assist with the introduction of the drives for the PC marketplace. The announcement{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\_PCW\_on\_ATplus\_Anouncm.pdf\|title\=Core, Control Data Offer AT Disk\-Upgrade Kits\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\_MM\_on\_ATplus\_Announcment.pdf\|title\=IBM VAD Sells own drives\|publisher\=Core\|accessdate\=March 31, 2010}} was made in February 1985 and generated a significant amount of press coverage.
Core discovered that a general lack of understanding existed among the [news media](/wiki/News_media "News media") and users regarding technology of different computer and mass storage systems. Few understood the value of different systems to the end\-user or how to rate the many choices in the marketplace. In response, Core began placing considerable emphasis on user education, which resulted in a major contribution to computer industry. Directly from these efforts, the news media, [computer magazines](/wiki/Computer_magazines "Computer magazines"), product reviewers, dealers and computer manufactures started discussing, providing and promoting "[seek time](/wiki/Seek_time "Seek time")", "[access time](/wiki/Disk_access_time "Disk access time")", "[transfer time](/wiki/Data_transfer_rate_%28disk_drive%29 "Data transfer rate (disk drive)")" and how to value or understand [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives "Hard disk drives") importance in a [computer system](/wiki/Computer_system "Computer system"). The company believed the more end\-users learned about computers and the engineering behind Core products, the less these users wanted any other product.
Purchasers of the IBM AT were reporting some dealers{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qy8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=march%2010%2C%201986%20infoworld\&pg\=PA1\|title\=Dealers Pawn Off Inferior Drives\|date\=March 10, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Oi8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=infoworld\+march\+10,\+1986\+\+%22dealers\+pawn%22\&pg\=PA5\|title\=Substandard Components Still Surfacing\|date\=March 31, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} were installing inferior drives into the computer without disclosing the fact. To help buyers and for industry education, Core developed the DiskP program, later replaced by the COREtest{{cite web\|url\=http://sta.c64\.org/dosprg.html\|title\=Useful DOS Software\|publisher\=Joe Forster\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} (DOS based), to identify sub\-standard products by providing a visual demonstration of the speed and comparative measurements of hard disk drives and controllers. Many computer publications,{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Ty8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=Coretest\&pg\=PA43\|title\=Equity II Competes as a low\-priced clone\|date\=June 9, 1986\|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.patsula.com/books/gb24\.pdf\|title\=Buying Computer Hardware\|publisher\=Patsula Media\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} hardware manufacturers, distributors, dealersBorrett, Lloyd. "["Megabyte Tarnish](http://www.borrett.id.au/computing/art-1985-09-01.htm)," *PC Australia*, September 1985; url accessed March 8, 2010 and independent evaluation firms{{cite web\|url\=http://www.everypatent.com/comp/pat5295247\.html\|title\=Patent 5295247\|publisher\=\[\[United States Patent Office]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} relied on COREtest for product comparison, which made COREtest the industry standard{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RjsEAAAAMBAJ\&q\=Coretest\+standard\&pg\=PA64\|title\=A User's View\| date\=June 11, 1990 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2010}} and most often quoted benchmark. As these programs were provide without charge and freely available from [BBS](/wiki/Bulletin_board_system "Bulletin board system"), computer magazines and dealers, it is believed there was an installed base of over million copies worldwide promoting Core technology and education.
For more than two years, newspapers,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1987\-03\-17\-fi\-12289\-story.html\|title\=Disk\-Drive Maker Put Its Eggs in One Basket\-\-and Fell\|work\=\[\[Los Angeles Times]]\|access\-date\=April 14, 2010 \| first\=James \| last\=Bates \| date\=March 17, 1987}} magazines and computer publications{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=qS4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=%22stay\+away\+from\+this\+speed\+demon%22\&pg\=PA57\|title\=IBM PC AT\| date\=December 3, 1984 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=5C4EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=march%2011%201985%20PC%20AT%20infoworld%20cause%20concerns\&pg\=PA24\|title\=PC AT Problems Cause Concerns\| date\=March 11, 1985 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OC8EAAAAMBAJ\&q\=IBM%20at%20drive%20problems%201985\&pg\=PA6\|title\=Drive Problems Continue in PC AT\|date\=November 18, 1985 \|publisher\=\[\[InfoWorld]]\|accessdate\=April 14, 2010}} ran stories on the IBM AT and [Computer Memories Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. "Computer Memories Inc.") (CMI) hard disk drives problems.
|
[
"### 1984β1986: Educating the marketplace, IBM VAD, hard disk drives, PC and backup",
"In 1984, CORE expanded its product focus and entered the [personal computer](/wiki/Personal_computer \"Personal computer\") (PC) marketplace. The company's first product introduced the year before, called PC\\-51, was a completely new operating system (and language) for the [IBM PC](/wiki/IBM_PC \"IBM PC\") and [compatibles](/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible \"IBM PC compatible\"). It enabled a PC to function like an IBM 5110/5120 system, demonstrating the company's strong software development capabilities. Not only did this allow users to continue using the application software they had already developed, but it increased processing speed by a factor of two to ten times, and reduced maintenance cost up to 90%.",
"This new product opened up an unexplored marketplace for CORE by allowing the company to become an IBM value\\-added dealer [(VAD)](/wiki/Value-added_reseller \"Value-added reseller\") and sell both the IBM PC and CORE products individually and as a combined package. IBM authorized and promoted this relationship because it provided an upgrade path for their customers that was previously unavailable. As a result of the early development effort for the IBM 5100 series, CORE released its own family of high\\-performance hard disk drives called the ATplus Series,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1984\\_ATplus\\_Brochure.pdf\\|title\\=ATplus\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} with better capacity, reliability and performance than IBM's drives.",
"A few weeks after the introduction of the new [IBM AT](/wiki/IBM_AT \"IBM AT\") in August 1984, CORE discovered problems in the factory\\-issued hard disk drive. As the media and marketplace learned of IBM's disk problems, CORE was once again in a unique position to capitalize on an opportunity, without any significant competition. For more than six months the IBM AT the model with the [CMI](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. \"Computer Memories Inc.\") was in short supply.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6i4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=shortage\\+IBM\\+pc\\+at\\+infoworld\\&pg\\=PA33\\|title\\=Waiting for the AT Train\\|date\\=January 28, 1985\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} Delays were attributed to lack of drives, technical problems with the machine or some other undisclosed issues.",
"Core desired a major partner and selected [Control Data Corporation (CDC)](/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation \"Control Data Corporation\") to assist with the introduction of the drives for the PC marketplace. The announcement{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\\_PCW\\_on\\_ATplus\\_Anouncm.pdf\\|title\\=Core, Control Data Offer AT Disk\\-Upgrade Kits\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.coreinternational.info/1985\\_MM\\_on\\_ATplus\\_Announcment.pdf\\|title\\=IBM VAD Sells own drives\\|publisher\\=Core\\|accessdate\\=March 31, 2010}} was made in February 1985 and generated a significant amount of press coverage.",
"Core discovered that a general lack of understanding existed among the [news media](/wiki/News_media \"News media\") and users regarding technology of different computer and mass storage systems. Few understood the value of different systems to the end\\-user or how to rate the many choices in the marketplace. In response, Core began placing considerable emphasis on user education, which resulted in a major contribution to computer industry. Directly from these efforts, the news media, [computer magazines](/wiki/Computer_magazines \"Computer magazines\"), product reviewers, dealers and computer manufactures started discussing, providing and promoting \"[seek time](/wiki/Seek_time \"Seek time\")\", \"[access time](/wiki/Disk_access_time \"Disk access time\")\", \"[transfer time](/wiki/Data_transfer_rate_%28disk_drive%29 \"Data transfer rate (disk drive)\")\" and how to value or understand [hard disk drives](/wiki/Hard_disk_drives \"Hard disk drives\") importance in a [computer system](/wiki/Computer_system \"Computer system\"). The company believed the more end\\-users learned about computers and the engineering behind Core products, the less these users wanted any other product.",
"Purchasers of the IBM AT were reporting some dealers{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qy8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=march%2010%2C%201986%20infoworld\\&pg\\=PA1\\|title\\=Dealers Pawn Off Inferior Drives\\|date\\=March 10, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Oi8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=infoworld\\+march\\+10,\\+1986\\+\\+%22dealers\\+pawn%22\\&pg\\=PA5\\|title\\=Substandard Components Still Surfacing\\|date\\=March 31, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} were installing inferior drives into the computer without disclosing the fact. To help buyers and for industry education, Core developed the DiskP program, later replaced by the COREtest{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sta.c64\\.org/dosprg.html\\|title\\=Useful DOS Software\\|publisher\\=Joe Forster\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} (DOS based), to identify sub\\-standard products by providing a visual demonstration of the speed and comparative measurements of hard disk drives and controllers. Many computer publications,{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Ty8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=Coretest\\&pg\\=PA43\\|title\\=Equity II Competes as a low\\-priced clone\\|date\\=June 9, 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.patsula.com/books/gb24\\.pdf\\|title\\=Buying Computer Hardware\\|publisher\\=Patsula Media\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} hardware manufacturers, distributors, dealersBorrett, Lloyd. \"[\"Megabyte Tarnish](http://www.borrett.id.au/computing/art-1985-09-01.htm),\" *PC Australia*, September 1985; url accessed March 8, 2010 and independent evaluation firms{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.everypatent.com/comp/pat5295247\\.html\\|title\\=Patent 5295247\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Patent Office]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} relied on COREtest for product comparison, which made COREtest the industry standard{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RjsEAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=Coretest\\+standard\\&pg\\=PA64\\|title\\=A User's View\\| date\\=June 11, 1990 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2010}} and most often quoted benchmark. As these programs were provide without charge and freely available from [BBS](/wiki/Bulletin_board_system \"Bulletin board system\"), computer magazines and dealers, it is believed there was an installed base of over million copies worldwide promoting Core technology and education.",
"For more than two years, newspapers,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1987\\-03\\-17\\-fi\\-12289\\-story.html\\|title\\=Disk\\-Drive Maker Put Its Eggs in One Basket\\-\\-and Fell\\|work\\=\\[\\[Los Angeles Times]]\\|access\\-date\\=April 14, 2010 \\| first\\=James \\| last\\=Bates \\| date\\=March 17, 1987}} magazines and computer publications{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=qS4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=%22stay\\+away\\+from\\+this\\+speed\\+demon%22\\&pg\\=PA57\\|title\\=IBM PC AT\\| date\\=December 3, 1984 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=5C4EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=march%2011%201985%20PC%20AT%20infoworld%20cause%20concerns\\&pg\\=PA24\\|title\\=PC AT Problems Cause Concerns\\| date\\=March 11, 1985 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OC8EAAAAMBAJ\\&q\\=IBM%20at%20drive%20problems%201985\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title\\=Drive Problems Continue in PC AT\\|date\\=November 18, 1985 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[InfoWorld]]\\|accessdate\\=April 14, 2010}} ran stories on the IBM AT and [Computer Memories Inc.](/wiki/Computer_Memories_Inc. \"Computer Memories Inc.\") (CMI) hard disk drives problems.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Born in [ΔΆoΕu parish](/wiki/%C4%B6o%C5%86u_parish "ΔΆoΕu parish"), into a farming family, Francis graduated from a school in Valmiera city. Conscripted into [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army "Imperial Russian Army") in 1894, he initially served in the 113th infantry regiment, based in Riga. In 1898 graduated from [Vilnius military school](/wiki/Vilnius_military_school "Vilnius military school"), as the [praporshchik](/wiki/Praporshchik "Praporshchik"). Afterwards Francis served in the 180th infantry regiment, which was based in Jelgava. He was promoted to the rank of [podporuchik](/wiki/Podporuchik "Podporuchik") in 1899, and to the rank of [poruchik](/wiki/Poruchik "Poruchik") in 1903\.
In 1904 Francis was attached to the 160th [Abkhazian](/wiki/Abkhazia "Abkhazia") infantry regiment, which participated in [Russo\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War "Russo-Japanese War").[Biography in Order of LΔΔplΔsis home page](http://www.lkok.com/detail1.asp?ID=422) {{in lang\|lv}} He received several awards for his efforts. After the war he returned to the 180th infantry regiment, where he was put in command of a company. In 1907, he received promotion to the rank of [stabskapitΓ€n](/wiki/Stabskapit%C3%A4n "StabskapitΓ€n"), and in 1914 to the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 "Captain (land)").
### World War I
He commanded a company, and later a battalion during [:World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). In 1915, he was promoted to the rank of [podpolkovnik](/wiki/Podpolkovnik "Podpolkovnik"). He was put in charge of a battalion in the 177th infantry regiment in May 1915\. Before joining [Latvian riflemen](/wiki/Latvian_riflemen "Latvian riflemen") units in 1915 he was several times wounded, receiving concussions twice.
As formation of Latvian riflemen battalions began, Francis went to Riga and was appointed commander of the 2nd Rigas Latvian Riflemen battalion. In July 1916 was promoted to the rank of [polkovnik](/wiki/Polkovnik "Polkovnik"). Participated in battle near [Sloka](/wiki/Sloka%2C_Latvia "Sloka, Latvia"), [ΔΆemeri](/wiki/%C4%B6emeri "ΔΆemeri"), [ΔΆekava](/wiki/%C4%B6ekava "ΔΆekava"), defended [NΔves island](/wiki/N%C4%81ves_island "NΔves island"). In 1916 he was critically wounded, receiving concussions twice.Newspaper "[Latvijas Kareivis](/wiki/Latvijas_Kareivis "Latvijas Kareivis")" [*GalvenΔ Ε‘tΔba priekΕ‘nieka palΔ«gs, Δ£enerΔlis JΔnis Francs*](http://www.periodika.lv/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_LATVIAARCHL&Type=text/html&Locale=latvian-skin-custom&Path=LAK/1925/07/26&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00308&PageLabel=3){{Dead link\|date\=February 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} {{in lang\|lv}} In December he fully recovered and was appointed to commander of Latvian riflemen reserve regiment, based in [Valmiera](/wiki/Valmiera "Valmiera"). He was proposed as a candidate for the rank [major general](/wiki/Major_general "Major general") After [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution "October Revolution"), in February 1918 he retired from the army and left for Russia.
### Post\-war
In September he was mobilized into [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army"). In 1920 Francis retired as Latvian citizen. On February 3, 1921 he joined the [Latvian](/wiki/Latvian_people "Latvian people") army as a [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel"), working in the main headquarters as second assistant to the Chief of Staff. From July he headed a commission aimed at finding and marking main places of battles in which Latvian soldiers took part. Francis was appointed to commander of Riga's garrison in 1922, and was made General in 1925\.Newspaper "Latvijas Kareivis" [*40 gadi kaΕavΔ«ra gaitΔs*](http://www.periodika.lv/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_LATVIAARCHL&Type=text/html&Locale=latvian-skin-custom&Path=LAK/1934/12/19&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00100&PageLabel=1){{Dead link\|date\=February 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} {{in lang\|lv}} After becoming commander of main headquarters in 1928, Francis became the second assistant to commander of army headquarters in 1929\.
In 1935 he attained the maximum service age and was retired from the army. In 1944 he signed [Latvian Central Council](/wiki/Latvian_Central_Council "Latvian Central Council") memorandum. He died in 1956 in Riga, [Latvian SSR](/wiki/Latvian_SSR "Latvian SSR") and was buried at the [1st Riga Forest Cemetery](/wiki/1st_Riga_Forest_Cemetery "1st Riga Forest Cemetery").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Born in [ΔΆoΕu parish](/wiki/%C4%B6o%C5%86u_parish \"ΔΆoΕu parish\"), into a farming family, Francis graduated from a school in Valmiera city. Conscripted into [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army \"Imperial Russian Army\") in 1894, he initially served in the 113th infantry regiment, based in Riga. In 1898 graduated from [Vilnius military school](/wiki/Vilnius_military_school \"Vilnius military school\"), as the [praporshchik](/wiki/Praporshchik \"Praporshchik\"). Afterwards Francis served in the 180th infantry regiment, which was based in Jelgava. He was promoted to the rank of [podporuchik](/wiki/Podporuchik \"Podporuchik\") in 1899, and to the rank of [poruchik](/wiki/Poruchik \"Poruchik\") in 1903\\.",
"In 1904 Francis was attached to the 160th [Abkhazian](/wiki/Abkhazia \"Abkhazia\") infantry regiment, which participated in [Russo\\-Japanese War](/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War \"Russo-Japanese War\").[Biography in Order of LΔΔplΔsis home page](http://www.lkok.com/detail1.asp?ID=422) {{in lang\\|lv}} He received several awards for his efforts. After the war he returned to the 180th infantry regiment, where he was put in command of a company. In 1907, he received promotion to the rank of [stabskapitΓ€n](/wiki/Stabskapit%C3%A4n \"StabskapitΓ€n\"), and in 1914 to the rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 \"Captain (land)\").",
"### World War I",
"He commanded a company, and later a battalion during [:World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"). In 1915, he was promoted to the rank of [podpolkovnik](/wiki/Podpolkovnik \"Podpolkovnik\"). He was put in charge of a battalion in the 177th infantry regiment in May 1915\\. Before joining [Latvian riflemen](/wiki/Latvian_riflemen \"Latvian riflemen\") units in 1915 he was several times wounded, receiving concussions twice.",
"As formation of Latvian riflemen battalions began, Francis went to Riga and was appointed commander of the 2nd Rigas Latvian Riflemen battalion. In July 1916 was promoted to the rank of [polkovnik](/wiki/Polkovnik \"Polkovnik\"). Participated in battle near [Sloka](/wiki/Sloka%2C_Latvia \"Sloka, Latvia\"), [ΔΆemeri](/wiki/%C4%B6emeri \"ΔΆemeri\"), [ΔΆekava](/wiki/%C4%B6ekava \"ΔΆekava\"), defended [NΔves island](/wiki/N%C4%81ves_island \"NΔves island\"). In 1916 he was critically wounded, receiving concussions twice.Newspaper \"[Latvijas Kareivis](/wiki/Latvijas_Kareivis \"Latvijas Kareivis\")\" [*GalvenΔ Ε‘tΔba priekΕ‘nieka palΔ«gs, Δ£enerΔlis JΔnis Francs*](http://www.periodika.lv/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_LATVIAARCHL&Type=text/html&Locale=latvian-skin-custom&Path=LAK/1925/07/26&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00308&PageLabel=3){{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} {{in lang\\|lv}} In December he fully recovered and was appointed to commander of Latvian riflemen reserve regiment, based in [Valmiera](/wiki/Valmiera \"Valmiera\"). He was proposed as a candidate for the rank [major general](/wiki/Major_general \"Major general\") After [October Revolution](/wiki/October_Revolution \"October Revolution\"), in February 1918 he retired from the army and left for Russia.",
"### Post\\-war",
"In September he was mobilized into [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\"). In 1920 Francis retired as Latvian citizen. On February 3, 1921 he joined the [Latvian](/wiki/Latvian_people \"Latvian people\") army as a [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\"), working in the main headquarters as second assistant to the Chief of Staff. From July he headed a commission aimed at finding and marking main places of battles in which Latvian soldiers took part. Francis was appointed to commander of Riga's garrison in 1922, and was made General in 1925\\.Newspaper \"Latvijas Kareivis\" [*40 gadi kaΕavΔ«ra gaitΔs*](http://www.periodika.lv/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToSaveGifMSIE_LATVIAARCHL&Type=text/html&Locale=latvian-skin-custom&Path=LAK/1934/12/19&ChunkNum=-1&ID=Ar00100&PageLabel=1){{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} {{in lang\\|lv}} After becoming commander of main headquarters in 1928, Francis became the second assistant to commander of army headquarters in 1929\\.",
"In 1935 he attained the maximum service age and was retired from the army. In 1944 he signed [Latvian Central Council](/wiki/Latvian_Central_Council \"Latvian Central Council\") memorandum. He died in 1956 in Riga, [Latvian SSR](/wiki/Latvian_SSR \"Latvian SSR\") and was buried at the [1st Riga Forest Cemetery](/wiki/1st_Riga_Forest_Cemetery \"1st Riga Forest Cemetery\").",
""
] |
Works
-----
She rebelled against the limited expectations for women of her class by long hours of reading and writing. Her fantastic stories were published in the newspaper *[El Universal](/wiki/El_Universal_%28Venezuela%29 "El Universal (Venezuela)")*, and her *[Diary of a CaraqueΓ±a in the Far East](/wiki/Diary_of_a_Caraque%C3%B1a_in_the_Far_East "Diary of a CaraqueΓ±a in the Far East")* was published in the magazine *Actualidades*. De la Parra's story *Mama X* earned first prize in a contest held in a provincial Venezuelan city. This story, as well as her *Diary of a young lady who writes because she is bored* (which was published in the magazine *La Lectura Semanal*) was the beginning of her first major work.
### *Iphigenia*
De la Parra's novel *[Iphigenia: Diary of a young lady who wrote because she was bored](/wiki/Ifigenia_%28novel%29 "Ifigenia (novel)")*, published in 1924, marked a change in [Venezuelan literature](/wiki/Venezuelan_literature "Venezuelan literature"). Teresa de la Parra wrote most of the novel in 1921 and 1922 during the dictatorship of [Juan Vicente GΓ³mez](/wiki/Juan_Vicente_G%C3%B3mez "Juan Vicente GΓ³mez"). Some of the characters in the novel were maliciously close to caricatures of people who were then well known in Caracas society. The characters Abuelita, TΓa Clara and CΓ©sar Leal represent strict adherence to morality. Ambitious and politically corrupt characters like Gabriel Olmedo and TΓo Pancho also reflect moral freedom given to men, in contrast against the passive role assigned to women.
The protagonist of *Iphigenia*, MarΓa Eugenia Alonso, a well\-educated and intelligent young woman, is partly a self\-portrait of the author. MarΓa Eugenia struggles against being confined in a marriage that threatens to stifle her intellectual development. She strives to determine whether it is possible for an intelligent and educated woman to evade marriage without losing her respectability in a society where women are expected to become wives and mothers.
The tone, thematic nature and social\-historic context of *Iphigenia* made it controversial among some social and literary circles in Venezuela and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia"). Juan Vicente GΓ³mez's government would not give Venezuelan publishers money to publish *Iphigenia*. Teresa de la Parra travelled to Paris, where she had friends such as [SimΓ³n BarcelΓ³](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Barcel%C3%B3 "SimΓ³n BarcelΓ³"), [Alberto ZΓ©rega Fombona](/wiki/Alberto_Z%C3%A9rega_Fombona "Alberto ZΓ©rega Fombona"), [Ventura GarcΓa CalderΓ³n](/wiki/Ventura_Garc%C3%ADa_Calder%C3%B3n "Ventura GarcΓa CalderΓ³n") and [Gonzalo Zaldumbide](/wiki/Gonzalo_Zaldumbide "Gonzalo Zaldumbide").
Winner of the annual award given by Casa Editora Franco\-Ibero\-Americana in Paris in 1924, Teresa de la Parra finally had her work published and received a prize of 10,000 [French francs](/wiki/French_franc "French franc"). *Iphigenia* became a categorical success among Parisian intellectuals and readers. It was soon translated into French. Two years after multiple trips and worksΒ β which included lectures in [Nations Society](/wiki/Nations_Society "Nations Society") and exquisite answers to criticsΒ β the writer began her second major work.
### *Mama Blanca's Memoirs*
*Memorias de MamΓ‘ Blanca* ("Mama Blanca's Memoirs"), published in 1929, was a nostalgia\-filled fictionalized memoir of De la Parra's childhood. The spirit of the four sisters living on the hacienda *TazΓ³n* is reflected in the six sisters living on the hacienda *Piedra Azul*. The moral "correctness" of *Souvenirs of Mama Blanca* received favorable attention from those who had criticized *Iphigenia*. In her letters, de la Parra wrote that there was no *Iphigenia* scent in *Souvenirs of Mama Blanca*, which had no protest speech, revolutionary ideas or social criticism.
De la Parra became a sought\-after lecturer. Her more important speeches took place in [Havana](/wiki/Havana "Havana") and [BogotΓ‘](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 "BogotΓ‘"); this last one was very meaningful about her personal ideas of women's roles in American society from colonial times to the 20th century.
|
[
"Works\n-----",
"She rebelled against the limited expectations for women of her class by long hours of reading and writing. Her fantastic stories were published in the newspaper *[El Universal](/wiki/El_Universal_%28Venezuela%29 \"El Universal (Venezuela)\")*, and her *[Diary of a CaraqueΓ±a in the Far East](/wiki/Diary_of_a_Caraque%C3%B1a_in_the_Far_East \"Diary of a CaraqueΓ±a in the Far East\")* was published in the magazine *Actualidades*. De la Parra's story *Mama X* earned first prize in a contest held in a provincial Venezuelan city. This story, as well as her *Diary of a young lady who writes because she is bored* (which was published in the magazine *La Lectura Semanal*) was the beginning of her first major work.",
"### *Iphigenia*",
"De la Parra's novel *[Iphigenia: Diary of a young lady who wrote because she was bored](/wiki/Ifigenia_%28novel%29 \"Ifigenia (novel)\")*, published in 1924, marked a change in [Venezuelan literature](/wiki/Venezuelan_literature \"Venezuelan literature\"). Teresa de la Parra wrote most of the novel in 1921 and 1922 during the dictatorship of [Juan Vicente GΓ³mez](/wiki/Juan_Vicente_G%C3%B3mez \"Juan Vicente GΓ³mez\"). Some of the characters in the novel were maliciously close to caricatures of people who were then well known in Caracas society. The characters Abuelita, TΓa Clara and CΓ©sar Leal represent strict adherence to morality. Ambitious and politically corrupt characters like Gabriel Olmedo and TΓo Pancho also reflect moral freedom given to men, in contrast against the passive role assigned to women.",
"The protagonist of *Iphigenia*, MarΓa Eugenia Alonso, a well\\-educated and intelligent young woman, is partly a self\\-portrait of the author. MarΓa Eugenia struggles against being confined in a marriage that threatens to stifle her intellectual development. She strives to determine whether it is possible for an intelligent and educated woman to evade marriage without losing her respectability in a society where women are expected to become wives and mothers.",
"The tone, thematic nature and social\\-historic context of *Iphigenia* made it controversial among some social and literary circles in Venezuela and [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\"). Juan Vicente GΓ³mez's government would not give Venezuelan publishers money to publish *Iphigenia*. Teresa de la Parra travelled to Paris, where she had friends such as [SimΓ³n BarcelΓ³](/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Barcel%C3%B3 \"SimΓ³n BarcelΓ³\"), [Alberto ZΓ©rega Fombona](/wiki/Alberto_Z%C3%A9rega_Fombona \"Alberto ZΓ©rega Fombona\"), [Ventura GarcΓa CalderΓ³n](/wiki/Ventura_Garc%C3%ADa_Calder%C3%B3n \"Ventura GarcΓa CalderΓ³n\") and [Gonzalo Zaldumbide](/wiki/Gonzalo_Zaldumbide \"Gonzalo Zaldumbide\").",
"Winner of the annual award given by Casa Editora Franco\\-Ibero\\-Americana in Paris in 1924, Teresa de la Parra finally had her work published and received a prize of 10,000 [French francs](/wiki/French_franc \"French franc\"). *Iphigenia* became a categorical success among Parisian intellectuals and readers. It was soon translated into French. Two years after multiple trips and worksΒ β which included lectures in [Nations Society](/wiki/Nations_Society \"Nations Society\") and exquisite answers to criticsΒ β the writer began her second major work.",
"### *Mama Blanca's Memoirs*",
"*Memorias de MamΓ‘ Blanca* (\"Mama Blanca's Memoirs\"), published in 1929, was a nostalgia\\-filled fictionalized memoir of De la Parra's childhood. The spirit of the four sisters living on the hacienda *TazΓ³n* is reflected in the six sisters living on the hacienda *Piedra Azul*. The moral \"correctness\" of *Souvenirs of Mama Blanca* received favorable attention from those who had criticized *Iphigenia*. In her letters, de la Parra wrote that there was no *Iphigenia* scent in *Souvenirs of Mama Blanca*, which had no protest speech, revolutionary ideas or social criticism.",
"De la Parra became a sought\\-after lecturer. Her more important speeches took place in [Havana](/wiki/Havana \"Havana\") and [BogotΓ‘](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"BogotΓ‘\"); this last one was very meaningful about her personal ideas of women's roles in American society from colonial times to the 20th century.",
""
] |
Career
------
Schiller was born in 1936 in Brooklyn to Jewish{{cite web\| url \= https://www.thejc.com/culture/features/revealed\-the\-last\-intimate\-moments\-of\-marilyn\-monroe\-1\.35806\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210627111919/https://www.thejc.com/culture/features/revealed\-the\-last\-intimate\-moments\-of\-marilyn\-monroe\-1\.35806\| archive\-date \= 2021\-06\-27\| title \= Revealed: the last intimate moments of Marilyn Monroe \- The Jewish Chronicle}} parents and grew up outside of San Diego, California. After attending [Pepperdine College](/wiki/Pepperdine_University "Pepperdine University") in Los Angeles, he worked for *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 "Life (magazine)")* magazine, *[Paris Match](/wiki/Paris_Match "Paris Match")*, *[The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times "The Sunday Times")*, *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")*, *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek "Newsweek")*, *[Stern](/wiki/Stern_%28magazine%29 "Stern (magazine)")*, and *[The Saturday Evening Post](/wiki/The_Saturday_Evening_Post "The Saturday Evening Post")* as a freelance photojournalist. He published his first book, *LSD*, in 1966\. Since then Schiller has published 17 books, including [W. Eugene Smith](/wiki/W._Eugene_Smith "W. Eugene Smith")'s book *Minamata* and Norman Mailer's *[Marilyn](/wiki/Marilyn:A_Biography "A Biography")*. Having produced and directed the 1967 Capitol Records audio documentary album *Why Did Lenny Bruce Die?*,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=S\_ggWZj88fI\|title \= LENNY BRUCE: "Why Did Lenny Bruce Die?" 1967 audio documentary \[full album]\|website \= \[\[YouTube]]\| date\=5 October 2013 }} he collaborated with [Albert Goldman](/wiki/Albert_Goldman "Albert Goldman") on the bestseller in 1974 *Ladies and Gentleman\-\-Lenny Bruce!!*, and also with [Norman Mailer](/wiki/Norman_Mailer "Norman Mailer") on the 1980 *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")* bestseller and the made\-for\-television motion picture of *[The Executioner's Song](/wiki/The_Executioner%27s_Song "The Executioner's Song")* as well as in 1995 *[Oswald's Tale](/wiki/Oswald%27s_Tale "Oswald's Tale")*. His own books that became national bestsellers and made the *New York Times* Bestseller list include *American Tragedy*, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town*, *Cape May Court House*, and *Into the Mirror.*
He has directed seven motion pictures and miniseries for television; *The Executioner's Song* and *[Peter the Great](/wiki/Peter_the_Great_%28miniseries%29 "Peter the Great (miniseries)")* won five [Emmys](/wiki/Emmy "Emmy"). *American Tragedy*, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town* and *Into the Mirror* were made into television mini\-series for CBS, all of which Schiller produced and directed. In 2008, after the death of the writer Norman Mailer, he was named Senior Advisor to the Norman Mailer Estate. Schiller was a close friend of Mailer and collaborator on five of his works. Schiller also served on the executive board of the [Norman Mailer Society](/wiki/Norman_Mailer_Society "Norman Mailer Society").[The Norman Mailer Society](http://normanmailersociety.org/about) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014110139/http://normanmailersociety.org/about/ \|date\=2018\-10\-14 }}, official web site. Accessed April 2014\.
Following the June 12, 1994 stabbing deaths of [O.J Simpson](/wiki/O._J._Simpson "O. J. Simpson")'s ex\-wife [Nicole Brown Simpson](/wiki/Nicole_Brown_Simpson "Nicole Brown Simpson") and her friend [Ron Goldman](/wiki/Ron_Goldman "Ron Goldman"), Schiller collaborated with Simpson, who was in jail awaiting his famous [murder trial](/wiki/O._J._Simpson_murder_case "O. J. Simpson murder case") at the time, on a book called *I Want to Tell You*, which was billed as the former football star answering questions from fans about his life and the incident.{{Cite book\|title\=I Want to Tell You\|last1\=Simpson\|first1\=O. J.\|last2\=Shiller\|first2\=Larry\|date\=1995\-01\-01\|publisher\=Hachette Audio\|isbn\=9781570423192\|language\=English}} Following Simpson's acquittal on murder charges, Schiller and former *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)")* magazine journalist Jim Willwerth co\-wrote *American Tragedy: The Uncensored Story of the Simpson Defense*,{{Cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/americantragedyu00schi\|title\=American Tragedy: The Uncensored Story of the Simpson Defense\|last1\=results\|first1\=search\|last2\=Willwerth\|first2\=James\|date\=1996\-10\-16\|publisher\=Random House\|isbn\=9780679456827\|edition\=1st\|language\=English\|url\-access\=registration}} considered one of the best books about the case. Dan Whitcomb, who covered the sensational trial for [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters "Reuters"), worked for Schiller as a researcher on the book.
In 1999 Schiller published a book on the [JonBenet Ramsey](/wiki/Death_of_JonBen%C3%A9t_Ramsey "Death of JonBenΓ©t Ramsey") murder case, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town: The Uncensored Story of the JonBenet Murder and the Grand Jury's Search for the Final Truth*, based on an article he had published in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker "The New Yorker")* on the same subject.{{Cite book\|title\=Perfect Murder, Perfect Town: The Uncensored Story of the JonBenet Murder and the Grand Jury's Search for the Final Truth\|last\=results\|first\=search\|date\=October 1999\|publisher\=HarperTorch\|isbn\=9780061096969\|edition\= Reprint \|location\=Pymble, NSW; New York, NY\|language\=English}}
Schiller served as a consultant to political campaigns and major corporations on such issues as crisis management, branding, public imaging and the use of social networking. Schiller has been an on\-air analyst to [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") news, a consultant to [Taschen](/wiki/Taschen "Taschen") Publishing, The John F. Kennedy Library and Foundation, The Ray Bradbury Estate, Mitsubishi Power Systems Americas, Photographers Annie Leibovitz Studio and Steven Klein and has written for *The New Yorker*, *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast "The Daily Beast")* and other publications.
In 2005, Schiller traveled to China and over two years built a collection of Chinese contemporary art, which numbers over 80 paintings and photographs. In 2007, he showed his own photographs for the first time in the US at the exhibition *Marilyn Monroe and America in the 1960s*.{{Cite web\|title \= Marilyn Monroe and America in the 1960s\-The Photographs of Lawrence Schiller \- artron.net\|url \= http://en.artron.net/exhibit/zl.php?zlid\=6787\|website \= en.artron.net\|accessdate \= 2015\-11\-24}} It is for these photographs of Marilyn that Schiller is perhaps best known as a photographer. Schiller first photographed Monroe in May 1960 on the set of *Letβs Make Love*, and then again in 1962 when he was hired to photograph the star on the set of what would become the last film she would ever work on, the unfinished *Somethingβs Got To Give*.{{Cite web\|title \= ArtfixDaily.com ArtGuild Members\|url \= http://www.artfixdaily.com/blogs/post/4885\-what%25E2%2580%2599s\-in\-a\-name\-marilyn\-monroe\-photographs\-by\-lawrence\-schiller\|website \= www.artfixdaily.com\|accessdate \= 2015\-11\-24}} *Marilyn \& Me*,{{Cite web\|title \= Lawrence Schiller. Marilyn \& Me. TASCHEN Books (Limited Edition)\|url \= http://www.taschen.com/pages/en/catalogue/photography/all/06379/facts.lawrence\_schiller\_marilyn\_me.htm\|website \= www.taschen.com\|accessdate \= 2015\-11\-24}} Schiller's 11th book, commemorates his experience photographing the Hollywood legend, complete with 131 color and black\-and\-white photographs. In 2017 Schiller curated the John F. Kennedy Centennial for the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C., and the New York Historical Society in New York City.{{Cite web\|url\=https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/jfk\|title\=American Visionary: John F. Kennedy's Life and Times \| Smithsonian American Art Museum}} He also now represents the Jacques Lowe Estate of historical photographs of the Kennedy family and the Lisl Steiner photographic archives. In 2018 he curated the Robert Kennedy \- Martin Luther King, Jr. exhibition for the New York Historical Society. He also managed the 2020 Centennial of [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury "Ray Bradbury").
Schiller resides in Sherman Oaks, California with his wife Nina Wiener, the Editor in Chief of The Mayo Clinic Press.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Schiller was born in 1936 in Brooklyn to Jewish{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.thejc.com/culture/features/revealed\\-the\\-last\\-intimate\\-moments\\-of\\-marilyn\\-monroe\\-1\\.35806\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210627111919/https://www.thejc.com/culture/features/revealed\\-the\\-last\\-intimate\\-moments\\-of\\-marilyn\\-monroe\\-1\\.35806\\| archive\\-date \\= 2021\\-06\\-27\\| title \\= Revealed: the last intimate moments of Marilyn Monroe \\- The Jewish Chronicle}} parents and grew up outside of San Diego, California. After attending [Pepperdine College](/wiki/Pepperdine_University \"Pepperdine University\") in Los Angeles, he worked for *[Life](/wiki/Life_%28magazine%29 \"Life (magazine)\")* magazine, *[Paris Match](/wiki/Paris_Match \"Paris Match\")*, *[The Sunday Times](/wiki/The_Sunday_Times \"The Sunday Times\")*, *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")*, *[Newsweek](/wiki/Newsweek \"Newsweek\")*, *[Stern](/wiki/Stern_%28magazine%29 \"Stern (magazine)\")*, and *[The Saturday Evening Post](/wiki/The_Saturday_Evening_Post \"The Saturday Evening Post\")* as a freelance photojournalist. He published his first book, *LSD*, in 1966\\. Since then Schiller has published 17 books, including [W. Eugene Smith](/wiki/W._Eugene_Smith \"W. Eugene Smith\")'s book *Minamata* and Norman Mailer's *[Marilyn](/wiki/Marilyn:A_Biography \"A Biography\")*. Having produced and directed the 1967 Capitol Records audio documentary album *Why Did Lenny Bruce Die?*,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=S\\_ggWZj88fI\\|title \\= LENNY BRUCE: \"Why Did Lenny Bruce Die?\" 1967 audio documentary \\[full album]\\|website \\= \\[\\[YouTube]]\\| date\\=5 October 2013 }} he collaborated with [Albert Goldman](/wiki/Albert_Goldman \"Albert Goldman\") on the bestseller in 1974 *Ladies and Gentleman\\-\\-Lenny Bruce!!*, and also with [Norman Mailer](/wiki/Norman_Mailer \"Norman Mailer\") on the 1980 *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")* bestseller and the made\\-for\\-television motion picture of *[The Executioner's Song](/wiki/The_Executioner%27s_Song \"The Executioner's Song\")* as well as in 1995 *[Oswald's Tale](/wiki/Oswald%27s_Tale \"Oswald's Tale\")*. His own books that became national bestsellers and made the *New York Times* Bestseller list include *American Tragedy*, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town*, *Cape May Court House*, and *Into the Mirror.*",
"He has directed seven motion pictures and miniseries for television; *The Executioner's Song* and *[Peter the Great](/wiki/Peter_the_Great_%28miniseries%29 \"Peter the Great (miniseries)\")* won five [Emmys](/wiki/Emmy \"Emmy\"). *American Tragedy*, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town* and *Into the Mirror* were made into television mini\\-series for CBS, all of which Schiller produced and directed. In 2008, after the death of the writer Norman Mailer, he was named Senior Advisor to the Norman Mailer Estate. Schiller was a close friend of Mailer and collaborator on five of his works. Schiller also served on the executive board of the [Norman Mailer Society](/wiki/Norman_Mailer_Society \"Norman Mailer Society\").[The Norman Mailer Society](http://normanmailersociety.org/about) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014110139/http://normanmailersociety.org/about/ \\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-14 }}, official web site. Accessed April 2014\\.",
"Following the June 12, 1994 stabbing deaths of [O.J Simpson](/wiki/O._J._Simpson \"O. J. Simpson\")'s ex\\-wife [Nicole Brown Simpson](/wiki/Nicole_Brown_Simpson \"Nicole Brown Simpson\") and her friend [Ron Goldman](/wiki/Ron_Goldman \"Ron Goldman\"), Schiller collaborated with Simpson, who was in jail awaiting his famous [murder trial](/wiki/O._J._Simpson_murder_case \"O. J. Simpson murder case\") at the time, on a book called *I Want to Tell You*, which was billed as the former football star answering questions from fans about his life and the incident.{{Cite book\\|title\\=I Want to Tell You\\|last1\\=Simpson\\|first1\\=O. J.\\|last2\\=Shiller\\|first2\\=Larry\\|date\\=1995\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=Hachette Audio\\|isbn\\=9781570423192\\|language\\=English}} Following Simpson's acquittal on murder charges, Schiller and former *[Time](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\")* magazine journalist Jim Willwerth co\\-wrote *American Tragedy: The Uncensored Story of the Simpson Defense*,{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/americantragedyu00schi\\|title\\=American Tragedy: The Uncensored Story of the Simpson Defense\\|last1\\=results\\|first1\\=search\\|last2\\=Willwerth\\|first2\\=James\\|date\\=1996\\-10\\-16\\|publisher\\=Random House\\|isbn\\=9780679456827\\|edition\\=1st\\|language\\=English\\|url\\-access\\=registration}} considered one of the best books about the case. Dan Whitcomb, who covered the sensational trial for [Reuters](/wiki/Reuters \"Reuters\"), worked for Schiller as a researcher on the book.",
"In 1999 Schiller published a book on the [JonBenet Ramsey](/wiki/Death_of_JonBen%C3%A9t_Ramsey \"Death of JonBenΓ©t Ramsey\") murder case, *Perfect Murder, Perfect Town: The Uncensored Story of the JonBenet Murder and the Grand Jury's Search for the Final Truth*, based on an article he had published in *[The New Yorker](/wiki/The_New_Yorker \"The New Yorker\")* on the same subject.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Perfect Murder, Perfect Town: The Uncensored Story of the JonBenet Murder and the Grand Jury's Search for the Final Truth\\|last\\=results\\|first\\=search\\|date\\=October 1999\\|publisher\\=HarperTorch\\|isbn\\=9780061096969\\|edition\\= Reprint \\|location\\=Pymble, NSW; New York, NY\\|language\\=English}}",
"Schiller served as a consultant to political campaigns and major corporations on such issues as crisis management, branding, public imaging and the use of social networking. Schiller has been an on\\-air analyst to [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") news, a consultant to [Taschen](/wiki/Taschen \"Taschen\") Publishing, The John F. Kennedy Library and Foundation, The Ray Bradbury Estate, Mitsubishi Power Systems Americas, Photographers Annie Leibovitz Studio and Steven Klein and has written for *The New Yorker*, *[The Daily Beast](/wiki/The_Daily_Beast \"The Daily Beast\")* and other publications.",
"In 2005, Schiller traveled to China and over two years built a collection of Chinese contemporary art, which numbers over 80 paintings and photographs. In 2007, he showed his own photographs for the first time in the US at the exhibition *Marilyn Monroe and America in the 1960s*.{{Cite web\\|title \\= Marilyn Monroe and America in the 1960s\\-The Photographs of Lawrence Schiller \\- artron.net\\|url \\= http://en.artron.net/exhibit/zl.php?zlid\\=6787\\|website \\= en.artron.net\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-11\\-24}} It is for these photographs of Marilyn that Schiller is perhaps best known as a photographer. Schiller first photographed Monroe in May 1960 on the set of *Letβs Make Love*, and then again in 1962 when he was hired to photograph the star on the set of what would become the last film she would ever work on, the unfinished *Somethingβs Got To Give*.{{Cite web\\|title \\= ArtfixDaily.com ArtGuild Members\\|url \\= http://www.artfixdaily.com/blogs/post/4885\\-what%25E2%2580%2599s\\-in\\-a\\-name\\-marilyn\\-monroe\\-photographs\\-by\\-lawrence\\-schiller\\|website \\= www.artfixdaily.com\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-11\\-24}} *Marilyn \\& Me*,{{Cite web\\|title \\= Lawrence Schiller. Marilyn \\& Me. TASCHEN Books (Limited Edition)\\|url \\= http://www.taschen.com/pages/en/catalogue/photography/all/06379/facts.lawrence\\_schiller\\_marilyn\\_me.htm\\|website \\= www.taschen.com\\|accessdate \\= 2015\\-11\\-24}} Schiller's 11th book, commemorates his experience photographing the Hollywood legend, complete with 131 color and black\\-and\\-white photographs. In 2017 Schiller curated the John F. Kennedy Centennial for the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, D.C., and the New York Historical Society in New York City.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/jfk\\|title\\=American Visionary: John F. Kennedy's Life and Times \\| Smithsonian American Art Museum}} He also now represents the Jacques Lowe Estate of historical photographs of the Kennedy family and the Lisl Steiner photographic archives. In 2018 he curated the Robert Kennedy \\- Martin Luther King, Jr. exhibition for the New York Historical Society. He also managed the 2020 Centennial of [Ray Bradbury](/wiki/Ray_Bradbury \"Ray Bradbury\").",
"Schiller resides in Sherman Oaks, California with his wife Nina Wiener, the Editor in Chief of The Mayo Clinic Press.",
""
] |
Political career
----------------
Phukan was the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") candidate for the [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)") seat in [1996](/wiki/1996_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "1996 Assam Legislative Assembly election"), the same constituency her late husband had contested in [1991](/wiki/1991_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election") but lost to Sashakamal Handique.{{Cite web \|title\=Naharkatia Assembly Constituency Election Result β Legislative Assembly Constituency \|url\=https://resultuniversity.com/election/naharkatia\-assam\-assembly\-constituency\#2011 \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|website\=resultuniversity.com \|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227084129/https://resultuniversity.com/election/naharkatia\-assam\-assembly\-constituency\#2011 \|url\-status\=live }} She defeated the [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent "Incumbent") member Sashakamal Handique. She polled 26333 votes, 44\.12% of the constituency, defeating Handique by 30035 votes.
She was again the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") candidate for the [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)") seat in [2001](/wiki/2001_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "2001 Assam Legislative Assembly election"). She polled 42765 votes, 65\.94% of the constituency, defeating her nearest opponent by 30035 votes. She was made Minister of State for Revenue and Cultural Affairs on 7 June 2002 and served until the 6 July 2004\.
In the [2006 Assam Legislative Assembly Election](/wiki/2006_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "2006 Assam Legislative Assembly election"), she was reelected as the Indian National Congress candidate for Naharkatia. She received 40065 votes, defeating her nearest opponent by 19736 votes.[thumb\|232x232px\|Phukan inaugurating the Public Information Campaign on Bharat Nirman in [Duliajan](/wiki/Duliajan "Duliajan") on 26 September 2012](/wiki/File:The_Minister_of_Culture_and_Handloom_%26_Textile%2C_Assam%2C_Smt._Pranati_Phukan_lighting_the_lamp_to_inaugurate_the_Public_Information_Campaign_on_Bharat_Nirman%2C_organized_by_Press_Information_Bureau%2C_Guwahati%2C_at_Duliajan.jpg "The Minister of Culture and Handloom & Textile, Assam, Smt. Pranati Phukan lighting the lamp to inaugurate the Public Information Campaign on Bharat Nirman, organized by Press Information Bureau, Guwahati, at Duliajan.jpg")
On 31 May 2006, she was unanimously elected Deputy Speaker of [Assam Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Assam_Legislative_Assembly "Assam Legislative Assembly"), becoming the first woman to hold the position.{{Cite web \|date\=2006\-05\-31 \|title\=Pranati Phukan elected Dy Speaker in Asom Assembly \|url\=https://www.oneindia.com/2006/05/31/pranati\-phukan\-elected\-dy\-speaker\-in\-asom\-assembly\-1149068196\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|website\= \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204824/https://www.oneindia.com/2006/05/31/pranati\-phukan\-elected\-dy\-speaker\-in\-asom\-assembly\-1149068196\.html \|url\-status\=live }} She was led to the chair by [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 "Speaker (politics)") [Tanka Bahadur Rai](/wiki/Tanka_Bahadur_Rai "Tanka Bahadur Rai"), [Chief Minister](/wiki/List_of_chief_ministers_of_Assam "List of chief ministers of Assam") Tarun Gogoi and [Leader of the Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition "Leader of the Opposition") [Brindabon Goswami](/wiki/Brindaban_Goswami "Brindaban Goswami"). She served until 16 May 2011\.
In the [2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2011_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election"), she was reelected for Naharkatia. She polled 35373 votes 41\.58% of the total vote and she defeated her nearest opponent by 14397 votes.
### Culture Minister
On 30 May 2011 she was made Minister for Sericulture, Handlooms, Textile and Cultural Affairs in the [Tarun Gogoi cabinet](/wiki/Third_Tarun_Gogoi_Ministry "Third Tarun Gogoi Ministry"). During her time as minister, she oversaw the consideration of the [Charaideo](/wiki/Charaideo "Charaideo") [Maidam](/wiki/Maidam "Maidam") as a [UNESCO World heritage site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site").{{Cite web \|agency\=TNN\|date\=Sep 10, 2014 \|title\=Charaideo awaits facelift for World Heritage tag \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/charaideo\-awaits\-facelift\-for\-world\-heritage\-tag/articleshow/42118509\.cms \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|website\=The Times of India \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210045804/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Charaideo\-awaits\-facelift\-for\-World\-Heritage\-tag/articleshow/42118509\.cms \|url\-status\=live }}
She resigned from her post on 19 January 2015, ahead of a [cabinet reshuffle](/wiki/Cabinet_reshuffle "Cabinet reshuffle") in the [Tarun Gogoi cabinet](/wiki/Third_Tarun_Gogoi_Ministry%23Ministers_%2822_January_2015_%E2%80%93_24_May_2016%29 "Third Tarun Gogoi Ministry#Ministers (22 January 2015 β 24 May 2016)").{{Cite news \|last\=Talukdar \|first\=Sushanta \|date\=2015\-01\-19 \|title\=14 Congress Ministers resign ahead of Cabinet reshuffle in Assam \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/14\-Congress\-ministers\-resign\-ahead\-of\-Cabinet\-reshuffle\-in\-Assam/article60350203\.ece \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204826/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/14\-Congress\-ministers\-resign\-ahead\-of\-Cabinet\-reshuffle\-in\-Assam/article60350203\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} She was later succeeded by [Bismita Gogoi](/wiki/Bismita_Gogoi "Bismita Gogoi").{{Cite news \|title\=Portfolios allocated to new Assam ministers \|work\=The Economic Times \|url\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/portfolios\-allocated\-to\-new\-assam\-ministers/articleshow/46021304\.cms?from\=mdr \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|archive\-date\=2022\-03\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204825/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/portfolios\-allocated\-to\-new\-assam\-ministers/articleshow/46021304\.cms?from\=mdr \|url\-status\=live }}
### Post\-ministerial career
In the [2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2016_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election"), she again sought reelection for [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)"). When asked about her seeking of reelection, she stated "the decision to contest was not an easy one β¦ It was because of the insistence of my supporters that I could gather the courage to contest. " When asked about the likelihood of her reelection, she stated "the biggest achievement of my tenure was the upgradation of Naharkatia as a sub\-division."{{Cite web \|agency\=TNN\|date\=Apr 3, 2016 \|title\=Cong leader Pranati Phukan eyes fifth win \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections\-2016/assam\-elections\-2016/news/cong\-leader\-pranati\-phukan\-eyes\-fifth\-win/articleshow/51668549\.cms \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-13 \|website\=The Times of India \|language\=en}} She received 42520 votes, losing to [AGP](/wiki/Asom_Gana_Parishad "Asom Gana Parishad") candidate [Naren Sonowal](/wiki/Naren_Sonowal "Naren Sonowal") by 3531 votes.
In the [2021 Assam Legislative Assembly Election](/wiki/2021_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election "2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election"), she was again the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress "Indian National Congress") candidate for [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 "Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)"). She received 32292 votes, placing second to [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party "Bharatiya Janata Party") candidate [Taranga Gogoi](/wiki/Taranga_Gogoi "Taranga Gogoi").
|
[
"Political career\n----------------",
"Phukan was the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") candidate for the [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\") seat in [1996](/wiki/1996_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1996 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"), the same constituency her late husband had contested in [1991](/wiki/1991_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1991 Assam Legislative Assembly election\") but lost to Sashakamal Handique.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Naharkatia Assembly Constituency Election Result β Legislative Assembly Constituency \\|url\\=https://resultuniversity.com/election/naharkatia\\-assam\\-assembly\\-constituency\\#2011 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|website\\=resultuniversity.com \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227084129/https://resultuniversity.com/election/naharkatia\\-assam\\-assembly\\-constituency\\#2011 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} She defeated the [incumbent](/wiki/Incumbent \"Incumbent\") member Sashakamal Handique. She polled 26333 votes, 44\\.12% of the constituency, defeating Handique by 30035 votes.",
"She was again the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") candidate for the [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\") seat in [2001](/wiki/2001_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2001 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"). She polled 42765 votes, 65\\.94% of the constituency, defeating her nearest opponent by 30035 votes. She was made Minister of State for Revenue and Cultural Affairs on 7 June 2002 and served until the 6 July 2004\\.",
"In the [2006 Assam Legislative Assembly Election](/wiki/2006_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2006 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"), she was reelected as the Indian National Congress candidate for Naharkatia. She received 40065 votes, defeating her nearest opponent by 19736 votes.[thumb\\|232x232px\\|Phukan inaugurating the Public Information Campaign on Bharat Nirman in [Duliajan](/wiki/Duliajan \"Duliajan\") on 26 September 2012](/wiki/File:The_Minister_of_Culture_and_Handloom_%26_Textile%2C_Assam%2C_Smt._Pranati_Phukan_lighting_the_lamp_to_inaugurate_the_Public_Information_Campaign_on_Bharat_Nirman%2C_organized_by_Press_Information_Bureau%2C_Guwahati%2C_at_Duliajan.jpg \"The Minister of Culture and Handloom & Textile, Assam, Smt. Pranati Phukan lighting the lamp to inaugurate the Public Information Campaign on Bharat Nirman, organized by Press Information Bureau, Guwahati, at Duliajan.jpg\")\nOn 31 May 2006, she was unanimously elected Deputy Speaker of [Assam Legislative Assembly](/wiki/Assam_Legislative_Assembly \"Assam Legislative Assembly\"), becoming the first woman to hold the position.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2006\\-05\\-31 \\|title\\=Pranati Phukan elected Dy Speaker in Asom Assembly \\|url\\=https://www.oneindia.com/2006/05/31/pranati\\-phukan\\-elected\\-dy\\-speaker\\-in\\-asom\\-assembly\\-1149068196\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|website\\= \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204824/https://www.oneindia.com/2006/05/31/pranati\\-phukan\\-elected\\-dy\\-speaker\\-in\\-asom\\-assembly\\-1149068196\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} She was led to the chair by [Speaker](/wiki/Speaker_%28politics%29 \"Speaker (politics)\") [Tanka Bahadur Rai](/wiki/Tanka_Bahadur_Rai \"Tanka Bahadur Rai\"), [Chief Minister](/wiki/List_of_chief_ministers_of_Assam \"List of chief ministers of Assam\") Tarun Gogoi and [Leader of the Opposition](/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition \"Leader of the Opposition\") [Brindabon Goswami](/wiki/Brindaban_Goswami \"Brindaban Goswami\"). She served until 16 May 2011\\.",
"In the [2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2011_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"), she was reelected for Naharkatia. She polled 35373 votes 41\\.58% of the total vote and she defeated her nearest opponent by 14397 votes.",
"### Culture Minister",
"On 30 May 2011 she was made Minister for Sericulture, Handlooms, Textile and Cultural Affairs in the [Tarun Gogoi cabinet](/wiki/Third_Tarun_Gogoi_Ministry \"Third Tarun Gogoi Ministry\"). During her time as minister, she oversaw the consideration of the [Charaideo](/wiki/Charaideo \"Charaideo\") [Maidam](/wiki/Maidam \"Maidam\") as a [UNESCO World heritage site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\").{{Cite web \\|agency\\=TNN\\|date\\=Sep 10, 2014 \\|title\\=Charaideo awaits facelift for World Heritage tag \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/charaideo\\-awaits\\-facelift\\-for\\-world\\-heritage\\-tag/articleshow/42118509\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|website\\=The Times of India \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210045804/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Charaideo\\-awaits\\-facelift\\-for\\-World\\-Heritage\\-tag/articleshow/42118509\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"She resigned from her post on 19 January 2015, ahead of a [cabinet reshuffle](/wiki/Cabinet_reshuffle \"Cabinet reshuffle\") in the [Tarun Gogoi cabinet](/wiki/Third_Tarun_Gogoi_Ministry%23Ministers_%2822_January_2015_%E2%80%93_24_May_2016%29 \"Third Tarun Gogoi Ministry#Ministers (22 January 2015 β 24 May 2016)\").{{Cite news \\|last\\=Talukdar \\|first\\=Sushanta \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-19 \\|title\\=14 Congress Ministers resign ahead of Cabinet reshuffle in Assam \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/14\\-Congress\\-ministers\\-resign\\-ahead\\-of\\-Cabinet\\-reshuffle\\-in\\-Assam/article60350203\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204826/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/14\\-Congress\\-ministers\\-resign\\-ahead\\-of\\-Cabinet\\-reshuffle\\-in\\-Assam/article60350203\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }} She was later succeeded by [Bismita Gogoi](/wiki/Bismita_Gogoi \"Bismita Gogoi\").{{Cite news \\|title\\=Portfolios allocated to new Assam ministers \\|work\\=The Economic Times \\|url\\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/portfolios\\-allocated\\-to\\-new\\-assam\\-ministers/articleshow/46021304\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220304204825/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/portfolios\\-allocated\\-to\\-new\\-assam\\-ministers/articleshow/46021304\\.cms?from\\=mdr \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Post\\-ministerial career",
"In the [2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election](/wiki/2016_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"), she again sought reelection for [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\"). When asked about her seeking of reelection, she stated \"the decision to contest was not an easy one β¦ It was because of the insistence of my supporters that I could gather the courage to contest. \" When asked about the likelihood of her reelection, she stated \"the biggest achievement of my tenure was the upgradation of Naharkatia as a sub\\-division.\"{{Cite web \\|agency\\=TNN\\|date\\=Apr 3, 2016 \\|title\\=Cong leader Pranati Phukan eyes fifth win \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections\\-2016/assam\\-elections\\-2016/news/cong\\-leader\\-pranati\\-phukan\\-eyes\\-fifth\\-win/articleshow/51668549\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-13 \\|website\\=The Times of India \\|language\\=en}} She received 42520 votes, losing to [AGP](/wiki/Asom_Gana_Parishad \"Asom Gana Parishad\") candidate [Naren Sonowal](/wiki/Naren_Sonowal \"Naren Sonowal\") by 3531 votes.",
"In the [2021 Assam Legislative Assembly Election](/wiki/2021_Assam_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election\"), she was again the [Indian National Congress](/wiki/Indian_National_Congress \"Indian National Congress\") candidate for [Naharkatia](/wiki/Naharkatia_%28Vidhan_Sabha_constituency%29 \"Naharkatia (Vidhan Sabha constituency)\"). She received 32292 votes, placing second to [BJP](/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party \"Bharatiya Janata Party\") candidate [Taranga Gogoi](/wiki/Taranga_Gogoi \"Taranga Gogoi\").",
""
] |
Career
------
On 20 June 1803, after a shakedown period, she came into [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth "Plymouth") for a refit. She then sailed again on 28 June under the command of Captain A. C. Dickson to join the Channel fleet.
### East Indies
In July 1803, she sailed for the East Indies station. She would serve for five years in the East Indies before transferring to the Caribbean.
*Sceptre* and {{HMS\|Albion\|1802\|2}} left Rio de Janeiro on 13 October, escorting *Lord Melville*, [*Earl Spencer*](/wiki/Earl_Spencer_%281795_EIC_ship%29 "Earl Spencer (1795 EIC ship)"), *Princess Mary*, {{ship\|\|Northampton\|1801 ship\|2}}, *Anna*, *Ann*, *Glory*, and *Essex*. They were in company with the [74\-gun](/wiki/Seventy-four_%28ship%29 "Seventy-four (ship)") [third\-rate](/wiki/Third-rate "Third-rate") [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line "Ships of the line") {{HMS\|Russell\|1764\|6}}, and the [fourth\-rate](/wiki/Fourth-rate "Fourth-rate") {{HMS\|Grampus\|1802\|6}}. Three days later *Albion* and *Sceptre* separated from the rest of the ships.
On 21 December 1803, *Sceptre* and *Albion* captured the French privateer *Clarisse* at {{coord\|1\|18\|S\|95\|20\|E}} in the eastern [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"). *Clarisse* was armed with 12 guns and had a crew of 157 men. She had sailed from [Isle de France](/wiki/Isle_de_France_%28Mauritius%29 "Isle de France (Mauritius)") on 24 November with provisions for a six\-month cruise to the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal"). At the time of her capture she had not captured anything.{{London Gazette\|date\=23 June 1804\|issue\=15713\|page\=778}} *Albion*, *Sceptre*, and *Clarisse* arrived at Madras on 8 January 1804\.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List "Lloyd's List")*, nΒ°4463\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06\-19\-1804\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06-19-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\.
On 28 February 1804, *Albion* and *Sceptre* met up in the straits of Malacca with the fleet of Indiamen that had just emerged from the [Battle of Pulo Aura](/wiki/Battle_of_Pulo_Aura "Battle of Pulo Aura") and conducted them safely to [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena "Saint Helena"). From there {{HMS\|Plantagenet\|1801\|6}} escorted the convoy to England.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List "Lloyd's List")*, nΒ°4478\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08\-10\-1804\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08-10-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\.
Later in 1804, Captain [Joseph Bingham](/wiki/Joseph_Bingham_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "Joseph Bingham (Royal Navy officer)"), formerly of {{HMS\|St Fiorenzo\|1794\|2}}, assumed command of *Sceptre*. On 11 November 1806, *Sceptre* and {{HMS\|Cornwallis\|1805\|2}}, under Captain Johnston, made a dash into St. Paul's Bay, [Isle of Bourbon](/wiki/R%C3%A9union "RΓ©union"), and attacked the shipping there, which consisted of the frigate {{ship\|French frigate\|SΓ©millante\|1792\|2}}, three armed ships and twelve captured British ships. (The eight ships that had been earlier taken by *SΓ©millante* were valued at one and a half million pounds.) However, what little breeze there was soon failed, and the two ships found it difficult to manoeuvre and were unable to recapture any prizes.
In 1808, *Sceptre*, in company with *Cornwallis*, engaged and damaged *SΓ©millante*, together with the shore batteries that she sought to protect. *Sceptre* and *Cornwallis*, much affected by [scurvy](/wiki/Scurvy "Scurvy"), retired to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") for their crews to recuperate.
*Sceptre* then returned home in 1808 accompanied by two homeward\-bound [Danish](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") East Indiamen that Captain Bingham had captured off the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope"). On her return to Britain, she was paid off.
Between August 1808 and June 1809 *Sceptre* underwent repairs at Chatham. In March Bingham recommissioned her and joined [Sir Richard Strachan](/wiki/Sir_Richard_Strachan%2C_6th_Baronet "Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet") in the expedition to the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt").Winfield (2008\), pp. 75\-6\.
### West Indies
*Sceptre* sailed for the Leeward Islands on 8 November. During the passage from England Captain [Samuel James Ballard](/wiki/Samuel_James_Ballard "Samuel James Ballard") trained his crew in the use of the [broadsword](/wiki/Broadsword "Broadsword"). This later proved of value when they were used ashore.
Ballard and *Sceptre* arrived off [Martinique](/wiki/Martinique "Martinique") with {{HMS\|Alfred\|12778\|2}} and {{HMS\|Freya\|1807\|2}} (or *Freya*) under his orders, to find that about 150Β miles to the windward of [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe "Guadeloupe") four French [frigates](/wiki/Frigate "Frigate") had captured and burnt {{HMS\|Junon\|1809\|2}}, belonging to the [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_Nova_Scotia "Halifax, Nova Scotia") squadron.
On 18 December, *Sceptre*, [*Blonde*](/wiki/French_frigate_H%C3%A9b%C3%A9_%281782%29 "French frigate HΓ©bΓ© (1782)"), {{HMS\|Thetis\|1782\|2}}, *Freya*, {{HMS\|Castor\|1785\|2}}, {{HMS\|Cygnet\|1804\|2}}, {{HMS\|Hazard\|1794\|2}}, {{HMS\|Ringdove\|1806\|2}}, and {{HMS\|Elizabeth\|1805\|2}} proceeded to attack two French [flΓ»tes](/wiki/En_flute "En flute"), [*Loire*](/wiki/Loire-class_fl%C3%BBte%23Loire "Loire-class flΓ»te#Loire") and [*Seine*](/wiki/Loire-class_fl%C3%BBte%23Seine "Loire-class flΓ»te#Seine") anchored in Anse Γ la Barque ("Barque Cove"), about {{convert\|9\|mi\|km\|spell\=in}} to the northwest of the town of [Basse\-Terre](/wiki/Basse-Terre "Basse-Terre"). *Blonde*, *Thetis* and the three [sloops](/wiki/Sloop-of-war "Sloop-of-war") bore the brunt of the attack but forced the French to abandon their ships and set fire to them. Captain Cameron, who was killed in the attempt, landed with the boats of *Hazard* and destroyed the shore batteries. In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the [Naval General Service Medal](/wiki/Naval_General_Service_Medal_%281847%29 "Naval General Service Medal (1847)") with clasp "Anse la Barque 18 Decr. 1809",{{London Gazette\|issue\=20939\|page\=243\|date\=26 January 1849}} to all surviving claimants from the action.
Towards the end of January 1810 *Sceptre* escorted a division of the troops destined for the attack on Guadeloupe from St. Lucia to the Saintes. While other troops were landed on the island he created a diversion off [Trois\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res%2C_Guadeloupe "Trois-Rivières, Guadeloupe") before landing his troops and marines between Anse à la Barque and Basse\-Terre. Until the surrender of the island, Captain Ballard commanded the detachment of seamen and marines attached to the army. *Sceptre* visited most of the West Indian islands before sailing from [St. Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_United_States_Virgin_Islands "Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands") in August with the homebound trade.
### Channel
She arrived at Spithead on 25 September 1810 and was docked and refitted. *Sceptre* was employed in the Channel watching the enemy in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France") and the [Basque Roads](/wiki/Basque_Roads "Basque Roads") until January 1813\.
### War of 1812
In 1813, Captain [Charles Ross](/wiki/Charles_Ross_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "Charles Ross (Royal Navy officer)"), took command of *Sceptre* as the flagship of Rear Admiral Sir [George Cockburn](/wiki/Sir_George_Cockburn%2C_10th_Baronet "Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet") for operations against the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). On 11 July 1813, *Sceptre*, with {{HMS\|Romulus\|1785\|2}}, {{HMS\|Fox\|1780\|2}}, {{HMS\|Nemesis\|1780\|2}}, and {{HMS\|Conflict\|1812\|2}} and the tenders {{HMS\|Highflyer\|1813\|2}} and {{HMS\|Cockchafer\|1812\|2}}, anchored off the [Ocracoke](/wiki/Ocracoke%2C_North_Carolina "Ocracoke, North Carolina") bar, in the Outer Banks of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"). They had on board troops under the orders of Lieutenant Colonel Napier. An advanced division of the best pulling boats commanded by Lieutenant Westphall and carrying armed seamen and marines from *Sceptre* attacked the enemy's shipping. They were supported by Captain Ross with the rocket\-boats. The flat and heavier boats followed with the bulk of the 102nd Regiment and the artillery.
The only opposition came from a [brig](/wiki/Brig "Brig"), *Anaconda* (18 guns), and a [privateer](/wiki/Privateer "Privateer") [schooner](/wiki/Schooner "Schooner"), *Atlas* (10 guns), which were the only armed vessels in the anchorage. When Lieutenant Westphall attacked, supported by [rockets](/wiki/Congreve_rockets "Congreve rockets"), the Americans abandoned *Anaconda*, and *Atlas* struck. The troops took possession of [Portsmouth Island](/wiki/Portsmouth_Island "Portsmouth Island") and [Ocracoke Island](/wiki/Ocracoke_Island "Ocracoke Island") without opposition. The British took the two prizes into service as {{HMS\|Anaconda\|1813\|2}} and {{HMS\|St Lawrence\|1813\|2}}.{{efn\|A first\-class share of the prize money for the two was worth Β£32 3s 2ΒΌd; a sixth\-class share was worth 9s 8ΒΌd.{{London Gazette\|issue\=18015\|page\=540\|date\=3 April 1824}}}}
On 12 May 1814, *Sceptre* recaptured the [letter of marque](/wiki/Letter_of_marque "Letter of marque") {{ship\|\|Fanny\|1811 ship\|2}}.{{London Gazette\|issue\=16973\|page\=29\|date\=7 January 1815}} The capture and recapture of *Fanny*, together with *Sceptre*{{'}}s claim for salvage, gave rise to several important legal cases.{{efn\|A first\-class share of the salvage money, the share accruing to Captain Ross, was worth \[\[Β£sd\|Β£]]605 7\[\[shilling\|s]] 2\[\[pence\|d]]; a sixth\-class share, that of an ordinary seaman, was worth Β£3 12s 1Β½d.{{London Gazette\|issue\=16976\|page\=90\|date\=17 January 1815}}}}
|
[
"Career\n------",
"On 20 June 1803, after a shakedown period, she came into [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth \"Plymouth\") for a refit. She then sailed again on 28 June under the command of Captain A. C. Dickson to join the Channel fleet.",
"### East Indies",
"In July 1803, she sailed for the East Indies station. She would serve for five years in the East Indies before transferring to the Caribbean.",
"*Sceptre* and {{HMS\\|Albion\\|1802\\|2}} left Rio de Janeiro on 13 October, escorting *Lord Melville*, [*Earl Spencer*](/wiki/Earl_Spencer_%281795_EIC_ship%29 \"Earl Spencer (1795 EIC ship)\"), *Princess Mary*, {{ship\\|\\|Northampton\\|1801 ship\\|2}}, *Anna*, *Ann*, *Glory*, and *Essex*. They were in company with the [74\\-gun](/wiki/Seventy-four_%28ship%29 \"Seventy-four (ship)\") [third\\-rate](/wiki/Third-rate \"Third-rate\") [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line \"Ships of the line\") {{HMS\\|Russell\\|1764\\|6}}, and the [fourth\\-rate](/wiki/Fourth-rate \"Fourth-rate\") {{HMS\\|Grampus\\|1802\\|6}}. Three days later *Albion* and *Sceptre* separated from the rest of the ships.",
"On 21 December 1803, *Sceptre* and *Albion* captured the French privateer *Clarisse* at {{coord\\|1\\|18\\|S\\|95\\|20\\|E}} in the eastern [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"). *Clarisse* was armed with 12 guns and had a crew of 157 men. She had sailed from [Isle de France](/wiki/Isle_de_France_%28Mauritius%29 \"Isle de France (Mauritius)\") on 24 November with provisions for a six\\-month cruise to the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\"). At the time of her capture she had not captured anything.{{London Gazette\\|date\\=23 June 1804\\|issue\\=15713\\|page\\=778}} *Albion*, *Sceptre*, and *Clarisse* arrived at Madras on 8 January 1804\\.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List \"Lloyd's List\")*, nΒ°4463\\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06\\-19\\-1804\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06-19-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\\.",
"On 28 February 1804, *Albion* and *Sceptre* met up in the straits of Malacca with the fleet of Indiamen that had just emerged from the [Battle of Pulo Aura](/wiki/Battle_of_Pulo_Aura \"Battle of Pulo Aura\") and conducted them safely to [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena \"Saint Helena\"). From there {{HMS\\|Plantagenet\\|1801\\|6}} escorted the convoy to England.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List \"Lloyd's List\")*, nΒ°4478\\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08\\-10\\-1804\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08-10-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\\.",
"Later in 1804, Captain [Joseph Bingham](/wiki/Joseph_Bingham_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"Joseph Bingham (Royal Navy officer)\"), formerly of {{HMS\\|St Fiorenzo\\|1794\\|2}}, assumed command of *Sceptre*. On 11 November 1806, *Sceptre* and {{HMS\\|Cornwallis\\|1805\\|2}}, under Captain Johnston, made a dash into St. Paul's Bay, [Isle of Bourbon](/wiki/R%C3%A9union \"RΓ©union\"), and attacked the shipping there, which consisted of the frigate {{ship\\|French frigate\\|SΓ©millante\\|1792\\|2}}, three armed ships and twelve captured British ships. (The eight ships that had been earlier taken by *SΓ©millante* were valued at one and a half million pounds.) However, what little breeze there was soon failed, and the two ships found it difficult to manoeuvre and were unable to recapture any prizes.",
"In 1808, *Sceptre*, in company with *Cornwallis*, engaged and damaged *SΓ©millante*, together with the shore batteries that she sought to protect. *Sceptre* and *Cornwallis*, much affected by [scurvy](/wiki/Scurvy \"Scurvy\"), retired to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") for their crews to recuperate.",
"*Sceptre* then returned home in 1808 accompanied by two homeward\\-bound [Danish](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") East Indiamen that Captain Bingham had captured off the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\"). On her return to Britain, she was paid off.",
"Between August 1808 and June 1809 *Sceptre* underwent repairs at Chatham. In March Bingham recommissioned her and joined [Sir Richard Strachan](/wiki/Sir_Richard_Strachan%2C_6th_Baronet \"Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet\") in the expedition to the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\").Winfield (2008\\), pp. 75\\-6\\.",
"### West Indies",
"*Sceptre* sailed for the Leeward Islands on 8 November. During the passage from England Captain [Samuel James Ballard](/wiki/Samuel_James_Ballard \"Samuel James Ballard\") trained his crew in the use of the [broadsword](/wiki/Broadsword \"Broadsword\"). This later proved of value when they were used ashore.",
"Ballard and *Sceptre* arrived off [Martinique](/wiki/Martinique \"Martinique\") with {{HMS\\|Alfred\\|12778\\|2}} and {{HMS\\|Freya\\|1807\\|2}} (or *Freya*) under his orders, to find that about 150Β miles to the windward of [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe \"Guadeloupe\") four French [frigates](/wiki/Frigate \"Frigate\") had captured and burnt {{HMS\\|Junon\\|1809\\|2}}, belonging to the [Halifax](/wiki/Halifax%2C_Nova_Scotia \"Halifax, Nova Scotia\") squadron.",
"On 18 December, *Sceptre*, [*Blonde*](/wiki/French_frigate_H%C3%A9b%C3%A9_%281782%29 \"French frigate HΓ©bΓ© (1782)\"), {{HMS\\|Thetis\\|1782\\|2}}, *Freya*, {{HMS\\|Castor\\|1785\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Cygnet\\|1804\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Hazard\\|1794\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Ringdove\\|1806\\|2}}, and {{HMS\\|Elizabeth\\|1805\\|2}} proceeded to attack two French [flΓ»tes](/wiki/En_flute \"En flute\"), [*Loire*](/wiki/Loire-class_fl%C3%BBte%23Loire \"Loire-class flΓ»te#Loire\") and [*Seine*](/wiki/Loire-class_fl%C3%BBte%23Seine \"Loire-class flΓ»te#Seine\") anchored in Anse Γ la Barque (\"Barque Cove\"), about {{convert\\|9\\|mi\\|km\\|spell\\=in}} to the northwest of the town of [Basse\\-Terre](/wiki/Basse-Terre \"Basse-Terre\"). *Blonde*, *Thetis* and the three [sloops](/wiki/Sloop-of-war \"Sloop-of-war\") bore the brunt of the attack but forced the French to abandon their ships and set fire to them. Captain Cameron, who was killed in the attempt, landed with the boats of *Hazard* and destroyed the shore batteries. In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the [Naval General Service Medal](/wiki/Naval_General_Service_Medal_%281847%29 \"Naval General Service Medal (1847)\") with clasp \"Anse la Barque 18 Decr. 1809\",{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=20939\\|page\\=243\\|date\\=26 January 1849}} to all surviving claimants from the action.",
"Towards the end of January 1810 *Sceptre* escorted a division of the troops destined for the attack on Guadeloupe from St. Lucia to the Saintes. While other troops were landed on the island he created a diversion off [Trois\\-Rivières](/wiki/Trois-Rivi%C3%A8res%2C_Guadeloupe \"Trois-Rivières, Guadeloupe\") before landing his troops and marines between Anse à la Barque and Basse\\-Terre. Until the surrender of the island, Captain Ballard commanded the detachment of seamen and marines attached to the army. *Sceptre* visited most of the West Indian islands before sailing from [St. Thomas](/wiki/Saint_Thomas%2C_United_States_Virgin_Islands \"Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands\") in August with the homebound trade.",
"### Channel",
"She arrived at Spithead on 25 September 1810 and was docked and refitted. *Sceptre* was employed in the Channel watching the enemy in [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\") and the [Basque Roads](/wiki/Basque_Roads \"Basque Roads\") until January 1813\\.",
"### War of 1812",
"In 1813, Captain [Charles Ross](/wiki/Charles_Ross_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"Charles Ross (Royal Navy officer)\"), took command of *Sceptre* as the flagship of Rear Admiral Sir [George Cockburn](/wiki/Sir_George_Cockburn%2C_10th_Baronet \"Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet\") for operations against the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"). On 11 July 1813, *Sceptre*, with {{HMS\\|Romulus\\|1785\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Fox\\|1780\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Nemesis\\|1780\\|2}}, and {{HMS\\|Conflict\\|1812\\|2}} and the tenders {{HMS\\|Highflyer\\|1813\\|2}} and {{HMS\\|Cockchafer\\|1812\\|2}}, anchored off the [Ocracoke](/wiki/Ocracoke%2C_North_Carolina \"Ocracoke, North Carolina\") bar, in the Outer Banks of [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"). They had on board troops under the orders of Lieutenant Colonel Napier. An advanced division of the best pulling boats commanded by Lieutenant Westphall and carrying armed seamen and marines from *Sceptre* attacked the enemy's shipping. They were supported by Captain Ross with the rocket\\-boats. The flat and heavier boats followed with the bulk of the 102nd Regiment and the artillery.",
"The only opposition came from a [brig](/wiki/Brig \"Brig\"), *Anaconda* (18 guns), and a [privateer](/wiki/Privateer \"Privateer\") [schooner](/wiki/Schooner \"Schooner\"), *Atlas* (10 guns), which were the only armed vessels in the anchorage. When Lieutenant Westphall attacked, supported by [rockets](/wiki/Congreve_rockets \"Congreve rockets\"), the Americans abandoned *Anaconda*, and *Atlas* struck. The troops took possession of [Portsmouth Island](/wiki/Portsmouth_Island \"Portsmouth Island\") and [Ocracoke Island](/wiki/Ocracoke_Island \"Ocracoke Island\") without opposition. The British took the two prizes into service as {{HMS\\|Anaconda\\|1813\\|2}} and {{HMS\\|St Lawrence\\|1813\\|2}}.{{efn\\|A first\\-class share of the prize money for the two was worth Β£32 3s 2ΒΌd; a sixth\\-class share was worth 9s 8ΒΌd.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=18015\\|page\\=540\\|date\\=3 April 1824}}}}",
"On 12 May 1814, *Sceptre* recaptured the [letter of marque](/wiki/Letter_of_marque \"Letter of marque\") {{ship\\|\\|Fanny\\|1811 ship\\|2}}.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=16973\\|page\\=29\\|date\\=7 January 1815}} The capture and recapture of *Fanny*, together with *Sceptre*{{'}}s claim for salvage, gave rise to several important legal cases.{{efn\\|A first\\-class share of the salvage money, the share accruing to Captain Ross, was worth \\[\\[Β£sd\\|Β£]]605 7\\[\\[shilling\\|s]] 2\\[\\[pence\\|d]]; a sixth\\-class share, that of an ordinary seaman, was worth Β£3 12s 1Β½d.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=16976\\|page\\=90\\|date\\=17 January 1815}}}}",
""
] |
### East Indies
In July 1803, she sailed for the East Indies station. She would serve for five years in the East Indies before transferring to the Caribbean.
*Sceptre* and {{HMS\|Albion\|1802\|2}} left Rio de Janeiro on 13 October, escorting *Lord Melville*, [*Earl Spencer*](/wiki/Earl_Spencer_%281795_EIC_ship%29 "Earl Spencer (1795 EIC ship)"), *Princess Mary*, {{ship\|\|Northampton\|1801 ship\|2}}, *Anna*, *Ann*, *Glory*, and *Essex*. They were in company with the [74\-gun](/wiki/Seventy-four_%28ship%29 "Seventy-four (ship)") [third\-rate](/wiki/Third-rate "Third-rate") [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line "Ships of the line") {{HMS\|Russell\|1764\|6}}, and the [fourth\-rate](/wiki/Fourth-rate "Fourth-rate") {{HMS\|Grampus\|1802\|6}}. Three days later *Albion* and *Sceptre* separated from the rest of the ships.
On 21 December 1803, *Sceptre* and *Albion* captured the French privateer *Clarisse* at {{coord\|1\|18\|S\|95\|20\|E}} in the eastern [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"). *Clarisse* was armed with 12 guns and had a crew of 157 men. She had sailed from [Isle de France](/wiki/Isle_de_France_%28Mauritius%29 "Isle de France (Mauritius)") on 24 November with provisions for a six\-month cruise to the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal"). At the time of her capture she had not captured anything.{{London Gazette\|date\=23 June 1804\|issue\=15713\|page\=778}} *Albion*, *Sceptre*, and *Clarisse* arrived at Madras on 8 January 1804\.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List "Lloyd's List")*, nΒ°4463\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06\-19\-1804\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06-19-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\.
On 28 February 1804, *Albion* and *Sceptre* met up in the straits of Malacca with the fleet of Indiamen that had just emerged from the [Battle of Pulo Aura](/wiki/Battle_of_Pulo_Aura "Battle of Pulo Aura") and conducted them safely to [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena "Saint Helena"). From there {{HMS\|Plantagenet\|1801\|6}} escorted the convoy to England.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List "Lloyd's List")*, nΒ°4478\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08\-10\-1804\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08-10-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\.
Later in 1804, Captain [Joseph Bingham](/wiki/Joseph_Bingham_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 "Joseph Bingham (Royal Navy officer)"), formerly of {{HMS\|St Fiorenzo\|1794\|2}}, assumed command of *Sceptre*. On 11 November 1806, *Sceptre* and {{HMS\|Cornwallis\|1805\|2}}, under Captain Johnston, made a dash into St. Paul's Bay, [Isle of Bourbon](/wiki/R%C3%A9union "RΓ©union"), and attacked the shipping there, which consisted of the frigate {{ship\|French frigate\|SΓ©millante\|1792\|2}}, three armed ships and twelve captured British ships. (The eight ships that had been earlier taken by *SΓ©millante* were valued at one and a half million pounds.) However, what little breeze there was soon failed, and the two ships found it difficult to manoeuvre and were unable to recapture any prizes.
In 1808, *Sceptre*, in company with *Cornwallis*, engaged and damaged *SΓ©millante*, together with the shore batteries that she sought to protect. *Sceptre* and *Cornwallis*, much affected by [scurvy](/wiki/Scurvy "Scurvy"), retired to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar") for their crews to recuperate.
*Sceptre* then returned home in 1808 accompanied by two homeward\-bound [Danish](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark") East Indiamen that Captain Bingham had captured off the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope "Cape of Good Hope"). On her return to Britain, she was paid off.
Between August 1808 and June 1809 *Sceptre* underwent repairs at Chatham. In March Bingham recommissioned her and joined [Sir Richard Strachan](/wiki/Sir_Richard_Strachan%2C_6th_Baronet "Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet") in the expedition to the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt").Winfield (2008\), pp. 75\-6\.
|
[
"### East Indies",
"In July 1803, she sailed for the East Indies station. She would serve for five years in the East Indies before transferring to the Caribbean.",
"*Sceptre* and {{HMS\\|Albion\\|1802\\|2}} left Rio de Janeiro on 13 October, escorting *Lord Melville*, [*Earl Spencer*](/wiki/Earl_Spencer_%281795_EIC_ship%29 \"Earl Spencer (1795 EIC ship)\"), *Princess Mary*, {{ship\\|\\|Northampton\\|1801 ship\\|2}}, *Anna*, *Ann*, *Glory*, and *Essex*. They were in company with the [74\\-gun](/wiki/Seventy-four_%28ship%29 \"Seventy-four (ship)\") [third\\-rate](/wiki/Third-rate \"Third-rate\") [ships of the line](/wiki/Ships_of_the_line \"Ships of the line\") {{HMS\\|Russell\\|1764\\|6}}, and the [fourth\\-rate](/wiki/Fourth-rate \"Fourth-rate\") {{HMS\\|Grampus\\|1802\\|6}}. Three days later *Albion* and *Sceptre* separated from the rest of the ships.",
"On 21 December 1803, *Sceptre* and *Albion* captured the French privateer *Clarisse* at {{coord\\|1\\|18\\|S\\|95\\|20\\|E}} in the eastern [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"). *Clarisse* was armed with 12 guns and had a crew of 157 men. She had sailed from [Isle de France](/wiki/Isle_de_France_%28Mauritius%29 \"Isle de France (Mauritius)\") on 24 November with provisions for a six\\-month cruise to the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\"). At the time of her capture she had not captured anything.{{London Gazette\\|date\\=23 June 1804\\|issue\\=15713\\|page\\=778}} *Albion*, *Sceptre*, and *Clarisse* arrived at Madras on 8 January 1804\\.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List \"Lloyd's List\")*, nΒ°4463\\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06\\-19\\-1804\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/06-19-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\\.",
"On 28 February 1804, *Albion* and *Sceptre* met up in the straits of Malacca with the fleet of Indiamen that had just emerged from the [Battle of Pulo Aura](/wiki/Battle_of_Pulo_Aura \"Battle of Pulo Aura\") and conducted them safely to [Saint Helena](/wiki/Saint_Helena \"Saint Helena\"). From there {{HMS\\|Plantagenet\\|1801\\|6}} escorted the convoy to England.*[Lloyd's List](/wiki/Lloyd%27s_List \"Lloyd's List\")*, nΒ°4478\\.[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08\\-10\\-1804\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/08-10-1804.jpg) Accessed 13 August 2016\\.",
"Later in 1804, Captain [Joseph Bingham](/wiki/Joseph_Bingham_%28Royal_Navy_officer%29 \"Joseph Bingham (Royal Navy officer)\"), formerly of {{HMS\\|St Fiorenzo\\|1794\\|2}}, assumed command of *Sceptre*. On 11 November 1806, *Sceptre* and {{HMS\\|Cornwallis\\|1805\\|2}}, under Captain Johnston, made a dash into St. Paul's Bay, [Isle of Bourbon](/wiki/R%C3%A9union \"RΓ©union\"), and attacked the shipping there, which consisted of the frigate {{ship\\|French frigate\\|SΓ©millante\\|1792\\|2}}, three armed ships and twelve captured British ships. (The eight ships that had been earlier taken by *SΓ©millante* were valued at one and a half million pounds.) However, what little breeze there was soon failed, and the two ships found it difficult to manoeuvre and were unable to recapture any prizes.",
"In 1808, *Sceptre*, in company with *Cornwallis*, engaged and damaged *SΓ©millante*, together with the shore batteries that she sought to protect. *Sceptre* and *Cornwallis*, much affected by [scurvy](/wiki/Scurvy \"Scurvy\"), retired to [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\") for their crews to recuperate.",
"*Sceptre* then returned home in 1808 accompanied by two homeward\\-bound [Danish](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\") East Indiamen that Captain Bingham had captured off the [Cape of Good Hope](/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope \"Cape of Good Hope\"). On her return to Britain, she was paid off.",
"Between August 1808 and June 1809 *Sceptre* underwent repairs at Chatham. In March Bingham recommissioned her and joined [Sir Richard Strachan](/wiki/Sir_Richard_Strachan%2C_6th_Baronet \"Sir Richard Strachan, 6th Baronet\") in the expedition to the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\").Winfield (2008\\), pp. 75\\-6\\.",
""
] |
1971 \& 1972 Auto Spedeway Team League
--------------------------------------
The Auto Spedeway team leagueSpedeworth book, "Living with Spede" was set up by Stock Car promoter Spedeworth International for the 1971 season. The competition only lasted just under two years. The racing featured the promotion's regular Superstox cars with identical bodies although underneath the chassis often varied. The body style was based on those sported by the touring South African Team in the 1970 season.
The prototype car was displayed on Spedeworth's stand at the 1971 Racing Car Show. The season was structured so that all the teams had two matches against each other, one home and one away. Outside the League competition there were also a couple of multi\-team tournament meetings.
The 1972 fixture schedule was not completed due to some driving standards problems and also the closure of Cross in Hand raceway in August that year.
Each team was managed by a key person from the within the Spedeworth organisation and the team line ups included most of the top drivers from the era.
Despite the closure of Cross in Hand, Spedeworth later staged two friendly matches (in 1972 and 1973\) at Aldershot between the Aldershot Knights and the Cross in Hand Tigers.
### Aldershot Knights
Team Manager: Ted Weaver
Drivers: Denny Pearson (captain), Derry Warwick, Roy Wood, Stan Warwick, Ken Etwell, John Field
The Knights were based at Aldershot Stadium in Tongham.
### Cross in Hand Tigers
Team Manager: Les Eaton
Drivers: Dave Pierce (captain), Dave Hindle, Alan Cox, Biffo Sweeney, Art Fowler, Gordon Street.
The Tigers were based at Cross\-in\-Hand raceway in Sussex
### Eastbourne Lions
Team Manager: Ken Denham
Drivers: Chris Denham, Barry Kelleher, Rod Waller, Jim Stuart, Nigel Fox, Graham Minchin
The Lions joined the league in 1972 and were based at Arlington Stadium, near Eastbourne \- the team effectively the old White City / Walthamstow outfit relocating.
### Ipswich Foxes
Team Manager: Harry Barnes
Drivers: Skid Parish (captain), Tony Grant, Norman Crowe, Mike Read, John Biddle, Alan Cayzer. Reserve: Paul Rookyard
### Ringwood Badgers
Team Manager: Alan Butler
Drivers: John Edwards (Captain), Tom Edwards, Cliff Maidment, Gordon Maidment, [Derek Warwick](/wiki/Derek_Warwick "Derek Warwick"), Roy Eaton
The Badgers joined the league in 1972 and were based at Matchams Park although they only ever hosted one home match (due to the demise of the league mid season) which was against the Wimbledon Dons.
### Walthamstow (formerly White City) Lions
Team Manager: Roger Fennings
Drivers: 1971: Chris Denham (captain), Barry Kelleher, Jack Percy, Rod Waller, Jim Stuart, Les Holland. Occasional \- Leon Smith
The team was originally going to be called the 'White City Slickers'. Neither White City nor Walthamstow were allocated a team for the 1972 season, the driver line up transferred to Eastbourne (Arlington Stadium) for the 1972 campaign.
### Wimbledon Canaries / Dons
Team Manager: Reg Etherington
Drivers: 1971: Eric Taylor, Bryan Kensett (Captain), Tony Mellish, Frank Boyles, John Field, Keith Fransella
1972: Jim Davey (Captain), Frank Boyles, Barry Plummer, Pete Welland, Bryan Kensett, [Steve Monk](/wiki/Steve_Monk "Steve Monk"), Keith Fransella, Reserve: Eric Taylor
Based at the Wimbledon Stadium in Plough Lane, the team were originally known as the Canaries but changed their name to the Dons for the 1972 season.
### Wisbech Fen Tigers
Team Manager: Jack Gray
Drivers: Roger Warnes (captain), John Gray, Rick Drewery, Tony May (1972\), Stu Blyth, Jack Savage. Reserves: Trevor Blyth, Malcolm Burrell
The Fen Tigers were the inaugural champions in 1971\.
### Yarmouth Greyhounds
Team Manager: Ted Payne
Drivers: 1971: Joe Cracknell, Horry Barnes, Colin Byrne, Trevor Blyth, Alan Taylor, Doug McMahon
1972: Doug McMahon (captain), Alan Taylor, Bob Perry, Brian Randall, Pete Marshall, Doug Wardropper
|
[
"1971 \\& 1972 Auto Spedeway Team League\n--------------------------------------",
"The Auto Spedeway team leagueSpedeworth book, \"Living with Spede\" was set up by Stock Car promoter Spedeworth International for the 1971 season. The competition only lasted just under two years. The racing featured the promotion's regular Superstox cars with identical bodies although underneath the chassis often varied. The body style was based on those sported by the touring South African Team in the 1970 season.",
"The prototype car was displayed on Spedeworth's stand at the 1971 Racing Car Show. The season was structured so that all the teams had two matches against each other, one home and one away. Outside the League competition there were also a couple of multi\\-team tournament meetings.",
"The 1972 fixture schedule was not completed due to some driving standards problems and also the closure of Cross in Hand raceway in August that year. \nEach team was managed by a key person from the within the Spedeworth organisation and the team line ups included most of the top drivers from the era.\nDespite the closure of Cross in Hand, Spedeworth later staged two friendly matches (in 1972 and 1973\\) at Aldershot between the Aldershot Knights and the Cross in Hand Tigers.",
"### Aldershot Knights",
"Team Manager: Ted Weaver",
"Drivers: Denny Pearson (captain), Derry Warwick, Roy Wood, Stan Warwick, Ken Etwell, John Field\n \nThe Knights were based at Aldershot Stadium in Tongham.",
"### Cross in Hand Tigers",
"Team Manager: Les Eaton",
"Drivers: Dave Pierce (captain), Dave Hindle, Alan Cox, Biffo Sweeney, Art Fowler, Gordon Street.",
"The Tigers were based at Cross\\-in\\-Hand raceway in Sussex",
"### Eastbourne Lions",
"Team Manager: Ken Denham",
"Drivers: Chris Denham, Barry Kelleher, Rod Waller, Jim Stuart, Nigel Fox, Graham Minchin\n \nThe Lions joined the league in 1972 and were based at Arlington Stadium, near Eastbourne \\- the team effectively the old White City / Walthamstow outfit relocating.",
"### Ipswich Foxes",
"Team Manager: Harry Barnes",
"Drivers: Skid Parish (captain), Tony Grant, Norman Crowe, Mike Read, John Biddle, Alan Cayzer. Reserve: Paul Rookyard",
"### Ringwood Badgers",
"Team Manager: Alan Butler",
"Drivers: John Edwards (Captain), Tom Edwards, Cliff Maidment, Gordon Maidment, [Derek Warwick](/wiki/Derek_Warwick \"Derek Warwick\"), Roy Eaton",
"The Badgers joined the league in 1972 and were based at Matchams Park although they only ever hosted one home match (due to the demise of the league mid season) which was against the Wimbledon Dons.",
"### Walthamstow (formerly White City) Lions",
"Team Manager: Roger Fennings",
"Drivers: 1971: Chris Denham (captain), Barry Kelleher, Jack Percy, Rod Waller, Jim Stuart, Les Holland. Occasional \\- Leon Smith\nThe team was originally going to be called the 'White City Slickers'. Neither White City nor Walthamstow were allocated a team for the 1972 season, the driver line up transferred to Eastbourne (Arlington Stadium) for the 1972 campaign.",
"### Wimbledon Canaries / Dons",
"Team Manager: Reg Etherington",
"Drivers: 1971: Eric Taylor, Bryan Kensett (Captain), Tony Mellish, Frank Boyles, John Field, Keith Fransella",
"1972: Jim Davey (Captain), Frank Boyles, Barry Plummer, Pete Welland, Bryan Kensett, [Steve Monk](/wiki/Steve_Monk \"Steve Monk\"), Keith Fransella, Reserve: Eric Taylor",
"Based at the Wimbledon Stadium in Plough Lane, the team were originally known as the Canaries but changed their name to the Dons for the 1972 season.",
"### Wisbech Fen Tigers",
"Team Manager: Jack Gray",
"Drivers: Roger Warnes (captain), John Gray, Rick Drewery, Tony May (1972\\), Stu Blyth, Jack Savage. Reserves: Trevor Blyth, Malcolm Burrell",
"The Fen Tigers were the inaugural champions in 1971\\.",
"### Yarmouth Greyhounds",
"Team Manager: Ted Payne",
"Drivers: 1971: Joe Cracknell, Horry Barnes, Colin Byrne, Trevor Blyth, Alan Taylor, Doug McMahon",
"1972: Doug McMahon (captain), Alan Taylor, Bob Perry, Brian Randall, Pete Marshall, Doug Wardropper",
""
] |
Story summary
-------------
Joe Bronson, instead of studying for a school exam, goes to buy kites with his friends; on their way back he gets involved in fights with gang members in a poor part of the city. After he fails the exam the next day, he walks out of school and takes a ferry across the bay to [Oakland](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California "Oakland, California"). Looking at the boats on the wharf, he imagines the exciting life on a boat.
His father, a businessman, has a liberal attitude to his son; but, critical of his recent behavior and a poor school report, tells him that he might send him to a military academy. Joe later leaves a farewell note for his family; returning to Oakland, he joins the crew of a [sloop](/wiki/Sloop "Sloop"), the *Dazzler*. The captain Pete Le Maire is known as "French Pete", and the one other crew member is 'Frisco Kid, a boy of about Joe's age.
He soon realizes that French Pete is involved in criminal activity. They take scrap iron from a factory; the job is abandoned when shots are fired. Later, they work as [oyster pirates](/wiki/Oyster_pirate "Oyster pirate").
Joe, not wanting to be involved in crime, tries to escape, but each time is thwarted. French Pete tolerates Joe's opinion of him that he is a criminal. 'Frisco Kid tells Joe that he hates his life at sea; he had no family, and once worked for Red Nelson on another sloop, the *Reindeer*, but ran away. Arrested as a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp "Tramp"), he was sent to a "boy's refuge", where conditions were intolerable; he escaped and joined French Pete. Joe resolves to leave and take 'Frisco Kid with him.
French Pete and his associate Red Nelson steal a safe. Joe sees that it belongs to his father's company. The *Dazzler* and *Reindeer* sail into the Pacific, pursued for a time by a yacht; they intend to sail to Mexico. There is soon a storm and the *Dazzler'''s mast breaks. The* Reindeer *gets close enough for French Pete to jump onto it but, before the boys can follow, the* Reindeer *disappears under the waves.*
The Dazzler'' drifts ashore at [Santa Cruz](/wiki/Santa_Cruz%2C_California "Santa Cruz, California"), finding a small wharf on the lower [San Lorenzo River](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_River "San Lorenzo River"). Joe goes to his father's office. His father makes him "feel at once as if not the slightest thing uncommon had occurred. It seemed as if he had just returned from a vacation, or, man\-grown, had come back from some business trip."Chapter 21\. His father, after hearing his story, says that the $5000 reward for the return of the safe would be shared, 'Frisco Kid's half being held in trust for his future.
|
[
"Story summary\n-------------",
"Joe Bronson, instead of studying for a school exam, goes to buy kites with his friends; on their way back he gets involved in fights with gang members in a poor part of the city. After he fails the exam the next day, he walks out of school and takes a ferry across the bay to [Oakland](/wiki/Oakland%2C_California \"Oakland, California\"). Looking at the boats on the wharf, he imagines the exciting life on a boat.",
"His father, a businessman, has a liberal attitude to his son; but, critical of his recent behavior and a poor school report, tells him that he might send him to a military academy. Joe later leaves a farewell note for his family; returning to Oakland, he joins the crew of a [sloop](/wiki/Sloop \"Sloop\"), the *Dazzler*. The captain Pete Le Maire is known as \"French Pete\", and the one other crew member is 'Frisco Kid, a boy of about Joe's age.",
"He soon realizes that French Pete is involved in criminal activity. They take scrap iron from a factory; the job is abandoned when shots are fired. Later, they work as [oyster pirates](/wiki/Oyster_pirate \"Oyster pirate\").",
"Joe, not wanting to be involved in crime, tries to escape, but each time is thwarted. French Pete tolerates Joe's opinion of him that he is a criminal. 'Frisco Kid tells Joe that he hates his life at sea; he had no family, and once worked for Red Nelson on another sloop, the *Reindeer*, but ran away. Arrested as a [tramp](/wiki/Tramp \"Tramp\"), he was sent to a \"boy's refuge\", where conditions were intolerable; he escaped and joined French Pete. Joe resolves to leave and take 'Frisco Kid with him.",
"French Pete and his associate Red Nelson steal a safe. Joe sees that it belongs to his father's company. The *Dazzler* and *Reindeer* sail into the Pacific, pursued for a time by a yacht; they intend to sail to Mexico. There is soon a storm and the *Dazzler'''s mast breaks. The* Reindeer *gets close enough for French Pete to jump onto it but, before the boys can follow, the* Reindeer *disappears under the waves.*",
"The Dazzler'' drifts ashore at [Santa Cruz](/wiki/Santa_Cruz%2C_California \"Santa Cruz, California\"), finding a small wharf on the lower [San Lorenzo River](/wiki/San_Lorenzo_River \"San Lorenzo River\"). Joe goes to his father's office. His father makes him \"feel at once as if not the slightest thing uncommon had occurred. It seemed as if he had just returned from a vacation, or, man\\-grown, had come back from some business trip.\"Chapter 21\\. His father, after hearing his story, says that the $5000 reward for the return of the safe would be shared, 'Frisco Kid's half being held in trust for his future.",
""
] |
Coaching career
---------------
### Early career
Slocum began his career as a football coach at [Lake Charles](/wiki/Lake_Charles%2C_Louisiana "Lake Charles, Louisiana") High School in 1968\. Two years later, in 1970, Slocum became a graduate assistant at [Kansas State University](/wiki/Kansas_State_University "Kansas State University") under head coach [Vince Gibson](/wiki/Vince_Gibson "Vince Gibson"), also coaching the offensive linemen on the freshman team. In 1971, he was named head freshman coach.
### USC
Slocum spent the 1981 season as the [defensive coordinator](/wiki/Defensive_coordinator "Defensive coordinator") at the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California "University of Southern California") (USC) under [John Robinson](/wiki/John_Robinson_%28American_football_coach%29 "John Robinson (American football coach)"). Slocum's defense led the [Pacific\-10 Conference](/wiki/Pac-12_Conference "Pac-12 Conference") in total defense that season.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.pac\-10\.org/auto\_pdf/p\_hotos/s\_chools/pac10/sports/m\-footbl/auto\_pdf/release1\-Records \|title\=2007 Pac\-10 Football Guide Records }}{{dead link\|date\=May 2016\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} The team lost to [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State "Penn State") in the [1982 Fiesta Bowl](/wiki/1982_Fiesta_Bowl "1982 Fiesta Bowl"), finishing with a 9β3 record.{{cite web\|url\=http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/coaching/alltime\_coach\_game\_by\_game.php?coachid\=2002\&year\=1981\|title\=USC 1981\|access\-date\=July 9, 2008\|archive\-date\=February 8, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208171959/http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/coaching/alltime\_coach\_game\_by\_game.php?coachid\=2002\&year\=1981\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Texas A\&M
In 1972, Slocum was hired as receivers coach under Emory Bellard at Texas A\&M University. After one year of coaching the receivers, he was moved to defense to coach the defensive ends, and in 1976, he became linebackers coach. Bellard left A\&M in 1978, moving on to Mississippi State and taking defensive coordinator [Melvin Robertson](/wiki/Melvin_Robertson "Melvin Robertson") with him. Former A\&M offensive coordinator and new head coach [Tom Wilson](/wiki/Tom_Wilson_%28American_football%29 "Tom Wilson (American football)") chose Slocum as his defensive coordinator in 1979\. After serving [USC](/wiki/USC_Trojans_football "USC Trojans football") as defensive coordinator in 1981, Slocum returned to A\&M in 1982 as defensive coordinator under [Jackie Sherrill](/wiki/Jackie_Sherrill "Jackie Sherrill"). In 1985, Slocum was elevated to assistant head coach. Slocum substituted for Sherrill and served as acting head coach for A\&M's 18β0 victory over TCU during the 1988 season which was Sherrill's last.
#### Head coach
[thumb\|Slocum as head coach of the Texas A\&M Aggies](/wiki/File:Slocum-rc_TAMU1.JPG "Slocum-rc TAMU1.JPG")
In December 1988, Sherrill was forced to resign, and Slocum was named his successor. During his 14 years as head coach, Slocum led the Aggies to a record of 123β47β2, making him the winningest coach in Texas A\&M history. During his career, Slocum never had a losing season and won four conference championships, including the [Big 12](/wiki/Big_12 "Big 12") title in 1998 and two Big 12 South Championships in 1997 and 1998\. Additionally, he led the Aggies to become the first school in [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference "Southwest Conference") history to post three consecutive perfect conference seasons and actually went four consecutive seasons without a conference loss. Slocum reached 100 wins faster than any other active coach. He has the best winning percentage in SWC history, one spot ahead of the legendary coach [Darrell Royal](/wiki/Darrell_Royal "Darrell Royal") who is number 2\.
Under his tenure, Slocum helped make A\&M's [Kyle Field](/wiki/Kyle_Field "Kyle Field") one of the hardest places to play in the nation, only losing 12 home games in 14 years, going parts of seven seasons without a home loss. After a home loss to Arkansas on November 24, 1989 (which broke a streak of 19 consecutive SWC home victories), they would not lose again in College Station until December 2, 1995, when his Aggies lost to Texas 16β6, although they did tie Baylor (20β20\) on October 20, 1990\. With Miami's 58\-game, nine\-season home winning streak ending in 1994, A\&M owned the longest active home winning streak in the nation for much of 1994 and 1995\. In the 1990s, A\&M lost only four times at Kyle Field. Slocum was named SWC Coach of the Year three times during his tenure as head coach. His "Wrecking Crew" defense led the SWC in four statistical categories from 1991 through 1993 and led the nation in total defense in 1991\.
Over 50 Texas A\&M players were drafted into the [NFL](/wiki/NFL "NFL") during Slocum's career as head coach.
Slocum inherited an Aggie football program that had just finished 7\-5 and had been slapped with severe NCAA sanctions for violations under Sherrill. He didn't take long to clean up the program. He was quoted in 2002 as saying:
{{blockquote\|I wouldn't trade winning another game or two for my reputation as a person. I've said from day one I'm going to do things the way I think they should be done. There were those who said, 'If you don't cheat, you're pretty naive. You can't win that way.' Well, we're going to find out. That's the way we're going to do it. I can walk away and look myself in the mirror and say, 'We did it the right way.'{{cite news\|last\=Justice \|first\=Richard \|title\=Legacy of tenure at A\&M is reform \|newspaper\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]] \|date\=December 3, 2002 \|url\=http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \|access\-date\=March 12, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509214936/http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \|archive\-date\=May 9, 2005 }}}}
After fourteen years as head coach, Slocum was forced to resign in 2002 following only the second non\-winning season of his career, and his only losing record in conference play. He immediately assumed a position as special adviser to Texas A\&M president [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates "Robert Gates").
In May 2012, Slocum was inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame "College Football Hall of Fame").[Former A\&M Coach R. C. Slocum Named To Hall Of Fame](http://www.kwtx.com/_254sports/home/headlines/Former_AM_Coach_R_C_Slocum_Named_To_Hall_Of_Fame_151556165.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120906100725/http://www.kwtx.com/\_254sports/home/headlines/Former\_AM\_Coach\_R\_C\_Slocum\_Named\_To\_Hall\_Of\_Fame\_151556165\.html \|date\=September 6, 2012 }} kwtx.com Retrieved May 15, 2012
On April 19, 2019, Slocum was named interim athletic director for Texas A\&M after the sudden departure of [Scott Woodward](/wiki/Scott_Woodward_%28athletic_director%29 "Scott Woodward (athletic director)") to [LSU](/wiki/LSU "LSU"). Following [Ross Bjork](/wiki/Ross_Bjork "Ross Bjork")'s departure for the athletic director role at Ohio State in January 2024, Slocum again served as interim AD before the hiring of [Trev Alberts](/wiki/Trev_Alberts "Trev Alberts").
|
[
"Coaching career\n---------------",
"### Early career",
"Slocum began his career as a football coach at [Lake Charles](/wiki/Lake_Charles%2C_Louisiana \"Lake Charles, Louisiana\") High School in 1968\\. Two years later, in 1970, Slocum became a graduate assistant at [Kansas State University](/wiki/Kansas_State_University \"Kansas State University\") under head coach [Vince Gibson](/wiki/Vince_Gibson \"Vince Gibson\"), also coaching the offensive linemen on the freshman team. In 1971, he was named head freshman coach.",
"### USC",
"Slocum spent the 1981 season as the [defensive coordinator](/wiki/Defensive_coordinator \"Defensive coordinator\") at the [University of Southern California](/wiki/University_of_Southern_California \"University of Southern California\") (USC) under [John Robinson](/wiki/John_Robinson_%28American_football_coach%29 \"John Robinson (American football coach)\"). Slocum's defense led the [Pacific\\-10 Conference](/wiki/Pac-12_Conference \"Pac-12 Conference\") in total defense that season.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.pac\\-10\\.org/auto\\_pdf/p\\_hotos/s\\_chools/pac10/sports/m\\-footbl/auto\\_pdf/release1\\-Records \\|title\\=2007 Pac\\-10 Football Guide Records }}{{dead link\\|date\\=May 2016\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} The team lost to [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State \"Penn State\") in the [1982 Fiesta Bowl](/wiki/1982_Fiesta_Bowl \"1982 Fiesta Bowl\"), finishing with a 9β3 record.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/coaching/alltime\\_coach\\_game\\_by\\_game.php?coachid\\=2002\\&year\\=1981\\|title\\=USC 1981\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2008\\|archive\\-date\\=February 8, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208171959/http://cfbdatawarehouse.com/data/coaching/alltime\\_coach\\_game\\_by\\_game.php?coachid\\=2002\\&year\\=1981\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Texas A\\&M",
"In 1972, Slocum was hired as receivers coach under Emory Bellard at Texas A\\&M University. After one year of coaching the receivers, he was moved to defense to coach the defensive ends, and in 1976, he became linebackers coach. Bellard left A\\&M in 1978, moving on to Mississippi State and taking defensive coordinator [Melvin Robertson](/wiki/Melvin_Robertson \"Melvin Robertson\") with him. Former A\\&M offensive coordinator and new head coach [Tom Wilson](/wiki/Tom_Wilson_%28American_football%29 \"Tom Wilson (American football)\") chose Slocum as his defensive coordinator in 1979\\. After serving [USC](/wiki/USC_Trojans_football \"USC Trojans football\") as defensive coordinator in 1981, Slocum returned to A\\&M in 1982 as defensive coordinator under [Jackie Sherrill](/wiki/Jackie_Sherrill \"Jackie Sherrill\"). In 1985, Slocum was elevated to assistant head coach. Slocum substituted for Sherrill and served as acting head coach for A\\&M's 18β0 victory over TCU during the 1988 season which was Sherrill's last.",
"#### Head coach",
"[thumb\\|Slocum as head coach of the Texas A\\&M Aggies](/wiki/File:Slocum-rc_TAMU1.JPG \"Slocum-rc TAMU1.JPG\")\nIn December 1988, Sherrill was forced to resign, and Slocum was named his successor. During his 14 years as head coach, Slocum led the Aggies to a record of 123β47β2, making him the winningest coach in Texas A\\&M history. During his career, Slocum never had a losing season and won four conference championships, including the [Big 12](/wiki/Big_12 \"Big 12\") title in 1998 and two Big 12 South Championships in 1997 and 1998\\. Additionally, he led the Aggies to become the first school in [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference \"Southwest Conference\") history to post three consecutive perfect conference seasons and actually went four consecutive seasons without a conference loss. Slocum reached 100 wins faster than any other active coach. He has the best winning percentage in SWC history, one spot ahead of the legendary coach [Darrell Royal](/wiki/Darrell_Royal \"Darrell Royal\") who is number 2\\.",
"Under his tenure, Slocum helped make A\\&M's [Kyle Field](/wiki/Kyle_Field \"Kyle Field\") one of the hardest places to play in the nation, only losing 12 home games in 14 years, going parts of seven seasons without a home loss. After a home loss to Arkansas on November 24, 1989 (which broke a streak of 19 consecutive SWC home victories), they would not lose again in College Station until December 2, 1995, when his Aggies lost to Texas 16β6, although they did tie Baylor (20β20\\) on October 20, 1990\\. With Miami's 58\\-game, nine\\-season home winning streak ending in 1994, A\\&M owned the longest active home winning streak in the nation for much of 1994 and 1995\\. In the 1990s, A\\&M lost only four times at Kyle Field. Slocum was named SWC Coach of the Year three times during his tenure as head coach. His \"Wrecking Crew\" defense led the SWC in four statistical categories from 1991 through 1993 and led the nation in total defense in 1991\\.",
"Over 50 Texas A\\&M players were drafted into the [NFL](/wiki/NFL \"NFL\") during Slocum's career as head coach.",
"Slocum inherited an Aggie football program that had just finished 7\\-5 and had been slapped with severe NCAA sanctions for violations under Sherrill. He didn't take long to clean up the program. He was quoted in 2002 as saying:",
"{{blockquote\\|I wouldn't trade winning another game or two for my reputation as a person. I've said from day one I'm going to do things the way I think they should be done. There were those who said, 'If you don't cheat, you're pretty naive. You can't win that way.' Well, we're going to find out. That's the way we're going to do it. I can walk away and look myself in the mirror and say, 'We did it the right way.'{{cite news\\|last\\=Justice \\|first\\=Richard \\|title\\=Legacy of tenure at A\\&M is reform \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]] \\|date\\=December 3, 2002 \\|url\\=http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \\|access\\-date\\=March 12, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509214936/http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 9, 2005 }}}}",
"After fourteen years as head coach, Slocum was forced to resign in 2002 following only the second non\\-winning season of his career, and his only losing record in conference play. He immediately assumed a position as special adviser to Texas A\\&M president [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates \"Robert Gates\").",
"In May 2012, Slocum was inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame \"College Football Hall of Fame\").[Former A\\&M Coach R. C. Slocum Named To Hall Of Fame](http://www.kwtx.com/_254sports/home/headlines/Former_AM_Coach_R_C_Slocum_Named_To_Hall_Of_Fame_151556165.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120906100725/http://www.kwtx.com/\\_254sports/home/headlines/Former\\_AM\\_Coach\\_R\\_C\\_Slocum\\_Named\\_To\\_Hall\\_Of\\_Fame\\_151556165\\.html \\|date\\=September 6, 2012 }} kwtx.com Retrieved May 15, 2012",
"On April 19, 2019, Slocum was named interim athletic director for Texas A\\&M after the sudden departure of [Scott Woodward](/wiki/Scott_Woodward_%28athletic_director%29 \"Scott Woodward (athletic director)\") to [LSU](/wiki/LSU \"LSU\"). Following [Ross Bjork](/wiki/Ross_Bjork \"Ross Bjork\")'s departure for the athletic director role at Ohio State in January 2024, Slocum again served as interim AD before the hiring of [Trev Alberts](/wiki/Trev_Alberts \"Trev Alberts\").",
""
] |
### Texas A\&M
In 1972, Slocum was hired as receivers coach under Emory Bellard at Texas A\&M University. After one year of coaching the receivers, he was moved to defense to coach the defensive ends, and in 1976, he became linebackers coach. Bellard left A\&M in 1978, moving on to Mississippi State and taking defensive coordinator [Melvin Robertson](/wiki/Melvin_Robertson "Melvin Robertson") with him. Former A\&M offensive coordinator and new head coach [Tom Wilson](/wiki/Tom_Wilson_%28American_football%29 "Tom Wilson (American football)") chose Slocum as his defensive coordinator in 1979\. After serving [USC](/wiki/USC_Trojans_football "USC Trojans football") as defensive coordinator in 1981, Slocum returned to A\&M in 1982 as defensive coordinator under [Jackie Sherrill](/wiki/Jackie_Sherrill "Jackie Sherrill"). In 1985, Slocum was elevated to assistant head coach. Slocum substituted for Sherrill and served as acting head coach for A\&M's 18β0 victory over TCU during the 1988 season which was Sherrill's last.
#### Head coach
[thumb\|Slocum as head coach of the Texas A\&M Aggies](/wiki/File:Slocum-rc_TAMU1.JPG "Slocum-rc TAMU1.JPG")
In December 1988, Sherrill was forced to resign, and Slocum was named his successor. During his 14 years as head coach, Slocum led the Aggies to a record of 123β47β2, making him the winningest coach in Texas A\&M history. During his career, Slocum never had a losing season and won four conference championships, including the [Big 12](/wiki/Big_12 "Big 12") title in 1998 and two Big 12 South Championships in 1997 and 1998\. Additionally, he led the Aggies to become the first school in [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference "Southwest Conference") history to post three consecutive perfect conference seasons and actually went four consecutive seasons without a conference loss. Slocum reached 100 wins faster than any other active coach. He has the best winning percentage in SWC history, one spot ahead of the legendary coach [Darrell Royal](/wiki/Darrell_Royal "Darrell Royal") who is number 2\.
Under his tenure, Slocum helped make A\&M's [Kyle Field](/wiki/Kyle_Field "Kyle Field") one of the hardest places to play in the nation, only losing 12 home games in 14 years, going parts of seven seasons without a home loss. After a home loss to Arkansas on November 24, 1989 (which broke a streak of 19 consecutive SWC home victories), they would not lose again in College Station until December 2, 1995, when his Aggies lost to Texas 16β6, although they did tie Baylor (20β20\) on October 20, 1990\. With Miami's 58\-game, nine\-season home winning streak ending in 1994, A\&M owned the longest active home winning streak in the nation for much of 1994 and 1995\. In the 1990s, A\&M lost only four times at Kyle Field. Slocum was named SWC Coach of the Year three times during his tenure as head coach. His "Wrecking Crew" defense led the SWC in four statistical categories from 1991 through 1993 and led the nation in total defense in 1991\.
Over 50 Texas A\&M players were drafted into the [NFL](/wiki/NFL "NFL") during Slocum's career as head coach.
Slocum inherited an Aggie football program that had just finished 7\-5 and had been slapped with severe NCAA sanctions for violations under Sherrill. He didn't take long to clean up the program. He was quoted in 2002 as saying:
{{blockquote\|I wouldn't trade winning another game or two for my reputation as a person. I've said from day one I'm going to do things the way I think they should be done. There were those who said, 'If you don't cheat, you're pretty naive. You can't win that way.' Well, we're going to find out. That's the way we're going to do it. I can walk away and look myself in the mirror and say, 'We did it the right way.'{{cite news\|last\=Justice \|first\=Richard \|title\=Legacy of tenure at A\&M is reform \|newspaper\=\[\[Houston Chronicle]] \|date\=December 3, 2002 \|url\=http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \|access\-date\=March 12, 2007 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509214936/http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \|archive\-date\=May 9, 2005 }}}}
After fourteen years as head coach, Slocum was forced to resign in 2002 following only the second non\-winning season of his career, and his only losing record in conference play. He immediately assumed a position as special adviser to Texas A\&M president [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates "Robert Gates").
In May 2012, Slocum was inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame "College Football Hall of Fame").[Former A\&M Coach R. C. Slocum Named To Hall Of Fame](http://www.kwtx.com/_254sports/home/headlines/Former_AM_Coach_R_C_Slocum_Named_To_Hall_Of_Fame_151556165.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20120906100725/http://www.kwtx.com/\_254sports/home/headlines/Former\_AM\_Coach\_R\_C\_Slocum\_Named\_To\_Hall\_Of\_Fame\_151556165\.html \|date\=September 6, 2012 }} kwtx.com Retrieved May 15, 2012
On April 19, 2019, Slocum was named interim athletic director for Texas A\&M after the sudden departure of [Scott Woodward](/wiki/Scott_Woodward_%28athletic_director%29 "Scott Woodward (athletic director)") to [LSU](/wiki/LSU "LSU"). Following [Ross Bjork](/wiki/Ross_Bjork "Ross Bjork")'s departure for the athletic director role at Ohio State in January 2024, Slocum again served as interim AD before the hiring of [Trev Alberts](/wiki/Trev_Alberts "Trev Alberts").
|
[
"### Texas A\\&M",
"In 1972, Slocum was hired as receivers coach under Emory Bellard at Texas A\\&M University. After one year of coaching the receivers, he was moved to defense to coach the defensive ends, and in 1976, he became linebackers coach. Bellard left A\\&M in 1978, moving on to Mississippi State and taking defensive coordinator [Melvin Robertson](/wiki/Melvin_Robertson \"Melvin Robertson\") with him. Former A\\&M offensive coordinator and new head coach [Tom Wilson](/wiki/Tom_Wilson_%28American_football%29 \"Tom Wilson (American football)\") chose Slocum as his defensive coordinator in 1979\\. After serving [USC](/wiki/USC_Trojans_football \"USC Trojans football\") as defensive coordinator in 1981, Slocum returned to A\\&M in 1982 as defensive coordinator under [Jackie Sherrill](/wiki/Jackie_Sherrill \"Jackie Sherrill\"). In 1985, Slocum was elevated to assistant head coach. Slocum substituted for Sherrill and served as acting head coach for A\\&M's 18β0 victory over TCU during the 1988 season which was Sherrill's last.",
"#### Head coach",
"[thumb\\|Slocum as head coach of the Texas A\\&M Aggies](/wiki/File:Slocum-rc_TAMU1.JPG \"Slocum-rc TAMU1.JPG\")\nIn December 1988, Sherrill was forced to resign, and Slocum was named his successor. During his 14 years as head coach, Slocum led the Aggies to a record of 123β47β2, making him the winningest coach in Texas A\\&M history. During his career, Slocum never had a losing season and won four conference championships, including the [Big 12](/wiki/Big_12 \"Big 12\") title in 1998 and two Big 12 South Championships in 1997 and 1998\\. Additionally, he led the Aggies to become the first school in [Southwest Conference](/wiki/Southwest_Conference \"Southwest Conference\") history to post three consecutive perfect conference seasons and actually went four consecutive seasons without a conference loss. Slocum reached 100 wins faster than any other active coach. He has the best winning percentage in SWC history, one spot ahead of the legendary coach [Darrell Royal](/wiki/Darrell_Royal \"Darrell Royal\") who is number 2\\.",
"Under his tenure, Slocum helped make A\\&M's [Kyle Field](/wiki/Kyle_Field \"Kyle Field\") one of the hardest places to play in the nation, only losing 12 home games in 14 years, going parts of seven seasons without a home loss. After a home loss to Arkansas on November 24, 1989 (which broke a streak of 19 consecutive SWC home victories), they would not lose again in College Station until December 2, 1995, when his Aggies lost to Texas 16β6, although they did tie Baylor (20β20\\) on October 20, 1990\\. With Miami's 58\\-game, nine\\-season home winning streak ending in 1994, A\\&M owned the longest active home winning streak in the nation for much of 1994 and 1995\\. In the 1990s, A\\&M lost only four times at Kyle Field. Slocum was named SWC Coach of the Year three times during his tenure as head coach. His \"Wrecking Crew\" defense led the SWC in four statistical categories from 1991 through 1993 and led the nation in total defense in 1991\\.",
"Over 50 Texas A\\&M players were drafted into the [NFL](/wiki/NFL \"NFL\") during Slocum's career as head coach.",
"Slocum inherited an Aggie football program that had just finished 7\\-5 and had been slapped with severe NCAA sanctions for violations under Sherrill. He didn't take long to clean up the program. He was quoted in 2002 as saying:",
"{{blockquote\\|I wouldn't trade winning another game or two for my reputation as a person. I've said from day one I'm going to do things the way I think they should be done. There were those who said, 'If you don't cheat, you're pretty naive. You can't win that way.' Well, we're going to find out. That's the way we're going to do it. I can walk away and look myself in the mirror and say, 'We did it the right way.'{{cite news\\|last\\=Justice \\|first\\=Richard \\|title\\=Legacy of tenure at A\\&M is reform \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Houston Chronicle]] \\|date\\=December 3, 2002 \\|url\\=http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \\|access\\-date\\=March 12, 2007 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050509214936/http://www.pngindians.com/news/2002/slocumfired.html \\|archive\\-date\\=May 9, 2005 }}}}",
"After fourteen years as head coach, Slocum was forced to resign in 2002 following only the second non\\-winning season of his career, and his only losing record in conference play. He immediately assumed a position as special adviser to Texas A\\&M president [Robert Gates](/wiki/Robert_Gates \"Robert Gates\").",
"In May 2012, Slocum was inducted into the [College Football Hall of Fame](/wiki/College_Football_Hall_of_Fame \"College Football Hall of Fame\").[Former A\\&M Coach R. C. Slocum Named To Hall Of Fame](http://www.kwtx.com/_254sports/home/headlines/Former_AM_Coach_R_C_Slocum_Named_To_Hall_Of_Fame_151556165.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20120906100725/http://www.kwtx.com/\\_254sports/home/headlines/Former\\_AM\\_Coach\\_R\\_C\\_Slocum\\_Named\\_To\\_Hall\\_Of\\_Fame\\_151556165\\.html \\|date\\=September 6, 2012 }} kwtx.com Retrieved May 15, 2012",
"On April 19, 2019, Slocum was named interim athletic director for Texas A\\&M after the sudden departure of [Scott Woodward](/wiki/Scott_Woodward_%28athletic_director%29 \"Scott Woodward (athletic director)\") to [LSU](/wiki/LSU \"LSU\"). Following [Ross Bjork](/wiki/Ross_Bjork \"Ross Bjork\")'s departure for the athletic director role at Ohio State in January 2024, Slocum again served as interim AD before the hiring of [Trev Alberts](/wiki/Trev_Alberts \"Trev Alberts\").",
""
] |
Heritage listing
----------------
As at 30 November 2001, the North Sydney Sewer Vent is an excellent representative example of the tall brick sewer ventilation shafts which were constructed around the turn of the century to facilitate the efficient functioning of the major outfall sewers. Its functional design is embellished by a successful application of architectural motifs, such as line and texture which lend the structure an element of formalism and classical detail including entasis. In addition, it displays high quality workmanship in the brickwork.
By virtue of its scale and form, it has landmark value within the [Cremorne](/wiki/Cremorne%2C_New_South_Wales "Cremorne, New South Wales") / [Crows Nest](/wiki/Crows_Nest%2C_New_South_Wales "Crows Nest, New South Wales") area and acts as a navigational beacon for motorists using the Bradfield Highway. It has the potential to invoke a sense of the past as its style and design contrast dramatically with the modern styles of architecture endemic to the North Sydney streetscape. It is currently serves the NSOOS in the manner in which it was originally designed.
The North Sydney Sewer Vent was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register "New South Wales State Heritage Register") on 15 November 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.
**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**
The ventshaft is an important and essential part of the original North Sydney sewerage system, which still remains. It played a large role in dissipating odorous gases from the system and away from residential/street levels.
**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**
The ventshaft is an excellent example of brick work with ornate sections at and around the base and entasis to the shaft. It is a landmark on the North Sydney expressway and adds to the landscape of the adjacent park, [St Leonards Park](/wiki/St_Leonards_Park "St Leonards Park") and [North Sydney Oval](/wiki/North_Sydney_Oval "North Sydney Oval").
**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**
The ventshaft is significant in the development of the sewerage system itself. Without the ventshaft gases built up within the system were extremely dangerous to the community and the workers and is therefore likely to be held in high regard by the community for its function. It has been identified by the [National Trust of Australia](/wiki/National_Trust_of_Australia "National Trust of Australia") (NSW).
**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
Ventshafts and their development show the progress made in understanding how and why gases formed in the sewerage system. They also show how the different types of ventshafts were employed to dissipate odorous gases.
**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**
Rare in the SWC system and in NSW as one of a small number of ventshafts of its type limited to the late nineteenth century period.
**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**
An excellent representation of a tall brick ventilation constructed around the turn of the century. Unique in its brickwork.
|
[
"Heritage listing\n----------------",
"As at 30 November 2001, the North Sydney Sewer Vent is an excellent representative example of the tall brick sewer ventilation shafts which were constructed around the turn of the century to facilitate the efficient functioning of the major outfall sewers. Its functional design is embellished by a successful application of architectural motifs, such as line and texture which lend the structure an element of formalism and classical detail including entasis. In addition, it displays high quality workmanship in the brickwork.",
"By virtue of its scale and form, it has landmark value within the [Cremorne](/wiki/Cremorne%2C_New_South_Wales \"Cremorne, New South Wales\") / [Crows Nest](/wiki/Crows_Nest%2C_New_South_Wales \"Crows Nest, New South Wales\") area and acts as a navigational beacon for motorists using the Bradfield Highway. It has the potential to invoke a sense of the past as its style and design contrast dramatically with the modern styles of architecture endemic to the North Sydney streetscape. It is currently serves the NSOOS in the manner in which it was originally designed.",
"The North Sydney Sewer Vent was listed on the [New South Wales State Heritage Register](/wiki/New_South_Wales_State_Heritage_Register \"New South Wales State Heritage Register\") on 15 November 2002 having satisfied the following criteria.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales.**",
"The ventshaft is an important and essential part of the original North Sydney sewerage system, which still remains. It played a large role in dissipating odorous gases from the system and away from residential/street levels.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales.**",
"The ventshaft is an excellent example of brick work with ornate sections at and around the base and entasis to the shaft. It is a landmark on the North Sydney expressway and adds to the landscape of the adjacent park, [St Leonards Park](/wiki/St_Leonards_Park \"St Leonards Park\") and [North Sydney Oval](/wiki/North_Sydney_Oval \"North Sydney Oval\").",
"**The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.**",
"The ventshaft is significant in the development of the sewerage system itself. Without the ventshaft gases built up within the system were extremely dangerous to the community and the workers and is therefore likely to be held in high regard by the community for its function. It has been identified by the [National Trust of Australia](/wiki/National_Trust_of_Australia \"National Trust of Australia\") (NSW).",
"**The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"Ventshafts and their development show the progress made in understanding how and why gases formed in the sewerage system. They also show how the different types of ventshafts were employed to dissipate odorous gases.",
"**The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales.**",
"Rare in the SWC system and in NSW as one of a small number of ventshafts of its type limited to the late nineteenth century period.",
"**The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales.**",
"An excellent representation of a tall brick ventilation constructed around the turn of the century. Unique in its brickwork.",
""
] |
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