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Biography and career
--------------------
### Early life
Jože Pavlič Damijan was born in Gornja Randgona in 1967, to Jože, a [construction foreman](/wiki/Construction_foreman "Construction foreman"), and Marija, a cook. According to Damijan, his family was working class and politically anti\-communist. The family was largely deprived of land holdings during the Yugoslav post\-WWII nationalisation and collectivisation process, and discussions about the faults of communism were a constant in the family.{{cite web\|title\=Jože P. Damijan, morebitni novi predsednik vlade\|url\=https://www.mladina.si/202015/joze\-p\-damijan\-morebitni\-novi\-predsednik\-vlade/\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Mladina.si}}
Damijan attended elementary school in the nearby town of Lomanoše and lived with his grandparents during his early childhood until his mother could build her own house. From 1982 to 1986, Damijan attended high school in [Murska Sobota](/wiki/Murska_Sobota "Murska Sobota"). He graduated at the Ljubljana School of Economics in 1992\.{{cite web\|title\=Svet24\.si \- Profesor ekonomije, ki bi rad Slovenijo rešil pred Janšo\|url\=https://novice.svet24\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f81de3b98b86/profesor\-ekonomije\-ki\-bi\-rad\-slovenijo\-resil\-pred\-janso\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Svet24\.si \- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\|language\=sl}}
### Academic career
In 1992, Damijan became a post\-graduate researcher at the Ljubljana School of Economics, later an international economics [research assistant](/wiki/Research_assistant "Research assistant"), and a [research fellow](/wiki/Research_fellow "Research fellow") at the Institute for Economic Research. He obtained a master's degree in 1995 with the [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation "Dissertation") *An Analysis of Economic Characteristics of Small Countries in World Markets*, which was published as a book the following year. He obtained a PhD in 1998, completing his doctoral studies at the [University of Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel "University of Kiel") in Germany. His doctoral thesis was titled *The Influence of Economies of Scale on Foreign Market Specialisation*. In 2005, he became an associate professor of international economics.
Damijan is a visiting professor at the [University of Leuven](/wiki/Katholieke_Universiteit_Leuven "Katholieke Universiteit Leuven"), Belgium. Damijan is one of the most frequently cited Slovenian academics.
### Political career
During the early\-to\-mid 2000s, Damijan rose to public prominence as one of the so\-called *young economists*, a group of Slovenian economists who advocated privatisation, liberalisation, and a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax"). The *young economists* came to be favoured for political appointments by right\-of\-centre political parties of the era. Damijan has since renounced his earlier [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism "Neoliberalism") economic beliefs.
In 2018, Damijan was put forward as a prospective candidate for the position of governor of the [Bank of Slovenia](/wiki/Bank_of_Slovenia "Bank of Slovenia"), with the backing of left\-of\-centre political parties.
Over the course of his career, Damijan has served as an economic advisor to various ministries of the Slovenian Government, and the National Assembly. He has also worked on international research and consultancy projects funded by the European Commission, World Bank, the United Nations, and OECD.
#### First Janša government and minister without portfolio
During the [First Janša Government (2004–2008\)](/wiki/8th_Government_of_Slovenia "8th Government of Slovenia"), Damijan served as the head of the governmental Board of Reforms, and as the vice\-president of the Council of Economic Advisors to the Prime Minister, followed by a stint as [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio "Minister without portfolio"), responsible for development strategy.
In 2005, in his capacity as the head of the Board of Reforms, Damijan tabled a proposal for [flat tax rates](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax") and an increase of the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age "Retirement age") to age 70\. Damijan also envisaged the privatisation of [state\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise "State-owned enterprise"), and the "withdrawal of the state from the economy". The flat tax proposal encompassed a flat income tax, flat value added tax, and flat corporate income tax. Damijan advocated the introduction of flat tax rates to reduce the cost of labour, which was, according to Damijan, far to high given Slovenia's level of productivity, leading to detrimental effects on employment.{{cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Damijan: Reforme zdaj!\|url\=https://www.24ur.com/novice/gospodarstvo/damijan\-reforme\-zdaj.html\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=www.24ur.com}}
Damijan resigned from his ministerial post in March 2006 \- only 3 months after assuming the position \- citing personal reasons.{{cite web\|last\=Uredništvo\|date\=2006\-03\-21\|title\=Damijan nepreklicno odstopil\|url\=https://old.delo.si/novice/slovenija/damijan\-nepreklicno\-odstopil.html\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=old.delo.si\|language\=sl\-si}} Damijan later revealed that he resigned because he grew disillusioned by what he saw as a [kleptocratic](/wiki/Kleptocracy "Kleptocracy") administration, using their official functions as a "smokescreen" for personal enrichment with the aim of "never having to work again in their lives".
#### Prospective PM candidate
In October 2020, Damijan presented the representatives of parliamentary opposition parties with an initiative drafted by himself (and a number of prominent members of the Slovene civil society, including [Spomenka Hribar](/wiki/Spomenka_Hribar "Spomenka Hribar"), [Pavel Gantar](/wiki/Pavel_Gantar "Pavel Gantar"), [Boris A. Novak](/wiki/Boris_A._Novak "Boris A. Novak"), and [Slavoj Žižek](/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek "Slavoj Žižek")). The initiative called on political actors to intervene to halt what they see as an irrevocable drift towards [illiberal democracy](/wiki/Illiberal_democracy "Illiberal democracy") underway under [PM](/wiki/Prime_minister "Prime minister") [Janša's](/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a "Janez Janša") stewardship of the state. All four opposition party leaders endorsed the initiative.{{cite web\|title\=Koalicija ustavnega loka\|url\=https://www.mladina.si/201844/koalicija\-ustavnega\-loka/\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Mladina.si}} The initiative was entitled *The Coalition of the Constitutional Arch*, drawing its name from the eponymous [the post\-WWII compact in Italian politics](/wiki/Constitutional_Arch "Constitutional Arch") that ostracised neo\-fascist political forces from government. All ruling political parties remained committed to the principal for the duration of the [First Italian Republic](/wiki/First_Italian_Republic "First Italian Republic"), ending when [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi "Silvio Berlusconi") entered into a governing coalition with a neo\-fascist political party in 1994\.{{cite web\|title\=Nerazgledani politiki. Ko minister ne ve, kaj je ustavni lok.\|url\=https://necenzurirano.si/clanek/aktualno/nerazgledani\-politiki\-ko\-minister\-ne\-ve\-kaj\-je\-ustavni\-lok\-817481\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Necenzurirano.si\|language\=sl}}
During deliberations on who could be the prospective PM candidate for the initiative to lend legitimacy to the political project,{{cite web\|title\=Svet24\.si \- Jože P. Damijan: "Nisem se ponujal, a sem se pripravljen izpostaviti"\|url\=https://novice.svet24\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f7fff2427303/joze\-p\-damijan\-nisem\-se\-ponujal\-a\-sem\-se\-pripravljen\-izpostaviti\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Svet24\.si \- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\|language\=sl}} Damijan, as the principal signatory and presenter of the initiative, was asked whether he would be willing to take on the role of a consensus PM candidate. Damijan acquiesced to the request and become the favourite. Public opinion polling of the Slovenian public has revealed that a majority of those polled support the initiative, with Damijan enjoying significant public support as alternative PM.{{cite web\|title\=Jože P. Damijan najbolj vroč kandidat za mandatarja\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042940777\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Dnevnik}}
### Private sector work
Damijan, along with his wife, is a partner in the [professional services](/wiki/Professional_services "Professional services") company [Grant Thornton Slovenia](/wiki/Grant_Thornton_International "Grant Thornton International"),{{cite web\|title\=Jože Damijan\|url\=https://www.grantthornton.si/en/experts/jože\-damijan\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Grant Thornton EN\|language\=en\-US}} and has, in this capacity, worked for a number of state companies and institutions.
|
[
"Biography and career\n--------------------",
"### Early life",
"Jože Pavlič Damijan was born in Gornja Randgona in 1967, to Jože, a [construction foreman](/wiki/Construction_foreman \"Construction foreman\"), and Marija, a cook. According to Damijan, his family was working class and politically anti\\-communist. The family was largely deprived of land holdings during the Yugoslav post\\-WWII nationalisation and collectivisation process, and discussions about the faults of communism were a constant in the family.{{cite web\\|title\\=Jože P. Damijan, morebitni novi predsednik vlade\\|url\\=https://www.mladina.si/202015/joze\\-p\\-damijan\\-morebitni\\-novi\\-predsednik\\-vlade/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Mladina.si}}",
"Damijan attended elementary school in the nearby town of Lomanoše and lived with his grandparents during his early childhood until his mother could build her own house. From 1982 to 1986, Damijan attended high school in [Murska Sobota](/wiki/Murska_Sobota \"Murska Sobota\"). He graduated at the Ljubljana School of Economics in 1992\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Profesor ekonomije, ki bi rad Slovenijo rešil pred Janšo\\|url\\=https://novice.svet24\\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f81de3b98b86/profesor\\-ekonomije\\-ki\\-bi\\-rad\\-slovenijo\\-resil\\-pred\\-janso\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\\|language\\=sl}}",
"### Academic career",
"In 1992, Damijan became a post\\-graduate researcher at the Ljubljana School of Economics, later an international economics [research assistant](/wiki/Research_assistant \"Research assistant\"), and a [research fellow](/wiki/Research_fellow \"Research fellow\") at the Institute for Economic Research. He obtained a master's degree in 1995 with the [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation \"Dissertation\") *An Analysis of Economic Characteristics of Small Countries in World Markets*, which was published as a book the following year. He obtained a PhD in 1998, completing his doctoral studies at the [University of Kiel](/wiki/University_of_Kiel \"University of Kiel\") in Germany. His doctoral thesis was titled *The Influence of Economies of Scale on Foreign Market Specialisation*. In 2005, he became an associate professor of international economics.",
"Damijan is a visiting professor at the [University of Leuven](/wiki/Katholieke_Universiteit_Leuven \"Katholieke Universiteit Leuven\"), Belgium. Damijan is one of the most frequently cited Slovenian academics.",
"### Political career",
"During the early\\-to\\-mid 2000s, Damijan rose to public prominence as one of the so\\-called *young economists*, a group of Slovenian economists who advocated privatisation, liberalisation, and a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\"). The *young economists* came to be favoured for political appointments by right\\-of\\-centre political parties of the era. Damijan has since renounced his earlier [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism \"Neoliberalism\") economic beliefs.",
"In 2018, Damijan was put forward as a prospective candidate for the position of governor of the [Bank of Slovenia](/wiki/Bank_of_Slovenia \"Bank of Slovenia\"), with the backing of left\\-of\\-centre political parties.",
"Over the course of his career, Damijan has served as an economic advisor to various ministries of the Slovenian Government, and the National Assembly. He has also worked on international research and consultancy projects funded by the European Commission, World Bank, the United Nations, and OECD.",
"#### First Janša government and minister without portfolio",
"During the [First Janša Government (2004–2008\\)](/wiki/8th_Government_of_Slovenia \"8th Government of Slovenia\"), Damijan served as the head of the governmental Board of Reforms, and as the vice\\-president of the Council of Economic Advisors to the Prime Minister, followed by a stint as [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio \"Minister without portfolio\"), responsible for development strategy.",
"In 2005, in his capacity as the head of the Board of Reforms, Damijan tabled a proposal for [flat tax rates](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\") and an increase of the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age \"Retirement age\") to age 70\\. Damijan also envisaged the privatisation of [state\\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise \"State-owned enterprise\"), and the \"withdrawal of the state from the economy\". The flat tax proposal encompassed a flat income tax, flat value added tax, and flat corporate income tax. Damijan advocated the introduction of flat tax rates to reduce the cost of labour, which was, according to Damijan, far to high given Slovenia's level of productivity, leading to detrimental effects on employment.{{cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Damijan: Reforme zdaj!\\|url\\=https://www.24ur.com/novice/gospodarstvo/damijan\\-reforme\\-zdaj.html\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=www.24ur.com}}",
"Damijan resigned from his ministerial post in March 2006 \\- only 3 months after assuming the position \\- citing personal reasons.{{cite web\\|last\\=Uredništvo\\|date\\=2006\\-03\\-21\\|title\\=Damijan nepreklicno odstopil\\|url\\=https://old.delo.si/novice/slovenija/damijan\\-nepreklicno\\-odstopil.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=old.delo.si\\|language\\=sl\\-si}} Damijan later revealed that he resigned because he grew disillusioned by what he saw as a [kleptocratic](/wiki/Kleptocracy \"Kleptocracy\") administration, using their official functions as a \"smokescreen\" for personal enrichment with the aim of \"never having to work again in their lives\".",
"#### Prospective PM candidate",
"In October 2020, Damijan presented the representatives of parliamentary opposition parties with an initiative drafted by himself (and a number of prominent members of the Slovene civil society, including [Spomenka Hribar](/wiki/Spomenka_Hribar \"Spomenka Hribar\"), [Pavel Gantar](/wiki/Pavel_Gantar \"Pavel Gantar\"), [Boris A. Novak](/wiki/Boris_A._Novak \"Boris A. Novak\"), and [Slavoj Žižek](/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek \"Slavoj Žižek\")). The initiative called on political actors to intervene to halt what they see as an irrevocable drift towards [illiberal democracy](/wiki/Illiberal_democracy \"Illiberal democracy\") underway under [PM](/wiki/Prime_minister \"Prime minister\") [Janša's](/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a \"Janez Janša\") stewardship of the state. All four opposition party leaders endorsed the initiative.{{cite web\\|title\\=Koalicija ustavnega loka\\|url\\=https://www.mladina.si/201844/koalicija\\-ustavnega\\-loka/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Mladina.si}} The initiative was entitled *The Coalition of the Constitutional Arch*, drawing its name from the eponymous [the post\\-WWII compact in Italian politics](/wiki/Constitutional_Arch \"Constitutional Arch\") that ostracised neo\\-fascist political forces from government. All ruling political parties remained committed to the principal for the duration of the [First Italian Republic](/wiki/First_Italian_Republic \"First Italian Republic\"), ending when [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi \"Silvio Berlusconi\") entered into a governing coalition with a neo\\-fascist political party in 1994\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nerazgledani politiki. Ko minister ne ve, kaj je ustavni lok.\\|url\\=https://necenzurirano.si/clanek/aktualno/nerazgledani\\-politiki\\-ko\\-minister\\-ne\\-ve\\-kaj\\-je\\-ustavni\\-lok\\-817481\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Necenzurirano.si\\|language\\=sl}}",
"During deliberations on who could be the prospective PM candidate for the initiative to lend legitimacy to the political project,{{cite web\\|title\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Jože P. Damijan: \"Nisem se ponujal, a sem se pripravljen izpostaviti\"\\|url\\=https://novice.svet24\\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f7fff2427303/joze\\-p\\-damijan\\-nisem\\-se\\-ponujal\\-a\\-sem\\-se\\-pripravljen\\-izpostaviti\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\\|language\\=sl}} Damijan, as the principal signatory and presenter of the initiative, was asked whether he would be willing to take on the role of a consensus PM candidate. Damijan acquiesced to the request and become the favourite. Public opinion polling of the Slovenian public has revealed that a majority of those polled support the initiative, with Damijan enjoying significant public support as alternative PM.{{cite web\\|title\\=Jože P. Damijan najbolj vroč kandidat za mandatarja\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042940777\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Dnevnik}}",
"### Private sector work",
"Damijan, along with his wife, is a partner in the [professional services](/wiki/Professional_services \"Professional services\") company [Grant Thornton Slovenia](/wiki/Grant_Thornton_International \"Grant Thornton International\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Jože Damijan\\|url\\=https://www.grantthornton.si/en/experts/jože\\-damijan\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Grant Thornton EN\\|language\\=en\\-US}} and has, in this capacity, worked for a number of state companies and institutions.",
""
] |
### Political career
During the early\-to\-mid 2000s, Damijan rose to public prominence as one of the so\-called *young economists*, a group of Slovenian economists who advocated privatisation, liberalisation, and a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax"). The *young economists* came to be favoured for political appointments by right\-of\-centre political parties of the era. Damijan has since renounced his earlier [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism "Neoliberalism") economic beliefs.
In 2018, Damijan was put forward as a prospective candidate for the position of governor of the [Bank of Slovenia](/wiki/Bank_of_Slovenia "Bank of Slovenia"), with the backing of left\-of\-centre political parties.
Over the course of his career, Damijan has served as an economic advisor to various ministries of the Slovenian Government, and the National Assembly. He has also worked on international research and consultancy projects funded by the European Commission, World Bank, the United Nations, and OECD.
#### First Janša government and minister without portfolio
During the [First Janša Government (2004–2008\)](/wiki/8th_Government_of_Slovenia "8th Government of Slovenia"), Damijan served as the head of the governmental Board of Reforms, and as the vice\-president of the Council of Economic Advisors to the Prime Minister, followed by a stint as [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio "Minister without portfolio"), responsible for development strategy.
In 2005, in his capacity as the head of the Board of Reforms, Damijan tabled a proposal for [flat tax rates](/wiki/Flat_tax "Flat tax") and an increase of the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age "Retirement age") to age 70\. Damijan also envisaged the privatisation of [state\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise "State-owned enterprise"), and the "withdrawal of the state from the economy". The flat tax proposal encompassed a flat income tax, flat value added tax, and flat corporate income tax. Damijan advocated the introduction of flat tax rates to reduce the cost of labour, which was, according to Damijan, far to high given Slovenia's level of productivity, leading to detrimental effects on employment.{{cite web\|last\=\|first\=\|date\=\|title\=Damijan: Reforme zdaj!\|url\=https://www.24ur.com/novice/gospodarstvo/damijan\-reforme\-zdaj.html\|archive\-url\=\|archive\-date\=\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=www.24ur.com}}
Damijan resigned from his ministerial post in March 2006 \- only 3 months after assuming the position \- citing personal reasons.{{cite web\|last\=Uredništvo\|date\=2006\-03\-21\|title\=Damijan nepreklicno odstopil\|url\=https://old.delo.si/novice/slovenija/damijan\-nepreklicno\-odstopil.html\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=old.delo.si\|language\=sl\-si}} Damijan later revealed that he resigned because he grew disillusioned by what he saw as a [kleptocratic](/wiki/Kleptocracy "Kleptocracy") administration, using their official functions as a "smokescreen" for personal enrichment with the aim of "never having to work again in their lives".
#### Prospective PM candidate
In October 2020, Damijan presented the representatives of parliamentary opposition parties with an initiative drafted by himself (and a number of prominent members of the Slovene civil society, including [Spomenka Hribar](/wiki/Spomenka_Hribar "Spomenka Hribar"), [Pavel Gantar](/wiki/Pavel_Gantar "Pavel Gantar"), [Boris A. Novak](/wiki/Boris_A._Novak "Boris A. Novak"), and [Slavoj Žižek](/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek "Slavoj Žižek")). The initiative called on political actors to intervene to halt what they see as an irrevocable drift towards [illiberal democracy](/wiki/Illiberal_democracy "Illiberal democracy") underway under [PM](/wiki/Prime_minister "Prime minister") [Janša's](/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a "Janez Janša") stewardship of the state. All four opposition party leaders endorsed the initiative.{{cite web\|title\=Koalicija ustavnega loka\|url\=https://www.mladina.si/201844/koalicija\-ustavnega\-loka/\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Mladina.si}} The initiative was entitled *The Coalition of the Constitutional Arch*, drawing its name from the eponymous [the post\-WWII compact in Italian politics](/wiki/Constitutional_Arch "Constitutional Arch") that ostracised neo\-fascist political forces from government. All ruling political parties remained committed to the principal for the duration of the [First Italian Republic](/wiki/First_Italian_Republic "First Italian Republic"), ending when [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi "Silvio Berlusconi") entered into a governing coalition with a neo\-fascist political party in 1994\.{{cite web\|title\=Nerazgledani politiki. Ko minister ne ve, kaj je ustavni lok.\|url\=https://necenzurirano.si/clanek/aktualno/nerazgledani\-politiki\-ko\-minister\-ne\-ve\-kaj\-je\-ustavni\-lok\-817481\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Necenzurirano.si\|language\=sl}}
During deliberations on who could be the prospective PM candidate for the initiative to lend legitimacy to the political project,{{cite web\|title\=Svet24\.si \- Jože P. Damijan: "Nisem se ponujal, a sem se pripravljen izpostaviti"\|url\=https://novice.svet24\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f7fff2427303/joze\-p\-damijan\-nisem\-se\-ponujal\-a\-sem\-se\-pripravljen\-izpostaviti\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Svet24\.si \- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\|language\=sl}} Damijan, as the principal signatory and presenter of the initiative, was asked whether he would be willing to take on the role of a consensus PM candidate. Damijan acquiesced to the request and become the favourite. Public opinion polling of the Slovenian public has revealed that a majority of those polled support the initiative, with Damijan enjoying significant public support as alternative PM.{{cite web\|title\=Jože P. Damijan najbolj vroč kandidat za mandatarja\|url\=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042940777\|access\-date\=2020\-11\-17\|website\=Dnevnik}}
|
[
"### Political career",
"During the early\\-to\\-mid 2000s, Damijan rose to public prominence as one of the so\\-called *young economists*, a group of Slovenian economists who advocated privatisation, liberalisation, and a [flat tax](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\"). The *young economists* came to be favoured for political appointments by right\\-of\\-centre political parties of the era. Damijan has since renounced his earlier [neoliberal](/wiki/Neoliberalism \"Neoliberalism\") economic beliefs.",
"In 2018, Damijan was put forward as a prospective candidate for the position of governor of the [Bank of Slovenia](/wiki/Bank_of_Slovenia \"Bank of Slovenia\"), with the backing of left\\-of\\-centre political parties.",
"Over the course of his career, Damijan has served as an economic advisor to various ministries of the Slovenian Government, and the National Assembly. He has also worked on international research and consultancy projects funded by the European Commission, World Bank, the United Nations, and OECD.",
"#### First Janša government and minister without portfolio",
"During the [First Janša Government (2004–2008\\)](/wiki/8th_Government_of_Slovenia \"8th Government of Slovenia\"), Damijan served as the head of the governmental Board of Reforms, and as the vice\\-president of the Council of Economic Advisors to the Prime Minister, followed by a stint as [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio \"Minister without portfolio\"), responsible for development strategy.",
"In 2005, in his capacity as the head of the Board of Reforms, Damijan tabled a proposal for [flat tax rates](/wiki/Flat_tax \"Flat tax\") and an increase of the [retirement age](/wiki/Retirement_age \"Retirement age\") to age 70\\. Damijan also envisaged the privatisation of [state\\-owned enterprises](/wiki/State-owned_enterprise \"State-owned enterprise\"), and the \"withdrawal of the state from the economy\". The flat tax proposal encompassed a flat income tax, flat value added tax, and flat corporate income tax. Damijan advocated the introduction of flat tax rates to reduce the cost of labour, which was, according to Damijan, far to high given Slovenia's level of productivity, leading to detrimental effects on employment.{{cite web\\|last\\=\\|first\\=\\|date\\=\\|title\\=Damijan: Reforme zdaj!\\|url\\=https://www.24ur.com/novice/gospodarstvo/damijan\\-reforme\\-zdaj.html\\|archive\\-url\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=www.24ur.com}}",
"Damijan resigned from his ministerial post in March 2006 \\- only 3 months after assuming the position \\- citing personal reasons.{{cite web\\|last\\=Uredništvo\\|date\\=2006\\-03\\-21\\|title\\=Damijan nepreklicno odstopil\\|url\\=https://old.delo.si/novice/slovenija/damijan\\-nepreklicno\\-odstopil.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=old.delo.si\\|language\\=sl\\-si}} Damijan later revealed that he resigned because he grew disillusioned by what he saw as a [kleptocratic](/wiki/Kleptocracy \"Kleptocracy\") administration, using their official functions as a \"smokescreen\" for personal enrichment with the aim of \"never having to work again in their lives\".",
"#### Prospective PM candidate",
"In October 2020, Damijan presented the representatives of parliamentary opposition parties with an initiative drafted by himself (and a number of prominent members of the Slovene civil society, including [Spomenka Hribar](/wiki/Spomenka_Hribar \"Spomenka Hribar\"), [Pavel Gantar](/wiki/Pavel_Gantar \"Pavel Gantar\"), [Boris A. Novak](/wiki/Boris_A._Novak \"Boris A. Novak\"), and [Slavoj Žižek](/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek \"Slavoj Žižek\")). The initiative called on political actors to intervene to halt what they see as an irrevocable drift towards [illiberal democracy](/wiki/Illiberal_democracy \"Illiberal democracy\") underway under [PM](/wiki/Prime_minister \"Prime minister\") [Janša's](/wiki/Janez_Jan%C5%A1a \"Janez Janša\") stewardship of the state. All four opposition party leaders endorsed the initiative.{{cite web\\|title\\=Koalicija ustavnega loka\\|url\\=https://www.mladina.si/201844/koalicija\\-ustavnega\\-loka/\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Mladina.si}} The initiative was entitled *The Coalition of the Constitutional Arch*, drawing its name from the eponymous [the post\\-WWII compact in Italian politics](/wiki/Constitutional_Arch \"Constitutional Arch\") that ostracised neo\\-fascist political forces from government. All ruling political parties remained committed to the principal for the duration of the [First Italian Republic](/wiki/First_Italian_Republic \"First Italian Republic\"), ending when [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi \"Silvio Berlusconi\") entered into a governing coalition with a neo\\-fascist political party in 1994\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Nerazgledani politiki. Ko minister ne ve, kaj je ustavni lok.\\|url\\=https://necenzurirano.si/clanek/aktualno/nerazgledani\\-politiki\\-ko\\-minister\\-ne\\-ve\\-kaj\\-je\\-ustavni\\-lok\\-817481\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Necenzurirano.si\\|language\\=sl}}",
"During deliberations on who could be the prospective PM candidate for the initiative to lend legitimacy to the political project,{{cite web\\|title\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Jože P. Damijan: \"Nisem se ponujal, a sem se pripravljen izpostaviti\"\\|url\\=https://novice.svet24\\.si/clanek/novice/slovenija/5f7fff2427303/joze\\-p\\-damijan\\-nisem\\-se\\-ponujal\\-a\\-sem\\-se\\-pripravljen\\-izpostaviti\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Svet24\\.si \\- Vsa resnica na enem mestu\\|language\\=sl}} Damijan, as the principal signatory and presenter of the initiative, was asked whether he would be willing to take on the role of a consensus PM candidate. Damijan acquiesced to the request and become the favourite. Public opinion polling of the Slovenian public has revealed that a majority of those polled support the initiative, with Damijan enjoying significant public support as alternative PM.{{cite web\\|title\\=Jože P. Damijan najbolj vroč kandidat za mandatarja\\|url\\=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042940777\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-17\\|website\\=Dnevnik}}",
""
] |
WAPI
----
Shortly after assuming his new role as editor, Davis, however reluctantly, became one of the South's radio pioneers.
His involvement in this emerging medium followed after [Birmingham News](/wiki/Birmingham_News "Birmingham News") publisher Victor Hanson offered API $2,500 to establish a radio station to provide educational information to farmers and other API audiences. Recalling the incident more than 40 years later to then\-Auburn University president [Ralph Brown Draughon](/wiki/Ralph_Brown_Draughon "Ralph Brown Draughon"), Davis viewed the donation as practically meaningless, because it scarcely was enough to purchase the equipment to broadcast the signal, let alone to operate the station on a daily basis. Another limiting factor was the scarce number of radio receivers available in Alabama at the time.
Unfortunately for Davis, the API administration, as well as his immediate supervisor, then\-Alabama Extension Director [Luther Duncan](/wiki/Luther_Duncan "Luther Duncan"), fearing the bad publicity that would follow if they refused the donation, saw things differently. Davis, as the institution's editor and publicist, was assigned the task of securing funds and personnel to operate the new station.
It marked the beginning of a long, and as Davis recounted late in life, largely frustrating, association with this new medium. Simply acquiring an engineer who knew anything about radio was challenging enough.
As Davis recalled, WMAV was installed on the evening of February 22, 1923\. By then, the Extension Service already had spent far beyond the initial $2,500 donation.
"We pecked and struggled as best we could with the equipment that was almost obsolete by the time it was installed," he recalled.Davis, P.O., "Radio Station WAPI; a history as told in a letter to Dr. Ralph B. Draughon from Mr. P. O. Davis, November 25, 1961," Auburn University Special Collections.
[right\|thumb\|220px\|Davis worked with Alabama Extension agents throughout the state to organize radio listening sessions with farmers and their families. Extension Home Demonstration Agent Thalia Bell operates a radio at the Sandy Creek\-East View Club, Tallapoosa County, Feb. 4, 1926\.After](/wiki/Image:WAPI-radio.jpg "WAPI-radio.jpg") acquiring entirely new equipment, Davis moved the facility to Comer Hall and acquired new call letters: WAPI, which are still carried by the station today. Davis also was instrumental in working with agents to organize radio listening parties for audiences throughout the state — a practice that would foreshadow [videoconferencing](/wiki/Videoconferencing "Videoconferencing") techniques common today.{{sfn\|Yeager\|Stevenson\|1999\|pp\=400\-01}}
After repeated unsuccessful attempts to affiliate with a national network — NBC or CBS — Davis decided to move the station to Birmingham after securing a pledge from city officials to provide half of the annual operating costs, totaling approximately $20,000\.
As an additional cost\-cutting measure, Davis also negotiated an arrangement with the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama "University of Alabama") and Alabama College at Montevallo (now [University of Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo "University of Montevallo")) to operate the station in partnership with API.
The arrangement with Birmingham and the other two institutions worked reasonably well, Davis recalls, until the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") in 1929, after which the cash\-strapped city was forced to renege on the deal. This critical disruption in income forced Davis to lease the station — a "long and painful effort," as he recalled.
Even so, Davis did not find the effort entirely unsatisfying. WAPI not only provided the three institutions with a broadcast presence but also ensured a "nice annual return on their investments" from about 1922 to 1961\.
"Some day, I hope a competent historian will dig up all of the facts and write much more in detail than I have about WAPI — a comprehensive history," Davis stated in the Draughon letter. "I believe that it would be a story well worth writing and reading if done accurately and intelligently."
|
[
"WAPI\n----",
"Shortly after assuming his new role as editor, Davis, however reluctantly, became one of the South's radio pioneers.",
"His involvement in this emerging medium followed after [Birmingham News](/wiki/Birmingham_News \"Birmingham News\") publisher Victor Hanson offered API $2,500 to establish a radio station to provide educational information to farmers and other API audiences. Recalling the incident more than 40 years later to then\\-Auburn University president [Ralph Brown Draughon](/wiki/Ralph_Brown_Draughon \"Ralph Brown Draughon\"), Davis viewed the donation as practically meaningless, because it scarcely was enough to purchase the equipment to broadcast the signal, let alone to operate the station on a daily basis. Another limiting factor was the scarce number of radio receivers available in Alabama at the time.",
"Unfortunately for Davis, the API administration, as well as his immediate supervisor, then\\-Alabama Extension Director [Luther Duncan](/wiki/Luther_Duncan \"Luther Duncan\"), fearing the bad publicity that would follow if they refused the donation, saw things differently. Davis, as the institution's editor and publicist, was assigned the task of securing funds and personnel to operate the new station.",
"It marked the beginning of a long, and as Davis recounted late in life, largely frustrating, association with this new medium. Simply acquiring an engineer who knew anything about radio was challenging enough.",
"As Davis recalled, WMAV was installed on the evening of February 22, 1923\\. By then, the Extension Service already had spent far beyond the initial $2,500 donation.",
"\"We pecked and struggled as best we could with the equipment that was almost obsolete by the time it was installed,\" he recalled.Davis, P.O., \"Radio Station WAPI; a history as told in a letter to Dr. Ralph B. Draughon from Mr. P. O. Davis, November 25, 1961,\" Auburn University Special Collections.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|220px\\|Davis worked with Alabama Extension agents throughout the state to organize radio listening sessions with farmers and their families. Extension Home Demonstration Agent Thalia Bell operates a radio at the Sandy Creek\\-East View Club, Tallapoosa County, Feb. 4, 1926\\.After](/wiki/Image:WAPI-radio.jpg \"WAPI-radio.jpg\") acquiring entirely new equipment, Davis moved the facility to Comer Hall and acquired new call letters: WAPI, which are still carried by the station today. Davis also was instrumental in working with agents to organize radio listening parties for audiences throughout the state — a practice that would foreshadow [videoconferencing](/wiki/Videoconferencing \"Videoconferencing\") techniques common today.{{sfn\\|Yeager\\|Stevenson\\|1999\\|pp\\=400\\-01}}",
"After repeated unsuccessful attempts to affiliate with a national network — NBC or CBS — Davis decided to move the station to Birmingham after securing a pledge from city officials to provide half of the annual operating costs, totaling approximately $20,000\\.",
"As an additional cost\\-cutting measure, Davis also negotiated an arrangement with the [University of Alabama](/wiki/University_of_Alabama \"University of Alabama\") and Alabama College at Montevallo (now [University of Montevallo](/wiki/University_of_Montevallo \"University of Montevallo\")) to operate the station in partnership with API.",
"The arrangement with Birmingham and the other two institutions worked reasonably well, Davis recalls, until the onset of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") in 1929, after which the cash\\-strapped city was forced to renege on the deal. This critical disruption in income forced Davis to lease the station — a \"long and painful effort,\" as he recalled.",
"Even so, Davis did not find the effort entirely unsatisfying. WAPI not only provided the three institutions with a broadcast presence but also ensured a \"nice annual return on their investments\" from about 1922 to 1961\\.",
"\"Some day, I hope a competent historian will dig up all of the facts and write much more in detail than I have about WAPI — a comprehensive history,\" Davis stated in the Draughon letter. \"I believe that it would be a story well worth writing and reading if done accurately and intelligently.\"",
""
] |
Jeffersonian
------------
Davis respected the role science had played in the rapid advancement of southern agriculture, but his faith in scientific achievement and progress was qualified. From his own experience working with farmers, he knew that stunning technological advances often brought new and even more complicated challenges. One notable example was the huge improvements in cotton yields that farmers, working closely with Extension agents, had made in spite of the persistent presence of the [boll weevil](/wiki/Boll_weevil "Boll weevil") — an achievement that, in turn, led to a cotton surplus and the "attending headaches and difficulties now so prevalent."
The farm surpluses associated with improved cotton farming methods concerned Davis — so, for that matter, did the region's excessive reliance on the crop.Davis, P.O., "The Years Ahead in Home Demonstration Work," Speech to the Home Demonstration Agents' Annual Meeting, Mobile, Alabama, March 2, 1956, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\.
[thumb\|300px\|right\|P. O. Davis Drive, named in honor of Davis, on the Auburn University campus.Largely](/wiki/Image:Davis-drive.jpg "Davis-drive.jpg") because of this, Davis was an early and vocal proponent of farm diversification.
"It is plain to me that cotton, upon which we are relying very largely for money income, must have help," wrote Davis in 1937\. "It is also plain that livestock and poultry are cotton's best helpers."Davis, P.O., Agriculture: Its Background, Its Achievements, Its Organization, Its Challenge, Its Future," Extension Service, API, Auburn, Alabama.
A lifelong [Democrat](/wiki/U.S._Democratic_Party "U.S. Democratic Party") who maintained a cordial working relationship with the Roosevelt Administration, Davis nonetheless feared the long\-term social and cultural effects of industrialization — effects already reflected in the growing number of Americans who were working for employers rather than for themselves.
"So, individual freedom as our ancestor knew it is largely gone because one who works for another is not exactly free in the sense that one is who finances his business and works for himself," Davis stated late in his Extension career.
He believed that farmers, along with small storekeepers and small businessmen, were essential to preserving freedom in America, because they were "part capitalist and part worker."Davis, P.O., "Cooperatives in Alabama Agriculture," Address to Alabama Cooperatives, July 21, 1951, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\.
This [Jeffersonian](/wiki/Jeffersonian_political_philosophy "Jeffersonian political philosophy") passion for farmers and small businessmen sentiment largely account for his intense interest in and sympathy for the [Farm Bureau](/wiki/Farm_Bureau "Farm Bureau") concept.
Without the cohesiveness Farm Bureaus around the country provided, farmers would be unable to withstand the onslaught of bigness in the form of both big government and big business, Davis believed.Davis, P.O., "Facing the Future Together," Address to Alabama Farm Bureau Training School, Auburn, Alabama, July 30, 1952, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\.
|
[
"Jeffersonian\n------------",
"Davis respected the role science had played in the rapid advancement of southern agriculture, but his faith in scientific achievement and progress was qualified. From his own experience working with farmers, he knew that stunning technological advances often brought new and even more complicated challenges. One notable example was the huge improvements in cotton yields that farmers, working closely with Extension agents, had made in spite of the persistent presence of the [boll weevil](/wiki/Boll_weevil \"Boll weevil\") — an achievement that, in turn, led to a cotton surplus and the \"attending headaches and difficulties now so prevalent.\"",
"The farm surpluses associated with improved cotton farming methods concerned Davis — so, for that matter, did the region's excessive reliance on the crop.Davis, P.O., \"The Years Ahead in Home Demonstration Work,\" Speech to the Home Demonstration Agents' Annual Meeting, Mobile, Alabama, March 2, 1956, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\\.",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|right\\|P. O. Davis Drive, named in honor of Davis, on the Auburn University campus.Largely](/wiki/Image:Davis-drive.jpg \"Davis-drive.jpg\") because of this, Davis was an early and vocal proponent of farm diversification.",
"\"It is plain to me that cotton, upon which we are relying very largely for money income, must have help,\" wrote Davis in 1937\\. \"It is also plain that livestock and poultry are cotton's best helpers.\"Davis, P.O., Agriculture: Its Background, Its Achievements, Its Organization, Its Challenge, Its Future,\" Extension Service, API, Auburn, Alabama.",
"A lifelong [Democrat](/wiki/U.S._Democratic_Party \"U.S. Democratic Party\") who maintained a cordial working relationship with the Roosevelt Administration, Davis nonetheless feared the long\\-term social and cultural effects of industrialization — effects already reflected in the growing number of Americans who were working for employers rather than for themselves.",
"\"So, individual freedom as our ancestor knew it is largely gone because one who works for another is not exactly free in the sense that one is who finances his business and works for himself,\" Davis stated late in his Extension career.",
"He believed that farmers, along with small storekeepers and small businessmen, were essential to preserving freedom in America, because they were \"part capitalist and part worker.\"Davis, P.O., \"Cooperatives in Alabama Agriculture,\" Address to Alabama Cooperatives, July 21, 1951, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\\.",
"This [Jeffersonian](/wiki/Jeffersonian_political_philosophy \"Jeffersonian political philosophy\") passion for farmers and small businessmen sentiment largely account for his intense interest in and sympathy for the [Farm Bureau](/wiki/Farm_Bureau \"Farm Bureau\") concept.",
"Without the cohesiveness Farm Bureaus around the country provided, farmers would be unable to withstand the onslaught of bigness in the form of both big government and big business, Davis believed.Davis, P.O., \"Facing the Future Together,\" Address to Alabama Farm Bureau Training School, Auburn, Alabama, July 30, 1952, Agriculture and Extension Work, Part III, The Extension Service of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama, August, 1956\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Jonenthal pilgrimage chapel](/wiki/File:Jonental-Pilgrimkapelo_050.JPG "Jonental-Pilgrimkapelo 050.JPG")
The first traces of a settlement come from an extensive burial ground from the [Hallstatt period](/wiki/Hallstatt_culture "Hallstatt culture"). There are remains of a Roman estate in Schalchmatthau. Additionally, the municipality contains an [Alemanni](/wiki/Alemanni "Alemanni") cemetery (including six stone box graves) from the 6th to 7th century, in the territory of the former Käppelireben.
The first mention of the modern municipality was in 1243 when it was mentioned as *Jonun*. It was acquired in 1291 by [Rudolf von Habsburg](/wiki/Rudolf_von_Habsburg "Rudolf von Habsburg"). In 1376 Duke [Leopold of Austria](/wiki/Leopold_III%2C_Duke_of_Austria "Leopold III, Duke of Austria") pledged the rights to the [low justice](/wiki/High%2C_middle_and_low_justice "High, middle and low justice") in the *Kelleramt* (of which Jonen was part) to Gottfried Milliner of Zurich.
Then, in 1415 the *Kelleramt* came under the sovereignty of [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich "Zurich"). The church [tithe](/wiki/Tithe "Tithe") was paid to [Wettingen](/wiki/Wettingen "Wettingen") and [Muri Abbey](/wiki/Muri_Abbey "Muri Abbey"), St. Leodegar in [Lucerne](/wiki/Lucerne "Lucerne"), and the church and the hospital of [Bremgarten](/wiki/Bremgarten%2C_Switzerland "Bremgarten, Switzerland") as well as the church of [Zufikon](/wiki/Zufikon "Zufikon"). In the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages") Jonan belonged to the Lunkhofen [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish"). But in 1866 it became an independent parish.
A [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") chapel is first mentioned in 1598 in historic records. It was replaced in 1804 and destroyed by fire in 1811, as were two thirds of the village. It was rebuilt and in 1910 expanded to the tower and the choir. It serves as a [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church "Parish church") since 1866\. The [Reformed](/wiki/Swiss_Reformed_Church "Swiss Reformed Church") residents belong to Bremgarten\-[Mutschellen](/wiki/Mutschellen "Mutschellen") parish. The origins of the shrine in Jonental (1521 first mentioned) are unknown.
The first schoolhouse was built in 1808\. Since 1972, Jonen has been the site for the District upper level school.
Since 1920, a bus that runs the route Bremgarten\-Jonen\-[Affoltern am Albis](/wiki/Affoltern_am_Albis "Affoltern am Albis"). Until the 20th century, agriculture and dairy farming were the main industries in Jonen. However, by 2000 there were only 15 farms in the municipality. Since 1991 the head office of the [homeopathic](/wiki/Homeopathic "Homeopathic") company Similasan AG have been located in Jonen. With the town's proximity to Bremgarten and Zurich, much of the population commutes to work at places away from Jonen.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Jonenthal pilgrimage chapel](/wiki/File:Jonental-Pilgrimkapelo_050.JPG \"Jonental-Pilgrimkapelo 050.JPG\")\nThe first traces of a settlement come from an extensive burial ground from the [Hallstatt period](/wiki/Hallstatt_culture \"Hallstatt culture\"). There are remains of a Roman estate in Schalchmatthau. Additionally, the municipality contains an [Alemanni](/wiki/Alemanni \"Alemanni\") cemetery (including six stone box graves) from the 6th to 7th century, in the territory of the former Käppelireben.",
"The first mention of the modern municipality was in 1243 when it was mentioned as *Jonun*. It was acquired in 1291 by [Rudolf von Habsburg](/wiki/Rudolf_von_Habsburg \"Rudolf von Habsburg\"). In 1376 Duke [Leopold of Austria](/wiki/Leopold_III%2C_Duke_of_Austria \"Leopold III, Duke of Austria\") pledged the rights to the [low justice](/wiki/High%2C_middle_and_low_justice \"High, middle and low justice\") in the *Kelleramt* (of which Jonen was part) to Gottfried Milliner of Zurich.",
"Then, in 1415 the *Kelleramt* came under the sovereignty of [Zurich](/wiki/Zurich \"Zurich\"). The church [tithe](/wiki/Tithe \"Tithe\") was paid to [Wettingen](/wiki/Wettingen \"Wettingen\") and [Muri Abbey](/wiki/Muri_Abbey \"Muri Abbey\"), St. Leodegar in [Lucerne](/wiki/Lucerne \"Lucerne\"), and the church and the hospital of [Bremgarten](/wiki/Bremgarten%2C_Switzerland \"Bremgarten, Switzerland\") as well as the church of [Zufikon](/wiki/Zufikon \"Zufikon\"). In the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\") Jonan belonged to the Lunkhofen [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\"). But in 1866 it became an independent parish.",
"A [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") chapel is first mentioned in 1598 in historic records. It was replaced in 1804 and destroyed by fire in 1811, as were two thirds of the village. It was rebuilt and in 1910 expanded to the tower and the choir. It serves as a [parish church](/wiki/Parish_church \"Parish church\") since 1866\\. The [Reformed](/wiki/Swiss_Reformed_Church \"Swiss Reformed Church\") residents belong to Bremgarten\\-[Mutschellen](/wiki/Mutschellen \"Mutschellen\") parish. The origins of the shrine in Jonental (1521 first mentioned) are unknown.",
"The first schoolhouse was built in 1808\\. Since 1972, Jonen has been the site for the District upper level school.",
"Since 1920, a bus that runs the route Bremgarten\\-Jonen\\-[Affoltern am Albis](/wiki/Affoltern_am_Albis \"Affoltern am Albis\"). Until the 20th century, agriculture and dairy farming were the main industries in Jonen. However, by 2000 there were only 15 farms in the municipality. Since 1991 the head office of the [homeopathic](/wiki/Homeopathic \"Homeopathic\") company Similasan AG have been located in Jonen. With the town's proximity to Bremgarten and Zurich, much of the population commutes to work at places away from Jonen.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
He came from a wealthy family. His father, Olgierd, was an agricultural engineer, owner of a country family estate, Nowa Wieś near [Kobyłka](/wiki/Koby%C5%82ka "Kobyłka"), and benefactor.{{cite web\|url\=https://pax.nu/korol/life/country/ac01\.htm \|title\=Colourful Life • Country Life \|work\=pax.nu \|access\-date\=11 December 2023}} His mother, Vlastimila née Vycpálek, was of [Czech](/wiki/Czechs "Czechs") origin. He had three siblings: Zbigniew, Maria and Andrzej.
### Artist
At age 15, encouraged by a painter and family friend, [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak "Wojciech Kossak"), he became his youngest student at the Warsaw School of Fine Arts. Being 18 years old, together with his older brother, Zbigniew, he voluntarily joined the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_%28Second_Polish_Republic%29 "Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)") and took part in the [Polish\-Bolshevik War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War") in 1920\. Between 1922 and 1923 he continued his studies in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków") in the studio of [Ignacy Pieńkowski](/wiki/Ignacy_Pie%C5%84kowski "Ignacy Pieńkowski"). In 1924 he returned to Warsaw to [Tadeusz Pruszkowski](/wiki/Tadeusz_Pruszkowski "Tadeusz Pruszkowski")'s studio.
He created oil paintings, gouaches and drawings. The main subject of his works was the horse. Other animals, nature and humans appeared less frequently, although he did not hesitate to paint portraits. He made his public debut as a painter at the [Zachęta Gallery](/wiki/Zach%C4%99ta_National_Gallery_of_Art "Zachęta National Gallery of Art") in 1927\. In 1932 his oil painting *Bokserzy* ("Boxers") was entered in the [Olympic Art competition](/wiki/Art_competitions_at_the_1932_Summer_Olympics "Art competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympics").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/921202 \|title\=Józef Korolkiewicz \|work\=Olympedia \|access\-date\=4 August 2020}} Between 1936 and 1938 he was staying in Rome, Italy, dedicating his time to painting and vocal studies with Astolfo Pescia, and occasionally performing in concerts. After the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), he put on the Polish Army uniform again to [defend Warsaw](/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_%281939%29 "Siege of Warsaw (1939)") against [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") aggression. During the [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising "Warsaw Uprising"), he lost almost all of his works created before the war. They were burned in city fires.
Between 1934 and 1949, with a break during the war, he performed as a soloist at the [Warsaw Opera](/wiki/Grand_Theatre%2C_Warsaw "Grand Theatre, Warsaw"), singing baritone. He appeared in a wide variety of roles in such operas as [Stanisław Moniuszko](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko "Stanisław Moniuszko")'s *[Halka](/wiki/Halka "Halka")* and *[Straszny dwór](/wiki/The_Haunted_Manor "The Haunted Manor")*, [Gioachino Rossini](/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini "Gioachino Rossini")'s *[The Barber of Seville](/wiki/The_Barber_of_Seville "The Barber of Seville")*, [Charles Gounod](/wiki/Charles_Gounod "Charles Gounod")'s *[Faust](/wiki/Faust_%28opera%29 "Faust (opera)")*, [Georges Bizet](/wiki/Georges_Bizet "Georges Bizet")'s *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen")*, [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi "Giuseppe Verdi")'s *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto "Rigoletto")*, [Ruggero Leoncavallo](/wiki/Ruggero_Leoncavallo "Ruggero Leoncavallo")'s *[Pagliacci](/wiki/Pagliacci "Pagliacci")* and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini "Giacomo Puccini")'s *[Madama Butterfly](/wiki/Madama_Butterfly "Madama Butterfly")*.
Throughout almost his entire artistic career, he was engaged in applied arts. He designed posters, tapestries, mosaics, medals and postage stamps. He also illustrated books, magazines, sports textbooks and school educational boards. However, from the 1960s he focused mainly on painting and drawing.
### Athlete
He was a [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field "Track and field") athlete, running mostly [400 m hurdles](/wiki/400_metres_hurdles "400 metres hurdles") and [400 m](/wiki/400_metres "400 metres").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/921202 \|title\=Józef Korolkiewicz \|work\=Olympedia \|access\-date\=4 August 2020}} He won five silver medals in the former event at the [Polish Athletics Championships](/wiki/Polish_Athletics_Championships "Polish Athletics Championships") (1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1930\) and a bronze in the 4x400 m relay at the [1927 Summer Student World Championships](/wiki/1927_Summer_Student_World_Championships "1927 Summer Student World Championships") in Rome, Italy. He was qualified for the 1928 [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") [Olympic](/wiki/1928_Summer_Olympics "1928 Summer Olympics") team but was unable to compete due to injury.
He was also a tennis fan.{{cite web\|url\=https://pax.nu/korol/life/tennis/ac26\.htm \|title\=Colourful Life • Tennis \|work\=pax.nu \|access\-date\=11 December 2023}} He himself played it as an amateur, especially in the latter part of his life, competing in old\-timers games. As a spectator, he attended the Grand Slam tournaments.
Furthermore, he had ridden horses since childhood, demonstrating great skills in this field.{{r\|cl}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"He came from a wealthy family. His father, Olgierd, was an agricultural engineer, owner of a country family estate, Nowa Wieś near [Kobyłka](/wiki/Koby%C5%82ka \"Kobyłka\"), and benefactor.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://pax.nu/korol/life/country/ac01\\.htm \\|title\\=Colourful Life • Country Life \\|work\\=pax.nu \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2023}} His mother, Vlastimila née Vycpálek, was of [Czech](/wiki/Czechs \"Czechs\") origin. He had three siblings: Zbigniew, Maria and Andrzej.",
"### Artist",
"At age 15, encouraged by a painter and family friend, [Wojciech Kossak](/wiki/Wojciech_Kossak \"Wojciech Kossak\"), he became his youngest student at the Warsaw School of Fine Arts. Being 18 years old, together with his older brother, Zbigniew, he voluntarily joined the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Armed_Forces_%28Second_Polish_Republic%29 \"Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)\") and took part in the [Polish\\-Bolshevik War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\") in 1920\\. Between 1922 and 1923 he continued his studies in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\") in the studio of [Ignacy Pieńkowski](/wiki/Ignacy_Pie%C5%84kowski \"Ignacy Pieńkowski\"). In 1924 he returned to Warsaw to [Tadeusz Pruszkowski](/wiki/Tadeusz_Pruszkowski \"Tadeusz Pruszkowski\")'s studio.",
"He created oil paintings, gouaches and drawings. The main subject of his works was the horse. Other animals, nature and humans appeared less frequently, although he did not hesitate to paint portraits. He made his public debut as a painter at the [Zachęta Gallery](/wiki/Zach%C4%99ta_National_Gallery_of_Art \"Zachęta National Gallery of Art\") in 1927\\. In 1932 his oil painting *Bokserzy* (\"Boxers\") was entered in the [Olympic Art competition](/wiki/Art_competitions_at_the_1932_Summer_Olympics \"Art competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympics\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/921202 \\|title\\=Józef Korolkiewicz \\|work\\=Olympedia \\|access\\-date\\=4 August 2020}} Between 1936 and 1938 he was staying in Rome, Italy, dedicating his time to painting and vocal studies with Astolfo Pescia, and occasionally performing in concerts. After the outbreak of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), he put on the Polish Army uniform again to [defend Warsaw](/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw_%281939%29 \"Siege of Warsaw (1939)\") against [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") aggression. During the [Warsaw Uprising](/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising \"Warsaw Uprising\"), he lost almost all of his works created before the war. They were burned in city fires.",
"Between 1934 and 1949, with a break during the war, he performed as a soloist at the [Warsaw Opera](/wiki/Grand_Theatre%2C_Warsaw \"Grand Theatre, Warsaw\"), singing baritone. He appeared in a wide variety of roles in such operas as [Stanisław Moniuszko](/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko \"Stanisław Moniuszko\")'s *[Halka](/wiki/Halka \"Halka\")* and *[Straszny dwór](/wiki/The_Haunted_Manor \"The Haunted Manor\")*, [Gioachino Rossini](/wiki/Gioachino_Rossini \"Gioachino Rossini\")'s *[The Barber of Seville](/wiki/The_Barber_of_Seville \"The Barber of Seville\")*, [Charles Gounod](/wiki/Charles_Gounod \"Charles Gounod\")'s *[Faust](/wiki/Faust_%28opera%29 \"Faust (opera)\")*, [Georges Bizet](/wiki/Georges_Bizet \"Georges Bizet\")'s *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen \"Carmen\")*, [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\")'s *[Rigoletto](/wiki/Rigoletto \"Rigoletto\")*, [Ruggero Leoncavallo](/wiki/Ruggero_Leoncavallo \"Ruggero Leoncavallo\")'s *[Pagliacci](/wiki/Pagliacci \"Pagliacci\")* and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\")'s *[Madama Butterfly](/wiki/Madama_Butterfly \"Madama Butterfly\")*.",
"Throughout almost his entire artistic career, he was engaged in applied arts. He designed posters, tapestries, mosaics, medals and postage stamps. He also illustrated books, magazines, sports textbooks and school educational boards. However, from the 1960s he focused mainly on painting and drawing.",
"### Athlete",
"He was a [track and field](/wiki/Track_and_field \"Track and field\") athlete, running mostly [400 m hurdles](/wiki/400_metres_hurdles \"400 metres hurdles\") and [400 m](/wiki/400_metres \"400 metres\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/921202 \\|title\\=Józef Korolkiewicz \\|work\\=Olympedia \\|access\\-date\\=4 August 2020}} He won five silver medals in the former event at the [Polish Athletics Championships](/wiki/Polish_Athletics_Championships \"Polish Athletics Championships\") (1924, 1925, 1926, 1927, 1930\\) and a bronze in the 4x400 m relay at the [1927 Summer Student World Championships](/wiki/1927_Summer_Student_World_Championships \"1927 Summer Student World Championships\") in Rome, Italy. He was qualified for the 1928 [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") [Olympic](/wiki/1928_Summer_Olympics \"1928 Summer Olympics\") team but was unable to compete due to injury.",
"He was also a tennis fan.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://pax.nu/korol/life/tennis/ac26\\.htm \\|title\\=Colourful Life • Tennis \\|work\\=pax.nu \\|access\\-date\\=11 December 2023}} He himself played it as an amateur, especially in the latter part of his life, competing in old\\-timers games. As a spectator, he attended the Grand Slam tournaments.",
"Furthermore, he had ridden horses since childhood, demonstrating great skills in this field.{{r\\|cl}}",
""
] |
Synthesis
---------
The Evolver's sound comes from 4 [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators"), 2 of which are analog and 2 of which are digital. The two analog oscillators provide classic [waveforms](/wiki/Waveforms "Waveforms"); saw, triangle, saw\-triangle, and pulse (which can be turned into a square wave at a value of 50%). The analog [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators") in the Evolver are very stable and accurate unlike some analog [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators") of the past, but drift ([oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators") waver in and out of tune) can be applied. The two [digital oscillators](/wiki/Digitally-controlled_oscillator "Digitally-controlled oscillator") feature 95 12\-bit [wavetable](/wiki/Table-lookup_synthesis "Table-lookup synthesis") [waveforms](/wiki/Waveforms "Waveforms") from the Prophet VS but 16\-bit user waveforms can also be loaded onto the internal [RAM](/wiki/RAM "RAM") storage. [Oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators") 1 and 3 are hardwired to the left channel, [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators "Oscillators") 2 and 4 are hardwired to the right. The two analog oscillators can be [hard synced](/wiki/Oscillator_sync "Oscillator sync") together, and the two digital oscillators can be [ring modulated](/wiki/Ring_modulation "Ring modulation") and [frequency modulated](/wiki/Frequency_modulation_synthesis "Frequency modulation synthesis") to each other independently. Each [oscillator](/wiki/Oscillator "Oscillator") can be independently tuned over a span of 10 [octaves](/wiki/Octaves "Octaves") (8 [Hz](/wiki/Hertz "Hertz") to 8 kHz). There is also [white noise](/wiki/White_noise "White noise") that can be used as a sound source, it is sent through the filter and cannot be routed any other way.
While the Evolver is [monophonic](/wiki/Monophonic_%28synthesizers%29 "Monophonic (synthesizers)"), multiple Evolvers can be linked together via [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI "MIDI") to create a "chain" that, in turn, creates [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony "Polyphony") based on how many units are chained together. The same is true for the Poly Evolvers, up to 5 Poly Evolvers can be chained to obtain a 20\-note [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony "Polyphony").
There are two [analog low pass filters](/wiki/Voltage-controlled_filter "Voltage-controlled filter"), one for each stereo channel. Each low pass filter can be changed between 4\-pole or 2\-pole. Unless programmed otherwise (split), the two analog filters each retain the same settings, thus processing the audio in both channels identically. However, since the filters are analog, even if they are working at identical settings, there will be slight variations in each filter's output. Each filter has its own [ADSR envelope](/wiki/ADSR_envelope "ADSR envelope") generator, and the low pass filters are also [resonant](/wiki/Resonance "Resonance"), and can [self oscillate](/wiki/Self_oscillation "Self oscillation").
There is also a non\-resonant, digital, 4\-pole high pass filter available for further processing. The high pass filter can either be applied after the low pass filters, or before (if applied before the low pass filters, the high pass filter only affects an external audio signal).
The [VCA](/wiki/Voltage-controlled_amplifier "Voltage-controlled amplifier") also utilizes an [ADSR](/wiki/Synthesizer%23ADSR_envelope "Synthesizer#ADSR envelope") envelope. There is a third ADSR envelope generator for [modulation](/wiki/Modulation "Modulation") purposes.
There are 4 [LFOs](/wiki/Low-frequency_oscillation "Low-frequency oscillation") available for modulation purposes. The LFOs in the Evolver have speeds ranging from the very slow (one cycle every thirty seconds) to incredibly fast (261 cycles a second, almost middle C in musical terms). Some of the analog components of the Evolver cannot handle some of the incredibly high frequencies of the LFOs due to limitations in the control voltage speeds.
|
[
"Synthesis\n---------",
"The Evolver's sound comes from 4 [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\"), 2 of which are analog and 2 of which are digital. The two analog oscillators provide classic [waveforms](/wiki/Waveforms \"Waveforms\"); saw, triangle, saw\\-triangle, and pulse (which can be turned into a square wave at a value of 50%). The analog [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\") in the Evolver are very stable and accurate unlike some analog [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\") of the past, but drift ([oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\") waver in and out of tune) can be applied. The two [digital oscillators](/wiki/Digitally-controlled_oscillator \"Digitally-controlled oscillator\") feature 95 12\\-bit [wavetable](/wiki/Table-lookup_synthesis \"Table-lookup synthesis\") [waveforms](/wiki/Waveforms \"Waveforms\") from the Prophet VS but 16\\-bit user waveforms can also be loaded onto the internal [RAM](/wiki/RAM \"RAM\") storage. [Oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\") 1 and 3 are hardwired to the left channel, [oscillators](/wiki/Oscillators \"Oscillators\") 2 and 4 are hardwired to the right. The two analog oscillators can be [hard synced](/wiki/Oscillator_sync \"Oscillator sync\") together, and the two digital oscillators can be [ring modulated](/wiki/Ring_modulation \"Ring modulation\") and [frequency modulated](/wiki/Frequency_modulation_synthesis \"Frequency modulation synthesis\") to each other independently. Each [oscillator](/wiki/Oscillator \"Oscillator\") can be independently tuned over a span of 10 [octaves](/wiki/Octaves \"Octaves\") (8 [Hz](/wiki/Hertz \"Hertz\") to 8 kHz). There is also [white noise](/wiki/White_noise \"White noise\") that can be used as a sound source, it is sent through the filter and cannot be routed any other way.",
"While the Evolver is [monophonic](/wiki/Monophonic_%28synthesizers%29 \"Monophonic (synthesizers)\"), multiple Evolvers can be linked together via [MIDI](/wiki/MIDI \"MIDI\") to create a \"chain\" that, in turn, creates [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\") based on how many units are chained together. The same is true for the Poly Evolvers, up to 5 Poly Evolvers can be chained to obtain a 20\\-note [polyphony](/wiki/Polyphony \"Polyphony\").",
"There are two [analog low pass filters](/wiki/Voltage-controlled_filter \"Voltage-controlled filter\"), one for each stereo channel. Each low pass filter can be changed between 4\\-pole or 2\\-pole. Unless programmed otherwise (split), the two analog filters each retain the same settings, thus processing the audio in both channels identically. However, since the filters are analog, even if they are working at identical settings, there will be slight variations in each filter's output. Each filter has its own [ADSR envelope](/wiki/ADSR_envelope \"ADSR envelope\") generator, and the low pass filters are also [resonant](/wiki/Resonance \"Resonance\"), and can [self oscillate](/wiki/Self_oscillation \"Self oscillation\").",
"There is also a non\\-resonant, digital, 4\\-pole high pass filter available for further processing. The high pass filter can either be applied after the low pass filters, or before (if applied before the low pass filters, the high pass filter only affects an external audio signal).",
"The [VCA](/wiki/Voltage-controlled_amplifier \"Voltage-controlled amplifier\") also utilizes an [ADSR](/wiki/Synthesizer%23ADSR_envelope \"Synthesizer#ADSR envelope\") envelope. There is a third ADSR envelope generator for [modulation](/wiki/Modulation \"Modulation\") purposes.",
"There are 4 [LFOs](/wiki/Low-frequency_oscillation \"Low-frequency oscillation\") available for modulation purposes. The LFOs in the Evolver have speeds ranging from the very slow (one cycle every thirty seconds) to incredibly fast (261 cycles a second, almost middle C in musical terms). Some of the analog components of the Evolver cannot handle some of the incredibly high frequencies of the LFOs due to limitations in the control voltage speeds.",
""
] |
Family history
--------------
### Trenor William Park
Trenor William Park was born outside [Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/Bennington%2C_Vermont "Bennington, Vermont") in [Woodford, Vermont](/wiki/Woodford%2C_Vermont "Woodford, Vermont") on December 8, 1823\. His family was not wealthy while he was growing up. By the age of 16, Trenor was already studying law and subsequently, was admitted to the [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont "Vermont") bar at age 21\. He married Vermont Governor [Hiland Hall's](/wiki/Hiland_Hall "Hiland Hall") daughter, Laura V.S. Hall, on December 15, 1846\. They had three children together: Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938\), Laura “Lila” or “Birdie” Hall Park (1858–1939\), and Trenor “Train” Luther Park (1861–1907\).
Trenor, Laura, and Lizzie traveled to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") in 1852, following Hiland Hall, who had been appointed California Land Commissioner. Trenor joined the law firm of [Halleck, Peachy \& Billings](/wiki/Halleck%2C_Peachy_%26_Billings "Halleck, Peachy & Billings"), but later opened a law firm of his own. He found great success in the West, managing the [Mariposa](/wiki/Rancho_Las_Mariposas "Rancho Las Mariposas") mines for [John C. Fremont](/wiki/John_C._Fremont "John C. Fremont"). The Park (and McCullough) fortunes also encompassed other international ventures, including banking and railroads. At one time Trenor served as president of the Panama Canal Railway, and he founded the First National Bank of North Bennington, Vermont.
The family returned to [North Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/North_Bennington%2C_Vermont "North Bennington, Vermont") in 1863\. Construction began on the “Big House,” as it was affectionately called, between 1864 and 1865\. [Trenor WilliamPark](http://www.onlinebiographies.info/vt/park-trenor.htm) by Lewis Cass Aldrich, 1889, *History of Bennington County, VT*
Trenor William Park ran for vice\-president of the United States in 1864\. On his death left $10,000 to Harvard University.
### Trenor Luther Park
Trenor William Park's son, Trenor "Train" Luther Park (1861–1907\), married Julia Hunt Catlin. He was a Harvard graduate and importer of silks. He was a commodore of the New York Yacht club and won the Roosevelt Cup in sailing. He and Julia sailed across the Atlantic 75 times. His mansion, named "Hill Crest", was built in the late 1890s in Purchase, New York, and is now the Old Oaks Country Club.
Trenor and Julia had three children: Julia (died aged 3 days), Elliot Edith (died aged 10, by falling through a plate glass roof in New York City), and Frances. Trenor died in 1907, six months after losing his daughter. After his death, Julia and Frances moved to a house in Paris, France, and bought the Chateau d'Annel in the north. Frances later married surgeon E. Gerald Stanley, whom she met at her mother's chateau during World War I, and they had five children.
During World War I, Julia turned the Chateau d'Annel into a hospital on the front lines. In 1917, she was the first American woman to be awarded the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre in France in honor of her wartime efforts.
Julia went on to marry the governor of New York's nephew, Chauncey Mitchell Depew, then after a divorce, she married General Adolphe Emile Taufflieb. She died, in 1947, at her residence in Cannes, France, "Villa Nevada". Coincidentally, it was the same residence where Queen Victoria's son, [Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany](/wiki/Prince_Leopold%2C_Duke_of_Albany "Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany"), had died in 1884\.
### Eliza Hall Park
Trenor William Park's older daughter, Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938\), married [John G. McCullough](/wiki/John_G._McCullough "John G. McCullough") on August 30, 1871\. McCullough was born in 1835 in Newark, Delaware. He began a law practice in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and later opened another office in Mariposa County, California. Together, Lizzie and John had four children, Hall Park McCullough (1872–1966\), Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson (1873–1965\), Ella Sallie Park McCullough (or Sister Mary Veronica, 1874–1965\), and [Esther Morgan Park McCullough](/wiki/Esther_Morgan_McCullough "Esther Morgan McCullough") (1888–1957\). He was elected governor of Vermont in 1902\.
In 1875, after the death of her mother, Lizzie became the caretaker of the house. Her father died in 1882, and Lizzie bought out the stake her siblings had in the home to become the sole owner along with her husband; she paid Laura and Trenor $23,333 each. After her husband's death in 1915, Lizzie oversaw the house until she died in 1938\.
Even though her son, Hall Park McCullough, inherited the house, it was her daughter, Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson, who resided in the house until her death in 1965\. None of the remaining descendants resided in the house after Bess's death. John G. McCullough II (Hall Park McCullough's son and Bess's nephew) inherited the house in 1966 and in 1968 offered the property to the Park–McCullough House Association.
|
[
"Family history\n--------------",
"### Trenor William Park",
"Trenor William Park was born outside [Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/Bennington%2C_Vermont \"Bennington, Vermont\") in [Woodford, Vermont](/wiki/Woodford%2C_Vermont \"Woodford, Vermont\") on December 8, 1823\\. His family was not wealthy while he was growing up. By the age of 16, Trenor was already studying law and subsequently, was admitted to the [Vermont](/wiki/Vermont \"Vermont\") bar at age 21\\. He married Vermont Governor [Hiland Hall's](/wiki/Hiland_Hall \"Hiland Hall\") daughter, Laura V.S. Hall, on December 15, 1846\\. They had three children together: Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938\\), Laura “Lila” or “Birdie” Hall Park (1858–1939\\), and Trenor “Train” Luther Park (1861–1907\\).",
"Trenor, Laura, and Lizzie traveled to [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") in 1852, following Hiland Hall, who had been appointed California Land Commissioner. Trenor joined the law firm of [Halleck, Peachy \\& Billings](/wiki/Halleck%2C_Peachy_%26_Billings \"Halleck, Peachy & Billings\"), but later opened a law firm of his own. He found great success in the West, managing the [Mariposa](/wiki/Rancho_Las_Mariposas \"Rancho Las Mariposas\") mines for [John C. Fremont](/wiki/John_C._Fremont \"John C. Fremont\"). The Park (and McCullough) fortunes also encompassed other international ventures, including banking and railroads. At one time Trenor served as president of the Panama Canal Railway, and he founded the First National Bank of North Bennington, Vermont.",
"The family returned to [North Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/North_Bennington%2C_Vermont \"North Bennington, Vermont\") in 1863\\. Construction began on the “Big House,” as it was affectionately called, between 1864 and 1865\\. [Trenor WilliamPark](http://www.onlinebiographies.info/vt/park-trenor.htm) by Lewis Cass Aldrich, 1889, *History of Bennington County, VT*",
"Trenor William Park ran for vice\\-president of the United States in 1864\\. On his death left $10,000 to Harvard University.",
"### Trenor Luther Park",
"Trenor William Park's son, Trenor \"Train\" Luther Park (1861–1907\\), married Julia Hunt Catlin. He was a Harvard graduate and importer of silks. He was a commodore of the New York Yacht club and won the Roosevelt Cup in sailing. He and Julia sailed across the Atlantic 75 times. His mansion, named \"Hill Crest\", was built in the late 1890s in Purchase, New York, and is now the Old Oaks Country Club.",
"Trenor and Julia had three children: Julia (died aged 3 days), Elliot Edith (died aged 10, by falling through a plate glass roof in New York City), and Frances. Trenor died in 1907, six months after losing his daughter. After his death, Julia and Frances moved to a house in Paris, France, and bought the Chateau d'Annel in the north. Frances later married surgeon E. Gerald Stanley, whom she met at her mother's chateau during World War I, and they had five children.",
"During World War I, Julia turned the Chateau d'Annel into a hospital on the front lines. In 1917, she was the first American woman to be awarded the Legion of Honor and the Croix de Guerre in France in honor of her wartime efforts.",
"Julia went on to marry the governor of New York's nephew, Chauncey Mitchell Depew, then after a divorce, she married General Adolphe Emile Taufflieb. She died, in 1947, at her residence in Cannes, France, \"Villa Nevada\". Coincidentally, it was the same residence where Queen Victoria's son, [Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany](/wiki/Prince_Leopold%2C_Duke_of_Albany \"Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany\"), had died in 1884\\.",
"### Eliza Hall Park",
"Trenor William Park's older daughter, Eliza “Lizzie” Hall Park (October 17, 1848 – 1938\\), married [John G. McCullough](/wiki/John_G._McCullough \"John G. McCullough\") on August 30, 1871\\. McCullough was born in 1835 in Newark, Delaware. He began a law practice in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and later opened another office in Mariposa County, California. Together, Lizzie and John had four children, Hall Park McCullough (1872–1966\\), Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson (1873–1965\\), Ella Sallie Park McCullough (or Sister Mary Veronica, 1874–1965\\), and [Esther Morgan Park McCullough](/wiki/Esther_Morgan_McCullough \"Esther Morgan McCullough\") (1888–1957\\). He was elected governor of Vermont in 1902\\.",
"In 1875, after the death of her mother, Lizzie became the caretaker of the house. Her father died in 1882, and Lizzie bought out the stake her siblings had in the home to become the sole owner along with her husband; she paid Laura and Trenor $23,333 each. After her husband's death in 1915, Lizzie oversaw the house until she died in 1938\\. \nEven though her son, Hall Park McCullough, inherited the house, it was her daughter, Elizabeth “Bess” McCullough Johnson, who resided in the house until her death in 1965\\. None of the remaining descendants resided in the house after Bess's death. John G. McCullough II (Hall Park McCullough's son and Bess's nephew) inherited the house in 1966 and in 1968 offered the property to the Park–McCullough House Association.",
""
] |
The "Big House"
---------------
Trenor Park purchased the land the house sits on in [North Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/North_Bennington%2C_Vermont "North Bennington, Vermont") from his father\-in\-law, Hiland Hall. The “Big House” was under construction from 1864 to 1865, on a property of almost {{convert\|200\|acre\|km2}}, and was designed by New York architectural firm Diaper and Dudley. The house was built in the Second Empire style. Over time, the total amount of land owned by the family topped {{convert\|600\|acre\|km2}}! It was originally built as a summer cottage/retreat from their [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") home. The family occupied the house most likely from May or June to September or October, and occasionally spent the winter holidays at the house. From 1865 through 1965, the house was occupied by four generations of the Hall, Park, and McCullough families. The Park family moved into the “Big House” on December 25, 1865\. As the lady of the house, Laura was responsible for purchasing the furnishings in the house.
The style of the house borrows from many different styles, including Second Empire and Gothic. The house is quite revolutionary for the time because there was indoor plumbing, hot and cold water, and gas lighting. Because of the hazard the gas machine posed, the Park's insurance was cancelled. Only some of the fixtures were converted to electricity around 1910\. Most rooms contained fireplaces which provided heat, but if that was not enough, there was a steam boiler, located in the basement, which heated air and rose to the first and second floors.
Diaper and Dudley also designed the Carriage Barn, which was built between 1865 and 1866\. It was renovated many years later to make room for automobiles, and included hardwood floors and new partitions. The Park's dog, Abe, occupied the dog house located to the east of the main entrance. It was turned into a play house in its current location, complete with a kitchen (with a wood stove and furniture) and details similar to those in the “Big House”.
What once was part of the apartment occupied by Hiland Hall and his wife is now a sitting room right above the staircase on the second floor. This renovation was made around 1889–1890\. This was the first of many renovations made to the home after Lizzie and John became masters of the home. President [Benjamin Harrison](/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison "Benjamin Harrison") (1833–1901\) stayed at the home in August 1891 for the celebration of the dedication of the [Bennington Battle Monument](/wiki/Bennington_Battle_Monument "Bennington Battle Monument"). Lizzie and John introduced the [Colonial Revival architecture](/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture "Colonial Revival architecture") style to the house in 1889 in preparation for the President, when the renovations were made to the front hall. The main hall is {{convert\|75\|ft\|m}} long, and includes a large fireplace and inglenook bench. The parquet floor, fireplace, and inglenook bench were installed in 1891 prior to the visit from the President. The wallpaper that still covers the walls dates to that renovation. Even though many renovations have taken place over the years that the family occupied the house, the Park–McCullough house is one of the best preserved Victorian mansions in [New England](/wiki/New_England "New England"). It still largely retains the original design of the house, including original pieces owned and used by the family over one hundred years.
When the family first moved into the house, Lizzie chose for herself the bedroom that would be hers for the entire time she lived in the house. It is located right off the master bedroom that her parents slept in, and when she married John G. McCullough, the couple continued to live in her childhood bedroom. The “Big House” boasts 14 chimneys and 35 rooms – 20 of which are bedrooms. When first built, the house contained 18 coal burning fireplaces, all of which were constructed out of Italian (not Vermont) marble. To keep up with the changing styles of the time, the fireplaces located in the library, main and west halls were converted to wood burning. The house has two entrances, one for those who arrived by carriage (which is located on the South) and one for those that had walked to the house (located on the East). When entering the house from the South, guests are welcomed by a bust of Hiland Hall, placed on the mantle of the fireplace. Rooms on the first floor include the Morning, Library, Music, Dining and Billiard rooms, which all have entrances to the long hallway. The lady of the house used the Morning room to meet with house staff or write letters. The Library is also known as the gentlemen's parlor, which was used as an office by Trenor Park and by John G. McCullough during his tenure as Governor. After the death of John, Lizzie changed the space to another sitting room. The Music room served as a venue for visits from guests, which lasted only 20 minutes. The dining room table is thought to have been used by the McCullough's in their New York home. The room also has a smaller, circular table near the widows used for more informal meals.
The billiard room contained many luxurious and high\-tech gadgets, including a billiard table which reportedly cost $803 (made around 1875\) and an elevator that ran between the first and second floors, which was installed in 1930 by Lizzie. There is only one bedroom on the second floor that did not have access to a bathroom, and as such, a hole was cut in the wall to make a door and provide access to a bathroom on a lower floor. This bedroom was occupied at one time by Esther Morgan Park McCullough, Lizzie's daughter
Part of the west wing of the house was removed around 1940\. Rooms that were contained in this section included the original kitchen and sections of the servants’ living area. Over time, the McCullough's changed their gardens (surrounding the grounds) around, and at one point, converted them into a [tennis court](/wiki/Tennis_court "Tennis court").
|
[
"The \"Big House\"\n---------------",
"Trenor Park purchased the land the house sits on in [North Bennington, Vermont](/wiki/North_Bennington%2C_Vermont \"North Bennington, Vermont\") from his father\\-in\\-law, Hiland Hall. The “Big House” was under construction from 1864 to 1865, on a property of almost {{convert\\|200\\|acre\\|km2}}, and was designed by New York architectural firm Diaper and Dudley. The house was built in the Second Empire style. Over time, the total amount of land owned by the family topped {{convert\\|600\\|acre\\|km2}}! It was originally built as a summer cottage/retreat from their [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") home. The family occupied the house most likely from May or June to September or October, and occasionally spent the winter holidays at the house. From 1865 through 1965, the house was occupied by four generations of the Hall, Park, and McCullough families. The Park family moved into the “Big House” on December 25, 1865\\. As the lady of the house, Laura was responsible for purchasing the furnishings in the house.",
"The style of the house borrows from many different styles, including Second Empire and Gothic. The house is quite revolutionary for the time because there was indoor plumbing, hot and cold water, and gas lighting. Because of the hazard the gas machine posed, the Park's insurance was cancelled. Only some of the fixtures were converted to electricity around 1910\\. Most rooms contained fireplaces which provided heat, but if that was not enough, there was a steam boiler, located in the basement, which heated air and rose to the first and second floors.",
"Diaper and Dudley also designed the Carriage Barn, which was built between 1865 and 1866\\. It was renovated many years later to make room for automobiles, and included hardwood floors and new partitions. The Park's dog, Abe, occupied the dog house located to the east of the main entrance. It was turned into a play house in its current location, complete with a kitchen (with a wood stove and furniture) and details similar to those in the “Big House”.",
"What once was part of the apartment occupied by Hiland Hall and his wife is now a sitting room right above the staircase on the second floor. This renovation was made around 1889–1890\\. This was the first of many renovations made to the home after Lizzie and John became masters of the home. President [Benjamin Harrison](/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison \"Benjamin Harrison\") (1833–1901\\) stayed at the home in August 1891 for the celebration of the dedication of the [Bennington Battle Monument](/wiki/Bennington_Battle_Monument \"Bennington Battle Monument\"). Lizzie and John introduced the [Colonial Revival architecture](/wiki/Colonial_Revival_architecture \"Colonial Revival architecture\") style to the house in 1889 in preparation for the President, when the renovations were made to the front hall. The main hall is {{convert\\|75\\|ft\\|m}} long, and includes a large fireplace and inglenook bench. The parquet floor, fireplace, and inglenook bench were installed in 1891 prior to the visit from the President. The wallpaper that still covers the walls dates to that renovation. Even though many renovations have taken place over the years that the family occupied the house, the Park–McCullough house is one of the best preserved Victorian mansions in [New England](/wiki/New_England \"New England\"). It still largely retains the original design of the house, including original pieces owned and used by the family over one hundred years.",
"When the family first moved into the house, Lizzie chose for herself the bedroom that would be hers for the entire time she lived in the house. It is located right off the master bedroom that her parents slept in, and when she married John G. McCullough, the couple continued to live in her childhood bedroom. The “Big House” boasts 14 chimneys and 35 rooms – 20 of which are bedrooms. When first built, the house contained 18 coal burning fireplaces, all of which were constructed out of Italian (not Vermont) marble. To keep up with the changing styles of the time, the fireplaces located in the library, main and west halls were converted to wood burning. The house has two entrances, one for those who arrived by carriage (which is located on the South) and one for those that had walked to the house (located on the East). When entering the house from the South, guests are welcomed by a bust of Hiland Hall, placed on the mantle of the fireplace. Rooms on the first floor include the Morning, Library, Music, Dining and Billiard rooms, which all have entrances to the long hallway. The lady of the house used the Morning room to meet with house staff or write letters. The Library is also known as the gentlemen's parlor, which was used as an office by Trenor Park and by John G. McCullough during his tenure as Governor. After the death of John, Lizzie changed the space to another sitting room. The Music room served as a venue for visits from guests, which lasted only 20 minutes. The dining room table is thought to have been used by the McCullough's in their New York home. The room also has a smaller, circular table near the widows used for more informal meals. \nThe billiard room contained many luxurious and high\\-tech gadgets, including a billiard table which reportedly cost $803 (made around 1875\\) and an elevator that ran between the first and second floors, which was installed in 1930 by Lizzie. There is only one bedroom on the second floor that did not have access to a bathroom, and as such, a hole was cut in the wall to make a door and provide access to a bathroom on a lower floor. This bedroom was occupied at one time by Esther Morgan Park McCullough, Lizzie's daughter",
"Part of the west wing of the house was removed around 1940\\. Rooms that were contained in this section included the original kitchen and sections of the servants’ living area. Over time, the McCullough's changed their gardens (surrounding the grounds) around, and at one point, converted them into a [tennis court](/wiki/Tennis_court \"Tennis court\").",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1084, Laufach, which was originally known as Laufahe, had its first documentary mention in an [obituary](/wiki/Obituary "Obituary") from [Saints Peter and Alexander](/wiki/St._Peter_und_Alexander_%28Aschaffenburg%29 "St. Peter und Alexander (Aschaffenburg)") [collegiate church](/wiki/Collegiate_church "Collegiate church") in Aschaffenburg. Laufach's name came from the stream on which it was built. Over the years, the community's name has changed many times, from Laufache in 1182, to Loifahe in 1191, to Loupha in 1348, to Lauffach around 1528 and 1624 before settling on Laufach in the early 19th century.
The Laufach valley was settled under the protection of the [Counts of Rieneck](/wiki/Counts_of_Rieneck "Counts of Rieneck"), who already held the *Vogtei* (position of *[Vogt](/wiki/Vogt "Vogt")*) from the [Archbishopric of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz "Archbishopric of Mainz") and the collegiate church in Aschaffenburg. On the Rieneck free court in 1380 – where *Schöffen* (roughly “lay jurists”) from Laufach were specifically mentioned – settlers sat as free citizens.
In the mid\-14th century, glassmakers were brought into service in the Spessart with special incentives. Since they had to leave the forest from [Martinmas](/wiki/Martinmas "Martinmas") (11 November) until [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter"), they sought winter dwellings in Hain and Laufach. Many of these workers settled here owing to family ties. Already by 1469, there was a mine near the "Weyber" palace (*Schloss Weyber*, *Weyberhöfe*). In *Unserer lieber Frauen Teil*, presumably part of the *Liebesgrund*, copper was mined. After the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War "Thirty Years' War"), ores were mined and smelted.
In the mid\-18th century, in the area of today's sporting ground, a [hammer mill](/wiki/Hammer_mill "Hammer mill") was built. The building of a railway in the years 1850 to 1854 had a very positive effect on the community's industrial development. With the railway station, an important transport link with Aschaffenburg and the whole Lower Main was created. In the course of time, the ironworks became an integrated industry in which both the mining and the processing were done, yielding a finished product.
Even trades and crafts were important to Laufach quite early on. From earlier craft businesses grew highly productive operations.
In 1866, shortly after the [Austro\-Prussian War](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War "Austro-Prussian War") broke out, the engagements near Frohnhofen between [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia "Prussia") and troops of the [German Confederation](/wiki/German_Confederation "German Confederation") took place during the [Campaign of the Main](/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Main "Campaign of the Main") (*Mainfeldzug*).
In 1984, the community of Laufach celebrated 900 years of existence.
Frohnhofen and the outlying centre of Hain developed into purely residential areas in which most inhabitants earned their income in the industrial and commercial businesses in Laufach, Aschaffenburg and the surrounding area. Laufach's economy underwent a shift from agriculture to industry.
To further foster commercial\-industrial growth, the Laufach\-Ost commercial area was developed, covering an eight\-hectare area between Laufach and Hain. Another such area was developed in 2001 on a four\-hectare area between Laufach and Frohnhofen.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1084, Laufach, which was originally known as Laufahe, had its first documentary mention in an [obituary](/wiki/Obituary \"Obituary\") from [Saints Peter and Alexander](/wiki/St._Peter_und_Alexander_%28Aschaffenburg%29 \"St. Peter und Alexander (Aschaffenburg)\") [collegiate church](/wiki/Collegiate_church \"Collegiate church\") in Aschaffenburg. Laufach's name came from the stream on which it was built. Over the years, the community's name has changed many times, from Laufache in 1182, to Loifahe in 1191, to Loupha in 1348, to Lauffach around 1528 and 1624 before settling on Laufach in the early 19th century.",
"The Laufach valley was settled under the protection of the [Counts of Rieneck](/wiki/Counts_of_Rieneck \"Counts of Rieneck\"), who already held the *Vogtei* (position of *[Vogt](/wiki/Vogt \"Vogt\")*) from the [Archbishopric of Mainz](/wiki/Archbishopric_of_Mainz \"Archbishopric of Mainz\") and the collegiate church in Aschaffenburg. On the Rieneck free court in 1380 – where *Schöffen* (roughly “lay jurists”) from Laufach were specifically mentioned – settlers sat as free citizens.",
"In the mid\\-14th century, glassmakers were brought into service in the Spessart with special incentives. Since they had to leave the forest from [Martinmas](/wiki/Martinmas \"Martinmas\") (11 November) until [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"), they sought winter dwellings in Hain and Laufach. Many of these workers settled here owing to family ties. Already by 1469, there was a mine near the \"Weyber\" palace (*Schloss Weyber*, *Weyberhöfe*). In *Unserer lieber Frauen Teil*, presumably part of the *Liebesgrund*, copper was mined. After the [Thirty Years' War](/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War \"Thirty Years' War\"), ores were mined and smelted.",
"In the mid\\-18th century, in the area of today's sporting ground, a [hammer mill](/wiki/Hammer_mill \"Hammer mill\") was built. The building of a railway in the years 1850 to 1854 had a very positive effect on the community's industrial development. With the railway station, an important transport link with Aschaffenburg and the whole Lower Main was created. In the course of time, the ironworks became an integrated industry in which both the mining and the processing were done, yielding a finished product.",
"Even trades and crafts were important to Laufach quite early on. From earlier craft businesses grew highly productive operations.",
"In 1866, shortly after the [Austro\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Austro-Prussian_War \"Austro-Prussian War\") broke out, the engagements near Frohnhofen between [Prussia](/wiki/Prussia \"Prussia\") and troops of the [German Confederation](/wiki/German_Confederation \"German Confederation\") took place during the [Campaign of the Main](/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Main \"Campaign of the Main\") (*Mainfeldzug*).",
"In 1984, the community of Laufach celebrated 900 years of existence.",
"Frohnhofen and the outlying centre of Hain developed into purely residential areas in which most inhabitants earned their income in the industrial and commercial businesses in Laufach, Aschaffenburg and the surrounding area. Laufach's economy underwent a shift from agriculture to industry.",
"To further foster commercial\\-industrial growth, the Laufach\\-Ost commercial area was developed, covering an eight\\-hectare area between Laufach and Hain. Another such area was developed in 2001 on a four\\-hectare area between Laufach and Frohnhofen.",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
[thumb\|right\|225px\|[Nikolai Dmitriev\-Orenburgsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Dmitriev-Orenburgsky "Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky")'s painting of General [Mikhail Skobelev](/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev "Mikhail Skobelev") – the real\-life model for the book's Sobolev – captures the dashing image evident also in Akunin's literary depiction.](/wiki/File:General_Skobelev_%28Dimitriev-Orenburgsky%29.jpg "General Skobelev (Dimitriev-Orenburgsky).jpg")
The novel opens with a young Russian woman of "progressive" sympathies, Varvara Suvorova, traveling to meet her fiancé Pyotr Yablokov, who has volunteered to fight in the war between [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") and the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). Her guide steals all her luggage and disappears as she approaches the war zone, but she is rescued by Erast Fandorin, who has been fighting as a volunteer to forget his tragedy. He accompanies her to Russian army headquarters to which he's bringing an important message. Upon arrival, Varvara is reunited with Pyotr, and Fandorin delivers his message: the Ottoman army is advancing towards the Bulgarian town of [Plevna](/wiki/Pleven "Pleven"), which sits on the road to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia") and must be taken so the Russian army can easily advance through Bulgaria and into Turkey.
Varvara sees little of her fiancé, who is busy with his duties as an army [cryptographer](/wiki/Cryptography "Cryptography"), so she spends her time at the correspondents' club, where she meets various interesting characters: [Irish](/wiki/Irish_people "Irish people") reporter Seamus McLaughlin, [French](/wiki/French_people "French people") reporter Charles Paladin, [Romanian](/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia "United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia") army [liaison](/wiki/Liaison_officer "Liaison officer") Colonel Lukan (unlike Bromfield's English translation, some others use proper Romanian spelling "Lucan"), Russian [hussar](/wiki/Hussar "Hussar") officer Count Zurov (Fandorin's old friend from *[The Winter Queen](/wiki/The_Winter_Queen_%28novel%29 "The Winter Queen (novel)")*), and the charismatic General Sobolev (based on the real\-life [Mikhail Skobelev](/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev "Mikhail Skobelev")). Fandorin is informed that a Turkish agent, Anwar Effendi, is conducting an intelligence operation against the Russian army and might even have penetrated Russian headquarters. This is confirmed when the telegram directing the Russian army to take Plevna is mysteriously changed to an order to take [Nikopol](/wiki/Nikopol%2C_Bulgaria "Nikopol, Bulgaria"), a strategically irrelevant town. Varvara's fiancé Pyotr, who encoded the telegram, is jailed on suspicion of treason. Fandorin is charged with finding Anwar and uncovering the Turkish plot.
Because of the diversion of the Russian army to Nikopol, Ottoman troops arrive in Plevna first. The French reporter, Paladin, sneaks into the Ottoman camp and determines that only a small number of troops are in the town. Based on this information, the Russians attack Plevna, only to be bloodily repulsed because Paladin's data were incorrect and the Turks occupy the town in strength. The Russian army then settles in for a siege.
The Russians' first attempt to break the [siege of Plevna](/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna "Siege of Plevna") ends in defeat when the Turks, who somehow have advance knowledge of the Russian attack plan, concentrate their artillery on the Russian formations before the Russians have a chance to move forward. Fandorin immediately suspects Colonel Lukan, who predicted to Varvara that the attack would fail. He asks Varvara to follow Lukan back to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest "Bucharest") and investigate him, but that effort ends when Paladin kills Lukan in a duel over Varvara's honor. Investigation of his possessions shows that he was indeed taking money from a mysterious 'J.'
In the following attempt to storm Plevna, Sobolev leads his troops in an attack that breaks through Plevna's defenses and finally enters the city, but he is unable to advance further due to insufficient forces. He sends several messengers to headquarters to request reinforcements, but all are killed in the fray. In the end, Count Zurov breaks through to the Russian side, but after meeting the journalists at their observation outpost disappears on his way to the headquarters and Sobolev, out of ammunition, is forced to withdraw. Later, a search party finds Zurov murdered on the battlefield, apparently stabbed by [gendarme](/wiki/Special_Corps_of_Gendarmes "Special Corps of Gendarmes") Colonel Kazanzaki, whom the dying Zurov managed to shoot. Pyotr unsuccessfully tries to hang himself, feeling responsibility for the carnage and defeat as he left the telegram unguarded when he went to welcome Varya and then sent it without checking; for the spy, knowing the not too strong Russian cipher, it was easy to replace it.
Three attempts to storm Plevna having failed, the Russian and Romanian armies besiege the city. By December, the Turks inside Plevna are starving. Varvara, on her way back from the hospital where she had been sent due to a case of [typhus](/wiki/Typhus "Typhus"), encounters McLaughlin, the Irish reporter, who informs her that he has been tipped off that the Turks will surrender that night in a distant sector. She tells Fandorin, who guesses correctly that the Turks are not surrendering but trying to confuse the Russian army so they can stage a breakout. Thanks to his last\-minute warning to Sobolev, the Russians manage to repel the attack after a fierce fight, the Turks in Plevna surrender, and McLaughlin, who has disappeared, is assumed to be the spy.
In the aftermath, Fandorin and Varvara are summoned to the presence of Emperor [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia "Alexander II of Russia") and his [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Russian_Empire "Chancellor of the Russian Empire") [Alexander Gorchakov](/wiki/Alexander_Mikhailovich_Gorchakov "Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov"). Both the Emperor and Chancellor are furious at the treachery of McLaughlin. They believe him to have acted under direct orders of the British government, which – while ostensibly neutral – is in fact determined to prevent Russia from gaining a decisive victory over the Turks. Fandorin is dispatched to [London](/wiki/London "London") to track down McLaughlin and either kidnap him, bribe him to change sides by the promise of a Russian estate, or at least denounce and discredit him in British public opinion. As later seen, Fandorin takes up the mission while having doubts – which he does not voice – as to McLaughlin's guilt.
In his absence Varvara, less and less enthusiastic about her fiancé and more and more intrigued by the dashing general Sobolev, accompanies the army as it advances through Bulgaria to [Adrianople](/wiki/Adrianople "Adrianople"). Shortly thereafter, the Turks sue for peace, and negotiations commence. At the train station, where Sobolev has his headquarters, Paladin suggests that they ride the train into [San Stefano](/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y "Yeşilköy"), the undefended western suburb of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople"). Sobolev agrees, and he, Paladin, Varvara, and his entourage all ride in to San Stefano accompanied by one Russian battalion.
En route Sobolev tells Varvara that after the war he intends to divorce his wife and proposes to then marry Varvara. She has very mixed feelings about this proposal, but before she has time to respond the train arrives in San Stefano and Sobolev must give his full attention to securing control of the town. The Russians set up headquarters in a bank building, and Paladin has convinced General Sobolev to advance into Constantinople – when Fandorin suddenly appears and unmasks "Charles Paladin", the French journalist, as Anwar Effendi, the master Turkish spy.
Fandorin recounts his investigation and notes how nobody at Paladin's newspaper had ever seen him and how Paladin's stories for years had been filed from cities where Anwar was known to be. His earliest byline "[Paladin](/wiki/Paladin "Paladin") d'Hevrais" is a reference to Anwar's birthplace [Hef\-rais](/wiki/Hef-rais "Hef-rais") in [Bosnia](/wiki/Bosnia_Vilayet "Bosnia Vilayet"). (In the Russian original, the name is Charles d'Hevrais, Paladin being Bromfield's change.) Fandorin points out that it was Paladin who had distracted Peter Yablokov from encrypting the order to attack Plevna by telling him Varvara had arrived, thus gaining the opportunity to change the text from "Plevna" to "Nikopol". Having exposed Paladin, Fandorin now clears the name of McLaughlin – who was no spy, but an honest journalist, and far from being in the British government's pay, he was an [Irish nationalist](/wiki/Irish_nationalism "Irish nationalism"). McLaughlin disappeared, not because he ran away but because Paladin had him ruthlessly killed and his body disposed of.
Paladin/Anwar admits his identity, but then draws a gun and drags Varvara as a hostage into the bank's vault. Inside the vault, Anwar tells Varvara that after Sobolev entering Constantinople, the [British fleet off the coast would open fire](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29%23Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)#Intervention by the Great Powers") and Western powers would have declared war to Russia, bringing ruin to it. Even so, a Turkish regiment is advancing into San Stefano, originally planned to strike at Sobolev's rear.
In the meantime, Anwar explains to Varvara that everything he has been doing is in the name of his ideals. His purpose is to defend the development of [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights"), [reason](/wiki/Reason "Reason"), [tolerance](/wiki/Toleration "Toleration") and non\-violent progress in the [Western world](/wiki/Western_world "Western world") against the expansion of the despotic and barbaric [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_empire "Russian empire"). His fatherland [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), which he deeply loves, is nevertheless the [chess piece](/wiki/Chess_piece "Chess piece") that he has planned to sacrifice or at least risk in his [gambit](/wiki/Gambit "Gambit") in order to achieve a greater purpose – namely, to "protect humanity from the Russian threat".
Anwar, a believer in Evolution rather than Revolution, dislikes both the present [Romanov Dynasty](/wiki/House_of_Romanov "House of Romanov") ruling Russia and the Russian revolutionaries with whom Varvara sympathizes, and predicts that in future there will arise in Russia a dangerous force "taking in the worst from both the East and the West" \- a kind of premonition of [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"). Varvara angrily objects to Anwar's condemnation of Russia, stating that it has great literature as exemplified in [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy "Tolstoy") and [Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Dostoyevsky "Dostoyevsky"). Anwar counters that Russian literature is pretty good, but in general literature is a toy and can't be very important. He remarks that despite the absence of great literature in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland"), life there is much more dignified than in Russia. In an aside, Anwar admits to being "a bit" in love with Varvara – though, given his dangerous way of life, he can't afford emotional entanglements.
By the time their conversation has ended, it becomes clear that the Turkish attack has been driven off by Sobolev's soldiers, and Anwar, realizing that he is now trapped, lets Varvara out of the vault and kills himself.
In March 1878, the Russians, Romanians, and Turks sign the [Treaty of San Stefano](/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano "Treaty of San Stefano"), ending the war. Varvara and Pyotr board the train back to Russia, and Fandorin is there to say goodbye before he leaves by ship for a diplomatic post in [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan") – farthest possible from home, the only thing he asked when offered a reward. Varvara congratulates him for defeating Anwar, but Fandorin replies that Anwar did achieve his long\-term goals: the peace treaty which the Russians extracted from the Ottomans is too generous, and the other great powers of Europe will force Russia to settle for less, leaving Russia weakened and impoverished with little to show for the war. Fandorin tries to say goodbye to Varvara but he cannot get the words out, and it is clear that they both have deep feelings for each other. Varvara takes his hand but says nothing, and boards the train, crying as she watches Fandorin while the train pulls away. The novel ends with a newspaper article proving Fandorin right; the European great powers – in particular, Britain – object to the treaty and agree to a [diplomatic conference](/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin "Congress of Berlin") to draft a new settlement much less favorable to Russia.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"[thumb\\|right\\|225px\\|[Nikolai Dmitriev\\-Orenburgsky](/wiki/Nikolai_Dmitriev-Orenburgsky \"Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky\")'s painting of General [Mikhail Skobelev](/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev \"Mikhail Skobelev\") – the real\\-life model for the book's Sobolev – captures the dashing image evident also in Akunin's literary depiction.](/wiki/File:General_Skobelev_%28Dimitriev-Orenburgsky%29.jpg \"General Skobelev (Dimitriev-Orenburgsky).jpg\")",
"The novel opens with a young Russian woman of \"progressive\" sympathies, Varvara Suvorova, traveling to meet her fiancé Pyotr Yablokov, who has volunteered to fight in the war between [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\") and the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). Her guide steals all her luggage and disappears as she approaches the war zone, but she is rescued by Erast Fandorin, who has been fighting as a volunteer to forget his tragedy. He accompanies her to Russian army headquarters to which he's bringing an important message. Upon arrival, Varvara is reunited with Pyotr, and Fandorin delivers his message: the Ottoman army is advancing towards the Bulgarian town of [Plevna](/wiki/Pleven \"Pleven\"), which sits on the road to [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\") and must be taken so the Russian army can easily advance through Bulgaria and into Turkey.",
"Varvara sees little of her fiancé, who is busy with his duties as an army [cryptographer](/wiki/Cryptography \"Cryptography\"), so she spends her time at the correspondents' club, where she meets various interesting characters: [Irish](/wiki/Irish_people \"Irish people\") reporter Seamus McLaughlin, [French](/wiki/French_people \"French people\") reporter Charles Paladin, [Romanian](/wiki/United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia \"United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia\") army [liaison](/wiki/Liaison_officer \"Liaison officer\") Colonel Lukan (unlike Bromfield's English translation, some others use proper Romanian spelling \"Lucan\"), Russian [hussar](/wiki/Hussar \"Hussar\") officer Count Zurov (Fandorin's old friend from *[The Winter Queen](/wiki/The_Winter_Queen_%28novel%29 \"The Winter Queen (novel)\")*), and the charismatic General Sobolev (based on the real\\-life [Mikhail Skobelev](/wiki/Mikhail_Skobelev \"Mikhail Skobelev\")). Fandorin is informed that a Turkish agent, Anwar Effendi, is conducting an intelligence operation against the Russian army and might even have penetrated Russian headquarters. This is confirmed when the telegram directing the Russian army to take Plevna is mysteriously changed to an order to take [Nikopol](/wiki/Nikopol%2C_Bulgaria \"Nikopol, Bulgaria\"), a strategically irrelevant town. Varvara's fiancé Pyotr, who encoded the telegram, is jailed on suspicion of treason. Fandorin is charged with finding Anwar and uncovering the Turkish plot.",
"Because of the diversion of the Russian army to Nikopol, Ottoman troops arrive in Plevna first. The French reporter, Paladin, sneaks into the Ottoman camp and determines that only a small number of troops are in the town. Based on this information, the Russians attack Plevna, only to be bloodily repulsed because Paladin's data were incorrect and the Turks occupy the town in strength. The Russian army then settles in for a siege.",
"The Russians' first attempt to break the [siege of Plevna](/wiki/Siege_of_Plevna \"Siege of Plevna\") ends in defeat when the Turks, who somehow have advance knowledge of the Russian attack plan, concentrate their artillery on the Russian formations before the Russians have a chance to move forward. Fandorin immediately suspects Colonel Lukan, who predicted to Varvara that the attack would fail. He asks Varvara to follow Lukan back to [Bucharest](/wiki/Bucharest \"Bucharest\") and investigate him, but that effort ends when Paladin kills Lukan in a duel over Varvara's honor. Investigation of his possessions shows that he was indeed taking money from a mysterious 'J.'",
"In the following attempt to storm Plevna, Sobolev leads his troops in an attack that breaks through Plevna's defenses and finally enters the city, but he is unable to advance further due to insufficient forces. He sends several messengers to headquarters to request reinforcements, but all are killed in the fray. In the end, Count Zurov breaks through to the Russian side, but after meeting the journalists at their observation outpost disappears on his way to the headquarters and Sobolev, out of ammunition, is forced to withdraw. Later, a search party finds Zurov murdered on the battlefield, apparently stabbed by [gendarme](/wiki/Special_Corps_of_Gendarmes \"Special Corps of Gendarmes\") Colonel Kazanzaki, whom the dying Zurov managed to shoot. Pyotr unsuccessfully tries to hang himself, feeling responsibility for the carnage and defeat as he left the telegram unguarded when he went to welcome Varya and then sent it without checking; for the spy, knowing the not too strong Russian cipher, it was easy to replace it.",
"Three attempts to storm Plevna having failed, the Russian and Romanian armies besiege the city. By December, the Turks inside Plevna are starving. Varvara, on her way back from the hospital where she had been sent due to a case of [typhus](/wiki/Typhus \"Typhus\"), encounters McLaughlin, the Irish reporter, who informs her that he has been tipped off that the Turks will surrender that night in a distant sector. She tells Fandorin, who guesses correctly that the Turks are not surrendering but trying to confuse the Russian army so they can stage a breakout. Thanks to his last\\-minute warning to Sobolev, the Russians manage to repel the attack after a fierce fight, the Turks in Plevna surrender, and McLaughlin, who has disappeared, is assumed to be the spy.",
"In the aftermath, Fandorin and Varvara are summoned to the presence of Emperor [Alexander II](/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia \"Alexander II of Russia\") and his [Chancellor](/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_Russian_Empire \"Chancellor of the Russian Empire\") [Alexander Gorchakov](/wiki/Alexander_Mikhailovich_Gorchakov \"Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov\"). Both the Emperor and Chancellor are furious at the treachery of McLaughlin. They believe him to have acted under direct orders of the British government, which – while ostensibly neutral – is in fact determined to prevent Russia from gaining a decisive victory over the Turks. Fandorin is dispatched to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") to track down McLaughlin and either kidnap him, bribe him to change sides by the promise of a Russian estate, or at least denounce and discredit him in British public opinion. As later seen, Fandorin takes up the mission while having doubts – which he does not voice – as to McLaughlin's guilt.",
"In his absence Varvara, less and less enthusiastic about her fiancé and more and more intrigued by the dashing general Sobolev, accompanies the army as it advances through Bulgaria to [Adrianople](/wiki/Adrianople \"Adrianople\"). Shortly thereafter, the Turks sue for peace, and negotiations commence. At the train station, where Sobolev has his headquarters, Paladin suggests that they ride the train into [San Stefano](/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y \"Yeşilköy\"), the undefended western suburb of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\"). Sobolev agrees, and he, Paladin, Varvara, and his entourage all ride in to San Stefano accompanied by one Russian battalion.\nEn route Sobolev tells Varvara that after the war he intends to divorce his wife and proposes to then marry Varvara. She has very mixed feelings about this proposal, but before she has time to respond the train arrives in San Stefano and Sobolev must give his full attention to securing control of the town. The Russians set up headquarters in a bank building, and Paladin has convinced General Sobolev to advance into Constantinople – when Fandorin suddenly appears and unmasks \"Charles Paladin\", the French journalist, as Anwar Effendi, the master Turkish spy.",
"Fandorin recounts his investigation and notes how nobody at Paladin's newspaper had ever seen him and how Paladin's stories for years had been filed from cities where Anwar was known to be. His earliest byline \"[Paladin](/wiki/Paladin \"Paladin\") d'Hevrais\" is a reference to Anwar's birthplace [Hef\\-rais](/wiki/Hef-rais \"Hef-rais\") in [Bosnia](/wiki/Bosnia_Vilayet \"Bosnia Vilayet\"). (In the Russian original, the name is Charles d'Hevrais, Paladin being Bromfield's change.) Fandorin points out that it was Paladin who had distracted Peter Yablokov from encrypting the order to attack Plevna by telling him Varvara had arrived, thus gaining the opportunity to change the text from \"Plevna\" to \"Nikopol\". Having exposed Paladin, Fandorin now clears the name of McLaughlin – who was no spy, but an honest journalist, and far from being in the British government's pay, he was an [Irish nationalist](/wiki/Irish_nationalism \"Irish nationalism\"). McLaughlin disappeared, not because he ran away but because Paladin had him ruthlessly killed and his body disposed of.",
"Paladin/Anwar admits his identity, but then draws a gun and drags Varvara as a hostage into the bank's vault. Inside the vault, Anwar tells Varvara that after Sobolev entering Constantinople, the [British fleet off the coast would open fire](/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_%281877%E2%80%931878%29%23Intervention_by_the_Great_Powers \"Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)#Intervention by the Great Powers\") and Western powers would have declared war to Russia, bringing ruin to it. Even so, a Turkish regiment is advancing into San Stefano, originally planned to strike at Sobolev's rear.",
"In the meantime, Anwar explains to Varvara that everything he has been doing is in the name of his ideals. His purpose is to defend the development of [human rights](/wiki/Human_rights \"Human rights\"), [reason](/wiki/Reason \"Reason\"), [tolerance](/wiki/Toleration \"Toleration\") and non\\-violent progress in the [Western world](/wiki/Western_world \"Western world\") against the expansion of the despotic and barbaric [Russian Empire](/wiki/Russian_empire \"Russian empire\"). His fatherland [Turkey](/wiki/Turkey \"Turkey\"), which he deeply loves, is nevertheless the [chess piece](/wiki/Chess_piece \"Chess piece\") that he has planned to sacrifice or at least risk in his [gambit](/wiki/Gambit \"Gambit\") in order to achieve a greater purpose – namely, to \"protect humanity from the Russian threat\".",
"Anwar, a believer in Evolution rather than Revolution, dislikes both the present [Romanov Dynasty](/wiki/House_of_Romanov \"House of Romanov\") ruling Russia and the Russian revolutionaries with whom Varvara sympathizes, and predicts that in future there will arise in Russia a dangerous force \"taking in the worst from both the East and the West\" \\- a kind of premonition of [Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\")'s [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"). Varvara angrily objects to Anwar's condemnation of Russia, stating that it has great literature as exemplified in [Tolstoy](/wiki/Tolstoy \"Tolstoy\") and [Dostoyevsky](/wiki/Dostoyevsky \"Dostoyevsky\"). Anwar counters that Russian literature is pretty good, but in general literature is a toy and can't be very important. He remarks that despite the absence of great literature in [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\"), life there is much more dignified than in Russia. In an aside, Anwar admits to being \"a bit\" in love with Varvara – though, given his dangerous way of life, he can't afford emotional entanglements.",
"By the time their conversation has ended, it becomes clear that the Turkish attack has been driven off by Sobolev's soldiers, and Anwar, realizing that he is now trapped, lets Varvara out of the vault and kills himself.",
"In March 1878, the Russians, Romanians, and Turks sign the [Treaty of San Stefano](/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano \"Treaty of San Stefano\"), ending the war. Varvara and Pyotr board the train back to Russia, and Fandorin is there to say goodbye before he leaves by ship for a diplomatic post in [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") – farthest possible from home, the only thing he asked when offered a reward. Varvara congratulates him for defeating Anwar, but Fandorin replies that Anwar did achieve his long\\-term goals: the peace treaty which the Russians extracted from the Ottomans is too generous, and the other great powers of Europe will force Russia to settle for less, leaving Russia weakened and impoverished with little to show for the war. Fandorin tries to say goodbye to Varvara but he cannot get the words out, and it is clear that they both have deep feelings for each other. Varvara takes his hand but says nothing, and boards the train, crying as she watches Fandorin while the train pulls away. The novel ends with a newspaper article proving Fandorin right; the European great powers – in particular, Britain – object to the treaty and agree to a [diplomatic conference](/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin \"Congress of Berlin\") to draft a new settlement much less favorable to Russia.",
""
] |
The Popular Guards' in the 1975–1990 civil war
----------------------------------------------
After the return of [George Hawi](/wiki/George_Hawi "George Hawi"), the Popular Guard joined the [Lebanese National Movement](/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement "Lebanese National Movement") (LNM) – [PLO](/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization "Palestine Liberation Organization") Joint Forces. The LCP militia was soon involved in many street battles against the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon "Christianity in Lebanon") [right\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing "Right-wing") militias of the [Lebanese Front](/wiki/Lebanese_Front "Lebanese Front"). On October 24, 1975, the Popular Guards fought alongside other LNM militias such as the [Al\-Mourabitoun](/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun "Al-Mourabitoun") and the [Nasserite Correctionist Mouvement](/wiki/Union_of_Working_People%27s_Forces-Corrective_Movement "Union of Working People's Forces-Corrective Movement") (NCM), the [Lebanese Arab Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Arab_Army "Lebanese Arab Army") (LAA) and the PLO at the [Battle of the Hotels](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hotels "Battle of the Hotels") in [Downtown Beirut](/wiki/Beirut_Central_District "Beirut Central District"), where they engaged the [Lebanese Front](/wiki/Lebanese_Front "Lebanese Front") militias and the [Army of Free Lebanon](/wiki/Army_of_Free_Lebanon "Army of Free Lebanon") (AFL).
Following the [Israeli invasion of Lebanon](/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War "1982 Lebanon War") of June 1982, the LCP/PG went underground, participating actively in the formation of the [Lebanese National Resistance Front](/wiki/Lebanese_National_Resistance_Front "Lebanese National Resistance Front") (LNRF) guerrilla alliance in September that year and later joining the LNSF in July 1983\. They fought at the 1983–84 [Mountain War](/wiki/Mountain_War_%28Lebanon%29 "Mountain War (Lebanon)") allied with the [Druze](/wiki/Druze_in_Lebanon "Druze in Lebanon") [People's Liberation Army](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_%28Lebanon%29 "People's Liberation Army (Lebanon)") (PLA) of the [Progressive Socialist Party](/wiki/Progressive_Socialist_Party "Progressive Socialist Party") (PSP), Al\-Mourabitoun and [Syrian Socialist Nationalist Party](/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party_in_Lebanon "Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon") (SSNP) militias in the [Chouf District](/wiki/Chouf_District "Chouf District") and at West Beirut against the Christian [Lebanese Forces](/wiki/Lebanese_Forces_%28Militia%29 "Lebanese Forces (Militia)") (LF) militia, the [Lebanese Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Army "Lebanese Army") and the [Multinational Force in Lebanon](/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon "Multinational Force in Lebanon") (MNF).
When the [War of the Camps](/wiki/War_of_the_Camps "War of the Camps") broke out on April–May 1985 at West Beirut, it saw the LCP/PG participating – albeit reluctantly – in a military coalition that gathered the [Druze](/wiki/Druze_in_Lebanon "Druze in Lebanon") PSP/PLA, and the [Shia Muslim](/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon "Shia Islam in Lebanon") [Amal Movement](/wiki/Lebanese_Resistance_Regiments "Lebanese Resistance Regiments"), backed by [Syria](/wiki/Syria "Syria"),Stork, Joe. "[The War of the Camps, The War of the Hostages](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010810)" in *MERIP Reports*, No. 133\. (June 1985\), pp. 3–7, 22\. the [Lebanese Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Armed_Forces "Lebanese Armed Forces"),O'Ballance, *Civil War in Lebanon* (1998\), p. 158\. and anti\-[Arafat](/wiki/Yasser_Arafat "Yasser Arafat") dissident Palestinian guerrilla factions against an alliance of PLO refugee camp militias, the [Nasserite](/wiki/Nasserism "Nasserism") [Al\-Mourabitoun](/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun "Al-Mourabitoun") and [Sixth of February Movement](/wiki/Sixth_of_February_Movement "Sixth of February Movement") militias, the [Communist Action Organization in Lebanon](/wiki/Communist_Action_Organization_in_Lebanon "Communist Action Organization in Lebanon") (OCAL), and the [Kurdish Democratic Party – Lebanon](/wiki/Kurdish_Democratic_Party_%28Lebanon%29 "Kurdish Democratic Party (Lebanon)") (KDP\-L).
In December 1986, the Popular Guards joined the [Arab Democratic Party](/wiki/Arab_Democratic_Party_%28Lebanon%29 "Arab Democratic Party (Lebanon)") (ADP), SSNP and [Ba'ath Party](/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region "Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region") militias in another military coalition backed by the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army "Syrian Army"), which contributed to the decisive defeat of the [Sunni Muslim](/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon "Sunni Islam in Lebanon") [Islamic Unification Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Unification_Movement "Islamic Unification Movement") at the Battle of Tripoli.O'Ballance, *Civil War in Lebanon* (1998\), p. 171\.
### Resistance to the Israeli occupation
On September 16, 1982, the Secretary\-General of the LCP [George Hawi](/wiki/George_Hawi "George Hawi") and the Secretary\-General of the OCAL [Muhsin Ibrahim](/wiki/Muhsin_Ibrahim "Muhsin Ibrahim") announced the creation of the LNRF, which rallied several Lebanese [leftist](/wiki/Leftist "Leftist") and [Pan\-Arabist](/wiki/Pan-Arabism "Pan-Arabism") parties and armed factions to fight the [Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon](/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_southern_Lebanon "Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon").
Popular Guard underground guerrilla cells continued to operate in the [Jabal Amel](/wiki/Jabal_Amel "Jabal Amel") after the end of the civil war, fighting until 2000 alongside the Shia [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah "Hezbollah") and other Lebanese armed groups against the [Israel Defense Forces](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") (IDF) and their [South Lebanese Army](/wiki/South_Lebanese_Army "South Lebanese Army") (SLA) proxies in the Israeli\-controlled "security zone."
|
[
"The Popular Guards' in the 1975–1990 civil war\n----------------------------------------------",
"After the return of [George Hawi](/wiki/George_Hawi \"George Hawi\"), the Popular Guard joined the [Lebanese National Movement](/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement \"Lebanese National Movement\") (LNM) – [PLO](/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization \"Palestine Liberation Organization\") Joint Forces. The LCP militia was soon involved in many street battles against the [Christian](/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon \"Christianity in Lebanon\") [right\\-wing](/wiki/Right-wing \"Right-wing\") militias of the [Lebanese Front](/wiki/Lebanese_Front \"Lebanese Front\"). On October 24, 1975, the Popular Guards fought alongside other LNM militias such as the [Al\\-Mourabitoun](/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun \"Al-Mourabitoun\") and the [Nasserite Correctionist Mouvement](/wiki/Union_of_Working_People%27s_Forces-Corrective_Movement \"Union of Working People's Forces-Corrective Movement\") (NCM), the [Lebanese Arab Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Arab_Army \"Lebanese Arab Army\") (LAA) and the PLO at the [Battle of the Hotels](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hotels \"Battle of the Hotels\") in [Downtown Beirut](/wiki/Beirut_Central_District \"Beirut Central District\"), where they engaged the [Lebanese Front](/wiki/Lebanese_Front \"Lebanese Front\") militias and the [Army of Free Lebanon](/wiki/Army_of_Free_Lebanon \"Army of Free Lebanon\") (AFL).",
"Following the [Israeli invasion of Lebanon](/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War \"1982 Lebanon War\") of June 1982, the LCP/PG went underground, participating actively in the formation of the [Lebanese National Resistance Front](/wiki/Lebanese_National_Resistance_Front \"Lebanese National Resistance Front\") (LNRF) guerrilla alliance in September that year and later joining the LNSF in July 1983\\. They fought at the 1983–84 [Mountain War](/wiki/Mountain_War_%28Lebanon%29 \"Mountain War (Lebanon)\") allied with the [Druze](/wiki/Druze_in_Lebanon \"Druze in Lebanon\") [People's Liberation Army](/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_%28Lebanon%29 \"People's Liberation Army (Lebanon)\") (PLA) of the [Progressive Socialist Party](/wiki/Progressive_Socialist_Party \"Progressive Socialist Party\") (PSP), Al\\-Mourabitoun and [Syrian Socialist Nationalist Party](/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party_in_Lebanon \"Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon\") (SSNP) militias in the [Chouf District](/wiki/Chouf_District \"Chouf District\") and at West Beirut against the Christian [Lebanese Forces](/wiki/Lebanese_Forces_%28Militia%29 \"Lebanese Forces (Militia)\") (LF) militia, the [Lebanese Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Army \"Lebanese Army\") and the [Multinational Force in Lebanon](/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon \"Multinational Force in Lebanon\") (MNF).",
"When the [War of the Camps](/wiki/War_of_the_Camps \"War of the Camps\") broke out on April–May 1985 at West Beirut, it saw the LCP/PG participating – albeit reluctantly – in a military coalition that gathered the [Druze](/wiki/Druze_in_Lebanon \"Druze in Lebanon\") PSP/PLA, and the [Shia Muslim](/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon \"Shia Islam in Lebanon\") [Amal Movement](/wiki/Lebanese_Resistance_Regiments \"Lebanese Resistance Regiments\"), backed by [Syria](/wiki/Syria \"Syria\"),Stork, Joe. \"[The War of the Camps, The War of the Hostages](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010810)\" in *MERIP Reports*, No. 133\\. (June 1985\\), pp. 3–7, 22\\. the [Lebanese Army](/wiki/Lebanese_Armed_Forces \"Lebanese Armed Forces\"),O'Ballance, *Civil War in Lebanon* (1998\\), p. 158\\. and anti\\-[Arafat](/wiki/Yasser_Arafat \"Yasser Arafat\") dissident Palestinian guerrilla factions against an alliance of PLO refugee camp militias, the [Nasserite](/wiki/Nasserism \"Nasserism\") [Al\\-Mourabitoun](/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun \"Al-Mourabitoun\") and [Sixth of February Movement](/wiki/Sixth_of_February_Movement \"Sixth of February Movement\") militias, the [Communist Action Organization in Lebanon](/wiki/Communist_Action_Organization_in_Lebanon \"Communist Action Organization in Lebanon\") (OCAL), and the [Kurdish Democratic Party – Lebanon](/wiki/Kurdish_Democratic_Party_%28Lebanon%29 \"Kurdish Democratic Party (Lebanon)\") (KDP\\-L).",
"In December 1986, the Popular Guards joined the [Arab Democratic Party](/wiki/Arab_Democratic_Party_%28Lebanon%29 \"Arab Democratic Party (Lebanon)\") (ADP), SSNP and [Ba'ath Party](/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region \"Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region\") militias in another military coalition backed by the [Syrian Army](/wiki/Syrian_Army \"Syrian Army\"), which contributed to the decisive defeat of the [Sunni Muslim](/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon \"Sunni Islam in Lebanon\") [Islamic Unification Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Unification_Movement \"Islamic Unification Movement\") at the Battle of Tripoli.O'Ballance, *Civil War in Lebanon* (1998\\), p. 171\\.",
"### Resistance to the Israeli occupation",
"On September 16, 1982, the Secretary\\-General of the LCP [George Hawi](/wiki/George_Hawi \"George Hawi\") and the Secretary\\-General of the OCAL [Muhsin Ibrahim](/wiki/Muhsin_Ibrahim \"Muhsin Ibrahim\") announced the creation of the LNRF, which rallied several Lebanese [leftist](/wiki/Leftist \"Leftist\") and [Pan\\-Arabist](/wiki/Pan-Arabism \"Pan-Arabism\") parties and armed factions to fight the [Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon](/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_southern_Lebanon \"Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon\").",
"Popular Guard underground guerrilla cells continued to operate in the [Jabal Amel](/wiki/Jabal_Amel \"Jabal Amel\") after the end of the civil war, fighting until 2000 alongside the Shia [Hezbollah](/wiki/Hezbollah \"Hezbollah\") and other Lebanese armed groups against the [Israel Defense Forces](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\") (IDF) and their [South Lebanese Army](/wiki/South_Lebanese_Army \"South Lebanese Army\") (SLA) proxies in the Israeli\\-controlled \"security zone.\"",
""
] |
Overview
--------
Motivational interviewing (MI) is a [person\-centered strategy](/wiki/Person-centered_therapy "Person-centered therapy").{{cite journal \|last1\=Resnicow \|first1\=Ken \|last2\=McMaster \|first2\=Fiona \|date\=March 2012 \|title\=Motivational Interviewing: moving from why to how with autonomy support \|journal\=\[\[International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity]] \|volume\=9 \|pages\=19 \|doi\=10\.1186/1479\-5868\-9\-19\|pmid\=22385702 \|pmc\=3330017 \|doi\-access\=free }} It is used to elicit patient [motivation](/wiki/Motivation "Motivation") to change a specific negative behavior. MI engages clients, elicits change talk and evokes patient motivation to make positive changes. For example, change talk can be elicited by asking the patient questions such as: "How might you like things to be different?" or "How does \_\_\_\_\_\_ interfere with things that you would like to do?"
Unlike clinical interventions and treatment, MI is the technique where the interviewer (clinician) assists the interviewee (patient) in changing a behavior by expressing their acceptance of the interviewee without judgement. By this, MI incorporates the idea that every single patient may be in differing stages of readiness levels and may need to act accordingly to the patient's levels and current needs.{{cite journal \|last1\=Handmaker \|first1\=N.S. \|last2\=Miller \|first2\=W.R. \|last3\=Manicke \|first3\=M \|title\=Findings of a pilot study of motivational interviewing with pregnant drinkers \|journal\=Journal of Studies on Alcohol \|date\=1999 \|volume\=60 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=285–287 \|doi\=10\.15288/jsa.1999\.60\.285 \|pmid\=10091968 }} Change may occur quickly or may take considerable time, depending on the client. Knowledge alone is usually not sufficient to motivate change within a client, and challenges in maintaining change should be thought of as the rule, not the exception. The incorporation of MI can help patients resolve their uncertainties and hesitancies that may stop them from their inherent want of change in relation to a certain behavior or habit. At the same time, it can be seen that MI ensures that the participants are viewed more as team members to solve a problem rather than a clinician and patient. Hence, this technique can be attributed to a collaboration that respects sense of self and autonomy.
To be more successful at motivational interviewing, a clinician must have a strong sense of "purpose, clear strategies and skills for such purposes". This ensures that the clinician knows what goals they are trying to achieve prior to entering into motivational interviewing. Additionally, clinicians need to have well\-rounded and established interaction skills including asking open ended questions, reflective listening, affirming and reiterating statements back to the patient.{{cite journal \|last1\=Levensky \|first1\=Eric Ross \|last2\=Forcehimes \|first2\=Alyssa \|last3\=O'Donohue \|first3\=William T. \|last4\=Beitz \|first4\=Kendra \|date\=October 2007 \|title\=Motivational interviewing: an evidence\-based approach to counseling helps patients follow treatment recommendations \|journal\=The American Journal of Nursing \|volume\=107 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=50–58; quiz 58–59 \|doi\=10\.1097/01\.NAJ.0000292202\.06571\.24 \|pmid\=17895731}} Such skills are used in a dynamic where the clinician actively listens to the patient then repackages their statements back to them while highlighting what they have done well. In this way, it can improve their self\-confidence for change.
Furthermore, at the same time the clinician needs to keep in mind the following five principles when practicing MI.Miller, W.R., Zweben, A., DiClemente, C.C., Rychtarik, R.G. (1992\) Motivational Enhancement Therapy Manual. Washington, DC: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.{{cite book\|last\=Miller\|first\=W.R.\|author2\=Rollnick S\|title\=Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior\|year\=1991\|location\=New York\|publisher\=Guilford Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-89862\-566\-0}}
### Express empathy
This means to listen and express [empathy](/wiki/Empathy "Empathy") to patients through the use of [reflective listening](/wiki/Reflective_listening "Reflective listening").{{Cite book \|last\= Heather \|first\= Nick \|author2\= Tim Stockwell \|title\= The essential handbook of treatment and prevention of alcohol problems \|publisher\= \[\[John Wiley \& Sons]] \|year\= 2004 \|isbn\= 0\-470\-86296\-3 \|url\-access\= registration \|url\= https://archive.org/details/essentialhandboo0000unse }} In this step, the clinician listens and presents ideas the patient has discussed in a different way, rather than telling the patient what to do. This hopes to ensure that the patient feels respected and that there are no judgments given when they express their thoughts, feelings and experiences but instead, shows the patient that the clinician is genuinely interested about the patient and their circumstances.{{cite journal \|last1\=Hall \|first1\=Kate \|last2\=Gibbie \|first2\=Tania \|last3\=Lubman \|first3\=Dan I. \|date\=September 2012 \|title\=Motivational interviewing techniques: facilitating behaviour change in the general practice setting \|journal\=\[\[Australian Family Physician]] \|volume\=41 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=660–667\|pmid\=22962639 }} This aims to strengthen the relationship between the two parties and ensures it is a collaboration,{{cite journal \|last1\=Rollnick \|first1\=Stephen \|last2\=Butler \|first2\=Christopher C. \|last3\=Kinnersley \|first3\=Paul \|last4\=Gregory \|first4\=John \|last5\=Mash \|first5\=Bob \|date\=April 2010 \|title\=Motivational interviewing \|journal\=\[\[BMJ]] \|volume\=340 \|pages\=c1900 \|doi\=10\.1136/bmj.c1900 \|pmid\=20423957\|s2cid\=37786647 \|url\=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/27844/1/Rollnick%202010\.pdf }} and allows the patient to feel that the clinician is supportive and therefore will be more willing to be open about their real thoughts.
### Develop discrepancy
This means to assist patients in developing discrepancies between the current self and what they want to be like in the future after a change has taken place. The main goal of this principle is to increase the patient's awareness that there are consequences to their current behaviors.{{cite web \|url\= https://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/drugtreat\-pubs\-front9\-wk\-toc\~drugtreat\-pubs\-front9\-wk\-secb\~drugtreat\-pubs\-front9\-wk\-secb\-4\~drugtreat\-pubs\-front9\-wk\-secb\-4\-1\|title\=4\.1 Introduction to motivational interviewing \| website\=health.gov.au \|access\-date\=May 20, 2019}} This allows the patient to realize the negative aspects and issues caused by the particular behavior that MI is trying to change. This realization can help and encourage the patient towards a dedication to change as they can see the discrepancy between their current behavior and desired behavior. It is important that the patient be the one making the arguments for change and realize their discrepancies themselves. An effective way to do this is for the clinician to participate in active reflective listening and repacking what the patient has told them and delivering it back to them.
### Avoid arguments
During the course of MI the clinician may be inclined to argue with a patient, especially when they are ambivalent about their change and this is especially true when "[resistance](/wiki/Psychological_resistance "Psychological resistance")" is met from the patient. If the clinician tries to enforce a change, it could exacerbate the patient to become more withdrawn and can cause degeneration of what progress had been made thus far and decrease rapport with the patient. Arguments can cause the patient to become defensive and draw away from the clinician which is counterproductive and diminishes any progress that may have been made. When patients become a little defensive and argumentative, it usually is a sign to change the plan of attack. The biggest progress made towards behavior change is when the patient makes their own arguments instead of the clinician presenting it to them.
### Roll with resistance
"Rolling with resistance" is now an outdated concept in MI; in the third edition of Miller \& Rollnick's textbook *Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change*, the authors indicated that they had completely abandoned the word "resistance" as well as the term "rolling with resistance", due to the term's tendency to blame the client for problems in the therapy process and obscure different aspects of ambivalence.{{cite book \|last1\=Miller \|first1\=William R. \|last2\=Rollnick \|first2\=Stephen \|date\=2013 \|title\=Motivational interviewing: helping people change \|edition\=3rd \|series\=Applications of motivational interviewing \|location\=New York \|publisher\=\[\[Guilford Press]] \|isbn\=9781609182274 \|oclc\=788281018}}{{rp\|196}} "[Resistance](/wiki/Psychological_resistance "Psychological resistance")", as the idea was previously conceptualized before it was abandoned in MI, can come in many forms such as arguing, interrupting, denying and ignoring. Part of successful MI is to approach the "resistance" with professionalism, in a way that is non\-judgmental and allows the patient to once again affirm and know that they have their autonomy{{Cite book \|last\=Rollnick\|first\=Stephen\|author2\=Butler Christopher C \|author3\= Miller William R\|title\=Motivational interviewing in health care: Helping patients change behavior \|publisher\=Guilford Publication\|year\= 2007 \|isbn\= 9781593856120}}{{Page needed\|date\=June 2019}} and that it is their choice when it comes to their change.
### Support self\-efficacy
Strong [self\-efficacy](/wiki/Self-efficacy "Self-efficacy") can be a significant predictor of success in behavior change. In many patients there is an issue of the lack of self\-efficacy. They may have tried multiple times on their own to create a change in their behavior (e.g. trying to cease smoking, losing weight, sleep earlier) and because they have failed it causes them to lose their confidence and hence lowers their self\-efficacy. Therefore, it is clear to see how important it is for the patient to believe that they are self\-efficacious and it is the clinician's role to support them by means of good MI practice and reflective listening. By reflecting on what the patient had told them, the clinician can accentuate the patient's strengths and what they have been successful in (e.g. commending a patient who had stopped smoking for a week instead of straining on the fact they failed). By highlighting and suggesting to the patient areas in which they have been successful, this can be incorporated into future attempts and can improve their confidence and efficacy to believe that they are capable of change.
While there are as many differences in technique, the underlying spirit of the method remains the same and can be characterized in a few key points:
1. Motivation to change is elicited from the client, and is not imposed from outside forces.
2. It is the client's task, not the counsellor's, to articulate and resolve the client's ambivalence.
3. Direct persuasion is not an effective method for resolving ambivalence.
4. The counselling style is generally quiet and elicits information from the client.
5. The counsellor is directive, in that they help the client to examine and resolve ambivalence.
6. Readiness to change is not a trait of the client, but a fluctuating result of interpersonal interaction.
7. The therapeutic relationship resembles a partnership or companionship.
Ultimately, practitioners must recognize that motivational interviewing involves collaboration not confrontation, evocation not education, autonomy rather than authority, and exploration instead of explanation. Effective processes for positive change focus on goals that are small, important to the client, specific, realistic, and oriented in the present and/or future.{{cite book\|last\=Freedman\|first\=J\|author2\=Combs, G.\|title\=Narrative Therapy: The Social Construction of Preferred Realities\|location\=New York\|publisher\=Norton\|year\=1996}}
|
[
"Overview\n--------",
"Motivational interviewing (MI) is a [person\\-centered strategy](/wiki/Person-centered_therapy \"Person-centered therapy\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Resnicow \\|first1\\=Ken \\|last2\\=McMaster \\|first2\\=Fiona \\|date\\=March 2012 \\|title\\=Motivational Interviewing: moving from why to how with autonomy support \\|journal\\=\\[\\[International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity]] \\|volume\\=9 \\|pages\\=19 \\|doi\\=10\\.1186/1479\\-5868\\-9\\-19\\|pmid\\=22385702 \\|pmc\\=3330017 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} It is used to elicit patient [motivation](/wiki/Motivation \"Motivation\") to change a specific negative behavior. MI engages clients, elicits change talk and evokes patient motivation to make positive changes. For example, change talk can be elicited by asking the patient questions such as: \"How might you like things to be different?\" or \"How does \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_\\_ interfere with things that you would like to do?\"",
"Unlike clinical interventions and treatment, MI is the technique where the interviewer (clinician) assists the interviewee (patient) in changing a behavior by expressing their acceptance of the interviewee without judgement. By this, MI incorporates the idea that every single patient may be in differing stages of readiness levels and may need to act accordingly to the patient's levels and current needs.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Handmaker \\|first1\\=N.S. \\|last2\\=Miller \\|first2\\=W.R. \\|last3\\=Manicke \\|first3\\=M \\|title\\=Findings of a pilot study of motivational interviewing with pregnant drinkers \\|journal\\=Journal of Studies on Alcohol \\|date\\=1999 \\|volume\\=60 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=285–287 \\|doi\\=10\\.15288/jsa.1999\\.60\\.285 \\|pmid\\=10091968 }} Change may occur quickly or may take considerable time, depending on the client. Knowledge alone is usually not sufficient to motivate change within a client, and challenges in maintaining change should be thought of as the rule, not the exception. The incorporation of MI can help patients resolve their uncertainties and hesitancies that may stop them from their inherent want of change in relation to a certain behavior or habit. At the same time, it can be seen that MI ensures that the participants are viewed more as team members to solve a problem rather than a clinician and patient. Hence, this technique can be attributed to a collaboration that respects sense of self and autonomy.",
"To be more successful at motivational interviewing, a clinician must have a strong sense of \"purpose, clear strategies and skills for such purposes\". This ensures that the clinician knows what goals they are trying to achieve prior to entering into motivational interviewing. Additionally, clinicians need to have well\\-rounded and established interaction skills including asking open ended questions, reflective listening, affirming and reiterating statements back to the patient.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Levensky \\|first1\\=Eric Ross \\|last2\\=Forcehimes \\|first2\\=Alyssa \\|last3\\=O'Donohue \\|first3\\=William T. \\|last4\\=Beitz \\|first4\\=Kendra \\|date\\=October 2007 \\|title\\=Motivational interviewing: an evidence\\-based approach to counseling helps patients follow treatment recommendations \\|journal\\=The American Journal of Nursing \\|volume\\=107 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=50–58; quiz 58–59 \\|doi\\=10\\.1097/01\\.NAJ.0000292202\\.06571\\.24 \\|pmid\\=17895731}} Such skills are used in a dynamic where the clinician actively listens to the patient then repackages their statements back to them while highlighting what they have done well. In this way, it can improve their self\\-confidence for change.",
"Furthermore, at the same time the clinician needs to keep in mind the following five principles when practicing MI.Miller, W.R., Zweben, A., DiClemente, C.C., Rychtarik, R.G. (1992\\) Motivational Enhancement Therapy Manual. Washington, DC: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.{{cite book\\|last\\=Miller\\|first\\=W.R.\\|author2\\=Rollnick S\\|title\\=Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior\\|year\\=1991\\|location\\=New York\\|publisher\\=Guilford Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89862\\-566\\-0}}",
"### Express empathy",
"This means to listen and express [empathy](/wiki/Empathy \"Empathy\") to patients through the use of [reflective listening](/wiki/Reflective_listening \"Reflective listening\").{{Cite book \\|last\\= Heather \\|first\\= Nick \\|author2\\= Tim Stockwell \\|title\\= The essential handbook of treatment and prevention of alcohol problems \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[John Wiley \\& Sons]] \\|year\\= 2004 \\|isbn\\= 0\\-470\\-86296\\-3 \\|url\\-access\\= registration \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/essentialhandboo0000unse }} In this step, the clinician listens and presents ideas the patient has discussed in a different way, rather than telling the patient what to do. This hopes to ensure that the patient feels respected and that there are no judgments given when they express their thoughts, feelings and experiences but instead, shows the patient that the clinician is genuinely interested about the patient and their circumstances.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Hall \\|first1\\=Kate \\|last2\\=Gibbie \\|first2\\=Tania \\|last3\\=Lubman \\|first3\\=Dan I. \\|date\\=September 2012 \\|title\\=Motivational interviewing techniques: facilitating behaviour change in the general practice setting \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Australian Family Physician]] \\|volume\\=41 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=660–667\\|pmid\\=22962639 }} This aims to strengthen the relationship between the two parties and ensures it is a collaboration,{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Rollnick \\|first1\\=Stephen \\|last2\\=Butler \\|first2\\=Christopher C. \\|last3\\=Kinnersley \\|first3\\=Paul \\|last4\\=Gregory \\|first4\\=John \\|last5\\=Mash \\|first5\\=Bob \\|date\\=April 2010 \\|title\\=Motivational interviewing \\|journal\\=\\[\\[BMJ]] \\|volume\\=340 \\|pages\\=c1900 \\|doi\\=10\\.1136/bmj.c1900 \\|pmid\\=20423957\\|s2cid\\=37786647 \\|url\\=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/27844/1/Rollnick%202010\\.pdf }} and allows the patient to feel that the clinician is supportive and therefore will be more willing to be open about their real thoughts.",
"### Develop discrepancy",
"This means to assist patients in developing discrepancies between the current self and what they want to be like in the future after a change has taken place. The main goal of this principle is to increase the patient's awareness that there are consequences to their current behaviors.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/drugtreat\\-pubs\\-front9\\-wk\\-toc\\~drugtreat\\-pubs\\-front9\\-wk\\-secb\\~drugtreat\\-pubs\\-front9\\-wk\\-secb\\-4\\~drugtreat\\-pubs\\-front9\\-wk\\-secb\\-4\\-1\\|title\\=4\\.1 Introduction to motivational interviewing \\| website\\=health.gov.au \\|access\\-date\\=May 20, 2019}} This allows the patient to realize the negative aspects and issues caused by the particular behavior that MI is trying to change. This realization can help and encourage the patient towards a dedication to change as they can see the discrepancy between their current behavior and desired behavior. It is important that the patient be the one making the arguments for change and realize their discrepancies themselves. An effective way to do this is for the clinician to participate in active reflective listening and repacking what the patient has told them and delivering it back to them.",
"### Avoid arguments",
"During the course of MI the clinician may be inclined to argue with a patient, especially when they are ambivalent about their change and this is especially true when \"[resistance](/wiki/Psychological_resistance \"Psychological resistance\")\" is met from the patient. If the clinician tries to enforce a change, it could exacerbate the patient to become more withdrawn and can cause degeneration of what progress had been made thus far and decrease rapport with the patient. Arguments can cause the patient to become defensive and draw away from the clinician which is counterproductive and diminishes any progress that may have been made. When patients become a little defensive and argumentative, it usually is a sign to change the plan of attack. The biggest progress made towards behavior change is when the patient makes their own arguments instead of the clinician presenting it to them.",
"### Roll with resistance",
"\"Rolling with resistance\" is now an outdated concept in MI; in the third edition of Miller \\& Rollnick's textbook *Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change*, the authors indicated that they had completely abandoned the word \"resistance\" as well as the term \"rolling with resistance\", due to the term's tendency to blame the client for problems in the therapy process and obscure different aspects of ambivalence.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Miller \\|first1\\=William R. \\|last2\\=Rollnick \\|first2\\=Stephen \\|date\\=2013 \\|title\\=Motivational interviewing: helping people change \\|edition\\=3rd \\|series\\=Applications of motivational interviewing \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Guilford Press]] \\|isbn\\=9781609182274 \\|oclc\\=788281018}}{{rp\\|196}} \"[Resistance](/wiki/Psychological_resistance \"Psychological resistance\")\", as the idea was previously conceptualized before it was abandoned in MI, can come in many forms such as arguing, interrupting, denying and ignoring. Part of successful MI is to approach the \"resistance\" with professionalism, in a way that is non\\-judgmental and allows the patient to once again affirm and know that they have their autonomy{{Cite book \\|last\\=Rollnick\\|first\\=Stephen\\|author2\\=Butler Christopher C \\|author3\\= Miller William R\\|title\\=Motivational interviewing in health care: Helping patients change behavior \\|publisher\\=Guilford Publication\\|year\\= 2007 \\|isbn\\= 9781593856120}}{{Page needed\\|date\\=June 2019}} and that it is their choice when it comes to their change.",
"### Support self\\-efficacy",
"Strong [self\\-efficacy](/wiki/Self-efficacy \"Self-efficacy\") can be a significant predictor of success in behavior change. In many patients there is an issue of the lack of self\\-efficacy. They may have tried multiple times on their own to create a change in their behavior (e.g. trying to cease smoking, losing weight, sleep earlier) and because they have failed it causes them to lose their confidence and hence lowers their self\\-efficacy. Therefore, it is clear to see how important it is for the patient to believe that they are self\\-efficacious and it is the clinician's role to support them by means of good MI practice and reflective listening. By reflecting on what the patient had told them, the clinician can accentuate the patient's strengths and what they have been successful in (e.g. commending a patient who had stopped smoking for a week instead of straining on the fact they failed). By highlighting and suggesting to the patient areas in which they have been successful, this can be incorporated into future attempts and can improve their confidence and efficacy to believe that they are capable of change.",
"While there are as many differences in technique, the underlying spirit of the method remains the same and can be characterized in a few key points:\n1. Motivation to change is elicited from the client, and is not imposed from outside forces.\n2. It is the client's task, not the counsellor's, to articulate and resolve the client's ambivalence.\n3. Direct persuasion is not an effective method for resolving ambivalence.\n4. The counselling style is generally quiet and elicits information from the client.\n5. The counsellor is directive, in that they help the client to examine and resolve ambivalence.\n6. Readiness to change is not a trait of the client, but a fluctuating result of interpersonal interaction.\n7. The therapeutic relationship resembles a partnership or companionship.",
"Ultimately, practitioners must recognize that motivational interviewing involves collaboration not confrontation, evocation not education, autonomy rather than authority, and exploration instead of explanation. Effective processes for positive change focus on goals that are small, important to the client, specific, realistic, and oriented in the present and/or future.{{cite book\\|last\\=Freedman\\|first\\=J\\|author2\\=Combs, G.\\|title\\=Narrative Therapy: The Social Construction of Preferred Realities\\|location\\=New York\\|publisher\\=Norton\\|year\\=1996}}",
""
] |
Adaptations
-----------
### Motivational enhancement therapy
{{Main\|Motivational enhancement therapy}}
Motivational enhancement therapy{{cite book \|last\=Miller \|first\=W. R. \|year\=2000 \|chapter\=Motivational enhancement therapy: Description of counseling approach \|editor1\=J. J. Boren \|editor2\=L. S. Onken \|editor3\=K. M. Carroll \|title\=Approaches to Drug Abuse Counseling \|url\=https://archives.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/approachestodacounseling.pdf \|pages\=99–105 \|publisher\=National Institute on Drug Abuse}} is a time\-limited four\-session adaptation used in [Project MATCH](/wiki/Project_MATCH "Project MATCH"), a US\-government\-funded study of treatment for [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28drug%29 "Alcohol (drug)") problems and the Drinkers' Check\-up, which provides normative\-based feedback and explores client motivation to change in light of the feedback.{{cite book \|last1\=Miller \|first1\=W. R. \|last2\=Rollnick \|first2\=S. \|year\=2002 \|title\=Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change \|publisher\=Guilford Press \|isbn\=978\-1572305632 \|edition\=2nd}}
Motivational interviewing is supported by over 200 [randomized controlled trials](/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial "Randomized controlled trial"){{Additional citation needed\|date\=June 2019\|reason\=This source is 28 years old! We need a much newer source for the number of RCTs conducted to date!}} across a range of target populations and behaviors including substance use disorders, health\-promotion behaviours, medical adherence, and mental health issues.
### Pre\-contemplation
Motivational Interviewing with individuals in the pre\-contemplation stage of the [stages of change](/wiki/Transtheoretical_model "Transtheoretical model") represent a use case in which Motivational Interviewing processes excel beyond other methods. If the patient/client/individual is in this stage, they may not be consciously aware of, accepting of, or consider they have a problem. Motivational interviewers in this situation are trained to use processes like rolling with resistance which reduces a client's need to repeat and reframe their own sustain talk. Additionally Motivational Interviewing adapts to this stage by adapting the \*change target\*. Clients starting in pre\-contemplation stage of change are unlikely to jump 3 steps to the action stage of change. By adapting the change target talented Motivational Interviewers can help clients to advance 1 stage of change into the "contemplation stage".
### Motivational interviewing groups
MI groups are highly interactive, focused on positive change, and harness group processes for evoking and supporting positive change. They are delivered in four phases:Wagner, C.C., Ingersoll, K.S., and contributors (2013\). Motivational interviewing in groups. New York: Guilford Press.
1. Engaging the group
2. Evoking member perspectives
3. Broadening perspectives and building momentum for change
4. Moving into action
### Behaviour Change Counselling (BCC)
Behaviour change counselling (BCC) is an adaptation of MI which focuses on promoting behavior change in a healthcare setting using brief consultations. BCC's main goal is to understand the patient's point of view, how they're feeling and their idea of change. It was created with a "more modest goal in mind",{{cite journal \|last1\=Lane \|first1\=Claire \|last2\=Huws\-Thomas \|first2\=Michelle \|last3\=Hood \|first3\=Kerenza \|last4\=Rollnick \|first4\=Stephen \|last5\=Edwards \|first5\=Karen \|last6\=Robling \|first6\=Michael \|title\=Measuring adaptations of motivational interviewing: the development and validation of the behaviour change counselling index (BECCI) \|journal\=Patient Education and Counseling \|date\=2005 \|volume\=56 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=166–173 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.pec.2004\.01\.003\|pmid\=15653245 }} as it simply aims to "help the person talk through the why and how of change" and encourage behavior change. It focuses on patient\-centered care and is based on several overlapping principles of MI, such as respect for patient choice, asking open\-ended questions, empathetic listening and summarizing. Multiple behavior change counselling tools were developed to assess and scale the effectiveness of behaviour change counselling in promoting behavior change such as the Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI) and the Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS).
### Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS)
The Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS) is a tool used to assess lifestyle counselling using BCC, focusing on feedback on the skill achieved. "Items of BCCS were scored on 1\-7 Likert scales and items were tallied into 4 sub\-scales, reflecting the 3 skill\-sets: MI and readiness assessment, [behavior modification](/wiki/Behavior_modification "Behavior modification"), and emotion management".{{cite journal \|last1\=Vallis \|first1\=Michael \|title\=Behaviour Change Counselling—How Do I Know If I Am Doing It Well? The Development of the Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS) \|journal\=Canadian Journal of Diabetes \|date\=2013 \|volume\=37 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=18–26 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jcjd.2013\.01\.005\|pmid\=24070744 \|doi\-access\= }} The data obtained is then presented on: item characteristics, sub\-scale characteristics, interrater reliability, test\-retest reliability and construct validity. Based on a study conducted by Vallis, the results suggest that BCCS is a potentially useful tool in assessing BCC and aid to training practitioners as well as assessing training outcomes.
### Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI)
The Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI) is a BCC tool that assesses general practitioner behavior and incites behavior change through talking about change, encouraging the patient to think about change and respecting the patient's choices in regards to behavior change. BECCI was developed to assess a practitioner's competence in the use of Behaviour Change Counselling (BCC) methods to elicit behavior change. Used primarily for the use of learning practitioners in a simulated environment to practice and learn the skills of BCC. It "provides valuable information about the standard of BCC that practitioners were trained to deliver in studies of BCC as an intervention". Rather than the result and response from the patient, the tool emphasizes and measures the practitioner's behaviors, skills and attitude. Results from the study show that after receiving training in BCC, practitioners show great improvement based on BECCI. However, as BECCI has only been used in a simulated clinical environment, more study is required to assess its reliability in a real patient environment. Furthermore, it focuses heavily on practitioner behavior rather than patient behavior. Therefore, BECCI may be useful for trainers to assess the reliability and effectiveness of BCC skills but further research and use is required, especially in a real consultation environment.
### Technology Assisted Motivational Interview (TAMI)
Technology Assisted Motivational Interview (TAMI) is "used to define adaptations of MI delivered via technology and various types of media".{{cite journal \|last1\=Shingleton \|first1\=Rebecca M. \|last2\=Palfai \|first2\=Tibor P. \|title\=Technology\-delivered adaptations of motivational interviewing for health\-related behaviors: A systematic review of the current research \|journal\=Patient Education and Counseling \|date\=2016 \|volume\=99 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=17–35 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.pec.2015\.08\.005\|pmid\=26298219 \|pmc\=4691359 }} This may include technological devices and creations such as computers, mobile phones, telephones, videos and animations. A review of multiple studies shows the potential effectiveness of the use of technology in delivering motivational interviewing consultations to encourage behavior change. However, some limitations include: the lack of empathy that may be expressed through the use of technology and the lack of face\-to\-face interaction may either produce a positive or negative effect on the patient.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Krukowski\|first1\=Rebecca Anne\|last2\=DiLillo\|first2\=Vicki\|last3\=Ingle\|first3\=Krista\|last4\=Harvey\|first4\=Jean Ruth\|last5\=West\|first5\=Delia Smith\|date\=2016\-04\-19\|title\=Design and Methods of a Synchronous Online Motivational Interviewing Intervention for Weight Management\|journal\=JMIR Research Protocols\|language\=en\|volume\=5\|issue\=2\|pages\=e69\|doi\=10\.2196/resprot.5382\|issn\=1929\-0748\|pmc\=4858594\|pmid\=27095604 \|doi\-access\=free }} Further studies are required to determine whether face\-to\-face consultations to deliver MI is more effective in comparison to those delivered via technology.
|
[
"Adaptations\n-----------",
"### Motivational enhancement therapy",
"{{Main\\|Motivational enhancement therapy}}\nMotivational enhancement therapy{{cite book \\|last\\=Miller \\|first\\=W. R. \\|year\\=2000 \\|chapter\\=Motivational enhancement therapy: Description of counseling approach \\|editor1\\=J. J. Boren \\|editor2\\=L. S. Onken \\|editor3\\=K. M. Carroll \\|title\\=Approaches to Drug Abuse Counseling \\|url\\=https://archives.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/approachestodacounseling.pdf \\|pages\\=99–105 \\|publisher\\=National Institute on Drug Abuse}} is a time\\-limited four\\-session adaptation used in [Project MATCH](/wiki/Project_MATCH \"Project MATCH\"), a US\\-government\\-funded study of treatment for [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28drug%29 \"Alcohol (drug)\") problems and the Drinkers' Check\\-up, which provides normative\\-based feedback and explores client motivation to change in light of the feedback.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Miller \\|first1\\=W. R. \\|last2\\=Rollnick \\|first2\\=S. \\|year\\=2002 \\|title\\=Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change \\|publisher\\=Guilford Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1572305632 \\|edition\\=2nd}}",
"Motivational interviewing is supported by over 200 [randomized controlled trials](/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial \"Randomized controlled trial\"){{Additional citation needed\\|date\\=June 2019\\|reason\\=This source is 28 years old! We need a much newer source for the number of RCTs conducted to date!}} across a range of target populations and behaviors including substance use disorders, health\\-promotion behaviours, medical adherence, and mental health issues.",
"### Pre\\-contemplation",
"Motivational Interviewing with individuals in the pre\\-contemplation stage of the [stages of change](/wiki/Transtheoretical_model \"Transtheoretical model\") represent a use case in which Motivational Interviewing processes excel beyond other methods. If the patient/client/individual is in this stage, they may not be consciously aware of, accepting of, or consider they have a problem. Motivational interviewers in this situation are trained to use processes like rolling with resistance which reduces a client's need to repeat and reframe their own sustain talk. Additionally Motivational Interviewing adapts to this stage by adapting the \\*change target\\*. Clients starting in pre\\-contemplation stage of change are unlikely to jump 3 steps to the action stage of change. By adapting the change target talented Motivational Interviewers can help clients to advance 1 stage of change into the \"contemplation stage\".",
"### Motivational interviewing groups",
"MI groups are highly interactive, focused on positive change, and harness group processes for evoking and supporting positive change. They are delivered in four phases:Wagner, C.C., Ingersoll, K.S., and contributors (2013\\). Motivational interviewing in groups. New York: Guilford Press.\n1. Engaging the group\n2. Evoking member perspectives\n3. Broadening perspectives and building momentum for change\n4. Moving into action",
"### Behaviour Change Counselling (BCC)",
"Behaviour change counselling (BCC) is an adaptation of MI which focuses on promoting behavior change in a healthcare setting using brief consultations. BCC's main goal is to understand the patient's point of view, how they're feeling and their idea of change. It was created with a \"more modest goal in mind\",{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Lane \\|first1\\=Claire \\|last2\\=Huws\\-Thomas \\|first2\\=Michelle \\|last3\\=Hood \\|first3\\=Kerenza \\|last4\\=Rollnick \\|first4\\=Stephen \\|last5\\=Edwards \\|first5\\=Karen \\|last6\\=Robling \\|first6\\=Michael \\|title\\=Measuring adaptations of motivational interviewing: the development and validation of the behaviour change counselling index (BECCI) \\|journal\\=Patient Education and Counseling \\|date\\=2005 \\|volume\\=56 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=166–173 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.pec.2004\\.01\\.003\\|pmid\\=15653245 }} as it simply aims to \"help the person talk through the why and how of change\" and encourage behavior change. It focuses on patient\\-centered care and is based on several overlapping principles of MI, such as respect for patient choice, asking open\\-ended questions, empathetic listening and summarizing. Multiple behavior change counselling tools were developed to assess and scale the effectiveness of behaviour change counselling in promoting behavior change such as the Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI) and the Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS).",
"### Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS)",
"The Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS) is a tool used to assess lifestyle counselling using BCC, focusing on feedback on the skill achieved. \"Items of BCCS were scored on 1\\-7 Likert scales and items were tallied into 4 sub\\-scales, reflecting the 3 skill\\-sets: MI and readiness assessment, [behavior modification](/wiki/Behavior_modification \"Behavior modification\"), and emotion management\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Vallis \\|first1\\=Michael \\|title\\=Behaviour Change Counselling—How Do I Know If I Am Doing It Well? The Development of the Behaviour Change Counselling Scale (BCCS) \\|journal\\=Canadian Journal of Diabetes \\|date\\=2013 \\|volume\\=37 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=18–26 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jcjd.2013\\.01\\.005\\|pmid\\=24070744 \\|doi\\-access\\= }} The data obtained is then presented on: item characteristics, sub\\-scale characteristics, interrater reliability, test\\-retest reliability and construct validity. Based on a study conducted by Vallis, the results suggest that BCCS is a potentially useful tool in assessing BCC and aid to training practitioners as well as assessing training outcomes.",
"### Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI)",
"The Behaviour Change Counselling Index (BECCI) is a BCC tool that assesses general practitioner behavior and incites behavior change through talking about change, encouraging the patient to think about change and respecting the patient's choices in regards to behavior change. BECCI was developed to assess a practitioner's competence in the use of Behaviour Change Counselling (BCC) methods to elicit behavior change. Used primarily for the use of learning practitioners in a simulated environment to practice and learn the skills of BCC. It \"provides valuable information about the standard of BCC that practitioners were trained to deliver in studies of BCC as an intervention\". Rather than the result and response from the patient, the tool emphasizes and measures the practitioner's behaviors, skills and attitude. Results from the study show that after receiving training in BCC, practitioners show great improvement based on BECCI. However, as BECCI has only been used in a simulated clinical environment, more study is required to assess its reliability in a real patient environment. Furthermore, it focuses heavily on practitioner behavior rather than patient behavior. Therefore, BECCI may be useful for trainers to assess the reliability and effectiveness of BCC skills but further research and use is required, especially in a real consultation environment.",
"### Technology Assisted Motivational Interview (TAMI)",
"Technology Assisted Motivational Interview (TAMI) is \"used to define adaptations of MI delivered via technology and various types of media\".{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Shingleton \\|first1\\=Rebecca M. \\|last2\\=Palfai \\|first2\\=Tibor P. \\|title\\=Technology\\-delivered adaptations of motivational interviewing for health\\-related behaviors: A systematic review of the current research \\|journal\\=Patient Education and Counseling \\|date\\=2016 \\|volume\\=99 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=17–35 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.pec.2015\\.08\\.005\\|pmid\\=26298219 \\|pmc\\=4691359 }} This may include technological devices and creations such as computers, mobile phones, telephones, videos and animations. A review of multiple studies shows the potential effectiveness of the use of technology in delivering motivational interviewing consultations to encourage behavior change. However, some limitations include: the lack of empathy that may be expressed through the use of technology and the lack of face\\-to\\-face interaction may either produce a positive or negative effect on the patient.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Krukowski\\|first1\\=Rebecca Anne\\|last2\\=DiLillo\\|first2\\=Vicki\\|last3\\=Ingle\\|first3\\=Krista\\|last4\\=Harvey\\|first4\\=Jean Ruth\\|last5\\=West\\|first5\\=Delia Smith\\|date\\=2016\\-04\\-19\\|title\\=Design and Methods of a Synchronous Online Motivational Interviewing Intervention for Weight Management\\|journal\\=JMIR Research Protocols\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=e69\\|doi\\=10\\.2196/resprot.5382\\|issn\\=1929\\-0748\\|pmc\\=4858594\\|pmid\\=27095604 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} Further studies are required to determine whether face\\-to\\-face consultations to deliver MI is more effective in comparison to those delivered via technology.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early history
[thumb\|left\|[Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan")\-bound [R179](/wiki/R179_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R179 (New York City Subway car)") A train arriving at [Broad Channel](/wiki/Broad_Channel_station "Broad Channel station")](/wiki/File:MTA_NYC_Subway_A_train_arriving_at_Broad_Channel.jpg "MTA NYC Subway A train arriving at Broad Channel.jpg")
The A and AA were the first services on the [IND Eighth Avenue Line](/wiki/IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line "IND Eighth Avenue Line") when it opened on September 10, 1932\. The [Independent Subway System](/wiki/Independent_Subway_System "Independent Subway System") (IND) used single letters to refer to express services and double letters for local services. The A ran express between [207th Street](/wiki/Inwood%E2%80%93207th_Street_station "Inwood–207th Street station") and [Chambers Street](/wiki/Chambers_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "Chambers Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)"), and the AA ran local between [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_station_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "168th Street station (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") and Chambers Street, known at the time as Hudson Terminal. During late\-night hours (from 1:45 a.m. to 5:45 a.m.) and on Sundays, the A did not run and the AA made all stops along the line.{{cite news \|title\=Gay Midnight Crowd Rides First Trains in New Subway \|url\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=FA0D13F7395513738DDDA90994D1405B828FF1D3 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=September 10, 1932 \|page\=1 \|access\-date\=February 5, 2017 \|archive\-date\=September 12, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912162150/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=FA0D13F7395513738DDDA90994D1405B828FF1D3 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Fg4KAQAAMAAJ\&q\=fulton\+street\+express\+e\+train \|title\=A History of the New York City Subway System \|last1\=Cunningham \|first1\=Joseph \|last2\=DeHart \|first2\=Leonard O. \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=J. Schmidt, R. Giglio, and K. Lang \|language\=en \|access\-date\=November 23, 2020 \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022135/https://books.google.com/books?id\=Fg4KAQAAMAAJ\&q\=fulton\+street\+express\+e\+train \|url\-status\=live }}{{Rp\|15}}
The A was extended to [Jay Street–Borough Hall](/wiki/Jay_Street%E2%80%93MetroTech_station "Jay Street–MetroTech station") when the [Cranberry Street Tunnel](/wiki/Cranberry_Street_Tunnel "Cranberry Street Tunnel") to [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn") opened on February 1, 1933,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/01/archives/city\-opens\-subway\-to\-brooklyn\-today\-regular\-express\-service\-on\-the.html \|title\=CITY OPENS SUBWAY TO BROOKLYN TODAY; Regular Express Service on the Extension of Independent Line Starts at 6:05 A.M. 3 LARGE STATIONS ADDED Fast Trains to Make Run From 207th St. To Borough Hall in 37 Minutes. 43 MORE MEN ON JOBS Officials Look for Rise in Income as Financial District Is Brought Into New Route. \|date\=February 1, 1933 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=March 27, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327094512/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/01/archives/city\-opens\-subway\-to\-brooklyn\-today\-regular\-express\-service\-on\-the.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/01/29/archives/new\-subway\-link\-opens\-wednesday\-independent\-line\-will\-offer\-express.html \|title\=NEW SUBWAY LINK OPENS WEDNESDAY; Independent Line Will Offer Express Service to Borough Hall in Brooklyn. KEY STATION TO BE ADDED Broadway\-Nassau St. Platform to Connect With B.M.T. And East and West Side I.R.T. ADDED REVENUE EXPECTED 2\-Way Rush\-Hour Traffic Hoped For by Officials – Local Trains to Be Speeded Slightly. \|date\=January 29, 1933 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=December 16, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216145354/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/01/29/archives/new\-subway\-link\-opens\-wednesday\-independent\-line\-will\-offer\-express.html \|url\-status\=live }} and to [Bergen Street](/wiki/Bergen_Street_%28IND_Culver_Line%29 "Bergen Street (IND Culver Line)"), when the extension opened on March 20\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/03/12/archives/city\-subway\-opens\-new\-link\-march\-20\-brooklyn\-extension\-to\-bergen.html \|title\=CITY SUBWAY OPENS NEW LINK MARCH 20; Brooklyn Extension to Bergen and Smith Streets to Add One More Station. RISE IN REVENUE CERTAIN Further Cut Into Traffic of Rival Systems at Terminal Point Is Predicted. GROWTH WILL CONTINUE Station\-By\-Siation Completion to Church Avenue Before September Is Planned. \|date\=March 12, 1933 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=June 14, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614044850/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/03/12/archives/city\-subway\-opens\-new\-link\-march\-20\-brooklyn\-extension\-to\-bergen.html \|url\-status\=live }} On July 1, the A began running express at all times, stopping at 155th Street and 163rd Street during late nights.{{Rp\|82}} The A was extended to [Church Avenue](/wiki/Church_Avenue_%28IND_Culver_Line%29 "Church Avenue (IND Culver Line)") on October 7\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.erictb.info/linehistory.html \|title\=NYCT Line by Line History \|work\=erictb.info \|access\-date\=April 23, 2013 \|archive\-date\=March 4, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100921/http://www.erictb.info/linehistory.html \|url\-status\=live }}
On April 9, 1936, the [IND Fulton Street Line](/wiki/IND_Fulton_Street_Line "IND Fulton Street Line") was opened to [Rockaway Avenue](/wiki/Rockaway_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Rockaway Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/09/archives/new\-subway\-link\-opened\-by\-mayor\-he\-tells\-15000\-in\-brooklyn\-it\-will.html \|title\=NEW SUBWAY LINK OPENED BY MAYOR; He Tells 15,000 In Brooklyn It Will Be Extended to Queens When Red Tape Is Cut. \|date\=April 9, 1936 \|work\=The New York Times \|access\-date\=April 25, 2018 \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|archive\-date\=April 1, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401082810/https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/09/archives/new\-subway\-link\-opened\-by\-mayor\-he\-tells\-15000\-in\-brooklyn\-it\-will.html \|url\-status\=live }} The 1936 extension played an integral part in the establishment of [Bedford\-Stuyvesant](/wiki/Bedford-Stuyvesant "Bedford-Stuyvesant") as Brooklyn's central [African American](/wiki/African_American "African American") community. The A train connected [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem "Harlem"), Manhattan's central African American community, to areas of Bedford\-Stuyvesant that provided residential opportunities for African Americans not found throughout the rest of New York City.Echanove, Matias. ["Bed\-Stuy on the Move"](http://urbanology.org/BedStuy/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916131340/http://urbanology.org/BedStuy/ \|date\=September 16, 2017 }}. Master thesis. Urban Planning Program. *Columbia University*. Urbanology.org. 2003\.
On December 30, 1946, and November 28, 1948, the line was extended to Broadway–East New York (now [Broadway Junction](/wiki/Broadway_Junction_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Broadway Junction (IND Fulton Street Line)")) and [Euclid Avenue](/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Euclid Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)"), respectively.{{cite web \|last\=Williams \|first\=Keith \|title\=Weaving the Broadway Junction Tapestry \|url\=http://theweeklynabe.wordpress.com/2012/08/06/history\-of\-broadway\-junction\-brooklyn/ \|work\=The Weekly Nabe \|access\-date\=August 6, 2012}}{{Rp\|82}} On October 24, 1949, express service in Brooklyn to Broadway–East New York began with the A running express during rush hours, with the {{NYCS\|E}} extended to provide local service.{{cite news \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/20/96476347\.pdf \|title\=IND Faster Service Will Start Sunday \|date\=October 20, 1949 \|access\-date\=February 20, 2016 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022031/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/20/96476347\.html?pdf\_redirect\=true\&site\=false \|url\-status\=live }}
### Extensions to Ozone Park and the Rockaways
[thumb\|left\|A poster commemorating the opening of the IND Rockaway Line.](/wiki/File:Subway_Goes_To_Rockaway.gif "Subway Goes To Rockaway.gif")
On April 29, 1956, [Grant Avenue](/wiki/Grant_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Grant Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)") was opened and the line was extended over the [BMT Fulton Street Line](/wiki/BMT_Fulton_Street_Line "BMT Fulton Street Line") to [Lefferts Boulevard](/wiki/Ozone_Park%E2%80%93Lefferts_Boulevard_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Ozone Park–Lefferts Boulevard (IND Fulton Street Line)").{{cite web \|title\=Notice To Passengers \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/50066566666/in/dateposted/ \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=July 6, 2020 \|date\=April 1956 \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022119/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/50066566666/in/dateposted/ \|url\-status\=live }} On weekdays except midnights, alternate trains terminated at Lefferts Boulevard and at Euclid Avenue. During weekends, they terminated at Euclid Avenue with a shuttle to Lefferts Boulevard.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1956/04/30/archives/first\-leg\-of\-rockaways\-transit\-opened\-at\-cost\-of\-10154702\-station.html \|title\=First Leg of Rockaways Transit Opened at Cost of $10,154,702; Station and Subway Section Put Into Use—Service Is Expected on June 28 \|date\=April 30, 1956 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=September 22, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922002010/http://www.nytimes.com/1956/04/30/archives/first\-leg\-of\-rockaways\-transit\-opened\-at\-cost\-of\-10154702\-station.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Two months later, on June 28, 1956, the former [Long Island Rail Road](/wiki/Long_Island_Rail_Road "Long Island Rail Road") [Rockaway Beach Branch](/wiki/Rockaway_Beach_Branch "Rockaway Beach Branch"), having been rebuilt to subway specifications,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.prrths.com/Hagley/PRR1956%20Dec%2004\.pdf \|title\=PRR Chronology, 1956 \|access\-date\=May 6, 2014 \|archive\-date\=October 14, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014021404/http://www.prrths.com/Hagley/PRR1956%20Dec%2004\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} {{small\|(45\.9 \[\[Kibibyte\|KiB]])}}, December 2004 Edition began service to [Rockaway Park](/wiki/Rockaway_Park%E2%80%93Beach_116th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street (IND Rockaway Line)"){{cite web \|url\=http://arrts\-arrchives.com/july261905d.html \|title\=Rockaway Park \|work\=arrts\-arrchives.com \|access\-date\=May 6, 2014 \|archive\-date\=October 16, 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016071543/http://www.arrts\-arrchives.com/july261905d.html \|url\-status\=live }} and [Wavecrest (Beach 25th Street)](/wiki/Beach_25th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Beach 25th Street (IND Rockaway Line)").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.trainsarefun.com/lirrphotos/lirrstationshistory.htm \|title\=Long Island Station History \|work\=trainsarefun.com \|access\-date\=May 6, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526225709/http://www.trainsarefun.com/lirrphotos/lirrstationshistory.htm \|archive\-date\=May 26, 2017 \|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1956/06/29/archives/free\-ride\-opens\-rockaways\-line\-fete\-marks\-longest\-single\-extension.html \|title\=FREE RIDE OPENS ROCKAWAYS LINE; Fete Marks Longest Single Extension of Rapid Transit in History of the City Commissioner's Children Help Mayor Arrives Late \|last\=Freejman) \|first\=Ira Henry \|date\=June 29, 1956 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=June 20, 2016 \|archive\-date\=September 22, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922002639/http://www.nytimes.com/1956/06/29/archives/free\-ride\-opens\-rockaways\-line\-fete\-marks\-longest\-single\-extension.html \|url\-status\=live }} At this time, rush hour express service on the Fulton Street Line with the E train began.
On September 16, 1956, the A was extended to [the Rockaways](/wiki/Rockaway%2C_Queens "Rockaway, Queens"), replacing the E. At the time, alternate trains continued running to Lefferts Boulevard. On January 27, 1957, non\-rush hour through service to the Rockaways was discontinued and was replaced by a shuttle running between Euclid Avenue and Wavecrest (now Beach 25th Street). Non\-rush hour A train service was now to Lefferts Boulevard.
On June 18, 1957, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) announced plans to have Rockaway\-bound A trains skip Grant Avenue, Hudson Street, and Boyd Street during rush hours on a one\-month pilot, to take effect July 1\. The change was made to determine whether ten minutes could be reduced off of travel times to the Rockaways; the NYCTA only believed it would save three minutes.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539300/daily\_news/\|title\=IND Time Test to Skip 3 Brooklyn Stations\|date\=June 19, 1957\|work\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102194158/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539300/daily\_news/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41536870/daily\_news/\|title\=Rockaway Transit Speedup Assailed\|date\=June 25, 1957\|work\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102193224/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41536870/daily\_news/\|url\-status\=live}} In the face of community opposition, the NYCTA announced that it would take more time to review the change, meaning that it ultimately did not take effect on July 1\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539269/daily\_news/\|title\=TA Puts Off Speedup For Rockaway Line\|date\=June 27, 1957\|work\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102194200/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539269/daily\_news/\|url\-status\=live}}
On January 16, 1958, with the opening of the new terminal [Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)"), rush hour A service was extended. On September 8, 1958, the A train replaced the E train in the Rockaways again, and A trains resumed alternating between Euclid Avenue and Lefferts Boulevard. "Round\-robin" service from Euclid Avenue to both Rockaway terminals began during non\-rush hours, while through A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard.{{Cite journal \|last\=Linder \|first\=Bernard \|date\=October 1968 \|title\=Independent Subway Service History \|url\=https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1960s/1968/1968\-10\-bulletin.pdf \|journal\=New York Division Bulletin \|publisher\=Electric Railroaders' Association \|access\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223063040/https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1960s/1968/1968\-10\-bulletin.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} On September 8, 1959, the A began to run local in Brooklyn during rush hours, making it local at all times in Brooklyn, as the E became express in Brooklyn during rush hours. On July 9, 1967, the A trains running to Euclid Avenue were extended to Far Rockaway middays, evenings, and weekends, replacing the HH shuttle on that branch.{{Cite journal \|last\=Chiasson \|first\=George \|date\=February 2012 \|title\=History of the A Train \|url\=https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/2010s/2012/2012\-02\-bulletin.pdf \|journal\=The Bulletin \|publisher\=Electric Railroaders' Association \|volume\=55 \|issue\=2 \|access\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-date\=June 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614211834/https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/2010s/2012/2012\-02\-bulletin.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41543054/daily\_news/\|title\=Train Stepup To Far Rock\|date\=July 5, 1967\|work\=New York Daily News\|access\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102202902/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41543054/daily\_news/\|url\-status\=live}}
[thumb\|right\|[Lefferts Boulevard](/wiki/Ozone_Park%E2%80%93Lefferts_Boulevard_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Ozone Park–Lefferts Boulevard (IND Fulton Street Line)")\-bound A shuttle train of [R46s](/wiki/R46_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R46 (New York City Subway car)") at [80th Street](/wiki/80th_Street_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "80th Street (IND Fulton Street Line)").](/wiki/File:MTA_NYC_Subway_A-Lefferts_Blvd_Shuttle_train_at_80th_St.jpg "MTA NYC Subway A-Lefferts Blvd Shuttle train at 80th St.jpg")
### Simplifying service patterns
As part of systemwide changes in bus and subway service, major changes were made to A service in Brooklyn and Queens on January 2, 1973\. The A train became the express service along Fulton Street and the E train became the local during rush hours.{{cite news \|title\=Subway Schedules In Queens Changing Amid Some Protest \|url\=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=F40C1EF73F551A7493C0A9178AD85F478785F9 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=January 2, 1973 \|page\=46 \|access\-date\=March 20, 2010 \|archive\-date\=October 18, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018112012/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=F40C1EF73F551A7493C0A9178AD85F478785F9 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/11/25/432164652\.pdf \|title\=Changes Set for Jan. 2 Praised \|date\=November 25, 1972 \|access\-date\=January 25, 2016 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022030/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/11/25/432164652\.html?pdf\_redirect\=true\&site\=false \|url\-status\=live }} Express service would be provided for a longer period during rush hours as the span of E service to Brooklyn, which would cover local stops, was also increased.{{Cite web \|date\=1972 \|title\=To Serve You Better... ....On E and F Trains in Queens and Manhattan \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/52581156043/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|access\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112304/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/52581156043/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|url\-status\=live }} In addition, the A trips that terminated at Euclid Avenue during rush hours were extended to Far Rockaway, replacing E service. Service would now run to Far Rockaway between 5:30 a.m. and 11:30 p.m.{{Cite web \|date\=1972 \|title\=To Serve You Better... Changes in Subway Service Will Become Effective 6 AM Tues, Jan. 2 \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/49374906688/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|access\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112302/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/49374906688/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|url\-status\=live }} A trains would alternate between Lefferts Boulevard and Far Rockaway. These changes were initially supposed to take effect on September 11, 1972\.{{Cite web \|date\=1972 \|title\=Improved Service Begins Sept 11 \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/50089691258/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|access\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|archive\-date\=December 23, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112305/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/50089691258/in/album\-72157652636620504/ \|url\-status\=live }}
On August 30, 1976, the CC became the Fulton Street Local during rush hours, replacing E service.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30393951262/ \|title\=Service Adjustment on BMT and IND Lines Effective 1 A.M. Monday, Aug. 30 \|date\=August 1976 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=October 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=January 5, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105070318/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292%40N06/30393951262/ \|url\-status\=live }} On August 27, 1977, the A began making local stops in Manhattan during late nights, when the AA was not running.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27461551962/ \|title\=Service Adjustments on the BMT and IND Lines Effective Midnight, Saturday, August 27 \|date\=1977 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=June 9, 2016 \|archive\-date\=September 15, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915071754/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292%40N06/27461551962/ \|url\-status\=live }}
On December 11, 1988, A trains began running local between 145th Street and 168th Street on weekends to replace the discontinued K (formerly AA) service, and express on the IND Fulton Street Line in Brooklyn during middays and rush hours, with the C providing local service during those times.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27699872706/ \|title\=System\-Wide Changes In Subway Service Effective Sunday, December 11, 1988 \|date\=1988 \|website\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=June 17, 2016 \|archive\-date\=September 15, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915071757/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27699872706/ \|url\-status\=live }} On September 30, 1990, A trains began operating local between 145th Street and 168th Street during weekday evenings.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.subwaynut.com/brochures/1990servicechanges.pdf \|title\=Service Changes September 30, 1990 \|date\=September 30, 1990 \|website\=subwaynut.com \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=May 1, 2016 \|archive\-date\=October 26, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026015324/http://www.subwaynut.com/brochures/1990servicechanges.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
In January 1991, a reduction of service along the Central Park West corridor to remove excess capacity was proposed. Initially, A service would operate local between [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "168th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") and [Euclid Avenue](/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 "Euclid Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)") during weekday rush hours and middays, with weekday evening and weekend daytime service extended beyond 168th Street to operate to and from [Inwood–207th Street](/wiki/Inwood%E2%80%93207th_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "Inwood–207th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)"), and daily late night service extended beyond Euclid Avenue to operate to and from [Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)") in Queens. Express service between 168th Street and [59th Street–Columbus Circle](/wiki/59th_Street%E2%80%93Columbus_Circle_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "59th Street–Columbus Circle (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") would be replaced by {{NYCS\|D}} and rerouted {{NYCS\|Q}} trains, the latter of which would serve 207th Street during weekday rush hours and middays; express service below [34th Street–Penn Station](/wiki/34th_Street%E2%80%93Penn_Station_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "34th Street–Penn Station (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") in Manhattan and in Brooklyn would have been replaced by an expanded {{NYCS\|H}} service. A new shuttle would serve Lefferts Boulevard during late nights. The service change was later amended to retain the A as an express service in place of the altered {{NYCS\|Q}} service pattern and would be re\-designated as an orange A, as it would be rerouted via the [Sixth Avenue Line](/wiki/IND_Sixth_Avenue_Line "IND Sixth Avenue Line") and its southern terminal moved to [Brighton Beach](/wiki/Brighton_Beach_%28BMT_Brighton_Line%29 "Brighton Beach (BMT Brighton Line)"), operating weekday rush hours and middays only. This service change would have been implemented in October 1991, pending approval from the MTA board.{{cite web \|title\=1991 Service Capacity Plan \|url\=http://www.laguardiawagnerarchive.lagcc.cuny.edu/pages/FileBrowser.aspx?LinkToFile\=FILES\_DOC/QUEENS\_FILES/03\.012\.0231\.030147\.2\.PDF\#undefined \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|access\-date\=September 18, 2024 \|pages\=197\-200 \|date\=January 4, 1991}}
In 1991, at a series of meetings, the NYCTA presented proposed changes to A, C, and H service that would shorten the length of the C, simplify the service pattern during late nights to most efficiently serve the majority of riders, provide direct express service to Rockaway Park during rush hours in the peak direction, and provide shuttle connections during non\-peak periods between Rockaway Park and through A train service. The service pattern devised was designed to improve operations by reducing route length and complexity, making service more attractive, simplifying confusing service patterns, and reducing transfers for passengers traveling during late nights. At the time, A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard and Far Rockaway during the day while the C ran to Rockaway Park during rush hours. During late nights, A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard, while service to both branches in the Rockaways was provided by round\-robin H shuttle service to Euclid Avenue. As part of the changes proposed, round\-robin shuttle service would be discontinued; late\-night A service would run from Manhattan through to Far Rockaway; and service to Lefferts Boulevard and Rockaway Park would be provided by separate shuttle services with timed transfers to through A service. Rush hour local C service to Rockaway Park would be replaced by through A express service that ran every 20 minutes in the peak direction for a period of one hour and twenty minutes in rush hours to and from 59th Street–Columbus Circle. The initial proposal had these trips terminate at 34th Street, but this was changed to 59th Street following public comments. These five rush hour express trips were marketed as a "commuter rail style service", and special efforts were to be made to follow the arrival and departure times listed in the route's timetable, which was publicly distributed to riders. In addition, H service to Rockaway Park would be replaced by the Rockaway Park Shuttle, which would run between Broad Channel and Rockaway Park, and C service would be truncated to Euclid Avenue.
In April 1992, the MTA Board approved the proposed change to service in the Rockaways, which were expected to encourage ridership growth in the long term, and reduced NYCTA's annual operating budget by $20,000\.\*{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961867/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.1\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022119/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961867/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472938187/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.2\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022113/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472938187/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472816041/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.3\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022143/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472816041/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961612/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.4\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022123/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961612/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815731/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.5}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961237/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.6\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022653/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961237/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961112/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.7\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022557/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961112/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815331/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.8\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022704/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815331/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815186/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.9\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 2, 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402231827/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815186/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815031/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.10\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022655/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815031/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961382/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.11\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022656/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961382/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{Cite book\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472960412/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|title\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\|date\=April 16, 1992\|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority\|pages\=E.12\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|archive\-date\=January 2, 2024\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022656/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472960412/in/album\-72157710272372761/\|url\-status\=live}}* + - * + - * + - * + The changes took effect on October 23, 1992, with modification: Late night shuttle service to Lefferts Boulevard would terminate at Euclid Avenue, not Rockaway Boulevard.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30660280045 \|title\=October 1992 New York City Subway Map \|date\=October 1992 \|work\=Flickr \|access\-date\=October 7, 2018 \|publisher\=New York City Transit Authority \|language\=en\-us \|archive\-date\=February 4, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204235654/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30660280045 \|url\-status\=live }} Later on, the rush hour A trips to Rockaway Park were extended from 59th Street to [Dyckman Street](/wiki/Dyckman_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "Dyckman Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") and Inwood–207th Street.{{cite web \|url\=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/pdf/tacur.pdf \|title\=A Subway Timetable \|work\=mta.info \|access\-date\=December 29, 2016 \|archive\-date\=December 30, 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230193631/http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/pdf/tacur.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
On May 29, 1994, A trains began running express on weekends from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. between 168th Street and [145th Street](/wiki/145th_Street_%28IND_lines%29 "145th Street (IND lines)"), with C trains being extended from 145th Street to 168th Street to cover local stops.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/16543351666/in/album\-72157652636594213/ \|title\=May 1994 Subway Map \|date\=May 1994 \|work\=Flickr \|publisher\=New York City Transit \|language\=en\-us \|access\-date\=October 7, 2018 \|archive\-date\=April 4, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404211507/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/16543351666/in/album\-72157652636594213/ \|url\-status\=live }} A corresponding change was made to weekday midday A service on April 30, 1995, though this change was discontinued on November 12, 1995\. On March 1, 1998, A trains began running express between 168th Street and 145th Street during middays and early evenings, with local service provided by extended C service.
On May 2, 1999, the A became the express on the Fulton Street Line at all times except late nights, and C service was extended from World Trade Center to Euclid Avenue during late weekday evenings and weekends to provide local service along the line. This service change was made due to construction taking place on the Williamsburg Bridge, which prohibited the {{NYCS\|J}}, {{NYCS\|M}} and {{NYCS\|Z}} from entering Manhattan; as a result, service on the A, as well as the C and {{NYCS\|L}}, were increased. This service change to the A was made permanent after the Williamsburg Bridge reopened to J, M and Z trains.{{cite journal \|title\=New Schedules \-\- Williamsburg Bridge Reopens; Increased Subway Service \|journal\=The Bulletin \|publisher\=Electric Railroaders' Association, Incorporated \|volume\=42 \|issue\=10 \|page\=1 \|date\=October 1999 \|url\=https://www.erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1990s/1999/1999\-10\-bulletin.pdf \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-02}}
### 21st century
[left\|thumb\|[Far Rockaway](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_station "Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue station")\-bound A train of [R46s](/wiki/R46_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 "R46 (New York City Subway car)") approaching [Beach 60th Street](/wiki/Beach_60th_Street_station "Beach 60th Street station").](/wiki/File:Views_From_The_Rockaways.jpg "Views From The Rockaways.jpg")
On January 23, 2005, a fire at the [Chambers Street](/wiki/Chambers_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 "Chambers Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)") signal room crippled A and C service. Initial assessments suggested that it would take several years to restore normal service, but the damaged equipment was replaced with available spare parts, and normal service resumed on April 21\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/nyregion/25subway.html \|title\=2 Subway Lines Crippled by Fire; Long Repair Seen \|last\=Chan \|first\=Sewell \|date\=January 25, 2005 \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|issn\=0362\-4331 \|access\-date\=October 23, 2016 \|archive\-date\=August 12, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812195928/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/nyregion/25subway.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/08/24/remembering\-a\-fire\-at\-chambers\-st/ \|title\=Remembering a Fire at Chambers St. \|work\=Second Ave. Sagas \|date\=August 24, 2010 \|access\-date\=March 20, 2014 \|archive\-date\=March 21, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321023040/http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/08/24/remembering\-a\-fire\-at\-chambers\-st/ \|url\-status\=live }}
A service was affected by [Hurricane Sandy](/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy "Hurricane Sandy") in October 2012, due to extreme damage to the [IND Rockaway Line](/wiki/IND_Rockaway_Line "IND Rockaway Line"). Trains that normally traveled to [Far Rockaway](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)") or [Rockaway Park](/wiki/Rockaway_Park%E2%80%93Beach_116th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street (IND Rockaway Line)") terminated at [Howard Beach–JFK Airport](/wiki/Howard_Beach%E2%80%93JFK_Airport_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Howard Beach–JFK Airport (IND Rockaway Line)"). Service to the Rockaways resumed on May 30, 2013\.{{cite web \|title\=Rebuilding the Rockaways After Hurricane Sandy \|url\=http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm \|work\=mta.info \|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority \|access\-date\=November 18, 2012 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129020912/http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm \|archive\-date\=November 29, 2012 }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/16/cuomo\-mta\-to\-restore\-a\-train\-subway\-service\-to\-the\-rockaways/ \|title\=Cuomo: MTA To Restore A Train Subway Service To The Rockaways May 30 \|date\=May 16, 2013 \|access\-date\=May 16, 2013 \|archive\-date\=November 23, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123053722/http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/16/cuomo\-mta\-to\-restore\-a\-train\-subway\-service\-to\-the\-rockaways/ \|url\-status\=live }} The Far Rockaway part of the route was served by the temporary free H shuttle that ran between Far Rockaway and [Beach 90th Street](/wiki/Beach_90th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 "Beach 90th Street (IND Rockaway Line)") via the connecting track at Hammels Wye.{{cite web \|url\=https://twitter.com/MTAInsider/status/270625005337993216 \|title\=MTA on Twitter \|work\=Twitter \|access\-date\=November 26, 2012 \|archive\-date\=March 8, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040013/https://twitter.com/MTAInsider/status/270625005337993216 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|url\=http://alert.mta.info/sites/default/files/pdf/hurricane\_recovery\_map\_bw\_Nov\_20\_rock\_shtl.pdf\|title\=Hurricane Sandy Recovery Service. As of November 20\|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\|website\=mta.info\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123125002/http://alert.mta.info/sites/default/files/pdf/hurricane\_recovery\_map\_bw\_Nov\_20\_rock\_shtl.pdf\|archive\-date\=January 23, 2013}}{{cite web \|url\=http://mta.info/news/stories/?story\=878 \|title\=MTA News \|work\=mta.info \|access\-date\=November 26, 2012 \|archive\-date\=March 13, 2013 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313175544/http://www.mta.info/news/stories/?story\=878 \|url\-status\=live }}
As a result of a two\-phase program of flood mitigation work along the Hammels Wye, between April 9 and May 18, 2018, limited rush hour A service to/from Rockaway Park was suspended.{{efn\|Limited rush\-hour service that normally begins or ends at Rockaway Park began or ended at Euclid Avenue instead.\|name\=Euclid Avenue terminal}} The second phase, from July 1 to September 3, diverted all Far Rockaway\-bound A trips to Rockaway Park, with [Rockaway Park Shuttle](/wiki/Rockaway_Park_Shuttle "Rockaway Park Shuttle") trains being rerouted to the Far Rockaway branch through the southern leg of Hammels Wye.{{cite web \|title\=Train Change: A/ Shuttle Service to Be Impacted Starting in April \|website\=The Rockaway Times \|date\=March 8, 2018 \|url\=http://rockawaytimes.com/index.php/columns/3602\-train\-change\-a\-shuttle\-service\-to\-be\-impacted\-starting\-in\-april \|access\-date\=March 30, 2018\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429140113/http://rockawaytimes.com/index.php/columns/3602\-train\-change\-a\-shuttle\-service\-to\-be\-impacted\-starting\-in\-april\|archive\-date\=April 29, 2020}}
From midday on March 29, 2020{{Cite web\|url\=https://mymtaalerts.com/m?D8F78\|title\=MANH/BKLYN, A and C Train, No C Train Service\|date\=March 29, 2020\|website\=mymtaalerts.com\|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429135836/https://mymtaalerts.com/m?D8F78\|archive\-date\=April 29, 2020\|access\-date\=April 29, 2020}}{{Cite news\|last\=Berger\|first\=Paul\|url\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/new\-york\-subway\-struggles\-under\-coronavirus\-worker\-shortage\-11585693114\|title\=New York Transit Struggles Under Coronavirus Worker Shortage\|date\=March 31, 2020\|work\=Wall Street Journal\|access\-date\=April 29, 2020\|language\=en\-US\|issn\=0099\-9660\|archive\-date\=April 29, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429183418/https://www.wsj.com/articles/new\-york\-subway\-struggles\-under\-coronavirus\-worker\-shortage\-11585693114\|url\-status\=live}} to April 28, 2020,{{Cite news\|last\=Martinez\|first\=Jose\|url\=https://thecity.nyc/2020/04/nyc\-subways\-slowly\-get\-on\-track\-as\-transit\-workers\-return.html\|title\=Subway Service Slowly Gets Back On Track As Transit Workers Return\|date\=April 28, 2020\|work\=The City\|access\-date\=April 29, 2020\|archive\-date\=April 29, 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429162415/https://thecity.nyc/2020/04/nyc\-subways\-slowly\-get\-on\-track\-as\-transit\-workers\-return.html\|url\-status\=dead}} due to the suspension of C train service caused by the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), A trains to Lefferts Boulevard ran local,{{Cite web\|url\=https://mymtaalerts.com/m?DA8CE\|title\=Update: QNS, C Train, No Scheduled Service\|date\=April 28, 2020\|website\=mymtaalerts.com\|publisher\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429140045/https://mymtaalerts.com/m?DA8CE\|archive\-date\=April 29, 2020\|access\-date\=April 29, 2020}} while A trains to the Rockaways ran express.{{cite web \|title\=A 8 Avenue Express \|url\=https://transitfeeds.com/p/mta/886/latest/route/A/20200428 \|website\=transitfeeds.com \|publisher\=Open Mobility Data \|access\-date\=April 28, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428092434/https://transitfeeds.com/p/mta/886/latest/route/A/20200428 \|archive\-date\=April 28, 2020 \|date\=April 28, 2020}} As part of a program to repair the South Channel Bridge, service south of Howard Beach {{Show by date\|2025\|01\|17\|will be\|was}} suspended for 17 weeks beginning on January 17, 2025, and the Rockaway branches {{Show by date\|2025\|01\|17\|will instead be served\|were instead served}} by the [Rockaway Park Shuttle](/wiki/Rockaway_Park_Shuttle "Rockaway Park Shuttle").{{cite web \|last\=Schilling \|first\=John \|date\=September 13, 2024 \|title\=MTA Previews 17\-Week A Train Service Shutdown During CB14 Meeting \|url\=https://www.rockawave.com/articles/mta\-previews\-17\-week\-a\-train\-service\-shutdown\-during\-cb14\-meeting/ \|access\-date\=September 16, 2024 \|website\=The Wave \- Rockaway's Newspaper since 1893}}{{cite web \|last\=McFadden \|first\=Katie \|date\=September 16, 2024 \|title\=A Train Shutdown Tops September CB14 Meeting \|url\=https://www.rockawaytimes.com/a\-train\-shutdown\-tops\-september\-cb14\-meeting/ \|access\-date\=September 16, 2024 \|website\=THE ROCKAWAY TIMES – First and Free}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early history",
"[thumb\\|left\\|[Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\")\\-bound [R179](/wiki/R179_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R179 (New York City Subway car)\") A train arriving at [Broad Channel](/wiki/Broad_Channel_station \"Broad Channel station\")](/wiki/File:MTA_NYC_Subway_A_train_arriving_at_Broad_Channel.jpg \"MTA NYC Subway A train arriving at Broad Channel.jpg\")\nThe A and AA were the first services on the [IND Eighth Avenue Line](/wiki/IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line \"IND Eighth Avenue Line\") when it opened on September 10, 1932\\. The [Independent Subway System](/wiki/Independent_Subway_System \"Independent Subway System\") (IND) used single letters to refer to express services and double letters for local services. The A ran express between [207th Street](/wiki/Inwood%E2%80%93207th_Street_station \"Inwood–207th Street station\") and [Chambers Street](/wiki/Chambers_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"Chambers Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\"), and the AA ran local between [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_station_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"168th Street station (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") and Chambers Street, known at the time as Hudson Terminal. During late\\-night hours (from 1:45 a.m. to 5:45 a.m.) and on Sundays, the A did not run and the AA made all stops along the line.{{cite news \\|title\\=Gay Midnight Crowd Rides First Trains in New Subway \\|url\\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=FA0D13F7395513738DDDA90994D1405B828FF1D3 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=September 10, 1932 \\|page\\=1 \\|access\\-date\\=February 5, 2017 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 12, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912162150/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=FA0D13F7395513738DDDA90994D1405B828FF1D3 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Fg4KAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=fulton\\+street\\+express\\+e\\+train \\|title\\=A History of the New York City Subway System \\|last1\\=Cunningham \\|first1\\=Joseph \\|last2\\=DeHart \\|first2\\=Leonard O. \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=J. Schmidt, R. Giglio, and K. Lang \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=November 23, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022135/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Fg4KAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=fulton\\+street\\+express\\+e\\+train \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Rp\\|15}}",
"The A was extended to [Jay Street–Borough Hall](/wiki/Jay_Street%E2%80%93MetroTech_station \"Jay Street–MetroTech station\") when the [Cranberry Street Tunnel](/wiki/Cranberry_Street_Tunnel \"Cranberry Street Tunnel\") to [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\") opened on February 1, 1933,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/01/archives/city\\-opens\\-subway\\-to\\-brooklyn\\-today\\-regular\\-express\\-service\\-on\\-the.html \\|title\\=CITY OPENS SUBWAY TO BROOKLYN TODAY; Regular Express Service on the Extension of Independent Line Starts at 6:05 A.M. 3 LARGE STATIONS ADDED Fast Trains to Make Run From 207th St. To Borough Hall in 37 Minutes. 43 MORE MEN ON JOBS Officials Look for Rise in Income as Financial District Is Brought Into New Route. \\|date\\=February 1, 1933 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327094512/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/01/archives/city\\-opens\\-subway\\-to\\-brooklyn\\-today\\-regular\\-express\\-service\\-on\\-the.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/01/29/archives/new\\-subway\\-link\\-opens\\-wednesday\\-independent\\-line\\-will\\-offer\\-express.html \\|title\\=NEW SUBWAY LINK OPENS WEDNESDAY; Independent Line Will Offer Express Service to Borough Hall in Brooklyn. KEY STATION TO BE ADDED Broadway\\-Nassau St. Platform to Connect With B.M.T. And East and West Side I.R.T. ADDED REVENUE EXPECTED 2\\-Way Rush\\-Hour Traffic Hoped For by Officials – Local Trains to Be Speeded Slightly. \\|date\\=January 29, 1933 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 16, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216145354/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/01/29/archives/new\\-subway\\-link\\-opens\\-wednesday\\-independent\\-line\\-will\\-offer\\-express.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and to [Bergen Street](/wiki/Bergen_Street_%28IND_Culver_Line%29 \"Bergen Street (IND Culver Line)\"), when the extension opened on March 20\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/03/12/archives/city\\-subway\\-opens\\-new\\-link\\-march\\-20\\-brooklyn\\-extension\\-to\\-bergen.html \\|title\\=CITY SUBWAY OPENS NEW LINK MARCH 20; Brooklyn Extension to Bergen and Smith Streets to Add One More Station. RISE IN REVENUE CERTAIN Further Cut Into Traffic of Rival Systems at Terminal Point Is Predicted. GROWTH WILL CONTINUE Station\\-By\\-Siation Completion to Church Avenue Before September Is Planned. \\|date\\=March 12, 1933 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614044850/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/03/12/archives/city\\-subway\\-opens\\-new\\-link\\-march\\-20\\-brooklyn\\-extension\\-to\\-bergen.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On July 1, the A began running express at all times, stopping at 155th Street and 163rd Street during late nights.{{Rp\\|82}} The A was extended to [Church Avenue](/wiki/Church_Avenue_%28IND_Culver_Line%29 \"Church Avenue (IND Culver Line)\") on October 7\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.erictb.info/linehistory.html \\|title\\=NYCT Line by Line History \\|work\\=erictb.info \\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 4, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100921/http://www.erictb.info/linehistory.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On April 9, 1936, the [IND Fulton Street Line](/wiki/IND_Fulton_Street_Line \"IND Fulton Street Line\") was opened to [Rockaway Avenue](/wiki/Rockaway_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Rockaway Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/09/archives/new\\-subway\\-link\\-opened\\-by\\-mayor\\-he\\-tells\\-15000\\-in\\-brooklyn\\-it\\-will.html \\|title\\=NEW SUBWAY LINK OPENED BY MAYOR; He Tells 15,000 In Brooklyn It Will Be Extended to Queens When Red Tape Is Cut. \\|date\\=April 9, 1936 \\|work\\=The New York Times \\|access\\-date\\=April 25, 2018 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 1, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401082810/https://www.nytimes.com/1936/04/09/archives/new\\-subway\\-link\\-opened\\-by\\-mayor\\-he\\-tells\\-15000\\-in\\-brooklyn\\-it\\-will.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The 1936 extension played an integral part in the establishment of [Bedford\\-Stuyvesant](/wiki/Bedford-Stuyvesant \"Bedford-Stuyvesant\") as Brooklyn's central [African American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\") community. The A train connected [Harlem](/wiki/Harlem \"Harlem\"), Manhattan's central African American community, to areas of Bedford\\-Stuyvesant that provided residential opportunities for African Americans not found throughout the rest of New York City.Echanove, Matias. [\"Bed\\-Stuy on the Move\"](http://urbanology.org/BedStuy/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916131340/http://urbanology.org/BedStuy/ \\|date\\=September 16, 2017 }}. Master thesis. Urban Planning Program. *Columbia University*. Urbanology.org. 2003\\.",
"On December 30, 1946, and November 28, 1948, the line was extended to Broadway–East New York (now [Broadway Junction](/wiki/Broadway_Junction_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Broadway Junction (IND Fulton Street Line)\")) and [Euclid Avenue](/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Euclid Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)\"), respectively.{{cite web \\|last\\=Williams \\|first\\=Keith \\|title\\=Weaving the Broadway Junction Tapestry \\|url\\=http://theweeklynabe.wordpress.com/2012/08/06/history\\-of\\-broadway\\-junction\\-brooklyn/ \\|work\\=The Weekly Nabe \\|access\\-date\\=August 6, 2012}}{{Rp\\|82}} On October 24, 1949, express service in Brooklyn to Broadway–East New York began with the A running express during rush hours, with the {{NYCS\\|E}} extended to provide local service.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/20/96476347\\.pdf \\|title\\=IND Faster Service Will Start Sunday \\|date\\=October 20, 1949 \\|access\\-date\\=February 20, 2016 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022031/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1949/10/20/96476347\\.html?pdf\\_redirect\\=true\\&site\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### Extensions to Ozone Park and the Rockaways",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A poster commemorating the opening of the IND Rockaway Line.](/wiki/File:Subway_Goes_To_Rockaway.gif \"Subway Goes To Rockaway.gif\")\nOn April 29, 1956, [Grant Avenue](/wiki/Grant_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Grant Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)\") was opened and the line was extended over the [BMT Fulton Street Line](/wiki/BMT_Fulton_Street_Line \"BMT Fulton Street Line\") to [Lefferts Boulevard](/wiki/Ozone_Park%E2%80%93Lefferts_Boulevard_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Ozone Park–Lefferts Boulevard (IND Fulton Street Line)\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Notice To Passengers \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/50066566666/in/dateposted/ \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=July 6, 2020 \\|date\\=April 1956 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022119/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/50066566666/in/dateposted/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On weekdays except midnights, alternate trains terminated at Lefferts Boulevard and at Euclid Avenue. During weekends, they terminated at Euclid Avenue with a shuttle to Lefferts Boulevard.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1956/04/30/archives/first\\-leg\\-of\\-rockaways\\-transit\\-opened\\-at\\-cost\\-of\\-10154702\\-station.html \\|title\\=First Leg of Rockaways Transit Opened at Cost of $10,154,702; Station and Subway Section Put Into Use—Service Is Expected on June 28 \\|date\\=April 30, 1956 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 22, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922002010/http://www.nytimes.com/1956/04/30/archives/first\\-leg\\-of\\-rockaways\\-transit\\-opened\\-at\\-cost\\-of\\-10154702\\-station.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Two months later, on June 28, 1956, the former [Long Island Rail Road](/wiki/Long_Island_Rail_Road \"Long Island Rail Road\") [Rockaway Beach Branch](/wiki/Rockaway_Beach_Branch \"Rockaway Beach Branch\"), having been rebuilt to subway specifications,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.prrths.com/Hagley/PRR1956%20Dec%2004\\.pdf \\|title\\=PRR Chronology, 1956 \\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 14, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014021404/http://www.prrths.com/Hagley/PRR1956%20Dec%2004\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} {{small\\|(45\\.9 \\[\\[Kibibyte\\|KiB]])}}, December 2004 Edition began service to [Rockaway Park](/wiki/Rockaway_Park%E2%80%93Beach_116th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street (IND Rockaway Line)\"){{cite web \\|url\\=http://arrts\\-arrchives.com/july261905d.html \\|title\\=Rockaway Park \\|work\\=arrts\\-arrchives.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 16, 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016071543/http://www.arrts\\-arrchives.com/july261905d.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and [Wavecrest (Beach 25th Street)](/wiki/Beach_25th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Beach 25th Street (IND Rockaway Line)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.trainsarefun.com/lirrphotos/lirrstationshistory.htm \\|title\\=Long Island Station History \\|work\\=trainsarefun.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 6, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526225709/http://www.trainsarefun.com/lirrphotos/lirrstationshistory.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=May 26, 2017 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1956/06/29/archives/free\\-ride\\-opens\\-rockaways\\-line\\-fete\\-marks\\-longest\\-single\\-extension.html \\|title\\=FREE RIDE OPENS ROCKAWAYS LINE; Fete Marks Longest Single Extension of Rapid Transit in History of the City Commissioner's Children Help Mayor Arrives Late \\|last\\=Freejman) \\|first\\=Ira Henry \\|date\\=June 29, 1956 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=June 20, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 22, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922002639/http://www.nytimes.com/1956/06/29/archives/free\\-ride\\-opens\\-rockaways\\-line\\-fete\\-marks\\-longest\\-single\\-extension.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} At this time, rush hour express service on the Fulton Street Line with the E train began.",
"On September 16, 1956, the A was extended to [the Rockaways](/wiki/Rockaway%2C_Queens \"Rockaway, Queens\"), replacing the E. At the time, alternate trains continued running to Lefferts Boulevard. On January 27, 1957, non\\-rush hour through service to the Rockaways was discontinued and was replaced by a shuttle running between Euclid Avenue and Wavecrest (now Beach 25th Street). Non\\-rush hour A train service was now to Lefferts Boulevard.",
"On June 18, 1957, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) announced plans to have Rockaway\\-bound A trains skip Grant Avenue, Hudson Street, and Boyd Street during rush hours on a one\\-month pilot, to take effect July 1\\. The change was made to determine whether ten minutes could be reduced off of travel times to the Rockaways; the NYCTA only believed it would save three minutes.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539300/daily\\_news/\\|title\\=IND Time Test to Skip 3 Brooklyn Stations\\|date\\=June 19, 1957\\|work\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102194158/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539300/daily\\_news/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41536870/daily\\_news/\\|title\\=Rockaway Transit Speedup Assailed\\|date\\=June 25, 1957\\|work\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102193224/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41536870/daily\\_news/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In the face of community opposition, the NYCTA announced that it would take more time to review the change, meaning that it ultimately did not take effect on July 1\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539269/daily\\_news/\\|title\\=TA Puts Off Speedup For Rockaway Line\\|date\\=June 27, 1957\\|work\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102194200/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41539269/daily\\_news/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"On January 16, 1958, with the opening of the new terminal [Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)\"), rush hour A service was extended. On September 8, 1958, the A train replaced the E train in the Rockaways again, and A trains resumed alternating between Euclid Avenue and Lefferts Boulevard. \"Round\\-robin\" service from Euclid Avenue to both Rockaway terminals began during non\\-rush hours, while through A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Linder \\|first\\=Bernard \\|date\\=October 1968 \\|title\\=Independent Subway Service History \\|url\\=https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1960s/1968/1968\\-10\\-bulletin.pdf \\|journal\\=New York Division Bulletin \\|publisher\\=Electric Railroaders' Association \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223063040/https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1960s/1968/1968\\-10\\-bulletin.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On September 8, 1959, the A began to run local in Brooklyn during rush hours, making it local at all times in Brooklyn, as the E became express in Brooklyn during rush hours. On July 9, 1967, the A trains running to Euclid Avenue were extended to Far Rockaway middays, evenings, and weekends, replacing the HH shuttle on that branch.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Chiasson \\|first\\=George \\|date\\=February 2012 \\|title\\=History of the A Train \\|url\\=https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/2010s/2012/2012\\-02\\-bulletin.pdf \\|journal\\=The Bulletin \\|publisher\\=Electric Railroaders' Association \\|volume\\=55 \\|issue\\=2 \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614211834/https://erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/2010s/2012/2012\\-02\\-bulletin.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41543054/daily\\_news/\\|title\\=Train Stepup To Far Rock\\|date\\=July 5, 1967\\|work\\=New York Daily News\\|access\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102202902/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/41543054/daily\\_news/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[thumb\\|right\\|[Lefferts Boulevard](/wiki/Ozone_Park%E2%80%93Lefferts_Boulevard_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Ozone Park–Lefferts Boulevard (IND Fulton Street Line)\")\\-bound A shuttle train of [R46s](/wiki/R46_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R46 (New York City Subway car)\") at [80th Street](/wiki/80th_Street_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"80th Street (IND Fulton Street Line)\").](/wiki/File:MTA_NYC_Subway_A-Lefferts_Blvd_Shuttle_train_at_80th_St.jpg \"MTA NYC Subway A-Lefferts Blvd Shuttle train at 80th St.jpg\")",
"### Simplifying service patterns",
"As part of systemwide changes in bus and subway service, major changes were made to A service in Brooklyn and Queens on January 2, 1973\\. The A train became the express service along Fulton Street and the E train became the local during rush hours.{{cite news \\|title\\=Subway Schedules In Queens Changing Amid Some Protest \\|url\\=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=F40C1EF73F551A7493C0A9178AD85F478785F9 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=January 2, 1973 \\|page\\=46 \\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 18, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018112012/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=F40C1EF73F551A7493C0A9178AD85F478785F9 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/11/25/432164652\\.pdf \\|title\\=Changes Set for Jan. 2 Praised \\|date\\=November 25, 1972 \\|access\\-date\\=January 25, 2016 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022030/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/11/25/432164652\\.html?pdf\\_redirect\\=true\\&site\\=false \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Express service would be provided for a longer period during rush hours as the span of E service to Brooklyn, which would cover local stops, was also increased.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1972 \\|title\\=To Serve You Better... ....On E and F Trains in Queens and Manhattan \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/52581156043/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112304/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/52581156043/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In addition, the A trips that terminated at Euclid Avenue during rush hours were extended to Far Rockaway, replacing E service. Service would now run to Far Rockaway between 5:30 a.m. and 11:30 p.m.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1972 \\|title\\=To Serve You Better... Changes in Subway Service Will Become Effective 6 AM Tues, Jan. 2 \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/49374906688/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112302/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/49374906688/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A trains would alternate between Lefferts Boulevard and Far Rockaway. These changes were initially supposed to take effect on September 11, 1972\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=1972 \\|title\\=Improved Service Begins Sept 11 \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/50089691258/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|access\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|archive\\-date\\=December 23, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223112305/https://www.flickr.com/photos/unionturnpike/50089691258/in/album\\-72157652636620504/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On August 30, 1976, the CC became the Fulton Street Local during rush hours, replacing E service.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30393951262/ \\|title\\=Service Adjustment on BMT and IND Lines Effective 1 A.M. Monday, Aug. 30 \\|date\\=August 1976 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 5, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105070318/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292%40N06/30393951262/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On August 27, 1977, the A began making local stops in Manhattan during late nights, when the AA was not running.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27461551962/ \\|title\\=Service Adjustments on the BMT and IND Lines Effective Midnight, Saturday, August 27 \\|date\\=1977 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=June 9, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915071754/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292%40N06/27461551962/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On December 11, 1988, A trains began running local between 145th Street and 168th Street on weekends to replace the discontinued K (formerly AA) service, and express on the IND Fulton Street Line in Brooklyn during middays and rush hours, with the C providing local service during those times.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27699872706/ \\|title\\=System\\-Wide Changes In Subway Service Effective Sunday, December 11, 1988 \\|date\\=1988 \\|website\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=June 17, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 15, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915071757/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/27699872706/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} On September 30, 1990, A trains began operating local between 145th Street and 168th Street during weekday evenings.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.subwaynut.com/brochures/1990servicechanges.pdf \\|title\\=Service Changes September 30, 1990 \\|date\\=September 30, 1990 \\|website\\=subwaynut.com \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 26, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026015324/http://www.subwaynut.com/brochures/1990servicechanges.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"In January 1991, a reduction of service along the Central Park West corridor to remove excess capacity was proposed. Initially, A service would operate local between [168th Street](/wiki/168th_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"168th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") and [Euclid Avenue](/wiki/Euclid_Avenue_%28IND_Fulton_Street_Line%29 \"Euclid Avenue (IND Fulton Street Line)\") during weekday rush hours and middays, with weekday evening and weekend daytime service extended beyond 168th Street to operate to and from [Inwood–207th Street](/wiki/Inwood%E2%80%93207th_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"Inwood–207th Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\"), and daily late night service extended beyond Euclid Avenue to operate to and from [Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)\") in Queens. Express service between 168th Street and [59th Street–Columbus Circle](/wiki/59th_Street%E2%80%93Columbus_Circle_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"59th Street–Columbus Circle (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") would be replaced by {{NYCS\\|D}} and rerouted {{NYCS\\|Q}} trains, the latter of which would serve 207th Street during weekday rush hours and middays; express service below [34th Street–Penn Station](/wiki/34th_Street%E2%80%93Penn_Station_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"34th Street–Penn Station (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") in Manhattan and in Brooklyn would have been replaced by an expanded {{NYCS\\|H}} service. A new shuttle would serve Lefferts Boulevard during late nights. The service change was later amended to retain the A as an express service in place of the altered {{NYCS\\|Q}} service pattern and would be re\\-designated as an orange A, as it would be rerouted via the [Sixth Avenue Line](/wiki/IND_Sixth_Avenue_Line \"IND Sixth Avenue Line\") and its southern terminal moved to [Brighton Beach](/wiki/Brighton_Beach_%28BMT_Brighton_Line%29 \"Brighton Beach (BMT Brighton Line)\"), operating weekday rush hours and middays only. This service change would have been implemented in October 1991, pending approval from the MTA board.{{cite web \\|title\\=1991 Service Capacity Plan \\|url\\=http://www.laguardiawagnerarchive.lagcc.cuny.edu/pages/FileBrowser.aspx?LinkToFile\\=FILES\\_DOC/QUEENS\\_FILES/03\\.012\\.0231\\.030147\\.2\\.PDF\\#undefined \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|access\\-date\\=September 18, 2024 \\|pages\\=197\\-200 \\|date\\=January 4, 1991}}",
"In 1991, at a series of meetings, the NYCTA presented proposed changes to A, C, and H service that would shorten the length of the C, simplify the service pattern during late nights to most efficiently serve the majority of riders, provide direct express service to Rockaway Park during rush hours in the peak direction, and provide shuttle connections during non\\-peak periods between Rockaway Park and through A train service. The service pattern devised was designed to improve operations by reducing route length and complexity, making service more attractive, simplifying confusing service patterns, and reducing transfers for passengers traveling during late nights. At the time, A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard and Far Rockaway during the day while the C ran to Rockaway Park during rush hours. During late nights, A service ran to Lefferts Boulevard, while service to both branches in the Rockaways was provided by round\\-robin H shuttle service to Euclid Avenue. As part of the changes proposed, round\\-robin shuttle service would be discontinued; late\\-night A service would run from Manhattan through to Far Rockaway; and service to Lefferts Boulevard and Rockaway Park would be provided by separate shuttle services with timed transfers to through A service. Rush hour local C service to Rockaway Park would be replaced by through A express service that ran every 20 minutes in the peak direction for a period of one hour and twenty minutes in rush hours to and from 59th Street–Columbus Circle. The initial proposal had these trips terminate at 34th Street, but this was changed to 59th Street following public comments. These five rush hour express trips were marketed as a \"commuter rail style service\", and special efforts were to be made to follow the arrival and departure times listed in the route's timetable, which was publicly distributed to riders. In addition, H service to Rockaway Park would be replaced by the Rockaway Park Shuttle, which would run between Broad Channel and Rockaway Park, and C service would be truncated to Euclid Avenue.",
"In April 1992, the MTA Board approved the proposed change to service in the Rockaways, which were expected to encourage ridership growth in the long term, and reduced NYCTA's annual operating budget by $20,000\\.\\*{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961867/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.1\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022119/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961867/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472938187/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.2\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022113/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472938187/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472816041/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.3\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022143/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472816041/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961612/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.4\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022123/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961612/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815731/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.5}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961237/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.6\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022653/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961237/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961112/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.7\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022557/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961112/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815331/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.8\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022704/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815331/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815186/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.9\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402231827/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815186/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815031/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.10\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022655/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472815031/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961382/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.11\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022656/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472961382/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n {{Cite book\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472960412/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|title\\=Transit Authority Committee Agenda April 1992\\|date\\=April 16, 1992\\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority\\|pages\\=E.12\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=January 2, 2024\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102022656/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/48472960412/in/album\\-72157710272372761/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}* + - * + - * + - * + The changes took effect on October 23, 1992, with modification: Late night shuttle service to Lefferts Boulevard would terminate at Euclid Avenue, not Rockaway Boulevard.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30660280045 \\|title\\=October 1992 New York City Subway Map \\|date\\=October 1992 \\|work\\=Flickr \\|access\\-date\\=October 7, 2018 \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit Authority \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|archive\\-date\\=February 4, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204235654/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/30660280045 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Later on, the rush hour A trips to Rockaway Park were extended from 59th Street to [Dyckman Street](/wiki/Dyckman_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"Dyckman Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") and Inwood–207th Street.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/pdf/tacur.pdf \\|title\\=A Subway Timetable \\|work\\=mta.info \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 30, 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230193631/http://web.mta.info/nyct/service/pdf/tacur.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"On May 29, 1994, A trains began running express on weekends from 7 a.m. to 11 p.m. between 168th Street and [145th Street](/wiki/145th_Street_%28IND_lines%29 \"145th Street (IND lines)\"), with C trains being extended from 145th Street to 168th Street to cover local stops.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/16543351666/in/album\\-72157652636594213/ \\|title\\=May 1994 Subway Map \\|date\\=May 1994 \\|work\\=Flickr \\|publisher\\=New York City Transit \\|language\\=en\\-us \\|access\\-date\\=October 7, 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 4, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404211507/https://www.flickr.com/photos/127872292@N06/16543351666/in/album\\-72157652636594213/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A corresponding change was made to weekday midday A service on April 30, 1995, though this change was discontinued on November 12, 1995\\. On March 1, 1998, A trains began running express between 168th Street and 145th Street during middays and early evenings, with local service provided by extended C service.",
"On May 2, 1999, the A became the express on the Fulton Street Line at all times except late nights, and C service was extended from World Trade Center to Euclid Avenue during late weekday evenings and weekends to provide local service along the line. This service change was made due to construction taking place on the Williamsburg Bridge, which prohibited the {{NYCS\\|J}}, {{NYCS\\|M}} and {{NYCS\\|Z}} from entering Manhattan; as a result, service on the A, as well as the C and {{NYCS\\|L}}, were increased. This service change to the A was made permanent after the Williamsburg Bridge reopened to J, M and Z trains.{{cite journal \\|title\\=New Schedules \\-\\- Williamsburg Bridge Reopens; Increased Subway Service \\|journal\\=The Bulletin \\|publisher\\=Electric Railroaders' Association, Incorporated \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=10 \\|page\\=1 \\|date\\=October 1999 \\|url\\=https://www.erausa.org/pdf/bulletin/1990s/1999/1999\\-10\\-bulletin.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-02}}",
"### 21st century",
"[left\\|thumb\\|[Far Rockaway](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_station \"Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue station\")\\-bound A train of [R46s](/wiki/R46_%28New_York_City_Subway_car%29 \"R46 (New York City Subway car)\") approaching [Beach 60th Street](/wiki/Beach_60th_Street_station \"Beach 60th Street station\").](/wiki/File:Views_From_The_Rockaways.jpg \"Views From The Rockaways.jpg\")\nOn January 23, 2005, a fire at the [Chambers Street](/wiki/Chambers_Street_%28IND_Eighth_Avenue_Line%29 \"Chambers Street (IND Eighth Avenue Line)\") signal room crippled A and C service. Initial assessments suggested that it would take several years to restore normal service, but the damaged equipment was replaced with available spare parts, and normal service resumed on April 21\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/nyregion/25subway.html \\|title\\=2 Subway Lines Crippled by Fire; Long Repair Seen \\|last\\=Chan \\|first\\=Sewell \\|date\\=January 25, 2005 \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|issn\\=0362\\-4331 \\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 12, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812195928/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/25/nyregion/25subway.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/08/24/remembering\\-a\\-fire\\-at\\-chambers\\-st/ \\|title\\=Remembering a Fire at Chambers St. \\|work\\=Second Ave. Sagas \\|date\\=August 24, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=March 20, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 21, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321023040/http://secondavenuesagas.com/2010/08/24/remembering\\-a\\-fire\\-at\\-chambers\\-st/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"A service was affected by [Hurricane Sandy](/wiki/Hurricane_Sandy \"Hurricane Sandy\") in October 2012, due to extreme damage to the [IND Rockaway Line](/wiki/IND_Rockaway_Line \"IND Rockaway Line\"). Trains that normally traveled to [Far Rockaway](/wiki/Far_Rockaway%E2%80%93Mott_Avenue_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue (IND Rockaway Line)\") or [Rockaway Park](/wiki/Rockaway_Park%E2%80%93Beach_116th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Rockaway Park–Beach 116th Street (IND Rockaway Line)\") terminated at [Howard Beach–JFK Airport](/wiki/Howard_Beach%E2%80%93JFK_Airport_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Howard Beach–JFK Airport (IND Rockaway Line)\"). Service to the Rockaways resumed on May 30, 2013\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Rebuilding the Rockaways After Hurricane Sandy \\|url\\=http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm \\|work\\=mta.info \\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority \\|access\\-date\\=November 18, 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129020912/http://www.mta.info/nyct/service/RebuildingRockawaysAfterHurricanSandy.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=November 29, 2012 }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/16/cuomo\\-mta\\-to\\-restore\\-a\\-train\\-subway\\-service\\-to\\-the\\-rockaways/ \\|title\\=Cuomo: MTA To Restore A Train Subway Service To The Rockaways May 30 \\|date\\=May 16, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=May 16, 2013 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123053722/http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/16/cuomo\\-mta\\-to\\-restore\\-a\\-train\\-subway\\-service\\-to\\-the\\-rockaways/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Far Rockaway part of the route was served by the temporary free H shuttle that ran between Far Rockaway and [Beach 90th Street](/wiki/Beach_90th_Street_%28IND_Rockaway_Line%29 \"Beach 90th Street (IND Rockaway Line)\") via the connecting track at Hammels Wye.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://twitter.com/MTAInsider/status/270625005337993216 \\|title\\=MTA on Twitter \\|work\\=Twitter \\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 8, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040013/https://twitter.com/MTAInsider/status/270625005337993216 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://alert.mta.info/sites/default/files/pdf/hurricane\\_recovery\\_map\\_bw\\_Nov\\_20\\_rock\\_shtl.pdf\\|title\\=Hurricane Sandy Recovery Service. As of November 20\\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\\|website\\=mta.info\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123125002/http://alert.mta.info/sites/default/files/pdf/hurricane\\_recovery\\_map\\_bw\\_Nov\\_20\\_rock\\_shtl.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=January 23, 2013}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://mta.info/news/stories/?story\\=878 \\|title\\=MTA News \\|work\\=mta.info \\|access\\-date\\=November 26, 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 13, 2013 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313175544/http://www.mta.info/news/stories/?story\\=878 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"As a result of a two\\-phase program of flood mitigation work along the Hammels Wye, between April 9 and May 18, 2018, limited rush hour A service to/from Rockaway Park was suspended.{{efn\\|Limited rush\\-hour service that normally begins or ends at Rockaway Park began or ended at Euclid Avenue instead.\\|name\\=Euclid Avenue terminal}} The second phase, from July 1 to September 3, diverted all Far Rockaway\\-bound A trips to Rockaway Park, with [Rockaway Park Shuttle](/wiki/Rockaway_Park_Shuttle \"Rockaway Park Shuttle\") trains being rerouted to the Far Rockaway branch through the southern leg of Hammels Wye.{{cite web \\|title\\=Train Change: A/ Shuttle Service to Be Impacted Starting in April \\|website\\=The Rockaway Times \\|date\\=March 8, 2018 \\|url\\=http://rockawaytimes.com/index.php/columns/3602\\-train\\-change\\-a\\-shuttle\\-service\\-to\\-be\\-impacted\\-starting\\-in\\-april \\|access\\-date\\=March 30, 2018\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429140113/http://rockawaytimes.com/index.php/columns/3602\\-train\\-change\\-a\\-shuttle\\-service\\-to\\-be\\-impacted\\-starting\\-in\\-april\\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2020}}",
"From midday on March 29, 2020{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://mymtaalerts.com/m?D8F78\\|title\\=MANH/BKLYN, A and C Train, No C Train Service\\|date\\=March 29, 2020\\|website\\=mymtaalerts.com\\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429135836/https://mymtaalerts.com/m?D8F78\\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2020}}{{Cite news\\|last\\=Berger\\|first\\=Paul\\|url\\=https://www.wsj.com/articles/new\\-york\\-subway\\-struggles\\-under\\-coronavirus\\-worker\\-shortage\\-11585693114\\|title\\=New York Transit Struggles Under Coronavirus Worker Shortage\\|date\\=March 31, 2020\\|work\\=Wall Street Journal\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|issn\\=0099\\-9660\\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429183418/https://www.wsj.com/articles/new\\-york\\-subway\\-struggles\\-under\\-coronavirus\\-worker\\-shortage\\-11585693114\\|url\\-status\\=live}} to April 28, 2020,{{Cite news\\|last\\=Martinez\\|first\\=Jose\\|url\\=https://thecity.nyc/2020/04/nyc\\-subways\\-slowly\\-get\\-on\\-track\\-as\\-transit\\-workers\\-return.html\\|title\\=Subway Service Slowly Gets Back On Track As Transit Workers Return\\|date\\=April 28, 2020\\|work\\=The City\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429162415/https://thecity.nyc/2020/04/nyc\\-subways\\-slowly\\-get\\-on\\-track\\-as\\-transit\\-workers\\-return.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} due to the suspension of C train service caused by the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), A trains to Lefferts Boulevard ran local,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://mymtaalerts.com/m?DA8CE\\|title\\=Update: QNS, C Train, No Scheduled Service\\|date\\=April 28, 2020\\|website\\=mymtaalerts.com\\|publisher\\=Metropolitan Transportation Authority\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429140045/https://mymtaalerts.com/m?DA8CE\\|archive\\-date\\=April 29, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=April 29, 2020}} while A trains to the Rockaways ran express.{{cite web \\|title\\=A 8 Avenue Express \\|url\\=https://transitfeeds.com/p/mta/886/latest/route/A/20200428 \\|website\\=transitfeeds.com \\|publisher\\=Open Mobility Data \\|access\\-date\\=April 28, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428092434/https://transitfeeds.com/p/mta/886/latest/route/A/20200428 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 28, 2020 \\|date\\=April 28, 2020}} As part of a program to repair the South Channel Bridge, service south of Howard Beach {{Show by date\\|2025\\|01\\|17\\|will be\\|was}} suspended for 17 weeks beginning on January 17, 2025, and the Rockaway branches {{Show by date\\|2025\\|01\\|17\\|will instead be served\\|were instead served}} by the [Rockaway Park Shuttle](/wiki/Rockaway_Park_Shuttle \"Rockaway Park Shuttle\").{{cite web \\|last\\=Schilling \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=September 13, 2024 \\|title\\=MTA Previews 17\\-Week A Train Service Shutdown During CB14 Meeting \\|url\\=https://www.rockawave.com/articles/mta\\-previews\\-17\\-week\\-a\\-train\\-service\\-shutdown\\-during\\-cb14\\-meeting/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024 \\|website\\=The Wave \\- Rockaway's Newspaper since 1893}}{{cite web \\|last\\=McFadden \\|first\\=Katie \\|date\\=September 16, 2024 \\|title\\=A Train Shutdown Tops September CB14 Meeting \\|url\\=https://www.rockawaytimes.com/a\\-train\\-shutdown\\-tops\\-september\\-cb14\\-meeting/ \\|access\\-date\\=September 16, 2024 \\|website\\=THE ROCKAWAY TIMES – First and Free}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 1970, writer [Alan Bennett](/wiki/Alan_Bennett "Alan Bennett") moves into a wealthy suburb of [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden "London Borough of Camden"). Soon afterwards, he meets Miss [Mary Shepherd](/wiki/Margaret_Fairchild "Margaret Fairchild"), an irritable, eccentric, unsanitary, and religious homeless woman living in an old [Bedford](/wiki/Bedford_Vehicles "Bedford Vehicles") van, who squats outside multiple houses in Bennett's street of [Gloucester Crescent](/wiki/Gloucester_Crescent%2C_Camden "Gloucester Crescent, Camden"). Social workers frequently check in with her, and other neighbours on the street frequently bring Miss Shepherd presents or food.
One day, a couple of youths scare Miss Shepherd, shaking the van and yelling at her, which causes her to wake from a nightmare she was having of a long ago traffic accident. The incident with the boys worries Alan, so he mentions at a meal with neighbours an idea to let her park in his drive. Though initially hesitant, a wealthy neighbour buys her a new van, and Miss Shepherd moves into his driveway, where she proceeds to stay for 15 years, from 1974 to 1989\.
Bennett is discreetly gay, and sometimes brings his dates home. Shepherd naively assumes his dates are Communists, meeting secretly with him. During this time, Bennett balances his writing career with watching over Shepherd and providing for his increasingly invalid mother. Though he denies "caring" for anyone, he slowly becomes aware of his growing friendship with Shepherd. Bennett often imagines himself having philosophical discussions with himself.
Bennett discovers her fluency in French, which she learnt while studying the piano in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"). Despite this, she has an extreme aversion to all music. When asked why, she explained that when she was a novice nun, left alone in a room with a piano she started to play a classical piece. She was forbidden to play it again. Bennett also discovers that she had driven an ambulance during the 1939 blackout in WWII, played [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin "Chopin") at [The Proms](/wiki/The_Proms "The Proms"), and attempted to become a [nun](/wiki/Nun "Nun") twice. He also finds out her real name: Margaret Fairchild. A mysterious man stops by her van who frightens her every so often, and she gives him money, and she lives in constant fear of the police.
Eventually, Shepherd is sent to a [day centre](/wiki/Day_centre "Day centre"). Bennett takes this opportunity to travel down to [Broadstairs](/wiki/Broadstairs "Broadstairs") and meets with the man she frequently visits, who turns out to be her brother. He explains how he had had Mary institutionalised in Banstead (she escaped not long after) and that she studied under the virtuoso pianist [Alfred Cortot](/wiki/Alfred_Cortot "Alfred Cortot").
Bennett returns home, to find Shepherd back in her van. She had been scared off by a woman she'd known in Banstead, and had an opportunity to sneak in to play a piano in the centre. She explains that her confessor (in addition to the nuns) had forbidden her from playing, which she was told would help her spirit grow. Before Bennett goes into his house, Shepherd asks to hold his hand. Bennett obliges, and not long after he goes indoors, she dies peacefully in her sleep in her van.
At her funeral, Bennett finds out that after Shepherd escaped from Banstead, she was involved in an accident when her van was hit by a motorcyclist, for whose death she believed herself to blame. She fled the scene, and lived the rest of her life in fear of arrest.
After clearing out and removing the van from his driveway, Bennett decides to write a memoir covering the 20 years he knew Shepherd.
The real Alan Bennett is shown observing the final scene being filmed, in which his younger self unveils a [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque "Blue plaque") on his home dedicated to "Miss M.T Shepherd, The Lady in the Van".
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 1970, writer [Alan Bennett](/wiki/Alan_Bennett \"Alan Bennett\") moves into a wealthy suburb of [Camden](/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden \"London Borough of Camden\"). Soon afterwards, he meets Miss [Mary Shepherd](/wiki/Margaret_Fairchild \"Margaret Fairchild\"), an irritable, eccentric, unsanitary, and religious homeless woman living in an old [Bedford](/wiki/Bedford_Vehicles \"Bedford Vehicles\") van, who squats outside multiple houses in Bennett's street of [Gloucester Crescent](/wiki/Gloucester_Crescent%2C_Camden \"Gloucester Crescent, Camden\"). Social workers frequently check in with her, and other neighbours on the street frequently bring Miss Shepherd presents or food.",
"One day, a couple of youths scare Miss Shepherd, shaking the van and yelling at her, which causes her to wake from a nightmare she was having of a long ago traffic accident. The incident with the boys worries Alan, so he mentions at a meal with neighbours an idea to let her park in his drive. Though initially hesitant, a wealthy neighbour buys her a new van, and Miss Shepherd moves into his driveway, where she proceeds to stay for 15 years, from 1974 to 1989\\.",
"Bennett is discreetly gay, and sometimes brings his dates home. Shepherd naively assumes his dates are Communists, meeting secretly with him. During this time, Bennett balances his writing career with watching over Shepherd and providing for his increasingly invalid mother. Though he denies \"caring\" for anyone, he slowly becomes aware of his growing friendship with Shepherd. Bennett often imagines himself having philosophical discussions with himself.",
"Bennett discovers her fluency in French, which she learnt while studying the piano in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"). Despite this, she has an extreme aversion to all music. When asked why, she explained that when she was a novice nun, left alone in a room with a piano she started to play a classical piece. She was forbidden to play it again. Bennett also discovers that she had driven an ambulance during the 1939 blackout in WWII, played [Chopin](/wiki/Chopin \"Chopin\") at [The Proms](/wiki/The_Proms \"The Proms\"), and attempted to become a [nun](/wiki/Nun \"Nun\") twice. He also finds out her real name: Margaret Fairchild. A mysterious man stops by her van who frightens her every so often, and she gives him money, and she lives in constant fear of the police.",
"Eventually, Shepherd is sent to a [day centre](/wiki/Day_centre \"Day centre\"). Bennett takes this opportunity to travel down to [Broadstairs](/wiki/Broadstairs \"Broadstairs\") and meets with the man she frequently visits, who turns out to be her brother. He explains how he had had Mary institutionalised in Banstead (she escaped not long after) and that she studied under the virtuoso pianist [Alfred Cortot](/wiki/Alfred_Cortot \"Alfred Cortot\").",
"Bennett returns home, to find Shepherd back in her van. She had been scared off by a woman she'd known in Banstead, and had an opportunity to sneak in to play a piano in the centre. She explains that her confessor (in addition to the nuns) had forbidden her from playing, which she was told would help her spirit grow. Before Bennett goes into his house, Shepherd asks to hold his hand. Bennett obliges, and not long after he goes indoors, she dies peacefully in her sleep in her van.",
"At her funeral, Bennett finds out that after Shepherd escaped from Banstead, she was involved in an accident when her van was hit by a motorcyclist, for whose death she believed herself to blame. She fled the scene, and lived the rest of her life in fear of arrest.",
"After clearing out and removing the van from his driveway, Bennett decides to write a memoir covering the 20 years he knew Shepherd.",
"The real Alan Bennett is shown observing the final scene being filmed, in which his younger self unveils a [blue plaque](/wiki/Blue_plaque \"Blue plaque\") on his home dedicated to \"Miss M.T Shepherd, The Lady in the Van\".",
""
] |
Von Richthofen family
---------------------
The famous von Richthofen aristocratic family from Germany has many illustrious members worldwide. Among the family's relatives are: [Ferdinand von Richthofen](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Richthofen "Ferdinand von Richthofen") (geographer, 1833\-1905\); [Oswald von Richthofen](/wiki/Oswald_von_Richthofen "Oswald von Richthofen") (diplomat, 1847\-1906\); Else von Richthofen (political scientist, 1874\-1973\); [Frieda von Richthofen](/wiki/Frieda_Lawrence "Frieda Lawrence") (philosopher, 1879\-1956\); [Manfred von Richthofen](/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen "Manfred von Richthofen") (aviator, 1892\-1918\); [Lothar von Richthofen](/wiki/Lothar_von_Richthofen "Lothar von Richthofen") (aviator, 1894\-1922\); [Bolko von Richthofen](/wiki/Bolko_von_Richthofen "Bolko von Richthofen") (archaeologist, 1899\-1983\); Hermann von Richthofen (diplomat, 1933\-2021\).{{Cite news \|date\=2006\-07\-23 \|title\=Red Baron heiress killed parents \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5207124\.stm \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|language\=en\-GB}}
Manfred Albert von Richthofen and Marísia met in the 1970s when she was studying medicine and he was studying engineering at the University of São Paulo (USP). After they married, they went to study in Germany. On their return, he began working for private companies until he joined Dersa, the state\-owned company that manages roads in São Paulo. When she returned from Germany, Marísia opened a psychiatry practice. Suzane was born on November 3, 1983\. Four years later, the youngest child, Andreas, was born.{{Cite web \|date\=2013\-09\-29 \|title\=Época \- NOTÍCIAS \- No rastro de Suzane \|url\=http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EDG54308\-5990,00\-NO\+RASTRO\+DE\+SUZANE.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929115526/http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EDG54308\-5990,00\-NO\+RASTRO\+DE\+SUZANE.html \|archive\-date\=2013\-09\-29 }}
In the neighborhood of the house where the family lived for almost fifteen years, in the South Zone of São Paulo, the four are remembered with sympathy. "It was the Doriana family, the happy family," says psychologist Luciane Mazzolenis, a neighbor of the couple, whom Suzane called her aunt. The von Richthofens moved out of the house \- worth 400,000 [reais](/wiki/Brazilian_real "Brazilian real") \- in 2000\. But Manfred and his children often went to the house to collect mail and rake leaves from the yard. The family conflicts began when Suzane started her relationship with Daniel.
### Manfred Albert von Richthofen
Manfred Albert von Richthofen ([Erbach](/wiki/Erbach_im_Odenwald "Erbach im Odenwald"), February 3, 1953 \- [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Paulo"), October 31, 2002\) was a German\-born Brazilian engineer, married to psychiatrist Marísia von Richthofen. Through his father, his branch would have lost most of its possessions and influence, mainly as a result of the fall of the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire "German Empire") in 1918, and his nation's major participation in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") (1914\-1918\) and [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") (1939\-1945\).{{Cite web \|title\=Herança deixada pelo casal Richthofen vale R$ 11 milhões \|url\=https://www.diarioweb.com.br/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|website\=Diário da Região \|language\=pt\-BR}} According to Manfred's marriage note published in a newspaper, his father was Joachim Hermann Oskar von Richthofen.{{Cite web \|title\=Diário Oficial do Estado de São Paulo \|url\=https://www.imprensaoficial.com.br/DO/BuscaDO2001Documento\_11\_4\.aspx?link\=/1977/judiciario/janeiro/19/p1/pag\_0032\_4CIGA63Q3BJR0e4EVCLCL8NLIJV.pdf\&pagina\=32\&data\=19/01/1977\&caderno\=Judici%C3%A1rio\&paginaordenacao\=100032 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www.imprensaoficial.com.br}} In 1996, Manfred gave an interview to the now\-defunct *Jornal da Tarde*, in which he claimed to be the great\-nephew of the [Red Baron](/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen "Manfred von Richthofen"). This interview was retrieved in October 2021 by a portal in the city of [Santa Cruz do Sul](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_do_Sul "Santa Cruz do Sul"), where Manfred's mother, who later moved to Germany, was born.{{Cite web \|last\=TI \|date\=2021\-10\-24 \|title\=A avó santa\-cruzense de Suzane von Richthofen \|url\=https://www.gaz.com.br/a\-avo\-santa\-cruzense\-de\-suzane\-von\-richthofen/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=GAZ \- Notícias de Santa Cruz do Sul e Região \|language\=pt\-BR}} Although Manfred's supposed kinship with Red Baron was widely reported in the Brazilian press, the German lineage of the aristocratic family denied any kinship.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-08\-22 \|title\=Suzane von Richthofen sitzt wegen Elternmords ein \- WELT \|url\=https://www.welt.de/vermischtes/article133781940/Die\-spaete\-Reue\-der\-Suzane\-von\-Richthofen.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=DIE WELT \|language\=de}}
According to a personal friend, Manfred was not an outspoken person, but he had a good sense of humor, was very intelligent and cared about his children's education. He had worked at Dersa since November 1998 and had been the company's Engineering Director since June 2002\. As an employee of the company, he took part in the project to build São Paulo's Rodoanel Mário Covas, an expressway that bypasses the city, linking several highways. Manfred earned 11,000 reais a month at the state\-owned company, but he had possessions because of his family. Marísia, who ran a psychiatric practice, earned around 20,000 reais from consultations. Manfred's fortune was valued at around 11 million reais at current prices.
In July 2006, the São Paulo State Public Prosecutor's Office reopened an investigation into the family's estate and Manfred's alleged illicit enrichment from work on the western stretch of the Rodoanel. The funds were to go into an account in Switzerland and be sent to Suzane. The case had been investigated for the first time in 2004 but was considered inconclusive. The new investigation was carried out under the secrecy of the courts and, in 2015, it was again closed due to lack of evidence.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-03\-11 \|title\=Promotoria não desengaveta denúncia contra pai de Suzane \|url\=https://exame.com/brasil/promotoria\-nao\-desengaveta\-denuncia\-contra\-pai\-de\-suzane/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=Exame \|language\=pt\-br}}
### Marísia von Richthofen
Marísia von Richthofen (born Marísia Abdalla, [José Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "José Bonifácio, São Paulo"), January 19, 1952 \- São Paulo, October 31, 2002\) was a Brazilian psychiatrist. She lived for fourteen years of her life in José Bonifácio, a town 40 kilometers from [São José do Rio Preto](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_do_Rio_Preto "São José do Rio Preto"). Marísia's grandfather, Miguel Abdalla, moved from [Sorocaba](/wiki/Sorocaba "Sorocaba") to José Bonifácio in 1920 and was one of the pioneers in local commerce. With Miguel Abdalla, his children moved to Bonifácio, including Salim Abdalla, who married Lourdes Magnani in the city and had two children \- Miguel Neto and Marísia. The psychiatrist studied in the town until 1966 and then moved to São Paulo with her grandparents. The news shocked her relatives in Sorocaba and José Bonifácio. The daughter of Italian and Lebanese descendants graduated from [USP](/wiki/USP_College "USP College") with her brother. She was considered the most outgoing and popular of the Richthofen family.{{Cite web \|title\=Psiquiatra morta em SP nasceu em Bonifácio \|url\=https://www.diarioweb.com.br/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=Diário da Região \|language\=pt\-BR}}{{Cite web \|title\=FamilySearch.org \|url\=https://ident.familysearch.org/identity/login/?state\=https://www.familysearch.org/tree/pedigree/landscape/9J7D\-QLM \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=ident.familysearch.org}}
{{Infobox criminal
\| name \= Suzane von Richthofen
\| birth\_name \= Suzane Louise Magnani Muniz
\| criminal\_charge \= \[\[parricide]]
\[\[matricide]]
\| spouse \= Sandrão (2014\-2016\){{cite web \| url\=https://observatoriog.com.br/noticias/famosos/a\-menina\-que\-matou\-os\-pais\-suzane\-von\-richthofen\-e\-seu\-namoro\-lesbico\-na\-cadeia \| title\=Suzane von Richthofen e o seu namoro lésbico com Sandrão }}
Felipe Muniz
\| nationality \=
\| children \= 1
\| parents \= Manfred Albert von Richthofen
Marísia von Richthofen
}}
### Suzane von Richthofen
{{Main\|Suzane von Richthofen}}
Suzane Louise Magnani Muniz{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-02\-05 \|title\=Suzane ex\-Richthofen: condenada pela morte dos pais muda registro em cartório e passa a usar sobrenome da avó materna \|url\=https://oglobo.globo.com/blogs/true\-crime/post/2024/02/suzane\-ex\-richthofen\-condenada\-pela\-morte\-dos\-pais\-muda\-registro\-em\-cartorio\-e\-passa\-a\-usar\-sobrenome\-da\-avo\-materna.ghtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|website\=O Globo \|language\=pt\-br}} (at the time of the crime Suzane Louise von Richthofen; São Paulo, November 3, 1983\) is a Brazilian artisan, entrepreneur and criminal. She was born into a wealthy family in the city of São Paulo, the daughter of engineer Manfred Albert von Richthofen and psychiatrist Marísia von Richthofen, and the sister of Andreas Albert von Richthofen. Her father, born in Erbach, emigrated to Brazil after being offered a job due to his training as an engineer. Until the murders that culminated in her imprisonment, Suzane lived with her parents in a mansion in the Brooklin Velho neighborhood.{{Cite web \|title\=G1 \> Edição São Paulo \- NOTÍCIAS \- Suzane Von Richthofen presta depoimento no Ministério Público de Ribeirão Preto \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/Noticias/SaoPaulo/0,,MUL951\-5605,00\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|website\=g1\.globo.com}}
In October 2014, eleven years after her conviction, Suzane announced her marriage to another inmate named Sandra Regina Ruiz Gomes, sentenced to 27 years in prison for the kidnapping and death of a teenager in São Paulo. Known as "Sandrão", she was the ex\-girlfriend of [Elize Matsunaga](/wiki/Elize_Matsunaga:Once_Upon_a_Crime "Once Upon a Crime"), who was jailed for killing and dismembering her husband, Marcos Matsunaga, in 2012\. In order to live with Sandra, Suzane had to sign an affectionate recognition document, required for all prisoners who decide to live together. With this document, she moved out of the evangelicals' wing, where she lived, and into the married prisoners' cell, where she shared space with eight other couples. People connected to Elize and Sandra said that the two had been together since the beginning of the year and that the relationship ended because of Suzane. The three worked in the prison's sewing workshop, where Suzane was the boss. The relationship was pointed out as one of the reasons why Suzane gave up the right to spend her days out of prison.{{Cite web \|title\=Quem é Sandra Regina Ruiz Gomes, a namorada de Suzane Richthofen na cadeia \|url\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/romance\-suzane\-richthofen\-sandra\-gomes\-tremembe\-presidio/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \|language\=pt\-BR}}
In February 2015, Suzane gave an interview with TV presenter [Gugu Liberato](/wiki/Gugu_Liberato "Gugu Liberato") in which she said she had planned the murder of her parents together with the Cravinhos brothers. She also claimed to regret the crime and confessed that she met Daniel, who would become her boyfriend, when she was 14, through her mother, and that with him she led a life "where she could do anything". She admitted to missing the presence of her parents, expressed her desire to be forgiven by her brother, Andreas, and confirmed her intention to give up her father's inheritance.
After the interview, "Sandrão" was released from prison and transferred to the Women's Resocialization Center in São José dos Campos, the same prison from which she was expelled in 2010 after assaulting a prison guard. With the move, their relationship ended and Suzane began dating a businessman from the transport sector.{{Cite web \|title\=Suzane Von Richthofen volta à cela das solteiras \|url\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/suzane\-cela\-solteiras\-sandrao\-semiaberto/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \|language\=pt\-BR}}
In February 2017, she was pre\-selected to get a loan, through the federal government's [Higher Education Student Financing Fund](/wiki/Fundo_de_Financiamento_ao_Estudante_do_Ensino_Superior "Fundo de Financiamento ao Estudante do Ensino Superior") (FIES), to attend a private college in [Taubaté](/wiki/Taubat%C3%A9 "Taubaté"), near [Tremembé](/wiki/Trememb%C3%A9 "Tremembé"), the city where she is serving a semi\-open sentence in the women's prison. The course she chose was business administration, but Suzane needed permission from the Court of Criminal Executions to be able to go out at night. She got permission in 2016 but didn't continue with the course.{{Cite web \|title\=O novo amor de Suzane von Richthofen \|url\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/suzane\-richthofen\-namorado\-tremembe/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \|language\=pt\-BR}} In September 2021, the court authorized Suzane to leave prison every day, at a set time, to study pharmacy.{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-02\-13 \|title\=Suzane Richthofen é aprovada no Fies para cursar faculdade católica \|url\=https://oglobo.globo.com/politica/suzane\-richthofen\-aprovada\-no\-fies\-para\-cursar\-faculdade\-catolica\-20919842 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=O Globo \|language\=pt\-BR}} On January 11, 2023, Suzane was released from prison after 20 years in jail,{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-13 \|title\=Justiça autoriza Suzane Richthofen a deixar prisão para cursar Farmácia em universidade \|url\=https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/justica\-autoriza\-suzane\-richthofen\-deixar\-prisao\-para\-cursar\-farmacia\-em\-universidade\-25195550 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=O Globo \|language\=pt\-BR}} after which she moved to [Angatuba](/wiki/Angatuba "Angatuba"), in the interior of São Paulo, and opened a studio.{{Cite web \|title\=Suzane von Richthofen deixa prisão \|url\=https://veja.abril.com.br/brasil/suzane\-von\-richthofen\-deixa\-prisao \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=VEJA \|language\=pt\-BR}} In March, Suzane began a relationship with doctor Felipe Zecchini Muniz and in September, biographer Ullisses Campbell also announced that the criminal was also pregnant and living in Bragança Paulista,{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-02\-08 \|title\=Fora da cadeia, Suzane Von Richthofen abre ateliê on\-line {{!}} Metrópoles \|url\=https://www.metropoles.com/colunas/leo\-dias/fora\-da\-cadeia\-suzane\-von\-richthofen\-abre\-atelie\-on\-line \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www.metropoles.com \|language\=pt\-BR}} where she became a local icon.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-09\-01 \|title\=Biógrafo diz que Suzane von Richthofen está grávida de médico e já escolheu nome da filha: Isabela \|url\=https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2023/09/01/biografo\-diz\-que\-suzane\-von\-richthofen\-esta\-gravida\-de\-medico\-e\-ja\-escolheu\-nome\-da\-filha.ghtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=O Globo \|language\=pt\-br}} On December 13, Suzane and Felipe entered into a stable union contract and she changed her surname to "Magnani Muniz", being respectively the surname of her maternal grandmother and the other of her spouse.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-02\-01 \|title\=Como vive Suzane von Richthofen no interior de SP \- 31/01/2024 \- Cotidiano \- Folha \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2024/01/com\-passeio\-no\-lago\-e\-compras\-em\-bairro\-rico\-suzane\-von\-richthofen\-vira\-lenda\-urbana\-no\-interior\-de\-sp.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201012100/https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2024/01/com\-passeio\-no\-lago\-e\-compras\-em\-bairro\-rico\-suzane\-von\-richthofen\-vira\-lenda\-urbana\-no\-interior\-de\-sp.shtml \|archive\-date\=2024\-02\-01 }} On January 27, 2024, Suzane gave birth to her first child, Felipe, at the hospital where her husband works, Albert Sabin, in [Atibaia](/wiki/Atibaia "Atibaia").{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-02\-05 \|title\=Ex\-Richthofen: condenada pela morte dos pais, Suzane muda sobrenome {{!}} Metrópoles \|url\=https://www.metropoles.com/brasil/ex\-richthofen\-condenada\-pela\-morte\-dos\-pais\-suzane\-muda\-sobrenome \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www.metropoles.com \|language\=pt\-BR}}
### Andreas von Richthofen
Andreas Albert von Richthofen (São Paulo, July 3, 1987\) was a quiet boy who was considered shy and had few friends. He spent most of his time locked in his room watching TV or on the computer. He was polite to the servants at the mansion, and waited for his father to arrive every day when he talked about his day. When the family went to the farm they owned in [São Roque](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Roque%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "São Roque, São Paulo"), Andreas and Manfred made carpentry objects and looked after the plants in the garden. The boy studied two languages and was a brown belt in karate. Andreas had a reserved temperament, like his father. He received around 2,000 reais a month in pocket money from his parents and, unlike Suzane, he kept most of the money.
Suzane and Andreas were very close to each other. According to reports, the two were always close, accomplices and confidants. "One always protected the other," said one of Suzane's childhood friends. "I never saw the two of them fight. They talked a lot and got on well," said former employee Silândia. The boy also liked to play in the yard with a shotgun and look after a guinea pig. Andreas studied with his sister at Colégio Humboldt until the end of 2001, when he went to Colégio Vértice by the decision of his parents since Suzane hadn't passed a USP entrance exam. At the time, Colégio Vértice was the number one school in terms of USP entrance exam passes.
After his first statement, on October 31, 2002, Andreas was taken away from his sister and moved in with his only maternal uncle, Miguel Abdalla. He met Suzane for the first time on November 13, at the re\-enactment of the case at the family mansion. On November 14, he visited his sister at the 89th Police Station, in the [Morumbi](/wiki/Morumbi%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "Morumbi, São Paulo") neighborhood, accompanied by her lawyer, Denivaldo Barni. On that occasion, Barni released a note supposedly written by the boy. At his sister's trial, Andreas claimed that he had been coerced into writing the note of forgiveness to his sister:{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais "perdoaram" irmã \- 14/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
> "To forgive is to open your heart. Not only have I forgiven my sister Su, but I still love her. Now, especially, is the time when she needs love the most. Despite the pain, I'm very sure that our parents have forgiven her. Just yesterday, I heard a phrase that struck me: humanity must walk together in search of the civilization of love."{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais "perdoaram" irmã \- 14/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-26 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
After the alleged note was published, Andreas was " attacked" by the sensationalist media, but prosecutor Roberto Tardelli and the boy's uncle, Miguel, came out in his defense, claiming that the note was a "dirty trick" played by Suzane and her lawyer, Denivaldo. These criticisms caught the attention of the Center for Operational Support of Child and Adolescent Prosecutors, which sent a notification to Suzane's lawyer. Andreas visited Suzane for the last time on Christmas Eve 2002, in [Carandiru](/wiki/Carandiru_Penitentiary "Carandiru Penitentiary"), where he didn't go through the queue. According to the director of the Carandiru penitentiary, Andreas went directly inside because his presence in the waiting line could cause a disturbance. Andreas also obtained permission for an [Audi A4](/wiki/Audi_A4 "Audi A4") to pick him up inside the penitentiary, which caused outrage among relatives of inmates who had to stop their cars in the street. The warden said that the person who picked Andreas up was a lawyer, so he was allowed in with the car.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais "perdoaram" irmã \- 14/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
In 2004, he passed his exams at the top five universities in the state. In 2005, when Suzane was released, he went to see prosecutor Tardelli "fearing his death" after seeing Suzane hanging around the house where he lived with his uncle and maternal grandmother. Andreas learned that she had visited the house when his grandmother, Lourdes, was alone and had even taken photos with his grandmother. Andreas and his uncle Miguel did not forgive Suzane and did not agree to take her in at the time of her release. Her maternal grandmother, Lourdes, forgave her granddaughter, but declared that she "couldn't accept such an attitude and didn't want to share the same roof with her."{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Andreas fura fila ao visitar Suzane Richthofen na prisão \- 24/12/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u65378\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}} Andreas never spoke about the crime to the press and hasn't visited Suzane since Christmas Eve 2002\. During her time at liberty, Suzane stated that she called her brother once a week, but he didn't answer. And when she did, the conversation ended in an argument."{{Cite web \|title\=Agora São Paulo \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/agora/policia/pl1311200501\.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-02\-28 \|title\=VEJA on\-line \|url\=http://veja.abril.com.br/120406/p\_104\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228191452/http://veja.abril.com.br/120406/p\_104\.html \|archive\-date\=2015\-02\-28 }}
Andreas studied [Pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy "Pharmacy") and [Biochemistry](/wiki/Biochemistry "Biochemistry") at the [University of São Paulo](/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "University of São Paulo") between 2005 and 2009\. He started his doctorate in [Organic Chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry "Organic chemistry") in 2010 at the same university and received a scholarship from [CNPq](/wiki/National_Council_for_Scientific_and_Technological_Development "National Council for Scientific and Technological Development").{{Cite web \|title\=Andreas von Richthofen \- LATTES \|url\=http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/buscatextual/visualizacv.do?metodo\=apresentar\&id\=K4241773E0 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|website\=buscatextual.cnpq.br}} He lived in Vila Congonhas with his uncle Miguel and maternal grandmother Lourdes Magnani Silva Abdalla (who died in 2006\) from November 2002 until mid\-September 2011, when it was reported that he had moved to [Zurich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich "Zürich"), Switzerland.{{Cite web \|title\=Andreas Albert Von Richthofen \|url\=http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/buscatextual/visualizacv.do?metodo\=apresentar\&id\=K4241773E0 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=buscatextual.cnpq.br}}
|
[
"Von Richthofen family\n---------------------",
"The famous von Richthofen aristocratic family from Germany has many illustrious members worldwide. Among the family's relatives are: [Ferdinand von Richthofen](/wiki/Ferdinand_von_Richthofen \"Ferdinand von Richthofen\") (geographer, 1833\\-1905\\); [Oswald von Richthofen](/wiki/Oswald_von_Richthofen \"Oswald von Richthofen\") (diplomat, 1847\\-1906\\); Else von Richthofen (political scientist, 1874\\-1973\\); [Frieda von Richthofen](/wiki/Frieda_Lawrence \"Frieda Lawrence\") (philosopher, 1879\\-1956\\); [Manfred von Richthofen](/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen \"Manfred von Richthofen\") (aviator, 1892\\-1918\\); [Lothar von Richthofen](/wiki/Lothar_von_Richthofen \"Lothar von Richthofen\") (aviator, 1894\\-1922\\); [Bolko von Richthofen](/wiki/Bolko_von_Richthofen \"Bolko von Richthofen\") (archaeologist, 1899\\-1983\\); Hermann von Richthofen (diplomat, 1933\\-2021\\).{{Cite news \\|date\\=2006\\-07\\-23 \\|title\\=Red Baron heiress killed parents \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5207124\\.stm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|language\\=en\\-GB}}",
"Manfred Albert von Richthofen and Marísia met in the 1970s when she was studying medicine and he was studying engineering at the University of São Paulo (USP). After they married, they went to study in Germany. On their return, he began working for private companies until he joined Dersa, the state\\-owned company that manages roads in São Paulo. When she returned from Germany, Marísia opened a psychiatry practice. Suzane was born on November 3, 1983\\. Four years later, the youngest child, Andreas, was born.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-29 \\|title\\=Época \\- NOTÍCIAS \\- No rastro de Suzane \\|url\\=http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EDG54308\\-5990,00\\-NO\\+RASTRO\\+DE\\+SUZANE.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929115526/http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EDG54308\\-5990,00\\-NO\\+RASTRO\\+DE\\+SUZANE.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-29 }}",
"In the neighborhood of the house where the family lived for almost fifteen years, in the South Zone of São Paulo, the four are remembered with sympathy. \"It was the Doriana family, the happy family,\" says psychologist Luciane Mazzolenis, a neighbor of the couple, whom Suzane called her aunt. The von Richthofens moved out of the house \\- worth 400,000 [reais](/wiki/Brazilian_real \"Brazilian real\") \\- in 2000\\. But Manfred and his children often went to the house to collect mail and rake leaves from the yard. The family conflicts began when Suzane started her relationship with Daniel.",
"### Manfred Albert von Richthofen",
"Manfred Albert von Richthofen ([Erbach](/wiki/Erbach_im_Odenwald \"Erbach im Odenwald\"), February 3, 1953 \\- [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Paulo\"), October 31, 2002\\) was a German\\-born Brazilian engineer, married to psychiatrist Marísia von Richthofen. Through his father, his branch would have lost most of its possessions and influence, mainly as a result of the fall of the [German Empire](/wiki/German_Empire \"German Empire\") in 1918, and his nation's major participation in [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") (1914\\-1918\\) and [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") (1939\\-1945\\).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Herança deixada pelo casal Richthofen vale R$ 11 milhões \\|url\\=https://www.diarioweb.com.br/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=Diário da Região \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} According to Manfred's marriage note published in a newspaper, his father was Joachim Hermann Oskar von Richthofen.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Diário Oficial do Estado de São Paulo \\|url\\=https://www.imprensaoficial.com.br/DO/BuscaDO2001Documento\\_11\\_4\\.aspx?link\\=/1977/judiciario/janeiro/19/p1/pag\\_0032\\_4CIGA63Q3BJR0e4EVCLCL8NLIJV.pdf\\&pagina\\=32\\&data\\=19/01/1977\\&caderno\\=Judici%C3%A1rio\\&paginaordenacao\\=100032 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www.imprensaoficial.com.br}} In 1996, Manfred gave an interview to the now\\-defunct *Jornal da Tarde*, in which he claimed to be the great\\-nephew of the [Red Baron](/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen \"Manfred von Richthofen\"). This interview was retrieved in October 2021 by a portal in the city of [Santa Cruz do Sul](/wiki/Santa_Cruz_do_Sul \"Santa Cruz do Sul\"), where Manfred's mother, who later moved to Germany, was born.{{Cite web \\|last\\=TI \\|date\\=2021\\-10\\-24 \\|title\\=A avó santa\\-cruzense de Suzane von Richthofen \\|url\\=https://www.gaz.com.br/a\\-avo\\-santa\\-cruzense\\-de\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=GAZ \\- Notícias de Santa Cruz do Sul e Região \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} Although Manfred's supposed kinship with Red Baron was widely reported in the Brazilian press, the German lineage of the aristocratic family denied any kinship.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-22 \\|title\\=Suzane von Richthofen sitzt wegen Elternmords ein \\- WELT \\|url\\=https://www.welt.de/vermischtes/article133781940/Die\\-spaete\\-Reue\\-der\\-Suzane\\-von\\-Richthofen.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=DIE WELT \\|language\\=de}}",
"According to a personal friend, Manfred was not an outspoken person, but he had a good sense of humor, was very intelligent and cared about his children's education. He had worked at Dersa since November 1998 and had been the company's Engineering Director since June 2002\\. As an employee of the company, he took part in the project to build São Paulo's Rodoanel Mário Covas, an expressway that bypasses the city, linking several highways. Manfred earned 11,000 reais a month at the state\\-owned company, but he had possessions because of his family. Marísia, who ran a psychiatric practice, earned around 20,000 reais from consultations. Manfred's fortune was valued at around 11 million reais at current prices.",
"In July 2006, the São Paulo State Public Prosecutor's Office reopened an investigation into the family's estate and Manfred's alleged illicit enrichment from work on the western stretch of the Rodoanel. The funds were to go into an account in Switzerland and be sent to Suzane. The case had been investigated for the first time in 2004 but was considered inconclusive. The new investigation was carried out under the secrecy of the courts and, in 2015, it was again closed due to lack of evidence.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-11 \\|title\\=Promotoria não desengaveta denúncia contra pai de Suzane \\|url\\=https://exame.com/brasil/promotoria\\-nao\\-desengaveta\\-denuncia\\-contra\\-pai\\-de\\-suzane/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=Exame \\|language\\=pt\\-br}}",
"### Marísia von Richthofen",
"Marísia von Richthofen (born Marísia Abdalla, [José Bonifácio](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Bonif%C3%A1cio%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"José Bonifácio, São Paulo\"), January 19, 1952 \\- São Paulo, October 31, 2002\\) was a Brazilian psychiatrist. She lived for fourteen years of her life in José Bonifácio, a town 40 kilometers from [São José do Rio Preto](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Jos%C3%A9_do_Rio_Preto \"São José do Rio Preto\"). Marísia's grandfather, Miguel Abdalla, moved from [Sorocaba](/wiki/Sorocaba \"Sorocaba\") to José Bonifácio in 1920 and was one of the pioneers in local commerce. With Miguel Abdalla, his children moved to Bonifácio, including Salim Abdalla, who married Lourdes Magnani in the city and had two children \\- Miguel Neto and Marísia. The psychiatrist studied in the town until 1966 and then moved to São Paulo with her grandparents. The news shocked her relatives in Sorocaba and José Bonifácio. The daughter of Italian and Lebanese descendants graduated from [USP](/wiki/USP_College \"USP College\") with her brother. She was considered the most outgoing and popular of the Richthofen family.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Psiquiatra morta em SP nasceu em Bonifácio \\|url\\=https://www.diarioweb.com.br/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=Diário da Região \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=FamilySearch.org \\|url\\=https://ident.familysearch.org/identity/login/?state\\=https://www.familysearch.org/tree/pedigree/landscape/9J7D\\-QLM \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=ident.familysearch.org}}",
"{{Infobox criminal\n\\| name \\= Suzane von Richthofen\n\\| birth\\_name \\= Suzane Louise Magnani Muniz\n\\| criminal\\_charge \\= \\[\\[parricide]]\n\\[\\[matricide]]\n\\| spouse \\= Sandrão (2014\\-2016\\){{cite web \\| url\\=https://observatoriog.com.br/noticias/famosos/a\\-menina\\-que\\-matou\\-os\\-pais\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-e\\-seu\\-namoro\\-lesbico\\-na\\-cadeia \\| title\\=Suzane von Richthofen e o seu namoro lésbico com Sandrão }}",
"Felipe Muniz\n\\| nationality \\= \n\\| children \\= 1\n\\| parents \\= Manfred Albert von Richthofen\nMarísia von Richthofen\n}}",
"### Suzane von Richthofen",
"{{Main\\|Suzane von Richthofen}}\nSuzane Louise Magnani Muniz{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-05 \\|title\\=Suzane ex\\-Richthofen: condenada pela morte dos pais muda registro em cartório e passa a usar sobrenome da avó materna \\|url\\=https://oglobo.globo.com/blogs/true\\-crime/post/2024/02/suzane\\-ex\\-richthofen\\-condenada\\-pela\\-morte\\-dos\\-pais\\-muda\\-registro\\-em\\-cartorio\\-e\\-passa\\-a\\-usar\\-sobrenome\\-da\\-avo\\-materna.ghtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=O Globo \\|language\\=pt\\-br}} (at the time of the crime Suzane Louise von Richthofen; São Paulo, November 3, 1983\\) is a Brazilian artisan, entrepreneur and criminal. She was born into a wealthy family in the city of São Paulo, the daughter of engineer Manfred Albert von Richthofen and psychiatrist Marísia von Richthofen, and the sister of Andreas Albert von Richthofen. Her father, born in Erbach, emigrated to Brazil after being offered a job due to his training as an engineer. Until the murders that culminated in her imprisonment, Suzane lived with her parents in a mansion in the Brooklin Velho neighborhood.{{Cite web \\|title\\=G1 \\> Edição São Paulo \\- NOTÍCIAS \\- Suzane Von Richthofen presta depoimento no Ministério Público de Ribeirão Preto \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/Noticias/SaoPaulo/0,,MUL951\\-5605,00\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=g1\\.globo.com}}",
"In October 2014, eleven years after her conviction, Suzane announced her marriage to another inmate named Sandra Regina Ruiz Gomes, sentenced to 27 years in prison for the kidnapping and death of a teenager in São Paulo. Known as \"Sandrão\", she was the ex\\-girlfriend of [Elize Matsunaga](/wiki/Elize_Matsunaga:Once_Upon_a_Crime \"Once Upon a Crime\"), who was jailed for killing and dismembering her husband, Marcos Matsunaga, in 2012\\. In order to live with Sandra, Suzane had to sign an affectionate recognition document, required for all prisoners who decide to live together. With this document, she moved out of the evangelicals' wing, where she lived, and into the married prisoners' cell, where she shared space with eight other couples. People connected to Elize and Sandra said that the two had been together since the beginning of the year and that the relationship ended because of Suzane. The three worked in the prison's sewing workshop, where Suzane was the boss. The relationship was pointed out as one of the reasons why Suzane gave up the right to spend her days out of prison.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Quem é Sandra Regina Ruiz Gomes, a namorada de Suzane Richthofen na cadeia \\|url\\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/romance\\-suzane\\-richthofen\\-sandra\\-gomes\\-tremembe\\-presidio/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}",
"In February 2015, Suzane gave an interview with TV presenter [Gugu Liberato](/wiki/Gugu_Liberato \"Gugu Liberato\") in which she said she had planned the murder of her parents together with the Cravinhos brothers. She also claimed to regret the crime and confessed that she met Daniel, who would become her boyfriend, when she was 14, through her mother, and that with him she led a life \"where she could do anything\". She admitted to missing the presence of her parents, expressed her desire to be forgiven by her brother, Andreas, and confirmed her intention to give up her father's inheritance.",
"After the interview, \"Sandrão\" was released from prison and transferred to the Women's Resocialization Center in São José dos Campos, the same prison from which she was expelled in 2010 after assaulting a prison guard. With the move, their relationship ended and Suzane began dating a businessman from the transport sector.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Suzane Von Richthofen volta à cela das solteiras \\|url\\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/suzane\\-cela\\-solteiras\\-sandrao\\-semiaberto/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}",
"In February 2017, she was pre\\-selected to get a loan, through the federal government's [Higher Education Student Financing Fund](/wiki/Fundo_de_Financiamento_ao_Estudante_do_Ensino_Superior \"Fundo de Financiamento ao Estudante do Ensino Superior\") (FIES), to attend a private college in [Taubaté](/wiki/Taubat%C3%A9 \"Taubaté\"), near [Tremembé](/wiki/Trememb%C3%A9 \"Tremembé\"), the city where she is serving a semi\\-open sentence in the women's prison. The course she chose was business administration, but Suzane needed permission from the Court of Criminal Executions to be able to go out at night. She got permission in 2016 but didn't continue with the course.{{Cite web \\|title\\=O novo amor de Suzane von Richthofen \\|url\\=https://vejasp.abril.com.br/cidades/suzane\\-richthofen\\-namorado\\-tremembe/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=VEJA SÃO PAULO \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} In September 2021, the court authorized Suzane to leave prison every day, at a set time, to study pharmacy.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-13 \\|title\\=Suzane Richthofen é aprovada no Fies para cursar faculdade católica \\|url\\=https://oglobo.globo.com/politica/suzane\\-richthofen\\-aprovada\\-no\\-fies\\-para\\-cursar\\-faculdade\\-catolica\\-20919842 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=O Globo \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} On January 11, 2023, Suzane was released from prison after 20 years in jail,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-13 \\|title\\=Justiça autoriza Suzane Richthofen a deixar prisão para cursar Farmácia em universidade \\|url\\=https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/justica\\-autoriza\\-suzane\\-richthofen\\-deixar\\-prisao\\-para\\-cursar\\-farmacia\\-em\\-universidade\\-25195550 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=O Globo \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} after which she moved to [Angatuba](/wiki/Angatuba \"Angatuba\"), in the interior of São Paulo, and opened a studio.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Suzane von Richthofen deixa prisão \\|url\\=https://veja.abril.com.br/brasil/suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-deixa\\-prisao \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=VEJA \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} In March, Suzane began a relationship with doctor Felipe Zecchini Muniz and in September, biographer Ullisses Campbell also announced that the criminal was also pregnant and living in Bragança Paulista,{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-02\\-08 \\|title\\=Fora da cadeia, Suzane Von Richthofen abre ateliê on\\-line {{!}} Metrópoles \\|url\\=https://www.metropoles.com/colunas/leo\\-dias/fora\\-da\\-cadeia\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-abre\\-atelie\\-on\\-line \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www.metropoles.com \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}} where she became a local icon.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-09\\-01 \\|title\\=Biógrafo diz que Suzane von Richthofen está grávida de médico e já escolheu nome da filha: Isabela \\|url\\=https://oglobo.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2023/09/01/biografo\\-diz\\-que\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-esta\\-gravida\\-de\\-medico\\-e\\-ja\\-escolheu\\-nome\\-da\\-filha.ghtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=O Globo \\|language\\=pt\\-br}} On December 13, Suzane and Felipe entered into a stable union contract and she changed her surname to \"Magnani Muniz\", being respectively the surname of her maternal grandmother and the other of her spouse.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 \\|title\\=Como vive Suzane von Richthofen no interior de SP \\- 31/01/2024 \\- Cotidiano \\- Folha \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2024/01/com\\-passeio\\-no\\-lago\\-e\\-compras\\-em\\-bairro\\-rico\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-vira\\-lenda\\-urbana\\-no\\-interior\\-de\\-sp.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201012100/https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2024/01/com\\-passeio\\-no\\-lago\\-e\\-compras\\-em\\-bairro\\-rico\\-suzane\\-von\\-richthofen\\-vira\\-lenda\\-urbana\\-no\\-interior\\-de\\-sp.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-01 }} On January 27, 2024, Suzane gave birth to her first child, Felipe, at the hospital where her husband works, Albert Sabin, in [Atibaia](/wiki/Atibaia \"Atibaia\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-05 \\|title\\=Ex\\-Richthofen: condenada pela morte dos pais, Suzane muda sobrenome {{!}} Metrópoles \\|url\\=https://www.metropoles.com/brasil/ex\\-richthofen\\-condenada\\-pela\\-morte\\-dos\\-pais\\-suzane\\-muda\\-sobrenome \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www.metropoles.com \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}",
"### Andreas von Richthofen",
"Andreas Albert von Richthofen (São Paulo, July 3, 1987\\) was a quiet boy who was considered shy and had few friends. He spent most of his time locked in his room watching TV or on the computer. He was polite to the servants at the mansion, and waited for his father to arrive every day when he talked about his day. When the family went to the farm they owned in [São Roque](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Roque%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"São Roque, São Paulo\"), Andreas and Manfred made carpentry objects and looked after the plants in the garden. The boy studied two languages and was a brown belt in karate. Andreas had a reserved temperament, like his father. He received around 2,000 reais a month in pocket money from his parents and, unlike Suzane, he kept most of the money.",
"Suzane and Andreas were very close to each other. According to reports, the two were always close, accomplices and confidants. \"One always protected the other,\" said one of Suzane's childhood friends. \"I never saw the two of them fight. They talked a lot and got on well,\" said former employee Silândia. The boy also liked to play in the yard with a shotgun and look after a guinea pig. Andreas studied with his sister at Colégio Humboldt until the end of 2001, when he went to Colégio Vértice by the decision of his parents since Suzane hadn't passed a USP entrance exam. At the time, Colégio Vértice was the number one school in terms of USP entrance exam passes.",
"After his first statement, on October 31, 2002, Andreas was taken away from his sister and moved in with his only maternal uncle, Miguel Abdalla. He met Suzane for the first time on November 13, at the re\\-enactment of the case at the family mansion. On November 14, he visited his sister at the 89th Police Station, in the [Morumbi](/wiki/Morumbi%2C_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"Morumbi, São Paulo\") neighborhood, accompanied by her lawyer, Denivaldo Barni. On that occasion, Barni released a note supposedly written by the boy. At his sister's trial, Andreas claimed that he had been coerced into writing the note of forgiveness to his sister:{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais \"perdoaram\" irmã \\- 14/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}\n> \"To forgive is to open your heart. Not only have I forgiven my sister Su, but I still love her. Now, especially, is the time when she needs love the most. Despite the pain, I'm very sure that our parents have forgiven her. Just yesterday, I heard a phrase that struck me: humanity must walk together in search of the civilization of love.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais \"perdoaram\" irmã \\- 14/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-26 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"After the alleged note was published, Andreas was \" attacked\" by the sensationalist media, but prosecutor Roberto Tardelli and the boy's uncle, Miguel, came out in his defense, claiming that the note was a \"dirty trick\" played by Suzane and her lawyer, Denivaldo. These criticisms caught the attention of the Center for Operational Support of Child and Adolescent Prosecutors, which sent a notification to Suzane's lawyer. Andreas visited Suzane for the last time on Christmas Eve 2002, in [Carandiru](/wiki/Carandiru_Penitentiary \"Carandiru Penitentiary\"), where he didn't go through the queue. According to the director of the Carandiru penitentiary, Andreas went directly inside because his presence in the waiting line could cause a disturbance. Andreas also obtained permission for an [Audi A4](/wiki/Audi_A4 \"Audi A4\") to pick him up inside the penitentiary, which caused outrage among relatives of inmates who had to stop their cars in the street. The warden said that the person who picked Andreas up was a lawyer, so he was allowed in with the car.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Andreas visita Suzane e diz que pais \"perdoaram\" irmã \\- 14/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62834\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"In 2004, he passed his exams at the top five universities in the state. In 2005, when Suzane was released, he went to see prosecutor Tardelli \"fearing his death\" after seeing Suzane hanging around the house where he lived with his uncle and maternal grandmother. Andreas learned that she had visited the house when his grandmother, Lourdes, was alone and had even taken photos with his grandmother. Andreas and his uncle Miguel did not forgive Suzane and did not agree to take her in at the time of her release. Her maternal grandmother, Lourdes, forgave her granddaughter, but declared that she \"couldn't accept such an attitude and didn't want to share the same roof with her.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Andreas fura fila ao visitar Suzane Richthofen na prisão \\- 24/12/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u65378\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}} Andreas never spoke about the crime to the press and hasn't visited Suzane since Christmas Eve 2002\\. During her time at liberty, Suzane stated that she called her brother once a week, but he didn't answer. And when she did, the conversation ended in an argument.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Agora São Paulo \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/agora/policia/pl1311200501\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-02\\-28 \\|title\\=VEJA on\\-line \\|url\\=http://veja.abril.com.br/120406/p\\_104\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228191452/http://veja.abril.com.br/120406/p\\_104\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-02\\-28 }}",
"Andreas studied [Pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy \"Pharmacy\") and [Biochemistry](/wiki/Biochemistry \"Biochemistry\") at the [University of São Paulo](/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"University of São Paulo\") between 2005 and 2009\\. He started his doctorate in [Organic Chemistry](/wiki/Organic_chemistry \"Organic chemistry\") in 2010 at the same university and received a scholarship from [CNPq](/wiki/National_Council_for_Scientific_and_Technological_Development \"National Council for Scientific and Technological Development\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Andreas von Richthofen \\- LATTES \\|url\\=http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/buscatextual/visualizacv.do?metodo\\=apresentar\\&id\\=K4241773E0 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|website\\=buscatextual.cnpq.br}} He lived in Vila Congonhas with his uncle Miguel and maternal grandmother Lourdes Magnani Silva Abdalla (who died in 2006\\) from November 2002 until mid\\-September 2011, when it was reported that he had moved to [Zurich](/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich \"Zürich\"), Switzerland.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Andreas Albert Von Richthofen \\|url\\=http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/buscatextual/visualizacv.do?metodo\\=apresentar\\&id\\=K4241773E0 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=buscatextual.cnpq.br}}",
""
] |
Suzane's relationship with the Cravinhos family
-----------------------------------------------
On a Sunday afternoon in August 1999, Manfred, Marísia, Suzane and Andreas went for a walk in [Ibirapuera Park](/wiki/Ibirapuera_Park "Ibirapuera Park"). They met Daniel, an aeromodelling competitor. Andreas became interested in the hobby and asked his parents to take a class. Daniel started giving Andreas aeromodelling lessons. Before long, the two became very close. Daniel took the boy biking and to autorama races. According to friends, Andreas even helped his sister get close to the boy. "Suzane thought Daniel was cute and sent him a note for Andreas," said a childhood friend of Suzane's in a statement. Manfred and Marísia didn't mind when Suzane began to have a more intimate relationship with Daniel, believing that it would only be temporary. Daniel and Andreas were very close.
Reports say that Andreas listened to his sister's secrets and participated in her life with her boyfriend. According to these reports, Andreas used to commit some delinquencies in the company of the couple. Hiding in the trunk of the car, Andreas told his interlocutors, he went to a hot\-sheet hotel with his sister and brother\-in\-law, where they smoked [cannabis](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 "Cannabis (drug)"). It was through the couple that Andreas tried marijuana for the first time in [Villa\-Lobos State Park](/wiki/Villa-Lobos_State_Park "Villa-Lobos State Park"). Daniel, according to what Andreas told the police investigating the case, was like an "older brother". "Cristian was also a dear friend", he said in his statements.
Over time, the relationship became more serious and Manfred and Marísia became worried. To earn a living, Daniel made one or two airplanes a month and sold them for around 1,400 reais. He also did maintenance and sold parts to enthusiasts. Suzane asked her father for money from her allowance to lend to her boyfriend and gave him lots of clothes and presents. His brother, Cristian, was hospitalized for [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine") addiction and lived in debt with drug dealers. He also worked as a police informer. The Richthofen couple felt that Daniel was not good for their daughter.
Friends of Suzane and Daniel say that the two changed after their teenage relationship became more serious. Suzane lost her virginity to Daniel at the age of 16 and at the same time they started smoking cannabis almost every day, and also experimented with [ecstasy](/wiki/MDMA "MDMA"). The last trip Suzane took without her boyfriend was to the beach house of one of her best friends, in [Porto Seguro](/wiki/Porto_Seguro "Porto Seguro"), on New Year's Eve 2000\. After that, it was hard to find her without Daniel. In order to be with her boyfriend, the girl stopped going to parties after her high school graduation, which made her parents very angry. At law school, the couple's contact was so close that they didn't even miss out on excursions. Daniel stayed by his girlfriend's side even during school activities. He accompanied Suzane and her class on a visit to the João Mendes Júnior Forum and [Legislative Assembly of São Paulo](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "Legislative Assembly of São Paulo") (ALESP). "It seemed like their lives were all about each other. She only went for walks, went out at night or traveled with him," said Beatriz Chagas, Suzane's classmate at [Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo](/wiki/Pontifical_Catholic_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo "Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo") (PUC). Fellow aeromodellers say that Daniel has also changed: "Sometimes he would give up training to pick her up," says law student and aeromodeller Ênio Tosta. In his bedroom at his parents' house, Daniel has put up two panels with dozens of photos of him and Suzane. A caricature of the couple also shared space with the model airplane he used in competitions. On the bed, there was a pillow with a picture of Suzane next to his stuffed animals. From the beginning of their relationship, the couple used to go to the Disco Verde hot\-sheet hotel by cab in the afternoons. But at the end of 2001, her parents began trying to convince Suzane to end the relationship, as they discovered Daniel's involvement with drugs and their daughter's "lack of motivation" to study. Suzane began spending the night with Daniel on the sly, telling her parents that she was going to stay at her friends' house to study. "She would warn us and we would cover up the lie," recalls one of her friends. One night in April 2002, the strategy went wrong. Marísia phoned Suzane's best friend and found out that her daughter hadn't gone to sleep. She demanded explanations the next morning when the girl returned home, and Suzane told her that she had spent the night in a hot\-sheet hotel. Marísia and Manfred then decided to ban the relationship once and for all.
On Mother's Day 2002, the von Richthofens were to have lunch at a restaurant in São Roque. Suzane refused to go, cursed her father and beat him up for the first time at the age of 18\. Manfred slapped his daughter, who left the house saying she wouldn't come back. But she came back, promised her parents that the relationship was over and took her wedding ring off her finger. However, the relationship continued on as a secret.{{Cite web \|title\=Richthofen diz a Daniel Cravinhos que eles vão 'sair dessa' \|url\=https://correiodoestado.com.br/correio\-b/richthofen\-diz\-a\-daniel\-cravinhos\-que\-eles\-vao\-sair\-dessa/164307/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-24 \|website\=correiodoestado.com.br}}
With the prohibition, Suzane, who used to spend whole afternoons talking to her mother, became estranged from her parents. She fought with her family every time she came home with her boyfriend. 'In July, my parents went away for a month. That month was like a dream,' said Suzane. When they arrived, Suzane suggested that they would buy her an apartment or flat so that she could live with Daniel. Manfred refused, saying that his daughter should graduate, work and \- then \- live with whoever she wanted. This refusal encouraged the planning of the murder.
At the beginning of September 2002, the 12th Battalion of the São Paulo Military Police was called to break up a fight in a house in the middle\-class Campo Belo neighborhood. The officers arrived at the house at 2 am. They found Manfred at the gate wearing shorts, a shirt and slippers. Upset, Manfred was talking to Daniel, then 21\. Suzane, then 19, tried to calm them down. Gradually, tempers cooled. But father and boyfriend came out of the argument with little threats: "One of these days I'm going to beat this kid up", Manfred told one of the police officers. A little less calm, Daniel said that the engineer had threatened to hit his daughter if they continued dating. "I feel like beating this old man", he said. It was the third time the police had intervened in a fight between the two, as in May and June, anonymous phone calls had already been made asking for help in similar situations. The reason was always the same: Suzane would come home late and try to go in with Daniel, her father would stop her and the arguments would start.
At Manfred and Marísia's funeral, the wedding ring was already back on Suzane's finger. The passion withstood the first few months in prison, but in March 2004 a letter from Daniel to Suzane gave the signal that the love was not the same: "I don't know why you don't talk to my parents or me anymore, could it be that you don't trust me anymore?".{{Cite web \|title\=Richthofen diz a Daniel Cravinhos que eles vão 'sair dessa' \|url\=https://correiodoestado.com.br/correio\-b/richthofen\-diz\-a\-daniel\-cravinhos\-que\-eles\-vao\-sair\-dessa/164307/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=correiodoestado.com.br}}
|
[
"Suzane's relationship with the Cravinhos family\n-----------------------------------------------",
"On a Sunday afternoon in August 1999, Manfred, Marísia, Suzane and Andreas went for a walk in [Ibirapuera Park](/wiki/Ibirapuera_Park \"Ibirapuera Park\"). They met Daniel, an aeromodelling competitor. Andreas became interested in the hobby and asked his parents to take a class. Daniel started giving Andreas aeromodelling lessons. Before long, the two became very close. Daniel took the boy biking and to autorama races. According to friends, Andreas even helped his sister get close to the boy. \"Suzane thought Daniel was cute and sent him a note for Andreas,\" said a childhood friend of Suzane's in a statement. Manfred and Marísia didn't mind when Suzane began to have a more intimate relationship with Daniel, believing that it would only be temporary. Daniel and Andreas were very close.",
"Reports say that Andreas listened to his sister's secrets and participated in her life with her boyfriend. According to these reports, Andreas used to commit some delinquencies in the company of the couple. Hiding in the trunk of the car, Andreas told his interlocutors, he went to a hot\\-sheet hotel with his sister and brother\\-in\\-law, where they smoked [cannabis](/wiki/Cannabis_%28drug%29 \"Cannabis (drug)\"). It was through the couple that Andreas tried marijuana for the first time in [Villa\\-Lobos State Park](/wiki/Villa-Lobos_State_Park \"Villa-Lobos State Park\"). Daniel, according to what Andreas told the police investigating the case, was like an \"older brother\". \"Cristian was also a dear friend\", he said in his statements.",
"Over time, the relationship became more serious and Manfred and Marísia became worried. To earn a living, Daniel made one or two airplanes a month and sold them for around 1,400 reais. He also did maintenance and sold parts to enthusiasts. Suzane asked her father for money from her allowance to lend to her boyfriend and gave him lots of clothes and presents. His brother, Cristian, was hospitalized for [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\") addiction and lived in debt with drug dealers. He also worked as a police informer. The Richthofen couple felt that Daniel was not good for their daughter.",
"Friends of Suzane and Daniel say that the two changed after their teenage relationship became more serious. Suzane lost her virginity to Daniel at the age of 16 and at the same time they started smoking cannabis almost every day, and also experimented with [ecstasy](/wiki/MDMA \"MDMA\"). The last trip Suzane took without her boyfriend was to the beach house of one of her best friends, in [Porto Seguro](/wiki/Porto_Seguro \"Porto Seguro\"), on New Year's Eve 2000\\. After that, it was hard to find her without Daniel. In order to be with her boyfriend, the girl stopped going to parties after her high school graduation, which made her parents very angry. At law school, the couple's contact was so close that they didn't even miss out on excursions. Daniel stayed by his girlfriend's side even during school activities. He accompanied Suzane and her class on a visit to the João Mendes Júnior Forum and [Legislative Assembly of São Paulo](/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"Legislative Assembly of São Paulo\") (ALESP). \"It seemed like their lives were all about each other. She only went for walks, went out at night or traveled with him,\" said Beatriz Chagas, Suzane's classmate at [Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo](/wiki/Pontifical_Catholic_University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo \"Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo\") (PUC). Fellow aeromodellers say that Daniel has also changed: \"Sometimes he would give up training to pick her up,\" says law student and aeromodeller Ênio Tosta. In his bedroom at his parents' house, Daniel has put up two panels with dozens of photos of him and Suzane. A caricature of the couple also shared space with the model airplane he used in competitions. On the bed, there was a pillow with a picture of Suzane next to his stuffed animals. From the beginning of their relationship, the couple used to go to the Disco Verde hot\\-sheet hotel by cab in the afternoons. But at the end of 2001, her parents began trying to convince Suzane to end the relationship, as they discovered Daniel's involvement with drugs and their daughter's \"lack of motivation\" to study. Suzane began spending the night with Daniel on the sly, telling her parents that she was going to stay at her friends' house to study. \"She would warn us and we would cover up the lie,\" recalls one of her friends. One night in April 2002, the strategy went wrong. Marísia phoned Suzane's best friend and found out that her daughter hadn't gone to sleep. She demanded explanations the next morning when the girl returned home, and Suzane told her that she had spent the night in a hot\\-sheet hotel. Marísia and Manfred then decided to ban the relationship once and for all.",
"On Mother's Day 2002, the von Richthofens were to have lunch at a restaurant in São Roque. Suzane refused to go, cursed her father and beat him up for the first time at the age of 18\\. Manfred slapped his daughter, who left the house saying she wouldn't come back. But she came back, promised her parents that the relationship was over and took her wedding ring off her finger. However, the relationship continued on as a secret.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Richthofen diz a Daniel Cravinhos que eles vão 'sair dessa' \\|url\\=https://correiodoestado.com.br/correio\\-b/richthofen\\-diz\\-a\\-daniel\\-cravinhos\\-que\\-eles\\-vao\\-sair\\-dessa/164307/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-24 \\|website\\=correiodoestado.com.br}}",
"With the prohibition, Suzane, who used to spend whole afternoons talking to her mother, became estranged from her parents. She fought with her family every time she came home with her boyfriend. 'In July, my parents went away for a month. That month was like a dream,' said Suzane. When they arrived, Suzane suggested that they would buy her an apartment or flat so that she could live with Daniel. Manfred refused, saying that his daughter should graduate, work and \\- then \\- live with whoever she wanted. This refusal encouraged the planning of the murder.",
"At the beginning of September 2002, the 12th Battalion of the São Paulo Military Police was called to break up a fight in a house in the middle\\-class Campo Belo neighborhood. The officers arrived at the house at 2 am. They found Manfred at the gate wearing shorts, a shirt and slippers. Upset, Manfred was talking to Daniel, then 21\\. Suzane, then 19, tried to calm them down. Gradually, tempers cooled. But father and boyfriend came out of the argument with little threats: \"One of these days I'm going to beat this kid up\", Manfred told one of the police officers. A little less calm, Daniel said that the engineer had threatened to hit his daughter if they continued dating. \"I feel like beating this old man\", he said. It was the third time the police had intervened in a fight between the two, as in May and June, anonymous phone calls had already been made asking for help in similar situations. The reason was always the same: Suzane would come home late and try to go in with Daniel, her father would stop her and the arguments would start.",
"At Manfred and Marísia's funeral, the wedding ring was already back on Suzane's finger. The passion withstood the first few months in prison, but in March 2004 a letter from Daniel to Suzane gave the signal that the love was not the same: \"I don't know why you don't talk to my parents or me anymore, could it be that you don't trust me anymore?\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=Richthofen diz a Daniel Cravinhos que eles vão 'sair dessa' \\|url\\=https://correiodoestado.com.br/correio\\-b/richthofen\\-diz\\-a\\-daniel\\-cravinhos\\-que\\-eles\\-vao\\-sair\\-dessa/164307/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=correiodoestado.com.br}}",
""
] |
Murders
-------
A few days before the murder, Suzane and the Cravinhos tested the noise caused by the firing of a firearm and discarded the idea of using one.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Saiba como foi a morte do casal Richthofen, segundo a polícia \- 08/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62515\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-24 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}} On the afternoon of October 30, 2002, Suzane and Daniel Cravinhos went over the plans for the murder of the girl's parents for the last time. They talked to Cristian, who lived at his grandmother's house, who, still reluctant, was not sure whether he would take part in the events that would follow in the evening. Daniel asked his brother to think about it and, if he decided to help them, to wait for them in a certain street, near an [internet café](/wiki/Internet_caf%C3%A9 "Internet café") where they would take Andreas. That evening, Suzane's brother Andreas, who was fifteen at the time, was taken by the girl and her boyfriend to the café. He was seduced by the idea that on his sister's birthday the couple would celebrate in a hot\-sheet hotel and he would celebrate in the café, and that Suzane would convince her parents to let her brother miss school the next day.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Assassinato do casal Richthofen completa um ano \- 31/10/2003 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u84892\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
Cristian was already at the café. He arrived at the place at 10:12 pm. and left at 10:50 pm, so that Andreas wouldn't see him. At around 11:20 pm, Suzane and Daniel met Cristian near the café. The three of them drove to the von Richthofen mansion in the student's [Volkswagen Gol](/wiki/Volkswagen_Gol "Volkswagen Gol"). Days before the night of the murder, Suzane had meticulously turned off the alarm and the surveillance cameras in the house, so that no images of the trio arriving would be captured.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Engenheiro da Dersa e sua mulher, mortos em SP, são enterrados \- 01/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62003\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}} The three of them were then taken to the mansion.
Around midnight, they parked the car in the garage. According to the police, the hollow iron bars that were used in the murder were already in the car. The boys put on blouses and tights to prevent hair from falling through the house, material that could be used by the police to prove the murder. Suzane opened the gate, went upstairs and turned on the light in the hallway so that the brothers could see the couple's bedroom. Marísia and Manfred were asleep. The student separated garbage bags and surgical gloves, which were used by her mother, a psychiatrist.
The brothers, armed with iron bars, entered the couple's bedroom. Daniel went towards the engineer Manfred, while Cristian went towards Marísia. They were hit on the head.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Saiba como foi a morte do casal Richthofen, segundo a polícia \- 08/11/2002 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62515\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}} Manfred died on the spot. When Marísia was attacked, she woke up and tried to defend herself with her hands, resulting in three fractured fingers. Cristian told the police that he hit Marísia five times and put a towel over her mouth to stop her begging the alleged "murderers" not to attack her children, who she thought were asleep. Also according to Cristian's account, at a certain point, while she was in agony, Marísia began to make a sound "like snoring". To try to silence her, Cristian Cravinhos then took a towel from the couple's bathroom and pushed it down the psychiatrist's throat, which broke one of the bones in Marísia's neck. After confirming that they were both dead, Daniel placed a gun belonging to Manfred near his arm, next to the bed, and covered his face with a towel. Marísia's body was wrapped in a plastic garbage bag, which Suzane had left on the stairs for the brothers to deposit the iron bars and their clothes stained with their parents' blood.
"We got home, I went into my parents' bedroom. They were asleep. Then I went downstairs, turned on the light and told them they could go. I sat on the sofa with my hand to my ear. I didn't want my parents to die anymore. But then I realized that there was nothing else to do, that it was already too late", Suzane admitted in her statement after being arrested.{{Cite web \|title\=Notícias do Último Segundo: o que acontece no Brasil e no Mundo \|url\=https://ultimosegundo.ig.com.br/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=iG Último Segundo \|language\=pt\-BR}}
There is no information about Suzane's position in the house while the crime was taking place or whether she saw her parents' bodies afterwards. According to the re\-enactment of the crime, she stayed on the first floor, where she took the opportunity to steal the cash in the house, stored in a leather briefcase with a code. Suzane opened the briefcase, since she knew the code, but Daniel then cut open the briefcase with a knife to fake the theft of 8,000 reais, 6,000 euros and 5,000 dollars. They also opened the couple's safe, which contained jewels and a revolver, located in the bedroom. The accused scattered the jewels on the floor and left the revolver, intact, next to the engineer's body. The bloodied bars were washed in the swimming pool and everything used in the crime was put into garbage bags, and the three even changed their clothes.
The stolen money and some jewelry were given to Cristian as payment for his participation. After the crime, he was left near the apartment where he lived with his grandmother, and the couple moved on to the third part of the plan: forging an [alibi](/wiki/Alibi "Alibi"). Suzane and Daniel went to the Colonial motel on Ricardo Jafet Avenue, in the [Ipiranga](/wiki/Ipiranga_%28district_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo%29 "Ipiranga (district of São Paulo)") area, in the south. They stayed in the presidential suite, for which they paid around 300 reais, and ordered a Coca\-Cola and a ham snack. Daniel curiously asked for an invoice, the first ever issued by the motel. The couple stayed there from 1:36 am to 2:56 am, according to the police.{{Cite web \|last\=D'Agostino \|first\=Rosanne \|date\=2008\-04\-30 \|title\=Íntegra da fala do assistente de acusação, Alberto Toron, no júri de Suzane \|url\=http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/noticia/29909\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430075619/http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/noticia/29909\.shtml \|archive\-date\=2008\-04\-30 }}
After leaving the motel, the pair went to the internet café to pick up Andreas. They went to the student's boyfriend's house and told the teenager that he could ride on Daniel's scooter. Shortly afterwards, according to the original plan, the second stage of the simulation began. At around 4 am, Suzane and Andreas returned home. They arrived at the mansion, where Suzane said she was "surprised" that the doors were open. Andreas went into the library and called his parents, while Suzane, praying, ran into the kitchen, grabbed a knife and handed it to her brother, ordering him to wait outside the mansion. The student called her boyfriend and then, together with Andreas, made several phone calls to the house, waiting for her parents to answer.
At 4:09 am, Daniel contacted the police. He said he was in front of his girlfriend's house, who suspected a robbery was taking place there, and asked for a police car to come.
Alexandre Paulino Boto was the first police officer to arrive at the scene. In his testimony during the trial of the trio, he classified the murder as an "amateur crime". "The crime was an amateur procedure. They left the jewelry, cell phones and a gun in the couple's bedroom. If someone wanted to rob, steal, they wouldn't leave that there," the police officer said in 2006\. "A thief wouldn't leave a gun on the floor." Boto said he was surprised by Suzane's behavior, who asked him what procedures the police would follow. "I was surprised by her question and her impassive attitude in the face of the death of her parents," he said. She then asked how her parents were. "When I said they were fine, she was astonished. 'How?' she asked." The policeman also found Daniel's questions strange, as he arrived at the scene shortly afterwards. "Do you know if anything was taken from the house? It seems that the family kept all the money in a little box." Daniel then told him the exact amounts of the money they kept.
While a policeman remained with Suzane and Andreas outside the mansion, Boto and another officer entered the house, carefully, as there was still the possibility of finding an alleged thief. Downstairs, the library was completely overturned, but the living room and kitchen were in order. A staircase led to the upper floor. The policemen went upstairs and found what looked like a girl's room, with the closet turned over and stuffed animals thrown on the floor. The next room was typically male, with a model airplane hanging from the ceiling, everything organized; 3 pillows covered by a sheet. The next room was a double room, a man lying dead on the bed next to a gun; the hypothesis of suicide was soon ruled out when Boto found a female body under the sheets.{{Cite book \|last\=Casoy \|first\=Ilana \|title\=O quinto mandamento: caso de polícia \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Arx \|isbn\=978\-85\-7581\-228\-0 \|edition\=2nd \|location\=São Paulo}}
Fearing the teenagers' reaction, the police called in a rescue vehicle. At that time of night, around 4:30 am, Daniel's family was already at the scene, hugging Suzane and Andreas. Boto asked Daniel to tell the couple's children that their parents had been murdered. Daniel hugged them both, they bowed their heads and whispered. Andreas moved away from the group, apparently in a state of shock. Suzane approached Boto and asked, "What do I do now?".
Around 5 am, Astrogildo Cravinhos spoke to reporters from various television networks while Suzane and Andreas were taken to the police station. The couple's behavior soon caught everyone's attention at the police station. While waiting to be seen, Suzane took a nap leaning on Daniel's shoulder. Andreas sat there, shrunken and visibly shaken, while his sister exchanged affectionate touches with her boyfriend. In between sentences, while they were making the police report, the couple exchanged kisses and cuddles. Suzane told the police chief, Dr. Enjolras Rello de Araújo, "I would like you to kill and torture these people that killed my parents" and smiled at Daniel.
|
[
"Murders\n-------",
"A few days before the murder, Suzane and the Cravinhos tested the noise caused by the firing of a firearm and discarded the idea of using one.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Saiba como foi a morte do casal Richthofen, segundo a polícia \\- 08/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62515\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-24 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}} On the afternoon of October 30, 2002, Suzane and Daniel Cravinhos went over the plans for the murder of the girl's parents for the last time. They talked to Cristian, who lived at his grandmother's house, who, still reluctant, was not sure whether he would take part in the events that would follow in the evening. Daniel asked his brother to think about it and, if he decided to help them, to wait for them in a certain street, near an [internet café](/wiki/Internet_caf%C3%A9 \"Internet café\") where they would take Andreas. That evening, Suzane's brother Andreas, who was fifteen at the time, was taken by the girl and her boyfriend to the café. He was seduced by the idea that on his sister's birthday the couple would celebrate in a hot\\-sheet hotel and he would celebrate in the café, and that Suzane would convince her parents to let her brother miss school the next day.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Assassinato do casal Richthofen completa um ano \\- 31/10/2003 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u84892\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"Cristian was already at the café. He arrived at the place at 10:12 pm. and left at 10:50 pm, so that Andreas wouldn't see him. At around 11:20 pm, Suzane and Daniel met Cristian near the café. The three of them drove to the von Richthofen mansion in the student's [Volkswagen Gol](/wiki/Volkswagen_Gol \"Volkswagen Gol\"). Days before the night of the murder, Suzane had meticulously turned off the alarm and the surveillance cameras in the house, so that no images of the trio arriving would be captured.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Engenheiro da Dersa e sua mulher, mortos em SP, são enterrados \\- 01/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62003\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}} The three of them were then taken to the mansion.",
"Around midnight, they parked the car in the garage. According to the police, the hollow iron bars that were used in the murder were already in the car. The boys put on blouses and tights to prevent hair from falling through the house, material that could be used by the police to prove the murder. Suzane opened the gate, went upstairs and turned on the light in the hallway so that the brothers could see the couple's bedroom. Marísia and Manfred were asleep. The student separated garbage bags and surgical gloves, which were used by her mother, a psychiatrist.",
"The brothers, armed with iron bars, entered the couple's bedroom. Daniel went towards the engineer Manfred, while Cristian went towards Marísia. They were hit on the head.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Saiba como foi a morte do casal Richthofen, segundo a polícia \\- 08/11/2002 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u62515\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}} Manfred died on the spot. When Marísia was attacked, she woke up and tried to defend herself with her hands, resulting in three fractured fingers. Cristian told the police that he hit Marísia five times and put a towel over her mouth to stop her begging the alleged \"murderers\" not to attack her children, who she thought were asleep. Also according to Cristian's account, at a certain point, while she was in agony, Marísia began to make a sound \"like snoring\". To try to silence her, Cristian Cravinhos then took a towel from the couple's bathroom and pushed it down the psychiatrist's throat, which broke one of the bones in Marísia's neck. After confirming that they were both dead, Daniel placed a gun belonging to Manfred near his arm, next to the bed, and covered his face with a towel. Marísia's body was wrapped in a plastic garbage bag, which Suzane had left on the stairs for the brothers to deposit the iron bars and their clothes stained with their parents' blood.",
"\"We got home, I went into my parents' bedroom. They were asleep. Then I went downstairs, turned on the light and told them they could go. I sat on the sofa with my hand to my ear. I didn't want my parents to die anymore. But then I realized that there was nothing else to do, that it was already too late\", Suzane admitted in her statement after being arrested.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Notícias do Último Segundo: o que acontece no Brasil e no Mundo \\|url\\=https://ultimosegundo.ig.com.br/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=iG Último Segundo \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}",
"There is no information about Suzane's position in the house while the crime was taking place or whether she saw her parents' bodies afterwards. According to the re\\-enactment of the crime, she stayed on the first floor, where she took the opportunity to steal the cash in the house, stored in a leather briefcase with a code. Suzane opened the briefcase, since she knew the code, but Daniel then cut open the briefcase with a knife to fake the theft of 8,000 reais, 6,000 euros and 5,000 dollars. They also opened the couple's safe, which contained jewels and a revolver, located in the bedroom. The accused scattered the jewels on the floor and left the revolver, intact, next to the engineer's body. The bloodied bars were washed in the swimming pool and everything used in the crime was put into garbage bags, and the three even changed their clothes.",
"The stolen money and some jewelry were given to Cristian as payment for his participation. After the crime, he was left near the apartment where he lived with his grandmother, and the couple moved on to the third part of the plan: forging an [alibi](/wiki/Alibi \"Alibi\"). Suzane and Daniel went to the Colonial motel on Ricardo Jafet Avenue, in the [Ipiranga](/wiki/Ipiranga_%28district_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo%29 \"Ipiranga (district of São Paulo)\") area, in the south. They stayed in the presidential suite, for which they paid around 300 reais, and ordered a Coca\\-Cola and a ham snack. Daniel curiously asked for an invoice, the first ever issued by the motel. The couple stayed there from 1:36 am to 2:56 am, according to the police.{{Cite web \\|last\\=D'Agostino \\|first\\=Rosanne \\|date\\=2008\\-04\\-30 \\|title\\=Íntegra da fala do assistente de acusação, Alberto Toron, no júri de Suzane \\|url\\=http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/noticia/29909\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430075619/http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/noticia/29909\\.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-04\\-30 }}",
"After leaving the motel, the pair went to the internet café to pick up Andreas. They went to the student's boyfriend's house and told the teenager that he could ride on Daniel's scooter. Shortly afterwards, according to the original plan, the second stage of the simulation began. At around 4 am, Suzane and Andreas returned home. They arrived at the mansion, where Suzane said she was \"surprised\" that the doors were open. Andreas went into the library and called his parents, while Suzane, praying, ran into the kitchen, grabbed a knife and handed it to her brother, ordering him to wait outside the mansion. The student called her boyfriend and then, together with Andreas, made several phone calls to the house, waiting for her parents to answer.",
"At 4:09 am, Daniel contacted the police. He said he was in front of his girlfriend's house, who suspected a robbery was taking place there, and asked for a police car to come.",
"Alexandre Paulino Boto was the first police officer to arrive at the scene. In his testimony during the trial of the trio, he classified the murder as an \"amateur crime\". \"The crime was an amateur procedure. They left the jewelry, cell phones and a gun in the couple's bedroom. If someone wanted to rob, steal, they wouldn't leave that there,\" the police officer said in 2006\\. \"A thief wouldn't leave a gun on the floor.\" Boto said he was surprised by Suzane's behavior, who asked him what procedures the police would follow. \"I was surprised by her question and her impassive attitude in the face of the death of her parents,\" he said. She then asked how her parents were. \"When I said they were fine, she was astonished. 'How?' she asked.\" The policeman also found Daniel's questions strange, as he arrived at the scene shortly afterwards. \"Do you know if anything was taken from the house? It seems that the family kept all the money in a little box.\" Daniel then told him the exact amounts of the money they kept.",
"While a policeman remained with Suzane and Andreas outside the mansion, Boto and another officer entered the house, carefully, as there was still the possibility of finding an alleged thief. Downstairs, the library was completely overturned, but the living room and kitchen were in order. A staircase led to the upper floor. The policemen went upstairs and found what looked like a girl's room, with the closet turned over and stuffed animals thrown on the floor. The next room was typically male, with a model airplane hanging from the ceiling, everything organized; 3 pillows covered by a sheet. The next room was a double room, a man lying dead on the bed next to a gun; the hypothesis of suicide was soon ruled out when Boto found a female body under the sheets.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Casoy \\|first\\=Ilana \\|title\\=O quinto mandamento: caso de polícia \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Arx \\|isbn\\=978\\-85\\-7581\\-228\\-0 \\|edition\\=2nd \\|location\\=São Paulo}}",
"Fearing the teenagers' reaction, the police called in a rescue vehicle. At that time of night, around 4:30 am, Daniel's family was already at the scene, hugging Suzane and Andreas. Boto asked Daniel to tell the couple's children that their parents had been murdered. Daniel hugged them both, they bowed their heads and whispered. Andreas moved away from the group, apparently in a state of shock. Suzane approached Boto and asked, \"What do I do now?\".",
"Around 5 am, Astrogildo Cravinhos spoke to reporters from various television networks while Suzane and Andreas were taken to the police station. The couple's behavior soon caught everyone's attention at the police station. While waiting to be seen, Suzane took a nap leaning on Daniel's shoulder. Andreas sat there, shrunken and visibly shaken, while his sister exchanged affectionate touches with her boyfriend. In between sentences, while they were making the police report, the couple exchanged kisses and cuddles. Suzane told the police chief, Dr. Enjolras Rello de Araújo, \"I would like you to kill and torture these people that killed my parents\" and smiled at Daniel.",
""
] |
Judgement
---------
The trial of the three defendants was scheduled for June 5, 2006 at the 1st Jury Court of São Paulo. Suzane arrived at the courthouse at around 11:30 am. The Cravinhos brothers arrived an hour earlier. The trial was scheduled to begin at 1 pm.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-04\-02 \|title\=CASO RICHTHOFEN \- Júri adiado \|url\=http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\-richthofen/caso\-richthofen\-juri\-adiado.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402163035/http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\-richthofen/caso\-richthofen\-juri\-adiado.htm \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-02 }}
The lawyers for the Cravinhos brothers, Geraldo and Divaine Jabur \- claiming that they were unable to meet with their clients to better prepare their defense \- did not appear before the jury, with the result that the brothers' trial was canceled. Subsequently, after Suzane's lawyers withdrew from the courtroom \- following an argument with the judge over the fact that an essential witness had not shown up \- her jury was also postponed.
In order to avoid another delay, the judge in the case took some precautions, such as authorizing a meeting between the Cravinhos brothers and one of their lawyers at the end of June 2006, and appointing a public defender (and even a substitute for the latter) to defend the brothers if their lawyers were absent again. Possible maneuvers by Suzane's defense were not expected, since she no longer had the benefit of house arrest. A new trial was scheduled for Monday, July 17, 2006\. The sentence was passed in the early hours of Saturday, July 22, at 2 am.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-04\-02 \|title\=CASO RICHTHOFEN \- Julgamento \|url\=http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\-richthofen/caso\-richthofen\-julgamento.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115518/http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\-richthofen/caso\-richthofen\-julgamento.htm \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-02 }}{{Cite web \|title\=Terra {{!}} Buscador \|url\=https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1076927\-EI6792,00\.html\&curl\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1076927\-EI6792,00\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=Terra \|language\=pt\-BR}}{{Cite web \|title\=G1 \> Edição São Paulo \- NOTÍCIAS \- Retrospectiva 2006: o julgamento de Suzane e dos irmãos Cravinhos \|url\=https://g1\.globo.com/Noticias/SaoPaulo/0,,AA1393971\-5605,00\-RETROSPECTIVA\+O\+JULGAMENTO\+DE\+SUZANE\+E\+DOS\+IRMAOS\+CRAVINHOS.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=g1\.globo.com}}
### Day one
On the first day of the trial (July 17, 2006\), controversy and new versions of the facts emerged. The three accused took the stand. In her testimony, Suzane said that she had no knowledge of the plan to kill her parents, conceived and carried out solely by the Cravinhos brothers. She also said that she was "very high" when the crime took place, that she took the brothers to the house without knowing that her parents were going to be murdered, and that she only realized what had happened when she got home with her brother Andreas. She also claims that Daniel was excessively jealous. He mentioned a time when she went on a trip to Germany and was forced to spend a lot on phone cards just to keep in touch with her boyfriend. When Suzane returned, Daniel told her that he couldn't stay away from her for so long and that he had tried to kill himself because of his girlfriend's absence. Suzane said that she had given Daniel expensive presents with her parents' money. According to Suzane, she gave Daniel DVDs, TVs and expensive goods. "He always had money in his wallet. But it was always my money," said the daughter of the murder victims. Suzane also stated that at the model airplane club where she and her brother Andreas met Daniel, she became known as "the golden goose of the Cravinhos family."{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Termina primeiro dia de julgamento do caso Richthofen \- 18/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124062\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
Another point of conflict was the loss of her virginity: while she claimed to have lost it with Daniel Cravinhos, Daniel said she lost it with her previous boyfriend. According to the *[Folha de S.Paulo](/wiki/Folha_de_S.Paulo "Folha de S.Paulo")* newspaper, this discussion is relevant because it could undermine the main thesis of Suzane's defense, that Daniel exerted an irresistible fascination over her.
Cristian, for his part, also provided new information: according to him, only his brother Daniel had killed Manfred and Marísia. Cristian assumed this responsibility because he thought that Daniel would spend less time in prison. The defendant also insisted that Daniel and Suzane were convinced to commit the crime, despite his attempts to discourage them; according to him, Suzane would have said: "I want to kill my parents today". According to the prosecution, Cristian could lose the benefit of a reduced sentence for changing his version of events. Daniel said, among other things, that the mastermind of the crime was Suzane von Richthofen. According to him, the bad relationship between his ex\-girlfriend and her parents was common knowledge. Daniel maintained that Suzane suffered physical and verbal abuse, as well as sexual abuse (a fact that Suzane denied: she classified her family as "normal, good"). Because of this and her inheritance, Daniel claimed that Suzane was convinced to kill her parents. He also claimed to have been "used" by his ex\-girlfriend to carry out her plan.
The defense of the Cravinhos brothers accused Suzane of being a "liar" and asked for a face\-to\-face meeting between the three defendants, a request accepted by Judge Alberto Anderson Filho. This meeting could clarify crucial points, such as who was the mastermind and what Suzane's real role in the crime was \- there is controversy, for example, as to whether or not she saw her parents' bodies. The Cravinhos brothers have been accused of "lying".
### Day two
The main part of the second day of the trial (July 18, 2006\) was the testimony of Andreas, Suzane's brother. The first person to be heard, Andreas Albert von Richthofen, stated that neither he nor his sister were victims of abuse or mistreatment by their parents, contrary to what Daniel Cravinhos said. The boy classified Suzane's relationship with Manfred and Marísia as normal, with no exceptional conflicts. He said that he was "emotionally blackmailed" into writing a note saying that he forgave his sister, but that in fact he didn't forgive her; he also said that he didn't believe in his repentance or his intention to give up his inheritance, and said that he and Suzane were influenced by Daniel Cravinhos to use cannabis. Andreas also admitted to feeling threatened by his sister: "They say she's a [psychopath](/wiki/Psychopathy "Psychopathy"). I don't know, but you can expect anything from a person like that". Andreas also revealed that he can't use the money because Suzane is complicating the process. Another of Suzane's lies was about the weapon used in the crime. In her statement, she said that the gun belonged to her brother, which Andreas denied. He only said that Suzane had asked him to throw it away.{{Cite web \|last\=Online \|first\=Globo \|title\=Andreas complica defesa dos três réus e está sob 'ameaça', diz promotor \|url\=https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/vida\-publica/andreas\-complica\-defesa\-dos\-tres\-reus\-e\-esta\-sob\-ameaca\-diz\-promotor\-a4mi27rlr73q5b4lh5jui2rta/ \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=Gazeta do Povo \|language\=pt\-BR}}
At the request of the [Public Prosecutor's Office](/wiki/Public_Prosecutor%27s_Office_%28Brazil%29 "Public Prosecutor's Office (Brazil)"), police chief Cíntia Tucunduva Gomes was also heard. She dismantled the version presented the previous day by the Cravinhos brothers that only Daniel had struck the victims: for her, the attacks were simultaneous, as it would have been impossible for one of the two to have been attacked without the other showing any reaction. Gomes also emphasized Suzane's coldness, who behaved dispassionately from the start \- after confessing to the crime, Suzane allegedly combed her hair and asked her then\-boyfriend if she looked pretty, before being photographed and registered with the DHPP (Homicide and Protection of Persons Department).
The witnesses also included: Fábio de Oliveira (a prison guard) and Hélio Artesi (the father of Cristian's ex\-girlfriend), who attested to the good behavior of the Cravinhos brothers; Ivone Wagner, who testified that Suzane treated her mother badly; and military policeman Alexandre Boto, who "found it strange" that Suzane arrived at the von Richthofen's house to see what had happened.
### Day three
On the third day of the trial (July 19, 2006\), Suzane's lawyers tried to maneuver to include new documents in the case file. The mother of defendants Cristian and Daniel Cravinhos, Nadja Cravinhos de Paula, gave an emotional testimony. She stressed the regret and deep shame that her sons would be feeling, although she asked the jurors to punish everyone: "Everyone has to pay for what they did, and not for what they didn't do." She said that she had forgiven everyone, that Suzane's parents were aggressive when they drank and in fact sexually abused the girl, that Andreas was influenced too much by Suzane, and that Cristian no longer had a problem with drugs, having quit ten years earlier.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Em relato emocionado, mãe dos Cravinhos diz ter perdoado filhos e Suzane \- 19/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124125\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
Reinforcing the line of defense set up by the children's lawyer, Nadja stated that Suzane did not lose her virginity to Daniel and that Manfred and Marísia drank a lot and "were extremely aggressive" with each other and with the children. Nadja said that when Suzane had to go to the farm with her parents, she panicked. "I don't know if she played the victim, making him (Daniel) an instrument," said the Cravinhos' mother. Cristian and Daniel cried a lot during their testimony.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Em relato emocionado, mãe dos Cravinhos diz ter perdoado filhos e Suzane \- 19/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124125\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
Hours later, Cristian \- believed to have been influenced by his mother's testimony \- changed his own statement, confessing to having beaten Marísia von Richthofen to death. He attributed the conception of the plan to Suzane: she had convinced them to take part in the crime by claiming that, with her parents, she "had no life", and that Manfred had tried to rape her when she was 13\. However, she maintained that she slammed the car door and stomped harder in an attempt to wake the couple up and give them a chance to react. He also said that Suzane had calmed him down when Manfred and Marísia were killed, saying: "You didn't take anything from me. You gave me a new life". At the end of his testimony, Cristian was crying a lot and was hugged by his father. The trial was suspended for a few minutes and the jurors were removed from the courtroom.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Ex\-colega de Suzane contradiz versão de Andreas \- 19/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124135\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
Fernanda Kitahara, Suzane's former college classmate, also testified. She confirmed that Suzane and Andreas used marijuana, and that the drugs were bought by Daniel. She said that she knew of disagreements between Suzane and her parents, emphasizing their controlling nature: "She had a schedule for coming home, going out with me or with her boyfriend" \- with this, Suzane would have lied to her parents several times in order to meet Daniel. He also said that Suzane was quiet and friendless in class, thanks to Daniel's exacerbated jealousy, and said that Suzane told him that her boyfriend was persecuted by the spirit of a friend, "Nego" or "Negão". He said that the accused would have to choose between her parents and her boyfriend.{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Ex\-colega de Suzane contradiz versão de Andreas \- 19/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124135\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
### Day four
The fourth day of the trial (July 20, 2006\) began with the showing of the forensic images taken of Marísia's body. Expert Jane Belucci used photographs to clarify the dynamics of the events, and the nature of the photos, such as the one of Manfred's disfigured face, caused general discomfort. The Forensic Medical Institute (IML) report concluded that the defendant's mother died from traumatic brain injury, caused by a "blunt instrument" with several blows. According to the analysis, Suzane's mother died an agonal death, remaining alive for some time. While these images were being shown, the defendants Suzane, Daniel and Cristian remained with their backs to the screen, without at any time looking at any photos.{{Cite web \|title\=Confira o que disse cada testemunha do caso \|url\=https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\-EI6792,00\.html\&curl\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\-EI6792,00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223194114/https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\-EI6792,00\.html\&curl\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\-EI6792,00\.html\#federation\=archive.wikiwix.com\&tab\=url \|archive\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=Terra }}{{Cite web \|title\=Folha Online \- Cotidiano \- Daniel, emocionado, é retirado do plenário após leitura de cartas de amor \- 20/07/2006 \|url\=https://www1\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124172\.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|website\=www1\.folha.uol.com.br}}
The day was also reserved for the reading of witness statements (still in the procedural phase of the case) and for the showing of the film re\-enactment and a series of reports about the crime, as well as the testimony of the accused. Daniel and Cristian cried copiously during the showing of their reenactments, and asked to be removed from the plenary. Suzane was not seen crying, despite her lawyers' statements to the contrary, and also left the plenary \- for prosecutor Roberto Tardelli, however, regret and despair do not reduce the sentence. The defendants disagreed on who was responsible for messing up the house's library during the simulated robbery, and on the moment when they picked up a bottle of water to throw at the victims' heads.
Love letters exchanged by Suzane and Daniel were also read out. While the young man was moved to the point of being removed from the plenary, Suzane showed embarrassment and discomfort (especially in the passages in which she calls Daniel "my little husband" and other similar nicknames, which drew laughter from the audience), keeping her chair away from the brothers. For prosecutor Tardelli, the defendants' behavior highlights Suzane's "coldness" and Daniel's "lack of emotional control". The prosecution said it would try to prove that the crime was entirely planned, that none of the defendants were induced. To this end, they intend to recall, among other things, that immediately after the crime, Daniel and Suzane were engaged in love scenes at the police station, while Cristian went to a barbecue, traveled and bought a motorcycle.
### Day five
On the last day of the trial (July 21, 2006\), the debates between the prosecution and the defense were held and, after the decision by the Public Prosecutor's Office to waive the time set aside for rebuttal, the jurors met to decide the future of the defendants. The lawyer, Gislaine Jabur, tried to convince the jurors to overturn the qualifiers put forward by the prosecution against Cristian and Daniel: she argued that Cristian could not be charged with a double homicide, since he only killed Marísia; she said that there was no ulterior motive, since he had no grudge against the victims; finally, she argued that there was no cruel motive (the report from the IML states that Marísia died from head trauma, and not from the towel placed in her mouth). As for Daniel, Gislaine recalled that, since the re\-enactment of the crime, the defendant claimed to have tried to wake Manfred after striking him, shaking his arm and passing a towel over his face. The lawyers also argued that the accusations of fraud and theft were unfounded, since Cristian would have kept the money and jewelry at Suzane's request.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-04\-02 \|title\=Íntegra da fala do promotor Tardelli no último dia de júri do caso Richthofen \|url\=http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/noticias/23354/noticias\+ultimainstancia.shtml \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-23 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141837/http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/noticias/23354/noticias\+ultimainstancia.shtml \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-02 }}
Prosecutors Roberto Tardelli and Nadir de Campos Júnior asked the jury to convict the defendants. The prosecution accused Suzane's defense of social prejudice when it claimed that the "millionaire girl", who lived oblivious to reality in a world of material comfort, and who had no reason to commit a crime, was easily convinced by Daniel to do so, since he, coming from a humbler family and having a history of crime and drug use, was more likely to commit a crime.
When he was accused by prosecutor Nadir de Campos Júnior, Daniel Cravinhos had a crying fit and was hugged by his brother Cristian. Both were removed from the plenary. Suzane, for her part, remained in plenary with her head down, without showing any reaction.
The four men and three women who were part of the jury met at around 10 pm at the Barra Funda courthouse (west of São Paulo). They answered a questionnaire in which they judged whether each of the defendants was guilty on 12 items. The possible answers were yes and no. In the case of the Cravinhos brothers, the questions were, among others, whether there was a foul motive, whether the means used were cruel, whether the victims were able to defend themselves, and whether there were any extenuating circumstances. In Suzane's case, the jurors had to decide on six questions whether or not she had acted under duress from the Cravinhos brothers. Based on the questionnaires, Judge Alberto Anderson Filho, president of the 1st Jury Court, established and released the sentence.
|
[
"Judgement\n---------",
"The trial of the three defendants was scheduled for June 5, 2006 at the 1st Jury Court of São Paulo. Suzane arrived at the courthouse at around 11:30 am. The Cravinhos brothers arrived an hour earlier. The trial was scheduled to begin at 1 pm.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 \\|title\\=CASO RICHTHOFEN \\- Júri adiado \\|url\\=http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\\-richthofen/caso\\-richthofen\\-juri\\-adiado.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402163035/http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\\-richthofen/caso\\-richthofen\\-juri\\-adiado.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 }}",
"The lawyers for the Cravinhos brothers, Geraldo and Divaine Jabur \\- claiming that they were unable to meet with their clients to better prepare their defense \\- did not appear before the jury, with the result that the brothers' trial was canceled. Subsequently, after Suzane's lawyers withdrew from the courtroom \\- following an argument with the judge over the fact that an essential witness had not shown up \\- her jury was also postponed.",
"In order to avoid another delay, the judge in the case took some precautions, such as authorizing a meeting between the Cravinhos brothers and one of their lawyers at the end of June 2006, and appointing a public defender (and even a substitute for the latter) to defend the brothers if their lawyers were absent again. Possible maneuvers by Suzane's defense were not expected, since she no longer had the benefit of house arrest. A new trial was scheduled for Monday, July 17, 2006\\. The sentence was passed in the early hours of Saturday, July 22, at 2 am.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 \\|title\\=CASO RICHTHOFEN \\- Julgamento \\|url\\=http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\\-richthofen/caso\\-richthofen\\-julgamento.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115518/http://memoriaglobo.globo.com/programas/jornalismo/coberturas/caso\\-richthofen/caso\\-richthofen\\-julgamento.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Terra {{!}} Buscador \\|url\\=https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1076927\\-EI6792,00\\.html\\&curl\\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1076927\\-EI6792,00\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=Terra \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=G1 \\> Edição São Paulo \\- NOTÍCIAS \\- Retrospectiva 2006: o julgamento de Suzane e dos irmãos Cravinhos \\|url\\=https://g1\\.globo.com/Noticias/SaoPaulo/0,,AA1393971\\-5605,00\\-RETROSPECTIVA\\+O\\+JULGAMENTO\\+DE\\+SUZANE\\+E\\+DOS\\+IRMAOS\\+CRAVINHOS.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=g1\\.globo.com}}",
"### Day one",
"On the first day of the trial (July 17, 2006\\), controversy and new versions of the facts emerged. The three accused took the stand. In her testimony, Suzane said that she had no knowledge of the plan to kill her parents, conceived and carried out solely by the Cravinhos brothers. She also said that she was \"very high\" when the crime took place, that she took the brothers to the house without knowing that her parents were going to be murdered, and that she only realized what had happened when she got home with her brother Andreas. She also claims that Daniel was excessively jealous. He mentioned a time when she went on a trip to Germany and was forced to spend a lot on phone cards just to keep in touch with her boyfriend. When Suzane returned, Daniel told her that he couldn't stay away from her for so long and that he had tried to kill himself because of his girlfriend's absence. Suzane said that she had given Daniel expensive presents with her parents' money. According to Suzane, she gave Daniel DVDs, TVs and expensive goods. \"He always had money in his wallet. But it was always my money,\" said the daughter of the murder victims. Suzane also stated that at the model airplane club where she and her brother Andreas met Daniel, she became known as \"the golden goose of the Cravinhos family.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Termina primeiro dia de julgamento do caso Richthofen \\- 18/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124062\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"Another point of conflict was the loss of her virginity: while she claimed to have lost it with Daniel Cravinhos, Daniel said she lost it with her previous boyfriend. According to the *[Folha de S.Paulo](/wiki/Folha_de_S.Paulo \"Folha de S.Paulo\")* newspaper, this discussion is relevant because it could undermine the main thesis of Suzane's defense, that Daniel exerted an irresistible fascination over her.",
"Cristian, for his part, also provided new information: according to him, only his brother Daniel had killed Manfred and Marísia. Cristian assumed this responsibility because he thought that Daniel would spend less time in prison. The defendant also insisted that Daniel and Suzane were convinced to commit the crime, despite his attempts to discourage them; according to him, Suzane would have said: \"I want to kill my parents today\". According to the prosecution, Cristian could lose the benefit of a reduced sentence for changing his version of events. Daniel said, among other things, that the mastermind of the crime was Suzane von Richthofen. According to him, the bad relationship between his ex\\-girlfriend and her parents was common knowledge. Daniel maintained that Suzane suffered physical and verbal abuse, as well as sexual abuse (a fact that Suzane denied: she classified her family as \"normal, good\"). Because of this and her inheritance, Daniel claimed that Suzane was convinced to kill her parents. He also claimed to have been \"used\" by his ex\\-girlfriend to carry out her plan.",
"The defense of the Cravinhos brothers accused Suzane of being a \"liar\" and asked for a face\\-to\\-face meeting between the three defendants, a request accepted by Judge Alberto Anderson Filho. This meeting could clarify crucial points, such as who was the mastermind and what Suzane's real role in the crime was \\- there is controversy, for example, as to whether or not she saw her parents' bodies. The Cravinhos brothers have been accused of \"lying\".",
"### Day two",
"The main part of the second day of the trial (July 18, 2006\\) was the testimony of Andreas, Suzane's brother. The first person to be heard, Andreas Albert von Richthofen, stated that neither he nor his sister were victims of abuse or mistreatment by their parents, contrary to what Daniel Cravinhos said. The boy classified Suzane's relationship with Manfred and Marísia as normal, with no exceptional conflicts. He said that he was \"emotionally blackmailed\" into writing a note saying that he forgave his sister, but that in fact he didn't forgive her; he also said that he didn't believe in his repentance or his intention to give up his inheritance, and said that he and Suzane were influenced by Daniel Cravinhos to use cannabis. Andreas also admitted to feeling threatened by his sister: \"They say she's a [psychopath](/wiki/Psychopathy \"Psychopathy\"). I don't know, but you can expect anything from a person like that\". Andreas also revealed that he can't use the money because Suzane is complicating the process. Another of Suzane's lies was about the weapon used in the crime. In her statement, she said that the gun belonged to her brother, which Andreas denied. He only said that Suzane had asked him to throw it away.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Online \\|first\\=Globo \\|title\\=Andreas complica defesa dos três réus e está sob 'ameaça', diz promotor \\|url\\=https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/vida\\-publica/andreas\\-complica\\-defesa\\-dos\\-tres\\-reus\\-e\\-esta\\-sob\\-ameaca\\-diz\\-promotor\\-a4mi27rlr73q5b4lh5jui2rta/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=Gazeta do Povo \\|language\\=pt\\-BR}}",
"At the request of the [Public Prosecutor's Office](/wiki/Public_Prosecutor%27s_Office_%28Brazil%29 \"Public Prosecutor's Office (Brazil)\"), police chief Cíntia Tucunduva Gomes was also heard. She dismantled the version presented the previous day by the Cravinhos brothers that only Daniel had struck the victims: for her, the attacks were simultaneous, as it would have been impossible for one of the two to have been attacked without the other showing any reaction. Gomes also emphasized Suzane's coldness, who behaved dispassionately from the start \\- after confessing to the crime, Suzane allegedly combed her hair and asked her then\\-boyfriend if she looked pretty, before being photographed and registered with the DHPP (Homicide and Protection of Persons Department).",
"The witnesses also included: Fábio de Oliveira (a prison guard) and Hélio Artesi (the father of Cristian's ex\\-girlfriend), who attested to the good behavior of the Cravinhos brothers; Ivone Wagner, who testified that Suzane treated her mother badly; and military policeman Alexandre Boto, who \"found it strange\" that Suzane arrived at the von Richthofen's house to see what had happened.",
"### Day three",
"On the third day of the trial (July 19, 2006\\), Suzane's lawyers tried to maneuver to include new documents in the case file. The mother of defendants Cristian and Daniel Cravinhos, Nadja Cravinhos de Paula, gave an emotional testimony. She stressed the regret and deep shame that her sons would be feeling, although she asked the jurors to punish everyone: \"Everyone has to pay for what they did, and not for what they didn't do.\" She said that she had forgiven everyone, that Suzane's parents were aggressive when they drank and in fact sexually abused the girl, that Andreas was influenced too much by Suzane, and that Cristian no longer had a problem with drugs, having quit ten years earlier.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Em relato emocionado, mãe dos Cravinhos diz ter perdoado filhos e Suzane \\- 19/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124125\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"Reinforcing the line of defense set up by the children's lawyer, Nadja stated that Suzane did not lose her virginity to Daniel and that Manfred and Marísia drank a lot and \"were extremely aggressive\" with each other and with the children. Nadja said that when Suzane had to go to the farm with her parents, she panicked. \"I don't know if she played the victim, making him (Daniel) an instrument,\" said the Cravinhos' mother. Cristian and Daniel cried a lot during their testimony.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Em relato emocionado, mãe dos Cravinhos diz ter perdoado filhos e Suzane \\- 19/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124125\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"Hours later, Cristian \\- believed to have been influenced by his mother's testimony \\- changed his own statement, confessing to having beaten Marísia von Richthofen to death. He attributed the conception of the plan to Suzane: she had convinced them to take part in the crime by claiming that, with her parents, she \"had no life\", and that Manfred had tried to rape her when she was 13\\. However, she maintained that she slammed the car door and stomped harder in an attempt to wake the couple up and give them a chance to react. He also said that Suzane had calmed him down when Manfred and Marísia were killed, saying: \"You didn't take anything from me. You gave me a new life\". At the end of his testimony, Cristian was crying a lot and was hugged by his father. The trial was suspended for a few minutes and the jurors were removed from the courtroom.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Ex\\-colega de Suzane contradiz versão de Andreas \\- 19/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124135\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"Fernanda Kitahara, Suzane's former college classmate, also testified. She confirmed that Suzane and Andreas used marijuana, and that the drugs were bought by Daniel. She said that she knew of disagreements between Suzane and her parents, emphasizing their controlling nature: \"She had a schedule for coming home, going out with me or with her boyfriend\" \\- with this, Suzane would have lied to her parents several times in order to meet Daniel. He also said that Suzane was quiet and friendless in class, thanks to Daniel's exacerbated jealousy, and said that Suzane told him that her boyfriend was persecuted by the spirit of a friend, \"Nego\" or \"Negão\". He said that the accused would have to choose between her parents and her boyfriend.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Ex\\-colega de Suzane contradiz versão de Andreas \\- 19/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124135\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"### Day four",
"The fourth day of the trial (July 20, 2006\\) began with the showing of the forensic images taken of Marísia's body. Expert Jane Belucci used photographs to clarify the dynamics of the events, and the nature of the photos, such as the one of Manfred's disfigured face, caused general discomfort. The Forensic Medical Institute (IML) report concluded that the defendant's mother died from traumatic brain injury, caused by a \"blunt instrument\" with several blows. According to the analysis, Suzane's mother died an agonal death, remaining alive for some time. While these images were being shown, the defendants Suzane, Daniel and Cristian remained with their backs to the screen, without at any time looking at any photos.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Confira o que disse cada testemunha do caso \\|url\\=https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\\-EI6792,00\\.html\\&curl\\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\\-EI6792,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223194114/https://www.terra.com.br/busca/?q\\=brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\\-EI6792,00\\.html\\&curl\\=http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/casorichthofen/interna/0,,OI1074792\\-EI6792,00\\.html\\#federation\\=archive.wikiwix.com\\&tab\\=url \\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=Terra }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Folha Online \\- Cotidiano \\- Daniel, emocionado, é retirado do plenário após leitura de cartas de amor \\- 20/07/2006 \\|url\\=https://www1\\.folha.uol.com.br/folha/cotidiano/ult95u124172\\.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|website\\=www1\\.folha.uol.com.br}}",
"The day was also reserved for the reading of witness statements (still in the procedural phase of the case) and for the showing of the film re\\-enactment and a series of reports about the crime, as well as the testimony of the accused. Daniel and Cristian cried copiously during the showing of their reenactments, and asked to be removed from the plenary. Suzane was not seen crying, despite her lawyers' statements to the contrary, and also left the plenary \\- for prosecutor Roberto Tardelli, however, regret and despair do not reduce the sentence. The defendants disagreed on who was responsible for messing up the house's library during the simulated robbery, and on the moment when they picked up a bottle of water to throw at the victims' heads.",
"Love letters exchanged by Suzane and Daniel were also read out. While the young man was moved to the point of being removed from the plenary, Suzane showed embarrassment and discomfort (especially in the passages in which she calls Daniel \"my little husband\" and other similar nicknames, which drew laughter from the audience), keeping her chair away from the brothers. For prosecutor Tardelli, the defendants' behavior highlights Suzane's \"coldness\" and Daniel's \"lack of emotional control\". The prosecution said it would try to prove that the crime was entirely planned, that none of the defendants were induced. To this end, they intend to recall, among other things, that immediately after the crime, Daniel and Suzane were engaged in love scenes at the police station, while Cristian went to a barbecue, traveled and bought a motorcycle.",
"### Day five",
"On the last day of the trial (July 21, 2006\\), the debates between the prosecution and the defense were held and, after the decision by the Public Prosecutor's Office to waive the time set aside for rebuttal, the jurors met to decide the future of the defendants. The lawyer, Gislaine Jabur, tried to convince the jurors to overturn the qualifiers put forward by the prosecution against Cristian and Daniel: she argued that Cristian could not be charged with a double homicide, since he only killed Marísia; she said that there was no ulterior motive, since he had no grudge against the victims; finally, she argued that there was no cruel motive (the report from the IML states that Marísia died from head trauma, and not from the towel placed in her mouth). As for Daniel, Gislaine recalled that, since the re\\-enactment of the crime, the defendant claimed to have tried to wake Manfred after striking him, shaking his arm and passing a towel over his face. The lawyers also argued that the accusations of fraud and theft were unfounded, since Cristian would have kept the money and jewelry at Suzane's request.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 \\|title\\=Íntegra da fala do promotor Tardelli no último dia de júri do caso Richthofen \\|url\\=http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/noticias/23354/noticias\\+ultimainstancia.shtml \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-23 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141837/http://ultimainstancia.uol.com.br/conteudo/noticias/23354/noticias\\+ultimainstancia.shtml \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 }}",
"Prosecutors Roberto Tardelli and Nadir de Campos Júnior asked the jury to convict the defendants. The prosecution accused Suzane's defense of social prejudice when it claimed that the \"millionaire girl\", who lived oblivious to reality in a world of material comfort, and who had no reason to commit a crime, was easily convinced by Daniel to do so, since he, coming from a humbler family and having a history of crime and drug use, was more likely to commit a crime.",
"When he was accused by prosecutor Nadir de Campos Júnior, Daniel Cravinhos had a crying fit and was hugged by his brother Cristian. Both were removed from the plenary. Suzane, for her part, remained in plenary with her head down, without showing any reaction.",
"The four men and three women who were part of the jury met at around 10 pm at the Barra Funda courthouse (west of São Paulo). They answered a questionnaire in which they judged whether each of the defendants was guilty on 12 items. The possible answers were yes and no. In the case of the Cravinhos brothers, the questions were, among others, whether there was a foul motive, whether the means used were cruel, whether the victims were able to defend themselves, and whether there were any extenuating circumstances. In Suzane's case, the jurors had to decide on six questions whether or not she had acted under duress from the Cravinhos brothers. Based on the questionnaires, Judge Alberto Anderson Filho, president of the 1st Jury Court, established and released the sentence.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
MacDonald is the daughter of a member of Canada's military; she was born at an [air force base](/wiki/CFB_Baden-Soellingen "CFB Baden-Soellingen") near [Baden\-Baden](/wiki/Baden-Baden "Baden-Baden"), [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany"). She is of partial [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_people "Lebanese people") descent through her mother.Helen Chryssides, "Prose, plays and the joy of creating", *[The Canberra Times](/wiki/The_Canberra_Times "The Canberra Times")*, April 9, 2000, p. 20
MacDonald won the [Commonwealth Writers Prize](/wiki/Commonwealth_Writers_Prize "Commonwealth Writers Prize") for her first novel, *[Fall on Your Knees](/wiki/Fall_on_Your_Knees "Fall on Your Knees")* (1996\),{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Fall On Your Knees wins Commonwealth first\-book prize \|work\=The Hamilton Spectator \|location\=Hamilton, Ontario \|date\=3 May 1997 \|page\=W2}} which was selected for [Oprah Winfrey's Book Club](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey%27s_Book_Club "Oprah Winfrey's Book Club") in January 2002\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oprah.com/oprahsbookclub/Ann\-Marie\-MacDonalds\-book\-Fall\-on\-Your\-Knees \|title\=Fall on Your Knees, by Ann\-Marie MacDonald \|author\= \|date\=January 24, 2002 \|website\=oprah.com \|access\-date\=May 8, 2020}}
MacDonald received the [Governor General's Award for Drama](/wiki/Governor_General%27s_Awards "Governor General's Awards"),{{cite news \|last\=Penfield III \|first\=Wilder \|date\=January 28, 1991 \|title\=The Winning Ann\-Marie: From Gemini to Governor General's Award \|newspaper\=Toronto Sun \|location\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \|page\=78}} the [Floyd S. Chalmers Canadian Play Award](/wiki/Floyd_S._Chalmers_Canadian_Play_Award "Floyd S. Chalmers Canadian Play Award"),{{cite news \|last\=Crew \|first\=Robert \|date\=November 4, 1989 \|title\=All in a Goodnight's work for busy playwright/actor \|work\=Toronto Star \|location\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \|page\=J3}} and the [Canadian Authors Association](/wiki/Canadian_Authors_Association "Canadian Authors Association") Drama Award{{cite news \|last\=Schiefer \|first\=Nancy \|date\=August 10, 1996 \|title\=Novel\-Playwright's First Book Has Tremendous Appeal \|work\=The London Free Press \|location\=London, Ontario, Canada \|page\=D6}} for her play, *[Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet)](/wiki/Goodnight_Desdemona_%28Good_Morning_Juliet%29 "Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet)")*.
MacDonald hosted the [CBC](/wiki/CBC_Television "CBC Television") documentary series *[Life and Times](/wiki/Life_and_Times_%28TV_series%29 "Life and Times (TV series)")* for seven seasons. MacDonald also hosted CBC's flagship documentary program, *[Doc Zone](/wiki/Doc_Zone "Doc Zone")* for eight seasons.
She appeared in the films *[I've Heard the Mermaids Singing](/wiki/I%27ve_Heard_the_Mermaids_Singing "I've Heard the Mermaids Singing")* and *[Better Than Chocolate](/wiki/Better_Than_Chocolate "Better Than Chocolate")*, among others.
MacDonald's 2003 novel, *[The Way the Crow Flies](/wiki/The_Way_the_Crow_Flies "The Way the Crow Flies")*, was partly inspired by the [Steven Truscott](/wiki/Steven_Truscott "Steven Truscott") case. Her third novel *[Adult Onset](/wiki/Adult_Onset "Adult Onset")* was released in 2014 and has been translated into five languages. Her fourth novel *Fayne* was published in 2022\.{{cite news \|last\=Grubisic \|first\=Brett Josef \|title\=Ann\-Marie MacDonald's new book 'Fayne' a triple\-decker Victorian spoof \|url\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/books/reviews/2022/10/13/ann\-marie\-macdonalds\-new\-book\-fayne\-a\-triple\-decker\-victorian\-spoof.html \|access\-date\=December 1, 2022 \|work\=Toronto Star \|date\=October 13, 2022}}
She was the inaugural Mordecai Richler Reading Room Writer in Residence at [Concordia University](/wiki/Concordia_University "Concordia University"),{{cite news \|last\=McGillis \|first\=Ian \|date\=September 25, 2015 \|title\=Concordia names first Richler resident writer; MacDonald eager to offer support for an often 'very lonely' art \|work\=Montreal Gazette \|location\=Montreal, Quebec \|edition\=Early \|page\=B7}} and she coaches students in the Acting and Playwriting Programs at the [National Theatre School of Canada](/wiki/National_Theatre_School_of_Canada "National Theatre School of Canada").
In 2008, MacDonald was awarded an [honorary doctorate](/wiki/Honorary_degree "Honorary degree") of humanities by the [University of Windsor](/wiki/University_of_Windsor "University of Windsor").{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Honorary degree recipient's novel selected as Book of the Week \|work\=The Lance \|location\=University of Windsor \|date\=March 30, 2015 \|page\=1}}
In May 2015, MacDonald was the "big\-name author" and "public face"{{cite magazine \|last\=Godfrey \|first\=Laura \|date\=February 24, 2015 \|title\=First\-Ever Canadian Authors for Indies Day Set for May \|url\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\-topic/international/international\-book\-news/article/65679\-first\-ever\-canadian\-authors\-for\-indies\-day\-set\-for\-may.html \|magazine\=Publishers Weekly \|access\-date\=May 25, 2020}} of the inaugural Canadian Authors for Indies Day, organized to bring attention to [independent bookstores](/wiki/Independent_bookstores "Independent bookstores") across the country. Nearly 100 stores and 270 authors participated in the nationwide event.
In December 2018, MacDonald was named as an Officer of the [Order of Canada](/wiki/Order_of_Canada "Order of Canada"), in recognition of "her multi\-faceted contributions to the arts in Canada and for her advocacy of [LGBTQ\+](/wiki/LGBT "LGBT") and [women's rights](/wiki/Women%27s_rights "Women's rights")".{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Governor General Announces 103 New Appointments to the Order of Canada \|url\=https://www.gg.ca/en/media/news/2018/governor\-general\-announces\-103\-new\-appointments\-order\-canada \|agency\=Canada Newswire \|date\=December 27, 2018 \|access\-date\=October 11, 2019 \|archive\-date\=November 19, 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119172458/https://www.gg.ca/en/media/news/2018/governor\-general\-announces\-103\-new\-appointments\-order\-canada \|url\-status\=dead }}
MacDonald is married to the Canadian playwright and theatre director [Alisa Palmer](/wiki/Alisa_Palmer "Alisa Palmer").{{cite news \|last\=Cole \|first\=Susan G. \|title\=Ann\-Marie MacDonald \|newspaper\=Now Toronto \|date\=September 25 – October 1, 2003 \|url\=http://www.nowtoronto.com/issues/2003\-09\-25/cover\_story.php \|access\-date\=2007\-09\-07 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123458/http://www.nowtoronto.com/issues/2003\-09\-25/cover\_story.php \|archive\-date\=September 29, 2007}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.randomhouse.ca/author/results.pperl?authorid%3D54001%26view%3Dfull\_sptlght \|title\=Author Spotlight: Ann\-Marie MacDonald \|access\-date\=October 28, 2019 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123801/http://www.randomhouse.ca/author/results.pperl?authorid\=54001\&view\=full\_sptlght \|archive\-date\=January 12, 2012}}
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"MacDonald is the daughter of a member of Canada's military; she was born at an [air force base](/wiki/CFB_Baden-Soellingen \"CFB Baden-Soellingen\") near [Baden\\-Baden](/wiki/Baden-Baden \"Baden-Baden\"), [West Germany](/wiki/West_Germany \"West Germany\"). She is of partial [Lebanese](/wiki/Lebanese_people \"Lebanese people\") descent through her mother.Helen Chryssides, \"Prose, plays and the joy of creating\", *[The Canberra Times](/wiki/The_Canberra_Times \"The Canberra Times\")*, April 9, 2000, p. 20",
"MacDonald won the [Commonwealth Writers Prize](/wiki/Commonwealth_Writers_Prize \"Commonwealth Writers Prize\") for her first novel, *[Fall on Your Knees](/wiki/Fall_on_Your_Knees \"Fall on Your Knees\")* (1996\\),{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Fall On Your Knees wins Commonwealth first\\-book prize \\|work\\=The Hamilton Spectator \\|location\\=Hamilton, Ontario \\|date\\=3 May 1997 \\|page\\=W2}} which was selected for [Oprah Winfrey's Book Club](/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey%27s_Book_Club \"Oprah Winfrey's Book Club\") in January 2002\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oprah.com/oprahsbookclub/Ann\\-Marie\\-MacDonalds\\-book\\-Fall\\-on\\-Your\\-Knees \\|title\\=Fall on Your Knees, by Ann\\-Marie MacDonald \\|author\\= \\|date\\=January 24, 2002 \\|website\\=oprah.com \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2020}}",
"MacDonald received the [Governor General's Award for Drama](/wiki/Governor_General%27s_Awards \"Governor General's Awards\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Penfield III \\|first\\=Wilder \\|date\\=January 28, 1991 \\|title\\=The Winning Ann\\-Marie: From Gemini to Governor General's Award \\|newspaper\\=Toronto Sun \\|location\\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \\|page\\=78}} the [Floyd S. Chalmers Canadian Play Award](/wiki/Floyd_S._Chalmers_Canadian_Play_Award \"Floyd S. Chalmers Canadian Play Award\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Crew \\|first\\=Robert \\|date\\=November 4, 1989 \\|title\\=All in a Goodnight's work for busy playwright/actor \\|work\\=Toronto Star \\|location\\=Toronto, Ontario, Canada \\|page\\=J3}} and the [Canadian Authors Association](/wiki/Canadian_Authors_Association \"Canadian Authors Association\") Drama Award{{cite news \\|last\\=Schiefer \\|first\\=Nancy \\|date\\=August 10, 1996 \\|title\\=Novel\\-Playwright's First Book Has Tremendous Appeal \\|work\\=The London Free Press \\|location\\=London, Ontario, Canada \\|page\\=D6}} for her play, *[Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet)](/wiki/Goodnight_Desdemona_%28Good_Morning_Juliet%29 \"Goodnight Desdemona (Good Morning Juliet)\")*.",
"MacDonald hosted the [CBC](/wiki/CBC_Television \"CBC Television\") documentary series *[Life and Times](/wiki/Life_and_Times_%28TV_series%29 \"Life and Times (TV series)\")* for seven seasons. MacDonald also hosted CBC's flagship documentary program, *[Doc Zone](/wiki/Doc_Zone \"Doc Zone\")* for eight seasons.",
"She appeared in the films *[I've Heard the Mermaids Singing](/wiki/I%27ve_Heard_the_Mermaids_Singing \"I've Heard the Mermaids Singing\")* and *[Better Than Chocolate](/wiki/Better_Than_Chocolate \"Better Than Chocolate\")*, among others.",
"MacDonald's 2003 novel, *[The Way the Crow Flies](/wiki/The_Way_the_Crow_Flies \"The Way the Crow Flies\")*, was partly inspired by the [Steven Truscott](/wiki/Steven_Truscott \"Steven Truscott\") case. Her third novel *[Adult Onset](/wiki/Adult_Onset \"Adult Onset\")* was released in 2014 and has been translated into five languages. Her fourth novel *Fayne* was published in 2022\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Grubisic \\|first\\=Brett Josef \\|title\\=Ann\\-Marie MacDonald's new book 'Fayne' a triple\\-decker Victorian spoof \\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/books/reviews/2022/10/13/ann\\-marie\\-macdonalds\\-new\\-book\\-fayne\\-a\\-triple\\-decker\\-victorian\\-spoof.html \\|access\\-date\\=December 1, 2022 \\|work\\=Toronto Star \\|date\\=October 13, 2022}}",
"She was the inaugural Mordecai Richler Reading Room Writer in Residence at [Concordia University](/wiki/Concordia_University \"Concordia University\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=McGillis \\|first\\=Ian \\|date\\=September 25, 2015 \\|title\\=Concordia names first Richler resident writer; MacDonald eager to offer support for an often 'very lonely' art \\|work\\=Montreal Gazette \\|location\\=Montreal, Quebec \\|edition\\=Early \\|page\\=B7}} and she coaches students in the Acting and Playwriting Programs at the [National Theatre School of Canada](/wiki/National_Theatre_School_of_Canada \"National Theatre School of Canada\").",
"In 2008, MacDonald was awarded an [honorary doctorate](/wiki/Honorary_degree \"Honorary degree\") of humanities by the [University of Windsor](/wiki/University_of_Windsor \"University of Windsor\").{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Honorary degree recipient's novel selected as Book of the Week \\|work\\=The Lance \\|location\\=University of Windsor \\|date\\=March 30, 2015 \\|page\\=1}}",
"In May 2015, MacDonald was the \"big\\-name author\" and \"public face\"{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Godfrey \\|first\\=Laura \\|date\\=February 24, 2015 \\|title\\=First\\-Ever Canadian Authors for Indies Day Set for May \\|url\\=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by\\-topic/international/international\\-book\\-news/article/65679\\-first\\-ever\\-canadian\\-authors\\-for\\-indies\\-day\\-set\\-for\\-may.html \\|magazine\\=Publishers Weekly \\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2020}} of the inaugural Canadian Authors for Indies Day, organized to bring attention to [independent bookstores](/wiki/Independent_bookstores \"Independent bookstores\") across the country. Nearly 100 stores and 270 authors participated in the nationwide event.",
"In December 2018, MacDonald was named as an Officer of the [Order of Canada](/wiki/Order_of_Canada \"Order of Canada\"), in recognition of \"her multi\\-faceted contributions to the arts in Canada and for her advocacy of [LGBTQ\\+](/wiki/LGBT \"LGBT\") and [women's rights](/wiki/Women%27s_rights \"Women's rights\")\".{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Governor General Announces 103 New Appointments to the Order of Canada \\|url\\=https://www.gg.ca/en/media/news/2018/governor\\-general\\-announces\\-103\\-new\\-appointments\\-order\\-canada \\|agency\\=Canada Newswire \\|date\\=December 27, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=October 11, 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 19, 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119172458/https://www.gg.ca/en/media/news/2018/governor\\-general\\-announces\\-103\\-new\\-appointments\\-order\\-canada \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"MacDonald is married to the Canadian playwright and theatre director [Alisa Palmer](/wiki/Alisa_Palmer \"Alisa Palmer\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Cole \\|first\\=Susan G. \\|title\\=Ann\\-Marie MacDonald \\|newspaper\\=Now Toronto \\|date\\=September 25 – October 1, 2003 \\|url\\=http://www.nowtoronto.com/issues/2003\\-09\\-25/cover\\_story.php \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123458/http://www.nowtoronto.com/issues/2003\\-09\\-25/cover\\_story.php \\|archive\\-date\\=September 29, 2007}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.randomhouse.ca/author/results.pperl?authorid%3D54001%26view%3Dfull\\_sptlght \\|title\\=Author Spotlight: Ann\\-Marie MacDonald \\|access\\-date\\=October 28, 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123801/http://www.randomhouse.ca/author/results.pperl?authorid\\=54001\\&view\\=full\\_sptlght \\|archive\\-date\\=January 12, 2012}}",
""
] |
Reception
---------
There was both praise and criticism for the significant changes to the BF\&M in the 2000 revision.
### Affirmations
Some of the changes that were particularly well received by some Baptist theologians include the following:[Russell H. Dilday](/wiki/Russell_H._Dilday "Russell H. Dilday"), [An Analysis of the Baptist Faith and Message 2000](http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/hotissues/dildayfm2000.htm), centerforbaptiststudies.org, USA, April 2001
* The controversial use of the word "[inerrancy](/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy "Biblical inerrancy")" was not inserted into the section on Scripture. Some were concerned that it would be included.{{cn\|date\=December 2021}}
* No inclusion of more restrictive views of [eschatology](/wiki/Eschatology "Eschatology"), such as [dispensationalism](/wiki/Dispensationalism "Dispensationalism"). Apprehension had been expressed that such views might be espoused in the revisions.
* Inclusion of a statement that Baptists honor the principles of [soul competency](/wiki/Soul_competency "Soul competency") and the [priesthood of all believers](/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers "Priesthood of all believers").
* Reaffirmation of most historical Baptist convictions.
* Addresses issues of contemporary concern—soteriological inclusivism (Section IV), family (Section XVIII), gender (Section III), sexual immorality, adultery, homosexuality, pornography, and abortion (Section XV).
* Clear expressions about the future direction of the SBC under the "conservative resurgency" leadership.{{cn\|date\=December 2021}}
* Editorial changes, such as the use of gender\-inclusive language, considered improvements of the form of the statement.
### Criticisms
In 2001, [Russell Dilday](/wiki/Russell_H._Dilday "Russell H. Dilday") of the Center for Baptist Studies at [Mercer University](/wiki/Mercer_University "Mercer University"), raised 12 controversial points about the 2000 revision. The most controversial points were in the areas of male priority (in marriage and in ministry, specifically the pastorate), the exegetical standard by which the [Bible is to be interpreted](/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics "Biblical hermeneutics"), and a catalogue of specific sins.Smith, James A., Sr. "A confession of faith worthy of support." Editorial, *Florida Baptist Witness*, April 25, 2002\. Accessed July 11, 2007\.
#### Gender\-based roles
For the first time in SBC history, provisions were added to define male\-headship gender roles in both the ministry and in marriage. Regarding ministry, the BF\&M now explicitly defines the pastoral office as the exclusive domain of men—thus prohibiting female pastors. While not stated in the 2000 BF\&M, some churches also apply this interpretation to [deacons](/wiki/Deacon "Deacon"), being a pastoral office of the church, and will not ordain women or allow them to serve as deacons.{{cn\|date\=December 2021}}{{efn\|Traditional Southern Baptist churches generally do not have elders; therefore, the issue of women elders is not generally an issue within those congregations. However, for more contemporary churches which have elders, the interpretation has been extended to this office as well, thus prohibiting women from being elders.}}
{{quotation\|'''Article VI. The Church.''' While both men and women are gifted for service in the church, the office of pastor is limited to men as qualified by Scripture.}}
Regarding marriage, the BF\&M added Article XVIII to specify the husband is the head of the household (though it is to be understood in a [complementarian](/wiki/Complementarianism "Complementarianism") role, not as an autocrat). Nothing in the BF\&M prohibits or discourages the wife from holding outside employment, nor the husband from doing household duties traditionally considered those of the wife.
{{quotation\|'''Article XVIII. The Family.''' The husband and wife are of equal worth before God, since both are created in God's image. The marriage relationship models the way God relates to his people. A husband is to love his wife as Christ loved the church. He has the God\-given responsibility to provide for, to protect, and to lead his family. A wife is to submit herself graciously to the servant leadership of her husband even as the church willingly submits to the headship of Christ. She, being in the image of God as is her husband and thus equal to him, has the God\-given responsibility to respect her husband and to serve as his helper in managing the household and nurturing the next generation.}}
#### Exegetical standard
The 2000 revision removed the assertion that the person of [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus "Jesus") [Christ](/wiki/Christ "Christ") was to be the [exegetical](/wiki/Exegesis "Exegesis") standard by which the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible") was to be interpreted,{{cn\|date\=December 2021}}{{efn\|The text of the original assertion, which was the last sentence in the section, was: "The criterion by which the Bible is to be interpreted is Jesus Christ."}} and replaced it with the last sentence in the quotation below. The change was made over concerns that some groups were elevating the recorded words of Jesus{{efn\|Those words are commonly referred to as the "red letter words", based on the \[\[red letter edition\|20th century use of such]] in Bible printing.}} in Scripture over other Scriptural passages (or, in some cases, claiming that Jesus' silence on an issue held priority over other passages explicitly discussing a topic, an example being homosexuality). The traditional SBC view is that {{em\|all}} Scripture is {{em\|equally}} inspired by God.Article I, The Scriptures
{{quotation\|'''Article I. The Scriptures'''. The Holy Bible was written by men divinely inspired and is God's revelation of Himself to man. It is a perfect treasure of divine instruction. It has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter. Therefore, all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. It reveals the principles by which God judges us, and therefore is, and will remain to the end of the world, the true center of Christian union, and the supreme standard by which all human conduct, creeds, and religious opinions should be tried. All Scripture is a testimony to Christ, who is Himself the focus of divine revelation.}}
This revision was particularly objectionable to the [Baptist General Convention of Texas](/wiki/Baptist_General_Convention_of_Texas "Baptist General Convention of Texas"),{{cn\|date\=December 2021}} the largest SBC state convention, which had previously split between [moderates](/wiki/Moderate_Christianity "Moderate Christianity") and [conservatives](/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism "Christian fundamentalism"), with the latter forming the [Southern Baptists of Texas Convention](/wiki/Southern_Baptists_of_Texas_Convention "Southern Baptists of Texas Convention").
#### Catalogue of specific sins
The 2000 BF\&M has been criticized{{cn\|date\=December 2021}} for including a specific list of contemporary sins, which could lead to endless additions.
|
[
"Reception\n---------",
"There was both praise and criticism for the significant changes to the BF\\&M in the 2000 revision.",
"### Affirmations",
"Some of the changes that were particularly well received by some Baptist theologians include the following:[Russell H. Dilday](/wiki/Russell_H._Dilday \"Russell H. Dilday\"), [An Analysis of the Baptist Faith and Message 2000](http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/hotissues/dildayfm2000.htm), centerforbaptiststudies.org, USA, April 2001 \n* The controversial use of the word \"[inerrancy](/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy \"Biblical inerrancy\")\" was not inserted into the section on Scripture. Some were concerned that it would be included.{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}}\n* No inclusion of more restrictive views of [eschatology](/wiki/Eschatology \"Eschatology\"), such as [dispensationalism](/wiki/Dispensationalism \"Dispensationalism\"). Apprehension had been expressed that such views might be espoused in the revisions.\n* Inclusion of a statement that Baptists honor the principles of [soul competency](/wiki/Soul_competency \"Soul competency\") and the [priesthood of all believers](/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers \"Priesthood of all believers\").\n* Reaffirmation of most historical Baptist convictions.\n* Addresses issues of contemporary concern—soteriological inclusivism (Section IV), family (Section XVIII), gender (Section III), sexual immorality, adultery, homosexuality, pornography, and abortion (Section XV).\n* Clear expressions about the future direction of the SBC under the \"conservative resurgency\" leadership.{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}}\n* Editorial changes, such as the use of gender\\-inclusive language, considered improvements of the form of the statement.",
"### Criticisms",
"In 2001, [Russell Dilday](/wiki/Russell_H._Dilday \"Russell H. Dilday\") of the Center for Baptist Studies at [Mercer University](/wiki/Mercer_University \"Mercer University\"), raised 12 controversial points about the 2000 revision. The most controversial points were in the areas of male priority (in marriage and in ministry, specifically the pastorate), the exegetical standard by which the [Bible is to be interpreted](/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics \"Biblical hermeneutics\"), and a catalogue of specific sins.Smith, James A., Sr. \"A confession of faith worthy of support.\" Editorial, *Florida Baptist Witness*, April 25, 2002\\. Accessed July 11, 2007\\.",
"#### Gender\\-based roles",
"For the first time in SBC history, provisions were added to define male\\-headship gender roles in both the ministry and in marriage. Regarding ministry, the BF\\&M now explicitly defines the pastoral office as the exclusive domain of men—thus prohibiting female pastors. While not stated in the 2000 BF\\&M, some churches also apply this interpretation to [deacons](/wiki/Deacon \"Deacon\"), being a pastoral office of the church, and will not ordain women or allow them to serve as deacons.{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}}{{efn\\|Traditional Southern Baptist churches generally do not have elders; therefore, the issue of women elders is not generally an issue within those congregations. However, for more contemporary churches which have elders, the interpretation has been extended to this office as well, thus prohibiting women from being elders.}}",
"{{quotation\\|'''Article VI. The Church.''' While both men and women are gifted for service in the church, the office of pastor is limited to men as qualified by Scripture.}}",
"Regarding marriage, the BF\\&M added Article XVIII to specify the husband is the head of the household (though it is to be understood in a [complementarian](/wiki/Complementarianism \"Complementarianism\") role, not as an autocrat). Nothing in the BF\\&M prohibits or discourages the wife from holding outside employment, nor the husband from doing household duties traditionally considered those of the wife.",
"{{quotation\\|'''Article XVIII. The Family.''' The husband and wife are of equal worth before God, since both are created in God's image. The marriage relationship models the way God relates to his people. A husband is to love his wife as Christ loved the church. He has the God\\-given responsibility to provide for, to protect, and to lead his family. A wife is to submit herself graciously to the servant leadership of her husband even as the church willingly submits to the headship of Christ. She, being in the image of God as is her husband and thus equal to him, has the God\\-given responsibility to respect her husband and to serve as his helper in managing the household and nurturing the next generation.}}",
"#### Exegetical standard",
"The 2000 revision removed the assertion that the person of [Jesus](/wiki/Jesus \"Jesus\") [Christ](/wiki/Christ \"Christ\") was to be the [exegetical](/wiki/Exegesis \"Exegesis\") standard by which the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\") was to be interpreted,{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}}{{efn\\|The text of the original assertion, which was the last sentence in the section, was: \"The criterion by which the Bible is to be interpreted is Jesus Christ.\"}} and replaced it with the last sentence in the quotation below. The change was made over concerns that some groups were elevating the recorded words of Jesus{{efn\\|Those words are commonly referred to as the \"red letter words\", based on the \\[\\[red letter edition\\|20th century use of such]] in Bible printing.}} in Scripture over other Scriptural passages (or, in some cases, claiming that Jesus' silence on an issue held priority over other passages explicitly discussing a topic, an example being homosexuality). The traditional SBC view is that {{em\\|all}} Scripture is {{em\\|equally}} inspired by God.Article I, The Scriptures",
"{{quotation\\|'''Article I. The Scriptures'''. The Holy Bible was written by men divinely inspired and is God's revelation of Himself to man. It is a perfect treasure of divine instruction. It has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter. Therefore, all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. It reveals the principles by which God judges us, and therefore is, and will remain to the end of the world, the true center of Christian union, and the supreme standard by which all human conduct, creeds, and religious opinions should be tried. All Scripture is a testimony to Christ, who is Himself the focus of divine revelation.}}",
"This revision was particularly objectionable to the [Baptist General Convention of Texas](/wiki/Baptist_General_Convention_of_Texas \"Baptist General Convention of Texas\"),{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}} the largest SBC state convention, which had previously split between [moderates](/wiki/Moderate_Christianity \"Moderate Christianity\") and [conservatives](/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism \"Christian fundamentalism\"), with the latter forming the [Southern Baptists of Texas Convention](/wiki/Southern_Baptists_of_Texas_Convention \"Southern Baptists of Texas Convention\").",
"#### Catalogue of specific sins",
"The 2000 BF\\&M has been criticized{{cn\\|date\\=December 2021}} for including a specific list of contemporary sins, which could lead to endless additions.",
""
] |
Cottage
-------
Walter Rogers Furness was listed as the Furness, Evans \& Company individual\-in\-charge for the Jekyll Island cottage,{{rp\|306}} often an indication of who within the firm was a building's primary designer.{{rp\|86}} He and James W. Fassitt,{{efn\|James Wilson Fassitt Jr. was a Philadelphia architect, and Frank Furness's brother\-in\-law. He worked for Furness, Evans \& Company, and was promoted to partner in 1886\. Fassitt died unmarried at age 42\. Thomas, p. 86\.}} a partner in the firm,{{rp\|86}} visited Jekyll Island in February 1889\. They seem to have brought hunting dogs with them, perhaps combining a hunting trip with selecting a [building lot](/wiki/Land_lot "Land lot").{{efn\|June Hall McCash publishes a photograph of Walter Rogers Furness and James W. Fassitt posing with their four \[\[pointing dog]]s in a Savannah, Georgia portrait studio. McCash, p. 82\.}} Furness erected his cottage in the isolated southern part of the club compound, on a slightly sloping lot amid tall trees.["The Infirmary / Furness Cottage" marker (erected by Jekyll Island Museum)](https://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=115114), via Historical Marker Database.
The twelve\-room, {{frac\|2\|1\|2}}\-story cottage is slightly raised on [footings](/wiki/Shallow_foundation "Shallow foundation"). "The overhanging shingled volume of the second story is carried on slender, turned porch posts,"{{rp\|306}} creating a J\-shaped covered porch beneath. The entrance is indicated by a [Juliet balcony](/wiki/Juliet_balcony "Juliet balcony") on the west façade, and the apsidal south façade features a peak\-ceilinged semicircular sleeping porch on the second story.{{rp\|344C}} To the east is a {{frac\|2\|1\|2}}\-story section containing the dining room and kitchen, with bedrooms and servant quarters above.
The unusual [apsidal](/wiki/Apse "Apse")\-ended cottage is reminiscent of Frank Furness's apsidal\-ended [University of Pennsylvania Library](/wiki/Fisher_Fine_Arts_Library "Fisher Fine Arts Library") (1888\-1891\), a building then under construction.{{rp\|290}} Walter Rogers Furness's father served as chairman of the library's building committee, and was intimately involved in its planning and detailing.{{rp\|290}} The library inspired the design of Frank Furness's own apsidal\-ended country house, "[Idlewild](/wiki/Idlewild_%28Media%2C_Pennsylvania%29 "Idlewild (Media, Pennsylvania)")" ({{circa}}1890\),James F. O'Gorman, *The Architecture of Frank Furness*, (Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973\), p. 64\. built in the Philadelphia suburbs, just outside [Media, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Media%2C_Pennsylvania "Media, Pennsylvania").
File:University of Pennsylvania Library 1904 Detroit Publishing Co.jpg\|University of Pennsylvania Library (1888\-1891\)
File:Proceedings at the Opening of the University of Pennsylvania Library 1891\.jpg\|University of Pennsylvania Library plan
File:Idlewild Media PA back side.JPG\|"Idlewild" ({{circa}}1890\), Media, Pennsylvania
File:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (06\).jpg\|South facade
File:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (10\).jpg\|North façade
File:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (11\).jpg\|East (kitchen) façade
### Later owners and occupants
[thumb\|left\|Jekyll Books occupied the cottage from 2001 to 2016\.](/wiki/File:101_Jekyll_Island_Club%2C_Jekyll_Island%2C_Georgia.jpg "101 Jekyll Island Club, Jekyll Island, Georgia.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|West façade, following the 2017 renovation](/wiki/File:Jekyll_Island_Club_Historic_Dist.%2C_GA%2C_US_%2802%29.jpg "Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (02).jpg")
Publisher [Joseph Pulitzer](/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer "Joseph Pulitzer") purchased the cottage from Furness in 1896, and had it moved to his building lot at Riverview Drive and Stable Road. He lived in the cottage through two winter "seasons" while his own twenty\-six\-room villa was under construction.[Villa of J. Pulitzer](https://vault.georgiaarchives.org/digital/collection/vg2/id/7426), from Georgia Archives. He then slightly moved the cottage—about {{cvt\|125\|ft\|m\|sortable\=on}}—and used it to house servants. [Hydroelectric power magnate](/wiki/Westinghouse_Corporation "Westinghouse Corporation") and [art patron](/wiki/Albright-Knox_Art_Gallery "Albright-Knox Art Gallery") [John J. Albright](/wiki/John_J._Albright "John J. Albright") purchased the Pulitzer villa in 1914, slightly moved the Furness cottage—about {{cvt\|70\|ft\|m\|sortable\=on}}—and also used it to house servants.
The parents of [lumber executive](/wiki/Great_Southern_Lumber_Company "Great Southern Lumber Company") [Frank H. Goodyear, Jr.](/wiki/Goodyear_family%23Frank_H._Goodyear "Goodyear family#Frank H. Goodyear") built an Italian villa on the club compound in 1906\.William Barton McCash, *The Jekyll Island Club: Southern Haven for America's Millionaires* (University of Georgia Press, 1989\), pp. 102, 183\. He inherited their villa, and was himself elected to membership in 1916\.{{rp\|64, 102}} Goodyear purchased the Furness cottage from Albright in October 1929, intending to relocate it. On January 21, 1930, it was moved a distance of about a quarter\-mile (400 m), to the northeast corner of Old Plantation and Stable Roads (its current site). Goodyear renovated the cottage, equipped as an [infirmary](/wiki/Hospital "Hospital"), and donated it to the club in memory of his mother. The Josephine Goodyear Memorial Infirmary was in operation from 1930 to 1942, when the Jekyll Island Club went out of business.
Georgia obtained Jekyll Island through [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain "Eminent domain") in 1947, and operated it as a state park for several years. The [Jekyll Island Authority](/wiki/Jekyll_Island%23Development_of_the_Jekyll_Island_Authority "Jekyll Island#Development of the Jekyll Island Authority") was created in the 1950s to conserve and develop the island.[Jekyll Island Authority](https://georgia.gov/agencies/jekyll-island-authority), from georgia.gov. Various authority employees leased the Furness cottage as a residence, into the 1990s.
[Hurricane Matthew](/wiki/Hurricane_Matthew "Hurricane Matthew") hit Jekyll Island in October 2016, and the Furness cottage was damaged by a fallen tree.*[2016 Progress Report](https://issuu.com/jekyllisland/docs/2016_progress_report)*, Jekyll Island Authority, February 2017, p. 9\. Repairs and renovations to the building were completed in Summer 2017\.*[2017 Progress Report](https://issuu.com/jekyllisland/docs/2017_progressreport)*, Jekyll Island Authority, February 2018, p. 17\. The restorers painted the cottage the same pale blue color that it had been in the 1930s and 1940s, when it served as Jekyll Island Infirmary.
The nearby Jekyll Island Museum moved its visitors center and gift shop to the cottage, while its own building underwent renovations.Deborah Bayliss, ["New Jekyll museum construction to start this winter,"](https://thebrunswicknews.com/news/local_news/new-jekyll-museum-construction-to-start-this-winter/article_a7f719f1-f2d9-5ac7-b311-81cfc09d2b88.html) *The Brunswick News*, July 17, 2017\. Following nearly two years of work, the Jekyll Island Museum reopened on April 27, 2019\.[Grand Opening: Mosaic, the Jekyll Island Museum](https://www.jekyllisland.com/event/grand-opening-mosaic-the-jekyll-island-museum/), from Jekyll Island Authority.
{{clear}}
|
[
"Cottage\n-------",
"Walter Rogers Furness was listed as the Furness, Evans \\& Company individual\\-in\\-charge for the Jekyll Island cottage,{{rp\\|306}} often an indication of who within the firm was a building's primary designer.{{rp\\|86}} He and James W. Fassitt,{{efn\\|James Wilson Fassitt Jr. was a Philadelphia architect, and Frank Furness's brother\\-in\\-law. He worked for Furness, Evans \\& Company, and was promoted to partner in 1886\\. Fassitt died unmarried at age 42\\. Thomas, p. 86\\.}} a partner in the firm,{{rp\\|86}} visited Jekyll Island in February 1889\\. They seem to have brought hunting dogs with them, perhaps combining a hunting trip with selecting a [building lot](/wiki/Land_lot \"Land lot\").{{efn\\|June Hall McCash publishes a photograph of Walter Rogers Furness and James W. Fassitt posing with their four \\[\\[pointing dog]]s in a Savannah, Georgia portrait studio. McCash, p. 82\\.}} Furness erected his cottage in the isolated southern part of the club compound, on a slightly sloping lot amid tall trees.[\"The Infirmary / Furness Cottage\" marker (erected by Jekyll Island Museum)](https://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=115114), via Historical Marker Database.",
"The twelve\\-room, {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}}\\-story cottage is slightly raised on [footings](/wiki/Shallow_foundation \"Shallow foundation\"). \"The overhanging shingled volume of the second story is carried on slender, turned porch posts,\"{{rp\\|306}} creating a J\\-shaped covered porch beneath. The entrance is indicated by a [Juliet balcony](/wiki/Juliet_balcony \"Juliet balcony\") on the west façade, and the apsidal south façade features a peak\\-ceilinged semicircular sleeping porch on the second story.{{rp\\|344C}} To the east is a {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}}\\-story section containing the dining room and kitchen, with bedrooms and servant quarters above.",
"The unusual [apsidal](/wiki/Apse \"Apse\")\\-ended cottage is reminiscent of Frank Furness's apsidal\\-ended [University of Pennsylvania Library](/wiki/Fisher_Fine_Arts_Library \"Fisher Fine Arts Library\") (1888\\-1891\\), a building then under construction.{{rp\\|290}} Walter Rogers Furness's father served as chairman of the library's building committee, and was intimately involved in its planning and detailing.{{rp\\|290}} The library inspired the design of Frank Furness's own apsidal\\-ended country house, \"[Idlewild](/wiki/Idlewild_%28Media%2C_Pennsylvania%29 \"Idlewild (Media, Pennsylvania)\")\" ({{circa}}1890\\),James F. O'Gorman, *The Architecture of Frank Furness*, (Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973\\), p. 64\\. built in the Philadelphia suburbs, just outside [Media, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Media%2C_Pennsylvania \"Media, Pennsylvania\").",
"File:University of Pennsylvania Library 1904 Detroit Publishing Co.jpg\\|University of Pennsylvania Library (1888\\-1891\\)\nFile:Proceedings at the Opening of the University of Pennsylvania Library 1891\\.jpg\\|University of Pennsylvania Library plan\nFile:Idlewild Media PA back side.JPG\\|\"Idlewild\" ({{circa}}1890\\), Media, Pennsylvania\nFile:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (06\\).jpg\\|South facade\nFile:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (10\\).jpg\\|North façade\nFile:Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (11\\).jpg\\|East (kitchen) façade",
"",
"### Later owners and occupants",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Jekyll Books occupied the cottage from 2001 to 2016\\.](/wiki/File:101_Jekyll_Island_Club%2C_Jekyll_Island%2C_Georgia.jpg \"101 Jekyll Island Club, Jekyll Island, Georgia.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|West façade, following the 2017 renovation](/wiki/File:Jekyll_Island_Club_Historic_Dist.%2C_GA%2C_US_%2802%29.jpg \"Jekyll Island Club Historic Dist., GA, US (02).jpg\") \nPublisher [Joseph Pulitzer](/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer \"Joseph Pulitzer\") purchased the cottage from Furness in 1896, and had it moved to his building lot at Riverview Drive and Stable Road. He lived in the cottage through two winter \"seasons\" while his own twenty\\-six\\-room villa was under construction.[Villa of J. Pulitzer](https://vault.georgiaarchives.org/digital/collection/vg2/id/7426), from Georgia Archives. He then slightly moved the cottage—about {{cvt\\|125\\|ft\\|m\\|sortable\\=on}}—and used it to house servants. [Hydroelectric power magnate](/wiki/Westinghouse_Corporation \"Westinghouse Corporation\") and [art patron](/wiki/Albright-Knox_Art_Gallery \"Albright-Knox Art Gallery\") [John J. Albright](/wiki/John_J._Albright \"John J. Albright\") purchased the Pulitzer villa in 1914, slightly moved the Furness cottage—about {{cvt\\|70\\|ft\\|m\\|sortable\\=on}}—and also used it to house servants.",
"The parents of [lumber executive](/wiki/Great_Southern_Lumber_Company \"Great Southern Lumber Company\") [Frank H. Goodyear, Jr.](/wiki/Goodyear_family%23Frank_H._Goodyear \"Goodyear family#Frank H. Goodyear\") built an Italian villa on the club compound in 1906\\.William Barton McCash, *The Jekyll Island Club: Southern Haven for America's Millionaires* (University of Georgia Press, 1989\\), pp. 102, 183\\. He inherited their villa, and was himself elected to membership in 1916\\.{{rp\\|64, 102}} Goodyear purchased the Furness cottage from Albright in October 1929, intending to relocate it. On January 21, 1930, it was moved a distance of about a quarter\\-mile (400 m), to the northeast corner of Old Plantation and Stable Roads (its current site). Goodyear renovated the cottage, equipped as an [infirmary](/wiki/Hospital \"Hospital\"), and donated it to the club in memory of his mother. The Josephine Goodyear Memorial Infirmary was in operation from 1930 to 1942, when the Jekyll Island Club went out of business.",
"Georgia obtained Jekyll Island through [eminent domain](/wiki/Eminent_domain \"Eminent domain\") in 1947, and operated it as a state park for several years. The [Jekyll Island Authority](/wiki/Jekyll_Island%23Development_of_the_Jekyll_Island_Authority \"Jekyll Island#Development of the Jekyll Island Authority\") was created in the 1950s to conserve and develop the island.[Jekyll Island Authority](https://georgia.gov/agencies/jekyll-island-authority), from georgia.gov. Various authority employees leased the Furness cottage as a residence, into the 1990s.",
"[Hurricane Matthew](/wiki/Hurricane_Matthew \"Hurricane Matthew\") hit Jekyll Island in October 2016, and the Furness cottage was damaged by a fallen tree.*[2016 Progress Report](https://issuu.com/jekyllisland/docs/2016_progress_report)*, Jekyll Island Authority, February 2017, p. 9\\. Repairs and renovations to the building were completed in Summer 2017\\.*[2017 Progress Report](https://issuu.com/jekyllisland/docs/2017_progressreport)*, Jekyll Island Authority, February 2018, p. 17\\. The restorers painted the cottage the same pale blue color that it had been in the 1930s and 1940s, when it served as Jekyll Island Infirmary.",
"The nearby Jekyll Island Museum moved its visitors center and gift shop to the cottage, while its own building underwent renovations.Deborah Bayliss, [\"New Jekyll museum construction to start this winter,\"](https://thebrunswicknews.com/news/local_news/new-jekyll-museum-construction-to-start-this-winter/article_a7f719f1-f2d9-5ac7-b311-81cfc09d2b88.html) *The Brunswick News*, July 17, 2017\\. Following nearly two years of work, the Jekyll Island Museum reopened on April 27, 2019\\.[Grand Opening: Mosaic, the Jekyll Island Museum](https://www.jekyllisland.com/event/grand-opening-mosaic-the-jekyll-island-museum/), from Jekyll Island Authority.\n{{clear}}",
""
] |
Race summaries
--------------
### 1951–01
The first race of the 1951 season was run on February 5 at the [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course "Daytona Beach Road Course") in [Daytona Beach, Florida](/wiki/Daytona_Beach%2C_Florida "Daytona Beach, Florida"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position "Pole position").
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
2. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
3. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
4. 41\.5\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
5. 87\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker "Buck Baker")
6. 55\-[Lee Snow](/wiki/Lee_Snow "Lee Snow")
7. 41\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner "Curtis Turner")
8. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
9. 98\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz "Johnny Mantz")
10. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
### 1951–02
The second race of the 1951 season was held on April 1 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway "Charlotte Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole
**Top ten results**
1. 41\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner "Curtis Turner")
2. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
3. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
4. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
5. 88\-[Frank Luptow](/wiki/Frank_Luptow "Frank Luptow")
6. 72\-[Weldon Adams](/wiki/Weldon_Adams "Weldon Adams")
7. 77\-[Ewell Weddie](/wiki/Ewell_Weddie "Ewell Weddie")
8. 11\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts "Fireball Roberts")
9. 19\-[Joe Merola](/wiki/Joe_Merola "Joe Merola")
10. 10\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn "Jim Fiebelkorn")
### 1951–03
The third race of the 1951 season was held on April 8 at the [Lakeview Speedway](/wiki/Lakeview_Speedway "Lakeview Speedway") in Mobile, Alabama. [Red Harrelson](/wiki/Red_Harrelson "Red Harrelson") won the pole
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
3. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
4. 9\-[Bill Osbourne](/wiki/Bill_Osbourne "Bill Osbourne")
5. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
6. 19\-[Lamar Crabtree](/wiki/Lamar_Crabtree "Lamar Crabtree")
7. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
8. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
9. 8\-[Sonny Black](/wiki/Sonny_Black_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Sonny Black (NASCAR driver)")
10. 3\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers "Jimmy Ayers")
### 1951–04
The fourth race of the 1951 season was held on April 8 at the [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway "Carrell Speedway") in [Gardena, California](/wiki/Gardena%2C_California "Gardena, California"). It was the first NASCAR race ever staged west of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River "Mississippi River"). [Andy Pierce](/wiki/Andy_Pierce "Andy Pierce") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
2. 98\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz "Johnny Mantz")
3. [George Seeger](/wiki/George_Seeger "George Seeger")
4. 16\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner "Fred Steinbroner")
5. 1\-Erick Erickson
6. 9\-Dick Meyer
7. [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman "Dick Rathman")
8. [Danny Letner](/wiki/Danny_Letner "Danny Letner")
9. [Leo Breithaupt](/wiki/Leo_Breithaupt "Leo Breithaupt")
10. 22\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane "Lloyd Dane")
### 1951–05
The fifth race of the 1951 season was held on April 15 at the [Occoneechee Speedway](/wiki/Occoneechee_Speedway "Occoneechee Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole. The race ended after 95 laps due to rain.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
3. 41\.5\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
4. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
5. 52\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28racing_driver%29 "Neil Cole (racing driver)")
6. 110\-[Earl Moss](/wiki/Earl_Moss "Earl Moss")
7. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
8. 71\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
9. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
10. 55\-[Glenn Dunaway](/wiki/Glenn_Dunaway "Glenn Dunaway")
### 1951–06
The sixth race of the 1951 season was held on April 22 at the [Arizona State Fairgrounds](/wiki/Arizona_State_Fairgrounds "Arizona State Fairgrounds") in [Phoenix, Arizona](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
2. 11\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson_%28racing_driver%29 "Erick Erickson (racing driver)")
3. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
4. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
5. 9\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer "Dick Meyer")
6. 12\-[Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg "Danny Weinberg")
7. 1\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague "Walt Sprague")
8. [Bill Holland](/wiki/Bill_Holland "Bill Holland")
9. 26\-[Leland Colvin](/wiki/Leland_Colvin "Leland Colvin")
10. 18\-[Bill Stammer](/wiki/Bill_Stammer "Bill Stammer")
### Wilkes County 150
The seventh race of the 1951 season was held on April 29 at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway "North Wilkesboro Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
3. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
4. 98\-[Bill Holland](/wiki/Bill_Holland "Bill Holland")
5. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
6. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
7. 60\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
8. 155\-[Glenn Dunaway](/wiki/Glenn_Dunaway "Glenn Dunaway")
9. 5\-[Dale Williams](/wiki/Dale_Williams_%28racing_driver%29 "Dale Williams (racing driver)")
10. 83\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers "Jimmy Ayers")
### 1951–08
The eight race of the 1951 season was held on May 6 at the [Martinsville Speedway](/wiki/Martinsville_Speedway "Martinsville Speedway"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 41\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner "Curtis Turner")
2. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
3. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
4. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
5. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
6. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
7. 1\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague "Walt Sprague")
8. 2\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
9. 26\-[Leland Colvin](/wiki/Leland_Colvin "Leland Colvin")
10. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
### Poor Man's 500
The ninth race of the 1951 season was held on May 30 at the [Canfield Speedway](/wiki/Canfield_Speedway "Canfield Speedway"). [Bill Rexford](/wiki/Bill_Rexford "Bill Rexford") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
2. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
3. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
4. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
5. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
6. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
7. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
8. 77\-[Mike Klapak](/wiki/Mike_Klapak "Mike Klapak")
9. 120\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
10. 6\-[Don Eggett](/wiki/Don_Eggett "Don Eggett")
### 1951–10
The tenth race of the 1951 season was held on June 10 at the [Columbus Speedway](/wiki/Columbus_Speedway "Columbus Speedway") in [Columbus, Georgia](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Georgia "Columbus, Georgia"). [Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee") won the pole. During the first caution, [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)") suffered a leg injury when his car was hit in the side near the back straightaway by [Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts "Fireball Roberts").
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 51\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee")
3. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
4. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
5. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
6. 22\-[Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron "Red Byron")
7. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
8. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
9. 83\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers "Jimmy Ayers")
10. 4\-[Ed Massey](/wiki/Ed_Massey "Ed Massey")
### 1951–11
The eleventh race of the 1951 season was held on June 16 at the [Columbia Speedway](/wiki/Columbia_Speedway "Columbia Speedway") in [Columbia, South Carolina](/wiki/Columbia%2C_South_Carolina "Columbia, South Carolina"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
2. 98\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
3. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
4. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
5. 87\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker "Buck Baker")
6. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
7. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
8. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
9. 72\-[Weldon Adams](/wiki/Weldon_Adams "Weldon Adams")
10. [Jim Harris](/wiki/Jim_Harris_%28NASCAR_team_owner%29 "Jim Harris (NASCAR team owner)")
### 1951–12
The twelfth race of the 1951 season was held on June 24 at the [Dayton Speedway](/wiki/Dayton_Speedway "Dayton Speedway"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 41\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner "Curtis Turner")
2. 120\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
3. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
4. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
5. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
6. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
7. 1\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague "Walt Sprague")
8. [Bub King](/wiki/Bub_King "Bub King")
9. 60\-[Don Eggett](/wiki/Don_Eggett "Don Eggett")
10. [Red Harvey](/wiki/Red_Harvey "Red Harvey")
### 1951–13
The thirteenth race of the 1951 season was held on June 30 at the [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway "Carrell Speedway"). [Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro "Lou Figaro") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 33\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro "Lou Figaro")
2. 7\-[Chuck Meekins](/wiki/Chuck_Meekins "Chuck Meekins")
3. 22\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane "Lloyd Dane")
4. 11\-[Fred Bince](/wiki/Fred_Bince "Fred Bince")
5. 16\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner "Fred Steinbroner")
6. 1\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson "Erick Erickson")
7. [Hal Cole](/wiki/Hal_Cole "Hal Cole")
8. 98\-[Freddie Farmer](/wiki/Freddie_Farmer "Freddie Farmer")
9. 18\-[Bill Stammer](/wiki/Bill_Stammer "Bill Stammer")
10. 27\-Jim Byrd
### 1951–14
The fourteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 1 at the [Grand River Speedrome](/wiki/Grand_River_Speedrome "Grand River Speedrome") in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan "Grand Rapids, Michigan"). [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
2. 120\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
3. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
4. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
5. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
6. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
7. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
8. 27\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian "Jimmy Florian")
9. [Quinton Daniels](/wiki/Quinton_Daniels "Quinton Daniels")
10. [Tommy Lane](/wiki/Tommy_Lane_%28racing_driver%29 "Tommy Lane (racing driver)")
### 1951–15
The fifteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 8 at the [Bainbridge Speedway](/wiki/Bainbridge_Speedway "Bainbridge Speedway") in [Bainbridge, Ohio](/wiki/Bainbridge_Township%2C_Geauga_County%2C_Ohio "Bainbridge Township, Geauga County, Ohio"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 120\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
3. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
4. 27\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian "Jimmy Florian")
5. 22\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene "Oda Greene")
6. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
7. 10\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn "Jim Fiebelkorn")
8. [Norm McCarthy](/wiki/Norm_McCarthy "Norm McCarthy")
9. [Lyle Scott](/wiki/Lyle_Scott "Lyle Scott")
10. [Jim Romine](/wiki/Jim_Romine "Jim Romine")
### 1951–16
The sixteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 15 at the [Heidelberg Raceway](/wiki/Heidelberg_Raceway "Heidelberg Raceway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole. A six\-car crash on the 21st lap took Flock out of the race, and let Herb Thomas inherit the lead. The crash left Wally Campbell hospitalized and Flock with a cut over his eye, though he continued racing. Thomas led the remaining 179 laps and went on to win his first race of the season, over a lap ahead of second\-place Firbelkorn.{{Cite news\|url\=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1951\-07\-16/ed\-1/seq\-17/\#date1\=1951\&index\=13\&rows\=20\&words\=Herb\+Thomas\&searchType\=basic\&sequence\=0\&state\=\&date2\=1951\&proxtext\=herb\+thomas\&y\=0\&x\=0\&dateFilterType\=yearRange\&page\=1\|title\=Wally Campbell Injured in Six\-Car Smashup\|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Star\|Evening Star]] \|date\=July 16, 1951}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.racing\-reference.info/race\-results/1951\-16/W/\|title\=1951\-16\|publisher\=Racing Reference \|access\-date\=August 25, 2022}}
**Top ten results**
1. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 10\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn "Jim Fiebelkorn")
3. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas "Augie Walackas")
4. [Bud Farrell](/wiki/Bud_Farrell "Bud Farrell")
5. [Tom Jerris](/wiki/Tom_Jerris "Tom Jerris")
6. Jack Flynn
7. [Bob Dietrich](/wiki/Bob_Dietrich "Bob Dietrich")
8. [Dick Moffitt](/wiki/Dick_Moffitt "Dick Moffitt")
9. [Harry Scott](/wiki/Harry_Scott_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Harry Scott (NASCAR driver)")
10. [Charles Gillman](/wiki/Charles_Gillman "Charles Gillman")
### 1951–17
The seventeenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 29 at the [Asheville\-Weaverville Speedway](/wiki/Asheville-Weaverville_Speedway "Asheville-Weaverville Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 51\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee")
3. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
4. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
5. [Speedy Thompson](/wiki/Speedy_Thompson "Speedy Thompson")
6. [Bub King](/wiki/Bub_King "Bub King")
7. 217\-[Bill Miller](/wiki/Bill_Miller_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Miller (racing driver)")
8. [Billy Myers](/wiki/Billy_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 "Billy Myers (racing driver)")
9. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
10. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
### 1951–18
The eighteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 31 at the [Monroe County Fairgrounds](/wiki/Monroe_County_Fairgrounds "Monroe County Fairgrounds") in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
2. [Charles Gattalia](/wiki/Charles_Gattalia "Charles Gattalia")
3. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler "Ronnie Kohler")
4. 54\-[Don Bailey](/wiki/Don_Bailey_%28racing_driver%29 "Don Bailey (racing driver)")
5. 81\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough "Pappy Hough")
6. 60\-[Bill Rexford](/wiki/Bill_Rexford "Bill Rexford")
7. [Chuck Stimus](/wiki/Chuck_Stimus "Chuck Stimus")
8. 93\-[Ted Chamberlain](/wiki/Ted_Chamberlain_%28racing_driver%29 "Ted Chamberlain (racing driver)")
9. [Ernie Yorton](/wiki/Ernie_Yorton "Ernie Yorton")
10. 25\-[Dick Linder](/wiki/Dick_Linder "Dick Linder")
### 1951–19
The nineteenth race of the 1951 season was held on August 1 at the [Altamont\-Schenectady Fairgrounds](/wiki/Altamont-Schenectady_Fairgrounds "Altamont-Schenectady Fairgrounds"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
3. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
4. 23\-[Perry Smith](/wiki/Perry_Smith_%28driver%29 "Perry Smith (driver)")
5. 227\-[Jerry Morese](/wiki/Jerry_Morese "Jerry Morese")
6. 81\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough "Pappy Hough")
7. [Dick Moffitt](/wiki/Dick_Moffitt "Dick Moffitt")
8. [Wimpy Ervin](/wiki/Wimpy_Ervin "Wimpy Ervin")
9. Jim Little
10. 25\-[Dick Linder](/wiki/Dick_Linder "Dick Linder")
### Motor City 250
The twentieth race of the 1951 season was held on August 12 at the [Michigan State Fairgrounds Speedway](/wiki/Michigan_State_Fairgrounds_Speedway "Michigan State Fairgrounds Speedway"). [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)") won the pole. This race had five cautions including nine cars with mechanical problems and a 10\-car wreck on lap 130\. The race ended with 21 cars on the lead lap. Late in the race leaders Curtis Turner and Tommy Thompson tangled. Thompson went on to win while Turner finished ninth.
**Top ten results**
1. 40\-[Tommy Thompson](/wiki/Tommy_Thompson_%28NASCAR%29 "Tommy Thompson (NASCAR)")
2. 82\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks "Joe Eubanks")
3. 98\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz "Johnny Mantz")
4. 83\-[Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron "Red Byron")
5. 43\-[Paul Newkirk](/wiki/Paul_Newkirk "Paul Newkirk")
6. 34\-[Jack Goodwin](/wiki/Jack_Goodwin "Jack Goodwin")
7. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
8. 50\-[Ewell Weddie](/wiki/Ewell_Weddie "Ewell Weddie")
9. 41\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner "Curtis Turner")
10. 1\-X\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson "Erick Erickson")
### 1951–21
The twenty\-first race of the 1951 season was held on August 19 at the newly surfaced [Fort Miami Speedway](/wiki/Fort_Miami_Speedway "Fort Miami Speedway") in [Toledo, Ohio](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Ohio "Toledo, Ohio"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole. This was the first [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR "NASCAR") Grand National race held at this .500 mile dirt track. The track was removed from the schedule until at least [1952](/wiki/1952_in_NASCAR "1952 in NASCAR").
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 88\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson "Dell Pearson")
3. 22\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene "Oda Greene")
4. 33\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro "Lou Figaro")
5. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
6. 40\-[Tommy Thompson](/wiki/Tommy_Thompson_%28NASCAR%29 "Tommy Thompson (NASCAR)")
7. 31\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor "Jesse James Taylor")
8. 18\-[George Seeger](/wiki/George_Seeger "George Seeger")
9. 27\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian "Jimmy Florian")
10. 3\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers "Jimmy Ayers")
### 1951–22
The twenty\-second race of the 1951 season was held on August 24 at the [Morristown Speedway](/wiki/Morristown_Speedway "Morristown Speedway"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
3. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler "Ronnie Kohler")
4. [John DuBoise](/wiki/John_DuBoise "John DuBoise")
5. 21\-[Jim Delaney](/wiki/Jim_Delaney_%28NASCAR%29 "Jim Delaney (NASCAR)")
6. 421\-[Jack Reynolds](/wiki/Jack_Reynolds_%28NASCAR%29 "Jack Reynolds (NASCAR)")
7. 22\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene "Oda Greene")
8. [Dick Eagan](/wiki/Dick_Eagan "Dick Eagan")
9. 77\-[Chuck Mahoney](/wiki/Chuck_Mahoney "Chuck Mahoney")
10. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas "Augie Walackas")
### 1951–23
The twenty\-third race of the 1951 season was held on August 25 at the [Air Base Speedway](/wiki/Air_Base_Speedway "Air Base Speedway") in [Greenville, South Carolina](/wiki/Greenville%2C_South_Carolina "Greenville, South Carolina").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/35484939/the\_greenville\_news/\|title\=Flock Brothers Take All Honors at Local Stock Event\|last\=Bradley\|first\=Robert C.\|date\=1951\-08\-26\|website\=The Greenville News\|language\=en\|via\=Newspapers.com\|access\-date\=2019\-09\-06}} [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
2. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
3. 87\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker "Buck Baker")
4. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
5. 1\-X\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson "Erick Erickson")
6. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
7. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
8. 31\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor "Jesse James Taylor")
9. 120\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
10. 17\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman "Buddy Shuman")
### Southern 500
{{main\|1951 Southern 500}}
The second running of this race and the twenty\-fourth race of the 1951 season was held on September 3 at the [Darlington Raceway](/wiki/Darlington_Raceway "Darlington Raceway"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy") won the pole. The race featured an 82\-car field. This was [Red Byron's](/wiki/Red_Byron "Red Byron") last career start.
**Top ten results**
1. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 31\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor "Jesse James Taylor")
3. 17\-[Buddy Schuman](/wiki/Buddy_Schuman "Buddy Schuman")
4. 77\-[Hershel McGriff](/wiki/Hershel_McGriff "Hershel McGriff")
5. 11\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts "Fireball Roberts")
6. 1\-[Harold Kite](/wiki/Harold_Kite "Harold Kite")
7. 46\-[Leon Sales](/wiki/Leon_Sales "Leon Sales")
8. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
9. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
10. 24\-[Pap White](/wiki/Pap_White "Pap White")
### 1951–25
The twenty\-fifth race of the 1951 season was held on September 7 at the [Columbia Speedway](/wiki/Columbia_Speedway "Columbia Speedway"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 11\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts "Fireball Roberts")
3. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
4. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
5. 87\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker "Buck Baker")
6. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
7. 71\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens "Cotton Owens")
8. 70\-[Bud Farrell](/wiki/Bud_Farrell "Bud Farrell")
9. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
10. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
### 1951–26
The twenty\-sixth race of the 1951 season was held on September 8 at the [Central City Speedway](/wiki/Central_City_Speedway "Central City Speedway"). [Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 51\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee")
3. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
4. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
5. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
6. 71\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens "Cotton Owens")
7. 38\-[Frank Gise](/wiki/Frank_Gise "Frank Gise")
8. 8\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden")
9. [Bill Miller](/wiki/Bill_Miller_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Miller (racing driver)")
10. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas "Augie Walackas")
### 1951–27
The twenty\-seventh race of the 1951 season was held on September 15 at the [Langhorne Speedway](/wiki/Langhorne_Speedway "Langhorne Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
3. 21\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann "Dick Rathmann")
4. 120\-[John McGinley](/wiki/John_McGinley_%28racing_driver%29 "John McGinley (racing driver)")
5. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
6. 6\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 "Marshall Teague (racing driver)")
7. 67\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn "Jim Fiebelkorn")
8. 66\-[Bud Riley](/wiki/Bud_Riley_%28racing_driver%29 "Bud Riley (racing driver)")
9. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
10. 2\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
### 1951–28
The twenty\-eight race of the 1951 season was held on September 23 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway "Charlotte Speedway"). [Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 90\-[Shorty York](/wiki/Shorty_York "Shorty York")
3. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
4. 2\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR)")
5. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
6. 17\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman "Buddy Shuman")
7. 8\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden")
8. 88\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson "Dell Pearson")
9. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
10. 53\-[Clyde Minter](/wiki/Clyde_Minter "Clyde Minter")
### 1951–29
The twenty\-ninth race of the 1951 season was held on September 23 at the [Dayton Speedway](/wiki/Dayton_Speedway "Dayton Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 52\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28racing_driver%29 "Neil Cole (racing driver)")
3. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
4. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
5. 66\-[Bud Riley](/wiki/Bud_Riley "Bud Riley")
6. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler "Ronnie Kohler")
7. [Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian "Jimmy Florian")
8. 54\-[Don Bailey](/wiki/Don_Bailey_%28racing_driver%29 "Don Bailey (racing driver)")
9. 89\-[Herb Trimble](/wiki/Herb_Trimble "Herb Trimble")
10. [Bill Braun](/wiki/Bill_Braun "Bill Braun")
### 1951–30
The thirtieth race of the 1951 season was held on September 30 at the newly .500 mile dirt track [Wilson Speedway](/wiki/Wilson_Speedway "Wilson Speedway"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
3. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
4. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
5. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
6. 87\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker "Buck Baker")
7. [Cal Johnson](/wiki/Cal_Johnson_%28racing_driver%29 "Cal Johnson (racing driver)")
8. 99\-Leonard Tippett
9. [Bill Champion](/wiki/Bill_Champion_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Champion (racing driver)")
10. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
### 1951–31
The thirty\-first race of the 1951 season was held on October 7 at the one\-mile dirt [Occoneechee Speedway](/wiki/Occoneechee_Speedway "Occoneechee Speedway"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") won his first career pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 92\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 99\-[Leonard Tippett](/wiki/Leonard_Tippett "Leonard Tippett")
3. 82\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks "Joe Eubanks")
4. 60\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal "Jim Paschal")
5. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
6. 93\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 "Donald Thomas (racing driver)")
7. [Furman Lancaster](/wiki/Furman_Lancaster "Furman Lancaster")
8. [Alton Haddock](/wiki/Alton_Haddock "Alton Haddock")
9. 2\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Bill Blair (NASCAR driver)")
10. 37\-[Coleman Lawrence](/wiki/Coleman_Lawrence "Coleman Lawrence")
### 1951–32
The thirty\-second race of the 1951 season was held on October 12 at the half\-mile paved [Thompson Speedway](/wiki/Thompson_Speedway "Thompson Speedway") in [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut "Connecticut"). [Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Neil Cole (NASCAR driver)") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 52\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Neil Cole (NASCAR driver)")
2. 67\-[Jim Reed](/wiki/Jim_Reed_%28racer%29 "Jim Reed (racer)")
3. [Dick Eagan](/wiki/Dick_Eagan "Dick Eagan")
4. 8\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden")
5. 32\-[Reino Tulonen](/wiki/Reino_Tulonen "Reino Tulonen")
6. 81\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough "Pappy Hough")
7. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
8. [Joe Sommers](/wiki/Joe_Sommers "Joe Sommers")
9. [Bill Cintia](/wiki/Bill_Cintia "Bill Cintia")
10. 21\-[Jim Delaney](/wiki/Jim_Delaney_%28NASCAR%29 "Jim Delaney (NASCAR)")
### 1951–33
The thirty\-third race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the half\-mile dirt [Pine Grove Speedway](/wiki/Pine_Grove_Speedway "Pine Grove Speedway") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania").
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 120\-[John McGinley](/wiki/John_McGinley_%28racing_driver%29 "John McGinley (racing driver)")
3. 8\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden")
4. [Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian "Jimmy Florian")
5. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
6. [Hap Jones](/wiki/Hap_Jones "Hap Jones")
7. [Ed Benedict](/wiki/Ed_Benedict_%28racing_driver%29 "Ed Benedict (racing driver)")
8. [Bob Dietrich](/wiki/Bob_Dietrich "Bob Dietrich")
9. [Russ Hepler](/wiki/Russ_Hepler "Russ Hepler")
10. [Dick Stone](/wiki/Dick_Stone_%28racing_driver%29 "Dick Stone (racing driver)")
### 1951–34
The thirty\-fourth race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the half\-mile dirt [Martinsville Speedway](/wiki/Martinsville_Speedway "Martinsville Speedway") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 7\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
2. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
3. 22\-[Billy Myers](/wiki/Billy_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 "Billy Myers (racing driver)")
4. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
5. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
6. [Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough "Pappy Hough")
7. 37\-[Coleman Lawrence](/wiki/Coleman_Lawrence "Coleman Lawrence")
8. 98\-[Leon Sales](/wiki/Leon_Sales "Leon Sales")
9. 88\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson "Dell Pearson")
10. [Cal Johnson](/wiki/Cal_Johnson_%28racing_driver%29 "Cal Johnson (racing driver)")
### 1951–35
The thirty\-fifth race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the .625 mile dirt [Oakland Stadium](/wiki/Oakland_Stadium "Oakland Stadium") in [California](/wiki/California "California"). [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman "Dick Rathman") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 18\-[Marvin Burke](/wiki/Marvin_Burke "Marvin Burke")
2. 84\-Robert Caswell
3. [Woody Brown](/wiki/Woody_Brown_%28racing%29 "Woody Brown (racing)")
4. 55\-[Sam Hawks](/wiki/Sam_Hawks "Sam Hawks")
5. 9\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer "Dick Meyer")
6. 56\-[Marvin Panch](/wiki/Marvin_Panch "Marvin Panch")
7. 33\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro "Lou Figaro")
8. Bill Norton
9. John Soares
10. [Walt Davis](/wiki/Walt_Davis_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Walt Davis (NASCAR driver)")
* Burke remains the only driver in NASCAR history to win in his only start.
### Wilkes 200
The third running of this race and the thirty\-sixth race of the 1951 season was held on October 21 at the .625 mile dirt [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway "North Wilkesboro Speedway") in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
2. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
3. 82\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks "Joe Eubanks")
4. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
5. 71\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens "Cotton Owens")
6. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
7. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
8. 17\-[Buddy Schuman](/wiki/Buddy_Schuman "Buddy Schuman")
9. [Jerry Wimbish](/wiki/Jerry_Wimbish "Jerry Wimbish")
10. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
### 1951–37
The thirty\-seventh race of the 1951 season was held on October 28 at the half\-mile dirt [Marchbanks Speedway](/wiki/Marchbanks_Speedway "Marchbanks Speedway") in [California](/wiki/California "California"). [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman "Dick Rathman") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 2\-[Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg "Danny Weinberg")
2. 56\-[Marvin Panch](/wiki/Marvin_Panch "Marvin Panch")
3. [Bill Norton](/wiki/Bill_Norton_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Norton (racing driver)")
4. 22\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane "Lloyd Dane")
5. [Woody Brown](/wiki/Woody_Brown_%28racing%29 "Woody Brown (racing)")
6. [Claude Wallington](/wiki/Claude_Wallington "Claude Wallington")
7. 7\-[Fred Bince](/wiki/Fred_Bince "Fred Bince")
8. Fred Russell
9. [Pug Blalock](/wiki/Pug_Blalock "Pug Blalock")
10. 16\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner "Fred Steinbroner")
### 1951–38
The thirty\-eighth race of the 1951 season was held on November 4 at the half\-mile dirt [Jacksonville Speedway Park](/wiki/Jacksonville_Speedway_Park "Jacksonville Speedway Park") in [Florida](/wiki/Florida "Florida"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 6\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas")
2. 44\-[Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28American_racing_driver%2C_born_1924%29 "Jack Smith (American racing driver, born 1924)")
3. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
4. 16\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden "Bill Snowden")
5. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
6. Tommy Moon
7. 42\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty")
8. 0\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
9. 17\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman "Buddy Shuman")
10. 8\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden "Billy Carden")
### 1951–39
The thirty\-ninth race of the 1951 season was held on November 11 at the one\-mile dirt [Lakeview Speedway](/wiki/Lakeview_Speedway "Lakeview Speedway") in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
2. 7\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock")
3. 44X\-[Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28American_racing_driver%2C_born_1924%29 "Jack Smith (American racing driver, born 1924)")
4. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
5. 51\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee")
6. [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples "Ed Samples")
7. 59\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore "Lloyd Moore")
8. 17\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman "Buddy Shuman")
9. [Red Duvall](/wiki/Red_Duvall "Red Duvall")
10. [Don Oldenberg](/wiki/Don_Oldenberg "Don Oldenberg")
### 1951–40
The fortieth race of the 1951 season was held on November 11 at the half\-mile dirt [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway "Carrell Speedway") in [California](/wiki/California "California"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") won the pole.
**Top ten results**
1. 48\-[Bill Norton](/wiki/Bill_Norton_%28racing_driver%29 "Bill Norton (racing driver)")
2. 9\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer "Dick Meyer")
3. 25\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson "Erick Erickson")
4. 33\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro "Lou Figaro")
5. [Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg "Danny Weinberg")
6. 6\-[Bill Ledbetter](/wiki/Bill_Ledbetter "Bill Ledbetter")
7. 77\-[Burt Jackson](/wiki/Burt_Jackson "Burt Jackson")
8. 98\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz "Johnny Mantz")
9. 36\-[Danny Letner](/wiki/Danny_Letner "Danny Letner")
10. [Walt Davis](/wiki/Walt_Davis_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Walt Davis (NASCAR driver)")
### 1951–41
The forty\-first and last race of the 1951 season was held on November 25 at the .750 mile dirt [New Mobile Speedway](/wiki/New_Mobile_Speedway "New Mobile Speedway"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy") won the pole. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas "Herb Thomas") finished 21st and went home as 1951 NASCAR Grand National champion. [Fonty](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock") and [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock") finished fourth and second respectively to eventually finish second and third in the championship, and their brother [Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock "Bob Flock") got in a massive accident and broke his neck when his roof collapsed. Mundy's win at New Mobile propelled him to fifth in the final standings, while [Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty "Lee Petty"), winner of just one race, at the Monroe County Fairgrounds, finished 16th in the race to claim fourth in the standings.
**Top ten results**
1. 23\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy "Frank Mundy")
2. 91\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock "Tim Flock")
3. 87\-[Red Duvall](/wiki/Red_Duvall "Red Duvall")
4. 14\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock "Fonty Flock")
5. 142\-[Don Oldenberg](/wiki/Don_Oldenberg "Don Oldenberg")
6. 20\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman "Buddy Shuman")
7. 51\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee "Gober Sosebee")
8. 9\-[Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples "Ed Samples")
9. 24\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen "Jimmie Lewallen")
10. 80\-[Sonny Black](/wiki/Sonny_Black_%28NASCAR_driver%29 "Sonny Black (NASCAR driver)")
|
[
"Race summaries\n--------------",
"### 1951–01",
"The first race of the 1951 season was run on February 5 at the [Daytona Beach Road Course](/wiki/Daytona_Beach_Road_Course \"Daytona Beach Road Course\") in [Daytona Beach, Florida](/wiki/Daytona_Beach%2C_Florida \"Daytona Beach, Florida\"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the [pole position](/wiki/Pole_position \"Pole position\").",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n2. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n3. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n4. 41\\.5\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")\n5. 87\\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker \"Buck Baker\")\n6. 55\\-[Lee Snow](/wiki/Lee_Snow \"Lee Snow\")\n7. 41\\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner \"Curtis Turner\")\n8. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n9. 98\\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz \"Johnny Mantz\")\n10. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")",
"### 1951–02",
"The second race of the 1951 season was held on April 1 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway \"Charlotte Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 41\\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner \"Curtis Turner\")\n2. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n3. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n4. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n5. 88\\-[Frank Luptow](/wiki/Frank_Luptow \"Frank Luptow\")\n6. 72\\-[Weldon Adams](/wiki/Weldon_Adams \"Weldon Adams\")\n7. 77\\-[Ewell Weddie](/wiki/Ewell_Weddie \"Ewell Weddie\")\n8. 11\\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts \"Fireball Roberts\")\n9. 19\\-[Joe Merola](/wiki/Joe_Merola \"Joe Merola\")\n10. 10\\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn \"Jim Fiebelkorn\")",
"### 1951–03",
"The third race of the 1951 season was held on April 8 at the [Lakeview Speedway](/wiki/Lakeview_Speedway \"Lakeview Speedway\") in Mobile, Alabama. [Red Harrelson](/wiki/Red_Harrelson \"Red Harrelson\") won the pole",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n3. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n4. 9\\-[Bill Osbourne](/wiki/Bill_Osbourne \"Bill Osbourne\")\n5. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n6. 19\\-[Lamar Crabtree](/wiki/Lamar_Crabtree \"Lamar Crabtree\")\n7. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n8. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n9. 8\\-[Sonny Black](/wiki/Sonny_Black_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Sonny Black (NASCAR driver)\")\n10. 3\\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers \"Jimmy Ayers\")",
"### 1951–04",
"The fourth race of the 1951 season was held on April 8 at the [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway \"Carrell Speedway\") in [Gardena, California](/wiki/Gardena%2C_California \"Gardena, California\"). It was the first NASCAR race ever staged west of the [Mississippi River](/wiki/Mississippi_River \"Mississippi River\"). [Andy Pierce](/wiki/Andy_Pierce \"Andy Pierce\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n2. 98\\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz \"Johnny Mantz\")\n3. [George Seeger](/wiki/George_Seeger \"George Seeger\")\n4. 16\\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner \"Fred Steinbroner\")\n5. 1\\-Erick Erickson\n6. 9\\-Dick Meyer\n7. [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman \"Dick Rathman\")\n8. [Danny Letner](/wiki/Danny_Letner \"Danny Letner\")\n9. [Leo Breithaupt](/wiki/Leo_Breithaupt \"Leo Breithaupt\")\n10. 22\\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane \"Lloyd Dane\")",
"### 1951–05",
"The fifth race of the 1951 season was held on April 15 at the [Occoneechee Speedway](/wiki/Occoneechee_Speedway \"Occoneechee Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole. The race ended after 95 laps due to rain.",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n3. 41\\.5\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")\n4. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n5. 52\\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28racing_driver%29 \"Neil Cole (racing driver)\")\n6. 110\\-[Earl Moss](/wiki/Earl_Moss \"Earl Moss\")\n7. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n8. 71\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n9. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n10. 55\\-[Glenn Dunaway](/wiki/Glenn_Dunaway \"Glenn Dunaway\")",
"### 1951–06",
"The sixth race of the 1951 season was held on April 22 at the [Arizona State Fairgrounds](/wiki/Arizona_State_Fairgrounds \"Arizona State Fairgrounds\") in [Phoenix, Arizona](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n2. 11\\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson_%28racing_driver%29 \"Erick Erickson (racing driver)\")\n3. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n4. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n5. 9\\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer \"Dick Meyer\")\n6. 12\\-[Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg \"Danny Weinberg\")\n7. 1\\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague \"Walt Sprague\")\n8. [Bill Holland](/wiki/Bill_Holland \"Bill Holland\")\n9. 26\\-[Leland Colvin](/wiki/Leland_Colvin \"Leland Colvin\")\n10. 18\\-[Bill Stammer](/wiki/Bill_Stammer \"Bill Stammer\")",
"### Wilkes County 150",
"The seventh race of the 1951 season was held on April 29 at the [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway \"North Wilkesboro Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n3. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n4. 98\\-[Bill Holland](/wiki/Bill_Holland \"Bill Holland\")\n5. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n6. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n7. 60\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n8. 155\\-[Glenn Dunaway](/wiki/Glenn_Dunaway \"Glenn Dunaway\")\n9. 5\\-[Dale Williams](/wiki/Dale_Williams_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dale Williams (racing driver)\")\n10. 83\\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers \"Jimmy Ayers\")",
"### 1951–08",
"The eight race of the 1951 season was held on May 6 at the [Martinsville Speedway](/wiki/Martinsville_Speedway \"Martinsville Speedway\"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 41\\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner \"Curtis Turner\")\n2. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n3. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n4. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n5. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n6. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n7. 1\\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague \"Walt Sprague\")\n8. 2\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")\n9. 26\\-[Leland Colvin](/wiki/Leland_Colvin \"Leland Colvin\")\n10. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")",
"### Poor Man's 500",
"The ninth race of the 1951 season was held on May 30 at the [Canfield Speedway](/wiki/Canfield_Speedway \"Canfield Speedway\"). [Bill Rexford](/wiki/Bill_Rexford \"Bill Rexford\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n2. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n3. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n4. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n5. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n6. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n7. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n8. 77\\-[Mike Klapak](/wiki/Mike_Klapak \"Mike Klapak\")\n9. 120\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n10. 6\\-[Don Eggett](/wiki/Don_Eggett \"Don Eggett\")",
"### 1951–10",
"The tenth race of the 1951 season was held on June 10 at the [Columbus Speedway](/wiki/Columbus_Speedway \"Columbus Speedway\") in [Columbus, Georgia](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Georgia \"Columbus, Georgia\"). [Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\") won the pole. During the first caution, [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\") suffered a leg injury when his car was hit in the side near the back straightaway by [Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts \"Fireball Roberts\").",
"**Top ten results**",
"1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 51\\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\")\n3. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n4. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n5. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n6. 22\\-[Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron \"Red Byron\")\n7. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n8. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n9. 83\\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers \"Jimmy Ayers\")\n10. 4\\-[Ed Massey](/wiki/Ed_Massey \"Ed Massey\")",
"### 1951–11",
"The eleventh race of the 1951 season was held on June 16 at the [Columbia Speedway](/wiki/Columbia_Speedway \"Columbia Speedway\") in [Columbia, South Carolina](/wiki/Columbia%2C_South_Carolina \"Columbia, South Carolina\"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n2. 98\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")\n3. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n4. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n5. 87\\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker \"Buck Baker\")\n6. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n7. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n8. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n9. 72\\-[Weldon Adams](/wiki/Weldon_Adams \"Weldon Adams\")\n10. [Jim Harris](/wiki/Jim_Harris_%28NASCAR_team_owner%29 \"Jim Harris (NASCAR team owner)\")",
"### 1951–12",
"The twelfth race of the 1951 season was held on June 24 at the [Dayton Speedway](/wiki/Dayton_Speedway \"Dayton Speedway\"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 41\\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner \"Curtis Turner\")\n2. 120\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n3. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n4. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n5. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n6. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n7. 1\\-[Walt Sprague](/wiki/Walt_Sprague \"Walt Sprague\")\n8. [Bub King](/wiki/Bub_King \"Bub King\")\n9. 60\\-[Don Eggett](/wiki/Don_Eggett \"Don Eggett\")\n10. [Red Harvey](/wiki/Red_Harvey \"Red Harvey\")",
"### 1951–13",
"The thirteenth race of the 1951 season was held on June 30 at the [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway \"Carrell Speedway\"). [Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro \"Lou Figaro\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 33\\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro \"Lou Figaro\")\n2. 7\\-[Chuck Meekins](/wiki/Chuck_Meekins \"Chuck Meekins\")\n3. 22\\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane \"Lloyd Dane\")\n4. 11\\-[Fred Bince](/wiki/Fred_Bince \"Fred Bince\")\n5. 16\\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner \"Fred Steinbroner\")\n6. 1\\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson \"Erick Erickson\")\n7. [Hal Cole](/wiki/Hal_Cole \"Hal Cole\")\n8. 98\\-[Freddie Farmer](/wiki/Freddie_Farmer \"Freddie Farmer\")\n9. 18\\-[Bill Stammer](/wiki/Bill_Stammer \"Bill Stammer\")\n10. 27\\-Jim Byrd",
"### 1951–14",
"The fourteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 1 at the [Grand River Speedrome](/wiki/Grand_River_Speedrome \"Grand River Speedrome\") in [Grand Rapids, Michigan](/wiki/Grand_Rapids%2C_Michigan \"Grand Rapids, Michigan\"). [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n2. 120\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n3. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n4. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n5. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n6. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n7. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n8. 27\\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian \"Jimmy Florian\")\n9. [Quinton Daniels](/wiki/Quinton_Daniels \"Quinton Daniels\")\n10. [Tommy Lane](/wiki/Tommy_Lane_%28racing_driver%29 \"Tommy Lane (racing driver)\")",
"### 1951–15",
"The fifteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 8 at the [Bainbridge Speedway](/wiki/Bainbridge_Speedway \"Bainbridge Speedway\") in [Bainbridge, Ohio](/wiki/Bainbridge_Township%2C_Geauga_County%2C_Ohio \"Bainbridge Township, Geauga County, Ohio\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 120\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n3. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n4. 27\\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian \"Jimmy Florian\")\n5. 22\\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene \"Oda Greene\")\n6. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n7. 10\\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn \"Jim Fiebelkorn\")\n8. [Norm McCarthy](/wiki/Norm_McCarthy \"Norm McCarthy\")\n9. [Lyle Scott](/wiki/Lyle_Scott \"Lyle Scott\")\n10. [Jim Romine](/wiki/Jim_Romine \"Jim Romine\")",
"### 1951–16",
"The sixteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 15 at the [Heidelberg Raceway](/wiki/Heidelberg_Raceway \"Heidelberg Raceway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole. A six\\-car crash on the 21st lap took Flock out of the race, and let Herb Thomas inherit the lead. The crash left Wally Campbell hospitalized and Flock with a cut over his eye, though he continued racing. Thomas led the remaining 179 laps and went on to win his first race of the season, over a lap ahead of second\\-place Firbelkorn.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1951\\-07\\-16/ed\\-1/seq\\-17/\\#date1\\=1951\\&index\\=13\\&rows\\=20\\&words\\=Herb\\+Thomas\\&searchType\\=basic\\&sequence\\=0\\&state\\=\\&date2\\=1951\\&proxtext\\=herb\\+thomas\\&y\\=0\\&x\\=0\\&dateFilterType\\=yearRange\\&page\\=1\\|title\\=Wally Campbell Injured in Six\\-Car Smashup\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Star\\|Evening Star]] \\|date\\=July 16, 1951}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.racing\\-reference.info/race\\-results/1951\\-16/W/\\|title\\=1951\\-16\\|publisher\\=Racing Reference \\|access\\-date\\=August 25, 2022}}",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 10\\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn \"Jim Fiebelkorn\")\n3. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas \"Augie Walackas\")\n4. [Bud Farrell](/wiki/Bud_Farrell \"Bud Farrell\")\n5. [Tom Jerris](/wiki/Tom_Jerris \"Tom Jerris\")\n6. Jack Flynn\n7. [Bob Dietrich](/wiki/Bob_Dietrich \"Bob Dietrich\")\n8. [Dick Moffitt](/wiki/Dick_Moffitt \"Dick Moffitt\")\n9. [Harry Scott](/wiki/Harry_Scott_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Harry Scott (NASCAR driver)\")\n10. [Charles Gillman](/wiki/Charles_Gillman \"Charles Gillman\")",
"### 1951–17",
"The seventeenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 29 at the [Asheville\\-Weaverville Speedway](/wiki/Asheville-Weaverville_Speedway \"Asheville-Weaverville Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 51\\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\")\n3. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n4. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n5. [Speedy Thompson](/wiki/Speedy_Thompson \"Speedy Thompson\")\n6. [Bub King](/wiki/Bub_King \"Bub King\")\n7. 217\\-[Bill Miller](/wiki/Bill_Miller_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Miller (racing driver)\")\n8. [Billy Myers](/wiki/Billy_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 \"Billy Myers (racing driver)\")\n9. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n10. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")",
"### 1951–18",
"The eighteenth race of the 1951 season was held on July 31 at the [Monroe County Fairgrounds](/wiki/Monroe_County_Fairgrounds \"Monroe County Fairgrounds\") in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n2. [Charles Gattalia](/wiki/Charles_Gattalia \"Charles Gattalia\")\n3. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler \"Ronnie Kohler\")\n4. 54\\-[Don Bailey](/wiki/Don_Bailey_%28racing_driver%29 \"Don Bailey (racing driver)\")\n5. 81\\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough \"Pappy Hough\")\n6. 60\\-[Bill Rexford](/wiki/Bill_Rexford \"Bill Rexford\")\n7. [Chuck Stimus](/wiki/Chuck_Stimus \"Chuck Stimus\")\n8. 93\\-[Ted Chamberlain](/wiki/Ted_Chamberlain_%28racing_driver%29 \"Ted Chamberlain (racing driver)\")\n9. [Ernie Yorton](/wiki/Ernie_Yorton \"Ernie Yorton\")\n10. 25\\-[Dick Linder](/wiki/Dick_Linder \"Dick Linder\")",
"### 1951–19",
"The nineteenth race of the 1951 season was held on August 1 at the [Altamont\\-Schenectady Fairgrounds](/wiki/Altamont-Schenectady_Fairgrounds \"Altamont-Schenectady Fairgrounds\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n3. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n4. 23\\-[Perry Smith](/wiki/Perry_Smith_%28driver%29 \"Perry Smith (driver)\")\n5. 227\\-[Jerry Morese](/wiki/Jerry_Morese \"Jerry Morese\")\n6. 81\\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough \"Pappy Hough\")\n7. [Dick Moffitt](/wiki/Dick_Moffitt \"Dick Moffitt\")\n8. [Wimpy Ervin](/wiki/Wimpy_Ervin \"Wimpy Ervin\")\n9. Jim Little\n10. 25\\-[Dick Linder](/wiki/Dick_Linder \"Dick Linder\")",
"### Motor City 250",
"The twentieth race of the 1951 season was held on August 12 at the [Michigan State Fairgrounds Speedway](/wiki/Michigan_State_Fairgrounds_Speedway \"Michigan State Fairgrounds Speedway\"). [Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\") won the pole. This race had five cautions including nine cars with mechanical problems and a 10\\-car wreck on lap 130\\. The race ended with 21 cars on the lead lap. Late in the race leaders Curtis Turner and Tommy Thompson tangled. Thompson went on to win while Turner finished ninth.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 40\\-[Tommy Thompson](/wiki/Tommy_Thompson_%28NASCAR%29 \"Tommy Thompson (NASCAR)\")\n2. 82\\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks \"Joe Eubanks\")\n3. 98\\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz \"Johnny Mantz\")\n4. 83\\-[Red Byron](/wiki/Red_Byron \"Red Byron\")\n5. 43\\-[Paul Newkirk](/wiki/Paul_Newkirk \"Paul Newkirk\")\n6. 34\\-[Jack Goodwin](/wiki/Jack_Goodwin \"Jack Goodwin\")\n7. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n8. 50\\-[Ewell Weddie](/wiki/Ewell_Weddie \"Ewell Weddie\")\n9. 41\\-[Curtis Turner](/wiki/Curtis_Turner \"Curtis Turner\")\n10. 1\\-X\\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson \"Erick Erickson\")",
"### 1951–21",
"The twenty\\-first race of the 1951 season was held on August 19 at the newly surfaced [Fort Miami Speedway](/wiki/Fort_Miami_Speedway \"Fort Miami Speedway\") in [Toledo, Ohio](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Ohio \"Toledo, Ohio\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole. This was the first [NASCAR](/wiki/NASCAR \"NASCAR\") Grand National race held at this .500 mile dirt track. The track was removed from the schedule until at least [1952](/wiki/1952_in_NASCAR \"1952 in NASCAR\").",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 88\\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson \"Dell Pearson\")\n3. 22\\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene \"Oda Greene\")\n4. 33\\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro \"Lou Figaro\")\n5. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n6. 40\\-[Tommy Thompson](/wiki/Tommy_Thompson_%28NASCAR%29 \"Tommy Thompson (NASCAR)\")\n7. 31\\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor \"Jesse James Taylor\")\n8. 18\\-[George Seeger](/wiki/George_Seeger \"George Seeger\")\n9. 27\\-[Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian \"Jimmy Florian\")\n10. 3\\-[Jimmy Ayers](/wiki/Jimmy_Ayers \"Jimmy Ayers\")",
"### 1951–22",
"The twenty\\-second race of the 1951 season was held on August 24 at the [Morristown Speedway](/wiki/Morristown_Speedway \"Morristown Speedway\"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n3. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler \"Ronnie Kohler\")\n4. [John DuBoise](/wiki/John_DuBoise \"John DuBoise\")\n5. 21\\-[Jim Delaney](/wiki/Jim_Delaney_%28NASCAR%29 \"Jim Delaney (NASCAR)\")\n6. 421\\-[Jack Reynolds](/wiki/Jack_Reynolds_%28NASCAR%29 \"Jack Reynolds (NASCAR)\")\n7. 22\\-[Oda Greene](/wiki/Oda_Greene \"Oda Greene\")\n8. [Dick Eagan](/wiki/Dick_Eagan \"Dick Eagan\")\n9. 77\\-[Chuck Mahoney](/wiki/Chuck_Mahoney \"Chuck Mahoney\")\n10. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas \"Augie Walackas\")",
"### 1951–23",
"The twenty\\-third race of the 1951 season was held on August 25 at the [Air Base Speedway](/wiki/Air_Base_Speedway \"Air Base Speedway\") in [Greenville, South Carolina](/wiki/Greenville%2C_South_Carolina \"Greenville, South Carolina\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.newspapers.com/clip/35484939/the\\_greenville\\_news/\\|title\\=Flock Brothers Take All Honors at Local Stock Event\\|last\\=Bradley\\|first\\=Robert C.\\|date\\=1951\\-08\\-26\\|website\\=The Greenville News\\|language\\=en\\|via\\=Newspapers.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-06}} [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n2. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n3. 87\\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker \"Buck Baker\")\n4. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n5. 1\\-X\\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson \"Erick Erickson\")\n6. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n7. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n8. 31\\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor \"Jesse James Taylor\")\n9. 120\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n10. 17\\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman \"Buddy Shuman\")",
"### Southern 500",
"{{main\\|1951 Southern 500}}",
"The second running of this race and the twenty\\-fourth race of the 1951 season was held on September 3 at the [Darlington Raceway](/wiki/Darlington_Raceway \"Darlington Raceway\"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\") won the pole. The race featured an 82\\-car field. This was [Red Byron's](/wiki/Red_Byron \"Red Byron\") last career start.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 31\\-[Jesse James Taylor](/wiki/Jesse_James_Taylor \"Jesse James Taylor\")\n3. 17\\-[Buddy Schuman](/wiki/Buddy_Schuman \"Buddy Schuman\")\n4. 77\\-[Hershel McGriff](/wiki/Hershel_McGriff \"Hershel McGriff\")\n5. 11\\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts \"Fireball Roberts\")\n6. 1\\-[Harold Kite](/wiki/Harold_Kite \"Harold Kite\")\n7. 46\\-[Leon Sales](/wiki/Leon_Sales \"Leon Sales\")\n8. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n9. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n10. 24\\-[Pap White](/wiki/Pap_White \"Pap White\")",
"### 1951–25",
"The twenty\\-fifth race of the 1951 season was held on September 7 at the [Columbia Speedway](/wiki/Columbia_Speedway \"Columbia Speedway\"). [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 11\\-[Fireball Roberts](/wiki/Fireball_Roberts \"Fireball Roberts\")\n3. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n4. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n5. 87\\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker \"Buck Baker\")\n6. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n7. 71\\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens \"Cotton Owens\")\n8. 70\\-[Bud Farrell](/wiki/Bud_Farrell \"Bud Farrell\")\n9. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n10. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")",
"### 1951–26",
"The twenty\\-sixth race of the 1951 season was held on September 8 at the [Central City Speedway](/wiki/Central_City_Speedway \"Central City Speedway\"). [Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 51\\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\")\n3. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n4. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n5. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n6. 71\\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens \"Cotton Owens\")\n7. 38\\-[Frank Gise](/wiki/Frank_Gise \"Frank Gise\")\n8. 8\\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\")\n9. [Bill Miller](/wiki/Bill_Miller_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Miller (racing driver)\")\n10. [Augie Walackas](/wiki/Augie_Walackas \"Augie Walackas\")",
"### 1951–27",
"The twenty\\-seventh race of the 1951 season was held on September 15 at the [Langhorne Speedway](/wiki/Langhorne_Speedway \"Langhorne Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n3. 21\\-[Dick Rathmann](/wiki/Dick_Rathmann \"Dick Rathmann\")\n4. 120\\-[John McGinley](/wiki/John_McGinley_%28racing_driver%29 \"John McGinley (racing driver)\")\n5. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n6. 6\\-[Marshall Teague](/wiki/Marshall_Teague_%28racing_driver%29 \"Marshall Teague (racing driver)\")\n7. 67\\-[Jim Fiebelkorn](/wiki/Jim_Fiebelkorn \"Jim Fiebelkorn\")\n8. 66\\-[Bud Riley](/wiki/Bud_Riley_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bud Riley (racing driver)\")\n9. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n10. 2\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")",
"### 1951–28",
"The twenty\\-eight race of the 1951 season was held on September 23 at the [Charlotte Speedway](/wiki/Charlotte_Speedway \"Charlotte Speedway\"). [Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 90\\-[Shorty York](/wiki/Shorty_York \"Shorty York\")\n3. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n4. 2\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR)\")\n5. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n6. 17\\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman \"Buddy Shuman\")\n7. 8\\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\")\n8. 88\\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson \"Dell Pearson\")\n9. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n10. 53\\-[Clyde Minter](/wiki/Clyde_Minter \"Clyde Minter\")",
"### 1951–29",
"The twenty\\-ninth race of the 1951 season was held on September 23 at the [Dayton Speedway](/wiki/Dayton_Speedway \"Dayton Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 52\\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28racing_driver%29 \"Neil Cole (racing driver)\")\n3. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n4. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n5. 66\\-[Bud Riley](/wiki/Bud_Riley \"Bud Riley\")\n6. [Ronnie Kohler](/wiki/Ronnie_Kohler \"Ronnie Kohler\")\n7. [Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian \"Jimmy Florian\")\n8. 54\\-[Don Bailey](/wiki/Don_Bailey_%28racing_driver%29 \"Don Bailey (racing driver)\")\n9. 89\\-[Herb Trimble](/wiki/Herb_Trimble \"Herb Trimble\")\n10. [Bill Braun](/wiki/Bill_Braun \"Bill Braun\")",
"### 1951–30",
"The thirtieth race of the 1951 season was held on September 30 at the newly .500 mile dirt track [Wilson Speedway](/wiki/Wilson_Speedway \"Wilson Speedway\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n3. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n4. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n5. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n6. 87\\-[Buck Baker](/wiki/Buck_Baker \"Buck Baker\")\n7. [Cal Johnson](/wiki/Cal_Johnson_%28racing_driver%29 \"Cal Johnson (racing driver)\")\n8. 99\\-Leonard Tippett\n9. [Bill Champion](/wiki/Bill_Champion_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Champion (racing driver)\")\n10. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")",
"### 1951–31",
"The thirty\\-first race of the 1951 season was held on October 7 at the one\\-mile dirt [Occoneechee Speedway](/wiki/Occoneechee_Speedway \"Occoneechee Speedway\"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") won his first career pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 92\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 99\\-[Leonard Tippett](/wiki/Leonard_Tippett \"Leonard Tippett\")\n3. 82\\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks \"Joe Eubanks\")\n4. 60\\-[Jim Paschal](/wiki/Jim_Paschal \"Jim Paschal\")\n5. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n6. 93\\-[Donald Thomas](/wiki/Donald_Thomas_%28racing_driver%29 \"Donald Thomas (racing driver)\")\n7. [Furman Lancaster](/wiki/Furman_Lancaster \"Furman Lancaster\")\n8. [Alton Haddock](/wiki/Alton_Haddock \"Alton Haddock\")\n9. 2\\-[Bill Blair](/wiki/Bill_Blair_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Bill Blair (NASCAR driver)\")\n10. 37\\-[Coleman Lawrence](/wiki/Coleman_Lawrence \"Coleman Lawrence\")",
"### 1951–32",
"The thirty\\-second race of the 1951 season was held on October 12 at the half\\-mile paved [Thompson Speedway](/wiki/Thompson_Speedway \"Thompson Speedway\") in [Connecticut](/wiki/Connecticut \"Connecticut\"). [Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Neil Cole (NASCAR driver)\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 52\\-[Neil Cole](/wiki/Neil_Cole_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Neil Cole (NASCAR driver)\")\n2. 67\\-[Jim Reed](/wiki/Jim_Reed_%28racer%29 \"Jim Reed (racer)\")\n3. [Dick Eagan](/wiki/Dick_Eagan \"Dick Eagan\")\n4. 8\\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\")\n5. 32\\-[Reino Tulonen](/wiki/Reino_Tulonen \"Reino Tulonen\")\n6. 81\\-[Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough \"Pappy Hough\")\n7. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n8. [Joe Sommers](/wiki/Joe_Sommers \"Joe Sommers\")\n9. [Bill Cintia](/wiki/Bill_Cintia \"Bill Cintia\")\n10. 21\\-[Jim Delaney](/wiki/Jim_Delaney_%28NASCAR%29 \"Jim Delaney (NASCAR)\")",
"### 1951–33",
"The thirty\\-third race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the half\\-mile dirt [Pine Grove Speedway](/wiki/Pine_Grove_Speedway \"Pine Grove Speedway\") in [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\").",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 120\\-[John McGinley](/wiki/John_McGinley_%28racing_driver%29 \"John McGinley (racing driver)\")\n3. 8\\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\")\n4. [Jimmy Florian](/wiki/Jimmy_Florian \"Jimmy Florian\")\n5. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n6. [Hap Jones](/wiki/Hap_Jones \"Hap Jones\")\n7. [Ed Benedict](/wiki/Ed_Benedict_%28racing_driver%29 \"Ed Benedict (racing driver)\")\n8. [Bob Dietrich](/wiki/Bob_Dietrich \"Bob Dietrich\")\n9. [Russ Hepler](/wiki/Russ_Hepler \"Russ Hepler\")\n10. [Dick Stone](/wiki/Dick_Stone_%28racing_driver%29 \"Dick Stone (racing driver)\")",
"### 1951–34",
"The thirty\\-fourth race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the half\\-mile dirt [Martinsville Speedway](/wiki/Martinsville_Speedway \"Martinsville Speedway\") in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 7\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n2. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n3. 22\\-[Billy Myers](/wiki/Billy_Myers_%28racing_driver%29 \"Billy Myers (racing driver)\")\n4. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n5. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n6. [Pappy Hough](/wiki/Pappy_Hough \"Pappy Hough\")\n7. 37\\-[Coleman Lawrence](/wiki/Coleman_Lawrence \"Coleman Lawrence\")\n8. 98\\-[Leon Sales](/wiki/Leon_Sales \"Leon Sales\")\n9. 88\\-[Dell Pearson](/wiki/Dell_Pearson \"Dell Pearson\")\n10. [Cal Johnson](/wiki/Cal_Johnson_%28racing_driver%29 \"Cal Johnson (racing driver)\")",
"### 1951–35",
"The thirty\\-fifth race of the 1951 season was held on October 14 at the .625 mile dirt [Oakland Stadium](/wiki/Oakland_Stadium \"Oakland Stadium\") in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman \"Dick Rathman\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 18\\-[Marvin Burke](/wiki/Marvin_Burke \"Marvin Burke\")\n2. 84\\-Robert Caswell\n3. [Woody Brown](/wiki/Woody_Brown_%28racing%29 \"Woody Brown (racing)\")\n4. 55\\-[Sam Hawks](/wiki/Sam_Hawks \"Sam Hawks\")\n5. 9\\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer \"Dick Meyer\")\n6. 56\\-[Marvin Panch](/wiki/Marvin_Panch \"Marvin Panch\")\n7. 33\\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro \"Lou Figaro\")\n8. Bill Norton\n9. John Soares\n10. [Walt Davis](/wiki/Walt_Davis_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Walt Davis (NASCAR driver)\")\n* Burke remains the only driver in NASCAR history to win in his only start.",
"### Wilkes 200",
"The third running of this race and the thirty\\-sixth race of the 1951 season was held on October 21 at the .625 mile dirt [North Wilkesboro Speedway](/wiki/North_Wilkesboro_Speedway \"North Wilkesboro Speedway\") in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n2. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n3. 82\\-[Joe Eubanks](/wiki/Joe_Eubanks \"Joe Eubanks\")\n4. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n5. 71\\-[Cotton Owens](/wiki/Cotton_Owens \"Cotton Owens\")\n6. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n7. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n8. 17\\-[Buddy Schuman](/wiki/Buddy_Schuman \"Buddy Schuman\")\n9. [Jerry Wimbish](/wiki/Jerry_Wimbish \"Jerry Wimbish\")\n10. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")",
"### 1951–37",
"The thirty\\-seventh race of the 1951 season was held on October 28 at the half\\-mile dirt [Marchbanks Speedway](/wiki/Marchbanks_Speedway \"Marchbanks Speedway\") in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). [Dick Rathman](/wiki/Dick_Rathman \"Dick Rathman\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 2\\-[Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg \"Danny Weinberg\")\n2. 56\\-[Marvin Panch](/wiki/Marvin_Panch \"Marvin Panch\")\n3. [Bill Norton](/wiki/Bill_Norton_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Norton (racing driver)\")\n4. 22\\-[Lloyd Dane](/wiki/Lloyd_Dane \"Lloyd Dane\")\n5. [Woody Brown](/wiki/Woody_Brown_%28racing%29 \"Woody Brown (racing)\")\n6. [Claude Wallington](/wiki/Claude_Wallington \"Claude Wallington\")\n7. 7\\-[Fred Bince](/wiki/Fred_Bince \"Fred Bince\")\n8. Fred Russell\n9. [Pug Blalock](/wiki/Pug_Blalock \"Pug Blalock\")\n10. 16\\-[Fred Steinbroner](/wiki/Fred_Steinbroner \"Fred Steinbroner\")",
"### 1951–38",
"The thirty\\-eighth race of the 1951 season was held on November 4 at the half\\-mile dirt [Jacksonville Speedway Park](/wiki/Jacksonville_Speedway_Park \"Jacksonville Speedway Park\") in [Florida](/wiki/Florida \"Florida\"). [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 6\\-[Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\")\n2. 44\\-[Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28American_racing_driver%2C_born_1924%29 \"Jack Smith (American racing driver, born 1924)\")\n3. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n4. 16\\-[Bill Snowden](/wiki/Bill_Snowden \"Bill Snowden\")\n5. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n6. Tommy Moon\n7. 42\\-[Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\")\n8. 0\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n9. 17\\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman \"Buddy Shuman\")\n10. 8\\-[Billy Carden](/wiki/Billy_Carden \"Billy Carden\")",
"### 1951–39",
"The thirty\\-ninth race of the 1951 season was held on November 11 at the one\\-mile dirt [Lakeview Speedway](/wiki/Lakeview_Speedway \"Lakeview Speedway\") in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n2. 7\\-[Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\")\n3. 44X\\-[Jack Smith](/wiki/Jack_Smith_%28American_racing_driver%2C_born_1924%29 \"Jack Smith (American racing driver, born 1924)\")\n4. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n5. 51\\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\")\n6. [Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples \"Ed Samples\")\n7. 59\\-[Lloyd Moore](/wiki/Lloyd_Moore \"Lloyd Moore\")\n8. 17\\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman \"Buddy Shuman\")\n9. [Red Duvall](/wiki/Red_Duvall \"Red Duvall\")\n10. [Don Oldenberg](/wiki/Don_Oldenberg \"Don Oldenberg\")",
"### 1951–40",
"The fortieth race of the 1951 season was held on November 11 at the half\\-mile dirt [Carrell Speedway](/wiki/Carrell_Speedway \"Carrell Speedway\") in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). [Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") won the pole.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 48\\-[Bill Norton](/wiki/Bill_Norton_%28racing_driver%29 \"Bill Norton (racing driver)\")\n2. 9\\-[Dick Meyer](/wiki/Dick_Meyer \"Dick Meyer\")\n3. 25\\-[Erick Erickson](/wiki/Erick_Erickson \"Erick Erickson\")\n4. 33\\-[Lou Figaro](/wiki/Lou_Figaro \"Lou Figaro\")\n5. [Danny Weinberg](/wiki/Danny_Weinberg \"Danny Weinberg\")\n6. 6\\-[Bill Ledbetter](/wiki/Bill_Ledbetter \"Bill Ledbetter\")\n7. 77\\-[Burt Jackson](/wiki/Burt_Jackson \"Burt Jackson\")\n8. 98\\-[Johnny Mantz](/wiki/Johnny_Mantz \"Johnny Mantz\")\n9. 36\\-[Danny Letner](/wiki/Danny_Letner \"Danny Letner\")\n10. [Walt Davis](/wiki/Walt_Davis_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Walt Davis (NASCAR driver)\")",
"### 1951–41",
"The forty\\-first and last race of the 1951 season was held on November 25 at the .750 mile dirt [New Mobile Speedway](/wiki/New_Mobile_Speedway \"New Mobile Speedway\"). [Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\") won the pole. [Herb Thomas](/wiki/Herb_Thomas \"Herb Thomas\") finished 21st and went home as 1951 NASCAR Grand National champion. [Fonty](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\") and [Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\") finished fourth and second respectively to eventually finish second and third in the championship, and their brother [Bob Flock](/wiki/Bob_Flock \"Bob Flock\") got in a massive accident and broke his neck when his roof collapsed. Mundy's win at New Mobile propelled him to fifth in the final standings, while [Lee Petty](/wiki/Lee_Petty \"Lee Petty\"), winner of just one race, at the Monroe County Fairgrounds, finished 16th in the race to claim fourth in the standings.",
"**Top ten results**\n1. 23\\-[Frank Mundy](/wiki/Frank_Mundy \"Frank Mundy\")\n2. 91\\-[Tim Flock](/wiki/Tim_Flock \"Tim Flock\")\n3. 87\\-[Red Duvall](/wiki/Red_Duvall \"Red Duvall\")\n4. 14\\-[Fonty Flock](/wiki/Fonty_Flock \"Fonty Flock\")\n5. 142\\-[Don Oldenberg](/wiki/Don_Oldenberg \"Don Oldenberg\")\n6. 20\\-[Buddy Shuman](/wiki/Buddy_Shuman \"Buddy Shuman\")\n7. 51\\-[Gober Sosebee](/wiki/Gober_Sosebee \"Gober Sosebee\")\n8. 9\\-[Ed Samples](/wiki/Ed_Samples \"Ed Samples\")\n9. 24\\-[Jimmie Lewallen](/wiki/Jimmie_Lewallen \"Jimmie Lewallen\")\n10. 80\\-[Sonny Black](/wiki/Sonny_Black_%28NASCAR_driver%29 \"Sonny Black (NASCAR driver)\")",
""
] |
Handling
--------
The value of a [partial function](/wiki/Partial_function "Partial function") is undefined when its argument is out of its [domain of definition](/wiki/Domain_of_definition "Domain of definition"). This include numerous [arithmetical](/wiki/Arithmetic "Arithmetic") cases such as [division by zero](/wiki/Division_by_zero "Division by zero"), [square root](/wiki/Square_root "Square root") or [logarithm](/wiki/Logarithm "Logarithm") of a [negative number](/wiki/Negative_number "Negative number") etc. Another common example is accessing an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure "Array data structure") with an index which is out of bounds, as is the value in an [associative array](/wiki/Associative_array "Associative array") for a key which it does not contain. There are various ways that these situations are handled in practice:
### Reserved value
{{main\|Nullable type\|Sentinel value\|NaN}}
In applications where undefined values must be handled gracefully, it is common to reserve a special null value which is distinguishable from normal values. This resolves the difficulty by creating a defined value to represent the formerly undefined case. There are many examples of this:
* The C [standard I/O library](/wiki/C_file_input/output "C file input/output") reserves the special value `[EOF](/wiki/End-of-file "End-of-file")` to indicate that no more input is available. The `getchar()` function returns the next available input character, or `EOF` if there is no more available. (The [ASCII](/wiki/ASCII "ASCII") character code defines a [null character](/wiki/Null_character "Null character") for this purpose, but the standard I/O library wishes to be able to send and receive null characters, so it defines a separate `EOF` value.)
* The [IEEE 754](/wiki/IEEE_754 "IEEE 754") floating\-point arithmetic standard defines a special "[not a number](/wiki/Not_a_number "Not a number")" value which is returned when an [arithmetic](/wiki/Arithmetic "Arithmetic") operation has no defined value. Examples are [division by zero](/wiki/Division_by_zero "Division by zero"), or the [square root](/wiki/Square_root "Square root") or [logarithm](/wiki/Logarithm "Logarithm") of a [negative number](/wiki/Negative_number "Negative number").
* [Structured Query Language](/wiki/Structured_Query_Language "Structured Query Language") has a special `[NULL](/wiki/Null_%28SQL%29 "Null (SQL)")` value to indicate missing data.
* The Perl language lets the definedness of an expression be checked via the `defined()` predicate.
* Many programming languages support the concept of a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer "Null pointer") distinct from any valid pointer, and often used as an error return.
* Some languages allow most types to be nullable, for example [C\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 "C Sharp (programming language)").
* Most [Unix](/wiki/Unix "Unix") [system calls](/wiki/System_call "System call") return the special value −1 to indicate failure.
While [dynamically typed](/wiki/Dynamically_typed "Dynamically typed") languages often ensure that [uninitialized variables](/wiki/Uninitialized_variable "Uninitialized variable") default to a null value, statically typed values often do not, and distinguish null values (which are well\-defined) from uninitialized values (which are not).{{r\|Carr\_2006}}
### Exception handling
Some programming languages have a concept of [exception handling](/wiki/Exception_handling "Exception handling") for dealing with failure to return a value. The function returns in a defined way, but it does not return a value, so there is no need to invent a special value to return.
A variation on this is [signal handling](/wiki/Signal_handling "Signal handling"), which is done at the operating system level and not integrated into a programming language. Signal handlers can attempt some forms of recovery, such as terminating part of a computation, but without as much flexibility as fully integrated exception handling.
### Non\-returning functions
{{main\|Bottom type}}
A function which never returns has an undefined value because the value can never be observed. Such functions are formally assigned the [bottom type](/wiki/Bottom_type "Bottom type"), which has no values. Examples fall into two categories:
* Functions which [loop forever](/wiki/Infinite_loop "Infinite loop"). This may arise deliberately, or as a result of a search for something which will never be found. (For example, in the case of failed [μ operator](/wiki/%CE%9C_operator "Μ operator") in a [partial recursive function](/wiki/Partial_recursive_function "Partial recursive function").)
* Functions which terminate the computation, such as the [`exit` system call](/wiki/Exit_%28system_call%29 "Exit (system call)"). From within the program, this is indistinguishable from the preceding case, but it makes a difference to the invoker of the program.
### Undefined behaviour
{{main\|Undefined behaviour}}
All of the preceding methods of handling undefined values require that the undefinedness be detected. That is, the called function determines that it cannot return a normal result and takes some action to notify the caller. At the other end of the spectrum, *undefined behaviour* places the onus on the caller to avoid calling a function with arguments outside of its domain. There is no limit on what might happen. At best, an easily detectable [crash](/wiki/Crash_%28computing%29 "Crash (computing)"); at worst, a subtle error in a seemingly unrelated computation.
(The formal definition of "undefined behaviour" includes even more extreme possibilities, including things like "[halt and catch fire](/wiki/Halt_and_Catch_Fire_%28computing%29 "Halt and Catch Fire (computing)")" and "make demons fly out of your nose".)
The classic example is a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer "Dangling pointer") reference. It is very fast to [dereference](/wiki/Dereference "Dereference") a valid [pointer](/wiki/Pointer_%28computer_programming%29 "Pointer (computer programming)"), but can be very complex to determine if a pointer is valid. Therefore, computer hardware and low\-level languages such as [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 "C (programming language)") do not attempt to validate pointers before dereferencing them, instead passing responsibility to the programmer. This offers speed at the expense of safety.
### Undefined value *sensu stricto*
The strict definition of an undefined value is a superficially valid (non\-null) output which is meaningless but does not trigger undefined behaviour. For example, passing a negative number to the [fast inverse square root](/wiki/Fast_inverse_square_root "Fast inverse square root") function will produce a number. Not a very useful number, but the computation will complete and return *something*.
Undefined values occur particularly often in hardware. If a wire is not carrying useful information, it still exists and has some voltage level. The voltage should not be abnormal (e.g. not a damaging [overvoltage](/wiki/Overvoltage "Overvoltage")), but the particular [logic level](/wiki/Logic_level "Logic level") is unimportant.
The same situation occurs in software when a [data buffer](/wiki/Data_buffer "Data buffer") is provided but not completely filled. For example, the C library `[strftime](/wiki/Strftime "Strftime")` function converts a timestamp to human\-readable form in a supplied output buffer. If the output buffer is not large enough to hold the result, an error is returned and the buffer's contents are undefined.
In the other direction, the [`open` system call](/wiki/Open_%28system_call%29 "Open (system call)") in [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX "POSIX") takes three arguments: a file name, some flags, and a file mode. The file mode is only used if the flags include `O_CREAT`. It is common to use a two\-argument form of `open`, which provides an undefined value for the file mode, when `O_CREAT` is omitted.
Sometimes it is useful to work with such undefined values in a limited way. The overall computation can still be well\-defined if the undefined value is later ignored.
As an example of this, the C language permits converting a pointer to an integer, although the numerical value of that integer is undefined. It may still be useful for debugging, for comparing two pointers for equality, or for creating an [XOR linked list](/wiki/XOR_linked_list "XOR linked list").
Safely handling undefined values is important in [optimistic concurrency control](/wiki/Optimistic_concurrency_control "Optimistic concurrency control") systems, which detect [race conditions](/wiki/Race_condition "Race condition") after the fact. For example, reading a [shared variable](/wiki/Shared_variable "Shared variable") protected by [seqlock](/wiki/Seqlock "Seqlock") will produce an undefined value *before* determining that a race condition happened. It will then discard the undefined data and retry the operation. This produces a defined result as long as the operations performed on the undefined values do not produce full\-fledged undefined behaviour.
Other examples of undefined values being useful are [random number generators](/wiki/Random_number_generator "Random number generator") and [hash functions](/wiki/Hash_function "Hash function"). The specific values returned are undefined, but they have well\-defined properties and may be used without error.
|
[
"Handling\n--------",
"The value of a [partial function](/wiki/Partial_function \"Partial function\") is undefined when its argument is out of its [domain of definition](/wiki/Domain_of_definition \"Domain of definition\"). This include numerous [arithmetical](/wiki/Arithmetic \"Arithmetic\") cases such as [division by zero](/wiki/Division_by_zero \"Division by zero\"), [square root](/wiki/Square_root \"Square root\") or [logarithm](/wiki/Logarithm \"Logarithm\") of a [negative number](/wiki/Negative_number \"Negative number\") etc. Another common example is accessing an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure \"Array data structure\") with an index which is out of bounds, as is the value in an [associative array](/wiki/Associative_array \"Associative array\") for a key which it does not contain. There are various ways that these situations are handled in practice:",
"### Reserved value",
"{{main\\|Nullable type\\|Sentinel value\\|NaN}}",
"In applications where undefined values must be handled gracefully, it is common to reserve a special null value which is distinguishable from normal values. This resolves the difficulty by creating a defined value to represent the formerly undefined case. There are many examples of this:\n* The C [standard I/O library](/wiki/C_file_input/output \"C file input/output\") reserves the special value `[EOF](/wiki/End-of-file \"End-of-file\")` to indicate that no more input is available. The `getchar()` function returns the next available input character, or `EOF` if there is no more available. (The [ASCII](/wiki/ASCII \"ASCII\") character code defines a [null character](/wiki/Null_character \"Null character\") for this purpose, but the standard I/O library wishes to be able to send and receive null characters, so it defines a separate `EOF` value.)\n* The [IEEE 754](/wiki/IEEE_754 \"IEEE 754\") floating\\-point arithmetic standard defines a special \"[not a number](/wiki/Not_a_number \"Not a number\")\" value which is returned when an [arithmetic](/wiki/Arithmetic \"Arithmetic\") operation has no defined value. Examples are [division by zero](/wiki/Division_by_zero \"Division by zero\"), or the [square root](/wiki/Square_root \"Square root\") or [logarithm](/wiki/Logarithm \"Logarithm\") of a [negative number](/wiki/Negative_number \"Negative number\").\n* [Structured Query Language](/wiki/Structured_Query_Language \"Structured Query Language\") has a special `[NULL](/wiki/Null_%28SQL%29 \"Null (SQL)\")` value to indicate missing data.\n* The Perl language lets the definedness of an expression be checked via the `defined()` predicate.\n* Many programming languages support the concept of a [null pointer](/wiki/Null_pointer \"Null pointer\") distinct from any valid pointer, and often used as an error return.\n* Some languages allow most types to be nullable, for example [C\\#](/wiki/C_Sharp_%28programming_language%29 \"C Sharp (programming language)\").\n* Most [Unix](/wiki/Unix \"Unix\") [system calls](/wiki/System_call \"System call\") return the special value −1 to indicate failure.",
"While [dynamically typed](/wiki/Dynamically_typed \"Dynamically typed\") languages often ensure that [uninitialized variables](/wiki/Uninitialized_variable \"Uninitialized variable\") default to a null value, statically typed values often do not, and distinguish null values (which are well\\-defined) from uninitialized values (which are not).{{r\\|Carr\\_2006}}",
"### Exception handling",
"Some programming languages have a concept of [exception handling](/wiki/Exception_handling \"Exception handling\") for dealing with failure to return a value. The function returns in a defined way, but it does not return a value, so there is no need to invent a special value to return.",
"A variation on this is [signal handling](/wiki/Signal_handling \"Signal handling\"), which is done at the operating system level and not integrated into a programming language. Signal handlers can attempt some forms of recovery, such as terminating part of a computation, but without as much flexibility as fully integrated exception handling.",
"### Non\\-returning functions",
"{{main\\|Bottom type}}",
"A function which never returns has an undefined value because the value can never be observed. Such functions are formally assigned the [bottom type](/wiki/Bottom_type \"Bottom type\"), which has no values. Examples fall into two categories:\n* Functions which [loop forever](/wiki/Infinite_loop \"Infinite loop\"). This may arise deliberately, or as a result of a search for something which will never be found. (For example, in the case of failed [μ operator](/wiki/%CE%9C_operator \"Μ operator\") in a [partial recursive function](/wiki/Partial_recursive_function \"Partial recursive function\").)\n* Functions which terminate the computation, such as the [`exit` system call](/wiki/Exit_%28system_call%29 \"Exit (system call)\"). From within the program, this is indistinguishable from the preceding case, but it makes a difference to the invoker of the program.",
"### Undefined behaviour",
"{{main\\|Undefined behaviour}}",
"All of the preceding methods of handling undefined values require that the undefinedness be detected. That is, the called function determines that it cannot return a normal result and takes some action to notify the caller. At the other end of the spectrum, *undefined behaviour* places the onus on the caller to avoid calling a function with arguments outside of its domain. There is no limit on what might happen. At best, an easily detectable [crash](/wiki/Crash_%28computing%29 \"Crash (computing)\"); at worst, a subtle error in a seemingly unrelated computation.",
"(The formal definition of \"undefined behaviour\" includes even more extreme possibilities, including things like \"[halt and catch fire](/wiki/Halt_and_Catch_Fire_%28computing%29 \"Halt and Catch Fire (computing)\")\" and \"make demons fly out of your nose\".)",
"The classic example is a [dangling pointer](/wiki/Dangling_pointer \"Dangling pointer\") reference. It is very fast to [dereference](/wiki/Dereference \"Dereference\") a valid [pointer](/wiki/Pointer_%28computer_programming%29 \"Pointer (computer programming)\"), but can be very complex to determine if a pointer is valid. Therefore, computer hardware and low\\-level languages such as [C](/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29 \"C (programming language)\") do not attempt to validate pointers before dereferencing them, instead passing responsibility to the programmer. This offers speed at the expense of safety.",
"### Undefined value *sensu stricto*",
"The strict definition of an undefined value is a superficially valid (non\\-null) output which is meaningless but does not trigger undefined behaviour. For example, passing a negative number to the [fast inverse square root](/wiki/Fast_inverse_square_root \"Fast inverse square root\") function will produce a number. Not a very useful number, but the computation will complete and return *something*.",
"Undefined values occur particularly often in hardware. If a wire is not carrying useful information, it still exists and has some voltage level. The voltage should not be abnormal (e.g. not a damaging [overvoltage](/wiki/Overvoltage \"Overvoltage\")), but the particular [logic level](/wiki/Logic_level \"Logic level\") is unimportant.",
"The same situation occurs in software when a [data buffer](/wiki/Data_buffer \"Data buffer\") is provided but not completely filled. For example, the C library `[strftime](/wiki/Strftime \"Strftime\")` function converts a timestamp to human\\-readable form in a supplied output buffer. If the output buffer is not large enough to hold the result, an error is returned and the buffer's contents are undefined.",
"In the other direction, the [`open` system call](/wiki/Open_%28system_call%29 \"Open (system call)\") in [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX \"POSIX\") takes three arguments: a file name, some flags, and a file mode. The file mode is only used if the flags include `O_CREAT`. It is common to use a two\\-argument form of `open`, which provides an undefined value for the file mode, when `O_CREAT` is omitted.",
"Sometimes it is useful to work with such undefined values in a limited way. The overall computation can still be well\\-defined if the undefined value is later ignored.",
"As an example of this, the C language permits converting a pointer to an integer, although the numerical value of that integer is undefined. It may still be useful for debugging, for comparing two pointers for equality, or for creating an [XOR linked list](/wiki/XOR_linked_list \"XOR linked list\").",
"Safely handling undefined values is important in [optimistic concurrency control](/wiki/Optimistic_concurrency_control \"Optimistic concurrency control\") systems, which detect [race conditions](/wiki/Race_condition \"Race condition\") after the fact. For example, reading a [shared variable](/wiki/Shared_variable \"Shared variable\") protected by [seqlock](/wiki/Seqlock \"Seqlock\") will produce an undefined value *before* determining that a race condition happened. It will then discard the undefined data and retry the operation. This produces a defined result as long as the operations performed on the undefined values do not produce full\\-fledged undefined behaviour.",
"Other examples of undefined values being useful are [random number generators](/wiki/Random_number_generator \"Random number generator\") and [hash functions](/wiki/Hash_function \"Hash function\"). The specific values returned are undefined, but they have well\\-defined properties and may be used without error.",
""
] |
### Undefined value *sensu stricto*
The strict definition of an undefined value is a superficially valid (non\-null) output which is meaningless but does not trigger undefined behaviour. For example, passing a negative number to the [fast inverse square root](/wiki/Fast_inverse_square_root "Fast inverse square root") function will produce a number. Not a very useful number, but the computation will complete and return *something*.
Undefined values occur particularly often in hardware. If a wire is not carrying useful information, it still exists and has some voltage level. The voltage should not be abnormal (e.g. not a damaging [overvoltage](/wiki/Overvoltage "Overvoltage")), but the particular [logic level](/wiki/Logic_level "Logic level") is unimportant.
The same situation occurs in software when a [data buffer](/wiki/Data_buffer "Data buffer") is provided but not completely filled. For example, the C library `[strftime](/wiki/Strftime "Strftime")` function converts a timestamp to human\-readable form in a supplied output buffer. If the output buffer is not large enough to hold the result, an error is returned and the buffer's contents are undefined.
In the other direction, the [`open` system call](/wiki/Open_%28system_call%29 "Open (system call)") in [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX "POSIX") takes three arguments: a file name, some flags, and a file mode. The file mode is only used if the flags include `O_CREAT`. It is common to use a two\-argument form of `open`, which provides an undefined value for the file mode, when `O_CREAT` is omitted.
Sometimes it is useful to work with such undefined values in a limited way. The overall computation can still be well\-defined if the undefined value is later ignored.
As an example of this, the C language permits converting a pointer to an integer, although the numerical value of that integer is undefined. It may still be useful for debugging, for comparing two pointers for equality, or for creating an [XOR linked list](/wiki/XOR_linked_list "XOR linked list").
Safely handling undefined values is important in [optimistic concurrency control](/wiki/Optimistic_concurrency_control "Optimistic concurrency control") systems, which detect [race conditions](/wiki/Race_condition "Race condition") after the fact. For example, reading a [shared variable](/wiki/Shared_variable "Shared variable") protected by [seqlock](/wiki/Seqlock "Seqlock") will produce an undefined value *before* determining that a race condition happened. It will then discard the undefined data and retry the operation. This produces a defined result as long as the operations performed on the undefined values do not produce full\-fledged undefined behaviour.
Other examples of undefined values being useful are [random number generators](/wiki/Random_number_generator "Random number generator") and [hash functions](/wiki/Hash_function "Hash function"). The specific values returned are undefined, but they have well\-defined properties and may be used without error.
|
[
"### Undefined value *sensu stricto*",
"The strict definition of an undefined value is a superficially valid (non\\-null) output which is meaningless but does not trigger undefined behaviour. For example, passing a negative number to the [fast inverse square root](/wiki/Fast_inverse_square_root \"Fast inverse square root\") function will produce a number. Not a very useful number, but the computation will complete and return *something*.",
"Undefined values occur particularly often in hardware. If a wire is not carrying useful information, it still exists and has some voltage level. The voltage should not be abnormal (e.g. not a damaging [overvoltage](/wiki/Overvoltage \"Overvoltage\")), but the particular [logic level](/wiki/Logic_level \"Logic level\") is unimportant.",
"The same situation occurs in software when a [data buffer](/wiki/Data_buffer \"Data buffer\") is provided but not completely filled. For example, the C library `[strftime](/wiki/Strftime \"Strftime\")` function converts a timestamp to human\\-readable form in a supplied output buffer. If the output buffer is not large enough to hold the result, an error is returned and the buffer's contents are undefined.",
"In the other direction, the [`open` system call](/wiki/Open_%28system_call%29 \"Open (system call)\") in [POSIX](/wiki/POSIX \"POSIX\") takes three arguments: a file name, some flags, and a file mode. The file mode is only used if the flags include `O_CREAT`. It is common to use a two\\-argument form of `open`, which provides an undefined value for the file mode, when `O_CREAT` is omitted.",
"Sometimes it is useful to work with such undefined values in a limited way. The overall computation can still be well\\-defined if the undefined value is later ignored.",
"As an example of this, the C language permits converting a pointer to an integer, although the numerical value of that integer is undefined. It may still be useful for debugging, for comparing two pointers for equality, or for creating an [XOR linked list](/wiki/XOR_linked_list \"XOR linked list\").",
"Safely handling undefined values is important in [optimistic concurrency control](/wiki/Optimistic_concurrency_control \"Optimistic concurrency control\") systems, which detect [race conditions](/wiki/Race_condition \"Race condition\") after the fact. For example, reading a [shared variable](/wiki/Shared_variable \"Shared variable\") protected by [seqlock](/wiki/Seqlock \"Seqlock\") will produce an undefined value *before* determining that a race condition happened. It will then discard the undefined data and retry the operation. This produces a defined result as long as the operations performed on the undefined values do not produce full\\-fledged undefined behaviour.",
"Other examples of undefined values being useful are [random number generators](/wiki/Random_number_generator \"Random number generator\") and [hash functions](/wiki/Hash_function \"Hash function\"). The specific values returned are undefined, but they have well\\-defined properties and may be used without error.",
""
] |
History
-------
The first version of the Mailbird email software was created in January 2012 by Danish co\-founders and serial entrepreneurs Michael Olsen and Michael Bodekaer,{{Cite web\|title\=Mailbird, the new email productivity app for Windows, is going to EXPLODE on April 2nd...here's why\|url\=https://www.mynewsdesk.com/id/mailbird/pressreleases/mailbird\-the\-new\-email\-productivity\-app\-for\-windows\-is\-going\-to\-explode\-on\-april\-2nd\-here\-s\-why\-850468\|date\=2013\-03\-27\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=Mynewsdesk\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=2022\-02\-22\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222152016/https://www.mynewsdesk.com/id/mailbird/pressreleases/mailbird\-the\-new\-email\-productivity\-app\-for\-windows\-is\-going\-to\-explode\-on\-april\-2nd\-here\-s\-why\-850468\|url\-status\=dead}}
inspired by the lightweight [Sparrow email client](/wiki/Sparrow_%28email_client%29 "Sparrow (email client)") for [OS X](/wiki/OS_X "OS X"){{Cite web\|last\=Ingraham\|first\=Nathan\|date\=2013\-04\-01\|title\=Mailbird is a fast, lightweight, Sparrow\-inspired Gmail app for Windows users\|url\=https://www.theverge.com/2013/4/1/4171498/mailbird\-is\-a\-fast\-lightweight\-sparrow\-inspired\-gmail\-app\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=The Verge\|language\=en}}
as an alternative to other existing email clients. Aside from the basic email features, the soft beta version included such features as the in\-line reply, in\-line attachment, a contact app, contacts search, PDF preview, keyboard shortcuts, quick reply, delete forever, etc.
In January 2013, Mailbird opened its beta to the public on an invite\-only basis.{{Cite web\|title\=Mailbird Is Like Sparrow for Windows (and We've Got Invites)\|url\=https://lifehacker.com/mailbird\-is\-like\-sparrow\-for\-windows\-and\-we\-ve\-got\-inv\-5992528\|date\=2013\-03\-27\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=Lifehacker\|language\=en\-us}}
The release included features, such as nested folder structure, message download, English spell check, and Lifehacker and TechCrunch integrations. Connecting additional email accounts also became possible along with the ability to set a default identity.
On January 27, 2014, Mailbird 1\.0 was released to the public. This version had IMAP support, keyboard navigation, and multiple account support feature. Additionally, a Speed Reader, Contact Manager, POP support, and more languages for spell check were added.
By 2016, the app had been translated into several languages, including Hungarian and Chinese. Features, such as Undo Send, Import, Custom Cover were added, and the Contact Manager was updated.{{Cite web \|title\=ReleaseNotes \|url\=https://download.getmailbird.com/ReleaseNotes/LatestReleaseNotes.html \|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22 \|website\=download.getmailbird.com}}
On March 17, 2015, Mailbird 2\.0 was released with new features, such as Email Snooze, Video Meetings, and Unified Inbox Plus. Further integrations were added for [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook"), [WhatsApp](/wiki/WhatsApp "WhatsApp"), Twitter, Veeting Rooms, Asana, and more.{{Cite web\|last\=Mombrea\|first\=Matthew\|date\=2015\-03\-17\|title\=Mailbird 2\.0 \- Still the best Email client for Windows and Gmail\|url\=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2897297/mailbird\-2\-0\-still\-the\-best\-email\-client\-for\-windows\-and\-gmail.html\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=Computerworld\|language\=en}}
New integrations were later also added, such as Moodo, ZeroBounce and Google Drive. In 2019, Mailbird was updated with Filters/Rules functionality.
In 2020, new features were introduced, such as the Native Calendar, Advanced Search, and Moving Emails Between Accounts.{{Cite web\|title\="Outlook Killer" Mailbird Announces Its Unified Calendar\|url\=https://pressreleases.responsesource.com/news/99608/\-outlook\-killer\-mailbird\-announces\-its\-unified\-calendar/\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=ResponseSource Press Release Wire\|date\=20 May 2020 }}
In 2022, Mexican Spanish was added as an additional supported language, and in 2023 [ChatGPT](/wiki/ChatGPT "ChatGPT") was introduced as the latest available integration for any users who wish to leverage its technology directly from inside Mailbird.{{Cite web \|title\=ChatGPT and Mailbird \|url\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\-us/articles/14355798069271\-ChatGPT\-and\-Mailbird \|website\=Mailbird}}
On October 30th 2023, Mailbird 3\.0 was released. It contained a wide range of new features and designs, along with a vast array of improvements to the overall user experience.{{Cite web \|title\=Mailbird 3\.0 Redesign \|url\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\-us/articles/18660404550423\-Mailbird\-3\-0\-Redesign \|website\=\[\[Mailbird]]}} Some examples of new features include *Block Sender* and *Email Templates*.
In early 2024, an integration for Sapling was added to Mailbird, allowing users to benefit from its writing assistant to improve grammar and spelling while using Mailbird.{{Cite web \|title\=Sapling for Mailbird \|url\=https://sapling.ai/integration/mailbird \|website\=\[\[Sapling]]}} In July 2024, and Outlook Calendar app was also introduced, which works with both Hotmail and Outlook email accounts, as well as third party Exchange providers which support Outlook (such as GoDaddy's Exchange support).{{Cite web \|title\=Outlook Calendar app \|url\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\-us/articles/24960887934743\-Outlook\-Calendar\-App \|website\=Mailbird}}
Following an *Early Access* phase which ended on September 13th 2024,{{Cite web \|title\=Mailbird ends Early Access phase for Mailbird for Mac \|url\=https://x.com/mailbird/status/1834592967668928710 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-13 \|website\=X.com}} Mailbird released *Mailbird for Mac* (V. 1\.0\.3\) on October 14th 2024\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The first version of the Mailbird email software was created in January 2012 by Danish co\\-founders and serial entrepreneurs Michael Olsen and Michael Bodekaer,{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mailbird, the new email productivity app for Windows, is going to EXPLODE on April 2nd...here's why\\|url\\=https://www.mynewsdesk.com/id/mailbird/pressreleases/mailbird\\-the\\-new\\-email\\-productivity\\-app\\-for\\-windows\\-is\\-going\\-to\\-explode\\-on\\-april\\-2nd\\-here\\-s\\-why\\-850468\\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=Mynewsdesk\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-22\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222152016/https://www.mynewsdesk.com/id/mailbird/pressreleases/mailbird\\-the\\-new\\-email\\-productivity\\-app\\-for\\-windows\\-is\\-going\\-to\\-explode\\-on\\-april\\-2nd\\-here\\-s\\-why\\-850468\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}\ninspired by the lightweight [Sparrow email client](/wiki/Sparrow_%28email_client%29 \"Sparrow (email client)\") for [OS X](/wiki/OS_X \"OS X\"){{Cite web\\|last\\=Ingraham\\|first\\=Nathan\\|date\\=2013\\-04\\-01\\|title\\=Mailbird is a fast, lightweight, Sparrow\\-inspired Gmail app for Windows users\\|url\\=https://www.theverge.com/2013/4/1/4171498/mailbird\\-is\\-a\\-fast\\-lightweight\\-sparrow\\-inspired\\-gmail\\-app\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=The Verge\\|language\\=en}}\nas an alternative to other existing email clients. Aside from the basic email features, the soft beta version included such features as the in\\-line reply, in\\-line attachment, a contact app, contacts search, PDF preview, keyboard shortcuts, quick reply, delete forever, etc.",
"In January 2013, Mailbird opened its beta to the public on an invite\\-only basis.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mailbird Is Like Sparrow for Windows (and We've Got Invites)\\|url\\=https://lifehacker.com/mailbird\\-is\\-like\\-sparrow\\-for\\-windows\\-and\\-we\\-ve\\-got\\-inv\\-5992528\\|date\\=2013\\-03\\-27\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=Lifehacker\\|language\\=en\\-us}}\nThe release included features, such as nested folder structure, message download, English spell check, and Lifehacker and TechCrunch integrations. Connecting additional email accounts also became possible along with the ability to set a default identity.",
"On January 27, 2014, Mailbird 1\\.0 was released to the public. This version had IMAP support, keyboard navigation, and multiple account support feature. Additionally, a Speed Reader, Contact Manager, POP support, and more languages for spell check were added.",
"By 2016, the app had been translated into several languages, including Hungarian and Chinese. Features, such as Undo Send, Import, Custom Cover were added, and the Contact Manager was updated.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ReleaseNotes \\|url\\=https://download.getmailbird.com/ReleaseNotes/LatestReleaseNotes.html \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22 \\|website\\=download.getmailbird.com}}",
"On March 17, 2015, Mailbird 2\\.0 was released with new features, such as Email Snooze, Video Meetings, and Unified Inbox Plus. Further integrations were added for [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\"), [WhatsApp](/wiki/WhatsApp \"WhatsApp\"), Twitter, Veeting Rooms, Asana, and more.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Mombrea\\|first\\=Matthew\\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-17\\|title\\=Mailbird 2\\.0 \\- Still the best Email client for Windows and Gmail\\|url\\=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2897297/mailbird\\-2\\-0\\-still\\-the\\-best\\-email\\-client\\-for\\-windows\\-and\\-gmail.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=Computerworld\\|language\\=en}}",
"New integrations were later also added, such as Moodo, ZeroBounce and Google Drive. In 2019, Mailbird was updated with Filters/Rules functionality.",
"In 2020, new features were introduced, such as the Native Calendar, Advanced Search, and Moving Emails Between Accounts.{{Cite web\\|title\\=\"Outlook Killer\" Mailbird Announces Its Unified Calendar\\|url\\=https://pressreleases.responsesource.com/news/99608/\\-outlook\\-killer\\-mailbird\\-announces\\-its\\-unified\\-calendar/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=ResponseSource Press Release Wire\\|date\\=20 May 2020 }}",
"In 2022, Mexican Spanish was added as an additional supported language, and in 2023 [ChatGPT](/wiki/ChatGPT \"ChatGPT\") was introduced as the latest available integration for any users who wish to leverage its technology directly from inside Mailbird.{{Cite web \\|title\\=ChatGPT and Mailbird \\|url\\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\\-us/articles/14355798069271\\-ChatGPT\\-and\\-Mailbird \\|website\\=Mailbird}}",
"On October 30th 2023, Mailbird 3\\.0 was released. It contained a wide range of new features and designs, along with a vast array of improvements to the overall user experience.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mailbird 3\\.0 Redesign \\|url\\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\\-us/articles/18660404550423\\-Mailbird\\-3\\-0\\-Redesign \\|website\\=\\[\\[Mailbird]]}} Some examples of new features include *Block Sender* and *Email Templates*.",
"In early 2024, an integration for Sapling was added to Mailbird, allowing users to benefit from its writing assistant to improve grammar and spelling while using Mailbird.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Sapling for Mailbird \\|url\\=https://sapling.ai/integration/mailbird \\|website\\=\\[\\[Sapling]]}} In July 2024, and Outlook Calendar app was also introduced, which works with both Hotmail and Outlook email accounts, as well as third party Exchange providers which support Outlook (such as GoDaddy's Exchange support).{{Cite web \\|title\\=Outlook Calendar app \\|url\\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\\-us/articles/24960887934743\\-Outlook\\-Calendar\\-App \\|website\\=Mailbird}}",
"Following an *Early Access* phase which ended on September 13th 2024,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Mailbird ends Early Access phase for Mailbird for Mac \\|url\\=https://x.com/mailbird/status/1834592967668928710 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-13 \\|website\\=X.com}} Mailbird released *Mailbird for Mac* (V. 1\\.0\\.3\\) on October 14th 2024\\.",
""
] |
Mailbird for Windows Features
-----------------------------
### Multiple account support
Mailbird supports all [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP "IMAP") and [POP3](/wiki/Pop3 "Pop3") accounts from different email providers, such as [Gmail](/wiki/Gmail "Gmail"), [Outlook](/wiki/Outlook.com "Outlook.com"), [Yahoo Mail](/wiki/Yahoo_Mail "Yahoo Mail"), [Hotmail](/wiki/Hotmail "Hotmail"), [Exchange](/wiki/Microsoft_Exchange_Server "Microsoft Exchange Server"), etc.
### Email snooze
Email Snooze{{Cite web\|title\=Managing your inbox with Snooze\|url\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\-us/articles/220108067\-Managing\-your\-inbox\-with\-Snooze\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=Mailbird\|language\=en\-US}} provides users with an option to remove an email from the inbox for a set period of time. The snoozed email will return to the top of the inbox once a defined timer runs out.
### Speed reader
The [Speed Reader](/wiki/Speed_reading "Speed reading") feature shows the email text word\-by\-word on a blank screen. The speed can be adjusted.
### Native calendar
The calendar feature provides typical views by day, week, and month and can also be opened in the inbox sidebar. Calendars from all email accounts in use can be viewed at the same time.
### Advanced search
Emails can be searched using operators and filters, such as file weight or “has attachments.”
### Move emails between accounts
Multiple account support provides functionality to move or copy emails from one account to another using the same methods as when moving or [copying](/wiki/File_copying "File copying") files from one folder to another.
### LinkedIn lookup
The Business subscription allows searching for and connecting with contacts on LinkedIn.
### Email tracker
Users can put a tracker on certain emails and see which recipients opened that email. If a recipient opens a [tracked email](/wiki/Email_tracking "Email tracking"), this information will show up to the sender.
### In\-line reply
In\-line reply is a default option in Mailbird{{Cite web\|date\=2017\-09\-26\|title\=How to Reply to All Emails the Right Way: Inline\|url\=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/how\-to\-reply\-email/\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=MUO\|language\=en\-US}} that allows for adding comments to parts of an email. Comments are automatically highlighted, and the responder's name is added.
### Localization
Mailbird supports English and has been translated into 24 other languages.
### Supported standards
Mailbird supports standard email protocols:
* [POP3](/wiki/Pop3 "Pop3") – a basic retrieval protocol that supports offline email use.
* [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP "IMAP") – another retrieval protocol that allows using webmail accounts in Mailbird.
* [SMTP](/wiki/Smtp "Smtp") – a protocol for email transmission.
### App integrations
Mailbird has a built\-in browser that opens web applications inside its interface.{{Cite web\|title\=Mailbird Apps in Mailbird Business\|url\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\-us/articles/220107887\-Mailbird\-Apps\-in\-Mailbird\-Business\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-22\|website\=Mailbird\|language\=en\-US}} The add\-ons are organized inside a store\-like section, in which the apps are installed by simply marking a checkbox.
* [Chrome](/wiki/Google_Chrome "Google Chrome") — enables in\-app browsing
* Degoo — cloud storage with AI technology
* [Dropbox](/wiki/Dropbox_%28service%29 "Dropbox (service)") — cloud\-based storage
* [Evernote](/wiki/Evernote "Evernote") — web and desktop notepad
* [Feedly](/wiki/Feedly "Feedly") — application for news aggregation
* [Google services](/wiki/Google_Services "Google Services") — Drive applications, Calendar, Hangouts, and Keep
* Todoist — personal and team productivity management app
* Messengers — WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, [WeChat](/wiki/WeChat "WeChat"), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter")
* Business blogs — [TechCrunch](/wiki/TechCrunch "TechCrunch"), [The Verge](/wiki/The_Verge "The Verge"), [Lifehacker](/wiki/Lifehacker "Lifehacker"), etc.
* Unroll.me — email subscription management
* [Asana](/wiki/Asana_%28software%29 "Asana (software)") — personal and team project management app
* FollowUp.cc — Gmail integration for setting reminders and automatic replies
* [Slack](/wiki/Slack_%28software%29 "Slack (software)") — communication app for teams
|
[
"Mailbird for Windows Features\n-----------------------------",
"### Multiple account support",
"Mailbird supports all [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP \"IMAP\") and [POP3](/wiki/Pop3 \"Pop3\") accounts from different email providers, such as [Gmail](/wiki/Gmail \"Gmail\"), [Outlook](/wiki/Outlook.com \"Outlook.com\"), [Yahoo Mail](/wiki/Yahoo_Mail \"Yahoo Mail\"), [Hotmail](/wiki/Hotmail \"Hotmail\"), [Exchange](/wiki/Microsoft_Exchange_Server \"Microsoft Exchange Server\"), etc.",
"### Email snooze",
"Email Snooze{{Cite web\\|title\\=Managing your inbox with Snooze\\|url\\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\\-us/articles/220108067\\-Managing\\-your\\-inbox\\-with\\-Snooze\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=Mailbird\\|language\\=en\\-US}} provides users with an option to remove an email from the inbox for a set period of time. The snoozed email will return to the top of the inbox once a defined timer runs out.",
"### Speed reader",
"The [Speed Reader](/wiki/Speed_reading \"Speed reading\") feature shows the email text word\\-by\\-word on a blank screen. The speed can be adjusted.",
"### Native calendar",
"The calendar feature provides typical views by day, week, and month and can also be opened in the inbox sidebar. Calendars from all email accounts in use can be viewed at the same time.",
"### Advanced search",
"Emails can be searched using operators and filters, such as file weight or “has attachments.”",
"### Move emails between accounts",
"Multiple account support provides functionality to move or copy emails from one account to another using the same methods as when moving or [copying](/wiki/File_copying \"File copying\") files from one folder to another.",
"### LinkedIn lookup",
"The Business subscription allows searching for and connecting with contacts on LinkedIn.",
"### Email tracker",
"Users can put a tracker on certain emails and see which recipients opened that email. If a recipient opens a [tracked email](/wiki/Email_tracking \"Email tracking\"), this information will show up to the sender.",
"### In\\-line reply",
"In\\-line reply is a default option in Mailbird{{Cite web\\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-26\\|title\\=How to Reply to All Emails the Right Way: Inline\\|url\\=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/how\\-to\\-reply\\-email/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=MUO\\|language\\=en\\-US}} that allows for adding comments to parts of an email. Comments are automatically highlighted, and the responder's name is added.",
"### Localization",
"Mailbird supports English and has been translated into 24 other languages.",
"### Supported standards",
"Mailbird supports standard email protocols:",
"* [POP3](/wiki/Pop3 \"Pop3\") – a basic retrieval protocol that supports offline email use.\n* [IMAP](/wiki/IMAP \"IMAP\") – another retrieval protocol that allows using webmail accounts in Mailbird.\n* [SMTP](/wiki/Smtp \"Smtp\") – a protocol for email transmission.",
"### App integrations",
"Mailbird has a built\\-in browser that opens web applications inside its interface.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Mailbird Apps in Mailbird Business\\|url\\=https://support.getmailbird.com/hc/en\\-us/articles/220107887\\-Mailbird\\-Apps\\-in\\-Mailbird\\-Business\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-22\\|website\\=Mailbird\\|language\\=en\\-US}} The add\\-ons are organized inside a store\\-like section, in which the apps are installed by simply marking a checkbox.",
"* [Chrome](/wiki/Google_Chrome \"Google Chrome\") — enables in\\-app browsing\n* Degoo — cloud storage with AI technology\n* [Dropbox](/wiki/Dropbox_%28service%29 \"Dropbox (service)\") — cloud\\-based storage\n* [Evernote](/wiki/Evernote \"Evernote\") — web and desktop notepad\n* [Feedly](/wiki/Feedly \"Feedly\") — application for news aggregation\n* [Google services](/wiki/Google_Services \"Google Services\") — Drive applications, Calendar, Hangouts, and Keep\n* Todoist — personal and team productivity management app\n* Messengers — WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, [WeChat](/wiki/WeChat \"WeChat\"), [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\")\n* Business blogs — [TechCrunch](/wiki/TechCrunch \"TechCrunch\"), [The Verge](/wiki/The_Verge \"The Verge\"), [Lifehacker](/wiki/Lifehacker \"Lifehacker\"), etc.\n* Unroll.me — email subscription management\n* [Asana](/wiki/Asana_%28software%29 \"Asana (software)\") — personal and team project management app\n* FollowUp.cc — Gmail integration for setting reminders and automatic replies\n* [Slack](/wiki/Slack_%28software%29 \"Slack (software)\") — communication app for teams"
] |
Judgment
--------
The nine judges hearing the case agreed unanimously that same\-sex couples were entitled to marry, accordingly declared the common\-law definition of marriage to be inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid to the extent that it did not permit same\-sex couples to enjoy the status and the benefits coupled with responsibilities it accorded to heterosexual couples. They disagreed as to the remedy. The majority suspended the declaration of invalidity for a period of a year to allow Parliament time to correct the defect. It also declared the omission from section 30(1\) of the Marriage Act after the words "or husband" of the words "or spouse" to be inconsistent with the Constitution, and invalid to the extent of the inconsistency. Again, the declaration of invalidity was suspended for a year to allow Parliament time to correct the defect.Para 162\. Justice [Kate O'Regan](/wiki/Kate_O%27Regan "Kate O'Regan"), the lone dissenter in part, thought the statute should be altered immediately.
The court's finding was based on [section 9](/wiki/Section_Nine_of_the_Constitution_of_South_Africa "Section Nine of the Constitution of South Africa") of the [Constitution of South Africa](/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa "Constitution of South Africa"), particularly on the right to equal protection and benefit of the law in section 9(1\) and the explicit prohibition on [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination "Discrimination"), including on the basis of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation "Sexual orientation"), in section 9(3\). The common law and section 30(1\) of the Marriage Act denied same\-sex couples equal protection and benefit of the law, in conflict with section 9(1\) of the Constitution, and taken together resulted in same\-sex couples being subjected to unfair discrimination by the State, in conflict with section 9(3\) of the Constitution.Para 78\. When evaluated in the context of the legal regime as a whole, the common\-law definition of marriage and section 30(1\) of the Marriage Act were under\-inclusive, Sachs found, and unconstitutional to the extent that they made no appropriate provision for gay and lesbian people to celebrate their unions in the same way that they enabled heterosexual couples to do.Para 82\. This violation of the equality and dignity rights of same\-sex couples was not justified as contemplated in section 36 of the Constitution.Para 113\.
The failure of the common law and the Marriage Act to provide the means whereby same\-sex couples could enjoy the same status, entitlements and responsibilities accorded to heterosexual couples through marriage accordingly constituted an unjustifiable violation of their right to equal protection of the law under section 9(1\), and not to be discriminated against unfairly in terms of s 9(3\) of the Constitution. Furthermore, such failure represented an unjustifiable violation of their right to dignity in terms of section 10 of the Constitution.Para 114\.
It is one thing, Sachs wrote, for the Constitutional Court to acknowledge the important role that religion plays in public life; it is quite another for it to use religious doctrine as a source for interpreting the Constitution. It would be out of order to employ the religious sentiments of some as a guide to the constitutional rights of others. Judges would be placed in an intolerable situation if they were called upon to construe religious texts and take sides on issues that have caused deep schisms within religious bodies.Para 92\.
The Constitution, Sachs continued, contains a number of provisions that underline the constitutional value of acknowledging diversity and pluralism in South African society, and give a particular texture to the broadly\-phrased right to freedom of association contained in section 18\. Taken together, they affirm the right of people to self\-expression without being forced to subordinate themselves to the cultural and religious norms of others, and highlight the importance of individuals and communities being able to enjoy what has been called the "right to be different." In each case, space has been found for members of communities to depart from a majoritarian norm.Para 61\.
The court noted that South Africa has a multitude of family formations that are evolving rapidly as society develops, so that it is inappropriate to entrench any particular form as the only socially and legally acceptable one. There is an imperative constitutional need to acknowledge the long history in South Africa and abroad of marginalisation and persecution of gays and [lesbians](/wiki/Lesbian "Lesbian"), although a number of breakthroughs have been made in particular areas. The court also found that there is no comprehensive legal regulation of the [family law](/wiki/South_African_family_law "South African family law") rights of gays and lesbians, and that the Constitution represents a radical rupture with a past based on intolerance and exclusion, and the movement forward to the acceptance of the need to develop a society based on equality and respect by all for all. The Court pointed out that what was at issue was the need to affirm the character of the society as one based on [tolerance](/wiki/Toleration "Toleration") and mutual respect.
|
[
"Judgment\n--------",
"The nine judges hearing the case agreed unanimously that same\\-sex couples were entitled to marry, accordingly declared the common\\-law definition of marriage to be inconsistent with the Constitution and invalid to the extent that it did not permit same\\-sex couples to enjoy the status and the benefits coupled with responsibilities it accorded to heterosexual couples. They disagreed as to the remedy. The majority suspended the declaration of invalidity for a period of a year to allow Parliament time to correct the defect. It also declared the omission from section 30(1\\) of the Marriage Act after the words \"or husband\" of the words \"or spouse\" to be inconsistent with the Constitution, and invalid to the extent of the inconsistency. Again, the declaration of invalidity was suspended for a year to allow Parliament time to correct the defect.Para 162\\. Justice [Kate O'Regan](/wiki/Kate_O%27Regan \"Kate O'Regan\"), the lone dissenter in part, thought the statute should be altered immediately.",
"The court's finding was based on [section 9](/wiki/Section_Nine_of_the_Constitution_of_South_Africa \"Section Nine of the Constitution of South Africa\") of the [Constitution of South Africa](/wiki/Constitution_of_South_Africa \"Constitution of South Africa\"), particularly on the right to equal protection and benefit of the law in section 9(1\\) and the explicit prohibition on [discrimination](/wiki/Discrimination \"Discrimination\"), including on the basis of [sexual orientation](/wiki/Sexual_orientation \"Sexual orientation\"), in section 9(3\\). The common law and section 30(1\\) of the Marriage Act denied same\\-sex couples equal protection and benefit of the law, in conflict with section 9(1\\) of the Constitution, and taken together resulted in same\\-sex couples being subjected to unfair discrimination by the State, in conflict with section 9(3\\) of the Constitution.Para 78\\. When evaluated in the context of the legal regime as a whole, the common\\-law definition of marriage and section 30(1\\) of the Marriage Act were under\\-inclusive, Sachs found, and unconstitutional to the extent that they made no appropriate provision for gay and lesbian people to celebrate their unions in the same way that they enabled heterosexual couples to do.Para 82\\. This violation of the equality and dignity rights of same\\-sex couples was not justified as contemplated in section 36 of the Constitution.Para 113\\.",
"The failure of the common law and the Marriage Act to provide the means whereby same\\-sex couples could enjoy the same status, entitlements and responsibilities accorded to heterosexual couples through marriage accordingly constituted an unjustifiable violation of their right to equal protection of the law under section 9(1\\), and not to be discriminated against unfairly in terms of s 9(3\\) of the Constitution. Furthermore, such failure represented an unjustifiable violation of their right to dignity in terms of section 10 of the Constitution.Para 114\\.",
"It is one thing, Sachs wrote, for the Constitutional Court to acknowledge the important role that religion plays in public life; it is quite another for it to use religious doctrine as a source for interpreting the Constitution. It would be out of order to employ the religious sentiments of some as a guide to the constitutional rights of others. Judges would be placed in an intolerable situation if they were called upon to construe religious texts and take sides on issues that have caused deep schisms within religious bodies.Para 92\\.",
"The Constitution, Sachs continued, contains a number of provisions that underline the constitutional value of acknowledging diversity and pluralism in South African society, and give a particular texture to the broadly\\-phrased right to freedom of association contained in section 18\\. Taken together, they affirm the right of people to self\\-expression without being forced to subordinate themselves to the cultural and religious norms of others, and highlight the importance of individuals and communities being able to enjoy what has been called the \"right to be different.\" In each case, space has been found for members of communities to depart from a majoritarian norm.Para 61\\.",
"The court noted that South Africa has a multitude of family formations that are evolving rapidly as society develops, so that it is inappropriate to entrench any particular form as the only socially and legally acceptable one. There is an imperative constitutional need to acknowledge the long history in South Africa and abroad of marginalisation and persecution of gays and [lesbians](/wiki/Lesbian \"Lesbian\"), although a number of breakthroughs have been made in particular areas. The court also found that there is no comprehensive legal regulation of the [family law](/wiki/South_African_family_law \"South African family law\") rights of gays and lesbians, and that the Constitution represents a radical rupture with a past based on intolerance and exclusion, and the movement forward to the acceptance of the need to develop a society based on equality and respect by all for all. The Court pointed out that what was at issue was the need to affirm the character of the society as one based on [tolerance](/wiki/Toleration \"Toleration\") and mutual respect.",
""
] |
"Free speech fights" and the IWW
--------------------------------
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=December 2014}}
The IWW engaged in free speech fights during the period from approximately 1907 to 1916\. The *Wobblies*, as the IWW members were called, relied upon [free speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech"), which in the United States is guaranteed by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "First Amendment to the United States Constitution"), to enable them to communicate the concept of [One Big Union](/wiki/One_Big_Union_%28concept%29 "One Big Union (concept)") to other workers. In communities where the authorities saw their interests in avoiding the development of unions, the practice of [soapboxing](/wiki/Soapbox "Soapbox") was frequently restricted by ordinance or by police harassment. The IWW [employed a variety of creative tactics](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_philosophy_and_tactics "Industrial Workers of the World philosophy and tactics"), including the tactic of flooding the area of a free speech fight with *footloose rebels* who would challenge the authorities by flouting the ordinance, intentionally getting arrested in great numbers. With the jails full and a seemingly endless stream of union activists arriving by boxcar and highway, the local communities frequently rescinded their prohibitions on free speech, or came to some other accommodation.
[The Free Speech League](/wiki/The_Free_Speech_League "The Free Speech League"), a progressive group which functioned at the same time as (and occasionally together with) the IWW, worked in conjunction with the IWW prior to World War I in many of their free speech fights, which generated a good deal of controversy. The free speech fights of the IWW were highly publicized, as they were designed to garner attention: they frequently started when local communities interjected to attempt to prevent the IWW from occupying street corners from which they would use provocative language to detail their radical beliefs. The free speech fights began occurring in 1906 and drew to a close by 1917—over that period of time, at least 26 communities played host to the IWW's free speech fights, and the years of 1909 to 1913 were particularly active, with at least 21 free speech fights happening.
The IWW members who engaged in the free speech fights typically cited the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment "First Amendment") and the rights guaranteed therein as proof positive of the validity of their cause, thereby highlighting the legal importance of the issues they fought for. That being the case, their struggles did not go unanswered or ignored: local, state, and even the federal government were prompted to respond, while, perhaps more importantly, the American public, due to the national publicity garnered by the free speech fights, were invariably tasked with confronting free speech issues. Practically all realms of American life were impacted by the free speech fights, as members of the press, church officials, school teachers, politicians, anyone involved in the business and labor world, and members of any organization (especially those of the Socialist Party) had a stake in the fights and thus attempted to comment on the issues in contention.
### An overview of the free speech fights
From its inception, the IWW was deeply committed to free speech issues, and especially those affiliated with labor groups. The IWW formed in 1905 in response to dissatisfaction with the trade unions promoted by the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor "American Federation of Labor") (the AFL). Whereas the AFL promoted the ideals of capitalism by fighting for the rights of workers within the ideological framework of the free market system, the IWW functioned on anarchistic principles. Rather than urging workers to join unions based on craft and skill that were determined to form binding trade agreements with employers, the IWW advocated for the development of broad unions for low\-skill workers that would be driven by the workers themselves (and their collective actions) rather than by top\-down politics and binding capitalist decisions.
The primary vehicles of change for the free speech fights of the IWW were spontaneous workplace strikes as well as on\-site labor slowdowns in addition to picketing, parades, and demonstrations. Importantly, the IWW engaged in street corner public displays and speaking to raise the public awareness regarding free speech fights. The desire for direct action by laborers was attributed to having grown disaffected with the beliefs of the AFL. They stressed their truly American origins and likened their actions to those of earlier American revolutionaries and activists.
The free speech fights of the IWW were often quite similar in nature: Wobblies (many of whom travelled across the country to spread their message) would visit a city's downtown and attempt to speak on soapboxes on street corners. Their message and their tactics were particularly provocative, and they were frequently arrested—though, if they were not arrested on one street corner, they would simply pack up and head to another one.
Among the offences which they were arrested for were blocking traffic, vagrancy, unlawful assembly, or violating local ordinances such as ones against speaking on the streets.
Though the IWW was successful in many of their free speech fights, they did not always achieve their desired goals. In San Diego, for instance, they were unable to cause the repeal of a restrictive street ordinance while, in Paterson, they failed to gain protection for street picketing and meetings.
### The IWW ideology of free speech
The ideology of the Wobblies who fought for free speech rights across America was deeply indebted to their core beliefs regarding the provenance of the First Amendment rights of the Constitution. In their estimation, they were fighting with the Constitution on their side while those who opposed them, such as city officials, were disregarding the fundamental laws of the country. The Wobblies frequently used phrases such as "Have you ever read the Constitution?" and "What is this, Czarist Russia, or Free America?"
The Wobblies held that the free speech rights granted by the First Amendment had been abridged over time, and they felt that it nowhere more evident than it was in the case of the laborers for whom they worked tirelessly—capitalism had conspired with the judicial system in the United States to deny agency and the Constitutionally\-granted freedom of speech to American laborers. Not all Wobblies subscribed to such idealistic ideology, though, since some argued the more pessimistic belief that the Constitution had been written by the elites and that free speech was merely an illusion that worked to uphold the power of those same elites.
By adopting aggressive tactics which flaunted local ordinances against free speech, the Wobblies courted arrest, which they used as a demonstration of how far the abridgement of free speech had come. The official attempts to silence the IWW in the free speech fights, they argued, were totally opposed to the spirit of the First Amendment.
According to the Wobblies, the fact that they even had to fight for free speech rights was evidence of the corrupting effect of capitalism in America and of its legal system. They argued that the Constitution was not being applied to American laborers, just as it had not been applied to slaves in the century prior. Rather than take their fights to the courts, which they felt were substantially corrupted by capitalist influence, they took their fight to the streets and urged other Americans to do the same.
The publications of the IWW urged people to "Educate, Agitate, Organize!!!" which led their opponents to see the fights for free speech as precursors to more insidious desires such as those for unionization and, especially, for the abolition of capitalism.
### Popular reactions
The free speech fights of the IWW were inherently populist in nature. They were met with a variety of different public response and reactions: some supported their efforts and sought to collaborate with them while others engaged in vigilante violence against them (as was especially the case in San Diego). The free speech fights gained mass support from political groups such as labor unions, Socialists, and also the Free Speech League. Notably, few of the groups stood fast with the IWW when it came to their calls for revolution or for the overthrowing of capitalism more generally, and instead focused on the importance of the free speech rights for their own inherent worth to Americans. The AFL, though, opposed the IWW's efforts in the free speech realm from the get go. Other groups and members of the public, too, began to oppose the free speech fights over time because of the aggressive tactics and language among other things.
The Socialists were the most closely connected allies of the IWW in the free speech fights, as they had suffered through many years of free speech repression already and thus helped to fundraise for the cause and occasional even took part in the fights.
Labor unions also offered significant support to the free speech fight cause since they had a stake in the fights. Important support, still, came from the American public at large.
### Official reactions and regulation of street speaking
The most notable proponent of the free speech fights in the official arena was New York City Police Commissioner Arthur Woods, who argued that all American groups should be granted the right of free speech and assembly. Rather than repress their constitutional rights, Woods felt that it was the duty of the police to protect the demonstrators. His personal philosophy dictated that free speech could be regulated only in ways that protected it through the creation of channels of expression which would not impede the rights of others.
The reasonable regulation of street speaking was an important issue that arose because of the free speech fights of the IWW. Their soapboxing on downtown street corners proved especially divisive. Whereas IWW supporters held that freedom of expression was especially important in the areas where that expression could actually reach the people (such as laborers) who would benefit the most from their message, opponents argued that their right to free speech did not belong in such public places where their incendiary tactics could be harmful to the public. Public streets were the best means of reaching the workers to whom their free speech fights were addressed, and the Wobblies did not always possess the necessary funds to rent out public assembly halls, for instance, from which they could exercise their right to free speech.
The IWW conceded, nonetheless, that reasonable restrictions should be placed on public speaking.
The struggle over free speech on downtown street corners was regarded as absurd by many people, since there were myriad other areas in the public sphere that allowed outdoor speaking to take place—downtown street corners, though, were outlawed. The fight over the street corners, therefore, became a symbol of the divisive ideology of the IWW—their opponents scornfully argued that the street corners were important to the Wobblies only because they could not reach an audience elsewhere since nobody would willingly attend any of their speeches.
Many of the opponents of free speech fights, thus, were in favor of the establishment of centrally located areas that permitted oration but did not interfere with the city. Others, though, were totally opposed to the right to speak in public.
The IWW occasionally saw its fight over the regulation of street speaking extend to the judicial realm. More often than not, judges upheld the street ordinances that prevented public speaking. Notably, a judge in San Diego upheld the city's ordinance, and used the language of a similar decision in Los Angeles to explain that "This ordinance does not attempt to suppress freedom of speech, or seek to interfere with the citizen in the right to express his views upon any subject, political, religious, or otherwise, as is suggested by the petitioner. It simply specifies a certain district within the city wherein no one may do the things prohibited."
### Analysis of free speech themes
One of the key themes of the free speech fights came from the regulation of speaking on the streets and involved discussions over the importance of access to public property and how reasonable limitations could be applied to it. People who debated the free speech fights frequently focused on the distinction between legal speech and illegal action while also detailing the various types of unprotected speech. They also debated what types of criticisms of the government should be protected by free speech.
One of the primary issues with the debates surrounding the free speech fights was that commentators understood that certain types of speech should be regarded as illegal and were not covered as free speech—sedition, libel, inciting speech, and obscenity fell into this category of speech, yet what some regarded as obscenity or libel, others regarded simply as government criticism that should be protected by the Constitution.
|
[
"\"Free speech fights\" and the IWW\n--------------------------------",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=December 2014}}\nThe IWW engaged in free speech fights during the period from approximately 1907 to 1916\\. The *Wobblies*, as the IWW members were called, relied upon [free speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech \"Freedom of speech\"), which in the United States is guaranteed by the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution \"First Amendment to the United States Constitution\"), to enable them to communicate the concept of [One Big Union](/wiki/One_Big_Union_%28concept%29 \"One Big Union (concept)\") to other workers. In communities where the authorities saw their interests in avoiding the development of unions, the practice of [soapboxing](/wiki/Soapbox \"Soapbox\") was frequently restricted by ordinance or by police harassment. The IWW [employed a variety of creative tactics](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_philosophy_and_tactics \"Industrial Workers of the World philosophy and tactics\"), including the tactic of flooding the area of a free speech fight with *footloose rebels* who would challenge the authorities by flouting the ordinance, intentionally getting arrested in great numbers. With the jails full and a seemingly endless stream of union activists arriving by boxcar and highway, the local communities frequently rescinded their prohibitions on free speech, or came to some other accommodation.",
"[The Free Speech League](/wiki/The_Free_Speech_League \"The Free Speech League\"), a progressive group which functioned at the same time as (and occasionally together with) the IWW, worked in conjunction with the IWW prior to World War I in many of their free speech fights, which generated a good deal of controversy. The free speech fights of the IWW were highly publicized, as they were designed to garner attention: they frequently started when local communities interjected to attempt to prevent the IWW from occupying street corners from which they would use provocative language to detail their radical beliefs. The free speech fights began occurring in 1906 and drew to a close by 1917—over that period of time, at least 26 communities played host to the IWW's free speech fights, and the years of 1909 to 1913 were particularly active, with at least 21 free speech fights happening.",
"The IWW members who engaged in the free speech fights typically cited the [First Amendment](/wiki/First_Amendment \"First Amendment\") and the rights guaranteed therein as proof positive of the validity of their cause, thereby highlighting the legal importance of the issues they fought for. That being the case, their struggles did not go unanswered or ignored: local, state, and even the federal government were prompted to respond, while, perhaps more importantly, the American public, due to the national publicity garnered by the free speech fights, were invariably tasked with confronting free speech issues. Practically all realms of American life were impacted by the free speech fights, as members of the press, church officials, school teachers, politicians, anyone involved in the business and labor world, and members of any organization (especially those of the Socialist Party) had a stake in the fights and thus attempted to comment on the issues in contention.",
"### An overview of the free speech fights",
"From its inception, the IWW was deeply committed to free speech issues, and especially those affiliated with labor groups. The IWW formed in 1905 in response to dissatisfaction with the trade unions promoted by the [American Federation of Labor](/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor \"American Federation of Labor\") (the AFL). Whereas the AFL promoted the ideals of capitalism by fighting for the rights of workers within the ideological framework of the free market system, the IWW functioned on anarchistic principles. Rather than urging workers to join unions based on craft and skill that were determined to form binding trade agreements with employers, the IWW advocated for the development of broad unions for low\\-skill workers that would be driven by the workers themselves (and their collective actions) rather than by top\\-down politics and binding capitalist decisions.",
"The primary vehicles of change for the free speech fights of the IWW were spontaneous workplace strikes as well as on\\-site labor slowdowns in addition to picketing, parades, and demonstrations. Importantly, the IWW engaged in street corner public displays and speaking to raise the public awareness regarding free speech fights. The desire for direct action by laborers was attributed to having grown disaffected with the beliefs of the AFL. They stressed their truly American origins and likened their actions to those of earlier American revolutionaries and activists.",
"The free speech fights of the IWW were often quite similar in nature: Wobblies (many of whom travelled across the country to spread their message) would visit a city's downtown and attempt to speak on soapboxes on street corners. Their message and their tactics were particularly provocative, and they were frequently arrested—though, if they were not arrested on one street corner, they would simply pack up and head to another one. \nAmong the offences which they were arrested for were blocking traffic, vagrancy, unlawful assembly, or violating local ordinances such as ones against speaking on the streets.",
"Though the IWW was successful in many of their free speech fights, they did not always achieve their desired goals. In San Diego, for instance, they were unable to cause the repeal of a restrictive street ordinance while, in Paterson, they failed to gain protection for street picketing and meetings.",
"### The IWW ideology of free speech",
"The ideology of the Wobblies who fought for free speech rights across America was deeply indebted to their core beliefs regarding the provenance of the First Amendment rights of the Constitution. In their estimation, they were fighting with the Constitution on their side while those who opposed them, such as city officials, were disregarding the fundamental laws of the country. The Wobblies frequently used phrases such as \"Have you ever read the Constitution?\" and \"What is this, Czarist Russia, or Free America?\"",
"The Wobblies held that the free speech rights granted by the First Amendment had been abridged over time, and they felt that it nowhere more evident than it was in the case of the laborers for whom they worked tirelessly—capitalism had conspired with the judicial system in the United States to deny agency and the Constitutionally\\-granted freedom of speech to American laborers. Not all Wobblies subscribed to such idealistic ideology, though, since some argued the more pessimistic belief that the Constitution had been written by the elites and that free speech was merely an illusion that worked to uphold the power of those same elites.\nBy adopting aggressive tactics which flaunted local ordinances against free speech, the Wobblies courted arrest, which they used as a demonstration of how far the abridgement of free speech had come. The official attempts to silence the IWW in the free speech fights, they argued, were totally opposed to the spirit of the First Amendment.",
"According to the Wobblies, the fact that they even had to fight for free speech rights was evidence of the corrupting effect of capitalism in America and of its legal system. They argued that the Constitution was not being applied to American laborers, just as it had not been applied to slaves in the century prior. Rather than take their fights to the courts, which they felt were substantially corrupted by capitalist influence, they took their fight to the streets and urged other Americans to do the same.",
"The publications of the IWW urged people to \"Educate, Agitate, Organize!!!\" which led their opponents to see the fights for free speech as precursors to more insidious desires such as those for unionization and, especially, for the abolition of capitalism.",
"### Popular reactions",
"The free speech fights of the IWW were inherently populist in nature. They were met with a variety of different public response and reactions: some supported their efforts and sought to collaborate with them while others engaged in vigilante violence against them (as was especially the case in San Diego). The free speech fights gained mass support from political groups such as labor unions, Socialists, and also the Free Speech League. Notably, few of the groups stood fast with the IWW when it came to their calls for revolution or for the overthrowing of capitalism more generally, and instead focused on the importance of the free speech rights for their own inherent worth to Americans. The AFL, though, opposed the IWW's efforts in the free speech realm from the get go. Other groups and members of the public, too, began to oppose the free speech fights over time because of the aggressive tactics and language among other things.",
"The Socialists were the most closely connected allies of the IWW in the free speech fights, as they had suffered through many years of free speech repression already and thus helped to fundraise for the cause and occasional even took part in the fights.",
"Labor unions also offered significant support to the free speech fight cause since they had a stake in the fights. Important support, still, came from the American public at large.",
"### Official reactions and regulation of street speaking",
"The most notable proponent of the free speech fights in the official arena was New York City Police Commissioner Arthur Woods, who argued that all American groups should be granted the right of free speech and assembly. Rather than repress their constitutional rights, Woods felt that it was the duty of the police to protect the demonstrators. His personal philosophy dictated that free speech could be regulated only in ways that protected it through the creation of channels of expression which would not impede the rights of others.",
"The reasonable regulation of street speaking was an important issue that arose because of the free speech fights of the IWW. Their soapboxing on downtown street corners proved especially divisive. Whereas IWW supporters held that freedom of expression was especially important in the areas where that expression could actually reach the people (such as laborers) who would benefit the most from their message, opponents argued that their right to free speech did not belong in such public places where their incendiary tactics could be harmful to the public. Public streets were the best means of reaching the workers to whom their free speech fights were addressed, and the Wobblies did not always possess the necessary funds to rent out public assembly halls, for instance, from which they could exercise their right to free speech. \nThe IWW conceded, nonetheless, that reasonable restrictions should be placed on public speaking.",
"The struggle over free speech on downtown street corners was regarded as absurd by many people, since there were myriad other areas in the public sphere that allowed outdoor speaking to take place—downtown street corners, though, were outlawed. The fight over the street corners, therefore, became a symbol of the divisive ideology of the IWW—their opponents scornfully argued that the street corners were important to the Wobblies only because they could not reach an audience elsewhere since nobody would willingly attend any of their speeches.",
"Many of the opponents of free speech fights, thus, were in favor of the establishment of centrally located areas that permitted oration but did not interfere with the city. Others, though, were totally opposed to the right to speak in public.",
"The IWW occasionally saw its fight over the regulation of street speaking extend to the judicial realm. More often than not, judges upheld the street ordinances that prevented public speaking. Notably, a judge in San Diego upheld the city's ordinance, and used the language of a similar decision in Los Angeles to explain that \"This ordinance does not attempt to suppress freedom of speech, or seek to interfere with the citizen in the right to express his views upon any subject, political, religious, or otherwise, as is suggested by the petitioner. It simply specifies a certain district within the city wherein no one may do the things prohibited.\"",
"### Analysis of free speech themes",
"One of the key themes of the free speech fights came from the regulation of speaking on the streets and involved discussions over the importance of access to public property and how reasonable limitations could be applied to it. People who debated the free speech fights frequently focused on the distinction between legal speech and illegal action while also detailing the various types of unprotected speech. They also debated what types of criticisms of the government should be protected by free speech.",
"One of the primary issues with the debates surrounding the free speech fights was that commentators understood that certain types of speech should be regarded as illegal and were not covered as free speech—sedition, libel, inciting speech, and obscenity fell into this category of speech, yet what some regarded as obscenity or libel, others regarded simply as government criticism that should be protected by the Constitution.",
""
] |
Major IWW's free speech fights
------------------------------
### Spokane free speech fight
In *A History of American Labor*, Joseph G. Rayback has written,
> \[The Industrial Workers of the World] made its first impression upon the nation through its involvement in the "free speech" fight begun in [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington "Spokane, Washington"), employment center for the casual labor elements of the Pacific Northwest. The fight developed late in 1908 when the I.W.W. launched an extensive speaking campaign with the slogan "Don't Buy Jobs" in the streets around the Spokane employment agencies which had become skilled in the art of swindling men who applied for jobs.Rayback, p. 244\.
The "job sharks" were so closely tied to the crew boss on many job sites that there would be "one gang coming, one gang working and one gang going." The faster the turnover, the greater the fees that could be generated. From time to time the men would ignore the IWW and seek revenge after an employment shark took someone's last dollar for a job that didn't exist. The *Spokesman\-Review* of February 17, 1909"February 17, 1909 (Page 1 of 18\)." The Spokesman\-Review (1894\-2009\), Feb 17 1909, p. 1\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 reported,Thompson and Murfin, p. 47\.
> Hurling rocks and chunks of ice through the windows of the Red Cross Employment Agency, 224 Stevens St., several members of a noisy mob of between 2,000 and 3,000 idle men were about to attempt to wreck the place about 6 o'clock last evening, when [James H. Walsh](/wiki/James_H._Walsh "James H. Walsh"), organizer of the IWW, mounted a chair and pacified the multitude. In the opinion of the police had it not been for the intervention of Walsh, a riot would surely have followed, as the rabble was worked up to such a pitch that its members would have readily attempted violence. Walsh discouraged violence and summoned all members of the IWW to their hall at the rear of 312 Front Ave. The police dispersed the rest... At the hall Walsh warned the crowd against an outbreak. "There were a lot of hired [Pinkertons](/wiki/Pinkerton_National_Detective_Agency "Pinkerton National Detective Agency") in that crowd," he said. "All they wanted you fellows to do was to start something and then they would have an excuse for shooting you down or smashing your heads in... You can gain nothing by resorting to mob rule."Thompson and Murfin, pp. 47\-48\.
For the rest of the summer, IWW street meetings brought more and more [working stiffs](/wiki/Wobbly_lingo%23Stiff "Wobbly lingo#Stiff") into the IWW.Thompson and Murfin, p. 48\.
> The agencies promptly countered by pressuring the city council to pass an ordinance forbidding street speaking. The I.W.W. obeyed the regulation for nearly a year, until Spokane religious groups, which habitually used the streets, secured a new regulation exempting them from the street\-speaking ordinance. Angered by the discrimination on behalf of "the Christers," the Spokane I.W.W. renewed its campaign.
The newspaper of the IWW, the *[Industrial Worker](/wiki/Industrial_Worker "Industrial Worker")*, published the following on October 28: "Wanted—Men to Fill the Jails of Spokane." Then the IWW sent out a notice to all locations, "Nov. 2, FREE SPEECH DAY—IWW locals will be notified by wire how many men to send if any... Meetings will be orderly and no irregularities of any kind will be tolerated."
> In one day 150 men were arrested and crowded into jails that could hardly accommodate them. Reinforcements promptly arrived from the surrounding territory.
The Spokane City Council arranged for rock\-pile work for the prisoners.
> At the end of twenty days four hundred men had been jailed.
Overflowing prisoners were lodged in the Franklin School \[then located along Front Street (now Trent)], and the War Department made Fort Wright available for more. Eight editors in succession got out a copy of the *Industrial Worker*, and then took their turn soapboxing, and went to jail. The IWW's "rebel girl," [Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn "Elizabeth Gurley Flynn"), who was fresh out of high school, delayed her arrest by chaining herself to a lamppost.{{Cite web\|url\=https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g\=341845\&p\=2304503\|title \= Library Guides: Industrial Workers of the World Photograph Collection: Elizabeth Gurley Flynn}} She later charged that the police were using the women's section of the jail as a brothel, with police soliciting customers. When that story was printed in the *Industrial Worker* on December 10, the police attempted to destroy all copies. Public sympathy began to favor the strikers. When the prison guards would march the overflowing prisoners through the streets to bathing facilities, crowds would shower the men with apples, oranges, and Cigarettes.Thompson and Murfin, p. 49\. Around 10:30 AM on December 20, 1909, the I.W.W. Hall of Spokane was raided by police, driving 200 men out onto the street."December 20, 1909 (Page 1 of 30\)." Spokane Daily Chronicle (1890\-1982\), Dec 20 1909, p. 1\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 .
> The effort brought results: the [W.F.M.](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners "Western Federation of Miners") declared a boycott of all goods coming from Spokane, and taxpayers began to protest against the cost of feeding, housing, and policing the prisoners. When [Vincent St. John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John "Vincent Saint John") publicly appealed to all Wobblies to come to Spokane to renew the struggle, city officials capitulated.
The victory for the free speech fight came on March 4, when the city of Spokane agreed to allow the I.W.W. to speak on the street."March 4, 1910 (Page 11 of 22\)." The Spokesman\-Review (1894\-2009\), Mar 04 1910, p. 11\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 . Subsequently that day, all arrested I.W.W. members were released."March 4, 1910 (Page 6 of 34\)." Spokane Daily Chronicle (1890\-1982\), Mar 04 1910, p. 6\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 . The licenses of 19 of the employment agencies were revoked.
> The I.W.W. was granted freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to distribute its literature.
In *Labor's Untold Story*, Boyer and Morais observed,
> The courts became so clogged they could handle little else but free speech cases. The fight for free speech became largely a question of endurance between the lungs and heads of the Wobblies and the stamina of the police. In [Missoula](/wiki/Missoula%2C_Montana "Missoula, Montana") and Spokane as in most of the other towns where free speech fights were waged, any citizen could address any assemblage on any street on any subject at any time by the end of 1912\.Boyer and Morais, p.174\.
### Missoula free speech fight
[thumb\|200px\|left\|[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn "Elizabeth Gurley Flynn"), firebrand soapboxer of the [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World "Industrial Workers of the World")](/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg "Elizabeth Gurley Flynn point.jpg")
The IWW members won a free speech fight in Missoula when, on October 8, 1909, the city council decided to let the union members speak anywhere in the community, so long as they did not impede traffic.
[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn "Elizabeth Gurley Flynn") was "a striking auburn\-haired 19\-year\-old" when she arrived in Missoula with her husband, Jack Jones in September 1909\. At Higgins Avenue and West Front Street, the Wobblies set up a soapbox. On September 22, [Frank Little](/wiki/Frank_Little_%28unionist%29 "Frank Little (unionist)") arrived to assist. Little and Jones were arrested on September 29\. A young logger and a civil engineer then spoke, and were likewise arrested. Flynn put out the word, declaring, "we need volunteers to go to jail." Wobblies poured in from the surrounding territory, flooding the jail. They sang IWW songs, and shouted Wobbly slogans.{{Cite web \|last\=Missoulian \|first\=KIM BRIGGEMAN of the \|date\=2009\-09\-07 \|title\=Missoula witness to history of Industrial Workers of the World \|url\=https://missoulian.com/news/local/missoula\-witness\-to\-history\-of\-industrial\-workers\-of\-the\-world/article\_a80ba83e\-9b67\-11de\-942e\-001cc4c002e0\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-03 \|website\=missoulian.com \|language\=en}}
According to Flynn, who also was arrested October 3, 1909,"October 4, 1909 (Page 1 of 14\)." The Spokesman\-Review (1894\-2009\), Oct 04 1909, p. 1\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 the jail was "a filthy, dirty hole under the firehouse stable, where all the filthy excrement of the place pours down upon the prisoners." Yet enough Wobblies submitted themselves to arrest—frequently just before dinner time—that the city was feeling the impact of the Wobbly tactic. After a night in jail, Wobblies were often offered their freedom before breakfast, but many refused to be released, instead demanding a jury trial.
The Western Montana Apple Show was set to open, and Missoula officials decided to "wave a white flag." The IWW had won the Missoula free speech fight, and all charges were dropped.
On February 7, 2011, the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service") officially recognized Free Speech Corner at Higgens Avenue and West Front Street, adding it to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places "National Register of Historic Places") to commemorate the Missoula free speech fight.{{Cite web \|last\=Missoulian \|first\=KIM BRIGGEMAN of the \|date\=2011\-04\-27 \|title\=Missoula downtown historic district expands \|url\=https://missoulian.com/news/local/missoula\-downtown\-historic\-district\-expands/article\_48d77b24\-7084\-11e0\-a541\-001cc4c002e0\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-03 \|website\=missoulian.com \|language\=en}}
### San Diego free speech fight
{{Main\|San Diego free speech fight}}
The free speech fight in San Diego from 1912 to 1913 was among the most prominent free speech fights of the IWW. An ordinance had been passed by the San Diego Common Council which made it much more difficult for the Wobblies to engage in their soapbox orations without being swiftly arrested. The San Diego jails were soon teeming with Wobblies and others who used civil disobedience in the fight for free speech, and, even more alarmingly, contingents of vigilantes arose to fight against those in favor of free speech. The Free Speech League worked in concert with the IWW in San Diego, but, when the fight became judicial, the ordinance was upheld.
### Sioux City, Iowa
Sioux City was considered a very strategic town for workers to stage free speech fights in because it was "a gateway for laborers entering and leaving summer employment in agriculture and construction in the Dakotas." Since those employment opportunities for the workers were seasonal, many of them returned to spend the winter in Sioux City, where the Wobblies attempted to provide them incentives to join their Free Speech Fight such as by educating them and helping feed them over the tough winter.
Over a thousand men were unemployed in Sioux City at the time during the winter of 1915\. There had been a real push to get workers to come to Sioux City by business leaders there, but workers who arrived found that there were barely enough jobs for the local laborers.
On 15 January, after facing even harsher conditions and struggling with unemployment, roughly 150 of the IWW\-associated unemployed stormed the Commercial Club where many business leaders listened to them demand work and watched them take food.
In response to the direct action of the IWW, Sioux City increased enforcement of vagrancy laws and began arresting more of the IWW members engaged in the Free Speech Fights. Their goal in doing so was to attempt to drive the IWW out of town, but, unsurprisingly, they achieved the opposite. The IWW demanded free speech rights to be granted in the city. They Wobblies were filling the city's jails and forced the hand of the city officials to attempt to strike a deal with them. Ultimately, they won the fight and free speech rights were granted to workers in Sioux City.{{Cite book\|title\=Indispensable Outcasts: Hobo Workers and Community in the American Midwest, 1880\-1930\|last\=Higbie\|first\=Frank\|publisher\=University of Illinois Press\|year\=2003\|isbn\=978\-0\-252\-07098\-3\|location\=Urbana}}
### Other free speech fights of the IWW
The IWW followed with other free speech fights in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri "Kansas City, Missouri"); in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen%2C_Washington "Aberdeen, Washington") and [Wenatchee, Washington](/wiki/Wenatchee%2C_Washington "Wenatchee, Washington"); and in [Fresno, California](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California "Fresno, California").{{cite thesis \|type\=Ph.D \|last\=May \|first\=Matthew S. \|title\=Hobo Orator Union: The Free Speech Fights of the Industrial Workers of the World, 1909\-1916 \|date\=July 2009 \|publisher\=\[\[University of Minnesota]] \|url\=http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/53722/1/May\_umn\_0130E\_10548\.pdf }} [Tar and feathers](/wiki/Tarring_and_feathering "Tarring and feathering"), beatings, clubbings, and forcible deportations were used in addition to incarceration. The San Diego free speech fight was unique in that the IWW did not have a specific organizing campaign at stake. The IWW won all of these free speech fights.
In early 1913, IWW members in [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado "Denver, Colorado"), fought [a lengthy free speech fight](/wiki/History_of_Denver%2C_Colorado%23Labor_unions "History of Denver, Colorado#Labor unions"). Denver authorities had refused to allow the Wobblies to speak on street corners, so union members filled the jails for months. The union won the right to speak to workers, and within a year had formed two Denver branches.Brundage, pp.161\-62\.
Other locations of free speech fights by the IWW included [Duluth, Minnesota](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota "Duluth, Minnesota"); [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon "Portland, Oregon"); [New Castle, Pennsylvania](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_Pennsylvania "New Castle, Pennsylvania"), and [New Bedford, Massachusetts](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts "New Bedford, Massachusetts").
### The IWW's provocative free speech message
The IWW message was particularly unpopular with the business community. IWW members believed that the capitalist system was corrupt, could not be reformed, and could only be resisted until a better society could be built for all working people. James Walsh's streetcorner speeches were therefore frequently disrupted, particularly by the local Volunteers of America and Salvation Army Bands.
Walsh recruited volunteers to put together a small band, equipped with "a big booming bass drum," in order to get the IWW's message to listeners. The group practiced patriotic and religious tunes of the period, but the Wobblies wrote new words to the songs.Blecha, 2006\.
> "To grab the crowd's attention," the IWW band often "hid in a doorway while one member dressed in a bowler hat and carrying a briefcase and umbrella, yelled to the crowd, 'Help! I've been robbed!' The crowd rushed over only to hear, 'I've been robbed by the capitalist system! Fellow workers ...' He then launched into a short speech, and the makeshift band stepped out of the doorway and played their songs."
> Blecha, 2006, citing Linda Allen, *Washington Songs and Lore* (Spokane: Melior Publications 1988\), p. 18\.
### The soapbox tradition
Prior to television, radio, and film becoming parts of American mass culture, public speaking was a primary medium for entertainment and information. Politicians, religious zealots, and newsboys all pitched their trade on the [soapbox](/wiki/Soapbox "Soapbox"). Though not all street speakers were political, soapbox oration was fundamentally a political act.
With the march of time of the 20th century, police forces and city ordinances began to take away the rights of soapbox orators. As television and radio became more prominent, the very act of street speaking began to seem antiquated and, at the very least, irrelevant. Street speaking represented a threat to upper\- and middle\-class white Americans who feared that "inter\-ethnoracial, working\-class political coalitions" would achieve influence through the soap box.
This was especially true in Los Angeles, where class politics was reaching a fever pitch in the early 20th century. A multitude of political groups, such as the IWW, the Socialists, the Communist Party, and the Partido Liberal Mexicano all spoke out for Angelinos to fight for the rights of the underprivileged.
### Socialist free speech fights: 1900–1911
In the early 20th century, it was the Socialist Party that led the charge in soapbox oration. They were the first group to make effective use of the tactics of public speaking. Over the first ten years of the city, they grew enough to gain significant political clout. In Los Angeles, the party drew in skilled and semi\-skilled white workers who worried about their job security. Additionally, they attempted to recruit central Angelinos from more diverse ethnic backgrounds. In this way, Free Speech Fights in Los Angeles served as the battleground between central Los Angeles workers and the rest of the city.
### The World War I crackdown
In the 1910s and 1920s, street speaking in Los Angeles suffered from increasing escalation of tactics by the LAPD and city ordinances. The Wobblies became the more dominant social group after the Socialists lost power, but the IWW was unable to draw nearly as many people to their soapbox speeches.
The IWW had a major conflict with the police over public speaking in San Pedro, a harbor community. They organized with striking dockworkers, but were met with extreme repression by the police who even used violent tactics to prevent their protests from being successful. Because of the failures in San Pedro, the IWW lost power in Southern California.
|
[
"Major IWW's free speech fights\n------------------------------",
"### Spokane free speech fight",
"In *A History of American Labor*, Joseph G. Rayback has written,",
"",
"> \\[The Industrial Workers of the World] made its first impression upon the nation through its involvement in the \"free speech\" fight begun in [Spokane, Washington](/wiki/Spokane%2C_Washington \"Spokane, Washington\"), employment center for the casual labor elements of the Pacific Northwest. The fight developed late in 1908 when the I.W.W. launched an extensive speaking campaign with the slogan \"Don't Buy Jobs\" in the streets around the Spokane employment agencies which had become skilled in the art of swindling men who applied for jobs.Rayback, p. 244\\.",
"The \"job sharks\" were so closely tied to the crew boss on many job sites that there would be \"one gang coming, one gang working and one gang going.\" The faster the turnover, the greater the fees that could be generated. From time to time the men would ignore the IWW and seek revenge after an employment shark took someone's last dollar for a job that didn't exist. The *Spokesman\\-Review* of February 17, 1909\"February 17, 1909 (Page 1 of 18\\).\" The Spokesman\\-Review (1894\\-2009\\), Feb 17 1909, p. 1\\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 reported,Thompson and Murfin, p. 47\\.",
"",
"> Hurling rocks and chunks of ice through the windows of the Red Cross Employment Agency, 224 Stevens St., several members of a noisy mob of between 2,000 and 3,000 idle men were about to attempt to wreck the place about 6 o'clock last evening, when [James H. Walsh](/wiki/James_H._Walsh \"James H. Walsh\"), organizer of the IWW, mounted a chair and pacified the multitude. In the opinion of the police had it not been for the intervention of Walsh, a riot would surely have followed, as the rabble was worked up to such a pitch that its members would have readily attempted violence. Walsh discouraged violence and summoned all members of the IWW to their hall at the rear of 312 Front Ave. The police dispersed the rest... At the hall Walsh warned the crowd against an outbreak. \"There were a lot of hired [Pinkertons](/wiki/Pinkerton_National_Detective_Agency \"Pinkerton National Detective Agency\") in that crowd,\" he said. \"All they wanted you fellows to do was to start something and then they would have an excuse for shooting you down or smashing your heads in... You can gain nothing by resorting to mob rule.\"Thompson and Murfin, pp. 47\\-48\\.",
"For the rest of the summer, IWW street meetings brought more and more [working stiffs](/wiki/Wobbly_lingo%23Stiff \"Wobbly lingo#Stiff\") into the IWW.Thompson and Murfin, p. 48\\.",
"",
"> The agencies promptly countered by pressuring the city council to pass an ordinance forbidding street speaking. The I.W.W. obeyed the regulation for nearly a year, until Spokane religious groups, which habitually used the streets, secured a new regulation exempting them from the street\\-speaking ordinance. Angered by the discrimination on behalf of \"the Christers,\" the Spokane I.W.W. renewed its campaign.",
"The newspaper of the IWW, the *[Industrial Worker](/wiki/Industrial_Worker \"Industrial Worker\")*, published the following on October 28: \"Wanted—Men to Fill the Jails of Spokane.\" Then the IWW sent out a notice to all locations, \"Nov. 2, FREE SPEECH DAY—IWW locals will be notified by wire how many men to send if any... Meetings will be orderly and no irregularities of any kind will be tolerated.\"",
"",
"> In one day 150 men were arrested and crowded into jails that could hardly accommodate them. Reinforcements promptly arrived from the surrounding territory.",
"The Spokane City Council arranged for rock\\-pile work for the prisoners.",
"",
"> At the end of twenty days four hundred men had been jailed.",
"Overflowing prisoners were lodged in the Franklin School \\[then located along Front Street (now Trent)], and the War Department made Fort Wright available for more. Eight editors in succession got out a copy of the *Industrial Worker*, and then took their turn soapboxing, and went to jail. The IWW's \"rebel girl,\" [Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn \"Elizabeth Gurley Flynn\"), who was fresh out of high school, delayed her arrest by chaining herself to a lamppost.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g\\=341845\\&p\\=2304503\\|title \\= Library Guides: Industrial Workers of the World Photograph Collection: Elizabeth Gurley Flynn}} She later charged that the police were using the women's section of the jail as a brothel, with police soliciting customers. When that story was printed in the *Industrial Worker* on December 10, the police attempted to destroy all copies. Public sympathy began to favor the strikers. When the prison guards would march the overflowing prisoners through the streets to bathing facilities, crowds would shower the men with apples, oranges, and Cigarettes.Thompson and Murfin, p. 49\\. Around 10:30 AM on December 20, 1909, the I.W.W. Hall of Spokane was raided by police, driving 200 men out onto the street.\"December 20, 1909 (Page 1 of 30\\).\" Spokane Daily Chronicle (1890\\-1982\\), Dec 20 1909, p. 1\\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 .",
"",
"> The effort brought results: the [W.F.M.](/wiki/Western_Federation_of_Miners \"Western Federation of Miners\") declared a boycott of all goods coming from Spokane, and taxpayers began to protest against the cost of feeding, housing, and policing the prisoners. When [Vincent St. John](/wiki/Vincent_Saint_John \"Vincent Saint John\") publicly appealed to all Wobblies to come to Spokane to renew the struggle, city officials capitulated.",
"The victory for the free speech fight came on March 4, when the city of Spokane agreed to allow the I.W.W. to speak on the street.\"March 4, 1910 (Page 11 of 22\\).\" The Spokesman\\-Review (1894\\-2009\\), Mar 04 1910, p. 11\\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 . Subsequently that day, all arrested I.W.W. members were released.\"March 4, 1910 (Page 6 of 34\\).\" Spokane Daily Chronicle (1890\\-1982\\), Mar 04 1910, p. 6\\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 . The licenses of 19 of the employment agencies were revoked.",
"",
"> The I.W.W. was granted freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to distribute its literature.",
"In *Labor's Untold Story*, Boyer and Morais observed,",
"",
"> The courts became so clogged they could handle little else but free speech cases. The fight for free speech became largely a question of endurance between the lungs and heads of the Wobblies and the stamina of the police. In [Missoula](/wiki/Missoula%2C_Montana \"Missoula, Montana\") and Spokane as in most of the other towns where free speech fights were waged, any citizen could address any assemblage on any street on any subject at any time by the end of 1912\\.Boyer and Morais, p.174\\.",
"### Missoula free speech fight",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn \"Elizabeth Gurley Flynn\"), firebrand soapboxer of the [Industrial Workers of the World](/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World \"Industrial Workers of the World\")](/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn_point.jpg \"Elizabeth Gurley Flynn point.jpg\")",
"The IWW members won a free speech fight in Missoula when, on October 8, 1909, the city council decided to let the union members speak anywhere in the community, so long as they did not impede traffic.",
"[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn](/wiki/Elizabeth_Gurley_Flynn \"Elizabeth Gurley Flynn\") was \"a striking auburn\\-haired 19\\-year\\-old\" when she arrived in Missoula with her husband, Jack Jones in September 1909\\. At Higgins Avenue and West Front Street, the Wobblies set up a soapbox. On September 22, [Frank Little](/wiki/Frank_Little_%28unionist%29 \"Frank Little (unionist)\") arrived to assist. Little and Jones were arrested on September 29\\. A young logger and a civil engineer then spoke, and were likewise arrested. Flynn put out the word, declaring, \"we need volunteers to go to jail.\" Wobblies poured in from the surrounding territory, flooding the jail. They sang IWW songs, and shouted Wobbly slogans.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Missoulian \\|first\\=KIM BRIGGEMAN of the \\|date\\=2009\\-09\\-07 \\|title\\=Missoula witness to history of Industrial Workers of the World \\|url\\=https://missoulian.com/news/local/missoula\\-witness\\-to\\-history\\-of\\-industrial\\-workers\\-of\\-the\\-world/article\\_a80ba83e\\-9b67\\-11de\\-942e\\-001cc4c002e0\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|website\\=missoulian.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"According to Flynn, who also was arrested October 3, 1909,\"October 4, 1909 (Page 1 of 14\\).\" The Spokesman\\-Review (1894\\-2009\\), Oct 04 1909, p. 1\\. ProQuest. Web. 18 Jan. 2021 the jail was \"a filthy, dirty hole under the firehouse stable, where all the filthy excrement of the place pours down upon the prisoners.\" Yet enough Wobblies submitted themselves to arrest—frequently just before dinner time—that the city was feeling the impact of the Wobbly tactic. After a night in jail, Wobblies were often offered their freedom before breakfast, but many refused to be released, instead demanding a jury trial.",
"The Western Montana Apple Show was set to open, and Missoula officials decided to \"wave a white flag.\" The IWW had won the Missoula free speech fight, and all charges were dropped.",
"On February 7, 2011, the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\") officially recognized Free Speech Corner at Higgens Avenue and West Front Street, adding it to the [National Register of Historic Places](/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places \"National Register of Historic Places\") to commemorate the Missoula free speech fight.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Missoulian \\|first\\=KIM BRIGGEMAN of the \\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-27 \\|title\\=Missoula downtown historic district expands \\|url\\=https://missoulian.com/news/local/missoula\\-downtown\\-historic\\-district\\-expands/article\\_48d77b24\\-7084\\-11e0\\-a541\\-001cc4c002e0\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-03 \\|website\\=missoulian.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"### San Diego free speech fight",
"{{Main\\|San Diego free speech fight}}\nThe free speech fight in San Diego from 1912 to 1913 was among the most prominent free speech fights of the IWW. An ordinance had been passed by the San Diego Common Council which made it much more difficult for the Wobblies to engage in their soapbox orations without being swiftly arrested. The San Diego jails were soon teeming with Wobblies and others who used civil disobedience in the fight for free speech, and, even more alarmingly, contingents of vigilantes arose to fight against those in favor of free speech. The Free Speech League worked in concert with the IWW in San Diego, but, when the fight became judicial, the ordinance was upheld.",
"### Sioux City, Iowa",
"Sioux City was considered a very strategic town for workers to stage free speech fights in because it was \"a gateway for laborers entering and leaving summer employment in agriculture and construction in the Dakotas.\" Since those employment opportunities for the workers were seasonal, many of them returned to spend the winter in Sioux City, where the Wobblies attempted to provide them incentives to join their Free Speech Fight such as by educating them and helping feed them over the tough winter.",
"Over a thousand men were unemployed in Sioux City at the time during the winter of 1915\\. There had been a real push to get workers to come to Sioux City by business leaders there, but workers who arrived found that there were barely enough jobs for the local laborers. \nOn 15 January, after facing even harsher conditions and struggling with unemployment, roughly 150 of the IWW\\-associated unemployed stormed the Commercial Club where many business leaders listened to them demand work and watched them take food.",
"In response to the direct action of the IWW, Sioux City increased enforcement of vagrancy laws and began arresting more of the IWW members engaged in the Free Speech Fights. Their goal in doing so was to attempt to drive the IWW out of town, but, unsurprisingly, they achieved the opposite. The IWW demanded free speech rights to be granted in the city. They Wobblies were filling the city's jails and forced the hand of the city officials to attempt to strike a deal with them. Ultimately, they won the fight and free speech rights were granted to workers in Sioux City.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Indispensable Outcasts: Hobo Workers and Community in the American Midwest, 1880\\-1930\\|last\\=Higbie\\|first\\=Frank\\|publisher\\=University of Illinois Press\\|year\\=2003\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-252\\-07098\\-3\\|location\\=Urbana}}",
"### Other free speech fights of the IWW",
"The IWW followed with other free speech fights in [Kansas City, Missouri](/wiki/Kansas_City%2C_Missouri \"Kansas City, Missouri\"); in [Aberdeen](/wiki/Aberdeen%2C_Washington \"Aberdeen, Washington\") and [Wenatchee, Washington](/wiki/Wenatchee%2C_Washington \"Wenatchee, Washington\"); and in [Fresno, California](/wiki/Fresno%2C_California \"Fresno, California\").{{cite thesis \\|type\\=Ph.D \\|last\\=May \\|first\\=Matthew S. \\|title\\=Hobo Orator Union: The Free Speech Fights of the Industrial Workers of the World, 1909\\-1916 \\|date\\=July 2009 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of Minnesota]] \\|url\\=http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/53722/1/May\\_umn\\_0130E\\_10548\\.pdf }} [Tar and feathers](/wiki/Tarring_and_feathering \"Tarring and feathering\"), beatings, clubbings, and forcible deportations were used in addition to incarceration. The San Diego free speech fight was unique in that the IWW did not have a specific organizing campaign at stake. The IWW won all of these free speech fights.",
"In early 1913, IWW members in [Denver, Colorado](/wiki/Denver%2C_Colorado \"Denver, Colorado\"), fought [a lengthy free speech fight](/wiki/History_of_Denver%2C_Colorado%23Labor_unions \"History of Denver, Colorado#Labor unions\"). Denver authorities had refused to allow the Wobblies to speak on street corners, so union members filled the jails for months. The union won the right to speak to workers, and within a year had formed two Denver branches.Brundage, pp.161\\-62\\.",
"Other locations of free speech fights by the IWW included [Duluth, Minnesota](/wiki/Duluth%2C_Minnesota \"Duluth, Minnesota\"); [Portland, Oregon](/wiki/Portland%2C_Oregon \"Portland, Oregon\"); [New Castle, Pennsylvania](/wiki/New_Castle%2C_Pennsylvania \"New Castle, Pennsylvania\"), and [New Bedford, Massachusetts](/wiki/New_Bedford%2C_Massachusetts \"New Bedford, Massachusetts\").",
"### The IWW's provocative free speech message",
"The IWW message was particularly unpopular with the business community. IWW members believed that the capitalist system was corrupt, could not be reformed, and could only be resisted until a better society could be built for all working people. James Walsh's streetcorner speeches were therefore frequently disrupted, particularly by the local Volunteers of America and Salvation Army Bands.",
"Walsh recruited volunteers to put together a small band, equipped with \"a big booming bass drum,\" in order to get the IWW's message to listeners. The group practiced patriotic and religious tunes of the period, but the Wobblies wrote new words to the songs.Blecha, 2006\\.",
"",
"> \"To grab the crowd's attention,\" the IWW band often \"hid in a doorway while one member dressed in a bowler hat and carrying a briefcase and umbrella, yelled to the crowd, 'Help! I've been robbed!' The crowd rushed over only to hear, 'I've been robbed by the capitalist system! Fellow workers ...' He then launched into a short speech, and the makeshift band stepped out of the doorway and played their songs.\"\n> Blecha, 2006, citing Linda Allen, *Washington Songs and Lore* (Spokane: Melior Publications 1988\\), p. 18\\.",
"### The soapbox tradition",
"Prior to television, radio, and film becoming parts of American mass culture, public speaking was a primary medium for entertainment and information. Politicians, religious zealots, and newsboys all pitched their trade on the [soapbox](/wiki/Soapbox \"Soapbox\"). Though not all street speakers were political, soapbox oration was fundamentally a political act.",
"With the march of time of the 20th century, police forces and city ordinances began to take away the rights of soapbox orators. As television and radio became more prominent, the very act of street speaking began to seem antiquated and, at the very least, irrelevant. Street speaking represented a threat to upper\\- and middle\\-class white Americans who feared that \"inter\\-ethnoracial, working\\-class political coalitions\" would achieve influence through the soap box.",
"This was especially true in Los Angeles, where class politics was reaching a fever pitch in the early 20th century. A multitude of political groups, such as the IWW, the Socialists, the Communist Party, and the Partido Liberal Mexicano all spoke out for Angelinos to fight for the rights of the underprivileged.",
"### Socialist free speech fights: 1900–1911",
"In the early 20th century, it was the Socialist Party that led the charge in soapbox oration. They were the first group to make effective use of the tactics of public speaking. Over the first ten years of the city, they grew enough to gain significant political clout. In Los Angeles, the party drew in skilled and semi\\-skilled white workers who worried about their job security. Additionally, they attempted to recruit central Angelinos from more diverse ethnic backgrounds. In this way, Free Speech Fights in Los Angeles served as the battleground between central Los Angeles workers and the rest of the city.",
"### The World War I crackdown",
"In the 1910s and 1920s, street speaking in Los Angeles suffered from increasing escalation of tactics by the LAPD and city ordinances. The Wobblies became the more dominant social group after the Socialists lost power, but the IWW was unable to draw nearly as many people to their soapbox speeches.",
"The IWW had a major conflict with the police over public speaking in San Pedro, a harbor community. They organized with striking dockworkers, but were met with extreme repression by the police who even used violent tactics to prevent their protests from being successful. Because of the failures in San Pedro, the IWW lost power in Southern California.",
""
] |
Academic literature
-------------------
### Origins and development of shared value
A literature review was conducted into the important early work of 'shared value'. Researchers found some literature focusing on the development of shared value by Porter and Kramer (2006\) with most work coming from few sources like [the Monitor Group](/wiki/The_Monitor_Group "The Monitor Group").{{cite web\|last1\=Williams\|first1\= R. \|last2\= Hayes\|first2\= J. \|title\=Literature review: seminal papers on Shared value\|year\= 2013\|publisher\= ECONOMIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR PROFESSIONAL EVIDENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICES \|url\=http://partnerplatform.org/?5mar03m5}}
More extensively the literature is from development organisations focusing on case studies into the interrelated area of business ventures at the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid "Bottom of the pyramid") or [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") strategies/models.Seminal papers on 'Shared value'
Outside these case studies, limited literature was found so the paper presented lessons learnt from [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") and [interrelated business](/wiki/Interrelated_business "Interrelated business") models to show how they developed and business strategies to engage with the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid "Bottom of the pyramid").
The term "shared value" is found in Porter and Kramer's (2006\) article, "Strategy and society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility" and was a development by Porter of previous thinking on business strategy. This article was the winner of the McKinsey Award for the best *Harvard Business Review* article in 2006\.
From the [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility "Corporate Social Responsibility") perspective, they observed companies could have worked harder reflecting flaws in CSR that business is pitted against society rather recognising their interdependence; and second, CSR is viewed in a generic sense rather than strategically.
To boost innovation and competitive advantage they say companies need to make CSR part of their core business strategy and researchers saw this as development of Porter's 1985 'Competitive Advantage' work where firms' activities were redefined through their value chains to boost competitive advantage through cost improvements or differentiation.
Their argument that [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") can do both contrasts with [Milton Friedman](/wiki/Milton_Friedman "Milton Friedman")'s view that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits.
Social value activities can overlap with traditional CSR. Efforts to promote sustainability through CSR may cut costs for the company and boost profitability, CSR and core business processes can become indistinguishable from one another, moving to what the authors' term "corporate social integration." By drawing attention to the way society impinges on business (rather than only business on society) it provides justification for solving society's problems as a core business strategy.
Porter and Kramer (2002\) "The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy", seeks to address the tension of addressing the demand for greater levels of CSR with the demand for short term profits focusing on how a society's 'competitive context' impacts business arguing it is possible to see long term economic and social goals as connected.
### Creating shared value
The researchers found shared value has not greatly progressed, with subsequent literature focused on the types of models and activities that businesses are undertaking to create shared value.
They claim a slight development was Porter and Kramer's 2011 attempt to broaden the concept of shared value beyond the arena of [corporate social responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility "Corporate social responsibility") with a greater focus on the nature of capitalism and markets, noting dislocations with current capitalism, emphasising the inherent social nature of markets, and suggesting that by adopting shared value principles business and society will be reconnected creating new innovation and socially imbued capitalism.
Whilst it can be argued that capitalism would certainly change if businesses *en masse* re\-orientated their core frameworks to focus on shared value, there is little analysis on how this would occur. The authors themselves recognise this.
Through innovation in new technologies, operating methods, and management approaches a firm can improve society while increasing their productivity and profitability. Porter and Kramer identify GE, Google, IBM and Unilever as having adopted shared value principles but note that "our recognition of the transformative power of shared value is still in its genesis", and argue that addressing social constraints does not necessarily raise internal costs for firms. In a 2013 article, Pfitzer *et al.* add [Dow Chemicals](/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company "Dow Chemical Company"), [Nestlé](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9 "Nestlé"), [Novartis](/wiki/Novartis "Novartis"), [Mars](/wiki/Mars%2C_Incorporated "Mars, Incorporated") and [Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") to their "Who's Creating Shared Value" list. They cite, for example, a "cross\-sector coalition" in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast") supported by Mars, which was established to "avoid looming cocoa shortages".Pfitzer, M., Bockstette, V. and Stamp, M., [Innovating for Shared Value](https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value), Harvard Business Review, September 2013, accessed 24 July 2022
To create shared value companies should:\-
* Reconceive products and markets to provide appropriate services and meet unmet needs. For example, the provision of low\-cost [cell phones](/wiki/Cell_phone "Cell phone") developed new market opportunities as well as new services for people living in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty").
* Redefine productivity in the value chain to mitigate risks and boost productivity. For example, in reducing excess packing in product distribution reducing cost and environmental degradation.
* Enable local cluster development by improving the external framework that supports the company's operations, for example by developing the skills of suppliers.
#### The business perspective
The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.
They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\- investment.
The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.
They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in "Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.
The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.
#### Shared value and the bottom of the pyramid
Much focus has been on the application of shared value at the bottom of the pyramid reflecting both greater social needs among this group and the new markets they offer.
The researchers mention Porter and Kramer's example of [Hindustan Unilever](/wiki/Hindustan_Unilever "Hindustan Unilever")'s innovation in hygiene products distribution, using smaller package sizes, creating new business opportunities and appropriate products for the poor, a classic the bottom of the pyramid model. They also mention Prahalad and Hart's "The Fortune at the [Bottom of the Pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Pyramid "Bottom of the Pyramid")" paper which sets out how attractive the bottom of the pyramid is for MNCs with commercial and social opportunities through mutual value creation by reorientating their core business to provide products for these consumers.
The researchers claim this thesis challenged assumptions that business success and creating social value was not possible at the lower end of the market.
#### Inclusive business models
Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled "The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.
Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:
* "inclusive business models" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains
* "complementary strategies" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\-skilling workers.
The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme "United Nations Development Programme") definition "create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\-governmental organisations" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models "Inclusive business models")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.
They show the UNDP paper (2008\) "Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in "Inclusive Business \- profitable business for successful development".
They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with "doing good", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.
Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business").
### Application of inclusive business models
#### The landscape of inclusive business
This section provides an insight into both practical development and the types of business strategies being pursued. The researchers of the literature review into shared value found no single framework for shared value or inclusive business models. They found Davis commenting in 2012Davis, P. (2012\) Let Business do Business: The Role of the Corporate Sector in International development. ODI Background Note, July 2012 about how the corporate sector is highly non\-uniform and Caroline Ashley's 2009 paper, "Harnessing core business for development impact"Ashley, C. (2009a) Harnessing core business for development impact. Overseas Development Institute, Background Note, February 2009 illustrating four inclusive business models with different value propositions and the variation in size of inclusive business models:
* Group A consists of commercial businesses that sell products needed by the poor which possess a high development impact, such as financial services.
* Group B are companies that impact the poor in the normal course of their activities but take deliberate action to expand and improve this impact, for example, mining companies that improve their local value chains.
* Group C captures SMEs that are embedded in the local economy and therefore dependent on its development.
* Group D companies are enterprises that focus on a social product but with a commercial model of delivery.
The researchers found that while much of the literature on shared value concentrates on MNCs, the focus in developing countries is on a range of different company types.
#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid
The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance "Access to finance") as one of the main obstacles to their business.
They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\-to\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.
As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012
They found Lucci's 2012 paper "Post\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?"{{cite web\|last\=Lucci\|first\= P. \|year\=2012\|title\= Post\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \|work\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\|url\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\-post\-2015\-millennium\-development\-goals\-role\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: "harnessing innovation capacity" and "leveraging supply chains and the production process".
The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\): 48\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\): 54\-54\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.
In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\-price, low\-margin, high\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that "because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\-of\-the\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid."
Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are
* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;
* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;
* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.
These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale "Economies of scale"), cross subsidise and manage risk.
Karnani (2007\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.
Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.
London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.
The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller "SABMiller") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.
Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\-
* "micro distribution and retail" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;
* "experience\-based customer credit" provided by non\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.
* "last\-mile grid utilities" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\-income neighbourhoods;
* "[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding "Smallholding") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement "Procurement")" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;
* "value for money housing" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and
* "e\-transaction platforms" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor."
#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems
The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.
They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this:
* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania "Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business
* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.
They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a "genuinely symbiotic relationship" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.
An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative "Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.
This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through "strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed." This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor "Making Markets Work for the Poor") (M4P).
They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\-sharing and public policy dialogue.
### Lessons learned
#### Measurement and impact
Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\): 106\-113 says that feel\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures." And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009
They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.
They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\|last\=Wach\|first\= E \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \|url\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.
Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.
They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\-core business approach.
Porter et al.{{cite web\|author1\=Porter, M. \|author2\=Hills, G. \|author3\=Pfitzer, M. \|author4\=Patscheke, S. \|author5\= Hawkins, E. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\|publisher\= FSG\|url\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.
The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS "SYRCS"){{cite journal \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=DeTombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \|journal\=Information Systems and E\-Business Management \|date\=8 May 2021 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=3 \|page\=1 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10257\-021\-00525\-4\|s2cid\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=Detombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=System redesign to creating shared value \|url\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\-redesign\-for\-shared\-value/ \|website\=I2insights\|date\=19 July 2021 }}
#### Successful strategies
Notwithstanding the limitations in the evidence base there have been a number of reports that have sought to capture and synthesise lessons from successful shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") ventures. In an extensive report looking into various aspects of inclusive business models,{{cite web\|last1\=Gradl\|first1\= C.\|last2\= Knobloch\|first2\= C. \|year\=2010\|title\= How to Develop Business and Fight Poverty. Endeva, Berlin\|url\=http://www.boplearninglab.dk/bop\-learning\-lab/activities/news/publication\-how\-to\-develop\-business\-and\-fight\-poverty.html\|website\=boplearninglab.dk}} Gradl and Knobloch document a range of benefits for business, in particular access to new markets, in terms of access to new consumers and producers and through the potential for cheaper and higher quality production based on growth\-intensive sales and the development of new products.
They found that enhanced reputation may also lead to enhanced partnerships from customers, suppliers and governments UNDP. An IFC report into the impact of their portfolio of inclusive business models,Jenkins, B. and Ishikawa, E. (2010\) Scaling Up Inclusive Business: Advancing the Knowledge and Action Agenda. Washington, DC: International Finance Corporation and the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. found that revenue growth had been the main business outcome for business, whereas development outcomes included expanded economic opportunities for suppliers, distributors and retailers and access to goods and services
They found factors which led to successful models included, adaption of products and processes that leveraged networks and to reach significant numbers of low\-income consumers; models designed to be appropriate with low\-income groups' cash management strategies, also leveraging social networks of the poor; capacity building of suppliers, distributors and retailers and collaborations with other organisations (NGOs, development organisation, social enterprises) to leverage knowledge and infrastructure. UNDP (2008\) also highlight that business have had to remove market constraints that would more normally be the province of government, for example by investing in education, energy supply and infrastructure. This is consistent with Porter and Kramer (2006\) view on competitive context.
They found Hills, *et al.*{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\-FSG\-Report\-Shared\-Value\-in\-Emerging\-Markets.aspx \|author1\=Hills, G. \|author2\=Russell, P. \|author3\=Borgonovi, V. \|author4\=Doty A. \|author5\=Lyer, L. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|title\=Shared Value in Emerging Markets: How Multinational Corporations Are Redefining Business Strategies to Reach Poor or Vulnerable Populations \|publisher\=FSG \|date\=September 2012 \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019054105/http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\-FSG\-Report\-Shared\-Value\-in\-Emerging\-Markets.aspx \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-19 \|url\-status\=dead }} mention a number of external conditions were also identified that successful shared value companies had been able to leverage, including governments' openness to private sector participation in socio\-economic development and/or the availability of external funding.
* Indian government support of [ICICI Lombard](/wiki/ICICI_Lombard "ICICI Lombard")'s weather\-based insurance and microfinance providers (through priority lending mechanisms),
* [DFID](/wiki/Department_for_International_Development "Department for International Development")'s support of [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone "Vodafone") in developing [M\-PESA](/wiki/M-PESA "M-PESA").
Strong partners are also important, either through civil society organisations that provide insights into local needs or other companies that share similar philosophies, for example distributors who may also need to adapt their business model. The level of penetration in ICT can significantly lower transactions costs and link informal economies to more established markets.
They found Hills et al. identify two key areas that are essential for successful create shared value companies, "intentionality" and "materiality." Intentionality requires a company or business unit to set specific goals for intended social and financial benefits with clear guidelines that can guide resource allocation decisions along the way and recommend looking at Gradl and Jenkins. A number of company factors are identified that help successful implementation, these include: a culture of innovation that allows experimentation, together with a long term outlook; senior management embracing shared value principles; cross department buy in; and strong local buy in at a local level like affiliates in developing countries. They also stress the importance of building local knowledge through developing local structures and/or strong local partners and employing multidisciplinary teams that are open to new ideas
The concluded by saying that materiality is important as it incentivises management to support CSV. It represents the extent to which creating shared value is central to the financial performance of a business unit or company and as materiality grows strategies are likely to be scaled up.
|
[
"Academic literature\n-------------------",
"### Origins and development of shared value",
"A literature review was conducted into the important early work of 'shared value'. Researchers found some literature focusing on the development of shared value by Porter and Kramer (2006\\) with most work coming from few sources like [the Monitor Group](/wiki/The_Monitor_Group \"The Monitor Group\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Williams\\|first1\\= R. \\|last2\\= Hayes\\|first2\\= J. \\|title\\=Literature review: seminal papers on Shared value\\|year\\= 2013\\|publisher\\= ECONOMIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR PROFESSIONAL EVIDENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICES \\|url\\=http://partnerplatform.org/?5mar03m5}}",
"More extensively the literature is from development organisations focusing on case studies into the interrelated area of business ventures at the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid \"Bottom of the pyramid\") or [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") strategies/models.Seminal papers on 'Shared value'",
"Outside these case studies, limited literature was found so the paper presented lessons learnt from [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") and [interrelated business](/wiki/Interrelated_business \"Interrelated business\") models to show how they developed and business strategies to engage with the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid \"Bottom of the pyramid\").",
"The term \"shared value\" is found in Porter and Kramer's (2006\\) article, \"Strategy and society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility\" and was a development by Porter of previous thinking on business strategy. This article was the winner of the McKinsey Award for the best *Harvard Business Review* article in 2006\\.",
"From the [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility \"Corporate Social Responsibility\") perspective, they observed companies could have worked harder reflecting flaws in CSR that business is pitted against society rather recognising their interdependence; and second, CSR is viewed in a generic sense rather than strategically.",
"To boost innovation and competitive advantage they say companies need to make CSR part of their core business strategy and researchers saw this as development of Porter's 1985 'Competitive Advantage' work where firms' activities were redefined through their value chains to boost competitive advantage through cost improvements or differentiation.",
"Their argument that [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") can do both contrasts with [Milton Friedman](/wiki/Milton_Friedman \"Milton Friedman\")'s view that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits.",
"Social value activities can overlap with traditional CSR. Efforts to promote sustainability through CSR may cut costs for the company and boost profitability, CSR and core business processes can become indistinguishable from one another, moving to what the authors' term \"corporate social integration.\" By drawing attention to the way society impinges on business (rather than only business on society) it provides justification for solving society's problems as a core business strategy.",
"Porter and Kramer (2002\\) \"The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy\", seeks to address the tension of addressing the demand for greater levels of CSR with the demand for short term profits focusing on how a society's 'competitive context' impacts business arguing it is possible to see long term economic and social goals as connected.",
"### Creating shared value",
"The researchers found shared value has not greatly progressed, with subsequent literature focused on the types of models and activities that businesses are undertaking to create shared value.",
"They claim a slight development was Porter and Kramer's 2011 attempt to broaden the concept of shared value beyond the arena of [corporate social responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility \"Corporate social responsibility\") with a greater focus on the nature of capitalism and markets, noting dislocations with current capitalism, emphasising the inherent social nature of markets, and suggesting that by adopting shared value principles business and society will be reconnected creating new innovation and socially imbued capitalism.",
"Whilst it can be argued that capitalism would certainly change if businesses *en masse* re\\-orientated their core frameworks to focus on shared value, there is little analysis on how this would occur. The authors themselves recognise this.",
"Through innovation in new technologies, operating methods, and management approaches a firm can improve society while increasing their productivity and profitability. Porter and Kramer identify GE, Google, IBM and Unilever as having adopted shared value principles but note that \"our recognition of the transformative power of shared value is still in its genesis\", and argue that addressing social constraints does not necessarily raise internal costs for firms. In a 2013 article, Pfitzer *et al.* add [Dow Chemicals](/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company \"Dow Chemical Company\"), [Nestlé](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9 \"Nestlé\"), [Novartis](/wiki/Novartis \"Novartis\"), [Mars](/wiki/Mars%2C_Incorporated \"Mars, Incorporated\") and [Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") to their \"Who's Creating Shared Value\" list. They cite, for example, a \"cross\\-sector coalition\" in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast \"Ivory Coast\") supported by Mars, which was established to \"avoid looming cocoa shortages\".Pfitzer, M., Bockstette, V. and Stamp, M., [Innovating for Shared Value](https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value), Harvard Business Review, September 2013, accessed 24 July 2022",
"To create shared value companies should:\\-\n* Reconceive products and markets to provide appropriate services and meet unmet needs. For example, the provision of low\\-cost [cell phones](/wiki/Cell_phone \"Cell phone\") developed new market opportunities as well as new services for people living in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\").\n* Redefine productivity in the value chain to mitigate risks and boost productivity. For example, in reducing excess packing in product distribution reducing cost and environmental degradation.\n* Enable local cluster development by improving the external framework that supports the company's operations, for example by developing the skills of suppliers.",
"#### The business perspective",
"The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.",
"They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\\- investment.",
"The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.",
"They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in \"Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results\" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.",
"The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.",
"#### Shared value and the bottom of the pyramid",
"Much focus has been on the application of shared value at the bottom of the pyramid reflecting both greater social needs among this group and the new markets they offer.",
"The researchers mention Porter and Kramer's example of [Hindustan Unilever](/wiki/Hindustan_Unilever \"Hindustan Unilever\")'s innovation in hygiene products distribution, using smaller package sizes, creating new business opportunities and appropriate products for the poor, a classic the bottom of the pyramid model. They also mention Prahalad and Hart's \"The Fortune at the [Bottom of the Pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Pyramid \"Bottom of the Pyramid\")\" paper which sets out how attractive the bottom of the pyramid is for MNCs with commercial and social opportunities through mutual value creation by reorientating their core business to provide products for these consumers.",
"The researchers claim this thesis challenged assumptions that business success and creating social value was not possible at the lower end of the market.",
"#### Inclusive business models",
"Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled \"The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action\" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.",
"Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:",
"* \"inclusive business models\" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains\n* \"complementary strategies\" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\\-skilling workers.",
"The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme \"United Nations Development Programme\") definition \"create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\\-governmental organisations\" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models \"Inclusive business models\")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.",
"They show the UNDP paper (2008\\) \"Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor\" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in \"Inclusive Business \\- profitable business for successful development\".",
"They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with \"doing good\", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.",
"Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\").",
"### Application of inclusive business models",
"#### The landscape of inclusive business",
"This section provides an insight into both practical development and the types of business strategies being pursued. The researchers of the literature review into shared value found no single framework for shared value or inclusive business models. They found Davis commenting in 2012Davis, P. (2012\\) Let Business do Business: The Role of the Corporate Sector in International development. ODI Background Note, July 2012 about how the corporate sector is highly non\\-uniform and Caroline Ashley's 2009 paper, \"Harnessing core business for development impact\"Ashley, C. (2009a) Harnessing core business for development impact. Overseas Development Institute, Background Note, February 2009 illustrating four inclusive business models with different value propositions and the variation in size of inclusive business models:",
"* Group A consists of commercial businesses that sell products needed by the poor which possess a high development impact, such as financial services.\n* Group B are companies that impact the poor in the normal course of their activities but take deliberate action to expand and improve this impact, for example, mining companies that improve their local value chains.\n* Group C captures SMEs that are embedded in the local economy and therefore dependent on its development.\n* Group D companies are enterprises that focus on a social product but with a commercial model of delivery.",
"The researchers found that while much of the literature on shared value concentrates on MNCs, the focus in developing countries is on a range of different company types.",
"#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid",
"The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance \"Access to finance\") as one of the main obstacles to their business.",
"They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\\-to\\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.",
"As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012",
"They found Lucci's 2012 paper \"Post\\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Lucci\\|first\\= P. \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Post\\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \\|work\\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\\|url\\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\\-post\\-2015\\-millennium\\-development\\-goals\\-role\\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: \"harnessing innovation capacity\" and \"leveraging supply chains and the production process\".",
"The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\\): 48\\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\\): 54\\-54\\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.",
"In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\\-price, low\\-margin, high\\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that \"because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\\-of\\-the\\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid.\"",
"Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are\n* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;\n* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;\n* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.",
"These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale \"Economies of scale\"), cross subsidise and manage risk.",
"Karnani (2007\\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.",
"Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.",
"London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.",
"The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller \"SABMiller\") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.",
"Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\\-\n* \"micro distribution and retail\" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;\n* \"experience\\-based customer credit\" provided by non\\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.\n* \"last\\-mile grid utilities\" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\\-income neighbourhoods;\n* \"[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding \"Smallholding\") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement \"Procurement\")\" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;\n* \"value for money housing\" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and\n* \"e\\-transaction platforms\" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor.\"",
"#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems",
"The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.",
"They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this: \n* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania \"Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania\") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business\n* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.",
"They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a \"genuinely symbiotic relationship\" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.",
"An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative \"Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems\"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.",
"This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through \"strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed.\" This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor \"Making Markets Work for the Poor\") (M4P).",
"They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\\-sharing and public policy dialogue.",
"### Lessons learned",
"#### Measurement and impact",
"Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\\): 106\\-113 says that feel\\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures.\" And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009",
"They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.",
"They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\\|last\\=Wach\\|first\\= E \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \\|url\\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.",
"Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.",
"They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\\-core business approach.",
"Porter et al.{{cite web\\|author1\\=Porter, M. \\|author2\\=Hills, G. \\|author3\\=Pfitzer, M. \\|author4\\=Patscheke, S. \\|author5\\= Hawkins, E. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\\|publisher\\= FSG\\|url\\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.",
"The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS \"SYRCS\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=DeTombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \\|journal\\=Information Systems and E\\-Business Management \\|date\\=8 May 2021 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=3 \\|page\\=1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10257\\-021\\-00525\\-4\\|s2cid\\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=Detombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=System redesign to creating shared value \\|url\\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\\-redesign\\-for\\-shared\\-value/ \\|website\\=I2insights\\|date\\=19 July 2021 }}",
"#### Successful strategies",
"Notwithstanding the limitations in the evidence base there have been a number of reports that have sought to capture and synthesise lessons from successful shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") ventures. In an extensive report looking into various aspects of inclusive business models,{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gradl\\|first1\\= C.\\|last2\\= Knobloch\\|first2\\= C. \\|year\\=2010\\|title\\= How to Develop Business and Fight Poverty. Endeva, Berlin\\|url\\=http://www.boplearninglab.dk/bop\\-learning\\-lab/activities/news/publication\\-how\\-to\\-develop\\-business\\-and\\-fight\\-poverty.html\\|website\\=boplearninglab.dk}} Gradl and Knobloch document a range of benefits for business, in particular access to new markets, in terms of access to new consumers and producers and through the potential for cheaper and higher quality production based on growth\\-intensive sales and the development of new products.",
"They found that enhanced reputation may also lead to enhanced partnerships from customers, suppliers and governments UNDP. An IFC report into the impact of their portfolio of inclusive business models,Jenkins, B. and Ishikawa, E. (2010\\) Scaling Up Inclusive Business: Advancing the Knowledge and Action Agenda. Washington, DC: International Finance Corporation and the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. found that revenue growth had been the main business outcome for business, whereas development outcomes included expanded economic opportunities for suppliers, distributors and retailers and access to goods and services",
"They found factors which led to successful models included, adaption of products and processes that leveraged networks and to reach significant numbers of low\\-income consumers; models designed to be appropriate with low\\-income groups' cash management strategies, also leveraging social networks of the poor; capacity building of suppliers, distributors and retailers and collaborations with other organisations (NGOs, development organisation, social enterprises) to leverage knowledge and infrastructure. UNDP (2008\\) also highlight that business have had to remove market constraints that would more normally be the province of government, for example by investing in education, energy supply and infrastructure. This is consistent with Porter and Kramer (2006\\) view on competitive context.",
"They found Hills, *et al.*{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\\-FSG\\-Report\\-Shared\\-Value\\-in\\-Emerging\\-Markets.aspx \\|author1\\=Hills, G. \\|author2\\=Russell, P. \\|author3\\=Borgonovi, V. \\|author4\\=Doty A. \\|author5\\=Lyer, L. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|title\\=Shared Value in Emerging Markets: How Multinational Corporations Are Redefining Business Strategies to Reach Poor or Vulnerable Populations \\|publisher\\=FSG \\|date\\=September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019054105/http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\\-FSG\\-Report\\-Shared\\-Value\\-in\\-Emerging\\-Markets.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} mention a number of external conditions were also identified that successful shared value companies had been able to leverage, including governments' openness to private sector participation in socio\\-economic development and/or the availability of external funding.\n* Indian government support of [ICICI Lombard](/wiki/ICICI_Lombard \"ICICI Lombard\")'s weather\\-based insurance and microfinance providers (through priority lending mechanisms),\n* [DFID](/wiki/Department_for_International_Development \"Department for International Development\")'s support of [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone \"Vodafone\") in developing [M\\-PESA](/wiki/M-PESA \"M-PESA\"). \nStrong partners are also important, either through civil society organisations that provide insights into local needs or other companies that share similar philosophies, for example distributors who may also need to adapt their business model. The level of penetration in ICT can significantly lower transactions costs and link informal economies to more established markets.",
"They found Hills et al. identify two key areas that are essential for successful create shared value companies, \"intentionality\" and \"materiality.\" Intentionality requires a company or business unit to set specific goals for intended social and financial benefits with clear guidelines that can guide resource allocation decisions along the way and recommend looking at Gradl and Jenkins. A number of company factors are identified that help successful implementation, these include: a culture of innovation that allows experimentation, together with a long term outlook; senior management embracing shared value principles; cross department buy in; and strong local buy in at a local level like affiliates in developing countries. They also stress the importance of building local knowledge through developing local structures and/or strong local partners and employing multidisciplinary teams that are open to new ideas",
"The concluded by saying that materiality is important as it incentivises management to support CSV. It represents the extent to which creating shared value is central to the financial performance of a business unit or company and as materiality grows strategies are likely to be scaled up.",
""
] |
### Origins and development of shared value
A literature review was conducted into the important early work of 'shared value'. Researchers found some literature focusing on the development of shared value by Porter and Kramer (2006\) with most work coming from few sources like [the Monitor Group](/wiki/The_Monitor_Group "The Monitor Group").{{cite web\|last1\=Williams\|first1\= R. \|last2\= Hayes\|first2\= J. \|title\=Literature review: seminal papers on Shared value\|year\= 2013\|publisher\= ECONOMIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR PROFESSIONAL EVIDENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICES \|url\=http://partnerplatform.org/?5mar03m5}}
More extensively the literature is from development organisations focusing on case studies into the interrelated area of business ventures at the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid "Bottom of the pyramid") or [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") strategies/models.Seminal papers on 'Shared value'
Outside these case studies, limited literature was found so the paper presented lessons learnt from [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") and [interrelated business](/wiki/Interrelated_business "Interrelated business") models to show how they developed and business strategies to engage with the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid "Bottom of the pyramid").
The term "shared value" is found in Porter and Kramer's (2006\) article, "Strategy and society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility" and was a development by Porter of previous thinking on business strategy. This article was the winner of the McKinsey Award for the best *Harvard Business Review* article in 2006\.
From the [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility "Corporate Social Responsibility") perspective, they observed companies could have worked harder reflecting flaws in CSR that business is pitted against society rather recognising their interdependence; and second, CSR is viewed in a generic sense rather than strategically.
To boost innovation and competitive advantage they say companies need to make CSR part of their core business strategy and researchers saw this as development of Porter's 1985 'Competitive Advantage' work where firms' activities were redefined through their value chains to boost competitive advantage through cost improvements or differentiation.
Their argument that [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") can do both contrasts with [Milton Friedman](/wiki/Milton_Friedman "Milton Friedman")'s view that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits.
Social value activities can overlap with traditional CSR. Efforts to promote sustainability through CSR may cut costs for the company and boost profitability, CSR and core business processes can become indistinguishable from one another, moving to what the authors' term "corporate social integration." By drawing attention to the way society impinges on business (rather than only business on society) it provides justification for solving society's problems as a core business strategy.
Porter and Kramer (2002\) "The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy", seeks to address the tension of addressing the demand for greater levels of CSR with the demand for short term profits focusing on how a society's 'competitive context' impacts business arguing it is possible to see long term economic and social goals as connected.
|
[
"### Origins and development of shared value",
"A literature review was conducted into the important early work of 'shared value'. Researchers found some literature focusing on the development of shared value by Porter and Kramer (2006\\) with most work coming from few sources like [the Monitor Group](/wiki/The_Monitor_Group \"The Monitor Group\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Williams\\|first1\\= R. \\|last2\\= Hayes\\|first2\\= J. \\|title\\=Literature review: seminal papers on Shared value\\|year\\= 2013\\|publisher\\= ECONOMIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR PROFESSIONAL EVIDENCE AND APPLIED KNOWLEDGE SERVICES \\|url\\=http://partnerplatform.org/?5mar03m5}}",
"More extensively the literature is from development organisations focusing on case studies into the interrelated area of business ventures at the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid \"Bottom of the pyramid\") or [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") strategies/models.Seminal papers on 'Shared value'",
"Outside these case studies, limited literature was found so the paper presented lessons learnt from [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") and [interrelated business](/wiki/Interrelated_business \"Interrelated business\") models to show how they developed and business strategies to engage with the [bottom of the pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_pyramid \"Bottom of the pyramid\").",
"The term \"shared value\" is found in Porter and Kramer's (2006\\) article, \"Strategy and society: the link between competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility\" and was a development by Porter of previous thinking on business strategy. This article was the winner of the McKinsey Award for the best *Harvard Business Review* article in 2006\\.",
"From the [Corporate Social Responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility \"Corporate Social Responsibility\") perspective, they observed companies could have worked harder reflecting flaws in CSR that business is pitted against society rather recognising their interdependence; and second, CSR is viewed in a generic sense rather than strategically.",
"To boost innovation and competitive advantage they say companies need to make CSR part of their core business strategy and researchers saw this as development of Porter's 1985 'Competitive Advantage' work where firms' activities were redefined through their value chains to boost competitive advantage through cost improvements or differentiation.",
"Their argument that [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") can do both contrasts with [Milton Friedman](/wiki/Milton_Friedman \"Milton Friedman\")'s view that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits.",
"Social value activities can overlap with traditional CSR. Efforts to promote sustainability through CSR may cut costs for the company and boost profitability, CSR and core business processes can become indistinguishable from one another, moving to what the authors' term \"corporate social integration.\" By drawing attention to the way society impinges on business (rather than only business on society) it provides justification for solving society's problems as a core business strategy.",
"Porter and Kramer (2002\\) \"The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy\", seeks to address the tension of addressing the demand for greater levels of CSR with the demand for short term profits focusing on how a society's 'competitive context' impacts business arguing it is possible to see long term economic and social goals as connected.",
""
] |
### Creating shared value
The researchers found shared value has not greatly progressed, with subsequent literature focused on the types of models and activities that businesses are undertaking to create shared value.
They claim a slight development was Porter and Kramer's 2011 attempt to broaden the concept of shared value beyond the arena of [corporate social responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility "Corporate social responsibility") with a greater focus on the nature of capitalism and markets, noting dislocations with current capitalism, emphasising the inherent social nature of markets, and suggesting that by adopting shared value principles business and society will be reconnected creating new innovation and socially imbued capitalism.
Whilst it can be argued that capitalism would certainly change if businesses *en masse* re\-orientated their core frameworks to focus on shared value, there is little analysis on how this would occur. The authors themselves recognise this.
Through innovation in new technologies, operating methods, and management approaches a firm can improve society while increasing their productivity and profitability. Porter and Kramer identify GE, Google, IBM and Unilever as having adopted shared value principles but note that "our recognition of the transformative power of shared value is still in its genesis", and argue that addressing social constraints does not necessarily raise internal costs for firms. In a 2013 article, Pfitzer *et al.* add [Dow Chemicals](/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company "Dow Chemical Company"), [Nestlé](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9 "Nestlé"), [Novartis](/wiki/Novartis "Novartis"), [Mars](/wiki/Mars%2C_Incorporated "Mars, Incorporated") and [Intel](/wiki/Intel "Intel") to their "Who's Creating Shared Value" list. They cite, for example, a "cross\-sector coalition" in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast "Ivory Coast") supported by Mars, which was established to "avoid looming cocoa shortages".Pfitzer, M., Bockstette, V. and Stamp, M., [Innovating for Shared Value](https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value), Harvard Business Review, September 2013, accessed 24 July 2022
To create shared value companies should:\-
* Reconceive products and markets to provide appropriate services and meet unmet needs. For example, the provision of low\-cost [cell phones](/wiki/Cell_phone "Cell phone") developed new market opportunities as well as new services for people living in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty "Poverty").
* Redefine productivity in the value chain to mitigate risks and boost productivity. For example, in reducing excess packing in product distribution reducing cost and environmental degradation.
* Enable local cluster development by improving the external framework that supports the company's operations, for example by developing the skills of suppliers.
#### The business perspective
The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.
They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\- investment.
The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.
They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in "Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.
The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.
#### Shared value and the bottom of the pyramid
Much focus has been on the application of shared value at the bottom of the pyramid reflecting both greater social needs among this group and the new markets they offer.
The researchers mention Porter and Kramer's example of [Hindustan Unilever](/wiki/Hindustan_Unilever "Hindustan Unilever")'s innovation in hygiene products distribution, using smaller package sizes, creating new business opportunities and appropriate products for the poor, a classic the bottom of the pyramid model. They also mention Prahalad and Hart's "The Fortune at the [Bottom of the Pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Pyramid "Bottom of the Pyramid")" paper which sets out how attractive the bottom of the pyramid is for MNCs with commercial and social opportunities through mutual value creation by reorientating their core business to provide products for these consumers.
The researchers claim this thesis challenged assumptions that business success and creating social value was not possible at the lower end of the market.
#### Inclusive business models
Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled "The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.
Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:
* "inclusive business models" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains
* "complementary strategies" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\-skilling workers.
The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme "United Nations Development Programme") definition "create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\-governmental organisations" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models "Inclusive business models")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.
They show the UNDP paper (2008\) "Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in "Inclusive Business \- profitable business for successful development".
They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with "doing good", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.
Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business").
|
[
"### Creating shared value",
"The researchers found shared value has not greatly progressed, with subsequent literature focused on the types of models and activities that businesses are undertaking to create shared value.",
"They claim a slight development was Porter and Kramer's 2011 attempt to broaden the concept of shared value beyond the arena of [corporate social responsibility](/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility \"Corporate social responsibility\") with a greater focus on the nature of capitalism and markets, noting dislocations with current capitalism, emphasising the inherent social nature of markets, and suggesting that by adopting shared value principles business and society will be reconnected creating new innovation and socially imbued capitalism.",
"Whilst it can be argued that capitalism would certainly change if businesses *en masse* re\\-orientated their core frameworks to focus on shared value, there is little analysis on how this would occur. The authors themselves recognise this.",
"Through innovation in new technologies, operating methods, and management approaches a firm can improve society while increasing their productivity and profitability. Porter and Kramer identify GE, Google, IBM and Unilever as having adopted shared value principles but note that \"our recognition of the transformative power of shared value is still in its genesis\", and argue that addressing social constraints does not necessarily raise internal costs for firms. In a 2013 article, Pfitzer *et al.* add [Dow Chemicals](/wiki/Dow_Chemical_Company \"Dow Chemical Company\"), [Nestlé](/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9 \"Nestlé\"), [Novartis](/wiki/Novartis \"Novartis\"), [Mars](/wiki/Mars%2C_Incorporated \"Mars, Incorporated\") and [Intel](/wiki/Intel \"Intel\") to their \"Who's Creating Shared Value\" list. They cite, for example, a \"cross\\-sector coalition\" in [Ivory Coast](/wiki/Ivory_Coast \"Ivory Coast\") supported by Mars, which was established to \"avoid looming cocoa shortages\".Pfitzer, M., Bockstette, V. and Stamp, M., [Innovating for Shared Value](https://hbr.org/2013/09/innovating-for-shared-value), Harvard Business Review, September 2013, accessed 24 July 2022",
"To create shared value companies should:\\-\n* Reconceive products and markets to provide appropriate services and meet unmet needs. For example, the provision of low\\-cost [cell phones](/wiki/Cell_phone \"Cell phone\") developed new market opportunities as well as new services for people living in [poverty](/wiki/Poverty \"Poverty\").\n* Redefine productivity in the value chain to mitigate risks and boost productivity. For example, in reducing excess packing in product distribution reducing cost and environmental degradation.\n* Enable local cluster development by improving the external framework that supports the company's operations, for example by developing the skills of suppliers.",
"#### The business perspective",
"The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.",
"They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\\- investment.",
"The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.",
"They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in \"Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results\" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.",
"The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.",
"#### Shared value and the bottom of the pyramid",
"Much focus has been on the application of shared value at the bottom of the pyramid reflecting both greater social needs among this group and the new markets they offer.",
"The researchers mention Porter and Kramer's example of [Hindustan Unilever](/wiki/Hindustan_Unilever \"Hindustan Unilever\")'s innovation in hygiene products distribution, using smaller package sizes, creating new business opportunities and appropriate products for the poor, a classic the bottom of the pyramid model. They also mention Prahalad and Hart's \"The Fortune at the [Bottom of the Pyramid](/wiki/Bottom_of_the_Pyramid \"Bottom of the Pyramid\")\" paper which sets out how attractive the bottom of the pyramid is for MNCs with commercial and social opportunities through mutual value creation by reorientating their core business to provide products for these consumers.",
"The researchers claim this thesis challenged assumptions that business success and creating social value was not possible at the lower end of the market.",
"#### Inclusive business models",
"Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled \"The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action\" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.",
"Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:",
"* \"inclusive business models\" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains\n* \"complementary strategies\" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\\-skilling workers.",
"The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme \"United Nations Development Programme\") definition \"create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\\-governmental organisations\" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models \"Inclusive business models\")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.",
"They show the UNDP paper (2008\\) \"Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor\" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in \"Inclusive Business \\- profitable business for successful development\".",
"They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with \"doing good\", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.",
"Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\").",
""
] |
#### The business perspective
The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.
They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value "Shared value") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\- investment.
The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.
They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in "Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.
The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.
|
[
"#### The business perspective",
"The researchers found little evidence of an overall business perspective on the shared value framework, not surprising given the relatively newness of the concept as firms may have been pursuing shared value practices without it being realised as such, especially outside of the US and it was not clear how to measure if a business is pursuing shared value as opposed to overlapping areas of CSR or philanthropic activities. Counterfactuals of non SV approaches in case studies were not offered and tools and strategies to integrate, operationalise and measure shared value are only now being developed.",
"They found authors that have promoted [shared value](/wiki/Shared_value \"Shared value\") provide case studies from US based Multinational Corporations (MNCs) that are explicitly pursuing shared value principles and that resource flows could be significant as GE are investing $6bn to improve health\\-care access through there 'Healthymagination' programme. They found little analysis as to how much this represents of total GE investment or how shared value investment in a sector compares with nonshared value\\- investment.",
"The researchers claim Multi National Corporation motivations are mixed with some highlighting climate change and others a desire for employees to have better links with local communities.",
"They found little documentation outside success stories of influence elsewhere. Porter noted in \"Measuring shared value; how to unlock value by linking social and Business Results\" that without clear evidence of the impact of the shared value proposition (and tools to measure it) it will be difficult to attract investors.",
"The researchers propose that shared value may have added to the wider discourse that views the private sector as key for development and profitable business models as consistent with enhancing social impact but make clear that they do not mean that shared value directly influenced the more established interest in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), with few of the initial [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") papers discussing shared value concepts in any detail. They say a more direct influence, consistent with moves in [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\"), is companies pursuing shared value developed new types of relationships with other organisations like NGOs.",
""
] |
#### Inclusive business models
Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled "The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.
Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:
* "inclusive business models" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains
* "complementary strategies" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\-skilling workers.
The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme "United Nations Development Programme") definition "create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\-governmental organisations" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models "Inclusive business models")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.
They show the UNDP paper (2008\) "Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in "Inclusive Business \- profitable business for successful development".
They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with "doing good", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.
Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business").
|
[
"#### Inclusive business models",
"Direct links between shared value and the bottom of the pyramid were further brought together in a 2007 conference titled \"The role of the private sector in expanding economic opportunity through collaborative action\" hosted by Harvard CSR Initiative, FSG Social Impact Advisors, and the IFC focusing on how companies could improve livelihoods of the bottom of the pyramid through both new services and new markets.",
"Two complementary frameworks companies were using promoting shared value were examined by the researchers:",
"* \"inclusive business models\" which aim to directly involve the poor in their value chains\n* \"complementary strategies\" that aim to enhance the overall environment for such models to flourish, for example by shaping public policy or up\\-skilling workers.",
"The researchers used the 2008 [UNDP](/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme \"United Nations Development Programme\") definition \"create value by providing products and services to or sourcing from the poor, including the earned income strategies of non\\-governmental organisations\" to describe '[Inclusive business models](/wiki/Inclusive_business_models \"Inclusive business models\")' as an umbrella term for a range of models.",
"They show the UNDP paper (2008\\) \"Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor\" which examines over 50 inclusive business ventures and the partnership between World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and SNV (2008\\) which developed the concept in Latin America, captured in \"Inclusive Business \\- profitable business for successful development\".",
"They found whilst [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") is closely related to shared value in that both highlight profits motives as being compatible with \"doing good\", its origins are less centred in CSR strategies, and that Caroline Ashley in her 2009 paper that as the shared value concept moved CSR to be more grounded in business strategy and inclusive business moved sustainable business terminology towards a more profit and less ethical framework.",
"Within [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") there is also less of a focus on gaining competitive advantage through social impact (although that is still one of the potential benefits) with the overriding feature that marries profit with development impact. Inclusive business models can be found in a wide variety of companies, while shared value literature has so tended to be focused on MNCs, and as noted in relation to Hindustan Unilever, a number of business models could be described as consistent with shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\").",
""
] |
### Application of inclusive business models
#### The landscape of inclusive business
This section provides an insight into both practical development and the types of business strategies being pursued. The researchers of the literature review into shared value found no single framework for shared value or inclusive business models. They found Davis commenting in 2012Davis, P. (2012\) Let Business do Business: The Role of the Corporate Sector in International development. ODI Background Note, July 2012 about how the corporate sector is highly non\-uniform and Caroline Ashley's 2009 paper, "Harnessing core business for development impact"Ashley, C. (2009a) Harnessing core business for development impact. Overseas Development Institute, Background Note, February 2009 illustrating four inclusive business models with different value propositions and the variation in size of inclusive business models:
* Group A consists of commercial businesses that sell products needed by the poor which possess a high development impact, such as financial services.
* Group B are companies that impact the poor in the normal course of their activities but take deliberate action to expand and improve this impact, for example, mining companies that improve their local value chains.
* Group C captures SMEs that are embedded in the local economy and therefore dependent on its development.
* Group D companies are enterprises that focus on a social product but with a commercial model of delivery.
The researchers found that while much of the literature on shared value concentrates on MNCs, the focus in developing countries is on a range of different company types.
#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid
The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance "Access to finance") as one of the main obstacles to their business.
They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\-to\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.
As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012
They found Lucci's 2012 paper "Post\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?"{{cite web\|last\=Lucci\|first\= P. \|year\=2012\|title\= Post\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \|work\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\|url\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\-post\-2015\-millennium\-development\-goals\-role\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: "harnessing innovation capacity" and "leveraging supply chains and the production process".
The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\): 48\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\): 54\-54\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.
In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\-price, low\-margin, high\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that "because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\-of\-the\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid."
Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are
* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;
* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;
* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.
These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale "Economies of scale"), cross subsidise and manage risk.
Karnani (2007\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.
Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.
London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.
The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller "SABMiller") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.
Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\-
* "micro distribution and retail" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;
* "experience\-based customer credit" provided by non\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.
* "last\-mile grid utilities" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\-income neighbourhoods;
* "[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding "Smallholding") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement "Procurement")" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;
* "value for money housing" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and
* "e\-transaction platforms" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor."
#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems
The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.
They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this:
* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania "Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business
* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.
They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a "genuinely symbiotic relationship" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.
An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative "Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.
This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through "strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed." This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor "Making Markets Work for the Poor") (M4P).
They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\-sharing and public policy dialogue.
|
[
"### Application of inclusive business models",
"#### The landscape of inclusive business",
"This section provides an insight into both practical development and the types of business strategies being pursued. The researchers of the literature review into shared value found no single framework for shared value or inclusive business models. They found Davis commenting in 2012Davis, P. (2012\\) Let Business do Business: The Role of the Corporate Sector in International development. ODI Background Note, July 2012 about how the corporate sector is highly non\\-uniform and Caroline Ashley's 2009 paper, \"Harnessing core business for development impact\"Ashley, C. (2009a) Harnessing core business for development impact. Overseas Development Institute, Background Note, February 2009 illustrating four inclusive business models with different value propositions and the variation in size of inclusive business models:",
"* Group A consists of commercial businesses that sell products needed by the poor which possess a high development impact, such as financial services.\n* Group B are companies that impact the poor in the normal course of their activities but take deliberate action to expand and improve this impact, for example, mining companies that improve their local value chains.\n* Group C captures SMEs that are embedded in the local economy and therefore dependent on its development.\n* Group D companies are enterprises that focus on a social product but with a commercial model of delivery.",
"The researchers found that while much of the literature on shared value concentrates on MNCs, the focus in developing countries is on a range of different company types.",
"#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid",
"The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance \"Access to finance\") as one of the main obstacles to their business.",
"They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\\-to\\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.",
"As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012",
"They found Lucci's 2012 paper \"Post\\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Lucci\\|first\\= P. \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Post\\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \\|work\\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\\|url\\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\\-post\\-2015\\-millennium\\-development\\-goals\\-role\\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: \"harnessing innovation capacity\" and \"leveraging supply chains and the production process\".",
"The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\\): 48\\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\\): 54\\-54\\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.",
"In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\\-price, low\\-margin, high\\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that \"because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\\-of\\-the\\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid.\"",
"Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are\n* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;\n* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;\n* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.",
"These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale \"Economies of scale\"), cross subsidise and manage risk.",
"Karnani (2007\\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.",
"Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.",
"London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.",
"The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller \"SABMiller\") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.",
"Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\\-\n* \"micro distribution and retail\" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;\n* \"experience\\-based customer credit\" provided by non\\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.\n* \"last\\-mile grid utilities\" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\\-income neighbourhoods;\n* \"[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding \"Smallholding\") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement \"Procurement\")\" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;\n* \"value for money housing\" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and\n* \"e\\-transaction platforms\" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor.\"",
"#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems",
"The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.",
"They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this: \n* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania \"Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania\") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business\n* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.",
"They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a \"genuinely symbiotic relationship\" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.",
"An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative \"Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems\"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.",
"This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through \"strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed.\" This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor \"Making Markets Work for the Poor\") (M4P).",
"They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\\-sharing and public policy dialogue.",
""
] |
#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid
The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance "Access to finance") as one of the main obstacles to their business.
They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\-to\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.
As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012
They found Lucci's 2012 paper "Post\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?"{{cite web\|last\=Lucci\|first\= P. \|year\=2012\|title\= Post\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \|work\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\|url\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\-post\-2015\-millennium\-development\-goals\-role\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: "harnessing innovation capacity" and "leveraging supply chains and the production process".
The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\): 48\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\): 54\-54\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.
In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\-price, low\-margin, high\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that "because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\-of\-the\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid."
Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are
* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;
* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;
* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.
These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale "Economies of scale"), cross subsidise and manage risk.
Karnani (2007\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.
Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.
London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.
The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller "SABMiller") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.
Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\-
* "micro distribution and retail" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;
* "experience\-based customer credit" provided by non\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.
* "last\-mile grid utilities" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\-income neighbourhoods;
* "[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding "Smallholding") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement "Procurement")" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;
* "value for money housing" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and
* "e\-transaction platforms" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor."
|
[
"#### Applying inclusive business models to the bottom of the pyramid",
"The researchers identified a number of constraints for companies attempting to create shared value. They found the IFCIFC (2012\\) Policy Note on the Business Environment for Inclusive Business Models, IFC: Washington presenting the results of a survey analysing the obstacles to companies wishing to incorporate inclusive business models in their value chains. Around 90% of the 167 applicants identified [access to finance](/wiki/Access_to_finance \"Access to finance\") as one of the main obstacles to their business.",
"They found other major obstacles included poor infrastructure and lack of qualified labour with the UNDPUNDP (2008\\) Creating Value for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. United Nations Development Programme: New York also identifying further obstacles including a hard\\-to\\-reach customer base, suppliers with limited capabilities, limited market information and inadequate regulation.",
"As inclusive business model products are often entering new markets they tend to be push based requiring high levels of awareness\\-building and education, unlike pull categories that customers already desire, like low cost cell phones.Monitor 2012",
"They found Lucci's 2012 paper \"Post\\-2015 Millennium Development Goals: What role for business?\"{{cite web\\|last\\=Lucci\\|first\\= P. \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Post\\-2015 Millennium development Goals: What role for business? \\|work\\=Overseas Development Institute, Opinion File\\|url\\=http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/6645\\-post\\-2015\\-millennium\\-development\\-goals\\-role\\-business}} identifying two dominant core business models pursued at the bottom of the pyramid: \"harnessing innovation capacity\" and \"leveraging supply chains and the production process\".",
"The first can in part be viewed as the earlier framework of inclusive business models, which aimed to target low\\-income consumers through product innovation, such as the example mentioned above of Hindustan Unilever marketing products in more appropriate packagingPrahalad, C. K. and Hammond A., (2002\\) Serving the World's Poor Profitably, Harvard Business Review, 80 (9\\): 48\\-57Prahalad, C. K., and Hart, S. (2001\\) The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid. Strategy and Business (2002\\): 54\\-54\\. which relied on a high return of capital employed, often through shared access services, and a low cost, high volume strategy.",
"In contrast, they found a 2012 business review paper by Simanis,Simanis, E. (2012\\), Reality Check at the Bottom of the Pyramid, *Harvard Business Review*, June 2012 who argued there was a flaw in this low\\-price, low\\-margin, high\\-volume strategy that MNCs have adopted and only works if two characteristics exist: the ability to leverage existing infrastructure that already serves wealthier customers; and consumers already know how to buy and use the product offering. They found Simanis theorised these characteristics were often missing with him concluding that \"because the high costs of doing business among the very poor demand a high contribution per transaction, companies must embrace the reality that high margins aren't just a top\\-of\\-the\\-pyramid phenomenon; they're also a necessity for ensuring sustainable businesses at the bottom of the pyramid.\"",
"Simanis's three solutions for generating higher values are\n* a localised base product with final processing prior to sale as close to the target market as possible, saving on labour costs;\n* offering an enabling service to improve the value of the service offered;\n* and to cultivate customer peer groups to drive up aggregate demand.",
"These received criticism in Karnani's 2007 paperKarnani, A. (2007\\) The Mirage of Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid: How the Private Sector Can Help Alleviate Poverty, California Management Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 which suggests that costs to serve the poor are still too high and the bottom of the pyramid will not be reached. The researchers found consistencies with an IFC report that a number of its successful models were 'whole pyramid' models, with the 'bottom of the pyramid' segments part of a broader market, allowing companies to leverage existing infrastructure, achieve [economies of scale](/wiki/Economies_of_scale \"Economies of scale\"), cross subsidise and manage risk.",
"Karnani (2007\\) also argued that as the poor often make choices that are not in their own self\\-interest like the use of whitening cream in developing countries, consumer\\-led models that develop new product options may be inappropriate with much of the current discussion around consumer protection and over\\-indebtedness in microfinanceStewart, R, Van Rooyen C, Dickson K, Majoro M and De Wet T (2010\\) What is the Impact of Microfinance on Poor People? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Sub Saharan Africa, Technical Report, London, EPPI\\-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, University of London.",
"Karnanis paper also criticises the focus on MNCs in exploiting opportunities at the bottom of the pyramid given the greater development impact that SMEs could potentially have and he argues that inclusive business models frameworks should see the poor primarily as producers rather than as consumers.",
"London *et al*.London, T., Anupindi, R. and Sateen, S. (2010\\) Creating mutual value: Lessons learned from ventures serving base of the pyramid. Journal of Business Research 63 (2010\\) 582–594 analysed the specific constraints producers face: on value creation that relate to a producer's ability to access affordable and high\\-quality raw material, financial, and production resources; and on value capture that relate to a producer's ability to access the marketplace, assert market power, and obtain secure and consistent transactions.",
"The researchers thought London *et al*.'s focus on producers similar to the broader development of inclusive business models incorporated by UNDP (2008\\) and in Porter and KramerPorter, M and M Kramer (2011\\) The Big Idea: Creating Shared Value; How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review with a greater focus on value chain development as opposed to product innovation. Lucci' second major category and she provides the example of [SABMiller](/wiki/SABMiller \"SABMiller\") encouraging the local production of sorghum in Uganda to replace more expensive imports of barley, developing local production alongside more affordable raw materials for their breweries.",
"Within these broad categories there are a huge range of specific models that companies have adopted. An IFC publicationJenkins, B., Ishikawa, E., Geaneotes, A., Baptista, P., and Masuoka, T. (2011\\). Accelerating Inclusive Business Opportunities: Business Models that Make a Difference. Washington, DC: IFC identifies a range of model types which include:\\-\n* \"micro distribution and retail\" which leverages existing retail outlets in neighbourhoods where consumers make small, frequent purchases locally, like telecommunication companies selling airtime;\n* \"experience\\-based customer credit\" provided by non\\-financial firms mostly to their own employees, providing access to finance and to the provider companies.\n* \"last\\-mile grid utilities\" through a combination of financing, technology and management innovations, mitigate normal constraints extend grid coverage to more distant and often lower\\-income neighbourhoods;\n* \"[smallholder](/wiki/Smallholding \"Smallholding\") [procurement](/wiki/Procurement \"Procurement\")\" value chain upgrades through aggregation methods;\n* \"value for money housing\" through a combination of facilitating mortgage financial and new housing products which are appropriate to the poor including support services, such as understanding training in the mortgage process; and\n* \"e\\-transaction platforms\" which can bring a range of new services (and therefore new markets) more conveniently and securely to the poor.\"",
""
] |
#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems
The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.
They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this:
* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania "Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business
* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.
They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a "genuinely symbiotic relationship" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.
An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative "Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.
This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through "strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed." This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor "Making Markets Work for the Poor") (M4P).
They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\-sharing and public policy dialogue.
|
[
"#### Inclusive business (and shared value) ecosystems",
"The researchers wrote that an emerging development in these models consistent across the [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") and shared value literature is the types of partnerships that they may involve between companies and other actors.",
"They found companies need often to enter into broader partnerships to leverage local knowledge or scale up interventions. Lucci highlights two examples of this: \n* the [Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania](/wiki/Southern_Agricultural_Growth_Corridor_of_Tanzania \"Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania\") (SAGCOT) where governments and donors commit to investing in infrastructure to incentivise agricultural business\n* longer term platforms that seek to recreate market mechanisms in research and development, such as work by the GAVI Alliance in health vaccines.",
"They found Davis arguing that the state and corporate sector need a \"genuinely symbiotic relationship\" which recognises the potential developmental activity that companies undertake as core operations, noting however that this rarely exists.",
"An emerging development that builds on this is captured in a joint collaboration between the IFC and Harvard's CSR Initiative \"Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems\"Gradl, C. and Jenkins, B. (2011\\) Tackling Barriers to Scale: From Inclusive Business Models to Inclusive Business Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. who suggest that despite some successes, given the levels of investment, inclusive business models record is limited and there are systemic barriers to scale that can only be tackled in collaboration with other players in the private sector, in government and in civil society.",
"This can be achieved by strengthening 'inclusive business ecosystems' through \"strategically engaging the networks of interconnected, interdependent players whose actions determine whether or not their inclusive business models will succeed.\" This move of focus away from the firm level, similar to market development approaches, such as [Making Markets Work for the Poor](/wiki/Making_Markets_Work_for_the_Poor \"Making Markets Work for the Poor\") (M4P).",
"They conclude the initial stage of the research by identifying that a number of strategies companies have used to strengthen these eco\\-systems including the bottom of the pyramid awareness\\-raising and capacity building within the company, research, information\\-sharing and public policy dialogue.",
""
] |
### Lessons learned
#### Measurement and impact
Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\): 106\-113 says that feel\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures." And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009
They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.
They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\|last\=Wach\|first\= E \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \|url\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.
Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.
They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\-core business approach.
Porter et al.{{cite web\|author1\=Porter, M. \|author2\=Hills, G. \|author3\=Pfitzer, M. \|author4\=Patscheke, S. \|author5\= Hawkins, E. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\|publisher\= FSG\|url\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.
The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS "SYRCS"){{cite journal \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=DeTombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \|journal\=Information Systems and E\-Business Management \|date\=8 May 2021 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=3 \|page\=1 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10257\-021\-00525\-4\|s2cid\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=Detombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=System redesign to creating shared value \|url\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\-redesign\-for\-shared\-value/ \|website\=I2insights\|date\=19 July 2021 }}
#### Successful strategies
Notwithstanding the limitations in the evidence base there have been a number of reports that have sought to capture and synthesise lessons from successful shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business "Inclusive business") ventures. In an extensive report looking into various aspects of inclusive business models,{{cite web\|last1\=Gradl\|first1\= C.\|last2\= Knobloch\|first2\= C. \|year\=2010\|title\= How to Develop Business and Fight Poverty. Endeva, Berlin\|url\=http://www.boplearninglab.dk/bop\-learning\-lab/activities/news/publication\-how\-to\-develop\-business\-and\-fight\-poverty.html\|website\=boplearninglab.dk}} Gradl and Knobloch document a range of benefits for business, in particular access to new markets, in terms of access to new consumers and producers and through the potential for cheaper and higher quality production based on growth\-intensive sales and the development of new products.
They found that enhanced reputation may also lead to enhanced partnerships from customers, suppliers and governments UNDP. An IFC report into the impact of their portfolio of inclusive business models,Jenkins, B. and Ishikawa, E. (2010\) Scaling Up Inclusive Business: Advancing the Knowledge and Action Agenda. Washington, DC: International Finance Corporation and the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. found that revenue growth had been the main business outcome for business, whereas development outcomes included expanded economic opportunities for suppliers, distributors and retailers and access to goods and services
They found factors which led to successful models included, adaption of products and processes that leveraged networks and to reach significant numbers of low\-income consumers; models designed to be appropriate with low\-income groups' cash management strategies, also leveraging social networks of the poor; capacity building of suppliers, distributors and retailers and collaborations with other organisations (NGOs, development organisation, social enterprises) to leverage knowledge and infrastructure. UNDP (2008\) also highlight that business have had to remove market constraints that would more normally be the province of government, for example by investing in education, energy supply and infrastructure. This is consistent with Porter and Kramer (2006\) view on competitive context.
They found Hills, *et al.*{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\-FSG\-Report\-Shared\-Value\-in\-Emerging\-Markets.aspx \|author1\=Hills, G. \|author2\=Russell, P. \|author3\=Borgonovi, V. \|author4\=Doty A. \|author5\=Lyer, L. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|title\=Shared Value in Emerging Markets: How Multinational Corporations Are Redefining Business Strategies to Reach Poor or Vulnerable Populations \|publisher\=FSG \|date\=September 2012 \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019054105/http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\-FSG\-Report\-Shared\-Value\-in\-Emerging\-Markets.aspx \|archive\-date\=2013\-10\-19 \|url\-status\=dead }} mention a number of external conditions were also identified that successful shared value companies had been able to leverage, including governments' openness to private sector participation in socio\-economic development and/or the availability of external funding.
* Indian government support of [ICICI Lombard](/wiki/ICICI_Lombard "ICICI Lombard")'s weather\-based insurance and microfinance providers (through priority lending mechanisms),
* [DFID](/wiki/Department_for_International_Development "Department for International Development")'s support of [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone "Vodafone") in developing [M\-PESA](/wiki/M-PESA "M-PESA").
Strong partners are also important, either through civil society organisations that provide insights into local needs or other companies that share similar philosophies, for example distributors who may also need to adapt their business model. The level of penetration in ICT can significantly lower transactions costs and link informal economies to more established markets.
They found Hills et al. identify two key areas that are essential for successful create shared value companies, "intentionality" and "materiality." Intentionality requires a company or business unit to set specific goals for intended social and financial benefits with clear guidelines that can guide resource allocation decisions along the way and recommend looking at Gradl and Jenkins. A number of company factors are identified that help successful implementation, these include: a culture of innovation that allows experimentation, together with a long term outlook; senior management embracing shared value principles; cross department buy in; and strong local buy in at a local level like affiliates in developing countries. They also stress the importance of building local knowledge through developing local structures and/or strong local partners and employing multidisciplinary teams that are open to new ideas
The concluded by saying that materiality is important as it incentivises management to support CSV. It represents the extent to which creating shared value is central to the financial performance of a business unit or company and as materiality grows strategies are likely to be scaled up.
|
[
"### Lessons learned",
"#### Measurement and impact",
"Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\\): 106\\-113 says that feel\\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures.\" And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009",
"They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.",
"They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\\|last\\=Wach\\|first\\= E \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \\|url\\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.",
"Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.",
"They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\\-core business approach.",
"Porter et al.{{cite web\\|author1\\=Porter, M. \\|author2\\=Hills, G. \\|author3\\=Pfitzer, M. \\|author4\\=Patscheke, S. \\|author5\\= Hawkins, E. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\\|publisher\\= FSG\\|url\\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.",
"The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS \"SYRCS\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=DeTombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \\|journal\\=Information Systems and E\\-Business Management \\|date\\=8 May 2021 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=3 \\|page\\=1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10257\\-021\\-00525\\-4\\|s2cid\\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=Detombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=System redesign to creating shared value \\|url\\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\\-redesign\\-for\\-shared\\-value/ \\|website\\=I2insights\\|date\\=19 July 2021 }}",
"#### Successful strategies",
"Notwithstanding the limitations in the evidence base there have been a number of reports that have sought to capture and synthesise lessons from successful shared value and [inclusive business](/wiki/Inclusive_business \"Inclusive business\") ventures. In an extensive report looking into various aspects of inclusive business models,{{cite web\\|last1\\=Gradl\\|first1\\= C.\\|last2\\= Knobloch\\|first2\\= C. \\|year\\=2010\\|title\\= How to Develop Business and Fight Poverty. Endeva, Berlin\\|url\\=http://www.boplearninglab.dk/bop\\-learning\\-lab/activities/news/publication\\-how\\-to\\-develop\\-business\\-and\\-fight\\-poverty.html\\|website\\=boplearninglab.dk}} Gradl and Knobloch document a range of benefits for business, in particular access to new markets, in terms of access to new consumers and producers and through the potential for cheaper and higher quality production based on growth\\-intensive sales and the development of new products.",
"They found that enhanced reputation may also lead to enhanced partnerships from customers, suppliers and governments UNDP. An IFC report into the impact of their portfolio of inclusive business models,Jenkins, B. and Ishikawa, E. (2010\\) Scaling Up Inclusive Business: Advancing the Knowledge and Action Agenda. Washington, DC: International Finance Corporation and the CSR Initiative at the Harvard Kennedy School. found that revenue growth had been the main business outcome for business, whereas development outcomes included expanded economic opportunities for suppliers, distributors and retailers and access to goods and services",
"They found factors which led to successful models included, adaption of products and processes that leveraged networks and to reach significant numbers of low\\-income consumers; models designed to be appropriate with low\\-income groups' cash management strategies, also leveraging social networks of the poor; capacity building of suppliers, distributors and retailers and collaborations with other organisations (NGOs, development organisation, social enterprises) to leverage knowledge and infrastructure. UNDP (2008\\) also highlight that business have had to remove market constraints that would more normally be the province of government, for example by investing in education, energy supply and infrastructure. This is consistent with Porter and Kramer (2006\\) view on competitive context.",
"They found Hills, *et al.*{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\\-FSG\\-Report\\-Shared\\-Value\\-in\\-Emerging\\-Markets.aspx \\|author1\\=Hills, G. \\|author2\\=Russell, P. \\|author3\\=Borgonovi, V. \\|author4\\=Doty A. \\|author5\\=Lyer, L. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|title\\=Shared Value in Emerging Markets: How Multinational Corporations Are Redefining Business Strategies to Reach Poor or Vulnerable Populations \\|publisher\\=FSG \\|date\\=September 2012 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019054105/http://www.fsg.org/FSGNews/NewsEventsDetails/ArticleId/753/New\\-FSG\\-Report\\-Shared\\-Value\\-in\\-Emerging\\-Markets.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-10\\-19 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} mention a number of external conditions were also identified that successful shared value companies had been able to leverage, including governments' openness to private sector participation in socio\\-economic development and/or the availability of external funding.\n* Indian government support of [ICICI Lombard](/wiki/ICICI_Lombard \"ICICI Lombard\")'s weather\\-based insurance and microfinance providers (through priority lending mechanisms),\n* [DFID](/wiki/Department_for_International_Development \"Department for International Development\")'s support of [Vodafone](/wiki/Vodafone \"Vodafone\") in developing [M\\-PESA](/wiki/M-PESA \"M-PESA\"). \nStrong partners are also important, either through civil society organisations that provide insights into local needs or other companies that share similar philosophies, for example distributors who may also need to adapt their business model. The level of penetration in ICT can significantly lower transactions costs and link informal economies to more established markets.",
"They found Hills et al. identify two key areas that are essential for successful create shared value companies, \"intentionality\" and \"materiality.\" Intentionality requires a company or business unit to set specific goals for intended social and financial benefits with clear guidelines that can guide resource allocation decisions along the way and recommend looking at Gradl and Jenkins. A number of company factors are identified that help successful implementation, these include: a culture of innovation that allows experimentation, together with a long term outlook; senior management embracing shared value principles; cross department buy in; and strong local buy in at a local level like affiliates in developing countries. They also stress the importance of building local knowledge through developing local structures and/or strong local partners and employing multidisciplinary teams that are open to new ideas",
"The concluded by saying that materiality is important as it incentivises management to support CSV. It represents the extent to which creating shared value is central to the financial performance of a business unit or company and as materiality grows strategies are likely to be scaled up.",
""
] |
#### Measurement and impact
Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\): 106\-113 says that feel\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures." And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009
They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.
They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\|last\=Wach\|first\= E \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \|url\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.
Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.
They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\-core business approach.
Porter et al.{{cite web\|author1\=Porter, M. \|author2\=Hills, G. \|author3\=Pfitzer, M. \|author4\=Patscheke, S. \|author5\= Hawkins, E. \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|year\=2012\|title\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\|publisher\= FSG\|url\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.
The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS "SYRCS"){{cite journal \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=DeTombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \|journal\=Information Systems and E\-Business Management \|date\=8 May 2021 \|volume\=19 \|issue\=3 \|page\=1 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10257\-021\-00525\-4\|s2cid\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \|last1\=Khazaei \|first1\=Moein \|last2\=Ramezani \|first2\=Mohammad \|last3\=Padash \|first3\=Amin \|last4\=Detombe \|first4\=Dorien \|title\=System redesign to creating shared value \|url\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\-redesign\-for\-shared\-value/ \|website\=I2insights\|date\=19 July 2021 }}
|
[
"#### Measurement and impact",
"Researchers found little rigorous analysis into the impact of shared value mechanisms, with the majority of evidence existing as standalone case studies of mixed analytical rigour. As documented above, many of these are highly positive stories combining evidence of increased revenue growth with first hand stories of social impact and found it was difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous study into their overall impact.London, T. (2009\\) Making Better Investments at the Base of the Pyramid, Harvard Business Review, 87 (5\\): 106\\-113 says that feel\\-good stories aside, it's been nearly impossible to gauge the success of these ventures.\" And this further complicated in relation to inclusive business models by the variety of business cases for companies operating at the bottom of the pyramidAshley, C. (2009b) Returns on investment in responsible business practice: higher in a downturn? Overseas Development Institute, Opinion 121, January 2009",
"They found London also arguing that the predominant focus in terms of social impact is on income, missing wider social dimensions and ignoring potential negatives like undesirable products becoming more accessible and proposed this as less of the case for inclusive business models, often supported by development agencies that have more experience with the wider dynamics of social impact at the bottom of the pyramid. All current measurement models suffer from standard impact challenges, with the emphasis on tasks completed or products distributed rather than outcomes.",
"They say there is little attempt to fully attribute a company's impact through the use of counterfactuals and recommend Wach{{cite web\\|last\\=Wach\\|first\\= E \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring the 'Inclusivity' of Inclusive Business. IDS Practice Paper 9, April 2012 \\|url\\=http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Pp9\\.pdf}} for a description of current methods used.",
"Establishing attribution to a specific company's intervention is made more difficult given the growing emphasis on partnerships that the bottom of the pyramid approaches entail. As the researchers commentary shows, most of the impact discussion to date has been focused on the contribution of companies to enhancing development.",
"They call for future research to go a step further and attempt to establish the linkages between pursuing core business model and the subsequent impact on both business and social indicators for example, compared to a counterfactual of a non\\-core business approach.",
"Porter et al.{{cite web\\|author1\\=Porter, M. \\|author2\\=Hills, G. \\|author3\\=Pfitzer, M. \\|author4\\=Patscheke, S. \\|author5\\= Hawkins, E. \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|year\\=2012\\|title\\= Measuring Shared Value: How to Unlock Value by Linking Social and Business Results\\|publisher\\= FSG\\|url\\=http://www.fsg.org/tabid/191/ArticleId/740/Default.aspx?srpush\\=true}} discuss the problems of current measurement tools that measure business and social impact separately and provides guidance in how to link social benefit to core indicators.",
"The creation of shared value is not usually systematically planned through a framework. However, in [SYRCS](/wiki/SYRCS \"SYRCS\"){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=DeTombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=Creating shared value to redesigning IT\\-service products using SYRCS; Diagnosing and tackling complex problems \\|journal\\=Information Systems and E\\-Business Management \\|date\\=8 May 2021 \\|volume\\=19 \\|issue\\=3 \\|page\\=1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10257\\-021\\-00525\\-4\\|s2cid\\=236544531 }} methodology, by using shared value criteria in decision making and using different stakeholders, an step by step framework is provided.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Khazaei \\|first1\\=Moein \\|last2\\=Ramezani \\|first2\\=Mohammad \\|last3\\=Padash \\|first3\\=Amin \\|last4\\=Detombe \\|first4\\=Dorien \\|title\\=System redesign to creating shared value \\|url\\=https://i2insights.org/2021/07/20/system\\-redesign\\-for\\-shared\\-value/ \\|website\\=I2insights\\|date\\=19 July 2021 }}",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### Convoy escort, 1943–1944
Upon the completion of her shakedown training at [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda "Bermuda") and of post\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard "Boston Navy Yard"), *Amesbury* proceeded to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), where, until 13 November she served as a unit of the [destroyer escort](/wiki/Destroyer_escort "Destroyer escort") (DE) pre\-commissioning training detail, used for the instruction of future DE sailors.
[thumb\|left\|*Amesbury* fitting out in 1943\.](/wiki/File:USS_Amesbury_%28DE-66%29_fitting_out_at_the_Bethlehem_Hingham_Shipyard_on_6_July_1943_%2819-N-85626%29.jpg "USS Amesbury (DE-66) fitting out at the Bethlehem Hingham Shipyard on 6 July 1943 (19-N-85626).jpg")
One week later, on 20 November, *Amesbury* commenced operation with [Task Force 69](/wiki/Task_Force_69 "Task Force 69") on trans\-Atlantic [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") escort runs and later joined Task Group (TG) 21\.9 in similar work. She operated in this capacity through the spring of 1943\. During this time, she served as flagship for Commander, [Escort Division 19](/wiki/Escort_Division_19 "Escort Division 19"), commanded by [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29 "Commander (United States)") H. W. Howe, on four round\-trip voyages to [Londonderry](/wiki/Londonderry_Port "Londonderry Port"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland "Northern Ireland"), and one to [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock "Greenock"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland"). At this time, [CortDiv](/wiki/CortDiv "CortDiv") 19 consisted of the destroyer escorts *Amesbury*, {{USS\|Bull\|DE\-693\|2}}, {{USS\|Bunch\|DE\-694\|2}}, {{USS\|Rich\|DE\-695\|2}}, {{USS\|Bates\|DE\-68\|2}}, and {{USS\|Blessman\|DE\-69\|2}}. On 10 May 1944, *Amesbury's* captain "fleeted up" to ComCortDiv 19, relieving CDR Howe, and LCDR Arthur B. Wilber, [USNR](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Reserve "United States Naval Reserve"), assumed command of the ship.
### Invasion of Normandy, 1944
At Londonderry on 1 June 1944, *Amesbury* reported for duty with TF 124, TG 124\.7 and, two days later, sailed to take part in the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy "Invasion of Normandy"). Arriving in the assault area on 6 June, she took up her assigned area on a screen and fire support station in the "Mason Dixie" grid. During the next week on station, *Amesbury* took part in several [anti\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft "Anti-aircraft") actions against attacking [German](/wiki/Germany "Germany") planes bedeviling the ships offshore.
Between air attacks and drifting [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"), the work of the escorts was brisk. At 2112 on 11 June, {{USS\|LST\-496\|\|2}} struck a mine while proceeding in [convoy](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") through a channel to the assault area, and *Amesbury* hastened to her assistance. Three smaller craft arrived on the scene and were busily picking up survivors before the destroyer escort reached the tank landing ship's side. As soon as *{{USS\|Altus\|PC\-568\|1}}* cleared *LST\-496*, LCDR Wilber skillfully maneuvered *Amesbury* alongside the stricken amphibious ship and moored her to remove the remainder of the LST's crew and embarked troops, summoning a doctor from *{{USS\|LCI\-530\|\|2}}* to treat the injured men taken on board.
Meanwhile, the tug *{{USS\|ATA\-125\|\|2}}* arrived on the scene and, with the assistance of *Amesbury's* sailors on board *LST\-496*, secured a tow line to the crippled ship. However, a short time later, *LST\-496,* barely underway, began to [capsize](/wiki/Capsize "Capsize") to port. *Amesbury* promptly cut her lines and maneuvered to clear, the sailors she had put on board the doomed ship to handle the lines being ordered off. [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant "Lieutenant") H. J. Riley, USNR, in charge of *Amesbury*{{'}}s detail, made certain that all of his men were safely away before he jumped to safety. Ultimately, all of the destroyer escort's sailors were picked up, uninjured, but the ship they had attempted to salvage soon sank.
*Amesbury* returned to [Plymouth, England](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_England "Plymouth, England"), the next day, 12 June and got underway for New York on 13 June. Resuming her duties with CortDiv 19, the ship made one round\-trip voyage between New York and [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland") in July.
### Return to US waters and conversion, 1944–1945
On 4 August, with the dissolution of CortDiv 19, *Amesbury* sailed for Panama as relief for the [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer "Destroyer") {{USS\|Clark\|DD\-361\|3}}. Diverted while en route, to [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), *Amesbury* reported to Commander, TG 23\.3 for temporary duty. From that time until 20 February 1945, the destroyer escort was assigned to the [Fleet Sonar School](/wiki/Fleet_Sonar_School "Fleet Sonar School") squadron, operating daily from Key West within the limits of assigned operating areas in the [Straits of Florida](/wiki/Straits_of_Florida "Straits of Florida"), in connection with training in [anti\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare "Anti-submarine warfare").
*Amesbury* arrived at the [Philadelphia Navy Yard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard "Philadelphia Navy Yard") on 23 February, was redesignated **APD\-46** on that day, and remained there until 16 May 1945 while undergoing conversion to a *Charles Lawrence*\-class [high speed transport](/wiki/High_speed_transport "High speed transport"). *Amesbury* got underway from Norfolk for the west coast and, after proceeding via the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal"), reached [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego") on 17 June. Following a brief visit to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"), the ship returned from [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") to the west coast to conduct sonar exercises with the [West Coast Sonar School](/wiki/West_Coast_Sonar_School "West Coast Sonar School") and gunnery and shakedown training with the San Diego Shakedown Group into mid\-August as the war ended in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific").
### Post\-war Pacific operations, 1945
With the 11 officers and 81 enlisted men of [Underwater Demolition Team](/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team "Underwater Demolition Team") 12 embarked, *Amesbury* sailed for [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island") on 16 August. After tarrying briefly at Pearl Harbor and in the western Pacific en route, the ship arrived at Okinawa on 4 September. She sortied the next day as part of Task Unit (TU) 78\.1\.15 for Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Inchon "Inchon")) [Korea](/wiki/Korea "Korea") to support the unfolding occupation of that region. Remaining in the area until 15 September, *Amesbury* acted as screening vessel for the anchorage while UDT\-12 conducted beach reconnaissance.
After a quick return to Okinawa, *Amesbury* proceeded to [Tientsin, China](/wiki/Tianjin "Tianjin"), on 25 September, where she supported the landings at that north [Chinese](/wiki/China "China") port. She departed Chinese waters on 4 October with a group of [tank landing ships](/wiki/Tank_landing_ship "Tank landing ship"), bound for Okinawa. En route, she destroyed three [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"), a derelict [Chinese](/wiki/China "China") [junk](/wiki/Junk_%28ship%29 "Junk (ship)"), and successfully rode out a [typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon "Typhoon").
Sailing for [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") on 22 October, *Amesbury* embarked 37 [Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") for passage back home and, in company with {{USS\|Balduck\|APD\-132\|3}}, proceeded via [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") and Pearl Harbor, on to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") arriving at San Diego on 7 November. After embarking Army passengers, *Amesbury* sailed for the east coast on 7 December and reached Norfolk soon thereafter. After disembarking her passengers and discharging ammunition and other stores, she proceeded to [Green Cove Springs, Florida](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs%2C_Florida "Green Cove Springs, Florida"), for lay\-up in the Florida Group [16th Fleet](/wiki/16th_Fleet "16th Fleet").
### Decommissioning and sale
Decommissioned and placed in reserve on 3 July 1946, *Amesbury* never again performed active service. Stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 1 June 1960, *Amesbury* was sold to [Chet Alexander Marine Salvage](/wiki/Chet_Alexander_Marine_Salvage "Chet Alexander Marine Salvage") of Key West, Florida, on 24 October 1962\. Her hulk sank approximately {{convert\|5\|nmi\|mi km\|lk\=in}} west of [Key West](/wiki/Key_West "Key West") while under tow, and now rests in {{convert\|25\|ft\|m}} of water at {{coord\|24\|36\.970\|N\|81\|58\.910\|W\|display\=inline, title}}.{{cite web \|title\=The Amesbury \|url\=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/shipwrecktrail/amesbury.html \|website\=floridakeys.noaa.gov \|access\-date\=9 September 2021}}{{cite web \|author\= Allen, Tony \|title\= Shipwrecks of Florida \|url\= http://www.electricbluefishing.com/eb\_sub\_menu/shipwreck\_list\_of\_florida.htm \|publisher\= Electric Blue Fishing \|date\= 1 February 2015 \|access\-date\= 4 August 2016 \|archive\-date\= 21 August 2016 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160821023807/http://www.electricbluefishing.com/eb\_sub\_menu/shipwreck\_list\_of\_florida.htm \|url\-status\= dead }}
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### Convoy escort, 1943–1944",
"Upon the completion of her shakedown training at [Bermuda](/wiki/Bermuda \"Bermuda\") and of post\\-shakedown availability at the [Boston Navy Yard](/wiki/Boston_Navy_Yard \"Boston Navy Yard\"), *Amesbury* proceeded to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), where, until 13 November she served as a unit of the [destroyer escort](/wiki/Destroyer_escort \"Destroyer escort\") (DE) pre\\-commissioning training detail, used for the instruction of future DE sailors.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|*Amesbury* fitting out in 1943\\.](/wiki/File:USS_Amesbury_%28DE-66%29_fitting_out_at_the_Bethlehem_Hingham_Shipyard_on_6_July_1943_%2819-N-85626%29.jpg \"USS Amesbury (DE-66) fitting out at the Bethlehem Hingham Shipyard on 6 July 1943 (19-N-85626).jpg\")",
"One week later, on 20 November, *Amesbury* commenced operation with [Task Force 69](/wiki/Task_Force_69 \"Task Force 69\") on trans\\-Atlantic [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") escort runs and later joined Task Group (TG) 21\\.9 in similar work. She operated in this capacity through the spring of 1943\\. During this time, she served as flagship for Commander, [Escort Division 19](/wiki/Escort_Division_19 \"Escort Division 19\"), commanded by [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29 \"Commander (United States)\") H. W. Howe, on four round\\-trip voyages to [Londonderry](/wiki/Londonderry_Port \"Londonderry Port\"), [Northern Ireland](/wiki/Northern_Ireland \"Northern Ireland\"), and one to [Greenock](/wiki/Greenock \"Greenock\"), [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\"). At this time, [CortDiv](/wiki/CortDiv \"CortDiv\") 19 consisted of the destroyer escorts *Amesbury*, {{USS\\|Bull\\|DE\\-693\\|2}}, {{USS\\|Bunch\\|DE\\-694\\|2}}, {{USS\\|Rich\\|DE\\-695\\|2}}, {{USS\\|Bates\\|DE\\-68\\|2}}, and {{USS\\|Blessman\\|DE\\-69\\|2}}. On 10 May 1944, *Amesbury's* captain \"fleeted up\" to ComCortDiv 19, relieving CDR Howe, and LCDR Arthur B. Wilber, [USNR](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Reserve \"United States Naval Reserve\"), assumed command of the ship.",
"### Invasion of Normandy, 1944",
"At Londonderry on 1 June 1944, *Amesbury* reported for duty with TF 124, TG 124\\.7 and, two days later, sailed to take part in the [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy \"Invasion of Normandy\"). Arriving in the assault area on 6 June, she took up her assigned area on a screen and fire support station in the \"Mason Dixie\" grid. During the next week on station, *Amesbury* took part in several [anti\\-aircraft](/wiki/Anti-aircraft \"Anti-aircraft\") actions against attacking [German](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\") planes bedeviling the ships offshore.",
"Between air attacks and drifting [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"), the work of the escorts was brisk. At 2112 on 11 June, {{USS\\|LST\\-496\\|\\|2}} struck a mine while proceeding in [convoy](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") through a channel to the assault area, and *Amesbury* hastened to her assistance. Three smaller craft arrived on the scene and were busily picking up survivors before the destroyer escort reached the tank landing ship's side. As soon as *{{USS\\|Altus\\|PC\\-568\\|1}}* cleared *LST\\-496*, LCDR Wilber skillfully maneuvered *Amesbury* alongside the stricken amphibious ship and moored her to remove the remainder of the LST's crew and embarked troops, summoning a doctor from *{{USS\\|LCI\\-530\\|\\|2}}* to treat the injured men taken on board.",
"Meanwhile, the tug *{{USS\\|ATA\\-125\\|\\|2}}* arrived on the scene and, with the assistance of *Amesbury's* sailors on board *LST\\-496*, secured a tow line to the crippled ship. However, a short time later, *LST\\-496,* barely underway, began to [capsize](/wiki/Capsize \"Capsize\") to port. *Amesbury* promptly cut her lines and maneuvered to clear, the sailors she had put on board the doomed ship to handle the lines being ordered off. [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant \"Lieutenant\") H. J. Riley, USNR, in charge of *Amesbury*{{'}}s detail, made certain that all of his men were safely away before he jumped to safety. Ultimately, all of the destroyer escort's sailors were picked up, uninjured, but the ship they had attempted to salvage soon sank.",
"*Amesbury* returned to [Plymouth, England](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_England \"Plymouth, England\"), the next day, 12 June and got underway for New York on 13 June. Resuming her duties with CortDiv 19, the ship made one round\\-trip voyage between New York and [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\") in July.",
"### Return to US waters and conversion, 1944–1945",
"On 4 August, with the dissolution of CortDiv 19, *Amesbury* sailed for Panama as relief for the [destroyer](/wiki/Destroyer \"Destroyer\") {{USS\\|Clark\\|DD\\-361\\|3}}. Diverted while en route, to [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), *Amesbury* reported to Commander, TG 23\\.3 for temporary duty. From that time until 20 February 1945, the destroyer escort was assigned to the [Fleet Sonar School](/wiki/Fleet_Sonar_School \"Fleet Sonar School\") squadron, operating daily from Key West within the limits of assigned operating areas in the [Straits of Florida](/wiki/Straits_of_Florida \"Straits of Florida\"), in connection with training in [anti\\-submarine warfare](/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare \"Anti-submarine warfare\").",
"*Amesbury* arrived at the [Philadelphia Navy Yard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard \"Philadelphia Navy Yard\") on 23 February, was redesignated **APD\\-46** on that day, and remained there until 16 May 1945 while undergoing conversion to a *Charles Lawrence*\\-class [high speed transport](/wiki/High_speed_transport \"High speed transport\"). *Amesbury* got underway from Norfolk for the west coast and, after proceeding via the [Panama Canal](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\"), reached [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\") on 17 June. Following a brief visit to [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"), the ship returned from [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") to the west coast to conduct sonar exercises with the [West Coast Sonar School](/wiki/West_Coast_Sonar_School \"West Coast Sonar School\") and gunnery and shakedown training with the San Diego Shakedown Group into mid\\-August as the war ended in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\").",
"### Post\\-war Pacific operations, 1945",
"With the 11 officers and 81 enlisted men of [Underwater Demolition Team](/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team \"Underwater Demolition Team\") 12 embarked, *Amesbury* sailed for [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\") on 16 August. After tarrying briefly at Pearl Harbor and in the western Pacific en route, the ship arrived at Okinawa on 4 September. She sortied the next day as part of Task Unit (TU) 78\\.1\\.15 for Jinsen (now [Inchon](/wiki/Inchon \"Inchon\")) [Korea](/wiki/Korea \"Korea\") to support the unfolding occupation of that region. Remaining in the area until 15 September, *Amesbury* acted as screening vessel for the anchorage while UDT\\-12 conducted beach reconnaissance.",
"After a quick return to Okinawa, *Amesbury* proceeded to [Tientsin, China](/wiki/Tianjin \"Tianjin\"), on 25 September, where she supported the landings at that north [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\") port. She departed Chinese waters on 4 October with a group of [tank landing ships](/wiki/Tank_landing_ship \"Tank landing ship\"), bound for Okinawa. En route, she destroyed three [mines](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"), a derelict [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\") [junk](/wiki/Junk_%28ship%29 \"Junk (ship)\"), and successfully rode out a [typhoon](/wiki/Typhoon \"Typhoon\").",
"Sailing for [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") on 22 October, *Amesbury* embarked 37 [Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") for passage back home and, in company with {{USS\\|Balduck\\|APD\\-132\\|3}}, proceeded via [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") and Pearl Harbor, on to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") arriving at San Diego on 7 November. After embarking Army passengers, *Amesbury* sailed for the east coast on 7 December and reached Norfolk soon thereafter. After disembarking her passengers and discharging ammunition and other stores, she proceeded to [Green Cove Springs, Florida](/wiki/Green_Cove_Springs%2C_Florida \"Green Cove Springs, Florida\"), for lay\\-up in the Florida Group [16th Fleet](/wiki/16th_Fleet \"16th Fleet\").",
"### Decommissioning and sale",
"Decommissioned and placed in reserve on 3 July 1946, *Amesbury* never again performed active service. Stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 1 June 1960, *Amesbury* was sold to [Chet Alexander Marine Salvage](/wiki/Chet_Alexander_Marine_Salvage \"Chet Alexander Marine Salvage\") of Key West, Florida, on 24 October 1962\\. Her hulk sank approximately {{convert\\|5\\|nmi\\|mi km\\|lk\\=in}} west of [Key West](/wiki/Key_West \"Key West\") while under tow, and now rests in {{convert\\|25\\|ft\\|m}} of water at {{coord\\|24\\|36\\.970\\|N\\|81\\|58\\.910\\|W\\|display\\=inline, title}}.{{cite web \\|title\\=The Amesbury \\|url\\=https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/shipwrecktrail/amesbury.html \\|website\\=floridakeys.noaa.gov \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2021}}{{cite web \\|author\\= Allen, Tony \\|title\\= Shipwrecks of Florida \\|url\\= http://www.electricbluefishing.com/eb\\_sub\\_menu/shipwreck\\_list\\_of\\_florida.htm \\|publisher\\= Electric Blue Fishing \\|date\\= 1 February 2015 \\|access\\-date\\= 4 August 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\= 21 August 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160821023807/http://www.electricbluefishing.com/eb\\_sub\\_menu/shipwreck\\_list\\_of\\_florida.htm \\|url\\-status\\= dead }}",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early Days
Leeds Parish Church Rugby Club was formed many years before the “Great Schism” of 1895\.
As the game’s popularity increased and travel became easier due to the expansion of the railway network, [Neath](/wiki/Neath_RFC "Neath RFC") from [South Wales](/wiki/South_Wales "South Wales") embarked on Northern Tours. In 1887/88 a tour led them to play against [Wortley (Leeds)](/wiki/Wortley%2C_Leeds "Wortley, Leeds"), [Manningham (Bradford)](/wiki/Manningham_F.C. "Manningham F.C.") and [Hartlepool Rovers](/wiki/Hartlepool_Rovers "Hartlepool Rovers"). In 1888\-89 over the Christmas period they played games against Leeds Parish Church, [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC "Bramley RLFC"), [Radcliffe](/wiki/Radcliffe_%28Rugby_League%29 "Radcliffe (Rugby League)"), [Brighouse Rangers](/wiki/Brighouse%23Rugby_league "Brighouse#Rugby league") and [Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield_Giants "Huddersfield Giants"), all within the space of six days.{{cite web\|title\= Neath Rugby\|url\= http://www.neathrugby.co.uk/Page.aspx?p\=967\|access\-date\= 2011\-08\-12\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121012070743/http://www.neathrugby.co.uk/Page.aspx?p\=967\|archive\-date\= 2012\-10\-12\|url\-status\= dead}}
The city of Leeds had an abundance of [rugby football](/wiki/Rugby_football "Rugby football") clubs and although members of the Yorkshire RFU{{cite web\|title\=Yorkshire RFU \|url\=http://clubs.rfu.com/Clubs/portals/YorkshireRFUCB/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207081835/http://clubs.rfu.com/Clubs/portals/YorkshireRFUCB/ \|archive\-date\=2011\-12\-07 }} (which was in turn a Constituent Body of the [RFU](/wiki/Rugby_Football_Union "Rugby Football Union")), it was decided to form a ‘more local’ association. It was for this reason that the Leeds \& District organization was formalised when a meeting took place at the Green Dragon Hotel, Leeds on 27 September 1888\. The foundation clubs were [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC "Bramley RLFC"), [Holbeck](/wiki/Holbeck_Rugby_Club "Holbeck Rugby Club"), [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. "Hunslet R.L.F.C."), Kirkstall, Leeds Parish Church, [Leeds St John’s](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos") (later to become Leeds (Rhinos), and [Wortley](/wiki/Wortley%2C_Leeds "Wortley, Leeds").{{cite web\|title\=Leeds and District Rugby League \|url\=http://www.barla.org.uk/News/Details.asp?id\=2569 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928004123/http://www.barla.org.uk/News/Details.asp?id\=2569 \|archive\-date\=2011\-09\-28 }}
In the early years of the sport, the Church elders and officials saw the development of its rugby football team as an attempt to stem the tide of drinking and depravity which they saw all around them in the city. The irony of their ‘muscular Christianity’ mission was that large numbers of its rugby team’s supporters were the newly arrived Jews who had been confined to the poorest areas like around [the Leylands](/wiki/Leylands%2C_Leeds "Leylands, Leeds"), near the city centre. They were not muscular, unloved by many Christians and condemned by their own religious leaders for breaking Shabbat. But they felt that it was a way to join in the life of the city.{{cite book\|last\=Collins\|first\=Tony\|title\=1895 And All That...: Inside Rugby League's Hidden History\|year\=2009\|publisher\=Scratching Shed Publishing Ltd\|isbn\= 9780956007599\|pages\=238 pages\|url\=http://www.scratchingshedpublishing.co.uk/products\-page/rugby\-league/1895\-all\-that\-inside\-rugby\-leagues\-hidden\-history/}}
A photograph of the Leeds Parish Church of 1893 is shown on the “Gallery” section of “The Goldthorpe Brothers” website– Gallery.{{cite web\|title\= Leeds Parish Church Team Photo 1893\|url\= http://www.mcgrail.fsnet.co.uk/memindx.htm}}
### Northern Union
In 1896, at a special meeting, Leeds Parish Church RFC, that season’s Yorkshire RFU champions, had only five votes against their switch of allegiance to the Northern Union. At the same time, most of the clubs who had played in the Yorkshire RFU 1st Division resigned. The following Summer most of the remaining 1st and 2nd Division teams resigned en bloc to form the second division of the Yorkshire Northern Rugby Union.
By June 1897 there were no rugby union clubs in the Halifax district RFU, the Bradford and Huddersfield district rugby unions voted to change affiliation to the Northern Union, and by the start of the following season the Yorkshire Post reported that “*in Leeds, rugby union football is practically non\-existent*”.{{cite web\|title\= Aftermath\|url\=http://rugbyreloaded.blogspot.com/2011/05/1895\-aftermath.html}}
They joined the ranks of the semi\-professionals when they became members of the [Northern Union](/wiki/Rugby_Football_League "Rugby Football League") in its second season [1896–97](/wiki/1896%E2%80%9397_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1896–97 Northern Rugby Football Union season") and played for the following four season in the [Yorkshire Senior Competition](/wiki/Rugby_league_county_leagues "Rugby league county leagues"), which was effectively Division 2 (East).
In this first season Leeds Parish Church RFC managed only a lowly 13th place out of 16 clubs, but this was one position above their fierce rivals [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
In the club’s second season [1897–98](/wiki/1897%E2%80%9398_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1897–98 Northern Rugby Football Union season") they improved to a mid\-table 8th out of 16 clubs, but, for the only time below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
The third season [1898–99](/wiki/1898%E2%80%9399_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1898–99 Northern Rugby Football Union season") was their best when they excelled and finished 4th out of 16 clubs, whilst [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos") finished in 11th places.
In [1899–1900](/wiki/1899%E2%80%931900_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1899–1900 Northern Rugby Football Union season") the club slipped back finishing 14th out of 16, but still one place above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
And a slightly better position was reached in the final season [1900–01](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1900–01 Northern Rugby Football Union season") when they finished in 10th place out of 16, this time three places above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos"). Leeds Parish Church RFC dropped out of the league after the end of the season.
Only once in the five seasons did Leeds Parish Church RFC finish below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos"), only once below [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC "Bramley RLFC") but conversely only once did they finish above [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. "Hunslet R.L.F.C.").
In the early days, the club had been looked upon by the elders as a flagship of muscular Christianity, which the Jewish community had become passionately involved in.
It was closed down because of its rough play, attacking referees, a violent crowd (echoes of worldwide Association Football in the late 20th century) – but also, it has been suggested \- because it attracted the Jewish working\-class community.{{cite web\|title\= Caryl Phillips interviews Anthony Clavane in Leeds: 21/10/2010 ‘The Promised Land?’ \|url\=http://www.anthonyclavane.com/wordpress/2011/01/html }}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early Days",
"Leeds Parish Church Rugby Club was formed many years before the “Great Schism” of 1895\\.",
"As the game’s popularity increased and travel became easier due to the expansion of the railway network, [Neath](/wiki/Neath_RFC \"Neath RFC\") from [South Wales](/wiki/South_Wales \"South Wales\") embarked on Northern Tours. In 1887/88 a tour led them to play against [Wortley (Leeds)](/wiki/Wortley%2C_Leeds \"Wortley, Leeds\"), [Manningham (Bradford)](/wiki/Manningham_F.C. \"Manningham F.C.\") and [Hartlepool Rovers](/wiki/Hartlepool_Rovers \"Hartlepool Rovers\"). In 1888\\-89 over the Christmas period they played games against Leeds Parish Church, [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC \"Bramley RLFC\"), [Radcliffe](/wiki/Radcliffe_%28Rugby_League%29 \"Radcliffe (Rugby League)\"), [Brighouse Rangers](/wiki/Brighouse%23Rugby_league \"Brighouse#Rugby league\") and [Huddersfield](/wiki/Huddersfield_Giants \"Huddersfield Giants\"), all within the space of six days.{{cite web\\|title\\= Neath Rugby\\|url\\= http://www.neathrugby.co.uk/Page.aspx?p\\=967\\|access\\-date\\= 2011\\-08\\-12\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121012070743/http://www.neathrugby.co.uk/Page.aspx?p\\=967\\|archive\\-date\\= 2012\\-10\\-12\\|url\\-status\\= dead}}",
"The city of Leeds had an abundance of [rugby football](/wiki/Rugby_football \"Rugby football\") clubs and although members of the Yorkshire RFU{{cite web\\|title\\=Yorkshire RFU \\|url\\=http://clubs.rfu.com/Clubs/portals/YorkshireRFUCB/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111207081835/http://clubs.rfu.com/Clubs/portals/YorkshireRFUCB/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-12\\-07 }} (which was in turn a Constituent Body of the [RFU](/wiki/Rugby_Football_Union \"Rugby Football Union\")), it was decided to form a ‘more local’ association. It was for this reason that the Leeds \\& District organization was formalised when a meeting took place at the Green Dragon Hotel, Leeds on 27 September 1888\\. The foundation clubs were [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC \"Bramley RLFC\"), [Holbeck](/wiki/Holbeck_Rugby_Club \"Holbeck Rugby Club\"), [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. \"Hunslet R.L.F.C.\"), Kirkstall, Leeds Parish Church, [Leeds St John’s](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\") (later to become Leeds (Rhinos), and [Wortley](/wiki/Wortley%2C_Leeds \"Wortley, Leeds\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Leeds and District Rugby League \\|url\\=http://www.barla.org.uk/News/Details.asp?id\\=2569 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928004123/http://www.barla.org.uk/News/Details.asp?id\\=2569 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-09\\-28 }}",
"In the early years of the sport, the Church elders and officials saw the development of its rugby football team as an attempt to stem the tide of drinking and depravity which they saw all around them in the city. The irony of their ‘muscular Christianity’ mission was that large numbers of its rugby team’s supporters were the newly arrived Jews who had been confined to the poorest areas like around [the Leylands](/wiki/Leylands%2C_Leeds \"Leylands, Leeds\"), near the city centre. They were not muscular, unloved by many Christians and condemned by their own religious leaders for breaking Shabbat. But they felt that it was a way to join in the life of the city.{{cite book\\|last\\=Collins\\|first\\=Tony\\|title\\=1895 And All That...: Inside Rugby League's Hidden History\\|year\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Scratching Shed Publishing Ltd\\|isbn\\= 9780956007599\\|pages\\=238 pages\\|url\\=http://www.scratchingshedpublishing.co.uk/products\\-page/rugby\\-league/1895\\-all\\-that\\-inside\\-rugby\\-leagues\\-hidden\\-history/}}",
"A photograph of the Leeds Parish Church of 1893 is shown on the “Gallery” section of “The Goldthorpe Brothers” website– Gallery.{{cite web\\|title\\= Leeds Parish Church Team Photo 1893\\|url\\= http://www.mcgrail.fsnet.co.uk/memindx.htm}}",
"### Northern Union",
"In 1896, at a special meeting, Leeds Parish Church RFC, that season’s Yorkshire RFU champions, had only five votes against their switch of allegiance to the Northern Union. At the same time, most of the clubs who had played in the Yorkshire RFU 1st Division resigned. The following Summer most of the remaining 1st and 2nd Division teams resigned en bloc to form the second division of the Yorkshire Northern Rugby Union.",
"By June 1897 there were no rugby union clubs in the Halifax district RFU, the Bradford and Huddersfield district rugby unions voted to change affiliation to the Northern Union, and by the start of the following season the Yorkshire Post reported that “*in Leeds, rugby union football is practically non\\-existent*”.{{cite web\\|title\\= Aftermath\\|url\\=http://rugbyreloaded.blogspot.com/2011/05/1895\\-aftermath.html}}",
"They joined the ranks of the semi\\-professionals when they became members of the [Northern Union](/wiki/Rugby_Football_League \"Rugby Football League\") in its second season [1896–97](/wiki/1896%E2%80%9397_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1896–97 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") and played for the following four season in the [Yorkshire Senior Competition](/wiki/Rugby_league_county_leagues \"Rugby league county leagues\"), which was effectively Division 2 (East).",
"In this first season Leeds Parish Church RFC managed only a lowly 13th place out of 16 clubs, but this was one position above their fierce rivals [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"In the club’s second season [1897–98](/wiki/1897%E2%80%9398_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1897–98 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") they improved to a mid\\-table 8th out of 16 clubs, but, for the only time below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"The third season [1898–99](/wiki/1898%E2%80%9399_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1898–99 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") was their best when they excelled and finished 4th out of 16 clubs, whilst [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\") finished in 11th places.",
"In [1899–1900](/wiki/1899%E2%80%931900_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1899–1900 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") the club slipped back finishing 14th out of 16, but still one place above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"And a slightly better position was reached in the final season [1900–01](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1900–01 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") when they finished in 10th place out of 16, this time three places above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\"). Leeds Parish Church RFC dropped out of the league after the end of the season.",
"Only once in the five seasons did Leeds Parish Church RFC finish below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\"), only once below [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC \"Bramley RLFC\") but conversely only once did they finish above [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. \"Hunslet R.L.F.C.\").",
"In the early days, the club had been looked upon by the elders as a flagship of muscular Christianity, which the Jewish community had become passionately involved in.",
"It was closed down because of its rough play, attacking referees, a violent crowd (echoes of worldwide Association Football in the late 20th century) – but also, it has been suggested \\- because it attracted the Jewish working\\-class community.{{cite web\\|title\\= Caryl Phillips interviews Anthony Clavane in Leeds: 21/10/2010 ‘The Promised Land?’ \\|url\\=http://www.anthonyclavane.com/wordpress/2011/01/html }}",
""
] |
### Northern Union
In 1896, at a special meeting, Leeds Parish Church RFC, that season’s Yorkshire RFU champions, had only five votes against their switch of allegiance to the Northern Union. At the same time, most of the clubs who had played in the Yorkshire RFU 1st Division resigned. The following Summer most of the remaining 1st and 2nd Division teams resigned en bloc to form the second division of the Yorkshire Northern Rugby Union.
By June 1897 there were no rugby union clubs in the Halifax district RFU, the Bradford and Huddersfield district rugby unions voted to change affiliation to the Northern Union, and by the start of the following season the Yorkshire Post reported that “*in Leeds, rugby union football is practically non\-existent*”.{{cite web\|title\= Aftermath\|url\=http://rugbyreloaded.blogspot.com/2011/05/1895\-aftermath.html}}
They joined the ranks of the semi\-professionals when they became members of the [Northern Union](/wiki/Rugby_Football_League "Rugby Football League") in its second season [1896–97](/wiki/1896%E2%80%9397_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1896–97 Northern Rugby Football Union season") and played for the following four season in the [Yorkshire Senior Competition](/wiki/Rugby_league_county_leagues "Rugby league county leagues"), which was effectively Division 2 (East).
In this first season Leeds Parish Church RFC managed only a lowly 13th place out of 16 clubs, but this was one position above their fierce rivals [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
In the club’s second season [1897–98](/wiki/1897%E2%80%9398_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1897–98 Northern Rugby Football Union season") they improved to a mid\-table 8th out of 16 clubs, but, for the only time below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
The third season [1898–99](/wiki/1898%E2%80%9399_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1898–99 Northern Rugby Football Union season") was their best when they excelled and finished 4th out of 16 clubs, whilst [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos") finished in 11th places.
In [1899–1900](/wiki/1899%E2%80%931900_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1899–1900 Northern Rugby Football Union season") the club slipped back finishing 14th out of 16, but still one place above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos").
And a slightly better position was reached in the final season [1900–01](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season "1900–01 Northern Rugby Football Union season") when they finished in 10th place out of 16, this time three places above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos"). Leeds Parish Church RFC dropped out of the league after the end of the season.
Only once in the five seasons did Leeds Parish Church RFC finish below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos "Leeds Rhinos"), only once below [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC "Bramley RLFC") but conversely only once did they finish above [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. "Hunslet R.L.F.C.").
In the early days, the club had been looked upon by the elders as a flagship of muscular Christianity, which the Jewish community had become passionately involved in.
It was closed down because of its rough play, attacking referees, a violent crowd (echoes of worldwide Association Football in the late 20th century) – but also, it has been suggested \- because it attracted the Jewish working\-class community.{{cite web\|title\= Caryl Phillips interviews Anthony Clavane in Leeds: 21/10/2010 ‘The Promised Land?’ \|url\=http://www.anthonyclavane.com/wordpress/2011/01/html }}
|
[
"### Northern Union",
"In 1896, at a special meeting, Leeds Parish Church RFC, that season’s Yorkshire RFU champions, had only five votes against their switch of allegiance to the Northern Union. At the same time, most of the clubs who had played in the Yorkshire RFU 1st Division resigned. The following Summer most of the remaining 1st and 2nd Division teams resigned en bloc to form the second division of the Yorkshire Northern Rugby Union.",
"By June 1897 there were no rugby union clubs in the Halifax district RFU, the Bradford and Huddersfield district rugby unions voted to change affiliation to the Northern Union, and by the start of the following season the Yorkshire Post reported that “*in Leeds, rugby union football is practically non\\-existent*”.{{cite web\\|title\\= Aftermath\\|url\\=http://rugbyreloaded.blogspot.com/2011/05/1895\\-aftermath.html}}",
"They joined the ranks of the semi\\-professionals when they became members of the [Northern Union](/wiki/Rugby_Football_League \"Rugby Football League\") in its second season [1896–97](/wiki/1896%E2%80%9397_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1896–97 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") and played for the following four season in the [Yorkshire Senior Competition](/wiki/Rugby_league_county_leagues \"Rugby league county leagues\"), which was effectively Division 2 (East).",
"In this first season Leeds Parish Church RFC managed only a lowly 13th place out of 16 clubs, but this was one position above their fierce rivals [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"In the club’s second season [1897–98](/wiki/1897%E2%80%9398_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1897–98 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") they improved to a mid\\-table 8th out of 16 clubs, but, for the only time below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"The third season [1898–99](/wiki/1898%E2%80%9399_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1898–99 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") was their best when they excelled and finished 4th out of 16 clubs, whilst [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\") finished in 11th places.",
"In [1899–1900](/wiki/1899%E2%80%931900_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1899–1900 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") the club slipped back finishing 14th out of 16, but still one place above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\").",
"And a slightly better position was reached in the final season [1900–01](/wiki/1900%E2%80%9301_Northern_Rugby_Football_Union_season \"1900–01 Northern Rugby Football Union season\") when they finished in 10th place out of 16, this time three places above [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\"). Leeds Parish Church RFC dropped out of the league after the end of the season.",
"Only once in the five seasons did Leeds Parish Church RFC finish below [Leeds](/wiki/Leeds_Rhinos \"Leeds Rhinos\"), only once below [Bramley](/wiki/Bramley_RLFC \"Bramley RLFC\") but conversely only once did they finish above [Hunslet](/wiki/Hunslet_R.L.F.C. \"Hunslet R.L.F.C.\").",
"In the early days, the club had been looked upon by the elders as a flagship of muscular Christianity, which the Jewish community had become passionately involved in.",
"It was closed down because of its rough play, attacking referees, a violent crowd (echoes of worldwide Association Football in the late 20th century) – but also, it has been suggested \\- because it attracted the Jewish working\\-class community.{{cite web\\|title\\= Caryl Phillips interviews Anthony Clavane in Leeds: 21/10/2010 ‘The Promised Land?’ \\|url\\=http://www.anthonyclavane.com/wordpress/2011/01/html }}",
""
] |
History of bathtubs and bathing
-------------------------------
{{Main\|Bathing\|History of water supply and sanitation}}
[thumb\|140px\|Traditional bathtub (19th century) from Italy](/wiki/File:Cervo089.jpg "Cervo089.jpg")
Documented early plumbing systems for bathing go back as far as around 3300 BC with the discovery of copper water pipes beneath a palace in [ancient Europe](/wiki/History_of_Europe "History of Europe").{{citation needed\|date\=October 2016}} Evidence of the earliest surviving personal sized bath tub was found on the Isle of [Crete](/wiki/Crete "Crete") where a {{convert\|1\.5\|m\|ft\|0\|adj\=on}} long pedestal tub was found built from hardened pottery.{{Cite web\|url\=http://magazine.ceramicaflaminia.it/en/2015/08/13/the\-evolution\-of\-the\-design\-bathtub\-in\-the\-history/\|title\=The Evolution of the Design Bathtub in the History\|date\=13 August 2015\|website\=CeramicaFlaminia\|access\-date\=21 August 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802162950/http://magazine.ceramicaflaminia.it/en/2015/08/13/the\-evolution\-of\-the\-design\-bathtub\-in\-the\-history/\|archive\-date\=2 August 2018\|url\-status\=dead}}
The [clawfoot](/wiki/Paw_feet "Paw feet") tub, which reached the apex of its popularity in the late 19th century, had its origins in the mid 18th century, when the ball and claw design originated in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), possibly artistically inspired by the Chinese motif of a [dragon](/wiki/Dragon "Dragon") holding a precious stone. The design spread to England, where it found much popularity among the [aristocracy](/wiki/Aristocracy "Aristocracy"), just as [bathing](/wiki/Hydrotherapy "Hydrotherapy") was becoming increasingly fashionable. Early bathtubs in England tended to be made of cast iron, or even tin and copper with a face of paint applied that tended to peel with time.
The Scottish\-born inventor David Buick invented a process for bonding [porcelain enamel](/wiki/Porcelain_enamel "Porcelain enamel") to [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron "Cast iron") in the 1880s while working for the Alexander Manufacturing Company in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit"). The company, as well as others including [Kohler Company](/wiki/Kohler_Company "Kohler Company") and [J. L. Mott Iron Works](/wiki/J._L._Mott_Iron_Works "J. L. Mott Iron Works"), began successfully marketing porcelain enameled cast\-iron bathtubs, a process that remains broadly the same to this day. Far from the ornate feet and luxury most associated with clawfoot tubs, an early Kohler example was advertised as a "horse trough/[hog scalder](/wiki/Hog_scalder "Hog scalder"), when furnished with four legs will serve as a bathtub." The item's use as a hog scalder was considered a more important marketing point than its ability to function as a bathtub.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the once popular clawfoot tub morphed into a built\-in tub with a small apron front. This enclosed style afforded easier maintenance and, with the emergence of colored sanitary ware, more design options for the homeowner. The Crane Company introduced colored bathroom fixtures to the United States market in 1928, and slowly this influx of design options and easier cleaning and care led to the near demise of clawfoot\-style tubs.
In the 1960s fiberglass bathtubs became the standard{{citation needed\|date\=August 2019}} for homes, being lightweight and inexpensive.
James R. Wheeler and his brother Richard in 1979 adapted the acrylic being used for outdoor spas to make acrylic bathtubs. Working with Spartech Plastics, they developed the modern co\-extruded and durable acrylic bathtub. The company American Bath Factory was the first to expand the diversity of acrylic bathtubs to include whirlpools, clawfoot bathtubs, and a large variety of pedestal and modern bathtubs.
The process for enamelling cast iron bathtubs was invented by the Scottish\-born American [David Dunbar Buick](/wiki/David_Dunbar_Buick "David Dunbar Buick").{{cn\|date\=July 2022}}
|
[
"History of bathtubs and bathing\n-------------------------------",
"{{Main\\|Bathing\\|History of water supply and sanitation}}\n[thumb\\|140px\\|Traditional bathtub (19th century) from Italy](/wiki/File:Cervo089.jpg \"Cervo089.jpg\")\nDocumented early plumbing systems for bathing go back as far as around 3300 BC with the discovery of copper water pipes beneath a palace in [ancient Europe](/wiki/History_of_Europe \"History of Europe\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=October 2016}} Evidence of the earliest surviving personal sized bath tub was found on the Isle of [Crete](/wiki/Crete \"Crete\") where a {{convert\\|1\\.5\\|m\\|ft\\|0\\|adj\\=on}} long pedestal tub was found built from hardened pottery.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://magazine.ceramicaflaminia.it/en/2015/08/13/the\\-evolution\\-of\\-the\\-design\\-bathtub\\-in\\-the\\-history/\\|title\\=The Evolution of the Design Bathtub in the History\\|date\\=13 August 2015\\|website\\=CeramicaFlaminia\\|access\\-date\\=21 August 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802162950/http://magazine.ceramicaflaminia.it/en/2015/08/13/the\\-evolution\\-of\\-the\\-design\\-bathtub\\-in\\-the\\-history/\\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2018\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"The [clawfoot](/wiki/Paw_feet \"Paw feet\") tub, which reached the apex of its popularity in the late 19th century, had its origins in the mid 18th century, when the ball and claw design originated in the [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), possibly artistically inspired by the Chinese motif of a [dragon](/wiki/Dragon \"Dragon\") holding a precious stone. The design spread to England, where it found much popularity among the [aristocracy](/wiki/Aristocracy \"Aristocracy\"), just as [bathing](/wiki/Hydrotherapy \"Hydrotherapy\") was becoming increasingly fashionable. Early bathtubs in England tended to be made of cast iron, or even tin and copper with a face of paint applied that tended to peel with time.",
"The Scottish\\-born inventor David Buick invented a process for bonding [porcelain enamel](/wiki/Porcelain_enamel \"Porcelain enamel\") to [cast iron](/wiki/Cast_iron \"Cast iron\") in the 1880s while working for the Alexander Manufacturing Company in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\"). The company, as well as others including [Kohler Company](/wiki/Kohler_Company \"Kohler Company\") and [J. L. Mott Iron Works](/wiki/J._L._Mott_Iron_Works \"J. L. Mott Iron Works\"), began successfully marketing porcelain enameled cast\\-iron bathtubs, a process that remains broadly the same to this day. Far from the ornate feet and luxury most associated with clawfoot tubs, an early Kohler example was advertised as a \"horse trough/[hog scalder](/wiki/Hog_scalder \"Hog scalder\"), when furnished with four legs will serve as a bathtub.\" The item's use as a hog scalder was considered a more important marketing point than its ability to function as a bathtub.",
"In the latter half of the 20th century, the once popular clawfoot tub morphed into a built\\-in tub with a small apron front. This enclosed style afforded easier maintenance and, with the emergence of colored sanitary ware, more design options for the homeowner. The Crane Company introduced colored bathroom fixtures to the United States market in 1928, and slowly this influx of design options and easier cleaning and care led to the near demise of clawfoot\\-style tubs.",
"In the 1960s fiberglass bathtubs became the standard{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2019}} for homes, being lightweight and inexpensive.",
"James R. Wheeler and his brother Richard in 1979 adapted the acrylic being used for outdoor spas to make acrylic bathtubs. Working with Spartech Plastics, they developed the modern co\\-extruded and durable acrylic bathtub. The company American Bath Factory was the first to expand the diversity of acrylic bathtubs to include whirlpools, clawfoot bathtubs, and a large variety of pedestal and modern bathtubs.",
"The process for enamelling cast iron bathtubs was invented by the Scottish\\-born American [David Dunbar Buick](/wiki/David_Dunbar_Buick \"David Dunbar Buick\").{{cn\\|date\\=July 2022}}",
""
] |
Programming
-----------
### Sports programming
WCJB airs select [Florida Gators football](/wiki/Florida_Gators_football "Florida Gators football") games as part of ABC's rights to college football telecasts, including select SEC contests beginning in [2024](/wiki/2024_Florida_Gators_football_team "2024 Florida Gators football team") under the *SEC on ABC* branding. The station aired the Gators' first\-ever national championship in [1996](/wiki/1996_Florida_Gators_football_team "1996 Florida Gators football team") through their victory in the [1997 Sugar Bowl](/wiki/1997_Sugar_Bowl "1997 Sugar Bowl").
### News operation
As of September 2022, WCJB presently broadcasts 35 hours, 15 minutes of locally produced newscasts each week (with 6 hours, 35 minutes each weekday and an hour each on Saturdays and Sundays). The station also broadcasts {{frac\|2\|1\|2}} hours of late local news each week on its CW subchannel.
Originally, WCJB was the only station to operate a news department covering the Gainesville area. As a result, it held the number one spot in [Nielsen ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings "Nielsen ratings") by a wide margin for most of the station's existence. In addition to its main studios, this station operates a Marion County Bureau on Northeast 1st Avenue in Ocala.
Until the establishment of rival [WGFL](/wiki/WGFL "WGFL")'s *GTN News* in 2010 (later *CBS 4 News*), WCJB had the only local news department on a commercial station – [non\-commercial](/wiki/Non-commercial_educational_station "Non-commercial educational station") [WUFT](/wiki/WUFT_%28TV%29 "WUFT (TV)") television airs a nightly newscast produced by [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida") journalism and broadcasting students; and Fox affiliate [WOGX](/wiki/WOGX "WOGX") simulcasts newscasts from sister station [WOFL](/wiki/WOFL "WOFL") in Orlando, with no separate local inserts targeted to the Gainesville area. Following the discontinuation of *CBS 4 News* on May 12, 2023, WCJB reassumed becoming the only commercial news station serving Gainesville.
On April 19, 2009, WCJB debuted a new set complete with updated graphics and music theme (identical to that of [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines "Des Moines") CBS affiliate [KCCI](/wiki/KCCI "KCCI") in the late '90s) which had not changed in almost ten years. The graphics are yellow and orange instead of blue and white. Its updated logo now includes ABC in it unlike the previous two. WCJB began airing local newscasts in high definition on January 9, 2010\. Its music theme was later updated in 2012, with a background graphics color change to blue and red. The music theme and news set was then modified on October 22, 2015, and the background graphics was updated on February 1, 2016, showing photos relating to Gainesville and North Central Florida.
From September 18, 2006, until February 2010, it produced a half\-hour weeknight prime time newscast on WCJB\-DT2, titled *WCJB\-TV 20 News at 10 on Gainesville CW*. The live broadcast was dropped in favor of a repeat of the main channel's 6 o'clock show, but the repeat was later dropped as well.
On January 18, 2016, WCJB expanded its early evening newscast a half\-hour earlier to 5 p.m. instead of 5:30\.{{cite web \| url\=https://changingnewscasts.wordpress.com/2016/01/08/wcjb\-expanding\-early\-evening\-news\-500\-pm/ \| title\=WCJB is expanding its early\-evening newscasts to 5:00 p.m. \| date\=January 9, 2016 }} The 6 p.m. newscast remains as scheduled.
On June 26, 2017, for the first time in over eight years, WCJB updated a new logo.
On September 6, 2021, WCJB added an hour\-long weekday 4 p.m. newscast on the main channel and relaunched a half\-hour 10 p.m. newscast on the DT2 CW subchannel.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20210903143151/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=G6ZDKxcOmgQ\| title \= DYLANPREVIEW30A \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}
On September 5, 2022, WCJB extended its weekday noon newscast to one hour,{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wcjb.com/2022/09/05/tv20\-news\-noon\-expands\-hour\-long\-newscast \| title\=TV20 News at Noon expands to hour\-long newscast \| date\=September 5, 2022}} with the last half\-hour replacing the canceled *[Right This Minute](/wiki/Right_This_Minute "Right This Minute")*.
#### Florida–Dayton recreation
On March 29, 2014, the [Florida Gators](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Florida_Gators_men%27s_basketball_team "2013–14 Florida Gators men's basketball team") beat the [Dayton Flyers](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Dayton_Flyers_men%27s_basketball_team "2013–14 Dayton Flyers men's basketball team") 62–52 in the Elite Eight of the [NCAA basketball tournament](/wiki/2014_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2014 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"). Since WCJB is an ABC affiliate and [CBS](/wiki/College_Basketball_on_CBS "College Basketball on CBS") owned the broadcast rights (although the game aired nationally on [TBS](/wiki/TBS_%28American_TV_channel%29 "TBS (American TV channel)")), the network could not show highlights until the day after per [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA "NCAA") regulations. The news team instead recreated the highlights inside a conference room at the station's studio, using a mini\-hoop attached to the wall and the station staff doubling as players.[TV station acts out Florida\-Dayton highlights on mini\-hoop](http://msn.foxsports.com/college-basketball/story/tv-station-acts-out-florida-dayton-highlights-on-mini-hoop-033014)
|
[
"Programming\n-----------",
"### Sports programming",
"WCJB airs select [Florida Gators football](/wiki/Florida_Gators_football \"Florida Gators football\") games as part of ABC's rights to college football telecasts, including select SEC contests beginning in [2024](/wiki/2024_Florida_Gators_football_team \"2024 Florida Gators football team\") under the *SEC on ABC* branding. The station aired the Gators' first\\-ever national championship in [1996](/wiki/1996_Florida_Gators_football_team \"1996 Florida Gators football team\") through their victory in the [1997 Sugar Bowl](/wiki/1997_Sugar_Bowl \"1997 Sugar Bowl\").",
"### News operation",
"As of September 2022, WCJB presently broadcasts 35 hours, 15 minutes of locally produced newscasts each week (with 6 hours, 35 minutes each weekday and an hour each on Saturdays and Sundays). The station also broadcasts {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}} hours of late local news each week on its CW subchannel.",
"Originally, WCJB was the only station to operate a news department covering the Gainesville area. As a result, it held the number one spot in [Nielsen ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings \"Nielsen ratings\") by a wide margin for most of the station's existence. In addition to its main studios, this station operates a Marion County Bureau on Northeast 1st Avenue in Ocala.",
"Until the establishment of rival [WGFL](/wiki/WGFL \"WGFL\")'s *GTN News* in 2010 (later *CBS 4 News*), WCJB had the only local news department on a commercial station – [non\\-commercial](/wiki/Non-commercial_educational_station \"Non-commercial educational station\") [WUFT](/wiki/WUFT_%28TV%29 \"WUFT (TV)\") television airs a nightly newscast produced by [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\") journalism and broadcasting students; and Fox affiliate [WOGX](/wiki/WOGX \"WOGX\") simulcasts newscasts from sister station [WOFL](/wiki/WOFL \"WOFL\") in Orlando, with no separate local inserts targeted to the Gainesville area. Following the discontinuation of *CBS 4 News* on May 12, 2023, WCJB reassumed becoming the only commercial news station serving Gainesville.",
"On April 19, 2009, WCJB debuted a new set complete with updated graphics and music theme (identical to that of [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines \"Des Moines\") CBS affiliate [KCCI](/wiki/KCCI \"KCCI\") in the late '90s) which had not changed in almost ten years. The graphics are yellow and orange instead of blue and white. Its updated logo now includes ABC in it unlike the previous two. WCJB began airing local newscasts in high definition on January 9, 2010\\. Its music theme was later updated in 2012, with a background graphics color change to blue and red. The music theme and news set was then modified on October 22, 2015, and the background graphics was updated on February 1, 2016, showing photos relating to Gainesville and North Central Florida.",
"From September 18, 2006, until February 2010, it produced a half\\-hour weeknight prime time newscast on WCJB\\-DT2, titled *WCJB\\-TV 20 News at 10 on Gainesville CW*. The live broadcast was dropped in favor of a repeat of the main channel's 6 o'clock show, but the repeat was later dropped as well.",
"On January 18, 2016, WCJB expanded its early evening newscast a half\\-hour earlier to 5 p.m. instead of 5:30\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://changingnewscasts.wordpress.com/2016/01/08/wcjb\\-expanding\\-early\\-evening\\-news\\-500\\-pm/ \\| title\\=WCJB is expanding its early\\-evening newscasts to 5:00 p.m. \\| date\\=January 9, 2016 }} The 6 p.m. newscast remains as scheduled.",
"On June 26, 2017, for the first time in over eight years, WCJB updated a new logo.",
"On September 6, 2021, WCJB added an hour\\-long weekday 4 p.m. newscast on the main channel and relaunched a half\\-hour 10 p.m. newscast on the DT2 CW subchannel.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20210903143151/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=G6ZDKxcOmgQ\\| title \\= DYLANPREVIEW30A \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}",
"On September 5, 2022, WCJB extended its weekday noon newscast to one hour,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wcjb.com/2022/09/05/tv20\\-news\\-noon\\-expands\\-hour\\-long\\-newscast \\| title\\=TV20 News at Noon expands to hour\\-long newscast \\| date\\=September 5, 2022}} with the last half\\-hour replacing the canceled *[Right This Minute](/wiki/Right_This_Minute \"Right This Minute\")*.",
"#### Florida–Dayton recreation",
"On March 29, 2014, the [Florida Gators](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Florida_Gators_men%27s_basketball_team \"2013–14 Florida Gators men's basketball team\") beat the [Dayton Flyers](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Dayton_Flyers_men%27s_basketball_team \"2013–14 Dayton Flyers men's basketball team\") 62–52 in the Elite Eight of the [NCAA basketball tournament](/wiki/2014_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2014 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"). Since WCJB is an ABC affiliate and [CBS](/wiki/College_Basketball_on_CBS \"College Basketball on CBS\") owned the broadcast rights (although the game aired nationally on [TBS](/wiki/TBS_%28American_TV_channel%29 \"TBS (American TV channel)\")), the network could not show highlights until the day after per [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA \"NCAA\") regulations. The news team instead recreated the highlights inside a conference room at the station's studio, using a mini\\-hoop attached to the wall and the station staff doubling as players.[TV station acts out Florida\\-Dayton highlights on mini\\-hoop](http://msn.foxsports.com/college-basketball/story/tv-station-acts-out-florida-dayton-highlights-on-mini-hoop-033014)",
""
] |
### News operation
As of September 2022, WCJB presently broadcasts 35 hours, 15 minutes of locally produced newscasts each week (with 6 hours, 35 minutes each weekday and an hour each on Saturdays and Sundays). The station also broadcasts {{frac\|2\|1\|2}} hours of late local news each week on its CW subchannel.
Originally, WCJB was the only station to operate a news department covering the Gainesville area. As a result, it held the number one spot in [Nielsen ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings "Nielsen ratings") by a wide margin for most of the station's existence. In addition to its main studios, this station operates a Marion County Bureau on Northeast 1st Avenue in Ocala.
Until the establishment of rival [WGFL](/wiki/WGFL "WGFL")'s *GTN News* in 2010 (later *CBS 4 News*), WCJB had the only local news department on a commercial station – [non\-commercial](/wiki/Non-commercial_educational_station "Non-commercial educational station") [WUFT](/wiki/WUFT_%28TV%29 "WUFT (TV)") television airs a nightly newscast produced by [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida") journalism and broadcasting students; and Fox affiliate [WOGX](/wiki/WOGX "WOGX") simulcasts newscasts from sister station [WOFL](/wiki/WOFL "WOFL") in Orlando, with no separate local inserts targeted to the Gainesville area. Following the discontinuation of *CBS 4 News* on May 12, 2023, WCJB reassumed becoming the only commercial news station serving Gainesville.
On April 19, 2009, WCJB debuted a new set complete with updated graphics and music theme (identical to that of [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines "Des Moines") CBS affiliate [KCCI](/wiki/KCCI "KCCI") in the late '90s) which had not changed in almost ten years. The graphics are yellow and orange instead of blue and white. Its updated logo now includes ABC in it unlike the previous two. WCJB began airing local newscasts in high definition on January 9, 2010\. Its music theme was later updated in 2012, with a background graphics color change to blue and red. The music theme and news set was then modified on October 22, 2015, and the background graphics was updated on February 1, 2016, showing photos relating to Gainesville and North Central Florida.
From September 18, 2006, until February 2010, it produced a half\-hour weeknight prime time newscast on WCJB\-DT2, titled *WCJB\-TV 20 News at 10 on Gainesville CW*. The live broadcast was dropped in favor of a repeat of the main channel's 6 o'clock show, but the repeat was later dropped as well.
On January 18, 2016, WCJB expanded its early evening newscast a half\-hour earlier to 5 p.m. instead of 5:30\.{{cite web \| url\=https://changingnewscasts.wordpress.com/2016/01/08/wcjb\-expanding\-early\-evening\-news\-500\-pm/ \| title\=WCJB is expanding its early\-evening newscasts to 5:00 p.m. \| date\=January 9, 2016 }} The 6 p.m. newscast remains as scheduled.
On June 26, 2017, for the first time in over eight years, WCJB updated a new logo.
On September 6, 2021, WCJB added an hour\-long weekday 4 p.m. newscast on the main channel and relaunched a half\-hour 10 p.m. newscast on the DT2 CW subchannel.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20210903143151/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\| url \= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=G6ZDKxcOmgQ\| title \= DYLANPREVIEW30A \| website\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}
On September 5, 2022, WCJB extended its weekday noon newscast to one hour,{{cite web \| url\=https://www.wcjb.com/2022/09/05/tv20\-news\-noon\-expands\-hour\-long\-newscast \| title\=TV20 News at Noon expands to hour\-long newscast \| date\=September 5, 2022}} with the last half\-hour replacing the canceled *[Right This Minute](/wiki/Right_This_Minute "Right This Minute")*.
#### Florida–Dayton recreation
On March 29, 2014, the [Florida Gators](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Florida_Gators_men%27s_basketball_team "2013–14 Florida Gators men's basketball team") beat the [Dayton Flyers](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Dayton_Flyers_men%27s_basketball_team "2013–14 Dayton Flyers men's basketball team") 62–52 in the Elite Eight of the [NCAA basketball tournament](/wiki/2014_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament "2014 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament"). Since WCJB is an ABC affiliate and [CBS](/wiki/College_Basketball_on_CBS "College Basketball on CBS") owned the broadcast rights (although the game aired nationally on [TBS](/wiki/TBS_%28American_TV_channel%29 "TBS (American TV channel)")), the network could not show highlights until the day after per [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA "NCAA") regulations. The news team instead recreated the highlights inside a conference room at the station's studio, using a mini\-hoop attached to the wall and the station staff doubling as players.[TV station acts out Florida\-Dayton highlights on mini\-hoop](http://msn.foxsports.com/college-basketball/story/tv-station-acts-out-florida-dayton-highlights-on-mini-hoop-033014)
|
[
"### News operation",
"As of September 2022, WCJB presently broadcasts 35 hours, 15 minutes of locally produced newscasts each week (with 6 hours, 35 minutes each weekday and an hour each on Saturdays and Sundays). The station also broadcasts {{frac\\|2\\|1\\|2}} hours of late local news each week on its CW subchannel.",
"Originally, WCJB was the only station to operate a news department covering the Gainesville area. As a result, it held the number one spot in [Nielsen ratings](/wiki/Nielsen_ratings \"Nielsen ratings\") by a wide margin for most of the station's existence. In addition to its main studios, this station operates a Marion County Bureau on Northeast 1st Avenue in Ocala.",
"Until the establishment of rival [WGFL](/wiki/WGFL \"WGFL\")'s *GTN News* in 2010 (later *CBS 4 News*), WCJB had the only local news department on a commercial station – [non\\-commercial](/wiki/Non-commercial_educational_station \"Non-commercial educational station\") [WUFT](/wiki/WUFT_%28TV%29 \"WUFT (TV)\") television airs a nightly newscast produced by [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\") journalism and broadcasting students; and Fox affiliate [WOGX](/wiki/WOGX \"WOGX\") simulcasts newscasts from sister station [WOFL](/wiki/WOFL \"WOFL\") in Orlando, with no separate local inserts targeted to the Gainesville area. Following the discontinuation of *CBS 4 News* on May 12, 2023, WCJB reassumed becoming the only commercial news station serving Gainesville.",
"On April 19, 2009, WCJB debuted a new set complete with updated graphics and music theme (identical to that of [Des Moines](/wiki/Des_Moines \"Des Moines\") CBS affiliate [KCCI](/wiki/KCCI \"KCCI\") in the late '90s) which had not changed in almost ten years. The graphics are yellow and orange instead of blue and white. Its updated logo now includes ABC in it unlike the previous two. WCJB began airing local newscasts in high definition on January 9, 2010\\. Its music theme was later updated in 2012, with a background graphics color change to blue and red. The music theme and news set was then modified on October 22, 2015, and the background graphics was updated on February 1, 2016, showing photos relating to Gainesville and North Central Florida.",
"From September 18, 2006, until February 2010, it produced a half\\-hour weeknight prime time newscast on WCJB\\-DT2, titled *WCJB\\-TV 20 News at 10 on Gainesville CW*. The live broadcast was dropped in favor of a repeat of the main channel's 6 o'clock show, but the repeat was later dropped as well.",
"On January 18, 2016, WCJB expanded its early evening newscast a half\\-hour earlier to 5 p.m. instead of 5:30\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://changingnewscasts.wordpress.com/2016/01/08/wcjb\\-expanding\\-early\\-evening\\-news\\-500\\-pm/ \\| title\\=WCJB is expanding its early\\-evening newscasts to 5:00 p.m. \\| date\\=January 9, 2016 }} The 6 p.m. newscast remains as scheduled.",
"On June 26, 2017, for the first time in over eight years, WCJB updated a new logo.",
"On September 6, 2021, WCJB added an hour\\-long weekday 4 p.m. newscast on the main channel and relaunched a half\\-hour 10 p.m. newscast on the DT2 CW subchannel.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20210903143151/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6ZDKxcOmgQ){{cbignore}}: {{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=G6ZDKxcOmgQ\\| title \\= DYLANPREVIEW30A \\| website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}",
"On September 5, 2022, WCJB extended its weekday noon newscast to one hour,{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.wcjb.com/2022/09/05/tv20\\-news\\-noon\\-expands\\-hour\\-long\\-newscast \\| title\\=TV20 News at Noon expands to hour\\-long newscast \\| date\\=September 5, 2022}} with the last half\\-hour replacing the canceled *[Right This Minute](/wiki/Right_This_Minute \"Right This Minute\")*.",
"#### Florida–Dayton recreation",
"On March 29, 2014, the [Florida Gators](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Florida_Gators_men%27s_basketball_team \"2013–14 Florida Gators men's basketball team\") beat the [Dayton Flyers](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Dayton_Flyers_men%27s_basketball_team \"2013–14 Dayton Flyers men's basketball team\") 62–52 in the Elite Eight of the [NCAA basketball tournament](/wiki/2014_NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament \"2014 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament\"). Since WCJB is an ABC affiliate and [CBS](/wiki/College_Basketball_on_CBS \"College Basketball on CBS\") owned the broadcast rights (although the game aired nationally on [TBS](/wiki/TBS_%28American_TV_channel%29 \"TBS (American TV channel)\")), the network could not show highlights until the day after per [NCAA](/wiki/NCAA \"NCAA\") regulations. The news team instead recreated the highlights inside a conference room at the station's studio, using a mini\\-hoop attached to the wall and the station staff doubling as players.[TV station acts out Florida\\-Dayton highlights on mini\\-hoop](http://msn.foxsports.com/college-basketball/story/tv-station-acts-out-florida-dayton-highlights-on-mini-hoop-033014)",
""
] |
Technical information
---------------------
### Subchannels
The station's signal is [multiplexed](/wiki/Multiplex_%28TV%29 "Multiplex (TV)"):
| \+Subchannels of WCJB\-TV[RabbitEars TV Query for WCJB](http://www.rabbitears.info/market.php?request=station_search&callsign=WCJB#station) | [Channel](/wiki/Digital_subchannel%23United_States "Digital subchannel#United States") | [Res.](/wiki/Display_resolution "Display resolution") | [Aspect](/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28image%29 "Aspect ratio (image)") | Short name | Programming |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 20\.1 | [720p](/wiki/720p "720p") | [16:9](/wiki/16:9 "9") | WCJBabc | [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") |
| 20\.2 | WCJB\-CW | [The CW Plus](/wiki/The_CW_Plus "The CW Plus") |
| 20\.3 | [480i](/wiki/480i "480i") | MeTV | [MeTV](/wiki/MeTV "MeTV") |
| 20\.4 | Circle | [The365](/wiki/The365 "The365") |
| 20\.5 | Crime | [True Crime Network](/wiki/True_Crime_Network "True Crime Network") |
| 20\.6 | Grit | [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 "Grit (TV network)") |
WCJB\-DT2 upgraded its signal to 720p in June 2012\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.rabbitears.info/blog/index.php?post/2012/06/20/CW\-HD\-and\-TSReader\-Data \| title\=CW\+ HD and TSReader Data \- RabbitEars Blog }}
In January 2018, WCJB added [MeTV](/wiki/MeTV "MeTV") to its subchannel lineup on channel 20\.3, marking the first new subchannel added to WCJB since adding Gainesville CW in September 2006\. MeTV had been aired on NBC affiliate [WNBW](/wiki/WNBW-DT "WNBW-DT")'s subchannel 9\.4 prior to the change.
On January 1, 2020, WCJB launched a new subchannel, [Circle](/wiki/Circle_%28TV_network%29 "Circle (TV network)"), on channel 20\.4\.
In March 2020, WCJB added another new subchannel, Justice Network (now [True Crime Network](/wiki/True_Crime_Network "True Crime Network")), on channel 20\.5\.
On December 1, 2022, the station added a sixth subchannel, [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 "Grit (TV network)").
### Analog\-to\-digital conversion
WCJB\-TV discontinued regular programming on its analog signal, over [UHF](/wiki/UHF "UHF") channel 20, on February 17, 2009, the original target date on which full\-power television stations in the United States were to [transition from analog to digital broadcasts](/wiki/Digital_television_transition_in_the_United_States "Digital television transition in the United States") under federal mandate (which was later pushed back to June 12, 2009\). The station's digital signal remained on its pre\-transition UHF channel 16,{{cite web \|url\=http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs\_public/attachmatch/DA\-06\-1082A2\.pdf \|title\=DTV Tentative Channel Designations for the First and the Second Rounds \|access\-date\=March 24, 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829004251/http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs\_public/attachmatch/DA\-06\-1082A2\.pdf \|archive\-date\=August 29, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }} using [virtual channel](/wiki/Virtual_channel "Virtual channel") 20\.
### Former translator
Until 1998, WCJB operated an [analog](/wiki/Analog_television "Analog television") [translator station](/wiki/Translator_station "Translator station"), **W57AN** (UHF channel 57\) which rebroadcast WCJB's signal into Marion County from a transmitter located on NE Jacksonville Road in Ocala.{{Citation\|title\=April 18, 1993 Sign\-Off – WCJB (ABC, Gainesville)\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=R7qsWmzKFsg \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/R7qsWmzKFsg \|archive\-date\=December 22, 2021 \|url\-status\=live\|language\=en\|access\-date\=March 8, 2021}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\|title\=Facility Details « Licensing and Management System Admin « FCC\|url\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/public/tv/publicFacilityDetails.html?facilityId\=16991\|access\-date\=March 8, 2021\|website\=enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov}}
|
[
"Technical information\n---------------------",
"### Subchannels",
"The station's signal is [multiplexed](/wiki/Multiplex_%28TV%29 \"Multiplex (TV)\"):",
"| \\+Subchannels of WCJB\\-TV[RabbitEars TV Query for WCJB](http://www.rabbitears.info/market.php?request=station_search&callsign=WCJB#station) | [Channel](/wiki/Digital_subchannel%23United_States \"Digital subchannel#United States\") | [Res.](/wiki/Display_resolution \"Display resolution\") | [Aspect](/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28image%29 \"Aspect ratio (image)\") | Short name | Programming |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 20\\.1 | [720p](/wiki/720p \"720p\") | [16:9](/wiki/16:9 \"9\") | WCJBabc | [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") |\n| 20\\.2 | WCJB\\-CW | [The CW Plus](/wiki/The_CW_Plus \"The CW Plus\") |\n| 20\\.3 | [480i](/wiki/480i \"480i\") | MeTV | [MeTV](/wiki/MeTV \"MeTV\") |\n| 20\\.4 | Circle | [The365](/wiki/The365 \"The365\") |\n| 20\\.5 | Crime | [True Crime Network](/wiki/True_Crime_Network \"True Crime Network\") |\n| 20\\.6 | Grit | [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 \"Grit (TV network)\") |",
"",
"WCJB\\-DT2 upgraded its signal to 720p in June 2012\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.rabbitears.info/blog/index.php?post/2012/06/20/CW\\-HD\\-and\\-TSReader\\-Data \\| title\\=CW\\+ HD and TSReader Data \\- RabbitEars Blog }}",
"In January 2018, WCJB added [MeTV](/wiki/MeTV \"MeTV\") to its subchannel lineup on channel 20\\.3, marking the first new subchannel added to WCJB since adding Gainesville CW in September 2006\\. MeTV had been aired on NBC affiliate [WNBW](/wiki/WNBW-DT \"WNBW-DT\")'s subchannel 9\\.4 prior to the change.",
"On January 1, 2020, WCJB launched a new subchannel, [Circle](/wiki/Circle_%28TV_network%29 \"Circle (TV network)\"), on channel 20\\.4\\.",
"In March 2020, WCJB added another new subchannel, Justice Network (now [True Crime Network](/wiki/True_Crime_Network \"True Crime Network\")), on channel 20\\.5\\.",
"On December 1, 2022, the station added a sixth subchannel, [Grit](/wiki/Grit_%28TV_network%29 \"Grit (TV network)\").",
"### Analog\\-to\\-digital conversion",
"WCJB\\-TV discontinued regular programming on its analog signal, over [UHF](/wiki/UHF \"UHF\") channel 20, on February 17, 2009, the original target date on which full\\-power television stations in the United States were to [transition from analog to digital broadcasts](/wiki/Digital_television_transition_in_the_United_States \"Digital television transition in the United States\") under federal mandate (which was later pushed back to June 12, 2009\\). The station's digital signal remained on its pre\\-transition UHF channel 16,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs\\_public/attachmatch/DA\\-06\\-1082A2\\.pdf \\|title\\=DTV Tentative Channel Designations for the First and the Second Rounds \\|access\\-date\\=March 24, 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829004251/http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs\\_public/attachmatch/DA\\-06\\-1082A2\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=August 29, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} using [virtual channel](/wiki/Virtual_channel \"Virtual channel\") 20\\.",
"### Former translator",
"Until 1998, WCJB operated an [analog](/wiki/Analog_television \"Analog television\") [translator station](/wiki/Translator_station \"Translator station\"), **W57AN** (UHF channel 57\\) which rebroadcast WCJB's signal into Marion County from a transmitter located on NE Jacksonville Road in Ocala.{{Citation\\|title\\=April 18, 1993 Sign\\-Off – WCJB (ABC, Gainesville)\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=R7qsWmzKFsg \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/R7qsWmzKFsg \\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2021 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2021}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Facility Details « Licensing and Management System Admin « FCC\\|url\\=https://enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov/dataentry/public/tv/publicFacilityDetails.html?facilityId\\=16991\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2021\\|website\\=enterpriseefiling.fcc.gov}}",
""
] |
History
-------
On September 15, 1925, by a resolution of the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars "Council of People's Commissars"), an all\-Union body in the field of standardization was created, the Committee for Standardization under the Council of Labor and Defense (Gosstandart). The introduction of state management of standardization in the country served as the beginning of systematic work in all sectors of the economy. On May 7, 1926, the first all\-Union standard was approved \- OST 1 “Wheat. Breeding grades of grain. Nomenclature".
In 1946, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was established. The USSR took over the work of the secretariats of technical committees: 37 “Terminology (general principles and coordination)”, 55 “Timber (lumber assortment and coordination)”, 57 “Clean surfaces (metals)” and 65 “Manganese ores (chemical analysis methods)” .
In 1954, a *State Committee for standards, measures and measuring instruments* ([Gosstandart](/wiki/Gosstandart "Gosstandart")) was formed under the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the basis of the merger of the standardization department under the [State Planning Committee of the USSR](/wiki/Gosplan "Gosplan") and the main chamber of measures and measuring instruments of the USSR Ministry of Finance.
In the 1960s and 1980s, work was carried out to streamline and regulate all work in the field of standardization itself. In 1968, a set of standards GOST 1 "State Standardization System" was introduced.
On May 22, 1991, the USSR Law "On the Protection of Consumer Rights" adopted by the Supreme Council of the USSR introduced mandatory certification of certain products (goods, works and services).
|
[
"History\n-------",
"On September 15, 1925, by a resolution of the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars \"Council of People's Commissars\"), an all\\-Union body in the field of standardization was created, the Committee for Standardization under the Council of Labor and Defense (Gosstandart). The introduction of state management of standardization in the country served as the beginning of systematic work in all sectors of the economy. On May 7, 1926, the first all\\-Union standard was approved \\- OST 1 “Wheat. Breeding grades of grain. Nomenclature\".",
"In 1946, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was established. The USSR took over the work of the secretariats of technical committees: 37 “Terminology (general principles and coordination)”, 55 “Timber (lumber assortment and coordination)”, 57 “Clean surfaces (metals)” and 65 “Manganese ores (chemical analysis methods)” .",
"In 1954, a *State Committee for standards, measures and measuring instruments* ([Gosstandart](/wiki/Gosstandart \"Gosstandart\")) was formed under the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the basis of the merger of the standardization department under the [State Planning Committee of the USSR](/wiki/Gosplan \"Gosplan\") and the main chamber of measures and measuring instruments of the USSR Ministry of Finance.",
"In the 1960s and 1980s, work was carried out to streamline and regulate all work in the field of standardization itself. In 1968, a set of standards GOST 1 \"State Standardization System\" was introduced.",
"On May 22, 1991, the USSR Law \"On the Protection of Consumer Rights\" adopted by the Supreme Council of the USSR introduced mandatory certification of certain products (goods, works and services).",
""
] |
Shared memory model
-------------------
In shared memory model the processors are all connected to a "globally available" memory, via either [software](/wiki/Software "Software") or hardware means. The [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system "Operating system") usually maintains its [memory coherence](/wiki/Memory_coherence "Memory coherence").Ibaroudene, Djaffer. "Parallel Processing, EG6370G: Chapter 1, Motivation and History." Lecture Slides. [St Mary's University](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_University%2C_Texas "St. Mary's University, Texas"), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas "San Antonio, Texas"). Spring 2008\.
From a programmer's point of view, this memory model is better understood than the distributed memory model. Another advantage is that memory coherence is managed by the operating system and not the written program. Two known disadvantages are: scalability beyond thirty\-two processors is difficult, and the shared memory model is less flexible than the distributed memory model.
There are many examples of shared memory (multiprocessors): UMA ([uniform memory access](/wiki/Uniform_memory_access "Uniform memory access")), COMA ([cache\-only memory access](/wiki/Cache-only_memory_architecture "Cache-only memory architecture")).{{cite book\|author\=Andrew S. Tanenbaum\|author\-link\=Andrew S. Tanenbaum\|title\=Structured Computer Organization\|pages\=559–585\|publisher\=Prentice\-Hall\|year\=1997\|url\=http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/tanenbaum2/chapter0/deluxe.html\|edition\=4\|isbn\=978\-0130959904\|access\-date\=2013\-03\-15\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201035507/http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/tanenbaum2/chapter0/deluxe.html\|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-01\|url\-status\=dead}}
### Bus\-based
MIMD machines with shared memory have processors which share a common, central memory. In the simplest form, all processors are attached to a bus which connects them to memory. This means that every machine with shared memory shares a specific CM, common bus system for all the clients.
For example, if we consider a bus with clients A, B, C connected on one side and P, Q, R connected on the opposite side,
any one of the clients will communicate with the other by means of the bus interface between them.
### Hierarchical
MIMD machines with hierarchical shared memory use a hierarchy of buses (as, for example, in a "[fat tree](/wiki/Fat_tree "Fat tree")") to give processors access to each other's memory. Processors on different boards may communicate through inter\-nodal buses. Buses support communication between boards. With this type of architecture, the machine may support over nine thousand processors.
|
[
"Shared memory model\n-------------------",
"In shared memory model the processors are all connected to a \"globally available\" memory, via either [software](/wiki/Software \"Software\") or hardware means. The [operating system](/wiki/Operating_system \"Operating system\") usually maintains its [memory coherence](/wiki/Memory_coherence \"Memory coherence\").Ibaroudene, Djaffer. \"Parallel Processing, EG6370G: Chapter 1, Motivation and History.\" Lecture Slides. [St Mary's University](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_University%2C_Texas \"St. Mary's University, Texas\"), [San Antonio, Texas](/wiki/San_Antonio%2C_Texas \"San Antonio, Texas\"). Spring 2008\\.",
"From a programmer's point of view, this memory model is better understood than the distributed memory model. Another advantage is that memory coherence is managed by the operating system and not the written program. Two known disadvantages are: scalability beyond thirty\\-two processors is difficult, and the shared memory model is less flexible than the distributed memory model.",
"There are many examples of shared memory (multiprocessors): UMA ([uniform memory access](/wiki/Uniform_memory_access \"Uniform memory access\")), COMA ([cache\\-only memory access](/wiki/Cache-only_memory_architecture \"Cache-only memory architecture\")).{{cite book\\|author\\=Andrew S. Tanenbaum\\|author\\-link\\=Andrew S. Tanenbaum\\|title\\=Structured Computer Organization\\|pages\\=559–585\\|publisher\\=Prentice\\-Hall\\|year\\=1997\\|url\\=http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/tanenbaum2/chapter0/deluxe.html\\|edition\\=4\\|isbn\\=978\\-0130959904\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-15\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201035507/http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/tanenbaum2/chapter0/deluxe.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Bus\\-based",
"MIMD machines with shared memory have processors which share a common, central memory. In the simplest form, all processors are attached to a bus which connects them to memory. This means that every machine with shared memory shares a specific CM, common bus system for all the clients.",
"For example, if we consider a bus with clients A, B, C connected on one side and P, Q, R connected on the opposite side,\nany one of the clients will communicate with the other by means of the bus interface between them.",
"### Hierarchical",
"MIMD machines with hierarchical shared memory use a hierarchy of buses (as, for example, in a \"[fat tree](/wiki/Fat_tree \"Fat tree\")\") to give processors access to each other's memory. Processors on different boards may communicate through inter\\-nodal buses. Buses support communication between boards. With this type of architecture, the machine may support over nine thousand processors.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life and musical education
Born in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), and raised in [Reston, Virginia](/wiki/Reston%2C_Virginia "Reston, Virginia"), Hersch was introduced to classical music at the age of 18 by his younger brother Jamie, who showed him a videotape of [Georg Solti](/wiki/Georg_Solti "Georg Solti") conducting [Beethoven's](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven") Fifth Symphony.Vivien Schweitzer, profile \- ["A Survivor, Inspired by Love and Loss: Michael Hersch's New Opera Reflects on a Friend's Death"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-reflects-on-a-friends-death.html), *The New York Times*, June 22, 2014\.
He began his studies at the Peabody Conservatory of Music in Baltimore with [Morris Cotel](/wiki/Moshe_Cotel "Moshe Cotel").{{Cite web \|title\=Hersch, Michael \|url\=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/display/10\.1093/gmo/9781561592630\.001\.0001/omo\-9781561592630\-e\-1002283171 \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-28 \|website\=Grove Music Online \| year\=2015 \|language\=en \|doi\=10\.1093/gmo/9781561592630\.article.a2283171 \| last1\=Grella \| first1\=George J. }} In 1995 Hersch studied at the [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory "Moscow Conservatory"), where he worked with [Albert Leman](/wiki/Albert_Leman "Albert Leman") and [Roman Ledenev](/wiki/Roman_Ledenev "Roman Ledenev"). That same year he also worked with [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano "John Corigliano"), [John Harbison](/wiki/John_Harbison "John Harbison"), and [George Rochberg](/wiki/George_Rochberg "George Rochberg") at a program for young composers. Hersch then returned to Peabody for graduate studies, graduating in 1997 with a Master of Arts. He returned to Peabody in 2006, where he currently teaches composition. Until 2019, he was the Chair of the composition department.[Peabody Conservatory of Music, faculty, department of composition](http://www.peabody.jhu.edu/conservatory/composition/index.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811155901/http://www.peabody.jhu.edu/conservatory/composition/index.html \|date\=2017\-08\-11 }}.
### Early recognition
His first success came when [Marin Alsop](/wiki/Marin_Alsop "Marin Alsop") selected Hersch's *Elegy* as winner of the American Composers Prize, and conducted it at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") in New York in 1997\. That year also saw Hersch awarded a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship "Guggenheim Fellowship") in Music Composition. He has also been a fellow at the [Tanglewood Music Center](/wiki/Tanglewood "Tanglewood"), where he studied under [Christopher Rouse](/wiki/Christopher_Rouse_%28composer%29 "Christopher Rouse (composer)"), the Norfolk Festival for Contemporary Music, and the Pacific Music Festival in Sapporo, Japan. In 2000, Hersch was awarded the Rome Prize, in 2001 the Berlin Prize. While in Europe Hersch worked with [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze "Hans Werner Henze") and [Luciano Berio](/wiki/Luciano_Berio "Luciano Berio"). Other honors include the Charles Ives Scholarship (1996\) and the Goddard Lieberson Fellowship (2006\) from the American Academy of Arts \& Letters.
Hersch's earliest recordings appeared on the [Vanguard Classics](/wiki/Vanguard_Records "Vanguard Records") label, the first released in 2003, with performances by the composer and the String Soloists of the Berlin Philharmonic. This was followed by two other Vanguard discs. The second, with Hersch performing his own work in addition to music of [Morton Feldman](/wiki/Morton_Feldman "Morton Feldman"), [Wolfgang Rihm](/wiki/Wolfgang_Rihm "Wolfgang Rihm"), and [Josquin des Prez](/wiki/Josquin_des_Prez "Josquin des Prez"), was selected by [The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post") and Newsday as among the notable recordings of 2004\-05\.Tim Page, [CD review](https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2005/11/25/cds-artist-box-sets/87580f7f-00d4-4cab-86ab-ef2663a644f3/), *The Washington Post*, November 25, 2005\. In 2007, Hersch's multi\-hour piano cycle, *The Vanishing Pavilions* (2005\), with the composer at the keyboard was released. David Patrick Stearns of [The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer "The Philadelphia Inquirer") wrote on the October 14, 2006 premiere of the work given by the composer.David Patrick Stearns, concert review \- ["Song Cycle Without Words, by Hersch"](http://michaelhersch.com/press/reviews/101606-philly.html), *Philadelphia Inquirer*, October 16, 2006\.
### Music
Described by [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times") as "viscerally gripping and emotionally transformative music … claustrophobic and exhilarating at once, with moments of sublime beauty nestled inside thickets of dark virtuosity",Corinna da Fonseca\-Wollheim, concert review \- ["Sept. 11's Monumental Despair, Evoked by Solo Piano"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/arts/music/review-michael-hersch-sept-11-spectrum-the-vanishing-pavilions.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, September 12, 2016\. Hersch's work "marries a volcanic New World energy to a deeply skeptical, often angst\-ridden spiritual climate." (Andrew Clark, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"))Andrew Clark, [CD review](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7cf5da64-a2ab-11db-a187-0000779e2340.html#axzz3GcQvrIRk), *Financial Times*, January 13, 2007\.
In 2014, Hersch's first work for the stage, *On the Threshold of Winter* (2012\), premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Fishman Space by the NUNC ensemble (Miranda Cuckson, director) with [Ah Young Hong](/wiki/Ah_Young_Hong "Ah Young Hong") as the soloist.Corinna da Fonseca\-Wollheim, opera review ["Inner Musings on a Precarious Descent Michael Hersch's New Opera, On the Threshold of Winter"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-on-the-threshold-of-winter.html), *The New York Times*, June 26, 2014\. The opera, about terminal illness, is a reaction to the passing of one of Hersch's closest friends in 2009, as well as the composer's own diagnosis of cancer several years earlier.Elizabeth Evitts Dickinson, [Mourning Through Music](http://www.johnshopkinshealthreview.com/issues/fall-winter-2015/articles/mourning-through-music), Johns Hopkins Health Review, Fall/Winter 2015\. Its text comes from the deathbed poems of Romanian writer [Marin Sorescu](/wiki/Marin_Sorescu "Marin Sorescu").
Hersch has written a number of pieces premiered by Hong, including his one\-act opera *POPPEA* (2019\) created alongside librettist [Stephanie Fleischmann](/wiki/Stephanie_Fleischmann "Stephanie Fleischmann"), which premiered in at the Festival ZeitRäume Basel and the Wien Modern Festival in 2021\.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-03 \|title\=Festival ZeitRäume Basel to Stage World Premiere of Michael Hersch and Stephanie Fleischmann's 'Poppaea' \|url\=https://operawire.com/festival\-zeitraume\-basel\-to\-stage\-world\-premiere\-of\-michael\-hersch\-and\-stephanie\-fleischmanns\-poppaea/ \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-28 \|website\=OperaWire \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Nachrichten \|first\=Salzburger \|date\=2021\-11\-06 \|title\="Poppaea" bei Wien Modern als Blut\-Rausch \|url\=https://www.sn.at/kultur/allgemein/poppaea\-bei\-wien\-modern\-als\-blut\-rausch\-111993523 \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-28 \|website\=www.sn.at \|language\=de}} The opera is a continuation of the story of the Roman Empress Poppea, picking up where [Claudio Monteverdi](/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi "Claudio Monteverdi")'s [L'incornazione di Poppea](/wiki/L%27incoronazione_di_Poppea "L'incoronazione di Poppea") ended.
In recent years, a frequent collaborator has been violinist [Patricia Kopatchinskaja](/wiki/Patricia_Kopatchinskaja "Patricia Kopatchinskaja").BBC RADIO 3 \- [Hear and Now \- Episode 19, Modern Muses: Michael Hersch and Patricia Kopatchinskaja discuss Hersch's Violin Concerto](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p040h57w) The violinist has commissioned several works from Hersch, including his Violin Concerto, which she premiered with the [Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Paul_Chamber_Orchestra "Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra") in 2015\.Patricia Kopatchinskaja, [Music That Changed Me](http://patriciakopatchinskaja.com/index.php/feature-article-music-that-changed-me/), BBC Music Magazine, May 2016 issue. It was recently announced that he will be writing a new work for her in 2018\-19 to be premiered with [Camerata Bern](/wiki/Camerata_Bern "Camerata Bern").Marianne Mühlemann, [Das Feuer wird weitergegeben](http://www.derbund.ch/kultur/diverses/spitzengeigerin-kopatchinskaja-uebernimmt-camerataleitung/story/31365250), *Der Bund*, May 5, 2017\.
Other collaborations include those with Dutch contemporary music group [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang "Ensemble Klang"), violinist Miranda Cuckson, and the [Orpheus Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Orpheus_Chamber_Orchestra "Orpheus Chamber Orchestra").
Hersch's more recent music has been characterized as increasingly "spare, intense, fiercely inward\-turning."Anne Midgette, concert review \- ["At a classical music concert, something actually new, and also its challenges"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/at-a-classical-music-concert-something-actually-new-and-also-its-challenges/2015/10/18/82d77254-75b9-11e5-a958-d889faf561dc_story.html), *The Washington Post*, October 18, 2015\.
### Piano performance
A highly regarded pianist, Hersch has performed throughout the U.S. and internationally. Though he appears in public infrequently, he commands a wide repertoire from Josquin to Boulez.(video) [Josquin des Prez: *Je ne me puis tenir d'aimr*, arrangement for solo piano, Michael Hersch, piano](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPyNWSolkFY). Since 2000, he has primarily focused on performances of his own music.(video) [Michael Hersch: *The Vanishing Pavilions* \- movement no. 6, Michael Hersch, piano](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-YKjiBsiow).
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life and musical education",
"Born in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), and raised in [Reston, Virginia](/wiki/Reston%2C_Virginia \"Reston, Virginia\"), Hersch was introduced to classical music at the age of 18 by his younger brother Jamie, who showed him a videotape of [Georg Solti](/wiki/Georg_Solti \"Georg Solti\") conducting [Beethoven's](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") Fifth Symphony.Vivien Schweitzer, profile \\- [\"A Survivor, Inspired by Love and Loss: Michael Hersch's New Opera Reflects on a Friend's Death\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/22/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-reflects-on-a-friends-death.html), *The New York Times*, June 22, 2014\\.",
"He began his studies at the Peabody Conservatory of Music in Baltimore with [Morris Cotel](/wiki/Moshe_Cotel \"Moshe Cotel\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Hersch, Michael \\|url\\=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/display/10\\.1093/gmo/9781561592630\\.001\\.0001/omo\\-9781561592630\\-e\\-1002283171 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=Grove Music Online \\| year\\=2015 \\|language\\=en \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/gmo/9781561592630\\.article.a2283171 \\| last1\\=Grella \\| first1\\=George J. }} In 1995 Hersch studied at the [Moscow Conservatory](/wiki/Moscow_Conservatory \"Moscow Conservatory\"), where he worked with [Albert Leman](/wiki/Albert_Leman \"Albert Leman\") and [Roman Ledenev](/wiki/Roman_Ledenev \"Roman Ledenev\"). That same year he also worked with [John Corigliano](/wiki/John_Corigliano \"John Corigliano\"), [John Harbison](/wiki/John_Harbison \"John Harbison\"), and [George Rochberg](/wiki/George_Rochberg \"George Rochberg\") at a program for young composers. Hersch then returned to Peabody for graduate studies, graduating in 1997 with a Master of Arts. He returned to Peabody in 2006, where he currently teaches composition. Until 2019, he was the Chair of the composition department.[Peabody Conservatory of Music, faculty, department of composition](http://www.peabody.jhu.edu/conservatory/composition/index.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811155901/http://www.peabody.jhu.edu/conservatory/composition/index.html \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-11 }}.",
"### Early recognition",
"His first success came when [Marin Alsop](/wiki/Marin_Alsop \"Marin Alsop\") selected Hersch's *Elegy* as winner of the American Composers Prize, and conducted it at [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") in New York in 1997\\. That year also saw Hersch awarded a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship \"Guggenheim Fellowship\") in Music Composition. He has also been a fellow at the [Tanglewood Music Center](/wiki/Tanglewood \"Tanglewood\"), where he studied under [Christopher Rouse](/wiki/Christopher_Rouse_%28composer%29 \"Christopher Rouse (composer)\"), the Norfolk Festival for Contemporary Music, and the Pacific Music Festival in Sapporo, Japan. In 2000, Hersch was awarded the Rome Prize, in 2001 the Berlin Prize. While in Europe Hersch worked with [Hans Werner Henze](/wiki/Hans_Werner_Henze \"Hans Werner Henze\") and [Luciano Berio](/wiki/Luciano_Berio \"Luciano Berio\"). Other honors include the Charles Ives Scholarship (1996\\) and the Goddard Lieberson Fellowship (2006\\) from the American Academy of Arts \\& Letters.",
"Hersch's earliest recordings appeared on the [Vanguard Classics](/wiki/Vanguard_Records \"Vanguard Records\") label, the first released in 2003, with performances by the composer and the String Soloists of the Berlin Philharmonic. This was followed by two other Vanguard discs. The second, with Hersch performing his own work in addition to music of [Morton Feldman](/wiki/Morton_Feldman \"Morton Feldman\"), [Wolfgang Rihm](/wiki/Wolfgang_Rihm \"Wolfgang Rihm\"), and [Josquin des Prez](/wiki/Josquin_des_Prez \"Josquin des Prez\"), was selected by [The Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\") and Newsday as among the notable recordings of 2004\\-05\\.Tim Page, [CD review](https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2005/11/25/cds-artist-box-sets/87580f7f-00d4-4cab-86ab-ef2663a644f3/), *The Washington Post*, November 25, 2005\\. In 2007, Hersch's multi\\-hour piano cycle, *The Vanishing Pavilions* (2005\\), with the composer at the keyboard was released. David Patrick Stearns of [The Philadelphia Inquirer](/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\") wrote on the October 14, 2006 premiere of the work given by the composer.David Patrick Stearns, concert review \\- [\"Song Cycle Without Words, by Hersch\"](http://michaelhersch.com/press/reviews/101606-philly.html), *Philadelphia Inquirer*, October 16, 2006\\.",
"### Music",
"Described by [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\") as \"viscerally gripping and emotionally transformative music … claustrophobic and exhilarating at once, with moments of sublime beauty nestled inside thickets of dark virtuosity\",Corinna da Fonseca\\-Wollheim, concert review \\- [\"Sept. 11's Monumental Despair, Evoked by Solo Piano\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/arts/music/review-michael-hersch-sept-11-spectrum-the-vanishing-pavilions.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, September 12, 2016\\. Hersch's work \"marries a volcanic New World energy to a deeply skeptical, often angst\\-ridden spiritual climate.\" (Andrew Clark, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\"))Andrew Clark, [CD review](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7cf5da64-a2ab-11db-a187-0000779e2340.html#axzz3GcQvrIRk), *Financial Times*, January 13, 2007\\.",
"In 2014, Hersch's first work for the stage, *On the Threshold of Winter* (2012\\), premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Fishman Space by the NUNC ensemble (Miranda Cuckson, director) with [Ah Young Hong](/wiki/Ah_Young_Hong \"Ah Young Hong\") as the soloist.Corinna da Fonseca\\-Wollheim, opera review [\"Inner Musings on a Precarious Descent Michael Hersch's New Opera, On the Threshold of Winter\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-on-the-threshold-of-winter.html), *The New York Times*, June 26, 2014\\. The opera, about terminal illness, is a reaction to the passing of one of Hersch's closest friends in 2009, as well as the composer's own diagnosis of cancer several years earlier.Elizabeth Evitts Dickinson, [Mourning Through Music](http://www.johnshopkinshealthreview.com/issues/fall-winter-2015/articles/mourning-through-music), Johns Hopkins Health Review, Fall/Winter 2015\\. Its text comes from the deathbed poems of Romanian writer [Marin Sorescu](/wiki/Marin_Sorescu \"Marin Sorescu\").",
"Hersch has written a number of pieces premiered by Hong, including his one\\-act opera *POPPEA* (2019\\) created alongside librettist [Stephanie Fleischmann](/wiki/Stephanie_Fleischmann \"Stephanie Fleischmann\"), which premiered in at the Festival ZeitRäume Basel and the Wien Modern Festival in 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-03 \\|title\\=Festival ZeitRäume Basel to Stage World Premiere of Michael Hersch and Stephanie Fleischmann's 'Poppaea' \\|url\\=https://operawire.com/festival\\-zeitraume\\-basel\\-to\\-stage\\-world\\-premiere\\-of\\-michael\\-hersch\\-and\\-stephanie\\-fleischmanns\\-poppaea/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=OperaWire \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nachrichten \\|first\\=Salzburger \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=\"Poppaea\" bei Wien Modern als Blut\\-Rausch \\|url\\=https://www.sn.at/kultur/allgemein/poppaea\\-bei\\-wien\\-modern\\-als\\-blut\\-rausch\\-111993523 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=www.sn.at \\|language\\=de}} The opera is a continuation of the story of the Roman Empress Poppea, picking up where [Claudio Monteverdi](/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi \"Claudio Monteverdi\")'s [L'incornazione di Poppea](/wiki/L%27incoronazione_di_Poppea \"L'incoronazione di Poppea\") ended.",
"In recent years, a frequent collaborator has been violinist [Patricia Kopatchinskaja](/wiki/Patricia_Kopatchinskaja \"Patricia Kopatchinskaja\").BBC RADIO 3 \\- [Hear and Now \\- Episode 19, Modern Muses: Michael Hersch and Patricia Kopatchinskaja discuss Hersch's Violin Concerto](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p040h57w) The violinist has commissioned several works from Hersch, including his Violin Concerto, which she premiered with the [Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Paul_Chamber_Orchestra \"Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra\") in 2015\\.Patricia Kopatchinskaja, [Music That Changed Me](http://patriciakopatchinskaja.com/index.php/feature-article-music-that-changed-me/), BBC Music Magazine, May 2016 issue. It was recently announced that he will be writing a new work for her in 2018\\-19 to be premiered with [Camerata Bern](/wiki/Camerata_Bern \"Camerata Bern\").Marianne Mühlemann, [Das Feuer wird weitergegeben](http://www.derbund.ch/kultur/diverses/spitzengeigerin-kopatchinskaja-uebernimmt-camerataleitung/story/31365250), *Der Bund*, May 5, 2017\\.",
"Other collaborations include those with Dutch contemporary music group [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang \"Ensemble Klang\"), violinist Miranda Cuckson, and the [Orpheus Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Orpheus_Chamber_Orchestra \"Orpheus Chamber Orchestra\").",
"Hersch's more recent music has been characterized as increasingly \"spare, intense, fiercely inward\\-turning.\"Anne Midgette, concert review \\- [\"At a classical music concert, something actually new, and also its challenges\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/at-a-classical-music-concert-something-actually-new-and-also-its-challenges/2015/10/18/82d77254-75b9-11e5-a958-d889faf561dc_story.html), *The Washington Post*, October 18, 2015\\.",
"### Piano performance",
"A highly regarded pianist, Hersch has performed throughout the U.S. and internationally. Though he appears in public infrequently, he commands a wide repertoire from Josquin to Boulez.(video) [Josquin des Prez: *Je ne me puis tenir d'aimr*, arrangement for solo piano, Michael Hersch, piano](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YPyNWSolkFY). Since 2000, he has primarily focused on performances of his own music.(video) [Michael Hersch: *The Vanishing Pavilions* \\- movement no. 6, Michael Hersch, piano](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-YKjiBsiow).",
""
] |
### Music
Described by [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times") as "viscerally gripping and emotionally transformative music … claustrophobic and exhilarating at once, with moments of sublime beauty nestled inside thickets of dark virtuosity",Corinna da Fonseca\-Wollheim, concert review \- ["Sept. 11's Monumental Despair, Evoked by Solo Piano"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/arts/music/review-michael-hersch-sept-11-spectrum-the-vanishing-pavilions.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, September 12, 2016\. Hersch's work "marries a volcanic New World energy to a deeply skeptical, often angst\-ridden spiritual climate." (Andrew Clark, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times "Financial Times"))Andrew Clark, [CD review](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7cf5da64-a2ab-11db-a187-0000779e2340.html#axzz3GcQvrIRk), *Financial Times*, January 13, 2007\.
In 2014, Hersch's first work for the stage, *On the Threshold of Winter* (2012\), premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Fishman Space by the NUNC ensemble (Miranda Cuckson, director) with [Ah Young Hong](/wiki/Ah_Young_Hong "Ah Young Hong") as the soloist.Corinna da Fonseca\-Wollheim, opera review ["Inner Musings on a Precarious Descent Michael Hersch's New Opera, On the Threshold of Winter"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-on-the-threshold-of-winter.html), *The New York Times*, June 26, 2014\. The opera, about terminal illness, is a reaction to the passing of one of Hersch's closest friends in 2009, as well as the composer's own diagnosis of cancer several years earlier.Elizabeth Evitts Dickinson, [Mourning Through Music](http://www.johnshopkinshealthreview.com/issues/fall-winter-2015/articles/mourning-through-music), Johns Hopkins Health Review, Fall/Winter 2015\. Its text comes from the deathbed poems of Romanian writer [Marin Sorescu](/wiki/Marin_Sorescu "Marin Sorescu").
Hersch has written a number of pieces premiered by Hong, including his one\-act opera *POPPEA* (2019\) created alongside librettist [Stephanie Fleischmann](/wiki/Stephanie_Fleischmann "Stephanie Fleischmann"), which premiered in at the Festival ZeitRäume Basel and the Wien Modern Festival in 2021\.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-09\-03 \|title\=Festival ZeitRäume Basel to Stage World Premiere of Michael Hersch and Stephanie Fleischmann's 'Poppaea' \|url\=https://operawire.com/festival\-zeitraume\-basel\-to\-stage\-world\-premiere\-of\-michael\-hersch\-and\-stephanie\-fleischmanns\-poppaea/ \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-28 \|website\=OperaWire \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Nachrichten \|first\=Salzburger \|date\=2021\-11\-06 \|title\="Poppaea" bei Wien Modern als Blut\-Rausch \|url\=https://www.sn.at/kultur/allgemein/poppaea\-bei\-wien\-modern\-als\-blut\-rausch\-111993523 \|access\-date\=2023\-01\-28 \|website\=www.sn.at \|language\=de}} The opera is a continuation of the story of the Roman Empress Poppea, picking up where [Claudio Monteverdi](/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi "Claudio Monteverdi")'s [L'incornazione di Poppea](/wiki/L%27incoronazione_di_Poppea "L'incoronazione di Poppea") ended.
In recent years, a frequent collaborator has been violinist [Patricia Kopatchinskaja](/wiki/Patricia_Kopatchinskaja "Patricia Kopatchinskaja").BBC RADIO 3 \- [Hear and Now \- Episode 19, Modern Muses: Michael Hersch and Patricia Kopatchinskaja discuss Hersch's Violin Concerto](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p040h57w) The violinist has commissioned several works from Hersch, including his Violin Concerto, which she premiered with the [Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Paul_Chamber_Orchestra "Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra") in 2015\.Patricia Kopatchinskaja, [Music That Changed Me](http://patriciakopatchinskaja.com/index.php/feature-article-music-that-changed-me/), BBC Music Magazine, May 2016 issue. It was recently announced that he will be writing a new work for her in 2018\-19 to be premiered with [Camerata Bern](/wiki/Camerata_Bern "Camerata Bern").Marianne Mühlemann, [Das Feuer wird weitergegeben](http://www.derbund.ch/kultur/diverses/spitzengeigerin-kopatchinskaja-uebernimmt-camerataleitung/story/31365250), *Der Bund*, May 5, 2017\.
Other collaborations include those with Dutch contemporary music group [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang "Ensemble Klang"), violinist Miranda Cuckson, and the [Orpheus Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Orpheus_Chamber_Orchestra "Orpheus Chamber Orchestra").
Hersch's more recent music has been characterized as increasingly "spare, intense, fiercely inward\-turning."Anne Midgette, concert review \- ["At a classical music concert, something actually new, and also its challenges"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/at-a-classical-music-concert-something-actually-new-and-also-its-challenges/2015/10/18/82d77254-75b9-11e5-a958-d889faf561dc_story.html), *The Washington Post*, October 18, 2015\.
|
[
"### Music",
"Described by [The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\") as \"viscerally gripping and emotionally transformative music … claustrophobic and exhilarating at once, with moments of sublime beauty nestled inside thickets of dark virtuosity\",Corinna da Fonseca\\-Wollheim, concert review \\- [\"Sept. 11's Monumental Despair, Evoked by Solo Piano\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/arts/music/review-michael-hersch-sept-11-spectrum-the-vanishing-pavilions.html?_r=0), *The New York Times*, September 12, 2016\\. Hersch's work \"marries a volcanic New World energy to a deeply skeptical, often angst\\-ridden spiritual climate.\" (Andrew Clark, [Financial Times](/wiki/Financial_Times \"Financial Times\"))Andrew Clark, [CD review](http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7cf5da64-a2ab-11db-a187-0000779e2340.html#axzz3GcQvrIRk), *Financial Times*, January 13, 2007\\.",
"In 2014, Hersch's first work for the stage, *On the Threshold of Winter* (2012\\), premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Fishman Space by the NUNC ensemble (Miranda Cuckson, director) with [Ah Young Hong](/wiki/Ah_Young_Hong \"Ah Young Hong\") as the soloist.Corinna da Fonseca\\-Wollheim, opera review [\"Inner Musings on a Precarious Descent Michael Hersch's New Opera, On the Threshold of Winter\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/27/arts/music/michael-herschs-new-opera-on-the-threshold-of-winter.html), *The New York Times*, June 26, 2014\\. The opera, about terminal illness, is a reaction to the passing of one of Hersch's closest friends in 2009, as well as the composer's own diagnosis of cancer several years earlier.Elizabeth Evitts Dickinson, [Mourning Through Music](http://www.johnshopkinshealthreview.com/issues/fall-winter-2015/articles/mourning-through-music), Johns Hopkins Health Review, Fall/Winter 2015\\. Its text comes from the deathbed poems of Romanian writer [Marin Sorescu](/wiki/Marin_Sorescu \"Marin Sorescu\").",
"Hersch has written a number of pieces premiered by Hong, including his one\\-act opera *POPPEA* (2019\\) created alongside librettist [Stephanie Fleischmann](/wiki/Stephanie_Fleischmann \"Stephanie Fleischmann\"), which premiered in at the Festival ZeitRäume Basel and the Wien Modern Festival in 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-09\\-03 \\|title\\=Festival ZeitRäume Basel to Stage World Premiere of Michael Hersch and Stephanie Fleischmann's 'Poppaea' \\|url\\=https://operawire.com/festival\\-zeitraume\\-basel\\-to\\-stage\\-world\\-premiere\\-of\\-michael\\-hersch\\-and\\-stephanie\\-fleischmanns\\-poppaea/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=OperaWire \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nachrichten \\|first\\=Salzburger \\|date\\=2021\\-11\\-06 \\|title\\=\"Poppaea\" bei Wien Modern als Blut\\-Rausch \\|url\\=https://www.sn.at/kultur/allgemein/poppaea\\-bei\\-wien\\-modern\\-als\\-blut\\-rausch\\-111993523 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-28 \\|website\\=www.sn.at \\|language\\=de}} The opera is a continuation of the story of the Roman Empress Poppea, picking up where [Claudio Monteverdi](/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi \"Claudio Monteverdi\")'s [L'incornazione di Poppea](/wiki/L%27incoronazione_di_Poppea \"L'incoronazione di Poppea\") ended.",
"In recent years, a frequent collaborator has been violinist [Patricia Kopatchinskaja](/wiki/Patricia_Kopatchinskaja \"Patricia Kopatchinskaja\").BBC RADIO 3 \\- [Hear and Now \\- Episode 19, Modern Muses: Michael Hersch and Patricia Kopatchinskaja discuss Hersch's Violin Concerto](http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p040h57w) The violinist has commissioned several works from Hersch, including his Violin Concerto, which she premiered with the [Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Saint_Paul_Chamber_Orchestra \"Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra\") in 2015\\.Patricia Kopatchinskaja, [Music That Changed Me](http://patriciakopatchinskaja.com/index.php/feature-article-music-that-changed-me/), BBC Music Magazine, May 2016 issue. It was recently announced that he will be writing a new work for her in 2018\\-19 to be premiered with [Camerata Bern](/wiki/Camerata_Bern \"Camerata Bern\").Marianne Mühlemann, [Das Feuer wird weitergegeben](http://www.derbund.ch/kultur/diverses/spitzengeigerin-kopatchinskaja-uebernimmt-camerataleitung/story/31365250), *Der Bund*, May 5, 2017\\.",
"Other collaborations include those with Dutch contemporary music group [Ensemble Klang](/wiki/Ensemble_Klang \"Ensemble Klang\"), violinist Miranda Cuckson, and the [Orpheus Chamber Orchestra](/wiki/Orpheus_Chamber_Orchestra \"Orpheus Chamber Orchestra\").",
"Hersch's more recent music has been characterized as increasingly \"spare, intense, fiercely inward\\-turning.\"Anne Midgette, concert review \\- [\"At a classical music concert, something actually new, and also its challenges\"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/music/at-a-classical-music-concert-something-actually-new-and-also-its-challenges/2015/10/18/82d77254-75b9-11e5-a958-d889faf561dc_story.html), *The Washington Post*, October 18, 2015\\.",
""
] |
Appearances
-----------
Thane is first encountered on the regional asari hub world Illium, where he had been based for the past two years planning the assassinate an asari named Nassana Dantius. He joins Shepard on a *[pro bono](/wiki/Pro_bono "Pro bono")* basis following his successful assassination of Dantius, stating that he has nothing left to lose, and he hopes to right many wrongs he has found in the galaxy before his death. Thane's story revolves around his son, Kolyat, and his desire to rescue him from a life of crime. Shepard and team must travel to the Citadel to stop Kolyat from following in his father's footsteps and taking up the career of assassination. Kolyat's contracted target is a racist turian politician who extorts human rackets while promising to reduce crime in the Citadel Wards. After the mission is completed, Thane will talk to his son and attempts to make things right with him; Thane will then become a loyal member of Shepard's team.
If the player pursues a relationship with Thane, he will tell Shepard that he has not talked of his past to anyone until he met her, and that she is "very kind." As the relationship progresses, Thane will open up his feelings for Shepard and call her "siha", one of the angels in Drell religion. Before the suicide mission, Thane will go up to Shepard's cabin and tell her that before he was diagnosed with his disease, he had no fear of death. But now that he has met Shepard, he is afraid of death and does not want to die. Thane begins to shed tears, but Shepard comforts him, and the two spend the night together.
Thane returns in *Mass Effect 3* provided he survived the events of *Mass Effect 2*. Thane appears in the hospital on the Citadel, and tells Shepard he is now in the terminal stages of his illness and cannot join Shepard in the fight against the Reapers. Later on in the game Cerberus attacks the Citadel and Thane, if he was interacted with beforehand, assists Shepard in thwarting an assassination attempt on the salarian Councilor and is stabbed by assassin Kai Leng whom escapes. If neither Thane nor Kirrahe (who may serve as Thane's placeholder in the story arc) are alive, Kai Leng will be successful in his assassinating the salarian Councilor.
After the remaining Cerberus forces have been routed, Shepard visits Thane in the hospital where doctors tell Shepard that due to his blood loss and his illness is in the final stages, there is nothing else they can do but to comfort him during his final moments. If Thane has reconciled with Kolyat in *Mass Effect 2*, he will be present by his father's deathbed, and Thane asks him and Shepard to recite a prayer. As Kolyat and Shepard recite the prayer, Thane passes away. Kolyat will reveal that Thane's prayer was not meant for himself, but for Shepard. Thane's name will be added to the *Normandy* SR\-2's memorial wall on the Crew Deck area after his passing in either *Mass Effect 2* or *3*, alongside other crew members who have fallen.
In the *[Mass Effect 3: Citadel](/wiki/Mass_Effect_3:Citadel "Citadel")* DLC, Shepard may hold a memorial service for Thane at their apartment. Following the service, Shepard could also view some video recordings made by Thane addressed to Shepard. If romanced, Shepard will talk to Thane in their mind one last time.
|
[
"Appearances\n-----------",
"Thane is first encountered on the regional asari hub world Illium, where he had been based for the past two years planning the assassinate an asari named Nassana Dantius. He joins Shepard on a *[pro bono](/wiki/Pro_bono \"Pro bono\")* basis following his successful assassination of Dantius, stating that he has nothing left to lose, and he hopes to right many wrongs he has found in the galaxy before his death. Thane's story revolves around his son, Kolyat, and his desire to rescue him from a life of crime. Shepard and team must travel to the Citadel to stop Kolyat from following in his father's footsteps and taking up the career of assassination. Kolyat's contracted target is a racist turian politician who extorts human rackets while promising to reduce crime in the Citadel Wards. After the mission is completed, Thane will talk to his son and attempts to make things right with him; Thane will then become a loyal member of Shepard's team.",
"If the player pursues a relationship with Thane, he will tell Shepard that he has not talked of his past to anyone until he met her, and that she is \"very kind.\" As the relationship progresses, Thane will open up his feelings for Shepard and call her \"siha\", one of the angels in Drell religion. Before the suicide mission, Thane will go up to Shepard's cabin and tell her that before he was diagnosed with his disease, he had no fear of death. But now that he has met Shepard, he is afraid of death and does not want to die. Thane begins to shed tears, but Shepard comforts him, and the two spend the night together.",
"Thane returns in *Mass Effect 3* provided he survived the events of *Mass Effect 2*. Thane appears in the hospital on the Citadel, and tells Shepard he is now in the terminal stages of his illness and cannot join Shepard in the fight against the Reapers. Later on in the game Cerberus attacks the Citadel and Thane, if he was interacted with beforehand, assists Shepard in thwarting an assassination attempt on the salarian Councilor and is stabbed by assassin Kai Leng whom escapes. If neither Thane nor Kirrahe (who may serve as Thane's placeholder in the story arc) are alive, Kai Leng will be successful in his assassinating the salarian Councilor.",
"After the remaining Cerberus forces have been routed, Shepard visits Thane in the hospital where doctors tell Shepard that due to his blood loss and his illness is in the final stages, there is nothing else they can do but to comfort him during his final moments. If Thane has reconciled with Kolyat in *Mass Effect 2*, he will be present by his father's deathbed, and Thane asks him and Shepard to recite a prayer. As Kolyat and Shepard recite the prayer, Thane passes away. Kolyat will reveal that Thane's prayer was not meant for himself, but for Shepard. Thane's name will be added to the *Normandy* SR\\-2's memorial wall on the Crew Deck area after his passing in either *Mass Effect 2* or *3*, alongside other crew members who have fallen.",
"In the *[Mass Effect 3: Citadel](/wiki/Mass_Effect_3:Citadel \"Citadel\")* DLC, Shepard may hold a memorial service for Thane at their apartment. Following the service, Shepard could also view some video recordings made by Thane addressed to Shepard. If romanced, Shepard will talk to Thane in their mind one last time.",
""
] |
Critical reception
------------------
Thane's critical reception has been very positive. The character won the award for IGN's best [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 "Xbox 360") character of 2010; IGN called him "easily the most fully realized character in the supporting cast" of *Mass Effect 2*. Writing for *GameZone*, Dakota Grabowski listed Thane as the fifth best BioWare companion. Grabowski praised the character's design as well as how much was how parts of him were "open for interpretation". [IGN](/wiki/IGN "IGN")'s Steven Hopper listed him as the sixth best *Mass Effect* companion, saying he had "one of the most engaging story arcs" in *Mass Effect 2* and crediting his complexity. GRY Online included Thane in their list of the best assassins in video games in a 2015 article. *PC Gamer* staff ranked him the fifth best *Mass Effect* companion in a 2016 article. Tom Marks remarked the internal conflict present in Thane makes him compelling as a sidekick, calling him the "personification of Shepard’s own Paragon and Renegade choices, and is the literal representation of their team marching slowly toward almost certain death". He also praised Thane's "gravelly voice", while another staff member rated the character for his perceived sex appeal. Ben Griffins said Thane is one of his favourite BioWare companions, and that everything about the character is "fascinating" to him. However, Tim Clark dislikes Thane and called him "just a big green cloud of glum".
The character has been cited as a fan favorite, with commentary focused on emotional investment by players towards the character's fate. *[GamesTM](/wiki/GamesTM "GamesTM")* called him one of BioWare's eight most memorable companions, drawing attention to his "emotionally crippling" ending. Tina Amini from *Kotaku* claimed that she reloaded an earlier save and spent at least another 40 hours making alternate decisions for her *Mass Effect 2* playthrough just to ensure that Thane, whom she find compelling as a love interest for her Shepard character, survives the suicide mission and expressed a hope that their romance story arc would be continued for *Mass Effect 3*. Phil Savage from *PC Gamer* remarked that Thane's ending in *Mass Effect 3* is brilliant, calling it a "quiet, sad triumph"; he's surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed, content with what he's achieved. Savage observed that "this isn't a fate experienced by many major game characters". He likes that BioWare still made an effort to remind players to cherish the things that matter to them as individuals, such as their life goals and loved ones, even if *Mass Effect* is a game series that resolves around big, galaxy\-shifting decisions and impossible odds. Scott Deakin, writing for *[GamesBeat](/wiki/VentureBeat "VentureBeat")*, found his opportunity to avenge Thane, a character he was emotionally invested in, by finishing off Kai Leng during a cutscene to be deeply satisfying and cathartic. A 2014 IGN reader poll, to determine the "Ultimate RPG Party", had Thane be the eleventh\-most voted in character.
The comparison between Kepral's Syndrome and cystic fibrosis provided by Weekes resonated with Elizabeth Rogers from The [AbleGamers](/wiki/AbleGamers "AbleGamers") Foundation, who explained in her article "The Problems and Joys of Thane from Mass Effect" that she suffers from the same condition: a life\-threatening genetic disorder that fills her lungs and pancreas with mucus, and that like Thane, her lungs will inevitably no longer work. Rogers appreciated that not only did the writers of *Mass Effect* present Thane as "one of the few chronically ill characters to play a significant role in any video game" which she could identify herself with, they did not give Thane a cure narrative as part of his story arc, which Rogers found to be respectful. She expressed a view that another writer who identifies as being chronically ill would probably have created a space for Thane to exist without death, "to be disabled and kicking ass well into the end of the series", but is content that he represents a movements towards greater inclusivity and representation of minorities in a video game.
### Analysis
The depiction of Thane's religious piety and spiritual outlook has been subject to analysis. Researcher Greg Perreault examined *Mass Effect 2* as part of his research on the depiction of religion as violent or problematic in video games. He observed that *Mass Effect 2* does not portray its religious and spiritual themes in a positive light, but he considered Thane to be an interesting case because the violence he commits is not informed by his religion, "although it allows for it." *[GamesRadar](/wiki/GamesRadar "GamesRadar")'s* Jordan Baughman cited Thane as an example of BioWare's "The Honor\-bound Psychotic" character archetype, specifically a religious zealot who "adheres to a special code that dictates his murder frenzies". Joshua and Ita Irizarry, co\-authors of "The Lord is My Shepard \- Confronting Religion in the Mass Effect Trilogy" published as part of the *Religion in Digital Games* anthology publication, noted Thane's openly religious behaviour and expressed bemusement that the character is embraced as a fan favorite by *Mass Effect* fandom. They contrasted Thane's positive reception as an unambiguously pious character to the broad negativity many players have shown towards human squadmate [Ashley William's](/wiki/List_of_Mass_Effect_characters%23Ashley_Williams "List of Mass Effect characters#Ashley Williams") expressions of faith in the original *Mass Effect*. Comparing player responses to Ashley and Thane, the authors surmised that unlike Ashley, "Thane never prompts the player to consider their (or Shepard's) views about religion". The authors posited that in the alternative, Thane and his religion are clearly recognized as alien by players, which do not invite comment on real world religions and spirituality, wheres the same cannot be said of Ashley and her religiosity.
Matt Cronn from *Geeks Under Grace*, an American pop culture website which publishes news, culture, reviews, and videos from a [Christian perspective](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"), examined some of the religious beliefs espoused by Thane within the context of commonly accepted Christian doctrine. He compared Thane's prayers for his own wicked self to the concept of [original sin](/wiki/Original_sin "Original sin") and the practice of Christians praying to God for forgiveness of their own sins. Cronn found the prayer recited on Thane's deathbed to be very interesting as despite the fact that he was dying, Thane's primary concern was to absolve Shepard of the sins of their many kills, and asserted that "this is the kindness and concern for others that Christians should exemplify".
|
[
"Critical reception\n------------------",
"Thane's critical reception has been very positive. The character won the award for IGN's best [Xbox 360](/wiki/Xbox_360 \"Xbox 360\") character of 2010; IGN called him \"easily the most fully realized character in the supporting cast\" of *Mass Effect 2*. Writing for *GameZone*, Dakota Grabowski listed Thane as the fifth best BioWare companion. Grabowski praised the character's design as well as how much was how parts of him were \"open for interpretation\". [IGN](/wiki/IGN \"IGN\")'s Steven Hopper listed him as the sixth best *Mass Effect* companion, saying he had \"one of the most engaging story arcs\" in *Mass Effect 2* and crediting his complexity. GRY Online included Thane in their list of the best assassins in video games in a 2015 article. *PC Gamer* staff ranked him the fifth best *Mass Effect* companion in a 2016 article. Tom Marks remarked the internal conflict present in Thane makes him compelling as a sidekick, calling him the \"personification of Shepard’s own Paragon and Renegade choices, and is the literal representation of their team marching slowly toward almost certain death\". He also praised Thane's \"gravelly voice\", while another staff member rated the character for his perceived sex appeal. Ben Griffins said Thane is one of his favourite BioWare companions, and that everything about the character is \"fascinating\" to him. However, Tim Clark dislikes Thane and called him \"just a big green cloud of glum\".",
"The character has been cited as a fan favorite, with commentary focused on emotional investment by players towards the character's fate. *[GamesTM](/wiki/GamesTM \"GamesTM\")* called him one of BioWare's eight most memorable companions, drawing attention to his \"emotionally crippling\" ending. Tina Amini from *Kotaku* claimed that she reloaded an earlier save and spent at least another 40 hours making alternate decisions for her *Mass Effect 2* playthrough just to ensure that Thane, whom she find compelling as a love interest for her Shepard character, survives the suicide mission and expressed a hope that their romance story arc would be continued for *Mass Effect 3*. Phil Savage from *PC Gamer* remarked that Thane's ending in *Mass Effect 3* is brilliant, calling it a \"quiet, sad triumph\"; he's surrounded by family and friends at his deathbed, content with what he's achieved. Savage observed that \"this isn't a fate experienced by many major game characters\". He likes that BioWare still made an effort to remind players to cherish the things that matter to them as individuals, such as their life goals and loved ones, even if *Mass Effect* is a game series that resolves around big, galaxy\\-shifting decisions and impossible odds. Scott Deakin, writing for *[GamesBeat](/wiki/VentureBeat \"VentureBeat\")*, found his opportunity to avenge Thane, a character he was emotionally invested in, by finishing off Kai Leng during a cutscene to be deeply satisfying and cathartic. A 2014 IGN reader poll, to determine the \"Ultimate RPG Party\", had Thane be the eleventh\\-most voted in character.",
"The comparison between Kepral's Syndrome and cystic fibrosis provided by Weekes resonated with Elizabeth Rogers from The [AbleGamers](/wiki/AbleGamers \"AbleGamers\") Foundation, who explained in her article \"The Problems and Joys of Thane from Mass Effect\" that she suffers from the same condition: a life\\-threatening genetic disorder that fills her lungs and pancreas with mucus, and that like Thane, her lungs will inevitably no longer work. Rogers appreciated that not only did the writers of *Mass Effect* present Thane as \"one of the few chronically ill characters to play a significant role in any video game\" which she could identify herself with, they did not give Thane a cure narrative as part of his story arc, which Rogers found to be respectful. She expressed a view that another writer who identifies as being chronically ill would probably have created a space for Thane to exist without death, \"to be disabled and kicking ass well into the end of the series\", but is content that he represents a movements towards greater inclusivity and representation of minorities in a video game.",
"### Analysis",
"The depiction of Thane's religious piety and spiritual outlook has been subject to analysis. Researcher Greg Perreault examined *Mass Effect 2* as part of his research on the depiction of religion as violent or problematic in video games. He observed that *Mass Effect 2* does not portray its religious and spiritual themes in a positive light, but he considered Thane to be an interesting case because the violence he commits is not informed by his religion, \"although it allows for it.\" *[GamesRadar](/wiki/GamesRadar \"GamesRadar\")'s* Jordan Baughman cited Thane as an example of BioWare's \"The Honor\\-bound Psychotic\" character archetype, specifically a religious zealot who \"adheres to a special code that dictates his murder frenzies\". Joshua and Ita Irizarry, co\\-authors of \"The Lord is My Shepard \\- Confronting Religion in the Mass Effect Trilogy\" published as part of the *Religion in Digital Games* anthology publication, noted Thane's openly religious behaviour and expressed bemusement that the character is embraced as a fan favorite by *Mass Effect* fandom. They contrasted Thane's positive reception as an unambiguously pious character to the broad negativity many players have shown towards human squadmate [Ashley William's](/wiki/List_of_Mass_Effect_characters%23Ashley_Williams \"List of Mass Effect characters#Ashley Williams\") expressions of faith in the original *Mass Effect*. Comparing player responses to Ashley and Thane, the authors surmised that unlike Ashley, \"Thane never prompts the player to consider their (or Shepard's) views about religion\". The authors posited that in the alternative, Thane and his religion are clearly recognized as alien by players, which do not invite comment on real world religions and spirituality, wheres the same cannot be said of Ashley and her religiosity.",
"Matt Cronn from *Geeks Under Grace*, an American pop culture website which publishes news, culture, reviews, and videos from a [Christian perspective](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"), examined some of the religious beliefs espoused by Thane within the context of commonly accepted Christian doctrine. He compared Thane's prayers for his own wicked self to the concept of [original sin](/wiki/Original_sin \"Original sin\") and the practice of Christians praying to God for forgiveness of their own sins. Cronn found the prayer recited on Thane's deathbed to be very interesting as despite the fact that he was dying, Thane's primary concern was to absolve Shepard of the sins of their many kills, and asserted that \"this is the kindness and concern for others that Christians should exemplify\".",
""
] |
Military career
---------------
Kearby joined the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps") in 1937,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.veterantributes.org/TributeDetail.php?recordID\=626\|title\=Veteran Tributes\|website\=www.veterantributes.org}} and received flight training at [Randolph](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base "Randolph Air Force Base") and [Kelly Air Fields](/wiki/Kelly_Air_Force_Base "Kelly Air Force Base").
### World War II
Kearby then served with the [94th](/wiki/94th_Fighter_Squadron "94th Fighter Squadron") and [40th Pursuit Squadrons](/wiki/40th_Fighter_Squadron "40th Fighter Squadron") of the [1st Pursuit Group](/wiki/1st_Fighter_Group "1st Fighter Group") at [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Air_Force_Base "Selfridge Air Force Base") in [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan"), until December 1940\. Kearby commanded the [14th Pursuit Squadron](/wiki/14th_Fighter_Squadron "14th Fighter Squadron") in the [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone "Panama Canal Zone") from December 1940 to August 1942, where he flew [P\-39 Airacobras](/wiki/P-39_Airacobra "P-39 Airacobra").
[thumb\|348th FG P\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/File:P-47d-42-75332-348FG.jpg "P-47d-42-75332-348FG.jpg")
He was transferred in October 1942 to [Westover Field](/wiki/Westover_Field "Westover Field") in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts") to take command of the new [348th Fighter Group](/wiki/348th_Fighter_Group "348th Fighter Group") with the rank of [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 "Major (rank)"). In June 1943, now a [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant colonel (United States)"), Kearby arrived in Australia with his fighter group after months of training on the [P\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt "P-47 Thunderbolt").
The 348th used the P\-47's flight characteristics to their advantage. They used their turbo supercharged engines to fly at high altitude to the target and dove on the Japanese planes before firing their eight .50\-caliber machine guns on the lightly armored enemy aircraft.
Kearby opened his score on September 4, 1943, with a [Mitsubishi G4M](/wiki/Mitsubishi_G4M "Mitsubishi G4M") bomber and a [Nakajima Ki\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 "Nakajima Ki-43"), and followed this up ten days later by shooting down another twin\-engined bomber, a [Mitsubishi Ki\-46](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Ki-46 "Mitsubishi Ki-46"). On September 23, he was promoted to full colonel.
He flew an aircraft bearing the name "Fiery Ginger". There were several planes with this title in the [358th Fighter Group](/wiki/358th_Fighter_Group "358th Fighter Group") at that time. All of Kearby's [P\-47D](/wiki/P-47 "P-47")'s—bore the names, "Fiery Ginger", "Fiery Ginger II", "Fiery Ginger III" and "Fiery Ginger IV". They were all named after his wife Virginia.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.homeofheroes.com/wings/part2/11\_kearby.html\|title\=Wings of Valor II – Neel Kearby\|website\=www.homeofheroes.com}}
### Medal of Honor mission
[thumb\|348th FG P\-47s over New Guinea](/wiki/File:P-47Ds_348th_FG_in_flight_over_New_Guinea_1943.jpg "P-47Ds 348th FG in flight over New Guinea 1943.jpg")
On October 11, 1943, Kearby led four P\-47s on a fighter sweep over the Japanese base at [Wewak](/wiki/Wewak "Wewak"), and ran into 40 [Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army "Imperial Japanese Army") fighters. The ensuing combat lasted close to an hour, and when it was over, Kearby had shot down six enemy planes, which included four Nakajima Ki\-43s and two [Kawasaki Ki\-61s](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ki-61 "Kawasaki Ki-61").
Two other pilots had downed three Ki\-61s between them for a total of nine Japanese fighters shot down without loss. This made Kearby the first P\-47 ace of the [Pacific Theater of Operations](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II "Pacific Ocean theater of World War II"), and set a [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") record for most victories in a single mission.
Upon hearing of this aerial victory, General [George Kenney](/wiki/George_Kenney "George Kenney"), head of [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force "Fifth Air Force") in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific "Pacific"), recommended Kearby for the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor"), which was presented to him by General [Douglas MacArthur](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur "Douglas MacArthur") himself in January 1944\.
The American record for most victories in single mission is nine, set a year later by [USN](/wiki/USN "USN") [F6F Hellcat](/wiki/F6F_Hellcat "F6F Hellcat") pilot, [David McCampbell](/wiki/David_McCampbell "David McCampbell"). Kearby's record was later broken within the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force "United States Army Air Force") as well, when [P\-51 Mustang](/wiki/P-51_Mustang "P-51 Mustang") pilot [William Shomo](/wiki/William_Shomo "William Shomo") downed seven Japanese planes in a six\-minute fight over the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") in January 1945\.
Postwar evaluation of Japanese records showed that only two of the nine victories credited on the Medal of Honor mission were valid, although three other Japanese fighters were damaged. However, the two losses were a [squadron leader](/wiki/Squadron_leader "Squadron leader") and a [wing commander](/wiki/Wing_commander "Wing commander").
### Post mission
In November 1943, with 12 victories to his credit, Kearby was transferred to the headquarters of the 5th Air Force Fighter Command. Despite his assignment to administrative duties, Kearby still wanted to be in combat. He flew missions whenever he could, and his victory tally continued to rise. For a time Kearby was in competition with [Richard Bong](/wiki/Richard_Bong "Richard Bong") to be the leading Army ace of the Pacific Theater. Like Kearby, Bong was not assigned to a combat unit at the time and flew in addition to his assigned duty of instructor in order to stay in combat.
During early March 1944, fighter pilots Bong and [Thomas J. Lynch](/wiki/Thomas_J._Lynch_%28aviator%29 "Thomas J. Lynch (aviator)") were close to breaking the American World War I record of 26 victories scored by pilot [Eddie Rickenbacker](/wiki/Eddie_Rickenbacker "Eddie Rickenbacker"). Hoping to break the record himself, Kearby hoped to score more victories to tie or break his record.
[thumb\|Kearby with his P\-47 showing 15 "kills"](/wiki/File:Neel_E_Kearby_USAAF_with_P-47_c1943.jpg "Neel E Kearby USAAF with P-47 c1943.jpg")
[thumb\|Kearby in February 1944](/wiki/File:Kearby-Plane.jpg "Kearby-Plane.jpg")
[thumb\|P\-47 painted to appear as the plane flown by Kearby, at the [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force "National Museum of the United States Air Force"). In the background under left wing can be seen original rudder from Kearby's P\-47 wreck.](/wiki/File:Republic_P-47D_Thunderbolt_%22Razorback_Version%22_%285168077843%29.jpg "Republic P-47D Thunderbolt ")
By March 1944, Kearby had 21 kills to his credit.
### Death
On March 5, 1944, Kearby took off on a combat patrol with Captain [William D. Dunham](/wiki/William_D._Dunham "William D. Dunham") and Major Samuel Blair to search for Japanese aircraft. Flying his personal aircraft "Fiery Ginger IV" he proceeded towards the [Tadji](/wiki/Tadji%2C_Papua_New_Guinea "Tadji, Papua New Guinea") area. They spotted enemy aircraft over [Wewak](/wiki/Wewak "Wewak"), and intercepted three [Kawasaki Ki\-48s](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ki-48 "Kawasaki Ki-48") of the 208th Sentai approaching [Dagua Airfield](/wiki/Dagua_Airfield "Dagua Airfield").
Kearby opened fire on one aircraft, but did not observe it to go down and made a complete circle to attack it again. While performing this maneuver, he was attacked by a [Ki\-43 Oscar](/wiki/Ki-43_Oscar "Ki-43 Oscar") from the 77th Sentai before wingman Dunham could shoot it down. Kearby's P\-47 crashed into the jungle below. Afterwards, Dunham and Blair unsuccessfully searched for him until they ran short on fuel and returned to [Saidor Airfield](/wiki/Saidor_Airport "Saidor Airport").
Kearby was observed by local people on the ground to have escaped by [parachute](/wiki/Parachute "Parachute") and as he descended he became tangled in a tree and died of bullet wounds from the attack. His remains were found in 1947 by a [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force "Royal Australian Air Force") search team, but they were not identified until two years later. He was buried in [Sparkman\-Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery](/wiki/Sparkman-Hillcrest_Memorial_Park_Cemetery "Sparkman-Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery") in July 1949\.
|
[
"Military career\n---------------",
"Kearby joined the [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\") in 1937,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.veterantributes.org/TributeDetail.php?recordID\\=626\\|title\\=Veteran Tributes\\|website\\=www.veterantributes.org}} and received flight training at [Randolph](/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base \"Randolph Air Force Base\") and [Kelly Air Fields](/wiki/Kelly_Air_Force_Base \"Kelly Air Force Base\").",
"### World War II",
"Kearby then served with the [94th](/wiki/94th_Fighter_Squadron \"94th Fighter Squadron\") and [40th Pursuit Squadrons](/wiki/40th_Fighter_Squadron \"40th Fighter Squadron\") of the [1st Pursuit Group](/wiki/1st_Fighter_Group \"1st Fighter Group\") at [Selfridge Field](/wiki/Selfridge_Air_Force_Base \"Selfridge Air Force Base\") in [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\"), until December 1940\\. Kearby commanded the [14th Pursuit Squadron](/wiki/14th_Fighter_Squadron \"14th Fighter Squadron\") in the [Panama Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zone \"Panama Canal Zone\") from December 1940 to August 1942, where he flew [P\\-39 Airacobras](/wiki/P-39_Airacobra \"P-39 Airacobra\").",
"[thumb\\|348th FG P\\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/File:P-47d-42-75332-348FG.jpg \"P-47d-42-75332-348FG.jpg\")\nHe was transferred in October 1942 to [Westover Field](/wiki/Westover_Field \"Westover Field\") in [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\") to take command of the new [348th Fighter Group](/wiki/348th_Fighter_Group \"348th Fighter Group\") with the rank of [major](/wiki/Major_%28rank%29 \"Major (rank)\"). In June 1943, now a [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United States)\"), Kearby arrived in Australia with his fighter group after months of training on the [P\\-47 Thunderbolt](/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt \"P-47 Thunderbolt\").",
"The 348th used the P\\-47's flight characteristics to their advantage. They used their turbo supercharged engines to fly at high altitude to the target and dove on the Japanese planes before firing their eight .50\\-caliber machine guns on the lightly armored enemy aircraft.",
"Kearby opened his score on September 4, 1943, with a [Mitsubishi G4M](/wiki/Mitsubishi_G4M \"Mitsubishi G4M\") bomber and a [Nakajima Ki\\-43](/wiki/Nakajima_Ki-43 \"Nakajima Ki-43\"), and followed this up ten days later by shooting down another twin\\-engined bomber, a [Mitsubishi Ki\\-46](/wiki/Mitsubishi_Ki-46 \"Mitsubishi Ki-46\"). On September 23, he was promoted to full colonel.",
"He flew an aircraft bearing the name \"Fiery Ginger\". There were several planes with this title in the [358th Fighter Group](/wiki/358th_Fighter_Group \"358th Fighter Group\") at that time. All of Kearby's [P\\-47D](/wiki/P-47 \"P-47\")'s—bore the names, \"Fiery Ginger\", \"Fiery Ginger II\", \"Fiery Ginger III\" and \"Fiery Ginger IV\". They were all named after his wife Virginia.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.homeofheroes.com/wings/part2/11\\_kearby.html\\|title\\=Wings of Valor II – Neel Kearby\\|website\\=www.homeofheroes.com}}",
"### Medal of Honor mission",
"[thumb\\|348th FG P\\-47s over New Guinea](/wiki/File:P-47Ds_348th_FG_in_flight_over_New_Guinea_1943.jpg \"P-47Ds 348th FG in flight over New Guinea 1943.jpg\")\nOn October 11, 1943, Kearby led four P\\-47s on a fighter sweep over the Japanese base at [Wewak](/wiki/Wewak \"Wewak\"), and ran into 40 [Japanese Army](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army \"Imperial Japanese Army\") fighters. The ensuing combat lasted close to an hour, and when it was over, Kearby had shot down six enemy planes, which included four Nakajima Ki\\-43s and two [Kawasaki Ki\\-61s](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ki-61 \"Kawasaki Ki-61\").",
"Two other pilots had downed three Ki\\-61s between them for a total of nine Japanese fighters shot down without loss. This made Kearby the first P\\-47 ace of the [Pacific Theater of Operations](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II \"Pacific Ocean theater of World War II\"), and set a [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") record for most victories in a single mission.",
"Upon hearing of this aerial victory, General [George Kenney](/wiki/George_Kenney \"George Kenney\"), head of [Fifth Air Force](/wiki/Fifth_Air_Force \"Fifth Air Force\") in the [Pacific](/wiki/Pacific \"Pacific\"), recommended Kearby for the [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\"), which was presented to him by General [Douglas MacArthur](/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur \"Douglas MacArthur\") himself in January 1944\\.",
"The American record for most victories in single mission is nine, set a year later by [USN](/wiki/USN \"USN\") [F6F Hellcat](/wiki/F6F_Hellcat \"F6F Hellcat\") pilot, [David McCampbell](/wiki/David_McCampbell \"David McCampbell\"). Kearby's record was later broken within the [United States Army Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Force \"United States Army Air Force\") as well, when [P\\-51 Mustang](/wiki/P-51_Mustang \"P-51 Mustang\") pilot [William Shomo](/wiki/William_Shomo \"William Shomo\") downed seven Japanese planes in a six\\-minute fight over the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") in January 1945\\.",
"Postwar evaluation of Japanese records showed that only two of the nine victories credited on the Medal of Honor mission were valid, although three other Japanese fighters were damaged. However, the two losses were a [squadron leader](/wiki/Squadron_leader \"Squadron leader\") and a [wing commander](/wiki/Wing_commander \"Wing commander\").",
"### Post mission",
"In November 1943, with 12 victories to his credit, Kearby was transferred to the headquarters of the 5th Air Force Fighter Command. Despite his assignment to administrative duties, Kearby still wanted to be in combat. He flew missions whenever he could, and his victory tally continued to rise. For a time Kearby was in competition with [Richard Bong](/wiki/Richard_Bong \"Richard Bong\") to be the leading Army ace of the Pacific Theater. Like Kearby, Bong was not assigned to a combat unit at the time and flew in addition to his assigned duty of instructor in order to stay in combat.",
"During early March 1944, fighter pilots Bong and [Thomas J. Lynch](/wiki/Thomas_J._Lynch_%28aviator%29 \"Thomas J. Lynch (aviator)\") were close to breaking the American World War I record of 26 victories scored by pilot [Eddie Rickenbacker](/wiki/Eddie_Rickenbacker \"Eddie Rickenbacker\"). Hoping to break the record himself, Kearby hoped to score more victories to tie or break his record.",
"[thumb\\|Kearby with his P\\-47 showing 15 \"kills\"](/wiki/File:Neel_E_Kearby_USAAF_with_P-47_c1943.jpg \"Neel E Kearby USAAF with P-47 c1943.jpg\")",
"[thumb\\|Kearby in February 1944](/wiki/File:Kearby-Plane.jpg \"Kearby-Plane.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|P\\-47 painted to appear as the plane flown by Kearby, at the [National Museum of the United States Air Force](/wiki/National_Museum_of_the_United_States_Air_Force \"National Museum of the United States Air Force\"). In the background under left wing can be seen original rudder from Kearby's P\\-47 wreck.](/wiki/File:Republic_P-47D_Thunderbolt_%22Razorback_Version%22_%285168077843%29.jpg \"Republic P-47D Thunderbolt \")\nBy March 1944, Kearby had 21 kills to his credit.",
"### Death",
"On March 5, 1944, Kearby took off on a combat patrol with Captain [William D. Dunham](/wiki/William_D._Dunham \"William D. Dunham\") and Major Samuel Blair to search for Japanese aircraft. Flying his personal aircraft \"Fiery Ginger IV\" he proceeded towards the [Tadji](/wiki/Tadji%2C_Papua_New_Guinea \"Tadji, Papua New Guinea\") area. They spotted enemy aircraft over [Wewak](/wiki/Wewak \"Wewak\"), and intercepted three [Kawasaki Ki\\-48s](/wiki/Kawasaki_Ki-48 \"Kawasaki Ki-48\") of the 208th Sentai approaching [Dagua Airfield](/wiki/Dagua_Airfield \"Dagua Airfield\").",
"Kearby opened fire on one aircraft, but did not observe it to go down and made a complete circle to attack it again. While performing this maneuver, he was attacked by a [Ki\\-43 Oscar](/wiki/Ki-43_Oscar \"Ki-43 Oscar\") from the 77th Sentai before wingman Dunham could shoot it down. Kearby's P\\-47 crashed into the jungle below. Afterwards, Dunham and Blair unsuccessfully searched for him until they ran short on fuel and returned to [Saidor Airfield](/wiki/Saidor_Airport \"Saidor Airport\").",
"Kearby was observed by local people on the ground to have escaped by [parachute](/wiki/Parachute \"Parachute\") and as he descended he became tangled in a tree and died of bullet wounds from the attack. His remains were found in 1947 by a [Royal Australian Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Australian_Air_Force \"Royal Australian Air Force\") search team, but they were not identified until two years later. He was buried in [Sparkman\\-Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery](/wiki/Sparkman-Hillcrest_Memorial_Park_Cemetery \"Sparkman-Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery\") in July 1949\\.",
""
] |
Outcomes in modern spelling and pronunciation
---------------------------------------------
The following table surveys how [Proto\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic "Proto-Germanic") vowels which later underwent i\-umlaut generally appear in modern languages—though there are many exceptions to these patterns owing to other sound changes and chance variations. The table gives two [West Germanic](/wiki/West_Germanic "West Germanic") examples (English and German) and two [North Germanic](/wiki/North_Germanic "North Germanic") examples (Swedish, from the east, and Icelandic, from the west). Spellings are marked by pointy brackets (⟨...⟩) and pronunciation, given in the [international phonetic alphabet](/wiki/International_phonetic_alphabet "International phonetic alphabet"), in slashes (/.../).
| \+ | Proto\-Germanic vowel | example word | usual modern reflex after *i*\-umlaut | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| English | German | Swedish | Icelandic |
| [ɑ](/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel "Open back unrounded vowel") | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*manniz}} ('people') | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (*men*) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|de\|Männer}}) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|sv\|män}}) | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|is\|menn}}) |
| [ɑː](/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel "Open back unrounded vowel") | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*gansiz}} ('geese'), which became {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*gą̄si}} in North Germanic and [North Sea Germanic](/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic "North Sea Germanic"), though not in German | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*geese*) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|de\|Gänse}}) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|sv\|gäss}}) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ ({{lang\|is\|gæs}}) |
| [o](/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel "Close-mid back rounded vowel") | no single example in all languagesExamples of Common Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} and {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} or {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}} are vanishingly rare. Proto\-Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}} has been included in this table, however, to ensure that all the outcomes of i\-umlaut in the modern languages are accounted for. {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} had been raised to {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} and {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}} earlier in the development of Common Germanic. {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}}, meanwhile, only existed where {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|u}} had changed to {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}}, which never happened before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} and {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}}. Most examples of the i\-umlaut of {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}}, therefore, occur in words borrowed into Germanic (such as {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*oli}}, from Latin {{lang\|la\|oleum}}), or in words where {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|o}} arose due to later processes specific to each daughter language of Germanic. See A. Campbell, *Old English Grammar* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959\), §§112, 115, 195\-96\. Similarly, many examples of {{lang\|de\|ö}} in Modern German come from a later change of {{lang\|de\|ü}} to {{lang\|de\|ö}} (e.g., {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*kuningaz}} \> {{lang\|gmh\|Künig}} \> {{lang\|de\|König}} 'king'): M. O'C. Walshe, *A Middle High German Reader With Grammar, Notes and Glossary* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974\), §10\. | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*obisu}} \> *eaves*) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*oli}} \> {{lang\|de\|Öl}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*hnotiz}} \> {{lang\|sv\|nötter}}) | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*komiz}} \> {{lang\|is\|kemur}}) |
| [ɔː](/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel "Open-mid back rounded vowel") | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*fōtiz}} ('feet') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*feet*) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ ({{lang\|de\|Füße}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|sv\|fötter}}) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ ({{lang\|is\|fætur}}) |
| [u](/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel "Open-mid back rounded vowel") | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*fullijaną}} ('fill') | ⟨i⟩, /ɪ/ (*fill*) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ ({{lang\|de\|füllen}}) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ ({{lang\|sv\|fylla}}) | ⟨y⟩, /ɪ/ ({{lang\|is\|fylla}}) |
| [uː](/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel "Close back rounded vowel") | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*lūsiz}} ('lice') | ⟨i⟩, /aɪ/ (*lice*) | ⟨eu, äu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ ({{lang\|de\|Läuse}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|sv\|löss}}) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ ({{lang\|is\|lýs}}) |
| ɑu | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*hauzjaną}} ('hear') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*hear*) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|de\|hören}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\|sv\|höra}}) | ⟨ey⟩, /ɛɪ/ ({{lang\|is\|heyra}}) |
| ɑi | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*hailijaną}} ('heal') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*heal*) | ⟨ei⟩, /aɪ̯/ ({{lang\|de\|heilen}}) | ⟨e⟩, /e/ ({{lang\|sv\|hela}}) | ⟨ei⟩, /ɛɪ/ ({{lang\|is\|heila}}) |
| eu, iu | {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*steurjaną}} ('steer') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*steer*) | ⟨eu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ ({{lang\|de\|steuern}}) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ ({{lang\|sv\|styra}}) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ ({{lang\|is\|stýra}}) |
Whereas modern English does not have any special letters for vowels produced by i\-umlaut, in German the letters {{angbr\|ä}}, {{angbr\|ö}}, and {{angbr\|ü}} almost always represent umlauted vowels (see further below). Likewise, the Swedish {{angbr\|ä}}, {{angbr\|ö}}, and {{angbr\|y}} and Icelandic {{angbr\|æ}}, {{angbr\|y}}, {{angbr\|ý}}, and {{angbr\|ey}} vowels are almost always used of for produced by i\-umlaut. However, German {{angbr\|eu}} represents vowels from multiple sources, which is also the case for {{angbr\|e}} in Swedish and Icelandic.
### German orthography
{{See also\|Umlaut (diacritic)\|Å}}
[thumb\|{{angbr\|Ä}}, {{angbr\|Ö}}, {{angbr\|Ü}} on a German computer keyboard](/wiki/File:Germanic_umlaut_on_keyboard.jpg "Germanic umlaut on keyboard.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\=0\.45\|New and old notation of umlauted vowels](/wiki/File:Umlaut_forms.png "Umlaut forms.png")
German orthography is generally consistent in its representation of i\-umlaut. The [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 "Umlaut (diacritic)"), consisting of two dots above the vowel, is used for the fronted vowels, making the historical process much more visible in the modern language than is the case in English: {{angbr\|a}} – {{angbr\|ä}}, {{angbr\|o}} – {{angbr\|ö}}, {{angbr\|u}} – {{angbr\|ü}}, {{angbr\|au}} – {{angbr\|äu}}. This is a neat solution when pairs of words with and without umlaut mutation are compared, as in umlauted plurals like {{lang\|de\|Mutter}} – {{lang\|de\|Mütter}} ("mother" – "mothers").
However, in a small number of words, a vowel affected by i\-umlaut is not marked with the umlaut diacritic because its origin is not obvious. Either there is no unumlauted equivalent or they are not recognized as a pair because the meanings have drifted apart. The adjective {{lang\|de\|fertig}} ("ready, finished"; originally "ready to go") contains an umlaut mutation, but it is spelled with {{angbr\|e}} rather than {{angbr\|ä}} as its relationship to {{lang\|de\|Fahrt}} ("journey") has, for most speakers of the language, been lost from sight. Likewise, {{lang\|de\|alt}} ("old") has the comparative {{lang\|de\|älter}} ("older"), but the noun from this is spelled {{lang\|de\|Eltern}} ("parents"). {{lang\|de\|Aufwand}} ("effort") has the verb {{lang\|de\|aufwenden}} ("to spend, to dedicate") and the adjective {{lang\|de\|aufwendig}} ("requiring effort") though the [1996 spelling reform](/wiki/German_spelling_reform_of_1996 "German spelling reform of 1996") now permits the alternative spelling {{lang\|de\|aufwändig}} (but not {{lang\|de\|\*aufwänden}}).Duden, *Die deutsche Rechtschreibung*, 21st edition, p. 133\. For {{lang\|de\|denken}}, see [below](/wiki/%23Umlaut_in_Germanic_verbs "#Umlaut in Germanic verbs").
Some words have umlaut diacritics that do not mark a vowel produced by the sound change of umlaut. This includes loanwords such as {{lang\|de\|Känguru}} from English *kangaroo*, and {{lang\|de\|Büro}} from French {{lang\|fr\|bureau}}. Here the diacritic is a purely phonological marker, indicating that the English and French sounds (or at least, the approximation of them used in German) are identical to the native German umlauted sounds. Similarly, [Big Mac](/wiki/Big_Mac "Big Mac") was originally spelt {{lang\|de\|Big Mäc}} in German.{{cite news\|last\=Isert\|first\=Jörg\|title\=Fast Food: McDonald's schafft "Big Mäc" und "Fishmäc" ab\|url\=https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article912840/McDonalds\_schafft\_Big\_Maec\_und\_Fishmaec\_ab.html\|work\=Welt Online\|date\=June 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Axel Springer AG]]\|access\-date\=21 April 2012\|language\=de\|trans\-title\=Fast food: McDonald's abolishes "Big Mäc" and "Fishmäc"\|archive\-date\=9 March 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309235332/http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article912840/McDonalds\_schafft\_Big\_Maec\_und\_Fishmaec\_ab.html\|url\-status\=live}} In borrowings from Latin and Greek, Latin {{angbr\|ae}}, {{angbr\|oe}}, or Greek {{angbr\|αι}} {{lang\|de\|ai}}, {{angbr\|οι}} {{lang\|de\|oi}}, are rendered in German as {{lang\|de\|ä}} and {{lang\|de\|ö}} respectively ({{lang\|de\|Ägypten}}, "Egypt", or {{lang\|de\|Ökonomie}}, "economy"). However, Latin {{angbr\|y}} and Greek {{angbr\|υ}} are written {{lang\|de\|y}} in German instead of {{lang\|de\|ü}} ({{lang\|de\|Psychologie}}). There are also several non\-borrowed words where the vowels *ö* and *ü* have not arisen through historical umlaut, but due to [rounding](/wiki/Labialization "Labialization") of an earlier unrounded [front vowel](/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") (possibly from the [labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant "Labial consonant")/[labialized](/wiki/Labialization "Labialization") consonants {{lang\|de\|w/f/sch}} occurring on both sides), such as {{lang\|de\|fünf}} ("five"; from Middle High German {{lang\|gmh\|vinf}}), {{lang\|de\|zwölf}} ("twelve"; from {{lang\|gmh\|zwelf}}), and {{lang\|de\|schöpfen}} ("create"; from {{lang\|gmh\|schepfen}}).
#### Substitution
When German words (names in particular) are written in the [basic Latin alphabet](/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet "ISO basic Latin alphabet"), umlauts are usually substituted with {{angbr\|ae}}, {{angbr\|oe}} and {{angbr\|ue}} to differentiate them from simple {{angbr\|a}}, {{angbr\|o}}, and {{angbr\|u}}.{{Cite web \|title\=Alternate Spelling Conventions \|url\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/F49540\_01/DOC/inter.815/a67843/aspell.htm \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-22 \|website\=docs.oracle.com \|archive\-date\=2022\-06\-16 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616052327/https://docs.oracle.com/cd/F49540\_01/DOC/inter.815/a67843/aspell.htm \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Orthography and design history
[thumb\|right\|upright\=1\|Development of the umlaut (anachronistically lettered in Sütterlin): {{lang\|de\|schoen}} becomes {{lang\|de\|schön}} via {{lang\|de\|schoͤn}} 'beautiful'.](/wiki/File:Umlaut_Development.png "Umlaut Development.png")
The German phonological umlaut is present in the [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German "Old High German") period and continues to develop in [Middle High German](/wiki/Middle_High_German "Middle High German"). From the Middle High German, it was sometimes denoted in written German by adding an {{angbr\|e}} to the affected vowel, either after the vowel or, in the small form, above it. This can still be seen in some names: [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe "Goethe"), [Goebbels](/wiki/Goebbels "Goebbels"), [Staedtler](/wiki/Staedtler "Staedtler").In medieval manuscripts, other [digraphs](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 "Digraph (orthography)") could also be written using superscripts: in {{lang\|gmh\|bluome}} ("flower"), for example, the {{angbr\|o}} was frequently placed above the {{angbr\|u}}, although this letter {{angbr\|ů}} survives now only in [Czech](/wiki/Czech_alphabet "Czech alphabet"). Compare also the [development of the tilde](/wiki/Tilde%23Diacritical_use "Tilde#Diacritical use") as a superscript {{angbr\|n}}.
In [blackletter](/wiki/Blackletter "Blackletter") handwriting, as used in German manuscripts of the later Middle Ages and also in many printed texts of the early modern period, the superscript {{angbr\|e}} still had a form that would now be recognisable as an {{angbr\|e}}, but in manuscript writing, umlauted vowels could be indicated by two dots since the late medieval period.
Unusual umlaut designs are sometimes also created for graphic design purposes, such as to fit an umlaut into tightly\-spaced lines of text.{{cite web\|last1\=Hardwig\|first1\=Florian\|title\=Unusual Umlauts (German)\|url\=http://kaune.hardwig.com/news/ungewohnliche\-umlaute\|publisher\=Typojournal\|access\-date\=15 July 2015\|archive\-date\=11 October 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012021/http://kaune.hardwig.com/news/ungewohnliche\-umlaute\|url\-status\=live}} This may include umlauts placed vertically or inside the body of the letter.{{cite web\|last1\=Hardwig\|first1\=Florian\|title\=Jazz in Town\|url\=http://fontsinuse.com/uses/4006/jazz\-in\-town\-poster\|website\=Fonts in Use\|date\=28 May 2013\|access\-date\=15 July 2015\|archive\-date\=7 November 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107141542/http://fontsinuse.com/uses/4006/jazz\-in\-town\-poster\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|title\=Flickr collection: vertical umlauts\|url\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/vertical%20umlaut\|website\=Flickr\|access\-date\=15 July 2015\|archive\-date\=25 September 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925120422/https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/vertical%20umlaut\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|last1\=Hardwig\|first1\=Florian\|title\=Compact umlaut\|url\=http://fontsinuse.com/uses/8308/gipfelstuermer\-by\-unheilig\|website\=Fonts in Use\|date\=17 December 2014\|access\-date\=15 July 2015\|archive\-date\=16 July 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716000038/http://fontsinuse.com/uses/8308/gipfelstuermer\-by\-unheilig\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Outcomes in modern spelling and pronunciation\n---------------------------------------------",
"The following table surveys how [Proto\\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic \"Proto-Germanic\") vowels which later underwent i\\-umlaut generally appear in modern languages—though there are many exceptions to these patterns owing to other sound changes and chance variations. The table gives two [West Germanic](/wiki/West_Germanic \"West Germanic\") examples (English and German) and two [North Germanic](/wiki/North_Germanic \"North Germanic\") examples (Swedish, from the east, and Icelandic, from the west). Spellings are marked by pointy brackets (⟨...⟩) and pronunciation, given in the [international phonetic alphabet](/wiki/International_phonetic_alphabet \"International phonetic alphabet\"), in slashes (/.../).",
"| \\+ | Proto\\-Germanic vowel | example word | usual modern reflex after *i*\\-umlaut | | | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| English | German | Swedish | Icelandic |\n| [ɑ](/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel \"Open back unrounded vowel\") | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*manniz}} ('people') | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (*men*) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|de\\|Männer}}) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|män}}) | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|menn}}) |\n| [ɑː](/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel \"Open back unrounded vowel\") | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*gansiz}} ('geese'), which became {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*gą̄si}} in North Germanic and [North Sea Germanic](/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic \"North Sea Germanic\"), though not in German | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*geese*) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|de\\|Gänse}}) | ⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|gäss}}) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|gæs}}) |\n| [o](/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel \"Close-mid back rounded vowel\") | no single example in all languagesExamples of Common Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} and {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} or {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}} are vanishingly rare. Proto\\-Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}} has been included in this table, however, to ensure that all the outcomes of i\\-umlaut in the modern languages are accounted for. {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} had been raised to {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} and {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}} earlier in the development of Common Germanic. {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}}, meanwhile, only existed where {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|u}} had changed to {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}}, which never happened before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} and {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}}. Most examples of the i\\-umlaut of {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}}, therefore, occur in words borrowed into Germanic (such as {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*oli}}, from Latin {{lang\\|la\\|oleum}}), or in words where {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|o}} arose due to later processes specific to each daughter language of Germanic. See A. Campbell, *Old English Grammar* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959\\), §§112, 115, 195\\-96\\. Similarly, many examples of {{lang\\|de\\|ö}} in Modern German come from a later change of {{lang\\|de\\|ü}} to {{lang\\|de\\|ö}} (e.g., {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*kuningaz}} \\> {{lang\\|gmh\\|Künig}} \\> {{lang\\|de\\|König}} 'king'): M. O'C. Walshe, *A Middle High German Reader With Grammar, Notes and Glossary* (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974\\), §10\\. | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*obisu}} \\> *eaves*) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*oli}} \\> {{lang\\|de\\|Öl}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*hnotiz}} \\> {{lang\\|sv\\|nötter}}) | ⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ ({{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*komiz}} \\> {{lang\\|is\\|kemur}}) |\n| [ɔː](/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel \"Open-mid back rounded vowel\") | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*fōtiz}} ('feet') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*feet*) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ ({{lang\\|de\\|Füße}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|fötter}}) | ⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|fætur}}) |\n| [u](/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel \"Open-mid back rounded vowel\") | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*fullijaną}} ('fill') | ⟨i⟩, /ɪ/ (*fill*) | ⟨ü⟩, /y/ ({{lang\\|de\\|füllen}}) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|fylla}}) | ⟨y⟩, /ɪ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|fylla}}) |\n| [uː](/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel \"Close back rounded vowel\") | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*lūsiz}} ('lice') | ⟨i⟩, /aɪ/ (*lice*) | ⟨eu, äu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ ({{lang\\|de\\|Läuse}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|löss}}) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ ({{lang\\|is\\|lýs}}) |\n| ɑu | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*hauzjaną}} ('hear') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*hear*) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|de\\|hören}}) | ⟨ö⟩, /ø/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|höra}}) | ⟨ey⟩, /ɛɪ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|heyra}}) |\n| ɑi | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*hailijaną}} ('heal') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*heal*) | ⟨ei⟩, /aɪ̯/ ({{lang\\|de\\|heilen}}) | ⟨e⟩, /e/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|hela}}) | ⟨ei⟩, /ɛɪ/ ({{lang\\|is\\|heila}}) |\n| eu, iu | {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*steurjaną}} ('steer') | ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (*steer*) | ⟨eu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ ({{lang\\|de\\|steuern}}) | ⟨y⟩, /y/ ({{lang\\|sv\\|styra}}) | ⟨ý⟩, /i/ ({{lang\\|is\\|stýra}}) |",
"Whereas modern English does not have any special letters for vowels produced by i\\-umlaut, in German the letters {{angbr\\|ä}}, {{angbr\\|ö}}, and {{angbr\\|ü}} almost always represent umlauted vowels (see further below). Likewise, the Swedish {{angbr\\|ä}}, {{angbr\\|ö}}, and {{angbr\\|y}} and Icelandic {{angbr\\|æ}}, {{angbr\\|y}}, {{angbr\\|ý}}, and {{angbr\\|ey}} vowels are almost always used of for produced by i\\-umlaut. However, German {{angbr\\|eu}} represents vowels from multiple sources, which is also the case for {{angbr\\|e}} in Swedish and Icelandic.",
"### German orthography",
"{{See also\\|Umlaut (diacritic)\\|Å}}\n[thumb\\|{{angbr\\|Ä}}, {{angbr\\|Ö}}, {{angbr\\|Ü}} on a German computer keyboard](/wiki/File:Germanic_umlaut_on_keyboard.jpg \"Germanic umlaut on keyboard.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.45\\|New and old notation of umlauted vowels](/wiki/File:Umlaut_forms.png \"Umlaut forms.png\")\nGerman orthography is generally consistent in its representation of i\\-umlaut. The [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 \"Umlaut (diacritic)\"), consisting of two dots above the vowel, is used for the fronted vowels, making the historical process much more visible in the modern language than is the case in English: {{angbr\\|a}} – {{angbr\\|ä}}, {{angbr\\|o}} – {{angbr\\|ö}}, {{angbr\\|u}} – {{angbr\\|ü}}, {{angbr\\|au}} – {{angbr\\|äu}}. This is a neat solution when pairs of words with and without umlaut mutation are compared, as in umlauted plurals like {{lang\\|de\\|Mutter}} – {{lang\\|de\\|Mütter}} (\"mother\" – \"mothers\").",
"However, in a small number of words, a vowel affected by i\\-umlaut is not marked with the umlaut diacritic because its origin is not obvious. Either there is no unumlauted equivalent or they are not recognized as a pair because the meanings have drifted apart. The adjective {{lang\\|de\\|fertig}} (\"ready, finished\"; originally \"ready to go\") contains an umlaut mutation, but it is spelled with {{angbr\\|e}} rather than {{angbr\\|ä}} as its relationship to {{lang\\|de\\|Fahrt}} (\"journey\") has, for most speakers of the language, been lost from sight. Likewise, {{lang\\|de\\|alt}} (\"old\") has the comparative {{lang\\|de\\|älter}} (\"older\"), but the noun from this is spelled {{lang\\|de\\|Eltern}} (\"parents\"). {{lang\\|de\\|Aufwand}} (\"effort\") has the verb {{lang\\|de\\|aufwenden}} (\"to spend, to dedicate\") and the adjective {{lang\\|de\\|aufwendig}} (\"requiring effort\") though the [1996 spelling reform](/wiki/German_spelling_reform_of_1996 \"German spelling reform of 1996\") now permits the alternative spelling {{lang\\|de\\|aufwändig}} (but not {{lang\\|de\\|\\*aufwänden}}).Duden, *Die deutsche Rechtschreibung*, 21st edition, p. 133\\. For {{lang\\|de\\|denken}}, see [below](/wiki/%23Umlaut_in_Germanic_verbs \"#Umlaut in Germanic verbs\").",
"Some words have umlaut diacritics that do not mark a vowel produced by the sound change of umlaut. This includes loanwords such as {{lang\\|de\\|Känguru}} from English *kangaroo*, and {{lang\\|de\\|Büro}} from French {{lang\\|fr\\|bureau}}. Here the diacritic is a purely phonological marker, indicating that the English and French sounds (or at least, the approximation of them used in German) are identical to the native German umlauted sounds. Similarly, [Big Mac](/wiki/Big_Mac \"Big Mac\") was originally spelt {{lang\\|de\\|Big Mäc}} in German.{{cite news\\|last\\=Isert\\|first\\=Jörg\\|title\\=Fast Food: McDonald's schafft \"Big Mäc\" und \"Fishmäc\" ab\\|url\\=https://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article912840/McDonalds\\_schafft\\_Big\\_Maec\\_und\\_Fishmaec\\_ab.html\\|work\\=Welt Online\\|date\\=June 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Axel Springer AG]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2012\\|language\\=de\\|trans\\-title\\=Fast food: McDonald's abolishes \"Big Mäc\" and \"Fishmäc\"\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309235332/http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article912840/McDonalds\\_schafft\\_Big\\_Maec\\_und\\_Fishmaec\\_ab.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In borrowings from Latin and Greek, Latin {{angbr\\|ae}}, {{angbr\\|oe}}, or Greek {{angbr\\|αι}} {{lang\\|de\\|ai}}, {{angbr\\|οι}} {{lang\\|de\\|oi}}, are rendered in German as {{lang\\|de\\|ä}} and {{lang\\|de\\|ö}} respectively ({{lang\\|de\\|Ägypten}}, \"Egypt\", or {{lang\\|de\\|Ökonomie}}, \"economy\"). However, Latin {{angbr\\|y}} and Greek {{angbr\\|υ}} are written {{lang\\|de\\|y}} in German instead of {{lang\\|de\\|ü}} ({{lang\\|de\\|Psychologie}}). There are also several non\\-borrowed words where the vowels *ö* and *ü* have not arisen through historical umlaut, but due to [rounding](/wiki/Labialization \"Labialization\") of an earlier unrounded [front vowel](/wiki/Front_vowel \"Front vowel\") (possibly from the [labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant \"Labial consonant\")/[labialized](/wiki/Labialization \"Labialization\") consonants {{lang\\|de\\|w/f/sch}} occurring on both sides), such as {{lang\\|de\\|fünf}} (\"five\"; from Middle High German {{lang\\|gmh\\|vinf}}), {{lang\\|de\\|zwölf}} (\"twelve\"; from {{lang\\|gmh\\|zwelf}}), and {{lang\\|de\\|schöpfen}} (\"create\"; from {{lang\\|gmh\\|schepfen}}).",
"#### Substitution",
"When German words (names in particular) are written in the [basic Latin alphabet](/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet \"ISO basic Latin alphabet\"), umlauts are usually substituted with {{angbr\\|ae}}, {{angbr\\|oe}} and {{angbr\\|ue}} to differentiate them from simple {{angbr\\|a}}, {{angbr\\|o}}, and {{angbr\\|u}}.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alternate Spelling Conventions \\|url\\=https://docs.oracle.com/cd/F49540\\_01/DOC/inter.815/a67843/aspell.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=docs.oracle.com \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-16 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616052327/https://docs.oracle.com/cd/F49540\\_01/DOC/inter.815/a67843/aspell.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Orthography and design history",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\=1\\|Development of the umlaut (anachronistically lettered in Sütterlin): {{lang\\|de\\|schoen}} becomes {{lang\\|de\\|schön}} via {{lang\\|de\\|schoͤn}} 'beautiful'.](/wiki/File:Umlaut_Development.png \"Umlaut Development.png\")\nThe German phonological umlaut is present in the [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German \"Old High German\") period and continues to develop in [Middle High German](/wiki/Middle_High_German \"Middle High German\"). From the Middle High German, it was sometimes denoted in written German by adding an {{angbr\\|e}} to the affected vowel, either after the vowel or, in the small form, above it. This can still be seen in some names: [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe \"Goethe\"), [Goebbels](/wiki/Goebbels \"Goebbels\"), [Staedtler](/wiki/Staedtler \"Staedtler\").In medieval manuscripts, other [digraphs](/wiki/Digraph_%28orthography%29 \"Digraph (orthography)\") could also be written using superscripts: in {{lang\\|gmh\\|bluome}} (\"flower\"), for example, the {{angbr\\|o}} was frequently placed above the {{angbr\\|u}}, although this letter {{angbr\\|ů}} survives now only in [Czech](/wiki/Czech_alphabet \"Czech alphabet\"). Compare also the [development of the tilde](/wiki/Tilde%23Diacritical_use \"Tilde#Diacritical use\") as a superscript {{angbr\\|n}}.",
"In [blackletter](/wiki/Blackletter \"Blackletter\") handwriting, as used in German manuscripts of the later Middle Ages and also in many printed texts of the early modern period, the superscript {{angbr\\|e}} still had a form that would now be recognisable as an {{angbr\\|e}}, but in manuscript writing, umlauted vowels could be indicated by two dots since the late medieval period.",
"Unusual umlaut designs are sometimes also created for graphic design purposes, such as to fit an umlaut into tightly\\-spaced lines of text.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hardwig\\|first1\\=Florian\\|title\\=Unusual Umlauts (German)\\|url\\=http://kaune.hardwig.com/news/ungewohnliche\\-umlaute\\|publisher\\=Typojournal\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012021/http://kaune.hardwig.com/news/ungewohnliche\\-umlaute\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This may include umlauts placed vertically or inside the body of the letter.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hardwig\\|first1\\=Florian\\|title\\=Jazz in Town\\|url\\=http://fontsinuse.com/uses/4006/jazz\\-in\\-town\\-poster\\|website\\=Fonts in Use\\|date\\=28 May 2013\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=7 November 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107141542/http://fontsinuse.com/uses/4006/jazz\\-in\\-town\\-poster\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Flickr collection: vertical umlauts\\|url\\=https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/vertical%20umlaut\\|website\\=Flickr\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=25 September 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925120422/https://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/vertical%20umlaut\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Hardwig\\|first1\\=Florian\\|title\\=Compact umlaut\\|url\\=http://fontsinuse.com/uses/8308/gipfelstuermer\\-by\\-unheilig\\|website\\=Fonts in Use\\|date\\=17 December 2014\\|access\\-date\\=15 July 2015\\|archive\\-date\\=16 July 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716000038/http://fontsinuse.com/uses/8308/gipfelstuermer\\-by\\-unheilig\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Historical survey by language
-----------------------------
### West Germanic languages
Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word\-final {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-i}} after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-i}} often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English {{lang\|ang\|ġiest}} "guest", which shows umlaut, and Old High German {{lang\|goh\|gast}}, which does not, both from Proto\-Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*gastiz}}. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after umlaut in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an "un\-umlauting" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-ij\-}} consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.
#### I\-mutation in Old English
[thumb\|The vowels and diphthongs of proto\-Old English prior to i\-mutation (in black) and how they generally changed under i\-mutation (in red). Outcomes varied according to dialect; i\-mutation of diphthongs is given for Early West Saxon as spelled in manuscripts due to uncertainty about the precise phonetic value of the graph.](/wiki/File:Vowels_of_proto-Old_English_and_general_change_when_i-mutated.png "Vowels of proto-Old English and general change when i-mutated.png")
I\-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects.Campbell, A. 1959\. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288\. It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds {{IPA\|/y(ː)/}}, {{IPA\|/ø(ː)/}} (which, in most varieties, soon turned into {{IPA\|/e(ː)/}}), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as {{angbr\|ie}} but whose phonetic value is debated.
| \+ i\-mutation |
| --- |
| Original
i\-mutated
Examples and notes
| West Saxon | Anglian | Kentish |
| {{lang\|ang\|a}} | {{lang\|ang\|æ, e}} | | {{lang\|ang\|æ, e}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|bacan}} "to bake", {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}} "(he/she) bakes". {{lang\|ang\|a}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} particularly before nasal consonants: {{lang\|ang\|mann}} "person", {{lang\|ang\|menn}} "people" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ā}} | {{lang\|ang\|ǣ}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|lār}} "teaching" (cf. "lore"), {{lang\|ang\|lǣran}} "to teach" |
| {{lang\|ang\|æ}} | {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|þæc}} "covering" (cf. "thatch"), {{lang\|ang\|þeccan}} "to cover" |
| {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|i}} | | | not clearly attested due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}} |
| {{lang\|ang\|o}} | {{lang\|ang\|ø}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | | Latin {{lang\|la\|olium}}, Old English {{lang\|ang\|øle}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ele}}. |
| {{lang\|ang\|ō}} | {{lang\|ang\|ø̄}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|fōt}} "foot", {{lang\|ang\|fø̄t}} \> {{lang\|ang\|fēt}} "feet". |
| {{lang\|ang\|u}} | {{lang\|ang\|y}} | | {{lang\|ang\|y}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|murnan}} "to mourn", {{lang\|ang\|myrnþ}} "(he/she) mourns" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ū}} | {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | | {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | {{lang\|ang\|mūs}} "mouse", {{lang\|ang\|mȳs}} "mice" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ea}} | {{lang\|ang\|ie}} \> {{lang\|ang\|y}} | {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | {{lang\|ang\|eald}} "old", {{lang\|ang\|ieldra}}, {{lang\|ang\|eldra}} "older" (cf. "elder") |
| {{lang\|ang\|ēa}} | {{lang\|ang\|īe}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | | {{lang\|ang\|nēah}} "near" (cf. "nigh"), {{lang\|ang\|nīehst}} "nearest" (cf. "next") |
| {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | {{lang\|ang\|io}} \> {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}}. {{lang\|ang\|io}} became {{lang\|ang\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English |
| {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | {{lang\|ang\|īo}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}}. {{lang\|ang\|īo}} became {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English |
| {{lang\|ang\|io}} | {{lang\|ang\|ie}} \> {{lang\|ang\|y}} | {{lang\|ang\|io}}, {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | | {{lang\|ang\|\*fiohtan}} "to fight", {{lang\|ang\|fieht}} "(he/she) fights". {{lang\|ang\|io}} became {{lang\|ang\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\|ang\|beornan}} "to burn", {{lang\|ang\|biernþ}} "(he/she) burns" |
| {{lang\|ang\|īo}} | {{lang\|ang\|īe}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | {{lang\|ang\|īo}}, {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | | {{lang\|ang\|līoht}} "light", {{lang\|ang\|līehtan}} "illuminate". {{lang\|ang\|īo}} became {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\|ang\|sēoþan}} "to boil" (cf. "seethe"), {{lang\|ang\|sīeþþ}} "(he/she) boils" |
I\-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational [morphology of Old English](/wiki/Old_English_morphology "Old English morphology") since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English"), only the four vowels {{lang\|ang\|ǣ, ē, i, ī}} were unaffected by i\-mutation. Although i\-mutation was originally triggered by an {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} had generally changed (usually to {{IPA\|/e/}}) or been lost entirely, with the result that i\-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:
* The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant\-declension nouns (Proto\-Germanic (PGmc) {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iz}}), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|fōt}} "foot," {{lang\|ang\|fēt}} "feet;" {{lang\|ang\|mūs}} "mouse," {{lang\|ang\|mȳs}} "mice." Many more words were affected by this change in Old English versus modern English, for example, {{lang\|ang\|bōc}} "book," {{lang\|ang\|bēċ}} "books;" {{lang\|ang\|frēond}} "friend," {{lang\|ang\|frīend}} "friends."
* The second and third person [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [indicative](/wiki/Indicative_mood "Indicative mood") of [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb "Germanic strong verb") (Pre\-Old\-English (Pre\-OE) {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ist}}, {{lang\|mis\|\*\-iþ}}), as compared to the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") and other present\-tense forms – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|helpan}} "to help," {{lang\|ang\|helpe}} "(I) help," {{lang\|ang\|hilpst}} "(you sg.) help," {{lang\|ang\|hilpþ}} "(he/she) helps," {{lang\|ang\|helpaþ}} "(we/you pl./they) help."
* The [comparative](/wiki/Comparative "Comparative") form of some [adjectives](/wiki/Adjective "Adjective") (Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ira}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-izǭ}}, Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ist}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-istaz}}), as compared to the base form – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|eald}} "old," {{lang\|ang\|ieldra}} "older," {{lang\|ang\|ieldest}} "oldest" (cf. "elder, eldest").
* Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix {{lang\|mis\|\-jan}}), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|fōda}} "food," {{lang\|ang\|fēdan}} "to feed" \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*fōdjan}}; {{lang\|ang\|lār}} "lore," {{lang\|ang\|lǣran}} "to teach;" {{lang\|ang\|feallan}} "to fall," {{lang\|ang\|fiellan}} "to fell."
* In the abstract nouns in {{lang\|ang\|þ(u)}} (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iþō}}) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|strang}} "strong," {{lang\|ang\|strengþ(u)}} "strength;" {{lang\|ang\|hāl}} "whole/hale," {{lang\|ang\|hǣlþ(u)}} "health;" {{lang\|ang\|fūl}} "foul," {{lang\|ang\|fȳlþ(u)}} "filth."
* In female forms of several nouns with the suffix {{lang\|ang\|\-enn}} (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-injō}}) – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|god}} "god," {{lang\|ang\|gydenn}} "goddess" (cf. German {{lang\|de\|Gott}}, {{lang\|de\|Göttin}}); {{lang\|ang\|fox}} "fox," {{lang\|ang\|fyxenn}} "vixen."
* In i\-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iz}}) – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|cyme}} "a coming," {{lang\|ang\|cuman}} "to come;" {{lang\|ang\|byre}} "a son (orig., a being born)," {{lang\|ang\|beran}} "to bear;" {{lang\|ang\|fiell}} "a falling," {{lang\|ang\|feallan}} "to fall;" {{lang\|ang\|bend}} "a bond," {{lang\|ang\|bindan}} "to bind." Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto\-Indo\-European [ablaut](/wiki/Ablaut "Ablaut").
##### Notes
1. The phonologically expected umlaut of {{IPA\|/a/}} is {{IPA\|/æ/}}. However, in many cases {{IPA\|/e/}} appears. Most {{IPA\|/a/}} in Old English stem from earlier {{IPA\|/æ/}} because of a change called [a\-restoration](/wiki/A-restoration "A-restoration"). This change was blocked when {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} followed, leaving {{IPA\|/æ/}}, which subsequently mutated to {{IPA\|/e/}}. For example, in the case of {{lang\|ang\|talu}} "tale" vs. {{lang\|ang\|tellan}} "to tell," the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were {{lang\|ang\|\*tælu}} and {{lang\|ang\|\*tælljan}}, respectively. A\-restoration converted {{lang\|ang\|\*tælu}} to {{lang\|ang\|talu}}, but left {{lang\|ang\|\*tælljan}} alone, and it subsequently evolved to {{lang\|ang\|tellan}} by i\-mutation. The same process "should" have led to {{lang\|ang\|\*becþ}} instead of {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}}. That is, the early forms were {{lang\|ang\|\*bæcan}} and {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}}. A\-restoration converted {{lang\|ang\|\*bæcan}} to {{lang\|ang\|bacan}} but left alone {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}}, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to {{lang\|ang\|\*becþ}}. In this case, however, once a\-restoration took effect, {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}} was modified to {{lang\|ang\|\*baciþ}} by analogy with {{lang\|ang\|bacan}}, and then later umlauted to {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}}.
2. A similar process resulted in the umlaut of {{IPA\|/o/}} sometimes appearing as {{IPA\|/e/}} and sometimes (usually, in fact) as {{IPA\|/y/}}. In Old English, {{IPA\|/o/}} generally stems from [a\-mutation](/wiki/A-mutation "A-mutation") of original {{IPA\|/u/}}. A\-mutation of {{IPA\|/u/}} was blocked by a following {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}}, which later triggered umlaut of the {{IPA\|/u/}} to {{IPA\|/y/}}, the reason for alternations between {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/y/}} being common. Umlaut of {{IPA\|/o/}} to {{IPA\|/e/}} occurs only when an original {{IPA\|/u/}} was modified to {{IPA\|/o/}} by analogy before umlaut took place. For example, {{lang\|ang\|dohtor}} comes from late [Proto\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic "Proto-Germanic") {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|dohter}}, from earlier {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhter}}. The plural in Proto\-Germanic was {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhtriz}}, with {{IPA\|/u/}} unaffected by a\-mutation due to the following {{IPA\|/i/}}. At some point prior to i\-mutation, the form {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhtriz}} was modified to {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|dohtriz}} by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in {{lang\|ang\|dehter}}.
A few hundred years after i\-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated *all* previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} was {{IPA\|/u/}}. This {{IPA\|/u/}} typically appears as {{angbr\|e}} in Old English or is deleted:
* {{lang\|ang\|hægtess}} "witch" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|hagatusjō}} (cf. [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German "Old High German") {{lang\|goh\|hagazussa}})
* {{lang\|ang\|ǣmerge}} "embers" \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*āmurja}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|aimurjǭ}} (cf. Old High German {{lang\|goh\|eimurja}})
* {{lang\|ang\|ǣrende}} "errand" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|ǣrundijaz}} (cf. [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon "Old Saxon") {{lang\|osx\|ārundi}})
* {{lang\|ang\|efstan}} "to hasten" \< archaic {{lang\|ang\|øfestan}} \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*ofustan}}
* {{lang\|ang\|ȳmest}} "upmost" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|uhumistaz}} (cf. [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_language "Gothic language") {{lang\|got\-Latn\|áuhumists}})
As shown by the examples, affected words typically had {{IPA\|/u/}} in the second syllable and {{IPA\|/a/}} in the first syllable. The {{IPA\|/æ/}} developed too late to break to {{lang\|ang\|ea}} or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.
#### I\-mutation in High German
I\-mutation is visible in [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German "Old High German") (OHG), c. 800 CE, only on short {{IPA\|/a/}}, which was mutated to {{IPA\|/e/}} (the so\-called "primary umlaut"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning {{IPA\|/i/}} and {{IPA\|/j/}} sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}}, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of {{IPA\|/a/}} that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so\-called "secondary umlaut"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} appear as {{IPA\|/ø/}} and {{IPA\|/y/}} in the appropriate environments.
That has led to a controversy over when and how i\-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl){{cite journal \|last\=Penzl \|first\=H. \|year\=1949 \|title\=Umlaut and Secondary Umlaut in Old High German \|journal\=\[\[Language (journal)\|Language]] \|volume\=25 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=223–240 \|doi\= 10\.2307/410084\|jstor\=410084 }} have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as Joseph Voyles){{cite encyclopedia\|last \= Voyles\|first \= Joseph\|year \= 1992\|title \= On Old High German i\-umlaut\|encyclopedia \= On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods\|editor1\-last\=Rauch\|editor1\-first\=Irmengard\|editor2\-last\=Carr\|editor2\-first\=Gerald F.\|editor3\-last\=Kyes\|editor3\-first\=Robert L.}} have suggested that the i\-mutation of {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i\-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of {{IPA\|/a/}}. Perhaps{{Original research inline\|date\=February 2010}} the answer is somewhere in between — i\-mutation of {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i\-mutation is most likely).{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2010}} It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word\-internal {{IPA\|/j/}} after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani "Fausto Cercignani")'s suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8889/11877) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928141535/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\-online/article/view/8889/11877 \|date\=2022\-09\-28 }}
However, sporadic place\-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already in the early 8th century.{{Cite journal \| author\=Adolf Gütter \| title\=Frühe Belege für den Umlaut von ahd. /u/, /ō/ und /ū/ \| journal\=Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur \| volume\=133 \| issue\=1 \| year\=2011 \| pages\=1–13 \| doi\=10\.1515/bgsl.2011\.002\|s2cid\=162809692}} [Ottar Grønvik](/wiki/Ottar_Gr%C3%B8nvik "Ottar Grønvik"), also in view of spellings of the type {{angbr\|ei}}, {{angbr\|ui}}, and {{angbr\|oi}} in the early attestations, affirms the old [epenthesis](/wiki/Epenthesis "Epenthesis") theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of {{IPA\|/j/}} after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.{{Cite book \|author\= Ottar Grønvik \|title\= Untersuchungen zur älteren nordischen und germanischen Sprachgeschichte \|publisher\= Peter Lang \|location\= Frankfurt \|year\=1998 \|isbn\= 3\-631\-33479\-6 }} [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani "Fausto Cercignani") prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. *Linguistik Online*. 113/1: 45–57\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8317/11309) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211175511/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\-online/article/view/8317/11309 \|date\=2022\-02\-11 }}
In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in {{lang\|de\|Chöre}} 'choirs' or {{lang\|de\|europäisch}} 'European.' Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix {{lang\|de\|\-chen}}, as in {{lang\|de\|Skandäl\-chen}} 'little scandal.'
Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 "Umlaut (diacritic)") was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as {{angbr\|a}}, {{angbr\|o}}, and {{angbr\|u}} become {{angbr\|ä}}, {{angbr\|ö}}, and {{angbr\|ü}}, and the diphthong {{angbr\|au}} {{IPA\|/aʊ/}} becomes {{angbr\|äu}} {{IPA\|/ɔʏ/}}: {{lang\|de\|Mann}} {{IPA\|de\|man\|}} "man" vs. {{lang\|de\|Männer}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈmɛnɐ\|}} "men," {{lang\|de\|Fuß}} {{IPA\|de\|fuːs\|}} "foot" vs. {{lang\|de\|Füße}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈfyːsə\|}} "feet," {{lang\|de\|Maus}} {{IPA\|de\|maʊs\|}} "mouse" vs. {{lang\|de\|Mäuse}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈmɔʏzə\|}} "mice."
In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa ({{lang\|de\|\-e}}); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non\-umlauted counterparts (just like in English *foot* – *feet*, *mouse* – *mice*). The example {{lang\|de\|Gast}} "guest" vs. {{lang\|de\|Gäst(e)}} "guests" served as the model for analogical pairs like {{lang\|de\|Tag}} "day" vs. {{lang\|de\|Täg(e)}} "days" (vs. standard {{lang\|de\|Tage}}) and {{lang\|de\|Arm}} "arm" vs. {{lang\|de\|Ärm(e)}} "arms" (vs. standard {{lang\|de\|Arme}}). Even plural forms like {{lang\|de\|Fisch(e)}} "fish," which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place, were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German \*\*{{lang\|gmh\|füsche}}) and led to singular forms like {{lang\|de\|Fusch}} {{IPA\|de\|fʊʃ\|}}, which are attested in some dialects.
#### I\-mutation in Old Saxon
In [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon "Old Saxon"), umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} is short {{IPA\|/a/}}: {{lang\|osx\|gast}} – {{lang\|osx\|gesti}}, {{lang\|osx\|slahan}} – {{lang\|osx\|slehis}}. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.
#### I\-mutation in Dutch
Late Old Dutch saw a merger of {{IPA\|/u/}} and {{IPA\|/o/}}, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving {{IPA\|/ʏ/}}. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short {{IPA\|/ʏ/}} to long {{IPA\|/øː/}} (spelled {{angbr\|eu}}) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of {{IPA\|/i/}} in open syllables to {{IPA\|/eː/}}, as in {{lang\|nl\|schip}} ("ship") – {{lang\|nl\|schepen}} ("ships").
In general, the effects of the Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited.Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93\. One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I\-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which are notably absent from the language.R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36\. Thus, for example, where modern German has {{lang\|de\|fühlen}} {{IPA\|/ˈfyːlən/}} and English has *feel* {{IPA\|/fiːl/}} (from Proto\-Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|fōlijaną}}), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in {{lang\|nl\|voelen}} {{IPA\|/ˈvulə(n)/}}. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch: {{IPA\|/a/}}, which became {{IPA\|/ɛ/}}, and {{IPA\|/u/}}, which became {{IPA\|/ʏ/}} (spelled {{angbr\|u}}). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun {{lang\|nl\|stad}} "city" which has the irregular umlauted plural {{lang\|nl\|steden}}.
Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western [Brabant](/wiki/Province_of_Brabant "Province of Brabant") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland") that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the *Cologne Expansion* (the spread of certain [West German features](/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages "Central Franconian languages") in the south\-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of [Limburgish](/wiki/Limburgish_language "Limburgish language") have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however.R. Belemans: Belgisch\-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22\-25 Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare {{lang\|nl\|vulen}} {{IPA\|/vylə(n)/}} and {{lang\|nl\|menneke}} "little man" from {{lang\|nl\|man}}.
### North Germanic languages
{{Main\|Old Norse\#Umlaut\|l1\=Old Norse umlaut}}
{{See also\|Old Norse morphology}}Umlaut is a feature of Icelandic, in which both i\-umlaut and a\-umlaut exist.Hansson, Gunnar Ólafur; [Wiese, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Wiese_%28linguist%29 "Richard Wiese (linguist)") (2024\) Umlaut in the Germanic languages. In: Nancy A. Ritter \& Harry van der Hulst (eds.) *The Oxford Handbook of Vowel Harmony*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 864\-871\. The situation in Old Norse is complicated as there are two forms of i\-mutation. Of these two, only one is phonologized.{{Clarify\|reason\=Phonemic/etic? (In)effective?\|date\=August 2010}} I\-mutation in Old Norse is phonological:
* In [Proto\-Norse](/wiki/Proto-Norse "Proto-Norse"), if the syllable was [heavy](/wiki/Syllable_weight "Syllable weight") and followed by vocalic {{lang\|mis\|i}} ({{lang\|mis\|\*gastiʀ}} \> {{lang\|non\|gestr}}, but {{lang\|mis\|\*staði}} \> {{lang\|non\|\*stað}}) or, regardless of syllable weight, if followed by consonantal {{lang\|mis\|i}} ({{lang\|mis\|\*skunja}} \> {{lang\|non\|skyn}}). The rule is not perfect, as some light syllables were still umlauted: {{lang\|mis\|\*kuni}} \> {{lang\|non\|kyn}}, {{lang\|mis\|\*komiʀ}} \> {{lang\|non\|kømr}}.
* In Old Norse, if the following syllable contains a remaining Proto\-Norse {{lang\|mis\|i}}. For example, the root of the dative singular of *u*\-stems are i\-mutated as the desinence contains a Proto\-Norse {{lang\|mis\|i}}, but the dative singular of *a*\-stems is not, as their [desinence](/wiki/Desinence "Desinence") stems from Proto\-Norse {{lang\|mis\|ē}}.
I\-mutation is *not* phonological if the vowel of a long syllable is i\-mutated by a syncopated *i*. I\-mutation does not occur in short syllables.
| \+ i\-mutation |
| --- |
| Original | Mutated | Example |
| {{lang\|non\|a}} | {{lang\|non\|e}} ({{lang\|non\|ę}}) | {{lang\|non\|fagr}} (fair) / {{lang\|non\|fegrstr}} (fairest) |
| {{lang\|non\|au}} | {{lang\|non\|ey}} | {{lang\|non\|lauss}} (loose) / {{lang\|non\|leysa}} (to loosen) |
| {{lang\|non\|á}} | {{lang\|non\|æ}} | {{lang\|non\|\[\[Æsir\|Áss / Æsir]]}} |
| {{lang\|non\|o}} | {{lang\|non\|ø}} | {{lang\|non\|koma}} (to come) / {{lang\|non\|kømr}} (comes) |
| {{lang\|non\|ó}} | {{lang\|non\|œ}} | {{lang\|non\|róa}} (to row) / {{lang\|non\|rœr}} (rows) |
| {{lang\|non\|u}} | {{lang\|non\|y}} | {{lang\|non\|upp}} (up) / {{lang\|non\|yppa}} (to lift up) |
| {{lang\|non\|ú}} | {{lang\|non\|ý}} | {{lang\|non\|fúll}} (foul) / {{lang\|non\|fýla}} (filth) |
| {{lang\|non\|jú}} | {{lang\|non\|ljúga}} (to lie) / {{lang\|non\|lýgr}} (lies) |
| {{lang\|non\|ǫ}} | {{lang\|non\|ø}} | {{lang\|non\|sǫkk}} (sank) / {{lang\|non\|søkkva}} (to sink) |
|
[
"Historical survey by language\n-----------------------------",
"### West Germanic languages",
"Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word\\-final {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-i}} after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-i}} often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English {{lang\\|ang\\|ġiest}} \"guest\", which shows umlaut, and Old High German {{lang\\|goh\\|gast}}, which does not, both from Proto\\-Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*gastiz}}. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after umlaut in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an \"un\\-umlauting\" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-ij\\-}} consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Old English",
"[thumb\\|The vowels and diphthongs of proto\\-Old English prior to i\\-mutation (in black) and how they generally changed under i\\-mutation (in red). Outcomes varied according to dialect; i\\-mutation of diphthongs is given for Early West Saxon as spelled in manuscripts due to uncertainty about the precise phonetic value of the graph.](/wiki/File:Vowels_of_proto-Old_English_and_general_change_when_i-mutated.png \"Vowels of proto-Old English and general change when i-mutated.png\")\nI\\-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects.Campbell, A. 1959\\. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288\\. It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds {{IPA\\|/y(ː)/}}, {{IPA\\|/ø(ː)/}} (which, in most varieties, soon turned into {{IPA\\|/e(ː)/}}), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as {{angbr\\|ie}} but whose phonetic value is debated.",
"| \\+ i\\-mutation |\n| --- |\n| Original",
"i\\-mutated",
"Examples and notes",
"| West Saxon | Anglian | Kentish |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|a}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|æ, e}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|æ, e}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}} \"to bake\", {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}} \"(he/she) bakes\". {{lang\\|ang\\|a}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} particularly before nasal consonants: {{lang\\|ang\\|mann}} \"person\", {{lang\\|ang\\|menn}} \"people\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ā}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣ}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|lār}} \"teaching\" (cf. \"lore\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|lǣran}} \"to teach\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|æ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|þæc}} \"covering\" (cf. \"thatch\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|þeccan}} \"to cover\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|i}} | | | not clearly attested due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}} |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|o}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ø}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | | Latin {{lang\\|la\\|olium}}, Old English {{lang\\|ang\\|øle}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ele}}. |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ō}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ø̄}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|fōt}} \"foot\", {{lang\\|ang\\|fø̄t}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|fēt}} \"feet\". |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|u}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|murnan}} \"to mourn\", {{lang\\|ang\\|myrnþ}} \"(he/she) mourns\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ū}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|mūs}} \"mouse\", {{lang\\|ang\\|mȳs}} \"mice\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ea}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ie}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|eald}} \"old\", {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldra}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|eldra}} \"older\" (cf. \"elder\") |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ēa}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īe}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|nēah}} \"near\" (cf. \"nigh\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|nīehst}} \"nearest\" (cf. \"next\") |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}}. {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}}. {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ie}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|io}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*fiohtan}} \"to fight\", {{lang\\|ang\\|fieht}} \"(he/she) fights\". {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\\|ang\\|beornan}} \"to burn\", {{lang\\|ang\\|biernþ}} \"(he/she) burns\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īe}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|līoht}} \"light\", {{lang\\|ang\\|līehtan}} \"illuminate\". {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\\|ang\\|sēoþan}} \"to boil\" (cf. \"seethe\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|sīeþþ}} \"(he/she) boils\" |",
"",
"I\\-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational [morphology of Old English](/wiki/Old_English_morphology \"Old English morphology\") since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\"), only the four vowels {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣ, ē, i, ī}} were unaffected by i\\-mutation. Although i\\-mutation was originally triggered by an {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} had generally changed (usually to {{IPA\\|/e/}}) or been lost entirely, with the result that i\\-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:\n* The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant\\-declension nouns (Proto\\-Germanic (PGmc) {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iz}}), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|fōt}} \"foot,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fēt}} \"feet;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|mūs}} \"mouse,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|mȳs}} \"mice.\" Many more words were affected by this change in Old English versus modern English, for example, {{lang\\|ang\\|bōc}} \"book,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bēċ}} \"books;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|frēond}} \"friend,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|frīend}} \"friends.\"\n* The second and third person [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [indicative](/wiki/Indicative_mood \"Indicative mood\") of [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb \"Germanic strong verb\") (Pre\\-Old\\-English (Pre\\-OE) {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ist}}, {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-iþ}}), as compared to the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") and other present\\-tense forms – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|helpan}} \"to help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|helpe}} \"(I) help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hilpst}} \"(you sg.) help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hilpþ}} \"(he/she) helps,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|helpaþ}} \"(we/you pl./they) help.\"\n* The [comparative](/wiki/Comparative \"Comparative\") form of some [adjectives](/wiki/Adjective \"Adjective\") (Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ira}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-izǭ}}, Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ist}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-istaz}}), as compared to the base form – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|eald}} \"old,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldra}} \"older,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldest}} \"oldest\" (cf. \"elder, eldest\").\n* Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix {{lang\\|mis\\|\\-jan}}), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|fōda}} \"food,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fēdan}} \"to feed\" \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*fōdjan}}; {{lang\\|ang\\|lār}} \"lore,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|lǣran}} \"to teach;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|feallan}} \"to fall,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fiellan}} \"to fell.\"\n* In the abstract nouns in {{lang\\|ang\\|þ(u)}} (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iþō}}) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|strang}} \"strong,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|strengþ(u)}} \"strength;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hāl}} \"whole/hale,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hǣlþ(u)}} \"health;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fūl}} \"foul,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fȳlþ(u)}} \"filth.\"\n* In female forms of several nouns with the suffix {{lang\\|ang\\|\\-enn}} (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-injō}}) – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|god}} \"god,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|gydenn}} \"goddess\" (cf. German {{lang\\|de\\|Gott}}, {{lang\\|de\\|Göttin}}); {{lang\\|ang\\|fox}} \"fox,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fyxenn}} \"vixen.\"\n* In i\\-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iz}}) – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|cyme}} \"a coming,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|cuman}} \"to come;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|byre}} \"a son (orig., a being born),\" {{lang\\|ang\\|beran}} \"to bear;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fiell}} \"a falling,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|feallan}} \"to fall;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bend}} \"a bond,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bindan}} \"to bind.\" Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto\\-Indo\\-European [ablaut](/wiki/Ablaut \"Ablaut\").",
"##### Notes",
"1. The phonologically expected umlaut of {{IPA\\|/a/}} is {{IPA\\|/æ/}}. However, in many cases {{IPA\\|/e/}} appears. Most {{IPA\\|/a/}} in Old English stem from earlier {{IPA\\|/æ/}} because of a change called [a\\-restoration](/wiki/A-restoration \"A-restoration\"). This change was blocked when {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} followed, leaving {{IPA\\|/æ/}}, which subsequently mutated to {{IPA\\|/e/}}. For example, in the case of {{lang\\|ang\\|talu}} \"tale\" vs. {{lang\\|ang\\|tellan}} \"to tell,\" the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælu}} and {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælljan}}, respectively. A\\-restoration converted {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælu}} to {{lang\\|ang\\|talu}}, but left {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælljan}} alone, and it subsequently evolved to {{lang\\|ang\\|tellan}} by i\\-mutation. The same process \"should\" have led to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*becþ}} instead of {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}}. That is, the early forms were {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæcan}} and {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}}. A\\-restoration converted {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæcan}} to {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}} but left alone {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}}, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*becþ}}. In this case, however, once a\\-restoration took effect, {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}} was modified to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*baciþ}} by analogy with {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}}, and then later umlauted to {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}}.\n2. A similar process resulted in the umlaut of {{IPA\\|/o/}} sometimes appearing as {{IPA\\|/e/}} and sometimes (usually, in fact) as {{IPA\\|/y/}}. In Old English, {{IPA\\|/o/}} generally stems from [a\\-mutation](/wiki/A-mutation \"A-mutation\") of original {{IPA\\|/u/}}. A\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/u/}} was blocked by a following {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}}, which later triggered umlaut of the {{IPA\\|/u/}} to {{IPA\\|/y/}}, the reason for alternations between {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/y/}} being common. Umlaut of {{IPA\\|/o/}} to {{IPA\\|/e/}} occurs only when an original {{IPA\\|/u/}} was modified to {{IPA\\|/o/}} by analogy before umlaut took place. For example, {{lang\\|ang\\|dohtor}} comes from late [Proto\\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic \"Proto-Germanic\") {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|dohter}}, from earlier {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhter}}. The plural in Proto\\-Germanic was {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhtriz}}, with {{IPA\\|/u/}} unaffected by a\\-mutation due to the following {{IPA\\|/i/}}. At some point prior to i\\-mutation, the form {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhtriz}} was modified to {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|dohtriz}} by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in {{lang\\|ang\\|dehter}}.",
"A few hundred years after i\\-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated *all* previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} was {{IPA\\|/u/}}. This {{IPA\\|/u/}} typically appears as {{angbr\\|e}} in Old English or is deleted:",
"* {{lang\\|ang\\|hægtess}} \"witch\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|hagatusjō}} (cf. [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German \"Old High German\") {{lang\\|goh\\|hagazussa}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣmerge}} \"embers\" \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*āmurja}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|aimurjǭ}} (cf. Old High German {{lang\\|goh\\|eimurja}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣrende}} \"errand\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|ǣrundijaz}} (cf. [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon \"Old Saxon\") {{lang\\|osx\\|ārundi}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|efstan}} \"to hasten\" \\< archaic {{lang\\|ang\\|øfestan}} \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*ofustan}}\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳmest}} \"upmost\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|uhumistaz}} (cf. [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_language \"Gothic language\") {{lang\\|got\\-Latn\\|áuhumists}})",
"As shown by the examples, affected words typically had {{IPA\\|/u/}} in the second syllable and {{IPA\\|/a/}} in the first syllable. The {{IPA\\|/æ/}} developed too late to break to {{lang\\|ang\\|ea}} or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.",
"#### I\\-mutation in High German",
"I\\-mutation is visible in [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German \"Old High German\") (OHG), c. 800 CE, only on short {{IPA\\|/a/}}, which was mutated to {{IPA\\|/e/}} (the so\\-called \"primary umlaut\"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning {{IPA\\|/i/}} and {{IPA\\|/j/}} sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}}, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of {{IPA\\|/a/}} that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so\\-called \"secondary umlaut\"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} appear as {{IPA\\|/ø/}} and {{IPA\\|/y/}} in the appropriate environments.",
"That has led to a controversy over when and how i\\-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl){{cite journal \\|last\\=Penzl \\|first\\=H. \\|year\\=1949 \\|title\\=Umlaut and Secondary Umlaut in Old High German \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Language (journal)\\|Language]] \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=223–240 \\|doi\\= 10\\.2307/410084\\|jstor\\=410084 }} have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as Joseph Voyles){{cite encyclopedia\\|last \\= Voyles\\|first \\= Joseph\\|year \\= 1992\\|title \\= On Old High German i\\-umlaut\\|encyclopedia \\= On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods\\|editor1\\-last\\=Rauch\\|editor1\\-first\\=Irmengard\\|editor2\\-last\\=Carr\\|editor2\\-first\\=Gerald F.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Kyes\\|editor3\\-first\\=Robert L.}} have suggested that the i\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i\\-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of {{IPA\\|/a/}}. Perhaps{{Original research inline\\|date\\=February 2010}} the answer is somewhere in between — i\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i\\-mutation is most likely).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2010}} It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word\\-internal {{IPA\\|/j/}} after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani \"Fausto Cercignani\")'s suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\\). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59\\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8889/11877) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928141535/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\\-online/article/view/8889/11877 \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-28 }}",
"However, sporadic place\\-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already in the early 8th century.{{Cite journal \\| author\\=Adolf Gütter \\| title\\=Frühe Belege für den Umlaut von ahd. /u/, /ō/ und /ū/ \\| journal\\=Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur \\| volume\\=133 \\| issue\\=1 \\| year\\=2011 \\| pages\\=1–13 \\| doi\\=10\\.1515/bgsl.2011\\.002\\|s2cid\\=162809692}} [Ottar Grønvik](/wiki/Ottar_Gr%C3%B8nvik \"Ottar Grønvik\"), also in view of spellings of the type {{angbr\\|ei}}, {{angbr\\|ui}}, and {{angbr\\|oi}} in the early attestations, affirms the old [epenthesis](/wiki/Epenthesis \"Epenthesis\") theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of {{IPA\\|/j/}} after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.{{Cite book \\|author\\= Ottar Grønvik \\|title\\= Untersuchungen zur älteren nordischen und germanischen Sprachgeschichte \\|publisher\\= Peter Lang \\|location\\= Frankfurt \\|year\\=1998 \\|isbn\\= 3\\-631\\-33479\\-6 }} [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani \"Fausto Cercignani\") prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\\). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. *Linguistik Online*. 113/1: 45–57\\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8317/11309) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211175511/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\\-online/article/view/8317/11309 \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-11 }}",
"In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in {{lang\\|de\\|Chöre}} 'choirs' or {{lang\\|de\\|europäisch}} 'European.' Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix {{lang\\|de\\|\\-chen}}, as in {{lang\\|de\\|Skandäl\\-chen}} 'little scandal.'",
"Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 \"Umlaut (diacritic)\") was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as {{angbr\\|a}}, {{angbr\\|o}}, and {{angbr\\|u}} become {{angbr\\|ä}}, {{angbr\\|ö}}, and {{angbr\\|ü}}, and the diphthong {{angbr\\|au}} {{IPA\\|/aʊ/}} becomes {{angbr\\|äu}} {{IPA\\|/ɔʏ/}}: {{lang\\|de\\|Mann}} {{IPA\\|de\\|man\\|}} \"man\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Männer}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈmɛnɐ\\|}} \"men,\" {{lang\\|de\\|Fuß}} {{IPA\\|de\\|fuːs\\|}} \"foot\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Füße}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈfyːsə\\|}} \"feet,\" {{lang\\|de\\|Maus}} {{IPA\\|de\\|maʊs\\|}} \"mouse\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Mäuse}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈmɔʏzə\\|}} \"mice.\"",
"In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa ({{lang\\|de\\|\\-e}}); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non\\-umlauted counterparts (just like in English *foot* – *feet*, *mouse* – *mice*). The example {{lang\\|de\\|Gast}} \"guest\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Gäst(e)}} \"guests\" served as the model for analogical pairs like {{lang\\|de\\|Tag}} \"day\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Täg(e)}} \"days\" (vs. standard {{lang\\|de\\|Tage}}) and {{lang\\|de\\|Arm}} \"arm\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Ärm(e)}} \"arms\" (vs. standard {{lang\\|de\\|Arme}}). Even plural forms like {{lang\\|de\\|Fisch(e)}} \"fish,\" which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place, were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German \\*\\*{{lang\\|gmh\\|füsche}}) and led to singular forms like {{lang\\|de\\|Fusch}} {{IPA\\|de\\|fʊʃ\\|}}, which are attested in some dialects.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Old Saxon",
"In [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon \"Old Saxon\"), umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} is short {{IPA\\|/a/}}: {{lang\\|osx\\|gast}} – {{lang\\|osx\\|gesti}}, {{lang\\|osx\\|slahan}} – {{lang\\|osx\\|slehis}}. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Dutch",
"Late Old Dutch saw a merger of {{IPA\\|/u/}} and {{IPA\\|/o/}}, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}}. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}} to long {{IPA\\|/øː/}} (spelled {{angbr\\|eu}}) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of {{IPA\\|/i/}} in open syllables to {{IPA\\|/eː/}}, as in {{lang\\|nl\\|schip}} (\"ship\") – {{lang\\|nl\\|schepen}} (\"ships\").",
"In general, the effects of the Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited.Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93\\. One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I\\-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which are notably absent from the language.R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36\\. Thus, for example, where modern German has {{lang\\|de\\|fühlen}} {{IPA\\|/ˈfyːlən/}} and English has *feel* {{IPA\\|/fiːl/}} (from Proto\\-Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|fōlijaną}}), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in {{lang\\|nl\\|voelen}} {{IPA\\|/ˈvulə(n)/}}. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch: {{IPA\\|/a/}}, which became {{IPA\\|/ɛ/}}, and {{IPA\\|/u/}}, which became {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}} (spelled {{angbr\\|u}}). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun {{lang\\|nl\\|stad}} \"city\" which has the irregular umlauted plural {{lang\\|nl\\|steden}}.",
"Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western [Brabant](/wiki/Province_of_Brabant \"Province of Brabant\") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\") that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the *Cologne Expansion* (the spread of certain [West German features](/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages \"Central Franconian languages\") in the south\\-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of [Limburgish](/wiki/Limburgish_language \"Limburgish language\") have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however.R. Belemans: Belgisch\\-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22\\-25 Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare {{lang\\|nl\\|vulen}} {{IPA\\|/vylə(n)/}} and {{lang\\|nl\\|menneke}} \"little man\" from {{lang\\|nl\\|man}}.",
"### North Germanic languages",
"{{Main\\|Old Norse\\#Umlaut\\|l1\\=Old Norse umlaut}}\n{{See also\\|Old Norse morphology}}Umlaut is a feature of Icelandic, in which both i\\-umlaut and a\\-umlaut exist.Hansson, Gunnar Ólafur; [Wiese, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Wiese_%28linguist%29 \"Richard Wiese (linguist)\") (2024\\) Umlaut in the Germanic languages. In: Nancy A. Ritter \\& Harry van der Hulst (eds.) *The Oxford Handbook of Vowel Harmony*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 864\\-871\\. The situation in Old Norse is complicated as there are two forms of i\\-mutation. Of these two, only one is phonologized.{{Clarify\\|reason\\=Phonemic/etic? (In)effective?\\|date\\=August 2010}} I\\-mutation in Old Norse is phonological:\n* In [Proto\\-Norse](/wiki/Proto-Norse \"Proto-Norse\"), if the syllable was [heavy](/wiki/Syllable_weight \"Syllable weight\") and followed by vocalic {{lang\\|mis\\|i}} ({{lang\\|mis\\|\\*gastiʀ}} \\> {{lang\\|non\\|gestr}}, but {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*staði}} \\> {{lang\\|non\\|\\*stað}}) or, regardless of syllable weight, if followed by consonantal {{lang\\|mis\\|i}} ({{lang\\|mis\\|\\*skunja}} \\> {{lang\\|non\\|skyn}}). The rule is not perfect, as some light syllables were still umlauted: {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*kuni}} \\> {{lang\\|non\\|kyn}}, {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*komiʀ}} \\> {{lang\\|non\\|kømr}}.\n* In Old Norse, if the following syllable contains a remaining Proto\\-Norse {{lang\\|mis\\|i}}. For example, the root of the dative singular of *u*\\-stems are i\\-mutated as the desinence contains a Proto\\-Norse {{lang\\|mis\\|i}}, but the dative singular of *a*\\-stems is not, as their [desinence](/wiki/Desinence \"Desinence\") stems from Proto\\-Norse {{lang\\|mis\\|ē}}.",
"I\\-mutation is *not* phonological if the vowel of a long syllable is i\\-mutated by a syncopated *i*. I\\-mutation does not occur in short syllables.",
"",
"| \\+ i\\-mutation |\n| --- |\n| Original | Mutated | Example |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|a}} | {{lang\\|non\\|e}} ({{lang\\|non\\|ę}}) | {{lang\\|non\\|fagr}} (fair) / {{lang\\|non\\|fegrstr}} (fairest) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|au}} | {{lang\\|non\\|ey}} | {{lang\\|non\\|lauss}} (loose) / {{lang\\|non\\|leysa}} (to loosen) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|á}} | {{lang\\|non\\|æ}} | {{lang\\|non\\|\\[\\[Æsir\\|Áss / Æsir]]}} |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|o}} | {{lang\\|non\\|ø}} | {{lang\\|non\\|koma}} (to come) / {{lang\\|non\\|kømr}} (comes) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|ó}} | {{lang\\|non\\|œ}} | {{lang\\|non\\|róa}} (to row) / {{lang\\|non\\|rœr}} (rows) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|u}} | {{lang\\|non\\|y}} | {{lang\\|non\\|upp}} (up) / {{lang\\|non\\|yppa}} (to lift up) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|ú}} | {{lang\\|non\\|ý}} | {{lang\\|non\\|fúll}} (foul) / {{lang\\|non\\|fýla}} (filth) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|jú}} | {{lang\\|non\\|ljúga}} (to lie) / {{lang\\|non\\|lýgr}} (lies) |\n| {{lang\\|non\\|ǫ}} | {{lang\\|non\\|ø}} | {{lang\\|non\\|sǫkk}} (sank) / {{lang\\|non\\|søkkva}} (to sink) |",
""
] |
### West Germanic languages
Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word\-final {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-i}} after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-i}} often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English {{lang\|ang\|ġiest}} "guest", which shows umlaut, and Old High German {{lang\|goh\|gast}}, which does not, both from Proto\-Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\*gastiz}}. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after umlaut in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an "un\-umlauting" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-ij\-}} consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.
#### I\-mutation in Old English
[thumb\|The vowels and diphthongs of proto\-Old English prior to i\-mutation (in black) and how they generally changed under i\-mutation (in red). Outcomes varied according to dialect; i\-mutation of diphthongs is given for Early West Saxon as spelled in manuscripts due to uncertainty about the precise phonetic value of the graph.](/wiki/File:Vowels_of_proto-Old_English_and_general_change_when_i-mutated.png "Vowels of proto-Old English and general change when i-mutated.png")
I\-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects.Campbell, A. 1959\. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288\. It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds {{IPA\|/y(ː)/}}, {{IPA\|/ø(ː)/}} (which, in most varieties, soon turned into {{IPA\|/e(ː)/}}), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as {{angbr\|ie}} but whose phonetic value is debated.
| \+ i\-mutation |
| --- |
| Original
i\-mutated
Examples and notes
| West Saxon | Anglian | Kentish |
| {{lang\|ang\|a}} | {{lang\|ang\|æ, e}} | | {{lang\|ang\|æ, e}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|bacan}} "to bake", {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}} "(he/she) bakes". {{lang\|ang\|a}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} particularly before nasal consonants: {{lang\|ang\|mann}} "person", {{lang\|ang\|menn}} "people" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ā}} | {{lang\|ang\|ǣ}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|lār}} "teaching" (cf. "lore"), {{lang\|ang\|lǣran}} "to teach" |
| {{lang\|ang\|æ}} | {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|þæc}} "covering" (cf. "thatch"), {{lang\|ang\|þeccan}} "to cover" |
| {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|i}} | | | not clearly attested due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}} |
| {{lang\|ang\|o}} | {{lang\|ang\|ø}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | | Latin {{lang\|la\|olium}}, Old English {{lang\|ang\|øle}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ele}}. |
| {{lang\|ang\|ō}} | {{lang\|ang\|ø̄}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | | | {{lang\|ang\|fōt}} "foot", {{lang\|ang\|fø̄t}} \> {{lang\|ang\|fēt}} "feet". |
| {{lang\|ang\|u}} | {{lang\|ang\|y}} | | {{lang\|ang\|y}} \> {{lang\|ang\|e}} | {{lang\|ang\|murnan}} "to mourn", {{lang\|ang\|myrnþ}} "(he/she) mourns" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ū}} | {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | | {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | {{lang\|ang\|mūs}} "mouse", {{lang\|ang\|mȳs}} "mice" |
| {{lang\|ang\|ea}} | {{lang\|ang\|ie}} \> {{lang\|ang\|y}} | {{lang\|ang\|e}} | | {{lang\|ang\|eald}} "old", {{lang\|ang\|ieldra}}, {{lang\|ang\|eldra}} "older" (cf. "elder") |
| {{lang\|ang\|ēa}} | {{lang\|ang\|īe}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | {{lang\|ang\|ē}} | | {{lang\|ang\|nēah}} "near" (cf. "nigh"), {{lang\|ang\|nīehst}} "nearest" (cf. "next") |
| {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | {{lang\|ang\|io}} \> {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}}. {{lang\|ang\|io}} became {{lang\|ang\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English |
| {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | {{lang\|ang\|īo}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|e}} \> {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}} before {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|i}}, {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|j}}. {{lang\|ang\|īo}} became {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English |
| {{lang\|ang\|io}} | {{lang\|ang\|ie}} \> {{lang\|ang\|y}} | {{lang\|ang\|io}}, {{lang\|ang\|eo}} | | {{lang\|ang\|\*fiohtan}} "to fight", {{lang\|ang\|fieht}} "(he/she) fights". {{lang\|ang\|io}} became {{lang\|ang\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\|ang\|beornan}} "to burn", {{lang\|ang\|biernþ}} "(he/she) burns" |
| {{lang\|ang\|īo}} | {{lang\|ang\|īe}} \> {{lang\|ang\|ȳ}} | {{lang\|ang\|īo}}, {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} | | {{lang\|ang\|līoht}} "light", {{lang\|ang\|līehtan}} "illuminate". {{lang\|ang\|īo}} became {{lang\|ang\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\|ang\|sēoþan}} "to boil" (cf. "seethe"), {{lang\|ang\|sīeþþ}} "(he/she) boils" |
I\-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational [morphology of Old English](/wiki/Old_English_morphology "Old English morphology") since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in [Old English](/wiki/Old_English "Old English"), only the four vowels {{lang\|ang\|ǣ, ē, i, ī}} were unaffected by i\-mutation. Although i\-mutation was originally triggered by an {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the {{IPA\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} had generally changed (usually to {{IPA\|/e/}}) or been lost entirely, with the result that i\-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:
* The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant\-declension nouns (Proto\-Germanic (PGmc) {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iz}}), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|fōt}} "foot," {{lang\|ang\|fēt}} "feet;" {{lang\|ang\|mūs}} "mouse," {{lang\|ang\|mȳs}} "mice." Many more words were affected by this change in Old English versus modern English, for example, {{lang\|ang\|bōc}} "book," {{lang\|ang\|bēċ}} "books;" {{lang\|ang\|frēond}} "friend," {{lang\|ang\|frīend}} "friends."
* The second and third person [present](/wiki/Present_tense "Present tense") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number "Grammatical number") [indicative](/wiki/Indicative_mood "Indicative mood") of [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb "Germanic strong verb") (Pre\-Old\-English (Pre\-OE) {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ist}}, {{lang\|mis\|\*\-iþ}}), as compared to the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive "Infinitive") and other present\-tense forms – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|helpan}} "to help," {{lang\|ang\|helpe}} "(I) help," {{lang\|ang\|hilpst}} "(you sg.) help," {{lang\|ang\|hilpþ}} "(he/she) helps," {{lang\|ang\|helpaþ}} "(we/you pl./they) help."
* The [comparative](/wiki/Comparative "Comparative") form of some [adjectives](/wiki/Adjective "Adjective") (Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ira}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-izǭ}}, Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*\-ist}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-istaz}}), as compared to the base form – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|eald}} "old," {{lang\|ang\|ieldra}} "older," {{lang\|ang\|ieldest}} "oldest" (cf. "elder, eldest").
* Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix {{lang\|mis\|\-jan}}), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|fōda}} "food," {{lang\|ang\|fēdan}} "to feed" \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*fōdjan}}; {{lang\|ang\|lār}} "lore," {{lang\|ang\|lǣran}} "to teach;" {{lang\|ang\|feallan}} "to fall," {{lang\|ang\|fiellan}} "to fell."
* In the abstract nouns in {{lang\|ang\|þ(u)}} (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iþō}}) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|strang}} "strong," {{lang\|ang\|strengþ(u)}} "strength;" {{lang\|ang\|hāl}} "whole/hale," {{lang\|ang\|hǣlþ(u)}} "health;" {{lang\|ang\|fūl}} "foul," {{lang\|ang\|fȳlþ(u)}} "filth."
* In female forms of several nouns with the suffix {{lang\|ang\|\-enn}} (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-injō}}) – e.g., {{lang\|ang\|god}} "god," {{lang\|ang\|gydenn}} "goddess" (cf. German {{lang\|de\|Gott}}, {{lang\|de\|Göttin}}); {{lang\|ang\|fox}} "fox," {{lang\|ang\|fyxenn}} "vixen."
* In i\-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|\-iz}}) – e.g. {{lang\|ang\|cyme}} "a coming," {{lang\|ang\|cuman}} "to come;" {{lang\|ang\|byre}} "a son (orig., a being born)," {{lang\|ang\|beran}} "to bear;" {{lang\|ang\|fiell}} "a falling," {{lang\|ang\|feallan}} "to fall;" {{lang\|ang\|bend}} "a bond," {{lang\|ang\|bindan}} "to bind." Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto\-Indo\-European [ablaut](/wiki/Ablaut "Ablaut").
##### Notes
1. The phonologically expected umlaut of {{IPA\|/a/}} is {{IPA\|/æ/}}. However, in many cases {{IPA\|/e/}} appears. Most {{IPA\|/a/}} in Old English stem from earlier {{IPA\|/æ/}} because of a change called [a\-restoration](/wiki/A-restoration "A-restoration"). This change was blocked when {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} followed, leaving {{IPA\|/æ/}}, which subsequently mutated to {{IPA\|/e/}}. For example, in the case of {{lang\|ang\|talu}} "tale" vs. {{lang\|ang\|tellan}} "to tell," the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were {{lang\|ang\|\*tælu}} and {{lang\|ang\|\*tælljan}}, respectively. A\-restoration converted {{lang\|ang\|\*tælu}} to {{lang\|ang\|talu}}, but left {{lang\|ang\|\*tælljan}} alone, and it subsequently evolved to {{lang\|ang\|tellan}} by i\-mutation. The same process "should" have led to {{lang\|ang\|\*becþ}} instead of {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}}. That is, the early forms were {{lang\|ang\|\*bæcan}} and {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}}. A\-restoration converted {{lang\|ang\|\*bæcan}} to {{lang\|ang\|bacan}} but left alone {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}}, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to {{lang\|ang\|\*becþ}}. In this case, however, once a\-restoration took effect, {{lang\|ang\|\*bæciþ}} was modified to {{lang\|ang\|\*baciþ}} by analogy with {{lang\|ang\|bacan}}, and then later umlauted to {{lang\|ang\|bæcþ}}.
2. A similar process resulted in the umlaut of {{IPA\|/o/}} sometimes appearing as {{IPA\|/e/}} and sometimes (usually, in fact) as {{IPA\|/y/}}. In Old English, {{IPA\|/o/}} generally stems from [a\-mutation](/wiki/A-mutation "A-mutation") of original {{IPA\|/u/}}. A\-mutation of {{IPA\|/u/}} was blocked by a following {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}}, which later triggered umlaut of the {{IPA\|/u/}} to {{IPA\|/y/}}, the reason for alternations between {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/y/}} being common. Umlaut of {{IPA\|/o/}} to {{IPA\|/e/}} occurs only when an original {{IPA\|/u/}} was modified to {{IPA\|/o/}} by analogy before umlaut took place. For example, {{lang\|ang\|dohtor}} comes from late [Proto\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic "Proto-Germanic") {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|dohter}}, from earlier {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhter}}. The plural in Proto\-Germanic was {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhtriz}}, with {{IPA\|/u/}} unaffected by a\-mutation due to the following {{IPA\|/i/}}. At some point prior to i\-mutation, the form {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|duhtriz}} was modified to {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|dohtriz}} by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in {{lang\|ang\|dehter}}.
A few hundred years after i\-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated *all* previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} was {{IPA\|/u/}}. This {{IPA\|/u/}} typically appears as {{angbr\|e}} in Old English or is deleted:
* {{lang\|ang\|hægtess}} "witch" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|hagatusjō}} (cf. [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German "Old High German") {{lang\|goh\|hagazussa}})
* {{lang\|ang\|ǣmerge}} "embers" \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*āmurja}} \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|aimurjǭ}} (cf. Old High German {{lang\|goh\|eimurja}})
* {{lang\|ang\|ǣrende}} "errand" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|ǣrundijaz}} (cf. [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon "Old Saxon") {{lang\|osx\|ārundi}})
* {{lang\|ang\|efstan}} "to hasten" \< archaic {{lang\|ang\|øfestan}} \< Pre\-OE {{lang\|mis\|\*ofustan}}
* {{lang\|ang\|ȳmest}} "upmost" \< PGmc {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|uhumistaz}} (cf. [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_language "Gothic language") {{lang\|got\-Latn\|áuhumists}})
As shown by the examples, affected words typically had {{IPA\|/u/}} in the second syllable and {{IPA\|/a/}} in the first syllable. The {{IPA\|/æ/}} developed too late to break to {{lang\|ang\|ea}} or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.
#### I\-mutation in High German
I\-mutation is visible in [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German "Old High German") (OHG), c. 800 CE, only on short {{IPA\|/a/}}, which was mutated to {{IPA\|/e/}} (the so\-called "primary umlaut"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning {{IPA\|/i/}} and {{IPA\|/j/}} sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}}, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of {{IPA\|/a/}} that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so\-called "secondary umlaut"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} appear as {{IPA\|/ø/}} and {{IPA\|/y/}} in the appropriate environments.
That has led to a controversy over when and how i\-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl){{cite journal \|last\=Penzl \|first\=H. \|year\=1949 \|title\=Umlaut and Secondary Umlaut in Old High German \|journal\=\[\[Language (journal)\|Language]] \|volume\=25 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=223–240 \|doi\= 10\.2307/410084\|jstor\=410084 }} have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as Joseph Voyles){{cite encyclopedia\|last \= Voyles\|first \= Joseph\|year \= 1992\|title \= On Old High German i\-umlaut\|encyclopedia \= On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods\|editor1\-last\=Rauch\|editor1\-first\=Irmengard\|editor2\-last\=Carr\|editor2\-first\=Gerald F.\|editor3\-last\=Kyes\|editor3\-first\=Robert L.}} have suggested that the i\-mutation of {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i\-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of {{IPA\|/a/}}. Perhaps{{Original research inline\|date\=February 2010}} the answer is somewhere in between — i\-mutation of {{IPA\|/o/}} and {{IPA\|/u/}} was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i\-mutation is most likely).{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2010}} It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word\-internal {{IPA\|/j/}} after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani "Fausto Cercignani")'s suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8889/11877) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928141535/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\-online/article/view/8889/11877 \|date\=2022\-09\-28 }}
However, sporadic place\-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already in the early 8th century.{{Cite journal \| author\=Adolf Gütter \| title\=Frühe Belege für den Umlaut von ahd. /u/, /ō/ und /ū/ \| journal\=Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur \| volume\=133 \| issue\=1 \| year\=2011 \| pages\=1–13 \| doi\=10\.1515/bgsl.2011\.002\|s2cid\=162809692}} [Ottar Grønvik](/wiki/Ottar_Gr%C3%B8nvik "Ottar Grønvik"), also in view of spellings of the type {{angbr\|ei}}, {{angbr\|ui}}, and {{angbr\|oi}} in the early attestations, affirms the old [epenthesis](/wiki/Epenthesis "Epenthesis") theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of {{IPA\|/j/}} after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.{{Cite book \|author\= Ottar Grønvik \|title\= Untersuchungen zur älteren nordischen und germanischen Sprachgeschichte \|publisher\= Peter Lang \|location\= Frankfurt \|year\=1998 \|isbn\= 3\-631\-33479\-6 }} [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani "Fausto Cercignani") prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. *Linguistik Online*. 113/1: 45–57\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8317/11309) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211175511/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\-online/article/view/8317/11309 \|date\=2022\-02\-11 }}
In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in {{lang\|de\|Chöre}} 'choirs' or {{lang\|de\|europäisch}} 'European.' Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix {{lang\|de\|\-chen}}, as in {{lang\|de\|Skandäl\-chen}} 'little scandal.'
Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 "Umlaut (diacritic)") was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as {{angbr\|a}}, {{angbr\|o}}, and {{angbr\|u}} become {{angbr\|ä}}, {{angbr\|ö}}, and {{angbr\|ü}}, and the diphthong {{angbr\|au}} {{IPA\|/aʊ/}} becomes {{angbr\|äu}} {{IPA\|/ɔʏ/}}: {{lang\|de\|Mann}} {{IPA\|de\|man\|}} "man" vs. {{lang\|de\|Männer}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈmɛnɐ\|}} "men," {{lang\|de\|Fuß}} {{IPA\|de\|fuːs\|}} "foot" vs. {{lang\|de\|Füße}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈfyːsə\|}} "feet," {{lang\|de\|Maus}} {{IPA\|de\|maʊs\|}} "mouse" vs. {{lang\|de\|Mäuse}} {{IPA\|de\|ˈmɔʏzə\|}} "mice."
In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa ({{lang\|de\|\-e}}); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non\-umlauted counterparts (just like in English *foot* – *feet*, *mouse* – *mice*). The example {{lang\|de\|Gast}} "guest" vs. {{lang\|de\|Gäst(e)}} "guests" served as the model for analogical pairs like {{lang\|de\|Tag}} "day" vs. {{lang\|de\|Täg(e)}} "days" (vs. standard {{lang\|de\|Tage}}) and {{lang\|de\|Arm}} "arm" vs. {{lang\|de\|Ärm(e)}} "arms" (vs. standard {{lang\|de\|Arme}}). Even plural forms like {{lang\|de\|Fisch(e)}} "fish," which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place, were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German \*\*{{lang\|gmh\|füsche}}) and led to singular forms like {{lang\|de\|Fusch}} {{IPA\|de\|fʊʃ\|}}, which are attested in some dialects.
#### I\-mutation in Old Saxon
In [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon "Old Saxon"), umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an {{IPA\|/i/}} or {{IPA\|/j/}} is short {{IPA\|/a/}}: {{lang\|osx\|gast}} – {{lang\|osx\|gesti}}, {{lang\|osx\|slahan}} – {{lang\|osx\|slehis}}. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.
#### I\-mutation in Dutch
Late Old Dutch saw a merger of {{IPA\|/u/}} and {{IPA\|/o/}}, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving {{IPA\|/ʏ/}}. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short {{IPA\|/ʏ/}} to long {{IPA\|/øː/}} (spelled {{angbr\|eu}}) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of {{IPA\|/i/}} in open syllables to {{IPA\|/eː/}}, as in {{lang\|nl\|schip}} ("ship") – {{lang\|nl\|schepen}} ("ships").
In general, the effects of the Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited.Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93\. One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I\-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which are notably absent from the language.R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36\. Thus, for example, where modern German has {{lang\|de\|fühlen}} {{IPA\|/ˈfyːlən/}} and English has *feel* {{IPA\|/fiːl/}} (from Proto\-Germanic {{lang\|gem\-x\-proto\|fōlijaną}}), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in {{lang\|nl\|voelen}} {{IPA\|/ˈvulə(n)/}}. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch: {{IPA\|/a/}}, which became {{IPA\|/ɛ/}}, and {{IPA\|/u/}}, which became {{IPA\|/ʏ/}} (spelled {{angbr\|u}}). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun {{lang\|nl\|stad}} "city" which has the irregular umlauted plural {{lang\|nl\|steden}}.
Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western [Brabant](/wiki/Province_of_Brabant "Province of Brabant") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland "Holland") that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the *Cologne Expansion* (the spread of certain [West German features](/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages "Central Franconian languages") in the south\-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of [Limburgish](/wiki/Limburgish_language "Limburgish language") have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however.R. Belemans: Belgisch\-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22\-25 Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare {{lang\|nl\|vulen}} {{IPA\|/vylə(n)/}} and {{lang\|nl\|menneke}} "little man" from {{lang\|nl\|man}}.
|
[
"### West Germanic languages",
"Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word\\-final {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-i}} after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-i}} often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English {{lang\\|ang\\|ġiest}} \"guest\", which shows umlaut, and Old High German {{lang\\|goh\\|gast}}, which does not, both from Proto\\-Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\*gastiz}}. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after umlaut in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an \"un\\-umlauting\" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-ij\\-}} consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Old English",
"[thumb\\|The vowels and diphthongs of proto\\-Old English prior to i\\-mutation (in black) and how they generally changed under i\\-mutation (in red). Outcomes varied according to dialect; i\\-mutation of diphthongs is given for Early West Saxon as spelled in manuscripts due to uncertainty about the precise phonetic value of the graph.](/wiki/File:Vowels_of_proto-Old_English_and_general_change_when_i-mutated.png \"Vowels of proto-Old English and general change when i-mutated.png\")\nI\\-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects.Campbell, A. 1959\\. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288\\. It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds {{IPA\\|/y(ː)/}}, {{IPA\\|/ø(ː)/}} (which, in most varieties, soon turned into {{IPA\\|/e(ː)/}}), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as {{angbr\\|ie}} but whose phonetic value is debated.",
"| \\+ i\\-mutation |\n| --- |\n| Original",
"i\\-mutated",
"Examples and notes",
"| West Saxon | Anglian | Kentish |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|a}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|æ, e}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|æ, e}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}} \"to bake\", {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}} \"(he/she) bakes\". {{lang\\|ang\\|a}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} particularly before nasal consonants: {{lang\\|ang\\|mann}} \"person\", {{lang\\|ang\\|menn}} \"people\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ā}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣ}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|lār}} \"teaching\" (cf. \"lore\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|lǣran}} \"to teach\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|æ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|þæc}} \"covering\" (cf. \"thatch\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|þeccan}} \"to cover\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|i}} | | | not clearly attested due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}} |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|o}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ø}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | | Latin {{lang\\|la\\|olium}}, Old English {{lang\\|ang\\|øle}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ele}}. |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ō}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ø̄}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | | | {{lang\\|ang\\|fōt}} \"foot\", {{lang\\|ang\\|fø̄t}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|fēt}} \"feet\". |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|u}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|murnan}} \"to mourn\", {{lang\\|ang\\|myrnþ}} \"(he/she) mourns\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ū}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|mūs}} \"mouse\", {{lang\\|ang\\|mȳs}} \"mice\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ea}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ie}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|e}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|eald}} \"old\", {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldra}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|eldra}} \"older\" (cf. \"elder\") |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ēa}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īe}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ē}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|nēah}} \"near\" (cf. \"nigh\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|nīehst}} \"nearest\" (cf. \"next\") |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}}. {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | | | examples are rare due to earlier Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|e}} \\> {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}} before {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|i}}, {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|j}}. {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|ie}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|y}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|io}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*fiohtan}} \"to fight\", {{lang\\|ang\\|fieht}} \"(he/she) fights\". {{lang\\|ang\\|io}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|eo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\\|ang\\|beornan}} \"to burn\", {{lang\\|ang\\|biernþ}} \"(he/she) burns\" |\n| {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īe}} \\> {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳ}} | {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}}, {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} | | {{lang\\|ang\\|līoht}} \"light\", {{lang\\|ang\\|līehtan}} \"illuminate\". {{lang\\|ang\\|īo}} became {{lang\\|ang\\|ēo}} in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like {{lang\\|ang\\|sēoþan}} \"to boil\" (cf. \"seethe\"), {{lang\\|ang\\|sīeþþ}} \"(he/she) boils\" |",
"",
"I\\-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational [morphology of Old English](/wiki/Old_English_morphology \"Old English morphology\") since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in [Old English](/wiki/Old_English \"Old English\"), only the four vowels {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣ, ē, i, ī}} were unaffected by i\\-mutation. Although i\\-mutation was originally triggered by an {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the {{IPA\\|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} had generally changed (usually to {{IPA\\|/e/}}) or been lost entirely, with the result that i\\-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:\n* The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant\\-declension nouns (Proto\\-Germanic (PGmc) {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iz}}), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|fōt}} \"foot,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fēt}} \"feet;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|mūs}} \"mouse,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|mȳs}} \"mice.\" Many more words were affected by this change in Old English versus modern English, for example, {{lang\\|ang\\|bōc}} \"book,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bēċ}} \"books;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|frēond}} \"friend,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|frīend}} \"friends.\"\n* The second and third person [present](/wiki/Present_tense \"Present tense\") [singular](/wiki/Grammatical_number \"Grammatical number\") [indicative](/wiki/Indicative_mood \"Indicative mood\") of [strong verbs](/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb \"Germanic strong verb\") (Pre\\-Old\\-English (Pre\\-OE) {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ist}}, {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-iþ}}), as compared to the [infinitive](/wiki/Infinitive \"Infinitive\") and other present\\-tense forms – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|helpan}} \"to help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|helpe}} \"(I) help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hilpst}} \"(you sg.) help,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hilpþ}} \"(he/she) helps,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|helpaþ}} \"(we/you pl./they) help.\"\n* The [comparative](/wiki/Comparative \"Comparative\") form of some [adjectives](/wiki/Adjective \"Adjective\") (Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ira}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-izǭ}}, Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*\\-ist}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-istaz}}), as compared to the base form – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|eald}} \"old,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldra}} \"older,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|ieldest}} \"oldest\" (cf. \"elder, eldest\").\n* Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix {{lang\\|mis\\|\\-jan}}), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|fōda}} \"food,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fēdan}} \"to feed\" \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*fōdjan}}; {{lang\\|ang\\|lār}} \"lore,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|lǣran}} \"to teach;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|feallan}} \"to fall,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fiellan}} \"to fell.\"\n* In the abstract nouns in {{lang\\|ang\\|þ(u)}} (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iþō}}) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|strang}} \"strong,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|strengþ(u)}} \"strength;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hāl}} \"whole/hale,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|hǣlþ(u)}} \"health;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fūl}} \"foul,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fȳlþ(u)}} \"filth.\"\n* In female forms of several nouns with the suffix {{lang\\|ang\\|\\-enn}} (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-injō}}) – e.g., {{lang\\|ang\\|god}} \"god,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|gydenn}} \"goddess\" (cf. German {{lang\\|de\\|Gott}}, {{lang\\|de\\|Göttin}}); {{lang\\|ang\\|fox}} \"fox,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fyxenn}} \"vixen.\"\n* In i\\-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|\\-iz}}) – e.g. {{lang\\|ang\\|cyme}} \"a coming,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|cuman}} \"to come;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|byre}} \"a son (orig., a being born),\" {{lang\\|ang\\|beran}} \"to bear;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|fiell}} \"a falling,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|feallan}} \"to fall;\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bend}} \"a bond,\" {{lang\\|ang\\|bindan}} \"to bind.\" Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto\\-Indo\\-European [ablaut](/wiki/Ablaut \"Ablaut\").",
"##### Notes",
"1. The phonologically expected umlaut of {{IPA\\|/a/}} is {{IPA\\|/æ/}}. However, in many cases {{IPA\\|/e/}} appears. Most {{IPA\\|/a/}} in Old English stem from earlier {{IPA\\|/æ/}} because of a change called [a\\-restoration](/wiki/A-restoration \"A-restoration\"). This change was blocked when {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} followed, leaving {{IPA\\|/æ/}}, which subsequently mutated to {{IPA\\|/e/}}. For example, in the case of {{lang\\|ang\\|talu}} \"tale\" vs. {{lang\\|ang\\|tellan}} \"to tell,\" the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælu}} and {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælljan}}, respectively. A\\-restoration converted {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælu}} to {{lang\\|ang\\|talu}}, but left {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*tælljan}} alone, and it subsequently evolved to {{lang\\|ang\\|tellan}} by i\\-mutation. The same process \"should\" have led to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*becþ}} instead of {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}}. That is, the early forms were {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæcan}} and {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}}. A\\-restoration converted {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæcan}} to {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}} but left alone {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}}, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*becþ}}. In this case, however, once a\\-restoration took effect, {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*bæciþ}} was modified to {{lang\\|ang\\|\\*baciþ}} by analogy with {{lang\\|ang\\|bacan}}, and then later umlauted to {{lang\\|ang\\|bæcþ}}.\n2. A similar process resulted in the umlaut of {{IPA\\|/o/}} sometimes appearing as {{IPA\\|/e/}} and sometimes (usually, in fact) as {{IPA\\|/y/}}. In Old English, {{IPA\\|/o/}} generally stems from [a\\-mutation](/wiki/A-mutation \"A-mutation\") of original {{IPA\\|/u/}}. A\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/u/}} was blocked by a following {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}}, which later triggered umlaut of the {{IPA\\|/u/}} to {{IPA\\|/y/}}, the reason for alternations between {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/y/}} being common. Umlaut of {{IPA\\|/o/}} to {{IPA\\|/e/}} occurs only when an original {{IPA\\|/u/}} was modified to {{IPA\\|/o/}} by analogy before umlaut took place. For example, {{lang\\|ang\\|dohtor}} comes from late [Proto\\-Germanic](/wiki/Proto-Germanic \"Proto-Germanic\") {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|dohter}}, from earlier {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhter}}. The plural in Proto\\-Germanic was {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhtriz}}, with {{IPA\\|/u/}} unaffected by a\\-mutation due to the following {{IPA\\|/i/}}. At some point prior to i\\-mutation, the form {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|duhtriz}} was modified to {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|dohtriz}} by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in {{lang\\|ang\\|dehter}}.",
"A few hundred years after i\\-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated *all* previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} was {{IPA\\|/u/}}. This {{IPA\\|/u/}} typically appears as {{angbr\\|e}} in Old English or is deleted:",
"* {{lang\\|ang\\|hægtess}} \"witch\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|hagatusjō}} (cf. [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German \"Old High German\") {{lang\\|goh\\|hagazussa}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣmerge}} \"embers\" \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*āmurja}} \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|aimurjǭ}} (cf. Old High German {{lang\\|goh\\|eimurja}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ǣrende}} \"errand\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|ǣrundijaz}} (cf. [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon \"Old Saxon\") {{lang\\|osx\\|ārundi}})\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|efstan}} \"to hasten\" \\< archaic {{lang\\|ang\\|øfestan}} \\< Pre\\-OE {{lang\\|mis\\|\\*ofustan}}\n* {{lang\\|ang\\|ȳmest}} \"upmost\" \\< PGmc {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|uhumistaz}} (cf. [Gothic](/wiki/Gothic_language \"Gothic language\") {{lang\\|got\\-Latn\\|áuhumists}})",
"As shown by the examples, affected words typically had {{IPA\\|/u/}} in the second syllable and {{IPA\\|/a/}} in the first syllable. The {{IPA\\|/æ/}} developed too late to break to {{lang\\|ang\\|ea}} or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.",
"#### I\\-mutation in High German",
"I\\-mutation is visible in [Old High German](/wiki/Old_High_German \"Old High German\") (OHG), c. 800 CE, only on short {{IPA\\|/a/}}, which was mutated to {{IPA\\|/e/}} (the so\\-called \"primary umlaut\"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning {{IPA\\|/i/}} and {{IPA\\|/j/}} sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}}, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of {{IPA\\|/a/}} that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so\\-called \"secondary umlaut\"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} appear as {{IPA\\|/ø/}} and {{IPA\\|/y/}} in the appropriate environments.",
"That has led to a controversy over when and how i\\-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl){{cite journal \\|last\\=Penzl \\|first\\=H. \\|year\\=1949 \\|title\\=Umlaut and Secondary Umlaut in Old High German \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Language (journal)\\|Language]] \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=223–240 \\|doi\\= 10\\.2307/410084\\|jstor\\=410084 }} have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as Joseph Voyles){{cite encyclopedia\\|last \\= Voyles\\|first \\= Joseph\\|year \\= 1992\\|title \\= On Old High German i\\-umlaut\\|encyclopedia \\= On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods\\|editor1\\-last\\=Rauch\\|editor1\\-first\\=Irmengard\\|editor2\\-last\\=Carr\\|editor2\\-first\\=Gerald F.\\|editor3\\-last\\=Kyes\\|editor3\\-first\\=Robert L.}} have suggested that the i\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i\\-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of {{IPA\\|/a/}}. Perhaps{{Original research inline\\|date\\=February 2010}} the answer is somewhere in between — i\\-mutation of {{IPA\\|/o/}} and {{IPA\\|/u/}} was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i\\-mutation is most likely).{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2010}} It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word\\-internal {{IPA\\|/j/}} after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani \"Fausto Cercignani\")'s suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\\). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59\\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8889/11877) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928141535/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\\-online/article/view/8889/11877 \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-28 }}",
"However, sporadic place\\-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already in the early 8th century.{{Cite journal \\| author\\=Adolf Gütter \\| title\\=Frühe Belege für den Umlaut von ahd. /u/, /ō/ und /ū/ \\| journal\\=Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur \\| volume\\=133 \\| issue\\=1 \\| year\\=2011 \\| pages\\=1–13 \\| doi\\=10\\.1515/bgsl.2011\\.002\\|s2cid\\=162809692}} [Ottar Grønvik](/wiki/Ottar_Gr%C3%B8nvik \"Ottar Grønvik\"), also in view of spellings of the type {{angbr\\|ei}}, {{angbr\\|ui}}, and {{angbr\\|oi}} in the early attestations, affirms the old [epenthesis](/wiki/Epenthesis \"Epenthesis\") theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of {{IPA\\|/j/}} after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.{{Cite book \\|author\\= Ottar Grønvik \\|title\\= Untersuchungen zur älteren nordischen und germanischen Sprachgeschichte \\|publisher\\= Peter Lang \\|location\\= Frankfurt \\|year\\=1998 \\|isbn\\= 3\\-631\\-33479\\-6 }} [Fausto Cercignani](/wiki/Fausto_Cercignani \"Fausto Cercignani\") prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.Cercignani, Fausto (2022\\). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German. *Linguistik Online*. 113/1: 45–57\\. [Online](https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/8317/11309) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211175511/https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik\\-online/article/view/8317/11309 \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-11 }}",
"In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in {{lang\\|de\\|Chöre}} 'choirs' or {{lang\\|de\\|europäisch}} 'European.' Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix {{lang\\|de\\|\\-chen}}, as in {{lang\\|de\\|Skandäl\\-chen}} 'little scandal.'",
"Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German [umlaut diacritic](/wiki/Umlaut_%28diacritic%29 \"Umlaut (diacritic)\") was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as {{angbr\\|a}}, {{angbr\\|o}}, and {{angbr\\|u}} become {{angbr\\|ä}}, {{angbr\\|ö}}, and {{angbr\\|ü}}, and the diphthong {{angbr\\|au}} {{IPA\\|/aʊ/}} becomes {{angbr\\|äu}} {{IPA\\|/ɔʏ/}}: {{lang\\|de\\|Mann}} {{IPA\\|de\\|man\\|}} \"man\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Männer}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈmɛnɐ\\|}} \"men,\" {{lang\\|de\\|Fuß}} {{IPA\\|de\\|fuːs\\|}} \"foot\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Füße}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈfyːsə\\|}} \"feet,\" {{lang\\|de\\|Maus}} {{IPA\\|de\\|maʊs\\|}} \"mouse\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Mäuse}} {{IPA\\|de\\|ˈmɔʏzə\\|}} \"mice.\"",
"In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa ({{lang\\|de\\|\\-e}}); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non\\-umlauted counterparts (just like in English *foot* – *feet*, *mouse* – *mice*). The example {{lang\\|de\\|Gast}} \"guest\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Gäst(e)}} \"guests\" served as the model for analogical pairs like {{lang\\|de\\|Tag}} \"day\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Täg(e)}} \"days\" (vs. standard {{lang\\|de\\|Tage}}) and {{lang\\|de\\|Arm}} \"arm\" vs. {{lang\\|de\\|Ärm(e)}} \"arms\" (vs. standard {{lang\\|de\\|Arme}}). Even plural forms like {{lang\\|de\\|Fisch(e)}} \"fish,\" which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place, were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German \\*\\*{{lang\\|gmh\\|füsche}}) and led to singular forms like {{lang\\|de\\|Fusch}} {{IPA\\|de\\|fʊʃ\\|}}, which are attested in some dialects.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Old Saxon",
"In [Old Saxon](/wiki/Old_Saxon \"Old Saxon\"), umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an {{IPA\\|/i/}} or {{IPA\\|/j/}} is short {{IPA\\|/a/}}: {{lang\\|osx\\|gast}} – {{lang\\|osx\\|gesti}}, {{lang\\|osx\\|slahan}} – {{lang\\|osx\\|slehis}}. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.",
"#### I\\-mutation in Dutch",
"Late Old Dutch saw a merger of {{IPA\\|/u/}} and {{IPA\\|/o/}}, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}}. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}} to long {{IPA\\|/øː/}} (spelled {{angbr\\|eu}}) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of {{IPA\\|/i/}} in open syllables to {{IPA\\|/eː/}}, as in {{lang\\|nl\\|schip}} (\"ship\") – {{lang\\|nl\\|schepen}} (\"ships\").",
"In general, the effects of the Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited.Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93\\. One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I\\-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which are notably absent from the language.R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36\\. Thus, for example, where modern German has {{lang\\|de\\|fühlen}} {{IPA\\|/ˈfyːlən/}} and English has *feel* {{IPA\\|/fiːl/}} (from Proto\\-Germanic {{lang\\|gem\\-x\\-proto\\|fōlijaną}}), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in {{lang\\|nl\\|voelen}} {{IPA\\|/ˈvulə(n)/}}. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch: {{IPA\\|/a/}}, which became {{IPA\\|/ɛ/}}, and {{IPA\\|/u/}}, which became {{IPA\\|/ʏ/}} (spelled {{angbr\\|u}}). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun {{lang\\|nl\\|stad}} \"city\" which has the irregular umlauted plural {{lang\\|nl\\|steden}}.",
"Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western [Brabant](/wiki/Province_of_Brabant \"Province of Brabant\") and [Holland](/wiki/Holland \"Holland\") that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the *Cologne Expansion* (the spread of certain [West German features](/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages \"Central Franconian languages\") in the south\\-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of [Limburgish](/wiki/Limburgish_language \"Limburgish language\") have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however.R. Belemans: Belgisch\\-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22\\-25 Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare {{lang\\|nl\\|vulen}} {{IPA\\|/vylə(n)/}} and {{lang\\|nl\\|menneke}} \"little man\" from {{lang\\|nl\\|man}}.",
""
] |
Career
------
Located in Silicon Valley, Dominique Trempont serves on the board of directors of private and public companies, with strategic focus on [disruptive technologies](/wiki/Disruptive_technology "Disruptive technology"), emerging markets and Asia: Energy Recovery Inc (NASDAQ: ERII \- $60M) that makes desalination affordable{{clarify\|date\=September 2018}} and is the second cleantech company to have gone public in 2008\. RealNetworks (NASDAQ: RNWK \- $400M) that is in on\-line entertainment (video, music, SMS, ringtones, games). The Daily Mail and General trust (London Stock Exchange DMGT.L – £2\.1B), a B2B and B2C media company, focused on content and publishing apps. ON24 ($70M \- private), a software as a service company, webcasting and virtual shows. And Trion Worlds, a private Online Gaming company. Trempont also teaches: Building Businesses in Silicon Valley at the INSEAD Business School (Europe/Singapore).
Trempont is a patent holder in artificial intelligence: distributed customer relationship management systems and methods US 20020133392 A1
He spent the first 14 years of his career as a key executive at [Raychem](/wiki/Raychem "Raychem"), a company focusing in material science and a precursor of the cleantech space, with worldwide responsibilities and a focus on large scale turnarounds in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), [India](/wiki/India "India"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America "Latin America") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"). Raychem was a billion dollar company operating globally in 80 countries and was later acquired by Tyco.
In 1993, [Steve Jobs](/wiki/Steve_Jobs "Steve Jobs") recruited Trempont to turn around NeXT, first as CFO{{cite journal
\|journal \= InfoWorld
\|title \= Stepping into the future: OpenStep should walk towards OS/2 and Mac
\|volume\= 16
\|issue\= 49
\|author\= Bob Metcalfe
\|publisher \= InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.
\|date \= Dec 5, 1994
\|issn \= 0199\-6649
\|pages \= 134
\|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=bzgEAAAAMBAJ\&dq\=Dominique\+Trempont\&pg\=PA57}} then to lead operations, while Steve Jobs focused on Pixar. Dominique led NeXT's shift from hardware to Internet focused software and brought the company to profitability. He successfully restructured the company financially, organizationally and strategically, and sold NeXT to Apple in 1997 for $462M.
In 1997, Trempont joined hands with the founder of Gemplus (now renamed Gemalto), world leader in smart cards, and became CEO of Gemplus Corp. He built a highly profitable $150M new business in two years by focusing on the convergence of mobile consumer applications, micro\-payments and on\-line security. Gemplus has since gone public and is now a 2 billion dollar company.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2010}}
In 1999, Trempont became chairman and CEO of Kanisa, an early\-stage enterprise natural language search \& knowledge management software start\-up. He focused the venture on customer self\-service, contact center, and peer support applications. The company merged with ConsonaCRM in 2007\.
Between 1996 and 1997, Trempont sat on the board of Verity (NASDAQ: VRTY), in enterprise search.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2010}}
In 1998, Trempont became a founding investor in Signio, an online payment platform. Signio was sold to Verisign for $700M in 1999 and, a couple of years later, was acquired by [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay")/[PayPal](/wiki/PayPal "PayPal").
In 2006, he joined the board and chaired the Finance and Audit Committee of [3Com](/wiki/3Com "3Com") (NASDAQ, COMS), a global [computer networking](/wiki/Computer_network "Computer network") solutions company; 3Com was acquired for $3\.3B by [Hewlett\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard "Hewlett-Packard") in 2010\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Located in Silicon Valley, Dominique Trempont serves on the board of directors of private and public companies, with strategic focus on [disruptive technologies](/wiki/Disruptive_technology \"Disruptive technology\"), emerging markets and Asia: Energy Recovery Inc (NASDAQ: ERII \\- $60M) that makes desalination affordable{{clarify\\|date\\=September 2018}} and is the second cleantech company to have gone public in 2008\\. RealNetworks (NASDAQ: RNWK \\- $400M) that is in on\\-line entertainment (video, music, SMS, ringtones, games). The Daily Mail and General trust (London Stock Exchange DMGT.L – £2\\.1B), a B2B and B2C media company, focused on content and publishing apps. ON24 ($70M \\- private), a software as a service company, webcasting and virtual shows. And Trion Worlds, a private Online Gaming company. Trempont also teaches: Building Businesses in Silicon Valley at the INSEAD Business School (Europe/Singapore).",
"Trempont is a patent holder in artificial intelligence: distributed customer relationship management systems and methods US 20020133392 A1",
"He spent the first 14 years of his career as a key executive at [Raychem](/wiki/Raychem \"Raychem\"), a company focusing in material science and a precursor of the cleantech space, with worldwide responsibilities and a focus on large scale turnarounds in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Latin America](/wiki/Latin_America \"Latin America\") and [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"). Raychem was a billion dollar company operating globally in 80 countries and was later acquired by Tyco.",
"In 1993, [Steve Jobs](/wiki/Steve_Jobs \"Steve Jobs\") recruited Trempont to turn around NeXT, first as CFO{{cite journal\n\\|journal \\= InfoWorld\n\\|title \\= Stepping into the future: OpenStep should walk towards OS/2 and Mac\n\\|volume\\= 16\n\\|issue\\= 49\n\\|author\\= Bob Metcalfe \n\\|publisher \\= InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.\n\\|date \\= Dec 5, 1994\n\\|issn \\= 0199\\-6649\n\\|pages \\= 134\n\\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bzgEAAAAMBAJ\\&dq\\=Dominique\\+Trempont\\&pg\\=PA57}} then to lead operations, while Steve Jobs focused on Pixar. Dominique led NeXT's shift from hardware to Internet focused software and brought the company to profitability. He successfully restructured the company financially, organizationally and strategically, and sold NeXT to Apple in 1997 for $462M.",
"In 1997, Trempont joined hands with the founder of Gemplus (now renamed Gemalto), world leader in smart cards, and became CEO of Gemplus Corp. He built a highly profitable $150M new business in two years by focusing on the convergence of mobile consumer applications, micro\\-payments and on\\-line security. Gemplus has since gone public and is now a 2 billion dollar company.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2010}}",
"In 1999, Trempont became chairman and CEO of Kanisa, an early\\-stage enterprise natural language search \\& knowledge management software start\\-up. He focused the venture on customer self\\-service, contact center, and peer support applications. The company merged with ConsonaCRM in 2007\\.",
"Between 1996 and 1997, Trempont sat on the board of Verity (NASDAQ: VRTY), in enterprise search.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2010}}",
"In 1998, Trempont became a founding investor in Signio, an online payment platform. Signio was sold to Verisign for $700M in 1999 and, a couple of years later, was acquired by [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\")/[PayPal](/wiki/PayPal \"PayPal\").",
"In 2006, he joined the board and chaired the Finance and Audit Committee of [3Com](/wiki/3Com \"3Com\") (NASDAQ, COMS), a global [computer networking](/wiki/Computer_network \"Computer network\") solutions company; 3Com was acquired for $3\\.3B by [Hewlett\\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard \"Hewlett-Packard\") in 2010\\.",
""
] |
Behavior
--------
### Diet
Adult spadefoots are opportunistic carnivores. Adults have been shown to eat arthropods from the taxa *[Coleoptera](/wiki/Coleoptera "Coleoptera"), [Diptera](/wiki/Diptera "Diptera"), [Hemiptera](/wiki/Hemiptera "Hemiptera"), [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera "Hymenoptera"), [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera "Lepidoptera"), [Neuroptera](/wiki/Neuroptera "Neuroptera"), [Orthoptera](/wiki/Orthoptera "Orthoptera"), [Trichoptera](/wiki/Trichoptera "Trichoptera"), [Collembola](/wiki/Collembola "Collembola"), and [Araneae](/wiki/Araneae "Araneae")*. Ants and beetles are their most common prey. Feeding seems to be generalized and opportunistic; the toads will eat anything they can subdue.
Adults hunt in spring and summer, but only at night or during light rains. Spadefoot tadpoles are dimorphic. Within a cohort, some tadpoles have large mouthparts, while others have much smaller mouthparts. As well as consuming other types of food, large\-mouthed individuals are
cannibalistic, swallowing other tadpoles whole.
### Defense mechanisms
Reported predators of adult Great Basin spadefoot toads include rattlesnakes, coyotes, and owls. Predators of larva include mud turtles (*[Kinosternon flavescens](/wiki/Kinosternon_flavescens "Kinosternon flavescens")*), spotted skunks (*[Spilogale putarius](/wiki/Spilogale_putarius "Spilogale putarius")*), raccoons (*[Procyon lotor](/wiki/Procyon_lotor "Procyon lotor")*), common crows (*[Corvus brachyrhynchos](/wiki/Corvus_brachyrhynchos "Corvus brachyrhynchos")*) and snakes. Adults are able to produce skin secretions that cause allergic reactions in some humans, including a burning sensation if the secretion gets in the eyes or nose. The skin secretions also deter predators.
### Burrowing behavior
Great Basin spadefoot toads have adapted to life in dry habitats. Desiccation is avoided by this terrestrial amphibian through burrowing into the ground. The toad use the hard, keratinized spade on each foot to dig a burrow, where it spends long periods during cold and dry weather. The toad is able to absorb water from the surrounding soil; even as the soil becomes increasingly dry in spring and early summer months, increased concentrations of [urea](/wiki/Urea "Urea") in the toad's body allow it to continue to suck water out of the soil through [osmosis](/wiki/Osmosis "Osmosis"). When the summer rains arrive the Great Basin spadefoot emerges from its burrow.
Morphs and adult Great Basin spadefoots normally venture from their burrows at night, when it is rainy or the night air is humid enough for dew to collect. Captive spadefoots have been observed to dig shallow burrows in moist soil, then dig deeper (2 to 3 feet \[0\.7–1\.2 m]) as soil dries at the surface. Spadefoots have been found 15 feet (4\.6 m) underground in natural conditions. An individual spadefoot digs and occupies only one burrow, which it usually returns to after foraging or mating. Spadefoots do not use shrubs or other vegetation for cover while foraging.
Spadefoots accumulate fat rapidly in summer. They are dormant in fall and winter, with dormancy apparently triggered by [photoperiod](/wiki/Photoperiod "Photoperiod"). Spring emergence may be triggered by increased moisture in the burrow. Spadefoots extend their dormancy period during drought, and can apparently remain dormant or mostly dormant for long periods of time. Fat reserves are metabolized slowly during dormancy, and females may reabsorb their eggs if spring rains do not occur.
|
[
"Behavior\n--------",
"### Diet",
"Adult spadefoots are opportunistic carnivores. Adults have been shown to eat arthropods from the taxa *[Coleoptera](/wiki/Coleoptera \"Coleoptera\"), [Diptera](/wiki/Diptera \"Diptera\"), [Hemiptera](/wiki/Hemiptera \"Hemiptera\"), [Hymenoptera](/wiki/Hymenoptera \"Hymenoptera\"), [Lepidoptera](/wiki/Lepidoptera \"Lepidoptera\"), [Neuroptera](/wiki/Neuroptera \"Neuroptera\"), [Orthoptera](/wiki/Orthoptera \"Orthoptera\"), [Trichoptera](/wiki/Trichoptera \"Trichoptera\"), [Collembola](/wiki/Collembola \"Collembola\"), and [Araneae](/wiki/Araneae \"Araneae\")*. Ants and beetles are their most common prey. Feeding seems to be generalized and opportunistic; the toads will eat anything they can subdue.",
"Adults hunt in spring and summer, but only at night or during light rains. Spadefoot tadpoles are dimorphic. Within a cohort, some tadpoles have large mouthparts, while others have much smaller mouthparts. As well as consuming other types of food, large\\-mouthed individuals are\ncannibalistic, swallowing other tadpoles whole.",
"### Defense mechanisms",
"Reported predators of adult Great Basin spadefoot toads include rattlesnakes, coyotes, and owls. Predators of larva include mud turtles (*[Kinosternon flavescens](/wiki/Kinosternon_flavescens \"Kinosternon flavescens\")*), spotted skunks (*[Spilogale putarius](/wiki/Spilogale_putarius \"Spilogale putarius\")*), raccoons (*[Procyon lotor](/wiki/Procyon_lotor \"Procyon lotor\")*), common crows (*[Corvus brachyrhynchos](/wiki/Corvus_brachyrhynchos \"Corvus brachyrhynchos\")*) and snakes. Adults are able to produce skin secretions that cause allergic reactions in some humans, including a burning sensation if the secretion gets in the eyes or nose. The skin secretions also deter predators.",
"### Burrowing behavior",
"Great Basin spadefoot toads have adapted to life in dry habitats. Desiccation is avoided by this terrestrial amphibian through burrowing into the ground. The toad use the hard, keratinized spade on each foot to dig a burrow, where it spends long periods during cold and dry weather. The toad is able to absorb water from the surrounding soil; even as the soil becomes increasingly dry in spring and early summer months, increased concentrations of [urea](/wiki/Urea \"Urea\") in the toad's body allow it to continue to suck water out of the soil through [osmosis](/wiki/Osmosis \"Osmosis\"). When the summer rains arrive the Great Basin spadefoot emerges from its burrow.",
"Morphs and adult Great Basin spadefoots normally venture from their burrows at night, when it is rainy or the night air is humid enough for dew to collect. Captive spadefoots have been observed to dig shallow burrows in moist soil, then dig deeper (2 to 3 feet \\[0\\.7–1\\.2 m]) as soil dries at the surface. Spadefoots have been found 15 feet (4\\.6 m) underground in natural conditions. An individual spadefoot digs and occupies only one burrow, which it usually returns to after foraging or mating. Spadefoots do not use shrubs or other vegetation for cover while foraging.",
"Spadefoots accumulate fat rapidly in summer. They are dormant in fall and winter, with dormancy apparently triggered by [photoperiod](/wiki/Photoperiod \"Photoperiod\"). Spring emergence may be triggered by increased moisture in the burrow. Spadefoots extend their dormancy period during drought, and can apparently remain dormant or mostly dormant for long periods of time. Fat reserves are metabolized slowly during dormancy, and females may reabsorb their eggs if spring rains do not occur.",
""
] |
Career
------
In his twenties, Sy became a store manager working for an American business involved in the local shoe industry in the Philippines; he opened his first sole\-proprietorship store in [Quiapo](/wiki/Quiapo%2C_Manila "Quiapo, Manila"), Manila in 1948\. He opened at least three shoe stores in the Carriedo area which was then known for its heavy pedestrian traffic. His decision to sell shoes was due to the losses his family experienced in World War II thinking that everyone would need shoes following the aftermath of the [war](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II").
He sold surplus G.I. boots, bankrolled the profits and was able to secure credit (like Php 1 million/US$500,000 from [Chinabank](/wiki/Chinabank "Chinabank") in 1949[https://web.facebook.com/photo?fbid\=964391663641664\&set\=a.479141922166643](https://web.facebook.com/photo?fbid=964391663641664&set=a.479141922166643)/[https://www.rappler.com/business/why\-chinabank\-special\-henry\-sy\-family\-what\-filipinos\-can\-learn\-from\-it/](https://www.rappler.com/business/why-chinabank-special-henry-sy-family-what-filipinos-can-learn-from-it/)\> (US$\=2PHP), roughly equivalent to PHP 370 million in 2024 (US$\=\~56\.07PHP<https://bap.org.ph/>) when adjusted for [inflation](/wiki/Inflation "Inflation")[https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about\-us/monetary\-policy/inflation\-calculator](https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator)) prior to establishing [Shoemart](/wiki/Shoemart "Shoemart") in 1958, his own small shoe store in Quiapo, which then marked the beginning of [SM Prime](/wiki/SM_Prime "SM Prime").[Philippines mall mogul rakes it in as crisis hits rich: Forbes](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i2DeowITyi_UpWTQuV1rMTBtVixg) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520180555/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i2DeowITyi\_UpWTQuV1rMTBtVixg \|date\=May 20, 2011 }}. AFP October 15, 2008\. He later encountered difficulties in sourcing shoes locally and decided to import shoes from outside the country.
Sy became involved in the Filipino banking industry when he acquired Acme Savings Bank (later renamed [Banco de Oro](/wiki/Banco_de_Oro "Banco de Oro") or BDO) in 1967\.
In November 1972, he opened [SM Quiapo](/wiki/SM_Quiapo "SM Quiapo"), SM's first stand alone department store, and entrusted his 22\-year\-old daughter [Teresita](/wiki/Teresita_Sy-Coson "Teresita Sy-Coson") to run the store. On November 8, 1985, he established his first [SM Supermall](/wiki/SM_Supermalls "SM Supermalls"), [SM City North EDSA](/wiki/SM_City_North_EDSA "SM City North EDSA").[The mall that started it all: Celebrating 25 years of SM City North EDSA by Wilson Lee Flores – The Philippine Star » Lifestyle Features » Sunday Life](https://archive.today/20120906193727/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=603306&publicationSubCategoryId=86). Philstar.com. August 15, 2010\. Retrieved on January 11, 2012\. In the early 1990s, SM started opening more shopping malls with the setting up of two malls in Metro Manila and a solitary mall in [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City "Cebu City"). [SM Prime Holdings](/wiki/SM_Prime_Holdings "SM Prime Holdings") was incorporated in 1994 and went [public](/wiki/Public_company "Public company").
Sy was named "Richest Man of the Year" by the Makati Business Club in 1999 and was conferred an Honorary Doctorate in Business Management by [De La Salle University](/wiki/De_La_Salle_University "De La Salle University") in January of that year. He and his wife established the SM Foundation Inc., which helps underprivileged youths, the disabled and the elderly.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.manilatimes.net/henry\-sy\-stays\-in\-forbes\-top\-100/80162/\|title\=Henry Sy stays in Forbes' top 100\|date\=March 4, 2014\|website\=The Manila Times\|language\=en\|access\-date\=January 21, 2019}} He established business presence in Mainland China when the SM Group opened its first shopping mall in his native Xiamen. Other malls were later set up in other parts of Southern China. [Sy in 2009\|thumb\|left](/wiki/File:Henry_sy.jpg "Henry sy.jpg")
In August 2005, Sy's stake in the [San Miguel Corporation](/wiki/San_Miguel_Corporation "San Miguel Corporation"), Southeast Asia's largest food and beverage conglomerate, reached 11%.{{cite news\|url\= http://www.philstar.com/business/291244/sm%C2%92s\-henry\-sy\-hikes\-stake\-smc\-11\|title\=SM's Henry Sy hikes stake in SMC to 11%\|date\=August 13, 2005\|newspaper\=Philstar Global}} He sold that stake in October 2007 for $680 million.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.abs\-cbnnews.com/business/10/30/09/sy\-group\-offers\-buy\-lopez\-stake\-meralco\-sources\|title\=(UPDATE 2\) Henry Sy son in P45\-B Meralco stake bid\|date\=October 30, 2009\|publisher\=ABS CBN News}}
Sy's holding company, [SM Investments](/wiki/SM_Investments "SM Investments") (also known as SM Group), has been frequently named as one of the best managed companies in the Philippines. SM Investments is the operator of [Banco de Oro](/wiki/Banco_de_Oro "Banco de Oro") (BDO) and owner of [Chinabank](/wiki/Chinabank "Chinabank"). In 2006, Sy bought the remaining 66% of [Equitable PCI Bank](/wiki/Equitable_PCI_Bank "Equitable PCI Bank"), the Philippines' third largest lender, and merged it into BDO the following year. The transaction turned BDO into the second largest financial company in the country.
[Sy during the SM Scholar Graduates Batch of 2017\|thumb\|right](/wiki/File:21st_Presentation_of_SM_Scholar_-Graduates_Batch_2017_Henry_Sy_tribute.jpg "21st Presentation of SM Scholar -Graduates Batch 2017 Henry Sy tribute.jpg")
In 2017, Sy stepped down as chairman of SM Investments Corporation and was given the honorary title of Chairman Emeritus as recognition for being the founder of the SM Group. Jose Sio succeeded Sy as chairman.{{cite web\|last\=Austria\|first\=Jennifer\|url\=http://thestandard.com.ph/business/corporate/235112/henry\-sy\-steps\-down\-as\-chairman\-of\-smic\-.html\|title\=Henry Sy steps down as chairman of SMIC\|date\=April 26, 2018\|website\=Manila Standard\|access\-date\=September 7, 2018\|archive\-date\=September 7, 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907182948/http://thestandard.com.ph/business/corporate/235112/henry\-sy\-steps\-down\-as\-chairman\-of\-smic\-.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
He was the Philippines' richest man, gaining $5 billion in 2010, after the [2007–2008 financial crisis](/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis "2007–2008 financial crisis"). The huge gain was due to his holding company, SM Investments, which possessed interests in BDO, inter alia. For 11 straight years until his death in 2019, *Forbes* ranked him as the richest person in the Philippines, with an estimated net worth of US$19 billion in 2019\.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"In his twenties, Sy became a store manager working for an American business involved in the local shoe industry in the Philippines; he opened his first sole\\-proprietorship store in [Quiapo](/wiki/Quiapo%2C_Manila \"Quiapo, Manila\"), Manila in 1948\\. He opened at least three shoe stores in the Carriedo area which was then known for its heavy pedestrian traffic. His decision to sell shoes was due to the losses his family experienced in World War II thinking that everyone would need shoes following the aftermath of the [war](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\").",
"He sold surplus G.I. boots, bankrolled the profits and was able to secure credit (like Php 1 million/US$500,000 from [Chinabank](/wiki/Chinabank \"Chinabank\") in 1949[https://web.facebook.com/photo?fbid\\=964391663641664\\&set\\=a.479141922166643](https://web.facebook.com/photo?fbid=964391663641664&set=a.479141922166643)/[https://www.rappler.com/business/why\\-chinabank\\-special\\-henry\\-sy\\-family\\-what\\-filipinos\\-can\\-learn\\-from\\-it/](https://www.rappler.com/business/why-chinabank-special-henry-sy-family-what-filipinos-can-learn-from-it/)\\> (US$\\=2PHP), roughly equivalent to PHP 370 million in 2024 (US$\\=\\~56\\.07PHP<https://bap.org.ph/>) when adjusted for [inflation](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\")[https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about\\-us/monetary\\-policy/inflation\\-calculator](https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator)) prior to establishing [Shoemart](/wiki/Shoemart \"Shoemart\") in 1958, his own small shoe store in Quiapo, which then marked the beginning of [SM Prime](/wiki/SM_Prime \"SM Prime\").[Philippines mall mogul rakes it in as crisis hits rich: Forbes](http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i2DeowITyi_UpWTQuV1rMTBtVixg) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520180555/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i2DeowITyi\\_UpWTQuV1rMTBtVixg \\|date\\=May 20, 2011 }}. AFP October 15, 2008\\. He later encountered difficulties in sourcing shoes locally and decided to import shoes from outside the country.",
"Sy became involved in the Filipino banking industry when he acquired Acme Savings Bank (later renamed [Banco de Oro](/wiki/Banco_de_Oro \"Banco de Oro\") or BDO) in 1967\\.",
"In November 1972, he opened [SM Quiapo](/wiki/SM_Quiapo \"SM Quiapo\"), SM's first stand alone department store, and entrusted his 22\\-year\\-old daughter [Teresita](/wiki/Teresita_Sy-Coson \"Teresita Sy-Coson\") to run the store. On November 8, 1985, he established his first [SM Supermall](/wiki/SM_Supermalls \"SM Supermalls\"), [SM City North EDSA](/wiki/SM_City_North_EDSA \"SM City North EDSA\").[The mall that started it all: Celebrating 25 years of SM City North EDSA by Wilson Lee Flores – The Philippine Star » Lifestyle Features » Sunday Life](https://archive.today/20120906193727/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=603306&publicationSubCategoryId=86). Philstar.com. August 15, 2010\\. Retrieved on January 11, 2012\\. In the early 1990s, SM started opening more shopping malls with the setting up of two malls in Metro Manila and a solitary mall in [Cebu City](/wiki/Cebu_City \"Cebu City\"). [SM Prime Holdings](/wiki/SM_Prime_Holdings \"SM Prime Holdings\") was incorporated in 1994 and went [public](/wiki/Public_company \"Public company\").",
"Sy was named \"Richest Man of the Year\" by the Makati Business Club in 1999 and was conferred an Honorary Doctorate in Business Management by [De La Salle University](/wiki/De_La_Salle_University \"De La Salle University\") in January of that year. He and his wife established the SM Foundation Inc., which helps underprivileged youths, the disabled and the elderly.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.manilatimes.net/henry\\-sy\\-stays\\-in\\-forbes\\-top\\-100/80162/\\|title\\=Henry Sy stays in Forbes' top 100\\|date\\=March 4, 2014\\|website\\=The Manila Times\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=January 21, 2019}} He established business presence in Mainland China when the SM Group opened its first shopping mall in his native Xiamen. Other malls were later set up in other parts of Southern China. [Sy in 2009\\|thumb\\|left](/wiki/File:Henry_sy.jpg \"Henry sy.jpg\")",
"In August 2005, Sy's stake in the [San Miguel Corporation](/wiki/San_Miguel_Corporation \"San Miguel Corporation\"), Southeast Asia's largest food and beverage conglomerate, reached 11%.{{cite news\\|url\\= http://www.philstar.com/business/291244/sm%C2%92s\\-henry\\-sy\\-hikes\\-stake\\-smc\\-11\\|title\\=SM's Henry Sy hikes stake in SMC to 11%\\|date\\=August 13, 2005\\|newspaper\\=Philstar Global}} He sold that stake in October 2007 for $680 million.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.abs\\-cbnnews.com/business/10/30/09/sy\\-group\\-offers\\-buy\\-lopez\\-stake\\-meralco\\-sources\\|title\\=(UPDATE 2\\) Henry Sy son in P45\\-B Meralco stake bid\\|date\\=October 30, 2009\\|publisher\\=ABS CBN News}}",
"Sy's holding company, [SM Investments](/wiki/SM_Investments \"SM Investments\") (also known as SM Group), has been frequently named as one of the best managed companies in the Philippines. SM Investments is the operator of [Banco de Oro](/wiki/Banco_de_Oro \"Banco de Oro\") (BDO) and owner of [Chinabank](/wiki/Chinabank \"Chinabank\"). In 2006, Sy bought the remaining 66% of [Equitable PCI Bank](/wiki/Equitable_PCI_Bank \"Equitable PCI Bank\"), the Philippines' third largest lender, and merged it into BDO the following year. The transaction turned BDO into the second largest financial company in the country.",
"[Sy during the SM Scholar Graduates Batch of 2017\\|thumb\\|right](/wiki/File:21st_Presentation_of_SM_Scholar_-Graduates_Batch_2017_Henry_Sy_tribute.jpg \"21st Presentation of SM Scholar -Graduates Batch 2017 Henry Sy tribute.jpg\")",
"In 2017, Sy stepped down as chairman of SM Investments Corporation and was given the honorary title of Chairman Emeritus as recognition for being the founder of the SM Group. Jose Sio succeeded Sy as chairman.{{cite web\\|last\\=Austria\\|first\\=Jennifer\\|url\\=http://thestandard.com.ph/business/corporate/235112/henry\\-sy\\-steps\\-down\\-as\\-chairman\\-of\\-smic\\-.html\\|title\\=Henry Sy steps down as chairman of SMIC\\|date\\=April 26, 2018\\|website\\=Manila Standard\\|access\\-date\\=September 7, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=September 7, 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907182948/http://thestandard.com.ph/business/corporate/235112/henry\\-sy\\-steps\\-down\\-as\\-chairman\\-of\\-smic\\-.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"He was the Philippines' richest man, gaining $5 billion in 2010, after the [2007–2008 financial crisis](/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis \"2007–2008 financial crisis\"). The huge gain was due to his holding company, SM Investments, which possessed interests in BDO, inter alia. For 11 straight years until his death in 2019, *Forbes* ranked him as the richest person in the Philippines, with an estimated net worth of US$19 billion in 2019\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
Incorporated on 30 March 1987, the PPMA was born out of a desire to run an exhibition ‘for the industry by the industry’ by eight founder member companies.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.connectingindustry.com/processcontrol/ppma\-celebrates\-its\-500th\-member.aspx\|title\=PPMA celebrates its 500th member \- Process \& Control\|website\=www.connectingindustry.com}}
The first three\-day PPMA Show was launched in 1988{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ppmashow.co.uk/case\-study/76\-jenton\-international\-three\-decades\-of\-exhibiting\-at\-the\-ppma\-show\|title\=Jenton International: Three decades of exhibiting at the PPMA Show\|website\=PPMA Show 2020}} at [Telford International Centre](https://www.theinternationalcentretelford.com/). In the proceeding years, the association experienced substantial growth, which included the merger with the Packaging Equipment Manufacturers' Association and the launch of the PPMA's official trade magazine, *Machinery Update*,{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ppma.co.uk/machinery\-update.html\|title\=Machinery Update\|website\=www.ppma.co.uk}} in 1989\.
As the PPMA Show grew in stature, it moved to the [National Exhibition Centre](/wiki/National_Exhibition_Centre "National Exhibition Centre") in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham "Birmingham"), creating competition with a larger show, Pakex, run by [Reed Exhibitions](/wiki/Reed_Exhibitions "Reed Exhibitions") every three years.
In 2002, Reed and the PPMA entered a joint venture to run the PPMA Show{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.foodbev.com/news/ppma\-show\-successfully\-delivers\-a\-revita/\|title\=PPMA Show delivers a revitalised event\|date\=19 October 2011}} two out of every three years and renamed its Pakex Show to Total Show, which replaced the PPMA Show triennially.
In 2009, the PPMA took over the secretariat of the [British Automation and Robot Association](/wiki/British_Automation_and_Robot_Association "British Automation and Robot Association") (BARA){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/business/ppma\-links\-up\-with\-robotics\-association\-27\-03\-2009\|title\=PPMA links up with robotics association\|first\=Simeon\|last\=Goldstein\|date\=27 March 2009}} and UK Industrial Vision Association (UKIVA).{{Cite web\|url\=https://instrumentsignpost.wordpress.com/2009/08/21/ukiva\-joins\-ppma/\|title\=UKIVA joins PPMA\|date\=21 August 2009}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/business/ppma\-welcomes\-ukiva\-to\-stable\-21\-08\-2009\|title\=PPMA welcomes UKIVA to stable\|first\=Jill\|last\=Park\|date\=21 August 2009}} In January 2010, the Polymer Machinery Manufacturers and Distribution Association (PMMDA) joined forcesUK Industrial Vision Association (UKIVA). A year later, Polymer Machinery Manufacturers and Distribution Association (PMMDA) joined forces\[1] with the PPMA to bring about four associations operating under the trading brand of the PPMA Group of Associations. with the PPMA to bring about four associations operating under the trading brand of the PPMA Group of Associations.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.fmcgceo.co.uk/ppma\-2019/\|title\=PPMA 2019\|date\=11 February 2019}} Despite the initial optimism, the PPMA and PMMDA parted company in December 2013\.
The PPMA ended its 12\-year partnership with Reed Exhibitions{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.controlsdrivesautomation.com/page\_417790\.asp\|title\=CDA MAGAZINE \- PPMA Show surges ahead\|website\=www.controlsdrivesautomation.com}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://exhibitionnews.uk/ppma\-takes\-back\-show\-from\-reed\-exhibitions/\|title\=PPMA takes back show from Reed Exhibitions\|date\=19 November 2012}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/ppma\-and\-reed\-exhibitions\-to\-end\-12\-year\-show\-partnership\-26\-09\-2012\|title\=PPMA and Reed Exhibitions to end 12\-year show partnership\|first\=Josh\|last\=Brooks\|date\=26 September 2012}} in 2013 to regain ownership and management of its PPMA Show in 2014\. The company also purchased the major exhibition brands of Pakex{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/features/comment/questions\-on\-the\-future\-of\-pakex\-as\-the\-total\-show\-comes\-to\-a\-close\-des\-king\-04\-07\-2013\|title\=Questions on the future of Pakex as the Total show comes to a close \| Des King\|first\=P. N.\|last\=Staff\|date\=4 July 2013}} and Interphex in the UK. Collectively, these shows increased in size and revenue, attracting 400\+ exhibitors from manufacturers’ around the world selling into the UK market.
Also, in 2014, the PPMA set up and funded PPMA Business Education Skills and Training (BEST),{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ppmabest.org.uk/\|title\=PPMA BEST \- Business Education Skills and Training\|website\=www.ppmabest.org.uk}} a registered charity (1156041\){{Cite web\|url\=http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Showcharity/RegisterOfCharities/ContactAndTrustees.aspx?RegisteredCharityNumber\=1156041\&SubsidiaryNumber\=0\|title\=Contact and trustees\|website\=apps.charitycommission.gov.uk}} in England, Wales and Scotland, to encourage more young people to take up a career in engineering and more PPMA member companies to take on apprentices.
In 2019, the company staged its first PPMA Conference{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.ppmaconference.co.uk/about/\|title\=About PPMA Conference \| Processing \& Packaging Machinery Association}} at the [National Conference Centre](/wiki/National_Conference_Centre "National Conference Centre").
On 31 January 2020, the PPMA launched a new training academy, designed to upskill and cross\-train company employees through a range of practical engineering and online learning modules.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/equipment/ppma\-aims\-broaden\-skills\-new\-academy\-31\-01\-2020\|title\=PPMA aims to broaden skills with new Academy\|first\=Philip\|last\=Chadwick\|date\=31 January 2020}}
In a bid to drive strategic events and services, the PPMA announced the part\-time appointment of Peter Williamson to the position of CEO on 13 December 2022\.{{cite web \| url\=https://packagingscotland.com/2022/12/ppma\-announces\-double\-appointment/ \| title\=PPMA announces double appointment \| Packaging Scotland \| date\=13 December 2022 }}
On 1 December 2023, the PPMA announced the group had changed its name from the PPMA Group of Associations to Automate UK to reflect the greater adoption of automation throughout the manufacturing sector.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Incorporated on 30 March 1987, the PPMA was born out of a desire to run an exhibition ‘for the industry by the industry’ by eight founder member companies.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.connectingindustry.com/processcontrol/ppma\\-celebrates\\-its\\-500th\\-member.aspx\\|title\\=PPMA celebrates its 500th member \\- Process \\& Control\\|website\\=www.connectingindustry.com}}",
"The first three\\-day PPMA Show was launched in 1988{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ppmashow.co.uk/case\\-study/76\\-jenton\\-international\\-three\\-decades\\-of\\-exhibiting\\-at\\-the\\-ppma\\-show\\|title\\=Jenton International: Three decades of exhibiting at the PPMA Show\\|website\\=PPMA Show 2020}} at [Telford International Centre](https://www.theinternationalcentretelford.com/). In the proceeding years, the association experienced substantial growth, which included the merger with the Packaging Equipment Manufacturers' Association and the launch of the PPMA's official trade magazine, *Machinery Update*,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ppma.co.uk/machinery\\-update.html\\|title\\=Machinery Update\\|website\\=www.ppma.co.uk}} in 1989\\.",
"As the PPMA Show grew in stature, it moved to the [National Exhibition Centre](/wiki/National_Exhibition_Centre \"National Exhibition Centre\") in [Birmingham](/wiki/Birmingham \"Birmingham\"), creating competition with a larger show, Pakex, run by [Reed Exhibitions](/wiki/Reed_Exhibitions \"Reed Exhibitions\") every three years.",
"In 2002, Reed and the PPMA entered a joint venture to run the PPMA Show{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.foodbev.com/news/ppma\\-show\\-successfully\\-delivers\\-a\\-revita/\\|title\\=PPMA Show delivers a revitalised event\\|date\\=19 October 2011}} two out of every three years and renamed its Pakex Show to Total Show, which replaced the PPMA Show triennially.",
"In 2009, the PPMA took over the secretariat of the [British Automation and Robot Association](/wiki/British_Automation_and_Robot_Association \"British Automation and Robot Association\") (BARA){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/business/ppma\\-links\\-up\\-with\\-robotics\\-association\\-27\\-03\\-2009\\|title\\=PPMA links up with robotics association\\|first\\=Simeon\\|last\\=Goldstein\\|date\\=27 March 2009}} and UK Industrial Vision Association (UKIVA).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://instrumentsignpost.wordpress.com/2009/08/21/ukiva\\-joins\\-ppma/\\|title\\=UKIVA joins PPMA\\|date\\=21 August 2009}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/business/ppma\\-welcomes\\-ukiva\\-to\\-stable\\-21\\-08\\-2009\\|title\\=PPMA welcomes UKIVA to stable\\|first\\=Jill\\|last\\=Park\\|date\\=21 August 2009}} In January 2010, the Polymer Machinery Manufacturers and Distribution Association (PMMDA) joined forcesUK Industrial Vision Association (UKIVA). A year later, Polymer Machinery Manufacturers and Distribution Association (PMMDA) joined forces\\[1] with the PPMA to bring about four associations operating under the trading brand of the PPMA Group of Associations. with the PPMA to bring about four associations operating under the trading brand of the PPMA Group of Associations.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fmcgceo.co.uk/ppma\\-2019/\\|title\\=PPMA 2019\\|date\\=11 February 2019}} Despite the initial optimism, the PPMA and PMMDA parted company in December 2013\\.",
"The PPMA ended its 12\\-year partnership with Reed Exhibitions{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.controlsdrivesautomation.com/page\\_417790\\.asp\\|title\\=CDA MAGAZINE \\- PPMA Show surges ahead\\|website\\=www.controlsdrivesautomation.com}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://exhibitionnews.uk/ppma\\-takes\\-back\\-show\\-from\\-reed\\-exhibitions/\\|title\\=PPMA takes back show from Reed Exhibitions\\|date\\=19 November 2012}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/news/ppma\\-and\\-reed\\-exhibitions\\-to\\-end\\-12\\-year\\-show\\-partnership\\-26\\-09\\-2012\\|title\\=PPMA and Reed Exhibitions to end 12\\-year show partnership\\|first\\=Josh\\|last\\=Brooks\\|date\\=26 September 2012}} in 2013 to regain ownership and management of its PPMA Show in 2014\\. The company also purchased the major exhibition brands of Pakex{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/features/comment/questions\\-on\\-the\\-future\\-of\\-pakex\\-as\\-the\\-total\\-show\\-comes\\-to\\-a\\-close\\-des\\-king\\-04\\-07\\-2013\\|title\\=Questions on the future of Pakex as the Total show comes to a close \\| Des King\\|first\\=P. N.\\|last\\=Staff\\|date\\=4 July 2013}} and Interphex in the UK. Collectively, these shows increased in size and revenue, attracting 400\\+ exhibitors from manufacturers’ around the world selling into the UK market.",
"Also, in 2014, the PPMA set up and funded PPMA Business Education Skills and Training (BEST),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ppmabest.org.uk/\\|title\\=PPMA BEST \\- Business Education Skills and Training\\|website\\=www.ppmabest.org.uk}} a registered charity (1156041\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Showcharity/RegisterOfCharities/ContactAndTrustees.aspx?RegisteredCharityNumber\\=1156041\\&SubsidiaryNumber\\=0\\|title\\=Contact and trustees\\|website\\=apps.charitycommission.gov.uk}} in England, Wales and Scotland, to encourage more young people to take up a career in engineering and more PPMA member companies to take on apprentices.",
"In 2019, the company staged its first PPMA Conference{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ppmaconference.co.uk/about/\\|title\\=About PPMA Conference \\| Processing \\& Packaging Machinery Association}} at the [National Conference Centre](/wiki/National_Conference_Centre \"National Conference Centre\").",
"On 31 January 2020, the PPMA launched a new training academy, designed to upskill and cross\\-train company employees through a range of practical engineering and online learning modules.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.packagingnews.co.uk/equipment/ppma\\-aims\\-broaden\\-skills\\-new\\-academy\\-31\\-01\\-2020\\|title\\=PPMA aims to broaden skills with new Academy\\|first\\=Philip\\|last\\=Chadwick\\|date\\=31 January 2020}}",
"In a bid to drive strategic events and services, the PPMA announced the part\\-time appointment of Peter Williamson to the position of CEO on 13 December 2022\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://packagingscotland.com/2022/12/ppma\\-announces\\-double\\-appointment/ \\| title\\=PPMA announces double appointment \\| Packaging Scotland \\| date\\=13 December 2022 }}",
"On 1 December 2023, the PPMA announced the group had changed its name from the PPMA Group of Associations to Automate UK to reflect the greater adoption of automation throughout the manufacturing sector.",
""
] |
Examples
--------
Given an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure "Array data structure") {{code\|a}} of {{math\|''n''}} items, suppose we want an array that holds the same elements in reversed order and to dispose of the original. One seemingly simple way to do this is to create a new array of equal size, fill it with copies from {{code\|a}} in the appropriate order and then delete {{code\|a}}.
**function** reverse(a\[0\..n \- 1])
```
allocate b[0..n - 1]
```
**for** i **from** 0 **to** n \- 1
```
b[n − 1 − i] := a[i]
```
**return** b
Unfortunately, this requires {{math\|''O''(''n'')}} extra space for having the arrays {{code\|a}} and {{code\|b}} available simultaneously. Also, [allocation](/wiki/Manual_memory_management "Manual memory management") and deallocation are often slow operations. Since we no longer need {{code\|a}}, we can instead overwrite it with its own reversal using this in\-place algorithm which will only need constant number (2\) of integers for the auxiliary variables {{code\|i}} and {{code\|tmp}}, no matter how large the array is.
**function** reverse\_in\_place(a\[0\..n\-1])
**for** i **from** 0 **to** floor((n\-2\)/2\)
```
tmp := a[i]
a[i] := a[n − 1 − i]
a[n − 1 − i] := tmp
```
As another example, many [sorting algorithms](/wiki/Sorting_algorithm "Sorting algorithm") rearrange arrays into sorted order in\-place, including: [bubble sort](/wiki/Bubble_sort "Bubble sort"), [comb sort](/wiki/Comb_sort "Comb sort"), [selection sort](/wiki/Selection_sort "Selection sort"), [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort "Insertion sort"), [heapsort](/wiki/Heapsort "Heapsort"), and [Shell sort](/wiki/Shell_sort "Shell sort"). These algorithms require only a few pointers, so their space complexity is {{math\|''O''(log ''n'')}}.The bit space requirement of a pointer is {{math\|''O''(log ''n'')}}, but pointer size can be considered a constant in most sorting applications.
[Quicksort](/wiki/Quicksort "Quicksort") operates in\-place on the data to be sorted. However, quicksort requires {{math\|''O''(log ''n'')}} stack space pointers to keep track of the subarrays in its [divide and conquer](/wiki/Divide_and_conquer_algorithm "Divide and conquer algorithm") strategy. Consequently, quicksort needs {{math\|''O''(log{{sup\|2}} ''n'')}} additional space. Although this non\-constant space technically takes quicksort out of the in\-place category, quicksort and other algorithms needing only {{math\|''O''(log ''n'')}} additional pointers are usually considered in\-place algorithms.
Most [selection algorithms](/wiki/Selection_algorithm "Selection algorithm") are also in\-place, although some considerably rearrange the input array in the process of finding the final, constant\-sized result.
Some text manipulation algorithms such as [trim](/wiki/Trim_%28programming%29 "Trim (programming)") and reverse may be done in\-place.
|
[
"Examples\n--------",
"Given an [array](/wiki/Array_data_structure \"Array data structure\") {{code\\|a}} of {{math\\|''n''}} items, suppose we want an array that holds the same elements in reversed order and to dispose of the original. One seemingly simple way to do this is to create a new array of equal size, fill it with copies from {{code\\|a}} in the appropriate order and then delete {{code\\|a}}.",
"**function** reverse(a\\[0\\..n \\- 1])",
"```\n allocate b[0..n - 1]\n \n```",
"**for** i **from** 0 **to** n \\- 1",
"```\n b[n − 1 − i] := a[i]\n \n```",
"**return** b",
"Unfortunately, this requires {{math\\|''O''(''n'')}} extra space for having the arrays {{code\\|a}} and {{code\\|b}} available simultaneously. Also, [allocation](/wiki/Manual_memory_management \"Manual memory management\") and deallocation are often slow operations. Since we no longer need {{code\\|a}}, we can instead overwrite it with its own reversal using this in\\-place algorithm which will only need constant number (2\\) of integers for the auxiliary variables {{code\\|i}} and {{code\\|tmp}}, no matter how large the array is.",
"**function** reverse\\_in\\_place(a\\[0\\..n\\-1])\n **for** i **from** 0 **to** floor((n\\-2\\)/2\\)",
"```\n tmp := a[i]\n a[i] := a[n − 1 − i]\n a[n − 1 − i] := tmp",
"```",
"As another example, many [sorting algorithms](/wiki/Sorting_algorithm \"Sorting algorithm\") rearrange arrays into sorted order in\\-place, including: [bubble sort](/wiki/Bubble_sort \"Bubble sort\"), [comb sort](/wiki/Comb_sort \"Comb sort\"), [selection sort](/wiki/Selection_sort \"Selection sort\"), [insertion sort](/wiki/Insertion_sort \"Insertion sort\"), [heapsort](/wiki/Heapsort \"Heapsort\"), and [Shell sort](/wiki/Shell_sort \"Shell sort\"). These algorithms require only a few pointers, so their space complexity is {{math\\|''O''(log ''n'')}}.The bit space requirement of a pointer is {{math\\|''O''(log ''n'')}}, but pointer size can be considered a constant in most sorting applications.",
"[Quicksort](/wiki/Quicksort \"Quicksort\") operates in\\-place on the data to be sorted. However, quicksort requires {{math\\|''O''(log ''n'')}} stack space pointers to keep track of the subarrays in its [divide and conquer](/wiki/Divide_and_conquer_algorithm \"Divide and conquer algorithm\") strategy. Consequently, quicksort needs {{math\\|''O''(log{{sup\\|2}} ''n'')}} additional space. Although this non\\-constant space technically takes quicksort out of the in\\-place category, quicksort and other algorithms needing only {{math\\|''O''(log ''n'')}} additional pointers are usually considered in\\-place algorithms.",
"Most [selection algorithms](/wiki/Selection_algorithm \"Selection algorithm\") are also in\\-place, although some considerably rearrange the input array in the process of finding the final, constant\\-sized result.",
"Some text manipulation algorithms such as [trim](/wiki/Trim_%28programming%29 \"Trim (programming)\") and reverse may be done in\\-place.",
""
] |
Music career
------------
In the US during the 1920s, he became principal cellist with the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic") at the personal invitation of [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini "Arturo Toscanini"). He played chamber music with performers such as [Arthur Rubinstein](/wiki/Arthur_Rubinstein "Arthur Rubinstein") and [Jascha Heifetz](/wiki/Jascha_Heifetz "Jascha Heifetz").[Myspace: Debbie Kennedy](http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewProfile&friendID=179376084) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217075021/http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction\=user.viewprofile \|date\=17 December 2008 }} In the United Kingdom he played in a noted piano quartet called the Chamber Music Players with [Albert Sammons](/wiki/Albert_Sammons "Albert Sammons"), [Lionel Tertis](/wiki/Lionel_Tertis "Lionel Tertis") and [William Murdoch](/wiki/William_David_Murdoch "William David Murdoch").[John White, Lionel Tertis](https://books.google.com/books?id=RfpLcZf6zaoC&dq=nigel+kennedy+lauri&pg=PA53)[bach cantatas: William Murdoch](http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Murdoch-William.htm) He also appeared with the tenor [John McCormack](/wiki/John_McCormack_%28tenor%29 "John McCormack (tenor)") for a number of years, and appears on record accompanying McCormack.[McCormack Studies](http://www.mccormacksociety.co.uk/Mccormack/Studies/An%20Irish%20Quartet%20by%20Padraic%20O%20Hara_files/An%20Irish%20Quartet%20by%20Padraic%20O%20Hara.htm), McCormacksociety.co.uk. Accessed 29 August 2022\.
He became principal cellist with Sir [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult "Adrian Boult")'s [BBC Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/BBC_Symphony_Orchestra "BBC Symphony Orchestra") at its inception in 1929 and played with them until 1935\.[Asa Briggs](/wiki/Asa_Briggs "Asa Briggs"), [The History of Broadcasting in the UK](https://books.google.com/books?id=bdfNTH-jrrIC&dq=lauri+kennedy+died&pg=PA160). Accessed 29 August 2022\. It has been stated that his cello can be heard in the slow movement of Boult's 1935 recording of the [Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms "Johannes Brahms") [2nd Piano Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)") with [Artur Schnabel](/wiki/Artur_Schnabel "Artur Schnabel").{{cite news \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2004/sep/17/theatre.crime \| newspaper\=The Guardian \| title\=Singing detectives \| date\=17 September 2004 \| accessdate\=29 August 2022}}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.iis.sinica.edu.tw/\~jhwang/music/brahms\_pc2\.html \|title\=Brahms: Piano Concerto No.2 \|accessdate\=2008\-12\-14 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430123219/http://www.iis.sinica.edu.tw/\~jhwang/music/brahms\_pc2\.html \|archivedate\=30 April 2007}}
However, Kennedy himself said that, while it was planned that he should play the cello solo, by the time the recording was actually made (Nov. 1935\), he had left the BBCSO, and that it was Ambrose Gauntlett whose cello playing is recorded with Schnabel. He recorded music with [Fritz Kreisler](/wiki/Fritz_Kreisler "Fritz Kreisler")[HB direct](http://www.hbdirect.com/browse_classical.php?specific_instrument=Violin&v%5B0%5D=specific_instrument&v%5B1%5D=composer&v%5B2%5D=specific_composer&composer=K&specific_composer=Kreisler%2C+Fritz&v%5B3%5D=specific_work&specific_work=Caprice+viennois%2C+Op.+2) and [William Primrose](/wiki/William_Primrose "William Primrose"), including Kreisler's *String Quartet in A minor* in 1935 with members of the [London String Quartet](/wiki/London_Quartet "London Quartet").[Arkivmusic.com](http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/album.jsp?album_id=5842)[Kennedy performs Kreisler](http://www.emiclassics.com/kennedy/press.html) He recorded [Edgar Bainton](/wiki/Edgar_Bainton "Edgar Bainton")'s Cello Sonata.[Music web international](http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2004/Apr04/British_cello.htm) After [Felix Salmond](/wiki/Felix_Salmond "Felix Salmond") and [Guilhermina Suggia](/wiki/Guilhermina_Suggia "Guilhermina Suggia") turned it down, Lauri Kennedy was engaged to premiere [Frank Bridge](/wiki/Frank_Bridge "Frank Bridge")'s *Oration* for cello and orchestra, but withdrew during rehearsals.[Michael Steinberg](/wiki/Michael_Steinberg_%28music_critic%29 "Michael Steinberg (music critic)"), [The Concerto](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8oXNX2tY8AC&dq=lauri+kennedy+died&pg=PA135). Accessed 29 August 2022\. He also became a professor at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music "Royal College of Music").
His wife, Dorothy Kennedy ({{nee}} McBride), was a pianist who also accompanied John McCormack and taught the children of [Enrico Caruso](/wiki/Enrico_Caruso "Enrico Caruso"). Lauri and Dorothy performed together in some recordings.[Recordings](http://www.cduniverse.com/search/xx/music/pid/1034220/a/Recorded+Cello+-+Volume+2.htm), cduniverse.com. Accessed 29 August 2022\.
[Qualiton Imports](http://www.qualiton.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Store_Code=QILTD&Category_Code=CELLOCLASSICS) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715134644/http://www.qualiton.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen\=CTGY\&Store\_Code\=QILTD\&Category\_Code\=CELLOCLASSICS \|date\= 15 July 2011 }}
They made a highly successful tour of Australia in 1938\. They then went to the United States again, where Lauri joined Toscanini's [NBC Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/NBC_Symphony_Orchestra "NBC Symphony Orchestra"). He relocated to Hollywood and his playing is heard on a number of films, including [Walt Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney "Walt Disney")'s *[Fantasia](/wiki/Fantasia_%281940_film%29 "Fantasia (1940 film)")*.
In 1944, they returned to Australia permanently. They bought hotels in [Taree](/wiki/Taree%2C_New_South_Wales "Taree, New South Wales") and Sydney, and Lauri taught at music camps. Australian singers he accompanied included [Stella Power](/wiki/Stella_Power "Stella Power").[Stella Power](http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A160028b.htm), adb.online.anu.edu. Accessed 29 August 2022\. Lauri later taught cello at the [Canberra School of Music](/wiki/ANU_School_of_Music "ANU School of Music") in 1966, resigning after only one year due to poor health.[Papers of Earnest \[sic] Llewellyn](http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms9215), nla.gov.au. Accessed 28 August 2022\. His private students include [John Painter](/wiki/John_Painter_%28cellist%29 "John Painter (cellist)"), himself a future Director of the Canberra School of Music.[The Dictionary of Performing Arts in Australia](https://books.google.com/books?id=ELACebeQEgcC&dq=lauri+kennedy+1985&pg=PA179). Accessed 29 August 2022\.
Dorothy Kennedy died in 1972\. Lauri Kennedy died on 26 April 1985, in [Sacramento, California](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California "Sacramento, California"), where he was living with their eldest son, David. Their son [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy_%28cellist%29 "John Kennedy (cellist)") was also a cellist and was the natural father of the violinist [Nigel Kennedy](/wiki/Nigel_Kennedy "Nigel Kennedy"). Lauri Kennedy's cousin was violinist [Daisy Kennedy](/wiki/Daisy_Kennedy "Daisy Kennedy").
|
[
"Music career\n------------",
"In the US during the 1920s, he became principal cellist with the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\") at the personal invitation of [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini \"Arturo Toscanini\"). He played chamber music with performers such as [Arthur Rubinstein](/wiki/Arthur_Rubinstein \"Arthur Rubinstein\") and [Jascha Heifetz](/wiki/Jascha_Heifetz \"Jascha Heifetz\").[Myspace: Debbie Kennedy](http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewProfile&friendID=179376084) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217075021/http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction\\=user.viewprofile \\|date\\=17 December 2008 }} In the United Kingdom he played in a noted piano quartet called the Chamber Music Players with [Albert Sammons](/wiki/Albert_Sammons \"Albert Sammons\"), [Lionel Tertis](/wiki/Lionel_Tertis \"Lionel Tertis\") and [William Murdoch](/wiki/William_David_Murdoch \"William David Murdoch\").[John White, Lionel Tertis](https://books.google.com/books?id=RfpLcZf6zaoC&dq=nigel+kennedy+lauri&pg=PA53)[bach cantatas: William Murdoch](http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Lib/Murdoch-William.htm) He also appeared with the tenor [John McCormack](/wiki/John_McCormack_%28tenor%29 \"John McCormack (tenor)\") for a number of years, and appears on record accompanying McCormack.[McCormack Studies](http://www.mccormacksociety.co.uk/Mccormack/Studies/An%20Irish%20Quartet%20by%20Padraic%20O%20Hara_files/An%20Irish%20Quartet%20by%20Padraic%20O%20Hara.htm), McCormacksociety.co.uk. Accessed 29 August 2022\\.",
"He became principal cellist with Sir [Adrian Boult](/wiki/Adrian_Boult \"Adrian Boult\")'s [BBC Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/BBC_Symphony_Orchestra \"BBC Symphony Orchestra\") at its inception in 1929 and played with them until 1935\\.[Asa Briggs](/wiki/Asa_Briggs \"Asa Briggs\"), [The History of Broadcasting in the UK](https://books.google.com/books?id=bdfNTH-jrrIC&dq=lauri+kennedy+died&pg=PA160). Accessed 29 August 2022\\. It has been stated that his cello can be heard in the slow movement of Boult's 1935 recording of the [Brahms](/wiki/Johannes_Brahms \"Johannes Brahms\") [2nd Piano Concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)\") with [Artur Schnabel](/wiki/Artur_Schnabel \"Artur Schnabel\").{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2004/sep/17/theatre.crime \\| newspaper\\=The Guardian \\| title\\=Singing detectives \\| date\\=17 September 2004 \\| accessdate\\=29 August 2022}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.iis.sinica.edu.tw/\\~jhwang/music/brahms\\_pc2\\.html \\|title\\=Brahms: Piano Concerto No.2 \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-12\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430123219/http://www.iis.sinica.edu.tw/\\~jhwang/music/brahms\\_pc2\\.html \\|archivedate\\=30 April 2007}}",
"However, Kennedy himself said that, while it was planned that he should play the cello solo, by the time the recording was actually made (Nov. 1935\\), he had left the BBCSO, and that it was Ambrose Gauntlett whose cello playing is recorded with Schnabel. He recorded music with [Fritz Kreisler](/wiki/Fritz_Kreisler \"Fritz Kreisler\")[HB direct](http://www.hbdirect.com/browse_classical.php?specific_instrument=Violin&v%5B0%5D=specific_instrument&v%5B1%5D=composer&v%5B2%5D=specific_composer&composer=K&specific_composer=Kreisler%2C+Fritz&v%5B3%5D=specific_work&specific_work=Caprice+viennois%2C+Op.+2) and [William Primrose](/wiki/William_Primrose \"William Primrose\"), including Kreisler's *String Quartet in A minor* in 1935 with members of the [London String Quartet](/wiki/London_Quartet \"London Quartet\").[Arkivmusic.com](http://www.arkivmusic.com/classical/album.jsp?album_id=5842)[Kennedy performs Kreisler](http://www.emiclassics.com/kennedy/press.html) He recorded [Edgar Bainton](/wiki/Edgar_Bainton \"Edgar Bainton\")'s Cello Sonata.[Music web international](http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2004/Apr04/British_cello.htm) After [Felix Salmond](/wiki/Felix_Salmond \"Felix Salmond\") and [Guilhermina Suggia](/wiki/Guilhermina_Suggia \"Guilhermina Suggia\") turned it down, Lauri Kennedy was engaged to premiere [Frank Bridge](/wiki/Frank_Bridge \"Frank Bridge\")'s *Oration* for cello and orchestra, but withdrew during rehearsals.[Michael Steinberg](/wiki/Michael_Steinberg_%28music_critic%29 \"Michael Steinberg (music critic)\"), [The Concerto](https://books.google.com/books?id=t8oXNX2tY8AC&dq=lauri+kennedy+died&pg=PA135). Accessed 29 August 2022\\. He also became a professor at the [Royal College of Music](/wiki/Royal_College_of_Music \"Royal College of Music\").",
"His wife, Dorothy Kennedy ({{nee}} McBride), was a pianist who also accompanied John McCormack and taught the children of [Enrico Caruso](/wiki/Enrico_Caruso \"Enrico Caruso\"). Lauri and Dorothy performed together in some recordings.[Recordings](http://www.cduniverse.com/search/xx/music/pid/1034220/a/Recorded+Cello+-+Volume+2.htm), cduniverse.com. Accessed 29 August 2022\\.\n[Qualiton Imports](http://www.qualiton.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=CTGY&Store_Code=QILTD&Category_Code=CELLOCLASSICS) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715134644/http://www.qualiton.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen\\=CTGY\\&Store\\_Code\\=QILTD\\&Category\\_Code\\=CELLOCLASSICS \\|date\\= 15 July 2011 }}",
"They made a highly successful tour of Australia in 1938\\. They then went to the United States again, where Lauri joined Toscanini's [NBC Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/NBC_Symphony_Orchestra \"NBC Symphony Orchestra\"). He relocated to Hollywood and his playing is heard on a number of films, including [Walt Disney](/wiki/Walt_Disney \"Walt Disney\")'s *[Fantasia](/wiki/Fantasia_%281940_film%29 \"Fantasia (1940 film)\")*.",
"In 1944, they returned to Australia permanently. They bought hotels in [Taree](/wiki/Taree%2C_New_South_Wales \"Taree, New South Wales\") and Sydney, and Lauri taught at music camps. Australian singers he accompanied included [Stella Power](/wiki/Stella_Power \"Stella Power\").[Stella Power](http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A160028b.htm), adb.online.anu.edu. Accessed 29 August 2022\\. Lauri later taught cello at the [Canberra School of Music](/wiki/ANU_School_of_Music \"ANU School of Music\") in 1966, resigning after only one year due to poor health.[Papers of Earnest \\[sic] Llewellyn](http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms9215), nla.gov.au. Accessed 28 August 2022\\. His private students include [John Painter](/wiki/John_Painter_%28cellist%29 \"John Painter (cellist)\"), himself a future Director of the Canberra School of Music.[The Dictionary of Performing Arts in Australia](https://books.google.com/books?id=ELACebeQEgcC&dq=lauri+kennedy+1985&pg=PA179). Accessed 29 August 2022\\.",
"Dorothy Kennedy died in 1972\\. Lauri Kennedy died on 26 April 1985, in [Sacramento, California](/wiki/Sacramento%2C_California \"Sacramento, California\"), where he was living with their eldest son, David. Their son [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Kennedy_%28cellist%29 \"John Kennedy (cellist)\") was also a cellist and was the natural father of the violinist [Nigel Kennedy](/wiki/Nigel_Kennedy \"Nigel Kennedy\"). Lauri Kennedy's cousin was violinist [Daisy Kennedy](/wiki/Daisy_Kennedy \"Daisy Kennedy\").",
""
] |
Life
----
### Early years
The life of Michael is recorded by [Bar Hebraeus](/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus "Bar Hebraeus"). He was born ca. 1126 in [Melitene](/wiki/Melitene "Melitene") (today Malatya), the son of the Priest Eliya (Elias), of the Qindasi family. His uncle, the monk Athanasius, became bishop of [Anazarbus](/wiki/Anazarbus "Anazarbus") in [Cilicia](/wiki/Cilicia "Cilicia") in 1136\.{{sfn\|Wright\|1894\|p\=250}}{{sfn\|Harrak\|2019\|p\=IX}} At that period Melitene was part of the kingdom of the Turkoman [Danishmend dynasty](/wiki/Danishmendids "Danishmendids"), and, when that realm was divided in two in 1142, it became the capital of one principality. In 1178 it became part of the [Sultanate of Rûm](/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm "Sultanate of Rûm").
The Jacobite [monastery of Mor Bar Sauma](/wiki/Monastery_of_Mor_Bar_Sauma "Monastery of Mor Bar Sauma") was close to the town, and had been the patriarchal seat since the 11th century. As a child, Michael entered the service of the monastery, and became [archimandrite](/wiki/Archimandrite "Archimandrite") before the age of thirty. He made various improvements to the abbey's infrastructure which include securing the abbey's water supply and strengthening of the Abbey's defenses against marauding bandits.
### Syriac Patriarch
On 18 October 1166 he was elected Patriarch of the Jacobite church, and consecrated in the presence of twenty\-eight bishops. In 1168 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and then stayed for a year at Antioch. Both towns were at the time part of the Latin crusader states, and Michael established excellent relations with the crusader lords, especially with [Amaury de Nesle, Latin patriarch of Jerusalem](/wiki/Patriarch_Amalric_of_Jerusalem "Patriarch Amalric of Jerusalem"). Returning to the monastery of Mar Bar Sauma in the summer of 1169, he held a synod and attempted to reform the church, then tainted with [simony](/wiki/Simony "Simony").
The Byzantine emperor [Manuel I Comnenos](/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos "Manuel I Komnenos") made approaches to him to negotiate a reunion of the churches. But Michael did not trust the Greeks. He refused to go to Constantinople when invited by the emperor, and even refused twice, in 1170 and 1172, to meet his envoy Theorianus, instead sending as his own representative bishop John of Kaishoum and then his disciple Theodore bar Wahbun. In three successive letters to the emperor, he replied with a simple statement of the [miaphysite](/wiki/Miaphysitism "Miaphysitism") creed of the Jacobites.{{sfn\|Wright\|1894\|p\=252}}
Around 1174 Michael had to contend with a revolt by a party of bishops. He himself was twice arrested at the instigation of the dissident bishops, so he says; once by the servants of the prefect of Mardin and the second time by those of the emir of Mosul. Also the monks of Bar Sauma rebelled against him in 1171 and 1176\.
Between 1178 and 1180 he resided again in the crusader states, at Antioch and Jerusalem. He was invited by Pope Alexander III to attend the [Third Council of the Lateran](/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran "Third Council of the Lateran"), but declined. However he did participate by letter, writing a long treatise on the [Albigensians](/wiki/Albigensians "Albigensians"), based on the information he had been given.
Michael was also involved in the Egyptian controversy over the doctrine of [confession](/wiki/Confession_%28religion%29 "Confession (religion)"), and supported [Pope Mark III of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Mark_III_of_Alexandria "Pope Mark III of Alexandria") in the excommunication of [Mark Ibn Kunbar](/wiki/Mark_Ibn_Kunbar "Mark Ibn Kunbar").{{Cite book\|last\=Abu Salih the Armenian\|title\=The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and Some Neighbouring Countries\|publisher\=Clarendon Press\|year\=1895\|pages\=30\|asin\=B00QH2BQLW}}
### Schism
In 1180 his former pupil [Theodore bar Wahbun](/wiki/Theodore_bar_Wahbun "Theodore bar Wahbun") had himself elected patriarch at Amida under the name of John by certain malcontent bishops, beginning a schism which lasted for thirteen years. Michael took energetic action, got hold of the anti\-patriarch and locked him up at Bar Sauma and formally deposed him. Some of monks allowed Ibn Wahbon to escape, who fled to Damascus and tried in vain to appeal to [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin"). He then went to Jerusalem, and, after the fall of the city in 1187, went to [Rumkale](/wiki/Rumkale "Rumkale") with the Armenian Catholicos [Gregory IV](/wiki/Gregory_IV_the_Young "Gregory IV the Young"), who allowed him to obtain official recognition from Prince Leo II of [Armenian Minor](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia "Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia"). Theodore had many supporters, and the schism did not end until the death of Theodore in the summer of 1193\. According to Bar Hebraeus Theodore could write and speak in Syriac, Greek, Armenian and Arabic, and composed a statement of his case against Michael in Arabic.{{sfn\|Wright\|1894\|p\=254}}
In 1182, Michael received the sultan [Kilij Arslan II](/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_II "Kilij Arslan II") at Melitene, and held cordial talks with him.
### Death
He died at the monastery of Bar Sauma on 7 November 1199 at the age of seventy\-two, having been patriarch for thirty\-three years. He was buried in a new church he had built between 1180 and 1193 in front of the northern altar.{{sfn\|Kaufhold\|2000\|pp\=225\-226}} His nephew, Michael the Younger, known as Yeshti' Sephethana \[Syriac ܝܸܫܬ݂' ܣܸܦܗܸܬܗܲܢܲ] or "Big\-lips", became anti\-patriarch at Melitene from 1199 to 1215, in opposition to Athanasius IX and then John XIV.{{sfn\|Wright\|1894\|p\=250}}
|
[
"Life\n----",
"### Early years",
"The life of Michael is recorded by [Bar Hebraeus](/wiki/Bar_Hebraeus \"Bar Hebraeus\"). He was born ca. 1126 in [Melitene](/wiki/Melitene \"Melitene\") (today Malatya), the son of the Priest Eliya (Elias), of the Qindasi family. His uncle, the monk Athanasius, became bishop of [Anazarbus](/wiki/Anazarbus \"Anazarbus\") in [Cilicia](/wiki/Cilicia \"Cilicia\") in 1136\\.{{sfn\\|Wright\\|1894\\|p\\=250}}{{sfn\\|Harrak\\|2019\\|p\\=IX}} At that period Melitene was part of the kingdom of the Turkoman [Danishmend dynasty](/wiki/Danishmendids \"Danishmendids\"), and, when that realm was divided in two in 1142, it became the capital of one principality. In 1178 it became part of the [Sultanate of Rûm](/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm \"Sultanate of Rûm\").",
"The Jacobite [monastery of Mor Bar Sauma](/wiki/Monastery_of_Mor_Bar_Sauma \"Monastery of Mor Bar Sauma\") was close to the town, and had been the patriarchal seat since the 11th century. As a child, Michael entered the service of the monastery, and became [archimandrite](/wiki/Archimandrite \"Archimandrite\") before the age of thirty. He made various improvements to the abbey's infrastructure which include securing the abbey's water supply and strengthening of the Abbey's defenses against marauding bandits.",
"### Syriac Patriarch",
"On 18 October 1166 he was elected Patriarch of the Jacobite church, and consecrated in the presence of twenty\\-eight bishops. In 1168 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and then stayed for a year at Antioch. Both towns were at the time part of the Latin crusader states, and Michael established excellent relations with the crusader lords, especially with [Amaury de Nesle, Latin patriarch of Jerusalem](/wiki/Patriarch_Amalric_of_Jerusalem \"Patriarch Amalric of Jerusalem\"). Returning to the monastery of Mar Bar Sauma in the summer of 1169, he held a synod and attempted to reform the church, then tainted with [simony](/wiki/Simony \"Simony\").",
"The Byzantine emperor [Manuel I Comnenos](/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos \"Manuel I Komnenos\") made approaches to him to negotiate a reunion of the churches. But Michael did not trust the Greeks. He refused to go to Constantinople when invited by the emperor, and even refused twice, in 1170 and 1172, to meet his envoy Theorianus, instead sending as his own representative bishop John of Kaishoum and then his disciple Theodore bar Wahbun. In three successive letters to the emperor, he replied with a simple statement of the [miaphysite](/wiki/Miaphysitism \"Miaphysitism\") creed of the Jacobites.{{sfn\\|Wright\\|1894\\|p\\=252}}",
"Around 1174 Michael had to contend with a revolt by a party of bishops. He himself was twice arrested at the instigation of the dissident bishops, so he says; once by the servants of the prefect of Mardin and the second time by those of the emir of Mosul. Also the monks of Bar Sauma rebelled against him in 1171 and 1176\\.",
"Between 1178 and 1180 he resided again in the crusader states, at Antioch and Jerusalem. He was invited by Pope Alexander III to attend the [Third Council of the Lateran](/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran \"Third Council of the Lateran\"), but declined. However he did participate by letter, writing a long treatise on the [Albigensians](/wiki/Albigensians \"Albigensians\"), based on the information he had been given.",
"Michael was also involved in the Egyptian controversy over the doctrine of [confession](/wiki/Confession_%28religion%29 \"Confession (religion)\"), and supported [Pope Mark III of Alexandria](/wiki/Pope_Mark_III_of_Alexandria \"Pope Mark III of Alexandria\") in the excommunication of [Mark Ibn Kunbar](/wiki/Mark_Ibn_Kunbar \"Mark Ibn Kunbar\").{{Cite book\\|last\\=Abu Salih the Armenian\\|title\\=The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and Some Neighbouring Countries\\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press\\|year\\=1895\\|pages\\=30\\|asin\\=B00QH2BQLW}}",
"### Schism",
"In 1180 his former pupil [Theodore bar Wahbun](/wiki/Theodore_bar_Wahbun \"Theodore bar Wahbun\") had himself elected patriarch at Amida under the name of John by certain malcontent bishops, beginning a schism which lasted for thirteen years. Michael took energetic action, got hold of the anti\\-patriarch and locked him up at Bar Sauma and formally deposed him. Some of monks allowed Ibn Wahbon to escape, who fled to Damascus and tried in vain to appeal to [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\"). He then went to Jerusalem, and, after the fall of the city in 1187, went to [Rumkale](/wiki/Rumkale \"Rumkale\") with the Armenian Catholicos [Gregory IV](/wiki/Gregory_IV_the_Young \"Gregory IV the Young\"), who allowed him to obtain official recognition from Prince Leo II of [Armenian Minor](/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia \"Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia\"). Theodore had many supporters, and the schism did not end until the death of Theodore in the summer of 1193\\. According to Bar Hebraeus Theodore could write and speak in Syriac, Greek, Armenian and Arabic, and composed a statement of his case against Michael in Arabic.{{sfn\\|Wright\\|1894\\|p\\=254}}",
"In 1182, Michael received the sultan [Kilij Arslan II](/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_II \"Kilij Arslan II\") at Melitene, and held cordial talks with him.",
"### Death",
"He died at the monastery of Bar Sauma on 7 November 1199 at the age of seventy\\-two, having been patriarch for thirty\\-three years. He was buried in a new church he had built between 1180 and 1193 in front of the northern altar.{{sfn\\|Kaufhold\\|2000\\|pp\\=225\\-226}} His nephew, Michael the Younger, known as Yeshti' Sephethana \\[Syriac ܝܸܫܬ݂' ܣܸܦܗܸܬܗܲܢܲ] or \"Big\\-lips\", became anti\\-patriarch at Melitene from 1199 to 1215, in opposition to Athanasius IX and then John XIV.{{sfn\\|Wright\\|1894\\|p\\=250}}",
""
] |
Culture and society
-------------------
### Demographics
{{Blockquote\|text\=The people of Maguindanao are certainly known under one name, but consist of many different nations.\|author\=Sultan Barahaman in a letter written in 1693 to a Dutch governor in Ternate}}
At its peak, Maguindanao maintained a diverse mosaic of indigenous ethnicities and communities; besides the [Maguindanaon](/wiki/Maguindanao_people "Maguindanao people") themselves, under various forms of [vassalage](/wiki/Vassal "Vassal") were [Iranun](/wiki/Iranun_people "Iranun people") (including [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_people "Maranao people")), [Sama\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau "Sama-Bajau"), [Subanon](/wiki/Subanon_people "Subanon people"), [Sarangani](/wiki/Sarangani_language "Sarangani language"), and [Kalagan](/wiki/Kalagan_people "Kalagan people") peoples, while in more mutual yet interdependent trade\-based relationships were highlander [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people "Teduray people") and [Manobos](/wiki/Manobos "Manobos").{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=42–48 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Maguindanao
#### Iranun
The [Iranun peoples](/wiki/Iranun_people "Iranun people") settled along the coasts of the entire [Illana Bay](/wiki/Illana_Bay "Illana Bay"), including the [Pulangi](/wiki/Pulangi_River "Pulangi River") and [Simuay](/wiki/Simuay_River "Simuay River") deltas and [Polloc harbor](/wiki/Polloc_Harbor "Polloc Harbor"), and further inland along the shore of [Lake Lanao](/wiki/Lake_Lanao "Lake Lanao") as [Maranaos](/wiki/Maranao_people "Maranao people"). Although they were autonomously led by their [datus](/wiki/Datu "Datu"), they were vassals of the Sultan from paying tributes and formal acknowledgements. During Barahaman's reign, their population was estimated to be around 90,000\-100,000\.
Alongside the Bajaus, they were the most important allies of the Maguindanao; the sultanate heavily depended on their vast manpower to maintain the status quo throughout the region. Paradoxically, however, they were also perceived by Maguindanao royalty as the least trustworthy of all groups; they were apparently notorious for rogue activities, and several punitive expeditions were made to quell minor Iranun uprisings. European traders were sometimes advised to sail south of the predominantly Iranun Polloc area into the Simuay River if heading towards the capital for safety, and were denied permanent [trading posts](/wiki/Trading_post "Trading post") for the same reason.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=42–44 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Sama\-Bajau
The [Sama\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau "Sama-Bajau"), or simply Badjaos, of Maguindanao were primarily based around the Simuay delta, though they were [nomads](/wiki/Nomad "Nomad") who lived on the [shorelines](/wiki/Shore "Shore") and did not live in permanent settlements like the Iranun; additionally, they were particularly barred from living within the capital itself, though nearby.
Small in numbers, they were typically [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman "Fisherman") who supplied sea produce for trading vessels and Maguindaon land dwellers, sometimes sailing as far as the [Tomini Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tomini "Gulf of Tomini") for catches. However, they were also called upon for a variety of other jobs ranging from supplying boats, joining [slave raiding expeditions](/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas "Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas"), and as boat rowing entourage for royalty and other esteemed officials alongside more dangerous jobs as the Sultan's envoys, interpreters, tribute collection from the coastal settlements, and as river guardians.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=44–45 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Subanon
The [Subanon peoples](/wiki/Subanon_people "Subanon people") of the Zamboanga peninsula were also vassals of the sultanate. Aside from offering manpower, they were entrusted with two main roles: production and trade of local [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon "Cinnamon") (*Cinnamomum mindanaense*) and maintaining storage networks for the Maguindanao's hardware, especially cannons.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=45 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Tiruray
The [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people "Teduray people") of the southern [Tiruray Highlands](/wiki/Tiruray_Highlands "Tiruray Highlands") and its coast held a mutual but interdependent position with the sultanate largely defined by trade. [Trade pacts](/wiki/Trade_agreement "Trade agreement") were established between Magindanaon datus and Tiruray neighborhoods through *seketas teel* ("cutting rattan together"). They largely traded forest and some agricultural produce like wax, tobacco, as well as manpower.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=46 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Manobo
[Manobos](/wiki/Manobos "Manobos") comprise a variety of different highland peoples in the northern and western mountains surrounding the Cotabato Basin, and like the Tirurays, held largely mutual trade relationships with the sultanate. Manobo territories were outside the margins of any Maguindanao control and considered too dangerous. Consequently, trade activity was restricted to only between them and the royal family and principal datus. They mostly traded gold for clothing.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=47 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Sarangani
Since its capture in 1625, the people of the [Sarangani islands](/wiki/Sarangani_Islands "Sarangani Islands") were subjugated by Maguindanao through various enforced trade policies in that area, and may be considered slaves of the sultanate than merely subjects.
Aside from serving as the Sultan's primary warehouse, Kudarat restricted their trading activities with foreigners through his personal permission for a license, except for several Chinese in wax trading. The islands' crossroads position served various professions for the sultanate, from ship repair, agricultural produce, wood, water, and manpower.
#### Kalagan
Otherwise known in historical accounts as simply peoples of the [Davao Gulf](/wiki/Davao_Gulf "Davao Gulf") area, [Kalagans](/wiki/Kalagan_people "Kalagan people") were also subject to similar protectionist trade restrictions by Maguindanao since Kudarat's reign. Maguindanao since shared control of the area with Kandahar ([Sangir](/wiki/Sangirese_people "Sangirese people")) until usurpation by the former during Sultan Barahaman's rule.
Probably only the town of present\-day Davao and nearby settlements were subjugated and paid tribute. Like Sarangani, they offered manpower and agricultural and forest goods.
Kalangan, another settlement elsewhere in the region, had its own tributaries inland and did not pay tribute to Maguindanao, but provided food and traded wax and lower prices for visiting Maguindanaon traders.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=48 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
|
[
"Culture and society\n-------------------",
"### Demographics",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=The people of Maguindanao are certainly known under one name, but consist of many different nations.\\|author\\=Sultan Barahaman in a letter written in 1693 to a Dutch governor in Ternate}}\nAt its peak, Maguindanao maintained a diverse mosaic of indigenous ethnicities and communities; besides the [Maguindanaon](/wiki/Maguindanao_people \"Maguindanao people\") themselves, under various forms of [vassalage](/wiki/Vassal \"Vassal\") were [Iranun](/wiki/Iranun_people \"Iranun people\") (including [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_people \"Maranao people\")), [Sama\\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau \"Sama-Bajau\"), [Subanon](/wiki/Subanon_people \"Subanon people\"), [Sarangani](/wiki/Sarangani_language \"Sarangani language\"), and [Kalagan](/wiki/Kalagan_people \"Kalagan people\") peoples, while in more mutual yet interdependent trade\\-based relationships were highlander [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people \"Teduray people\") and [Manobos](/wiki/Manobos \"Manobos\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=42–48 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Maguindanao",
"#### Iranun",
"The [Iranun peoples](/wiki/Iranun_people \"Iranun people\") settled along the coasts of the entire [Illana Bay](/wiki/Illana_Bay \"Illana Bay\"), including the [Pulangi](/wiki/Pulangi_River \"Pulangi River\") and [Simuay](/wiki/Simuay_River \"Simuay River\") deltas and [Polloc harbor](/wiki/Polloc_Harbor \"Polloc Harbor\"), and further inland along the shore of [Lake Lanao](/wiki/Lake_Lanao \"Lake Lanao\") as [Maranaos](/wiki/Maranao_people \"Maranao people\"). Although they were autonomously led by their [datus](/wiki/Datu \"Datu\"), they were vassals of the Sultan from paying tributes and formal acknowledgements. During Barahaman's reign, their population was estimated to be around 90,000\\-100,000\\.",
"Alongside the Bajaus, they were the most important allies of the Maguindanao; the sultanate heavily depended on their vast manpower to maintain the status quo throughout the region. Paradoxically, however, they were also perceived by Maguindanao royalty as the least trustworthy of all groups; they were apparently notorious for rogue activities, and several punitive expeditions were made to quell minor Iranun uprisings. European traders were sometimes advised to sail south of the predominantly Iranun Polloc area into the Simuay River if heading towards the capital for safety, and were denied permanent [trading posts](/wiki/Trading_post \"Trading post\") for the same reason.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=42–44 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Sama\\-Bajau",
"The [Sama\\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau \"Sama-Bajau\"), or simply Badjaos, of Maguindanao were primarily based around the Simuay delta, though they were [nomads](/wiki/Nomad \"Nomad\") who lived on the [shorelines](/wiki/Shore \"Shore\") and did not live in permanent settlements like the Iranun; additionally, they were particularly barred from living within the capital itself, though nearby.",
"Small in numbers, they were typically [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman \"Fisherman\") who supplied sea produce for trading vessels and Maguindaon land dwellers, sometimes sailing as far as the [Tomini Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tomini \"Gulf of Tomini\") for catches. However, they were also called upon for a variety of other jobs ranging from supplying boats, joining [slave raiding expeditions](/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas \"Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas\"), and as boat rowing entourage for royalty and other esteemed officials alongside more dangerous jobs as the Sultan's envoys, interpreters, tribute collection from the coastal settlements, and as river guardians.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=44–45 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Subanon",
"The [Subanon peoples](/wiki/Subanon_people \"Subanon people\") of the Zamboanga peninsula were also vassals of the sultanate. Aside from offering manpower, they were entrusted with two main roles: production and trade of local [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon \"Cinnamon\") (*Cinnamomum mindanaense*) and maintaining storage networks for the Maguindanao's hardware, especially cannons.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=45 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Tiruray",
"The [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people \"Teduray people\") of the southern [Tiruray Highlands](/wiki/Tiruray_Highlands \"Tiruray Highlands\") and its coast held a mutual but interdependent position with the sultanate largely defined by trade. [Trade pacts](/wiki/Trade_agreement \"Trade agreement\") were established between Magindanaon datus and Tiruray neighborhoods through *seketas teel* (\"cutting rattan together\"). They largely traded forest and some agricultural produce like wax, tobacco, as well as manpower.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=46 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Manobo",
"[Manobos](/wiki/Manobos \"Manobos\") comprise a variety of different highland peoples in the northern and western mountains surrounding the Cotabato Basin, and like the Tirurays, held largely mutual trade relationships with the sultanate. Manobo territories were outside the margins of any Maguindanao control and considered too dangerous. Consequently, trade activity was restricted to only between them and the royal family and principal datus. They mostly traded gold for clothing.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=47 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Sarangani",
"Since its capture in 1625, the people of the [Sarangani islands](/wiki/Sarangani_Islands \"Sarangani Islands\") were subjugated by Maguindanao through various enforced trade policies in that area, and may be considered slaves of the sultanate than merely subjects.",
"Aside from serving as the Sultan's primary warehouse, Kudarat restricted their trading activities with foreigners through his personal permission for a license, except for several Chinese in wax trading. The islands' crossroads position served various professions for the sultanate, from ship repair, agricultural produce, wood, water, and manpower.",
"#### Kalagan",
"Otherwise known in historical accounts as simply peoples of the [Davao Gulf](/wiki/Davao_Gulf \"Davao Gulf\") area, [Kalagans](/wiki/Kalagan_people \"Kalagan people\") were also subject to similar protectionist trade restrictions by Maguindanao since Kudarat's reign. Maguindanao since shared control of the area with Kandahar ([Sangir](/wiki/Sangirese_people \"Sangirese people\")) until usurpation by the former during Sultan Barahaman's rule.",
"Probably only the town of present\\-day Davao and nearby settlements were subjugated and paid tribute. Like Sarangani, they offered manpower and agricultural and forest goods.",
"Kalangan, another settlement elsewhere in the region, had its own tributaries inland and did not pay tribute to Maguindanao, but provided food and traded wax and lower prices for visiting Maguindanaon traders.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=48 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
""
] |
### Demographics
{{Blockquote\|text\=The people of Maguindanao are certainly known under one name, but consist of many different nations.\|author\=Sultan Barahaman in a letter written in 1693 to a Dutch governor in Ternate}}
At its peak, Maguindanao maintained a diverse mosaic of indigenous ethnicities and communities; besides the [Maguindanaon](/wiki/Maguindanao_people "Maguindanao people") themselves, under various forms of [vassalage](/wiki/Vassal "Vassal") were [Iranun](/wiki/Iranun_people "Iranun people") (including [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_people "Maranao people")), [Sama\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau "Sama-Bajau"), [Subanon](/wiki/Subanon_people "Subanon people"), [Sarangani](/wiki/Sarangani_language "Sarangani language"), and [Kalagan](/wiki/Kalagan_people "Kalagan people") peoples, while in more mutual yet interdependent trade\-based relationships were highlander [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people "Teduray people") and [Manobos](/wiki/Manobos "Manobos").{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=42–48 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Maguindanao
#### Iranun
The [Iranun peoples](/wiki/Iranun_people "Iranun people") settled along the coasts of the entire [Illana Bay](/wiki/Illana_Bay "Illana Bay"), including the [Pulangi](/wiki/Pulangi_River "Pulangi River") and [Simuay](/wiki/Simuay_River "Simuay River") deltas and [Polloc harbor](/wiki/Polloc_Harbor "Polloc Harbor"), and further inland along the shore of [Lake Lanao](/wiki/Lake_Lanao "Lake Lanao") as [Maranaos](/wiki/Maranao_people "Maranao people"). Although they were autonomously led by their [datus](/wiki/Datu "Datu"), they were vassals of the Sultan from paying tributes and formal acknowledgements. During Barahaman's reign, their population was estimated to be around 90,000\-100,000\.
Alongside the Bajaus, they were the most important allies of the Maguindanao; the sultanate heavily depended on their vast manpower to maintain the status quo throughout the region. Paradoxically, however, they were also perceived by Maguindanao royalty as the least trustworthy of all groups; they were apparently notorious for rogue activities, and several punitive expeditions were made to quell minor Iranun uprisings. European traders were sometimes advised to sail south of the predominantly Iranun Polloc area into the Simuay River if heading towards the capital for safety, and were denied permanent [trading posts](/wiki/Trading_post "Trading post") for the same reason.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=42–44 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Sama\-Bajau
The [Sama\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau "Sama-Bajau"), or simply Badjaos, of Maguindanao were primarily based around the Simuay delta, though they were [nomads](/wiki/Nomad "Nomad") who lived on the [shorelines](/wiki/Shore "Shore") and did not live in permanent settlements like the Iranun; additionally, they were particularly barred from living within the capital itself, though nearby.
Small in numbers, they were typically [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman "Fisherman") who supplied sea produce for trading vessels and Maguindaon land dwellers, sometimes sailing as far as the [Tomini Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tomini "Gulf of Tomini") for catches. However, they were also called upon for a variety of other jobs ranging from supplying boats, joining [slave raiding expeditions](/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas "Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas"), and as boat rowing entourage for royalty and other esteemed officials alongside more dangerous jobs as the Sultan's envoys, interpreters, tribute collection from the coastal settlements, and as river guardians.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=44–45 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Subanon
The [Subanon peoples](/wiki/Subanon_people "Subanon people") of the Zamboanga peninsula were also vassals of the sultanate. Aside from offering manpower, they were entrusted with two main roles: production and trade of local [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon "Cinnamon") (*Cinnamomum mindanaense*) and maintaining storage networks for the Maguindanao's hardware, especially cannons.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=45 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Tiruray
The [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people "Teduray people") of the southern [Tiruray Highlands](/wiki/Tiruray_Highlands "Tiruray Highlands") and its coast held a mutual but interdependent position with the sultanate largely defined by trade. [Trade pacts](/wiki/Trade_agreement "Trade agreement") were established between Magindanaon datus and Tiruray neighborhoods through *seketas teel* ("cutting rattan together"). They largely traded forest and some agricultural produce like wax, tobacco, as well as manpower.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=46 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Manobo
[Manobos](/wiki/Manobos "Manobos") comprise a variety of different highland peoples in the northern and western mountains surrounding the Cotabato Basin, and like the Tirurays, held largely mutual trade relationships with the sultanate. Manobo territories were outside the margins of any Maguindanao control and considered too dangerous. Consequently, trade activity was restricted to only between them and the royal family and principal datus. They mostly traded gold for clothing.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=47 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
#### Sarangani
Since its capture in 1625, the people of the [Sarangani islands](/wiki/Sarangani_Islands "Sarangani Islands") were subjugated by Maguindanao through various enforced trade policies in that area, and may be considered slaves of the sultanate than merely subjects.
Aside from serving as the Sultan's primary warehouse, Kudarat restricted their trading activities with foreigners through his personal permission for a license, except for several Chinese in wax trading. The islands' crossroads position served various professions for the sultanate, from ship repair, agricultural produce, wood, water, and manpower.
#### Kalagan
Otherwise known in historical accounts as simply peoples of the [Davao Gulf](/wiki/Davao_Gulf "Davao Gulf") area, [Kalagans](/wiki/Kalagan_people "Kalagan people") were also subject to similar protectionist trade restrictions by Maguindanao since Kudarat's reign. Maguindanao since shared control of the area with Kandahar ([Sangir](/wiki/Sangirese_people "Sangirese people")) until usurpation by the former during Sultan Barahaman's rule.
Probably only the town of present\-day Davao and nearby settlements were subjugated and paid tribute. Like Sarangani, they offered manpower and agricultural and forest goods.
Kalangan, another settlement elsewhere in the region, had its own tributaries inland and did not pay tribute to Maguindanao, but provided food and traded wax and lower prices for visiting Maguindanaon traders.{{Cite journal \|last\=Laarhoven \|first\=Ruurdje \|date\=1986 \|title\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \|journal\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=48 \|jstor\=29791876 \|issn\=0115\-0243}}
|
[
"### Demographics",
"{{Blockquote\\|text\\=The people of Maguindanao are certainly known under one name, but consist of many different nations.\\|author\\=Sultan Barahaman in a letter written in 1693 to a Dutch governor in Ternate}}\nAt its peak, Maguindanao maintained a diverse mosaic of indigenous ethnicities and communities; besides the [Maguindanaon](/wiki/Maguindanao_people \"Maguindanao people\") themselves, under various forms of [vassalage](/wiki/Vassal \"Vassal\") were [Iranun](/wiki/Iranun_people \"Iranun people\") (including [Maranao](/wiki/Maranao_people \"Maranao people\")), [Sama\\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau \"Sama-Bajau\"), [Subanon](/wiki/Subanon_people \"Subanon people\"), [Sarangani](/wiki/Sarangani_language \"Sarangani language\"), and [Kalagan](/wiki/Kalagan_people \"Kalagan people\") peoples, while in more mutual yet interdependent trade\\-based relationships were highlander [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people \"Teduray people\") and [Manobos](/wiki/Manobos \"Manobos\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=42–48 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Maguindanao",
"#### Iranun",
"The [Iranun peoples](/wiki/Iranun_people \"Iranun people\") settled along the coasts of the entire [Illana Bay](/wiki/Illana_Bay \"Illana Bay\"), including the [Pulangi](/wiki/Pulangi_River \"Pulangi River\") and [Simuay](/wiki/Simuay_River \"Simuay River\") deltas and [Polloc harbor](/wiki/Polloc_Harbor \"Polloc Harbor\"), and further inland along the shore of [Lake Lanao](/wiki/Lake_Lanao \"Lake Lanao\") as [Maranaos](/wiki/Maranao_people \"Maranao people\"). Although they were autonomously led by their [datus](/wiki/Datu \"Datu\"), they were vassals of the Sultan from paying tributes and formal acknowledgements. During Barahaman's reign, their population was estimated to be around 90,000\\-100,000\\.",
"Alongside the Bajaus, they were the most important allies of the Maguindanao; the sultanate heavily depended on their vast manpower to maintain the status quo throughout the region. Paradoxically, however, they were also perceived by Maguindanao royalty as the least trustworthy of all groups; they were apparently notorious for rogue activities, and several punitive expeditions were made to quell minor Iranun uprisings. European traders were sometimes advised to sail south of the predominantly Iranun Polloc area into the Simuay River if heading towards the capital for safety, and were denied permanent [trading posts](/wiki/Trading_post \"Trading post\") for the same reason.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=42–44 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Sama\\-Bajau",
"The [Sama\\-Bajau](/wiki/Sama-Bajau \"Sama-Bajau\"), or simply Badjaos, of Maguindanao were primarily based around the Simuay delta, though they were [nomads](/wiki/Nomad \"Nomad\") who lived on the [shorelines](/wiki/Shore \"Shore\") and did not live in permanent settlements like the Iranun; additionally, they were particularly barred from living within the capital itself, though nearby.",
"Small in numbers, they were typically [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman \"Fisherman\") who supplied sea produce for trading vessels and Maguindaon land dwellers, sometimes sailing as far as the [Tomini Gulf](/wiki/Gulf_of_Tomini \"Gulf of Tomini\") for catches. However, they were also called upon for a variety of other jobs ranging from supplying boats, joining [slave raiding expeditions](/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_and_Celebes_Seas \"Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas\"), and as boat rowing entourage for royalty and other esteemed officials alongside more dangerous jobs as the Sultan's envoys, interpreters, tribute collection from the coastal settlements, and as river guardians.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=44–45 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Subanon",
"The [Subanon peoples](/wiki/Subanon_people \"Subanon people\") of the Zamboanga peninsula were also vassals of the sultanate. Aside from offering manpower, they were entrusted with two main roles: production and trade of local [cinnamon](/wiki/Cinnamon \"Cinnamon\") (*Cinnamomum mindanaense*) and maintaining storage networks for the Maguindanao's hardware, especially cannons.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=45 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Tiruray",
"The [Tirurays](/wiki/Teduray_people \"Teduray people\") of the southern [Tiruray Highlands](/wiki/Tiruray_Highlands \"Tiruray Highlands\") and its coast held a mutual but interdependent position with the sultanate largely defined by trade. [Trade pacts](/wiki/Trade_agreement \"Trade agreement\") were established between Magindanaon datus and Tiruray neighborhoods through *seketas teel* (\"cutting rattan together\"). They largely traded forest and some agricultural produce like wax, tobacco, as well as manpower.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=46 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Manobo",
"[Manobos](/wiki/Manobos \"Manobos\") comprise a variety of different highland peoples in the northern and western mountains surrounding the Cotabato Basin, and like the Tirurays, held largely mutual trade relationships with the sultanate. Manobo territories were outside the margins of any Maguindanao control and considered too dangerous. Consequently, trade activity was restricted to only between them and the royal family and principal datus. They mostly traded gold for clothing.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=47 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
"#### Sarangani",
"Since its capture in 1625, the people of the [Sarangani islands](/wiki/Sarangani_Islands \"Sarangani Islands\") were subjugated by Maguindanao through various enforced trade policies in that area, and may be considered slaves of the sultanate than merely subjects.",
"Aside from serving as the Sultan's primary warehouse, Kudarat restricted their trading activities with foreigners through his personal permission for a license, except for several Chinese in wax trading. The islands' crossroads position served various professions for the sultanate, from ship repair, agricultural produce, wood, water, and manpower.",
"#### Kalagan",
"Otherwise known in historical accounts as simply peoples of the [Davao Gulf](/wiki/Davao_Gulf \"Davao Gulf\") area, [Kalagans](/wiki/Kalagan_people \"Kalagan people\") were also subject to similar protectionist trade restrictions by Maguindanao since Kudarat's reign. Maguindanao since shared control of the area with Kandahar ([Sangir](/wiki/Sangirese_people \"Sangirese people\")) until usurpation by the former during Sultan Barahaman's rule.",
"Probably only the town of present\\-day Davao and nearby settlements were subjugated and paid tribute. Like Sarangani, they offered manpower and agricultural and forest goods.",
"Kalangan, another settlement elsewhere in the region, had its own tributaries inland and did not pay tribute to Maguindanao, but provided food and traded wax and lower prices for visiting Maguindanaon traders.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Laarhoven \\|first\\=Ruurdje \\|date\\=1986 \\|title\\=We Are Many Nations: The Emergence of a Multi\\-Ethnic Maguindanao Sultanate \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791876 \\|journal\\=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=48 \\|jstor\\=29791876 \\|issn\\=0115\\-0243}}",
""
] |
Rules and Scoring
-----------------
As the format and rules differ significantly for the junior high and high school levels, each is discussed separately below.
### Junior High Level
The test consists of 50 questions, which must be completed in 45 minutes. A time warning is given at 30 minutes. At the stop signal, incomplete answers cannot be completed. Calculators are not allowed.
The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.
Scoring is five points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored.
### High School Level
At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions, which must be completed in two hours. The first 20 questions involve biology, the second twenty questions involve chemistry, and the final twenty questions involve physics. No time warning is given, except that tests cannot be turned in until the proctor announces that 30 minutes have passed.
The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.
Questions must be answered to the proper number of significant digits, with "small variation" in the final significant digit acceptable.
The test booklet includes a [periodic table of the elements](/wiki/Periodic_table_of_the_elements "Periodic table of the elements"), including [atomic weights](/wiki/Atomic_weight "Atomic weight") and [atomic numbers](/wiki/Atomic_number "Atomic number"), plus other scientific relationships, such as the vacuum speed of light or the gravitational constant, which may be used by the student.
Scratch paper is allowed in the contest, and notations may be made anywhere except on the answer sheet. Students may bring one calculator plus one spare, so long as it does not need external power. Hand\-held computers are not allowed, nor are any calculators with factory\-installed memory or with the ability to accept memory cards or memory sticks.
Scoring is six points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored. In addition to the total score, each subsection (biology, chemistry, and physics) is scored separately.
|
[
"Rules and Scoring\n-----------------",
"As the format and rules differ significantly for the junior high and high school levels, each is discussed separately below.",
"### Junior High Level",
"The test consists of 50 questions, which must be completed in 45 minutes. A time warning is given at 30 minutes. At the stop signal, incomplete answers cannot be completed. Calculators are not allowed.",
"The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.",
"Scoring is five points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored.",
"### High School Level",
"At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions, which must be completed in two hours. The first 20 questions involve biology, the second twenty questions involve chemistry, and the final twenty questions involve physics. No time warning is given, except that tests cannot be turned in until the proctor announces that 30 minutes have passed.",
"The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.",
"Questions must be answered to the proper number of significant digits, with \"small variation\" in the final significant digit acceptable.",
"The test booklet includes a [periodic table of the elements](/wiki/Periodic_table_of_the_elements \"Periodic table of the elements\"), including [atomic weights](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\") and [atomic numbers](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\"), plus other scientific relationships, such as the vacuum speed of light or the gravitational constant, which may be used by the student.",
"Scratch paper is allowed in the contest, and notations may be made anywhere except on the answer sheet. Students may bring one calculator plus one spare, so long as it does not need external power. Hand\\-held computers are not allowed, nor are any calculators with factory\\-installed memory or with the ability to accept memory cards or memory sticks.",
"Scoring is six points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored. In addition to the total score, each subsection (biology, chemistry, and physics) is scored separately.",
""
] |
### High School Level
At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions, which must be completed in two hours. The first 20 questions involve biology, the second twenty questions involve chemistry, and the final twenty questions involve physics. No time warning is given, except that tests cannot be turned in until the proctor announces that 30 minutes have passed.
The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.
Questions must be answered to the proper number of significant digits, with "small variation" in the final significant digit acceptable.
The test booklet includes a [periodic table of the elements](/wiki/Periodic_table_of_the_elements "Periodic table of the elements"), including [atomic weights](/wiki/Atomic_weight "Atomic weight") and [atomic numbers](/wiki/Atomic_number "Atomic number"), plus other scientific relationships, such as the vacuum speed of light or the gravitational constant, which may be used by the student.
Scratch paper is allowed in the contest, and notations may be made anywhere except on the answer sheet. Students may bring one calculator plus one spare, so long as it does not need external power. Hand\-held computers are not allowed, nor are any calculators with factory\-installed memory or with the ability to accept memory cards or memory sticks.
Scoring is six points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored. In addition to the total score, each subsection (biology, chemistry, and physics) is scored separately.
|
[
"### High School Level",
"At the high school level, the test consists of 60 questions, which must be completed in two hours. The first 20 questions involve biology, the second twenty questions involve chemistry, and the final twenty questions involve physics. No time warning is given, except that tests cannot be turned in until the proctor announces that 30 minutes have passed.",
"The questions may be answered in any order; there is no penalty for skipping questions.",
"Questions must be answered to the proper number of significant digits, with \"small variation\" in the final significant digit acceptable.",
"The test booklet includes a [periodic table of the elements](/wiki/Periodic_table_of_the_elements \"Periodic table of the elements\"), including [atomic weights](/wiki/Atomic_weight \"Atomic weight\") and [atomic numbers](/wiki/Atomic_number \"Atomic number\"), plus other scientific relationships, such as the vacuum speed of light or the gravitational constant, which may be used by the student.",
"Scratch paper is allowed in the contest, and notations may be made anywhere except on the answer sheet. Students may bring one calculator plus one spare, so long as it does not need external power. Hand\\-held computers are not allowed, nor are any calculators with factory\\-installed memory or with the ability to accept memory cards or memory sticks.",
"Scoring is six points for each correct answer, and two points deducted for each incorrect answer. Unanswered questions are not scored. In addition to the total score, each subsection (biology, chemistry, and physics) is scored separately.",
""
] |
Determining the Winner
----------------------
### Junior High
Scoring is posted for only the top six individual places and the top three teams.
There are no tiebreakers for either individual or team competition.
### High School Level
The top three individuals and the top team (determined based on the scores of the top three individuals) will advance to the next round. In addition, within each region, the highest\-scoring second place team from all district competitions advances as the "wild card" to regional competition (provided the team has four members), and within the state, the highest\-scoring second place team from all regional competitions advances as the wild card to the state competition. Members of advancing teams who did not place individually remain eligible to compete for individual awards at higher levels. Furthermore, the individuals with the top score in each subsection will also advance even if the individual was not one of the top three overall scorers or the top team.
For individual competition (overall and for each subsection), the tiebreaker is percent accuracy (number of problems answered correctly divided by number of problems attempted, defined as any question with a mark or erasure in the answer blank). In the event a tie remains, all remaining individuals will advance.
For team competition, the score of the fourth\-place individual is used as the tiebreaker. If a team has only three members it is not eligible to participate in the tiebreaker. If the fourth\-place score still results in a tie, the individual tiebreaker rules will not apply, and all remaining tied teams will advance. At the state level ties for first place are not broken.
For district meet academic championship and district meet sweepstakes awards, points are awarded to the school as follows:
* Individual places:
+ Overall score: 1st\-\-15, 2nd\-\-12, 3rd\-\-10, 4th\-\-8, 5th\-\-6, and 6th\-\-4\.
+ In addition, the school with the top scorer in a subsection receives 3 points. A school can earn multiple subsection points even if the same student is the top scorer in two, or all three, of the subsections.
* Team places: 1st\-\-10 and 2nd\-\-5\.
* The maximum number of points a school can earn in Science is 42\.
The student with the most wins in the history of the competition is Kieran Fitzgerald from Friendswood High School, who achieved the highest score in any division three years in a row: 2003\-2004, 2004\-2005, and 2005\-2006\.
|
[
"Determining the Winner\n----------------------",
"### Junior High",
"Scoring is posted for only the top six individual places and the top three teams.",
"There are no tiebreakers for either individual or team competition.",
"### High School Level",
"The top three individuals and the top team (determined based on the scores of the top three individuals) will advance to the next round. In addition, within each region, the highest\\-scoring second place team from all district competitions advances as the \"wild card\" to regional competition (provided the team has four members), and within the state, the highest\\-scoring second place team from all regional competitions advances as the wild card to the state competition. Members of advancing teams who did not place individually remain eligible to compete for individual awards at higher levels. Furthermore, the individuals with the top score in each subsection will also advance even if the individual was not one of the top three overall scorers or the top team.",
"For individual competition (overall and for each subsection), the tiebreaker is percent accuracy (number of problems answered correctly divided by number of problems attempted, defined as any question with a mark or erasure in the answer blank). In the event a tie remains, all remaining individuals will advance.",
"For team competition, the score of the fourth\\-place individual is used as the tiebreaker. If a team has only three members it is not eligible to participate in the tiebreaker. If the fourth\\-place score still results in a tie, the individual tiebreaker rules will not apply, and all remaining tied teams will advance. At the state level ties for first place are not broken.",
"For district meet academic championship and district meet sweepstakes awards, points are awarded to the school as follows:\n* Individual places:\n\t+ Overall score: 1st\\-\\-15, 2nd\\-\\-12, 3rd\\-\\-10, 4th\\-\\-8, 5th\\-\\-6, and 6th\\-\\-4\\.\n\t+ In addition, the school with the top scorer in a subsection receives 3 points. A school can earn multiple subsection points even if the same student is the top scorer in two, or all three, of the subsections.\n* Team places: 1st\\-\\-10 and 2nd\\-\\-5\\.\n* The maximum number of points a school can earn in Science is 42\\.",
"The student with the most wins in the history of the competition is Kieran Fitzgerald from Friendswood High School, who achieved the highest score in any division three years in a row: 2003\\-2004, 2004\\-2005, and 2005\\-2006\\.",
""
] |
### High School Level
The top three individuals and the top team (determined based on the scores of the top three individuals) will advance to the next round. In addition, within each region, the highest\-scoring second place team from all district competitions advances as the "wild card" to regional competition (provided the team has four members), and within the state, the highest\-scoring second place team from all regional competitions advances as the wild card to the state competition. Members of advancing teams who did not place individually remain eligible to compete for individual awards at higher levels. Furthermore, the individuals with the top score in each subsection will also advance even if the individual was not one of the top three overall scorers or the top team.
For individual competition (overall and for each subsection), the tiebreaker is percent accuracy (number of problems answered correctly divided by number of problems attempted, defined as any question with a mark or erasure in the answer blank). In the event a tie remains, all remaining individuals will advance.
For team competition, the score of the fourth\-place individual is used as the tiebreaker. If a team has only three members it is not eligible to participate in the tiebreaker. If the fourth\-place score still results in a tie, the individual tiebreaker rules will not apply, and all remaining tied teams will advance. At the state level ties for first place are not broken.
For district meet academic championship and district meet sweepstakes awards, points are awarded to the school as follows:
* Individual places:
+ Overall score: 1st\-\-15, 2nd\-\-12, 3rd\-\-10, 4th\-\-8, 5th\-\-6, and 6th\-\-4\.
+ In addition, the school with the top scorer in a subsection receives 3 points. A school can earn multiple subsection points even if the same student is the top scorer in two, or all three, of the subsections.
* Team places: 1st\-\-10 and 2nd\-\-5\.
* The maximum number of points a school can earn in Science is 42\.
The student with the most wins in the history of the competition is Kieran Fitzgerald from Friendswood High School, who achieved the highest score in any division three years in a row: 2003\-2004, 2004\-2005, and 2005\-2006\.
|
[
"### High School Level",
"The top three individuals and the top team (determined based on the scores of the top three individuals) will advance to the next round. In addition, within each region, the highest\\-scoring second place team from all district competitions advances as the \"wild card\" to regional competition (provided the team has four members), and within the state, the highest\\-scoring second place team from all regional competitions advances as the wild card to the state competition. Members of advancing teams who did not place individually remain eligible to compete for individual awards at higher levels. Furthermore, the individuals with the top score in each subsection will also advance even if the individual was not one of the top three overall scorers or the top team.",
"For individual competition (overall and for each subsection), the tiebreaker is percent accuracy (number of problems answered correctly divided by number of problems attempted, defined as any question with a mark or erasure in the answer blank). In the event a tie remains, all remaining individuals will advance.",
"For team competition, the score of the fourth\\-place individual is used as the tiebreaker. If a team has only three members it is not eligible to participate in the tiebreaker. If the fourth\\-place score still results in a tie, the individual tiebreaker rules will not apply, and all remaining tied teams will advance. At the state level ties for first place are not broken.",
"For district meet academic championship and district meet sweepstakes awards, points are awarded to the school as follows:\n* Individual places:\n\t+ Overall score: 1st\\-\\-15, 2nd\\-\\-12, 3rd\\-\\-10, 4th\\-\\-8, 5th\\-\\-6, and 6th\\-\\-4\\.\n\t+ In addition, the school with the top scorer in a subsection receives 3 points. A school can earn multiple subsection points even if the same student is the top scorer in two, or all three, of the subsections.\n* Team places: 1st\\-\\-10 and 2nd\\-\\-5\\.\n* The maximum number of points a school can earn in Science is 42\\.",
"The student with the most wins in the history of the competition is Kieran Fitzgerald from Friendswood High School, who achieved the highest score in any division three years in a row: 2003\\-2004, 2004\\-2005, and 2005\\-2006\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
In the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages"), the Lower Styrian lands were ruled by several [immediate](/wiki/Imperial_immediacy "Imperial immediacy") (*reichsfrei*) dynasties like the [Counts of Celje](/wiki/Counts_of_Celje "Counts of Celje"), whose large possessions were not incorporated by the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") dukes until the 15th century.
According to the last [Austro\-Hungarian](/wiki/Austria-Hungary "Austria-Hungary") census of 1910, Lower Styria had around 498,000 inhabitants, of which around 82% were Slovene and around 18% German speakers.Gregor Jenuš, *Ko je Maribor postal slovenski* (Maribor: znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut dr. Franca Kovačiča, 2011\), 81
In 1918, after the disintegration of the Austro\-Hungarian monarchy following [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the Duchy of Styria was divided between the newly established states of [German Austria](/wiki/German_Austria "German Austria") and the Yugoslav [State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs](/wiki/State_of_Slovenes%2C_Croats_and_Serbs "State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs"). In early November 1918, [Rudolf Maister](/wiki/Rudolf_Maister "Rudolf Maister"), a Slovene major of the former [Austro\-Hungarian Army](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army "Austro-Hungarian Army"), with about 4,000 local volunteers occupied Lower Styria and the town of Maribor and claimed it for Yugoslavia. After a short fight with German\-Austrian paramilitary units, the current border was established, acknowledged by the provisional Styrian assembly at [Graz](/wiki/Graz "Graz"). By December 1918, all of Lower Styria was *de facto* included in the [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Kingdom of Yugoslavia"). A protest by German\-speaking [Marburg](/wiki/Maribor "Maribor") citizens resulted in the [Marburg Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Marburg_Bloody_Sunday "Marburg Bloody Sunday"), when 13 people were killed and about 60 wounded.{{cite news \|title\=Jänner 1919: Der Bluttag von Marburg a. d. Drau \|url\=http://diepresse.com/home/politik/zeitgeschichte/448662/Jaenner\-1919\_Der\-Bluttag\-von\-Marburg\-a\-d\-Drau \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009174759/http://diepresse.com/home/politik/zeitgeschichte/448662/Jaenner\-1919\_Der\-Bluttag\-von\-Marburg\-a\-d\-Drau \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=March 10, 2021 \|work\=Die Presse \|date\=January 30, 2009 \|archive\-date\=October 9, 2012 \|quote\=Eine Salve nach der anderen feuerten die Soldaten in die nichtsahnende, wehr\- und waffenlose Volksmenge, .... 13 Tote und etwa 60 Verwundete...}}
Confirmed by the 1919 [Treaty of Saint\-Germain\-en\-Laye](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 "Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)"), the border between Yugoslav and Austrian Styria mostly followed the ethnic\-linguistic dividing line between [Slovenes](/wiki/Slovenes "Slovenes") and [ethnic Germans](/wiki/Ethnic_Germans "Ethnic Germans"). Nevertheless, several predominantly German\-speaking towns were annexed into Yugoslavia, such as [Maribor](/wiki/Maribor "Maribor") ({{lang\|de\|Marburg an der Drau}}) (80% German speakers), [Ptuj](/wiki/Ptuj "Ptuj") ({{lang\|de\|Pettau}}) (86%), and [Celje](/wiki/Celje "Celje") ({{lang\|de\|Cilli}}) (67%); in addition, the German\-speaking area around the village of [Apače](/wiki/Apa%C4%8De "Apače") ({{lang\|de\|Abstall}}) was annexed to Yugoslavia. According to the 1921 Yugoslav census, some 22,500 ethnic Germans lived in Yugoslav Lower Styria. They represented around 4\.5% of the overall population of the region, and around 57% of all ethnic Germans in Slovenia. In 1931, this number dropped to around 12,500 or 2\.3% of the regional population, and around 45% of all ethnic Germans in Slovenia.Dušan Nećak, *Die "Deutschen" in Slowenien (1918\-1955\): kurzer Abriß* (Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete, 1998\)Gregor Jenuš, *Ko je Maribor postal slovenski* (Maribor: znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut dr. Franca Kovačiča, 2011\), p 89\-90
In 1922, the County of Maribor was formed, comprising most of the territory of Slovene Styria, plus the [Prekmurje](/wiki/Prekmurje "Prekmurje") and the [Međimurje](/wiki/Me%C4%91imurje "Međimurje") regions. After the *[coup d'etat](/wiki/Coup_d%27etat "Coup d'etat")* of [King Alexander I of Yugoslavia](/wiki/King_Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia "King Alexander I of Yugoslavia") in January 1929, the counties were abolished and replaced with nine [Banates](/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Subdivisions of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia") ({{lang\-sl\|Banovina\|links\=no}}).
[Map of Yugoslav Banates](http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/178.gif) Following the reorganization implemented by the Yugoslav constitution of 1931, Slovene Styria was incorporated in the newly established [Drava Banovina](/wiki/Dravska_Banovina "Dravska Banovina"), which was more or less identical with Slovenia, with [Ljubljana](/wiki/Ljubljana "Ljubljana") as its capital city.
In April 1941, [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") [invaded Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia "Invasion of Yugoslavia") and Slovene Styria was annexed, becoming {{lang\|de\|\[\[Chief of Civil Administration\|CdZ]]\-Gebiet Untersteiermark}} under {{lang\|de\|\[\[Reichsgau Steiermark]]}}. A policy of violent Germanization was introduced. Public use of Slovene was prohibited, and all Slovene associations were dissolved. Members of all professional and intellectual groups, including many clergymen, were expelled. Between April 1941 and May 1942, around 80,000 Slovenes (almost 15% of the overall population) were expelled from Lower Styria, or resettled to other parts of the Reich. As a reaction, a [resistance movement](/wiki/Slovene_Partisans "Slovene Partisans") developed. Many areas of Lower Styria witnessed fierce fighting between German troops and Slovene partisan units.
After World War II, [Yugoslav](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia") authority over the region was established and Slovene Styria became an integral part of the [Socialist Republic of Slovenia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia "Socialist Republic of Slovenia"). According to prior decisions made by the [Anti\-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Anti-Fascist_Council_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_of_Yugoslavia "Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia"), an expulsion of the remaining ethnic German population was carried out, regardless of their links to the Nazi regime.
Between the 1950s and 1970s, many areas of the region underwent rapid industrialization. Towns like Maribor, Celje, and Velenje became among the most important industrial centers of Slovenia and Yugoslavia.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\"), the Lower Styrian lands were ruled by several [immediate](/wiki/Imperial_immediacy \"Imperial immediacy\") (*reichsfrei*) dynasties like the [Counts of Celje](/wiki/Counts_of_Celje \"Counts of Celje\"), whose large possessions were not incorporated by the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") dukes until the 15th century.",
"According to the last [Austro\\-Hungarian](/wiki/Austria-Hungary \"Austria-Hungary\") census of 1910, Lower Styria had around 498,000 inhabitants, of which around 82% were Slovene and around 18% German speakers.Gregor Jenuš, *Ko je Maribor postal slovenski* (Maribor: znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut dr. Franca Kovačiča, 2011\\), 81",
"In 1918, after the disintegration of the Austro\\-Hungarian monarchy following [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), the Duchy of Styria was divided between the newly established states of [German Austria](/wiki/German_Austria \"German Austria\") and the Yugoslav [State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs](/wiki/State_of_Slovenes%2C_Croats_and_Serbs \"State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs\"). In early November 1918, [Rudolf Maister](/wiki/Rudolf_Maister \"Rudolf Maister\"), a Slovene major of the former [Austro\\-Hungarian Army](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army \"Austro-Hungarian Army\"), with about 4,000 local volunteers occupied Lower Styria and the town of Maribor and claimed it for Yugoslavia. After a short fight with German\\-Austrian paramilitary units, the current border was established, acknowledged by the provisional Styrian assembly at [Graz](/wiki/Graz \"Graz\"). By December 1918, all of Lower Styria was *de facto* included in the [Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"). A protest by German\\-speaking [Marburg](/wiki/Maribor \"Maribor\") citizens resulted in the [Marburg Bloody Sunday](/wiki/Marburg_Bloody_Sunday \"Marburg Bloody Sunday\"), when 13 people were killed and about 60 wounded.{{cite news \\|title\\=Jänner 1919: Der Bluttag von Marburg a. d. Drau \\|url\\=http://diepresse.com/home/politik/zeitgeschichte/448662/Jaenner\\-1919\\_Der\\-Bluttag\\-von\\-Marburg\\-a\\-d\\-Drau \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009174759/http://diepresse.com/home/politik/zeitgeschichte/448662/Jaenner\\-1919\\_Der\\-Bluttag\\-von\\-Marburg\\-a\\-d\\-Drau \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=March 10, 2021 \\|work\\=Die Presse \\|date\\=January 30, 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2012 \\|quote\\=Eine Salve nach der anderen feuerten die Soldaten in die nichtsahnende, wehr\\- und waffenlose Volksmenge, .... 13 Tote und etwa 60 Verwundete...}}",
"Confirmed by the 1919 [Treaty of Saint\\-Germain\\-en\\-Laye](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 \"Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)\"), the border between Yugoslav and Austrian Styria mostly followed the ethnic\\-linguistic dividing line between [Slovenes](/wiki/Slovenes \"Slovenes\") and [ethnic Germans](/wiki/Ethnic_Germans \"Ethnic Germans\"). Nevertheless, several predominantly German\\-speaking towns were annexed into Yugoslavia, such as [Maribor](/wiki/Maribor \"Maribor\") ({{lang\\|de\\|Marburg an der Drau}}) (80% German speakers), [Ptuj](/wiki/Ptuj \"Ptuj\") ({{lang\\|de\\|Pettau}}) (86%), and [Celje](/wiki/Celje \"Celje\") ({{lang\\|de\\|Cilli}}) (67%); in addition, the German\\-speaking area around the village of [Apače](/wiki/Apa%C4%8De \"Apače\") ({{lang\\|de\\|Abstall}}) was annexed to Yugoslavia. According to the 1921 Yugoslav census, some 22,500 ethnic Germans lived in Yugoslav Lower Styria. They represented around 4\\.5% of the overall population of the region, and around 57% of all ethnic Germans in Slovenia. In 1931, this number dropped to around 12,500 or 2\\.3% of the regional population, and around 45% of all ethnic Germans in Slovenia.Dušan Nećak, *Die \"Deutschen\" in Slowenien (1918\\-1955\\): kurzer Abriß* (Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete, 1998\\)Gregor Jenuš, *Ko je Maribor postal slovenski* (Maribor: znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut dr. Franca Kovačiča, 2011\\), p 89\\-90",
"In 1922, the County of Maribor was formed, comprising most of the territory of Slovene Styria, plus the [Prekmurje](/wiki/Prekmurje \"Prekmurje\") and the [Međimurje](/wiki/Me%C4%91imurje \"Međimurje\") regions. After the *[coup d'etat](/wiki/Coup_d%27etat \"Coup d'etat\")* of [King Alexander I of Yugoslavia](/wiki/King_Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia \"King Alexander I of Yugoslavia\") in January 1929, the counties were abolished and replaced with nine [Banates](/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Subdivisions of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia\") ({{lang\\-sl\\|Banovina\\|links\\=no}}).\n[Map of Yugoslav Banates](http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/178.gif) Following the reorganization implemented by the Yugoslav constitution of 1931, Slovene Styria was incorporated in the newly established [Drava Banovina](/wiki/Dravska_Banovina \"Dravska Banovina\"), which was more or less identical with Slovenia, with [Ljubljana](/wiki/Ljubljana \"Ljubljana\") as its capital city.",
"In April 1941, [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") [invaded Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia \"Invasion of Yugoslavia\") and Slovene Styria was annexed, becoming {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Chief of Civil Administration\\|CdZ]]\\-Gebiet Untersteiermark}} under {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Reichsgau Steiermark]]}}. A policy of violent Germanization was introduced. Public use of Slovene was prohibited, and all Slovene associations were dissolved. Members of all professional and intellectual groups, including many clergymen, were expelled. Between April 1941 and May 1942, around 80,000 Slovenes (almost 15% of the overall population) were expelled from Lower Styria, or resettled to other parts of the Reich. As a reaction, a [resistance movement](/wiki/Slovene_Partisans \"Slovene Partisans\") developed. Many areas of Lower Styria witnessed fierce fighting between German troops and Slovene partisan units.",
"After World War II, [Yugoslav](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\") authority over the region was established and Slovene Styria became an integral part of the [Socialist Republic of Slovenia](/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Slovenia \"Socialist Republic of Slovenia\"). According to prior decisions made by the [Anti\\-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Anti-Fascist_Council_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_of_Yugoslavia \"Anti-Fascist Council of the People's Liberation of Yugoslavia\"), an expulsion of the remaining ethnic German population was carried out, regardless of their links to the Nazi regime.",
"Between the 1950s and 1970s, many areas of the region underwent rapid industrialization. Towns like Maribor, Celje, and Velenje became among the most important industrial centers of Slovenia and Yugoslavia.",
""
] |
Background
----------
In 1998, the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") recognized a growing cyber threat and in response created the Joint Task Force — Computer Network Defense (JTF\-CND), which achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) on 30 December 1998 and Full Operational Capability (FOC) by June 1999\.
In the fall of 2000, in accordance with [DoD](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense "United States Department of Defense") doctrine, JTF\-CND became the Joint Task Force — Computer Network Operations (JTF\-CNO). In October 2002, the new Unified Command Plan (UCP), Change 2, re\-aligned JTF\-CNO under the [United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM)](/wiki/STRATCOM "STRATCOM").
The JTF\-CNO began its largest and most comprehensive transformation in April 2004 when the Commander of [US Strategic Command](/wiki/STRATCOM "STRATCOM") approved the Joint Concept of Operations for [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid") Network Operations. This “NetOps CONOPS” provided the common framework and command and control structure to conduct the USSTRATCOM Unified Command Plan (UCP) \- assigned mission of Global Network Operations (NETOPS), combining the disciplines of Enterprise Systems (EM) and Network Management (NM), Computer Network Defense (CND), and Information Dissemination Management (IDM).
The [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") signed a delegation of authority letter on 18 June 2004, designating the Director, [DISA](/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency "Defense Information Systems Agency") as the new Commander of the [Joint Task Force\-Global Network Operations](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force-Global_Network_Operations "Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations"). With this designation, the new command assumed the responsibility for directing the operation and defense of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid").
This transformation enhanced the [JTF GNO's](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force-Global_Network_Operations "Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations") mission and objectives in achieving the Joint Vision 2020 Objective Force and the evolving concept of Net\-Centricity.
As new concepts such as [Network\-centric warfare](/wiki/Network-centric_warfare "Network-centric warfare") and Joint Vision 2010{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jv2010\.pdf \|title\=Joint Vision 2010 \|access\-date\=2008\-03\-29 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224220150/http://www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jv2010\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2016\-12\-24 \|url\-status\=dead }} arrived in the mid 1990s, it became clear that the center of gravity for U.S. military warfighting capability was shifting towards the network. A corresponding capability was required to move beyond managing the network as a back\-office system into a domain of warfighting.[Network\-Centric Warfare: Its Origin and Future, By Vice Admiral Arthur K. Cebrowski, U.S. Navy, and John J. Garstka, *Proceedings*, January 1998](http://www.oft.osd.mil/initiatives/ncw/docs/NCW_Origins_and_Future.doc)
NetOps was originally developed under the leadership of then [United States Pacific Command](/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Command "United States Pacific Command") J6 [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General "Brigadier General") James Bryan during the stand\-up of the [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet "Commander United States Pacific Fleet") Theater C4I Coordination Center (TCCC) at [Camp H. M. Smith](/wiki/Camp_H._M._Smith "Camp H. M. Smith"), Hawaii in 1999\.[IA Newsletter, Volume 3, Number 4, USPACOM Theater Network Operations, Ensuring Information Superiority for the 21st Century](https://web.archive.org/web/20060927230611/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/download/Vol3_No4.pdf) The TCCC initiative was constructed of two distinct components \- the technology that formed the vision of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid") and the NetOps initiative; and the partnerships that made it a reality.
Through its working relationships with [DISA](/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency "Defense Information Systems Agency"), the Service Components, Sub\-Unified Commands, JTFs, other CINC TCCC's, and the [Joint Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff "Joint Chiefs of Staff"), [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet "Commander United States Pacific Fleet") TCCC made the initial strides towards achieving Information Superiority and true enterprise\-level processes. The [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet "Commander United States Pacific Fleet") TCCC was a pilot program for the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (ASD/C3I) NetOps concept. The NetOps concept began with the development of the architectural framework for NetOps, and a [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet "Commander United States Pacific Fleet") developed [Concept of Operations (CONOPS)](/wiki/Concept_of_Operations "Concept of Operations") outlining the key players and their roles and responsibilities necessary to develop the NetOps construct in the Pacific Theater. [IA Newsletter, Volume 4, Number 4, Partnership's \- The Key to Success for Pacific Theater Network Operations (NetOps)](https://web.archive.org/web/20060927225833/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/download/Vol4_No4.pdf)
The original NetOps construct consisted of Network Management (NM), Information Assurance (IA), and Information Dissemination Management (IDM). Today the construct has evolved into GIG Enterprise Management (GEM), GIG Net Assurance(GNA), and GIG Content Management which roughly equates to the intent of the original NetOps concept.
|
[
"Background\n----------",
"In 1998, the [Department of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") recognized a growing cyber threat and in response created the Joint Task Force — Computer Network Defense (JTF\\-CND), which achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) on 30 December 1998 and Full Operational Capability (FOC) by June 1999\\.",
"In the fall of 2000, in accordance with [DoD](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense \"United States Department of Defense\") doctrine, JTF\\-CND became the Joint Task Force — Computer Network Operations (JTF\\-CNO). In October 2002, the new Unified Command Plan (UCP), Change 2, re\\-aligned JTF\\-CNO under the [United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM)](/wiki/STRATCOM \"STRATCOM\").",
"The JTF\\-CNO began its largest and most comprehensive transformation in April 2004 when the Commander of [US Strategic Command](/wiki/STRATCOM \"STRATCOM\") approved the Joint Concept of Operations for [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\") Network Operations. This “NetOps CONOPS” provided the common framework and command and control structure to conduct the USSTRATCOM Unified Command Plan (UCP) \\- assigned mission of Global Network Operations (NETOPS), combining the disciplines of Enterprise Systems (EM) and Network Management (NM), Computer Network Defense (CND), and Information Dissemination Management (IDM).",
"The [Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") signed a delegation of authority letter on 18 June 2004, designating the Director, [DISA](/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency \"Defense Information Systems Agency\") as the new Commander of the [Joint Task Force\\-Global Network Operations](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force-Global_Network_Operations \"Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations\"). With this designation, the new command assumed the responsibility for directing the operation and defense of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\").",
"This transformation enhanced the [JTF GNO's](/wiki/Joint_Task_Force-Global_Network_Operations \"Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations\") mission and objectives in achieving the Joint Vision 2020 Objective Force and the evolving concept of Net\\-Centricity.",
"As new concepts such as [Network\\-centric warfare](/wiki/Network-centric_warfare \"Network-centric warfare\") and Joint Vision 2010{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jv2010\\.pdf \\|title\\=Joint Vision 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-29 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224220150/http://www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jv2010\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-24 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} arrived in the mid 1990s, it became clear that the center of gravity for U.S. military warfighting capability was shifting towards the network. A corresponding capability was required to move beyond managing the network as a back\\-office system into a domain of warfighting.[Network\\-Centric Warfare: Its Origin and Future, By Vice Admiral Arthur K. Cebrowski, U.S. Navy, and John J. Garstka, *Proceedings*, January 1998](http://www.oft.osd.mil/initiatives/ncw/docs/NCW_Origins_and_Future.doc)",
"NetOps was originally developed under the leadership of then [United States Pacific Command](/wiki/United_States_Pacific_Command \"United States Pacific Command\") J6 [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General \"Brigadier General\") James Bryan during the stand\\-up of the [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet \"Commander United States Pacific Fleet\") Theater C4I Coordination Center (TCCC) at [Camp H. M. Smith](/wiki/Camp_H._M._Smith \"Camp H. M. Smith\"), Hawaii in 1999\\.[IA Newsletter, Volume 3, Number 4, USPACOM Theater Network Operations, Ensuring Information Superiority for the 21st Century](https://web.archive.org/web/20060927230611/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/download/Vol3_No4.pdf) The TCCC initiative was constructed of two distinct components \\- the technology that formed the vision of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\") and the NetOps initiative; and the partnerships that made it a reality.",
"Through its working relationships with [DISA](/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency \"Defense Information Systems Agency\"), the Service Components, Sub\\-Unified Commands, JTFs, other CINC TCCC's, and the [Joint Staff](/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff \"Joint Chiefs of Staff\"), [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet \"Commander United States Pacific Fleet\") TCCC made the initial strides towards achieving Information Superiority and true enterprise\\-level processes. The [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet \"Commander United States Pacific Fleet\") TCCC was a pilot program for the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (ASD/C3I) NetOps concept. The NetOps concept began with the development of the architectural framework for NetOps, and a [USCINCPAC](/wiki/Commander_United_States_Pacific_Fleet \"Commander United States Pacific Fleet\") developed [Concept of Operations (CONOPS)](/wiki/Concept_of_Operations \"Concept of Operations\") outlining the key players and their roles and responsibilities necessary to develop the NetOps construct in the Pacific Theater. [IA Newsletter, Volume 4, Number 4, Partnership's \\- The Key to Success for Pacific Theater Network Operations (NetOps)](https://web.archive.org/web/20060927225833/http://iac.dtic.mil/iatac/download/Vol4_No4.pdf)",
"The original NetOps construct consisted of Network Management (NM), Information Assurance (IA), and Information Dissemination Management (IDM). Today the construct has evolved into GIG Enterprise Management (GEM), GIG Net Assurance(GNA), and GIG Content Management which roughly equates to the intent of the original NetOps concept.",
""
] |
Mission
-------
[thumb\|left\|The Unified Command Plan (UCP) assigns the Cyber Mission to Commander, US Strategic Command. NetOps falls under the Cyber\-Umbrella as a construct to "operate and defend the GIG."](/wiki/Image:Seal_of_the_United_States_Strategic_Command.svg "Seal of the United States Strategic Command.svg")
The NetOps mission is to operate and defend the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid"). Unlike many missions with a defined completion date, NetOps has been established as a standing Joint Force mission necessitating dedicated leadership and resources to execute.
NetOps provides assured NetCentric services to the DoD in support of full spectrum of warfighting operations, intelligence, and business missions throughout the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid") enterprises, seamlessly, end\-to\-end. An objective of NetCentric services is to quickly get information to decision makers, with adequate context, to make better decisions affecting the mission and to project their decisions forward to their forces for action.
If the decision maker is not getting the needed net\-centric services, the GIG NetOps community must collaboratively determine who must take action and how information flow can be optimized. This requires NetOps personnel to have a shared SA as well as the technologies, procedures, and collaborative organizational structures to rapidly assess and respond to system and network degradations, outages, or changes in operational priorities. All functions required to most effectively support GIG operations will be holistically managed.
The effectiveness of NetOps will be measured in terms of availability and reliability of net\-centric services, across all domains, in adherence to agreed\-upon service levels and policies. The method for service assurance in a NetCentric collaborative environment is to establish operational thresholds, compliance monitoring, and a clear understanding of the capabilities between enterprise service/resource providers and consumers through Service Level Agreements (SLAs).
Proper instrumentation of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid "Global Information Grid") will enable monitoring of adherence to these SLAs, as well as enable timely decision\-making, service prioritization, resource allocation, root cause, and mission impact assessment. Subsequent TTPs and SLAs will be formalized with appropriate implementation policies to enforce compliance.
|
[
"Mission\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Unified Command Plan (UCP) assigns the Cyber Mission to Commander, US Strategic Command. NetOps falls under the Cyber\\-Umbrella as a construct to \"operate and defend the GIG.\"](/wiki/Image:Seal_of_the_United_States_Strategic_Command.svg \"Seal of the United States Strategic Command.svg\")",
"The NetOps mission is to operate and defend the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\"). Unlike many missions with a defined completion date, NetOps has been established as a standing Joint Force mission necessitating dedicated leadership and resources to execute.",
"NetOps provides assured NetCentric services to the DoD in support of full spectrum of warfighting operations, intelligence, and business missions throughout the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\") enterprises, seamlessly, end\\-to\\-end. An objective of NetCentric services is to quickly get information to decision makers, with adequate context, to make better decisions affecting the mission and to project their decisions forward to their forces for action.",
"If the decision maker is not getting the needed net\\-centric services, the GIG NetOps community must collaboratively determine who must take action and how information flow can be optimized. This requires NetOps personnel to have a shared SA as well as the technologies, procedures, and collaborative organizational structures to rapidly assess and respond to system and network degradations, outages, or changes in operational priorities. All functions required to most effectively support GIG operations will be holistically managed.",
"The effectiveness of NetOps will be measured in terms of availability and reliability of net\\-centric services, across all domains, in adherence to agreed\\-upon service levels and policies. The method for service assurance in a NetCentric collaborative environment is to establish operational thresholds, compliance monitoring, and a clear understanding of the capabilities between enterprise service/resource providers and consumers through Service Level Agreements (SLAs).",
"Proper instrumentation of the [GIG](/wiki/Global_Information_Grid \"Global Information Grid\") will enable monitoring of adherence to these SLAs, as well as enable timely decision\\-making, service prioritization, resource allocation, root cause, and mission impact assessment. Subsequent TTPs and SLAs will be formalized with appropriate implementation policies to enforce compliance.",
""
] |
Organizational history
----------------------
### Establishment
The original idea for establishment of an endowed fund to make financial awards to individuals and groups best advancing the ideals of [Wilsonianism](/wiki/Wilsonianism "Wilsonianism") was credited to Mrs. Charles E. Simonson of New York,[Nation\-Wide Canvass for Woodrow Wilson Foundation Launched Yesterday by Franklin Roosevelt,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874555/nationwide_canvass_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Bisbee \[AZ] Daily Review,* Jan. 17, 1922, pg. 2\. who was previously active in a women's group called the Political Equality Club of Richmond County.*Year Book of the New York Federation of Women's Clubs, 1916\.* Syracuse, NY: Lyman Brothers, 1916; pg. 133\. The fund was envisioned as a way to make permanent the memory and legacy of [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson"), [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") from 1913 to 1920\.
The Woodrow Wilson Foundation was provisionally established on December 23, 1920, with formal organization completed at a meeting held in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") on March 15, 1921\.James Langland (ed.), *The Chicago Daily News Almanac and Year\-Book for 1926\.* Chicago, IL: Chicago Daily News Company, 1925; pg. 47\. The organization was established independently of former President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") but named in his honor by organizers, who pointed to Wilson having "further the cause of human freedom" and for having been "instrumental in pointing out effective methods for the cooperation of the liberal forces of mankind throughout the world."
Organizers planned on raising funds in order to make cash awards to help support the world of individuals and groups that had rendered "meritorious service to democracy, public welfare, liberal thought, or peace through justice."United Press International, ["Will Organize 'Woodrow Wilson Foundation': Income Will Be Devoted to Awards for Greatest Accomplishments in Aid of Humanity,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873151/will_organize_woodrow_wilson/) *Dunkirk \[NY] Evening Observer,* Aug. 5, 1921, pg. 1\. It was hoped to raise $1 million to [endow](/wiki/Financial_endowment "Financial endowment") the foundation. Based upon prevailing interest rates of the day, it was reckoned that a $1 million endowment would generate about $50,000 in interest each year in perpetuity, enabling annual awards in that amount.["No Limit on Awards by Wilson Foundation,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3875958/no_limit_on_awards_by_wilson_foundation/) *Washington Times,* April 17, 1922, pg. 3\.
### Structure
[thumb\|right\|200px\|Franklin D. Roosevelt, shown here in 1913 as a young cabinet official in the Wilson administration, was Chairman of the National Committee of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation.](/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg "Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg")
Chairman of the National Committee of the Wilson Foundation from 1921 was former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and future [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt").["Seek Fund to Honor Wilson,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3872963/fund_seek_to_honor_wilson/) *Washington Post,* June 26, 1921, pg. 81\. Roosevelt asserted that by donating to the endowment fund of the Wilson Foundation, "the American people will be given and opportunity to express their appreciation of Mr. Wilson's services to humanity."
Executive Director of the fund at the time of its establishment was editor of the [internationalist](/wiki/Liberal_internationalism "Liberal internationalism") news magazine [*The Independent,*](/wiki/The_Independent_%28New_York%29 "The Independent (New York)") [Hamilton Holt](/wiki/Hamilton_Holt "Hamilton Holt"). Financier [Cleveland H. Dodge](/wiki/Cleveland_H._Dodge "Cleveland H. Dodge") was named the chair of the provisional executive committee. The temporary Executive Committee included nine other members, three of whom were close Wilson adviser [Edward M. House](/wiki/Edward_M._House "Edward M. House"), American representative to the Paris Peace Conference [Frank Polk](/wiki/Frank_Polk "Frank Polk"), and the wife of publishing mogul [Malcolm Forbes](/wiki/Malcolm_Forbes "Malcolm Forbes"). Other prominent supporters of the project included businessman and former ambassador [Henry Morgenthau, Sr.](/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau%2C_Sr. "Henry Morgenthau, Sr.") and [Adolph Ochs](/wiki/Adolph_Ochs "Adolph Ochs"), publisher of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times").*
The Woodrow Wilson Foundation was based in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), with its national office located at [150 Nassau Street](/wiki/American_Tract_Society_Building "American Tract Society Building").["The Woodrow Wilson Foundation,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873199/the_woodrow_wilson_foundation/) *Reidsville \[NC] Review,* Aug. 23, 1921, pg. 4\. The organization was formally governed by a National Committee, consisting of more than 250 representatives from each state,["Campaign to Establish the Woodrow Wilson Foundation,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874477/campaign_to_establish_the_woodrow/) *Woman's Enterprise* \[Baton Rouge, LA], Jan. 13, 1922, pg. 1\. which elected in turn a National Executive Committee to handle the day\-to\-day operations of the organization.
During the main fundraising campaign to build the organization's endowment fund, which launched in October 1921, the Wilson Foundation named chairs for each state to coordinate fundraising activities on a state basis.See, for example, ["Woodrow Wilson Foundation Aides in Oregon Named,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873742/woodrow_wilson_foundation_aides_in/) *Oregon Daily Journal* \[Portland], Sept. 18, 1921, pp. 1, 10\. These, in turn, named county chairs to help localize fundraising activity. This system was roughly analogous to the wartime sales of [Liberty bonds](/wiki/Liberty_bond "Liberty bond"), which made similar use of formal state and local officers to coordinate sales. By the end of September 1921, chair of the National Executive Committee Cleveland Dodge boasted that 37 of the 48 American states had been organized on such a basis.["Spangler Denies He Has Quit Politics; Is Now Probing Own Downfall: State Political Gleanings,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874160/spangler_denies_he_has_quit_politics/) *Harrisburg \[PA] Evening News,* Sept. 30, 1921, pg. 19\. Three more states were organized in the first half of October, running the total to 40\.["Wilson Fund Givers to Get Certificates: $1,000,000 Endowment is Sought to Memorialize Ex\-President,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874180/wilson_fund_givers_to_get_certificates/) *Louisville Courier\-Journal,* Oct. 18, 1921, pg. 5\.
On December 2, 1921, a meeting of the National Committee was convened in New York City, including representatives from around the country.Associated Press, ["Woodrow Wilson Foundation Meets,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874199/woodrow_wilson_foundation_meets/) *Greenwood \[SC] Index\-Journal,* Dec. 2, 1921, pg. 3\. Chief on the agenda was the need to determine the mechanism for awarding the Foundation's prize awards. The National Committee also began the process of naming 15 permanent trustees of the Wilson Foundation's assets, recommending Franklin Roosevelt, Cleveland Dodge, feminist leader [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt "Carrie Chapman Catt"), university president [E. A. Alderman](/wiki/E._A._Alderman "E. A. Alderman"), and William Allen White of Kansas. The other 10 trustees were to be named later by the executive committee, the National Committee decided.
The 15 Trustees were to provide annual funds, generated through investment of the endowment in government securities, to a 25\-member "Jury of Awards," the members of which were to serve 9\-year terms.Cleveland M. Dodge, ["Wilson Fund to Perpetuate Ideals of US,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874535/wilson_fund_to_perpetuate_ideals_of/) *Sheboygan Press Telegram,* Jan. 17, 1922, pg. 8\.
### 1922 endowment drive
[thumb\|right\|260px\|Engraved certificate given by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to donors to its 1922 endowment fund drive.](/wiki/File:Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg "Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg")
Plans were made for the gathering of "$1,000,000 or more" to provide a permanent endowment for the Wilson Foundation's prizes. Donors were to receive an attractive certificate in acknowledgment of their donations, with the motif determined through an artistic contest in the fall of 1921\. Monday, January 16, 1922, was scheduled for the mass launch of the endowment\-raising campaign.
In an event to generate a tidal wave of energy, enthusiasm, and publicity to start the fundraising campaign, even the January 16 date was more tightly focused, with the National Committee advising through the Wilson Foundation's official organ, *The Foundation News Letter,* that the hour of noon until 1 pm be declared "The Wilson Hour," in which all supporters of Wilson's ideas should show up in person at their local office of the Wilson Foundation to make donations in person.["A Wilson Hour Fixed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874446/a_wilson_hour_fixed/) *Lincoln County \[NC] News,* Jan. 2, 1922, pg. 3\.
In addition, the Wilson Foundation made use of newspaper advertisingSee, for example, ["Do It Now" (ad)](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874481/do_it_now_woodrow_wilson_foundation/), *Louisville Courier\-Journal,* Jan. 11, 1922, pg. 7\. and planned a fundraising canvas in connection with its January 1922 endowment drive. Rather than a door\-to\-door drive, this canvas seems to have taken the form of volunteers from various organizations, frequently women, operating fundraising tables at banks, drug stores, and other well\-trafficked places.["Wilson Foundation Canvas is Kept Up,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874511/wilson_foundation_canvas_is_kept_up/) *Charlotte News,* Jan. 16, 1922, pg. 2\.
The Monday, January 16 focused fundraising event was to be preceded by mass meetings in major cities on Saturday, January 14, and by advocacy of the project by religious ministers speaking from the pulpit on what was deemed "Woodrow Wilson Sunday," January 15\.[Speakers for Wilson Fund to Open City Drive: John Temple Graves, Hamilton Holt and Others to Address Mass Meeting,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874493/speakers_fo_wilson_fund_to_open_city/) *Washington Times,* Jan. 14, 1922, pg. 10\. Both of these tactics — the use of fundraising rallies and coordination of fundraising through Sunday sermons by friendly ministers — were revisitations to tried\-and\-true methods used in generating funds for the Liberty Loans during wartime.
Despite planning for a mass launch of fundraising activities, funds were already being raised by the various state organizations by December 1921, with temporary receipts being provisionally provided until the engraved certificates for donors were ready for distribution the following month.["Wilson Foundation in New Quarters: Attached Coupon for Subscribers,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874224/wilson_foundation_in_new_quarters/) *Oregon Daily Journal,* Dec. 23, 1921, pg. 17\.
The organization took pains to emphasize that operation costs of the organization were previously covered by supporters of the project and that "every dollar received by the National Treasurer" in the January 1922 endowment drive was to be put towards the endowment for the Wilson Foundation's awards.
State and local fundraising quotas were set and "canvassing" continued throughout the month of January and into February as funds slowly rolled in.See, for example, ["No Work Done on Foundation Fund,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874633/no_work_done_on_foundation_fund/) *Durham \[NC] Morning Herald,* Jan. 28, 1922, pg. 5\. The drive seems to have begun to run out of steam late in February 1922,See, for example, ["Warren Short on Wilson Fund,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874651/warren_short_on_wilson_fund/) *Warren \[NC] Record,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 1\. with many locales failing to meet their fundraising targets and the national fundraising effort coming up far short of its $1 million goal. On February 11 the Foundation's official *News Letter* announced that [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma") had thus far led all states with fulfillment of 67% of its financial target; an optimistic spin was placed on the ongoing fundraising effort, which was characterized as just launching at that late date in some localities.["Status of the Foundation,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874663/status_of_the_foundation/) *Charlotte Observer,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 6\.
The halfway point in fundraising was only reached on February 15, 1922, National Committee chair Franklin D. Roosevelt announced.["More Than Half of Wilson Fund Has Been Pledged,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874684/more_than_half_of_wilson_foundation/) *Twin\-City Daily Sentinel* \[Winston\-Salem, NC], Feb. 18, 1922, pg. 1\. The second month of fundraising had only brought the endowment to $660,000, with no state exceeding 82% of its fundraising quota.["$660,000 Estimated Total at Two\-Months' Mark,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876314/660000_estimated_total_for_woodrow/) *Greene \[IA] Recorder,* April 5, 1922, pg. 2\. By the end of 1922, only $800,000 had been raised.
### Awards
[thumb\|right\|200px\|The *[Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial](/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial "Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial")*, by [Paul Manship](/wiki/Paul_Manship "Paul Manship"), presented in 1939 to the League of Nations by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation and installed in Geneva.](/wiki/File:Sculpture_onu_geneve3.jpg "Sculpture onu geneve3.jpg")
On April 16, 1922, Frank L. Polk announced on behalf of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation that the organization would make its awards internationally, not limiting prize winners to Americans. It would remain to the 15\-member board of trustees to determine the size and frequency of such awards, Polk noted.
An awards jury of 9 was decided upon late in 1923, headed by the elderly former President of [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College "Harvard College"), [Charles William Eliot](/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot "Charles William Eliot").["Wilson Foundation Award in 1924: Prize of $25,000 to Be Given,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876411/wilson_foundation_award_in_1924_prize/) *Decatur \[IL] Daily Review,* Jan. 1, 1924, pg. 21\. Owing to the failure of the fund to achieve its $1 million target, awards of $25,000 were declared for the first three years — somewhat less than the estimated $27,000 in interest revenue generated by the endowment. Nominations were to remain open until June 1, with the award made in conjunction with the December 28th birthday of Wilson.
Prizes were to be granted to individuals, not organizations, it was decided, with "unselfish public service of enduring virtue" held to be the chief qualification of award recipients.
The Wilson Foundation made its first award, a [bronze medal](/wiki/Medal "Medal") 12 inches in diameter and a cash award of $25,000, in the fall of 1924 to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood "Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood") — a British architect of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"). With its medal and endowment to allow for annual financial prizes, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation in its initial iteration resembled the [Nobel Foundation](/wiki/Nobel_Foundation "Nobel Foundation") and its [Nobel Prizes](/wiki/Nobel_Prize "Nobel Prize"), albeit on a smaller financial scale. The choice of Cecil was editorially lauded by the *[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle "Brooklyn Daily Eagle"),* which called the British statesman a man who had "labored arduously and unselfishly for the realization of Mr. Wilson's ideals."["A Great Prize Worthily Bestowed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876482/a_great_prize_worthily_bestowed/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Dec. 29, 1924; pg. 6\.
Although approximately 1,000 people gathered at the [Hotel Astor](/wiki/Hotel_Astor "Hotel Astor") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan") for the annual banquet of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to eulogize the late President on what would have been his 69th birthday in December 1925,["Hail Locarno Pact as Achievement of Wilson's Idealism,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876529/hail_locarno_pact_as_achievement_of/) Dec. 29, 1925, pg. 5\. no prize was granted in that year owing to a failure of the award jury to agree upon a worthy candidate.["Wilson Award for Unselfish Act Delayed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876659/wilson_award_for_unselfish_act_delayed/) *Oakland Tribune,* Jan. 6, 1926, pg. 10\.
A second medal and $25,000 award was made in 1926 to former Senator, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State "Secretary of State"), and 1912 [Nobel Peace Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize "Nobel Peace Prize") winner [Elihu Root](/wiki/Elihu_Root "Elihu Root").["Wilson Medal for Root Pleasing to Democrats,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877366/wilson_medal_for_root_pleasing_to/) *The Pantagraph* \[Bloomington, IL], Dec. 31, 1926, pg. 4\. Root was recognized for his advocacy of American entry into the League of Nations — regarded by the decision\-makers of the Wilson Foundation as a fundamental principle of Wilsonian internationalism. Root promptly signed over his prize check to the fledgling magazine *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs"),* which was itself attempting to build an endowment fund to insure its longterm survival.["Root's Prize Money to Aid Peace,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877453/roots_prize_money_to_aid_peace/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Jan. 2, 1927, pg. 26\.
A special donation made possible an essay contest in 1927, in which a pair of $25,000 prizes were offered to female and male authors for the best work on the theme "What Woodrow Wilson Means To Me."["Prize Offered for Essays on Wilson: Woodrow Wilson Foundation Will Give $25,000 Each to Young Man, Young Woman,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877417/prize_offered_for_essays_on_wilson_ww/) *Kingsport \[TN] Times,* Jan. 3, 1927, pg. 1\. The lucrative essay competition was to be opened to anyone between the ages of 20 and 30, with submissions to close on October 1\. Once again the prize jury could not agree, however, and no $25,000 first prizes or $1,000 second prizes were granted; instead 14 "third prizes" of $100 were paid, a tiny fraction of the purported prize pool.["Wilson Essay Prizes Given to Fourteen: No First or Second Places are Allowed by Jury of Award,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877512/wilson_essay_prizes_given_to_fourteen/) *Anniston \[AL] Star,* Dec. 29, 1927, pg. 1\. No other medal or award was granted in that year.["Lindbergh in Line for Woodrow Wilson Award,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877560/lindbergh_in_line_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Indianapolis News,* Feb. 14, 1928, pg. 17\.
In 1928 the Wilson Foundation presented its medal and a $25,000 prize to aviator [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh "Charles Lindbergh"), ostensibly for his "contributions to international friendship."["Another Honor for Lindbergh,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880181/another_honor_for_lindbergh/) *Shamokin \[PA] News\-Dispatch,* March 1, 1928, pg. 7\. Ironically, Lindbergh would later become the face of a most un\-Wilsonian [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism "Isolationism") in the 1930s. The following year the Wilson Foundation chose to honor the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"), with the $25,000 prize expected to be used for the construction of a monument to President Wilson at League headquarters in Geneva.["Peace Prize is Given to League: Woodrow Wilson Prize for 1929 Goes to Geneva,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880237/peace_prize_is_given_to_league_woodrow/) *Sterling \[IL] Daily Gazette,* Dec. 28, 1929, pg. 1\.
The organization continued to grant its "Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Service" to deserving individuals annually, although whether there was a cash award connected to this honor is unclear.
In 1947, an award was created for the "best book on government, politics, or international affairs." It is today awarded by the [American Political Science Association](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association "American Political Science Association") (APSA).["Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award" American Political Science Association](http://www.apsanet.org/content_4343.cfm), accessed 23 December 2008
### Final years and legacy
In 1963, the Foundation undertook the financial responsibility for the completion of *[The Papers of Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/The_Papers_of_Woodrow_Wilson "The Papers of Woodrow Wilson")*,*The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.* Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. a 69\-volume edition of all of Wilson's papers, which was jointly sponsored by [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University"). Princeton housed Wilson's papers and provided the staff for the project. The first volume was published in 1966 and the final volume in 1994\.
The Wilson Papers project consumed all of the energies and funds of the foundation during its thirty\-year duration. Following the publication of the final volume, the foundation intended to return to its support of research, but the financial outlay proved to have been too great, and the foundation was terminated in 1993\.["Woodrow Wilson Foundation Records 1888\-1987 (mostly 1921\-1963\): Finding Aid,"](http://findingaids.princeton.edu/collections/AC203) Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University Archives, Princeton, New Jersey.
The papers of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation are housed in the archives of [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University "Princeton University") in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey "Princeton, New Jersey"). They consist of 64 archival boxes of documents, primarily from the years 1921 to 1963\.
|
[
"Organizational history\n----------------------",
"### Establishment",
"The original idea for establishment of an endowed fund to make financial awards to individuals and groups best advancing the ideals of [Wilsonianism](/wiki/Wilsonianism \"Wilsonianism\") was credited to Mrs. Charles E. Simonson of New York,[Nation\\-Wide Canvass for Woodrow Wilson Foundation Launched Yesterday by Franklin Roosevelt,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874555/nationwide_canvass_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Bisbee \\[AZ] Daily Review,* Jan. 17, 1922, pg. 2\\. who was previously active in a women's group called the Political Equality Club of Richmond County.*Year Book of the New York Federation of Women's Clubs, 1916\\.* Syracuse, NY: Lyman Brothers, 1916; pg. 133\\. The fund was envisioned as a way to make permanent the memory and legacy of [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\"), [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") from 1913 to 1920\\.",
"The Woodrow Wilson Foundation was provisionally established on December 23, 1920, with formal organization completed at a meeting held in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") on March 15, 1921\\.James Langland (ed.), *The Chicago Daily News Almanac and Year\\-Book for 1926\\.* Chicago, IL: Chicago Daily News Company, 1925; pg. 47\\. The organization was established independently of former President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") but named in his honor by organizers, who pointed to Wilson having \"further the cause of human freedom\" and for having been \"instrumental in pointing out effective methods for the cooperation of the liberal forces of mankind throughout the world.\"",
"Organizers planned on raising funds in order to make cash awards to help support the world of individuals and groups that had rendered \"meritorious service to democracy, public welfare, liberal thought, or peace through justice.\"United Press International, [\"Will Organize 'Woodrow Wilson Foundation': Income Will Be Devoted to Awards for Greatest Accomplishments in Aid of Humanity,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873151/will_organize_woodrow_wilson/) *Dunkirk \\[NY] Evening Observer,* Aug. 5, 1921, pg. 1\\. It was hoped to raise $1 million to [endow](/wiki/Financial_endowment \"Financial endowment\") the foundation. Based upon prevailing interest rates of the day, it was reckoned that a $1 million endowment would generate about $50,000 in interest each year in perpetuity, enabling annual awards in that amount.[\"No Limit on Awards by Wilson Foundation,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3875958/no_limit_on_awards_by_wilson_foundation/) *Washington Times,* April 17, 1922, pg. 3\\.",
"### Structure",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|Franklin D. Roosevelt, shown here in 1913 as a young cabinet official in the Wilson administration, was Chairman of the National Committee of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation.](/wiki/File:Franklin_Roosevelt_Secretary_of_the_Navy_1913.jpg \"Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg\")",
"Chairman of the National Committee of the Wilson Foundation from 1921 was former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and future [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\").[\"Seek Fund to Honor Wilson,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3872963/fund_seek_to_honor_wilson/) *Washington Post,* June 26, 1921, pg. 81\\. Roosevelt asserted that by donating to the endowment fund of the Wilson Foundation, \"the American people will be given and opportunity to express their appreciation of Mr. Wilson's services to humanity.\"",
"Executive Director of the fund at the time of its establishment was editor of the [internationalist](/wiki/Liberal_internationalism \"Liberal internationalism\") news magazine [*The Independent,*](/wiki/The_Independent_%28New_York%29 \"The Independent (New York)\") [Hamilton Holt](/wiki/Hamilton_Holt \"Hamilton Holt\"). Financier [Cleveland H. Dodge](/wiki/Cleveland_H._Dodge \"Cleveland H. Dodge\") was named the chair of the provisional executive committee. The temporary Executive Committee included nine other members, three of whom were close Wilson adviser [Edward M. House](/wiki/Edward_M._House \"Edward M. House\"), American representative to the Paris Peace Conference [Frank Polk](/wiki/Frank_Polk \"Frank Polk\"), and the wife of publishing mogul [Malcolm Forbes](/wiki/Malcolm_Forbes \"Malcolm Forbes\"). Other prominent supporters of the project included businessman and former ambassador [Henry Morgenthau, Sr.](/wiki/Henry_Morgenthau%2C_Sr. \"Henry Morgenthau, Sr.\") and [Adolph Ochs](/wiki/Adolph_Ochs \"Adolph Ochs\"), publisher of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\").*",
"The Woodrow Wilson Foundation was based in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"), with its national office located at [150 Nassau Street](/wiki/American_Tract_Society_Building \"American Tract Society Building\").[\"The Woodrow Wilson Foundation,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873199/the_woodrow_wilson_foundation/) *Reidsville \\[NC] Review,* Aug. 23, 1921, pg. 4\\. The organization was formally governed by a National Committee, consisting of more than 250 representatives from each state,[\"Campaign to Establish the Woodrow Wilson Foundation,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874477/campaign_to_establish_the_woodrow/) *Woman's Enterprise* \\[Baton Rouge, LA], Jan. 13, 1922, pg. 1\\. which elected in turn a National Executive Committee to handle the day\\-to\\-day operations of the organization.",
"During the main fundraising campaign to build the organization's endowment fund, which launched in October 1921, the Wilson Foundation named chairs for each state to coordinate fundraising activities on a state basis.See, for example, [\"Woodrow Wilson Foundation Aides in Oregon Named,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3873742/woodrow_wilson_foundation_aides_in/) *Oregon Daily Journal* \\[Portland], Sept. 18, 1921, pp. 1, 10\\. These, in turn, named county chairs to help localize fundraising activity. This system was roughly analogous to the wartime sales of [Liberty bonds](/wiki/Liberty_bond \"Liberty bond\"), which made similar use of formal state and local officers to coordinate sales. By the end of September 1921, chair of the National Executive Committee Cleveland Dodge boasted that 37 of the 48 American states had been organized on such a basis.[\"Spangler Denies He Has Quit Politics; Is Now Probing Own Downfall: State Political Gleanings,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874160/spangler_denies_he_has_quit_politics/) *Harrisburg \\[PA] Evening News,* Sept. 30, 1921, pg. 19\\. Three more states were organized in the first half of October, running the total to 40\\.[\"Wilson Fund Givers to Get Certificates: $1,000,000 Endowment is Sought to Memorialize Ex\\-President,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874180/wilson_fund_givers_to_get_certificates/) *Louisville Courier\\-Journal,* Oct. 18, 1921, pg. 5\\.",
"On December 2, 1921, a meeting of the National Committee was convened in New York City, including representatives from around the country.Associated Press, [\"Woodrow Wilson Foundation Meets,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874199/woodrow_wilson_foundation_meets/) *Greenwood \\[SC] Index\\-Journal,* Dec. 2, 1921, pg. 3\\. Chief on the agenda was the need to determine the mechanism for awarding the Foundation's prize awards. The National Committee also began the process of naming 15 permanent trustees of the Wilson Foundation's assets, recommending Franklin Roosevelt, Cleveland Dodge, feminist leader [Carrie Chapman Catt](/wiki/Carrie_Chapman_Catt \"Carrie Chapman Catt\"), university president [E. A. Alderman](/wiki/E._A._Alderman \"E. A. Alderman\"), and William Allen White of Kansas. The other 10 trustees were to be named later by the executive committee, the National Committee decided.",
"The 15 Trustees were to provide annual funds, generated through investment of the endowment in government securities, to a 25\\-member \"Jury of Awards,\" the members of which were to serve 9\\-year terms.Cleveland M. Dodge, [\"Wilson Fund to Perpetuate Ideals of US,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874535/wilson_fund_to_perpetuate_ideals_of/) *Sheboygan Press Telegram,* Jan. 17, 1922, pg. 8\\.",
"### 1922 endowment drive",
"[thumb\\|right\\|260px\\|Engraved certificate given by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to donors to its 1922 endowment fund drive.](/wiki/File:Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg \"Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg\")",
"Plans were made for the gathering of \"$1,000,000 or more\" to provide a permanent endowment for the Wilson Foundation's prizes. Donors were to receive an attractive certificate in acknowledgment of their donations, with the motif determined through an artistic contest in the fall of 1921\\. Monday, January 16, 1922, was scheduled for the mass launch of the endowment\\-raising campaign.",
"In an event to generate a tidal wave of energy, enthusiasm, and publicity to start the fundraising campaign, even the January 16 date was more tightly focused, with the National Committee advising through the Wilson Foundation's official organ, *The Foundation News Letter,* that the hour of noon until 1 pm be declared \"The Wilson Hour,\" in which all supporters of Wilson's ideas should show up in person at their local office of the Wilson Foundation to make donations in person.[\"A Wilson Hour Fixed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874446/a_wilson_hour_fixed/) *Lincoln County \\[NC] News,* Jan. 2, 1922, pg. 3\\.",
"In addition, the Wilson Foundation made use of newspaper advertisingSee, for example, [\"Do It Now\" (ad)](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874481/do_it_now_woodrow_wilson_foundation/), *Louisville Courier\\-Journal,* Jan. 11, 1922, pg. 7\\. and planned a fundraising canvas in connection with its January 1922 endowment drive. Rather than a door\\-to\\-door drive, this canvas seems to have taken the form of volunteers from various organizations, frequently women, operating fundraising tables at banks, drug stores, and other well\\-trafficked places.[\"Wilson Foundation Canvas is Kept Up,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874511/wilson_foundation_canvas_is_kept_up/) *Charlotte News,* Jan. 16, 1922, pg. 2\\.",
"The Monday, January 16 focused fundraising event was to be preceded by mass meetings in major cities on Saturday, January 14, and by advocacy of the project by religious ministers speaking from the pulpit on what was deemed \"Woodrow Wilson Sunday,\" January 15\\.[Speakers for Wilson Fund to Open City Drive: John Temple Graves, Hamilton Holt and Others to Address Mass Meeting,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874493/speakers_fo_wilson_fund_to_open_city/) *Washington Times,* Jan. 14, 1922, pg. 10\\. Both of these tactics — the use of fundraising rallies and coordination of fundraising through Sunday sermons by friendly ministers — were revisitations to tried\\-and\\-true methods used in generating funds for the Liberty Loans during wartime.",
"Despite planning for a mass launch of fundraising activities, funds were already being raised by the various state organizations by December 1921, with temporary receipts being provisionally provided until the engraved certificates for donors were ready for distribution the following month.[\"Wilson Foundation in New Quarters: Attached Coupon for Subscribers,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874224/wilson_foundation_in_new_quarters/) *Oregon Daily Journal,* Dec. 23, 1921, pg. 17\\.",
"The organization took pains to emphasize that operation costs of the organization were previously covered by supporters of the project and that \"every dollar received by the National Treasurer\" in the January 1922 endowment drive was to be put towards the endowment for the Wilson Foundation's awards.",
"State and local fundraising quotas were set and \"canvassing\" continued throughout the month of January and into February as funds slowly rolled in.See, for example, [\"No Work Done on Foundation Fund,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874633/no_work_done_on_foundation_fund/) *Durham \\[NC] Morning Herald,* Jan. 28, 1922, pg. 5\\. The drive seems to have begun to run out of steam late in February 1922,See, for example, [\"Warren Short on Wilson Fund,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874651/warren_short_on_wilson_fund/) *Warren \\[NC] Record,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 1\\. with many locales failing to meet their fundraising targets and the national fundraising effort coming up far short of its $1 million goal. On February 11 the Foundation's official *News Letter* announced that [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\") had thus far led all states with fulfillment of 67% of its financial target; an optimistic spin was placed on the ongoing fundraising effort, which was characterized as just launching at that late date in some localities.[\"Status of the Foundation,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874663/status_of_the_foundation/) *Charlotte Observer,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 6\\.",
"The halfway point in fundraising was only reached on February 15, 1922, National Committee chair Franklin D. Roosevelt announced.[\"More Than Half of Wilson Fund Has Been Pledged,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874684/more_than_half_of_wilson_foundation/) *Twin\\-City Daily Sentinel* \\[Winston\\-Salem, NC], Feb. 18, 1922, pg. 1\\. The second month of fundraising had only brought the endowment to $660,000, with no state exceeding 82% of its fundraising quota.[\"$660,000 Estimated Total at Two\\-Months' Mark,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876314/660000_estimated_total_for_woodrow/) *Greene \\[IA] Recorder,* April 5, 1922, pg. 2\\. By the end of 1922, only $800,000 had been raised.",
"### Awards",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|The *[Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial](/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial \"Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial\")*, by [Paul Manship](/wiki/Paul_Manship \"Paul Manship\"), presented in 1939 to the League of Nations by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation and installed in Geneva.](/wiki/File:Sculpture_onu_geneve3.jpg \"Sculpture onu geneve3.jpg\")",
"On April 16, 1922, Frank L. Polk announced on behalf of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation that the organization would make its awards internationally, not limiting prize winners to Americans. It would remain to the 15\\-member board of trustees to determine the size and frequency of such awards, Polk noted.",
"An awards jury of 9 was decided upon late in 1923, headed by the elderly former President of [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College \"Harvard College\"), [Charles William Eliot](/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot \"Charles William Eliot\").[\"Wilson Foundation Award in 1924: Prize of $25,000 to Be Given,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876411/wilson_foundation_award_in_1924_prize/) *Decatur \\[IL] Daily Review,* Jan. 1, 1924, pg. 21\\. Owing to the failure of the fund to achieve its $1 million target, awards of $25,000 were declared for the first three years — somewhat less than the estimated $27,000 in interest revenue generated by the endowment. Nominations were to remain open until June 1, with the award made in conjunction with the December 28th birthday of Wilson.",
"Prizes were to be granted to individuals, not organizations, it was decided, with \"unselfish public service of enduring virtue\" held to be the chief qualification of award recipients.",
"The Wilson Foundation made its first award, a [bronze medal](/wiki/Medal \"Medal\") 12 inches in diameter and a cash award of $25,000, in the fall of 1924 to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood \"Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood\") — a British architect of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\"). With its medal and endowment to allow for annual financial prizes, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation in its initial iteration resembled the [Nobel Foundation](/wiki/Nobel_Foundation \"Nobel Foundation\") and its [Nobel Prizes](/wiki/Nobel_Prize \"Nobel Prize\"), albeit on a smaller financial scale. The choice of Cecil was editorially lauded by the *[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle \"Brooklyn Daily Eagle\"),* which called the British statesman a man who had \"labored arduously and unselfishly for the realization of Mr. Wilson's ideals.\"[\"A Great Prize Worthily Bestowed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876482/a_great_prize_worthily_bestowed/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Dec. 29, 1924; pg. 6\\.",
"Although approximately 1,000 people gathered at the [Hotel Astor](/wiki/Hotel_Astor \"Hotel Astor\") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") for the annual banquet of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to eulogize the late President on what would have been his 69th birthday in December 1925,[\"Hail Locarno Pact as Achievement of Wilson's Idealism,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876529/hail_locarno_pact_as_achievement_of/) Dec. 29, 1925, pg. 5\\. no prize was granted in that year owing to a failure of the award jury to agree upon a worthy candidate.[\"Wilson Award for Unselfish Act Delayed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876659/wilson_award_for_unselfish_act_delayed/) *Oakland Tribune,* Jan. 6, 1926, pg. 10\\.",
"A second medal and $25,000 award was made in 1926 to former Senator, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State \"Secretary of State\"), and 1912 [Nobel Peace Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize \"Nobel Peace Prize\") winner [Elihu Root](/wiki/Elihu_Root \"Elihu Root\").[\"Wilson Medal for Root Pleasing to Democrats,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877366/wilson_medal_for_root_pleasing_to/) *The Pantagraph* \\[Bloomington, IL], Dec. 31, 1926, pg. 4\\. Root was recognized for his advocacy of American entry into the League of Nations — regarded by the decision\\-makers of the Wilson Foundation as a fundamental principle of Wilsonian internationalism. Root promptly signed over his prize check to the fledgling magazine *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs \"Foreign Affairs\"),* which was itself attempting to build an endowment fund to insure its longterm survival.[\"Root's Prize Money to Aid Peace,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877453/roots_prize_money_to_aid_peace/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Jan. 2, 1927, pg. 26\\.",
"A special donation made possible an essay contest in 1927, in which a pair of $25,000 prizes were offered to female and male authors for the best work on the theme \"What Woodrow Wilson Means To Me.\"[\"Prize Offered for Essays on Wilson: Woodrow Wilson Foundation Will Give $25,000 Each to Young Man, Young Woman,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877417/prize_offered_for_essays_on_wilson_ww/) *Kingsport \\[TN] Times,* Jan. 3, 1927, pg. 1\\. The lucrative essay competition was to be opened to anyone between the ages of 20 and 30, with submissions to close on October 1\\. Once again the prize jury could not agree, however, and no $25,000 first prizes or $1,000 second prizes were granted; instead 14 \"third prizes\" of $100 were paid, a tiny fraction of the purported prize pool.[\"Wilson Essay Prizes Given to Fourteen: No First or Second Places are Allowed by Jury of Award,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877512/wilson_essay_prizes_given_to_fourteen/) *Anniston \\[AL] Star,* Dec. 29, 1927, pg. 1\\. No other medal or award was granted in that year.[\"Lindbergh in Line for Woodrow Wilson Award,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877560/lindbergh_in_line_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Indianapolis News,* Feb. 14, 1928, pg. 17\\.",
"In 1928 the Wilson Foundation presented its medal and a $25,000 prize to aviator [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh \"Charles Lindbergh\"), ostensibly for his \"contributions to international friendship.\"[\"Another Honor for Lindbergh,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880181/another_honor_for_lindbergh/) *Shamokin \\[PA] News\\-Dispatch,* March 1, 1928, pg. 7\\. Ironically, Lindbergh would later become the face of a most un\\-Wilsonian [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism \"Isolationism\") in the 1930s. The following year the Wilson Foundation chose to honor the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\"), with the $25,000 prize expected to be used for the construction of a monument to President Wilson at League headquarters in Geneva.[\"Peace Prize is Given to League: Woodrow Wilson Prize for 1929 Goes to Geneva,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880237/peace_prize_is_given_to_league_woodrow/) *Sterling \\[IL] Daily Gazette,* Dec. 28, 1929, pg. 1\\.",
"The organization continued to grant its \"Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Service\" to deserving individuals annually, although whether there was a cash award connected to this honor is unclear.",
"In 1947, an award was created for the \"best book on government, politics, or international affairs.\" It is today awarded by the [American Political Science Association](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association \"American Political Science Association\") (APSA).[\"Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award\" American Political Science Association](http://www.apsanet.org/content_4343.cfm), accessed 23 December 2008",
"### Final years and legacy",
"In 1963, the Foundation undertook the financial responsibility for the completion of *[The Papers of Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/The_Papers_of_Woodrow_Wilson \"The Papers of Woodrow Wilson\")*,*The Papers of Woodrow Wilson.* Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. a 69\\-volume edition of all of Wilson's papers, which was jointly sponsored by [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\"). Princeton housed Wilson's papers and provided the staff for the project. The first volume was published in 1966 and the final volume in 1994\\.",
"The Wilson Papers project consumed all of the energies and funds of the foundation during its thirty\\-year duration. Following the publication of the final volume, the foundation intended to return to its support of research, but the financial outlay proved to have been too great, and the foundation was terminated in 1993\\.[\"Woodrow Wilson Foundation Records 1888\\-1987 (mostly 1921\\-1963\\): Finding Aid,\"](http://findingaids.princeton.edu/collections/AC203) Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University Archives, Princeton, New Jersey.",
"The papers of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation are housed in the archives of [Princeton University](/wiki/Princeton_University \"Princeton University\") in [Princeton, New Jersey](/wiki/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey \"Princeton, New Jersey\"). They consist of 64 archival boxes of documents, primarily from the years 1921 to 1963\\.",
""
] |
### 1922 endowment drive
[thumb\|right\|260px\|Engraved certificate given by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to donors to its 1922 endowment fund drive.](/wiki/File:Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg "Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg")
Plans were made for the gathering of "$1,000,000 or more" to provide a permanent endowment for the Wilson Foundation's prizes. Donors were to receive an attractive certificate in acknowledgment of their donations, with the motif determined through an artistic contest in the fall of 1921\. Monday, January 16, 1922, was scheduled for the mass launch of the endowment\-raising campaign.
In an event to generate a tidal wave of energy, enthusiasm, and publicity to start the fundraising campaign, even the January 16 date was more tightly focused, with the National Committee advising through the Wilson Foundation's official organ, *The Foundation News Letter,* that the hour of noon until 1 pm be declared "The Wilson Hour," in which all supporters of Wilson's ideas should show up in person at their local office of the Wilson Foundation to make donations in person.["A Wilson Hour Fixed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874446/a_wilson_hour_fixed/) *Lincoln County \[NC] News,* Jan. 2, 1922, pg. 3\.
In addition, the Wilson Foundation made use of newspaper advertisingSee, for example, ["Do It Now" (ad)](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874481/do_it_now_woodrow_wilson_foundation/), *Louisville Courier\-Journal,* Jan. 11, 1922, pg. 7\. and planned a fundraising canvas in connection with its January 1922 endowment drive. Rather than a door\-to\-door drive, this canvas seems to have taken the form of volunteers from various organizations, frequently women, operating fundraising tables at banks, drug stores, and other well\-trafficked places.["Wilson Foundation Canvas is Kept Up,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874511/wilson_foundation_canvas_is_kept_up/) *Charlotte News,* Jan. 16, 1922, pg. 2\.
The Monday, January 16 focused fundraising event was to be preceded by mass meetings in major cities on Saturday, January 14, and by advocacy of the project by religious ministers speaking from the pulpit on what was deemed "Woodrow Wilson Sunday," January 15\.[Speakers for Wilson Fund to Open City Drive: John Temple Graves, Hamilton Holt and Others to Address Mass Meeting,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874493/speakers_fo_wilson_fund_to_open_city/) *Washington Times,* Jan. 14, 1922, pg. 10\. Both of these tactics — the use of fundraising rallies and coordination of fundraising through Sunday sermons by friendly ministers — were revisitations to tried\-and\-true methods used in generating funds for the Liberty Loans during wartime.
Despite planning for a mass launch of fundraising activities, funds were already being raised by the various state organizations by December 1921, with temporary receipts being provisionally provided until the engraved certificates for donors were ready for distribution the following month.["Wilson Foundation in New Quarters: Attached Coupon for Subscribers,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874224/wilson_foundation_in_new_quarters/) *Oregon Daily Journal,* Dec. 23, 1921, pg. 17\.
The organization took pains to emphasize that operation costs of the organization were previously covered by supporters of the project and that "every dollar received by the National Treasurer" in the January 1922 endowment drive was to be put towards the endowment for the Wilson Foundation's awards.
State and local fundraising quotas were set and "canvassing" continued throughout the month of January and into February as funds slowly rolled in.See, for example, ["No Work Done on Foundation Fund,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874633/no_work_done_on_foundation_fund/) *Durham \[NC] Morning Herald,* Jan. 28, 1922, pg. 5\. The drive seems to have begun to run out of steam late in February 1922,See, for example, ["Warren Short on Wilson Fund,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874651/warren_short_on_wilson_fund/) *Warren \[NC] Record,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 1\. with many locales failing to meet their fundraising targets and the national fundraising effort coming up far short of its $1 million goal. On February 11 the Foundation's official *News Letter* announced that [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma "Oklahoma") had thus far led all states with fulfillment of 67% of its financial target; an optimistic spin was placed on the ongoing fundraising effort, which was characterized as just launching at that late date in some localities.["Status of the Foundation,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874663/status_of_the_foundation/) *Charlotte Observer,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 6\.
The halfway point in fundraising was only reached on February 15, 1922, National Committee chair Franklin D. Roosevelt announced.["More Than Half of Wilson Fund Has Been Pledged,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874684/more_than_half_of_wilson_foundation/) *Twin\-City Daily Sentinel* \[Winston\-Salem, NC], Feb. 18, 1922, pg. 1\. The second month of fundraising had only brought the endowment to $660,000, with no state exceeding 82% of its fundraising quota.["$660,000 Estimated Total at Two\-Months' Mark,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876314/660000_estimated_total_for_woodrow/) *Greene \[IA] Recorder,* April 5, 1922, pg. 2\. By the end of 1922, only $800,000 had been raised.
|
[
"### 1922 endowment drive",
"[thumb\\|right\\|260px\\|Engraved certificate given by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to donors to its 1922 endowment fund drive.](/wiki/File:Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg \"Woodrow-Wilson-Foundation-certificate.jpg\")",
"Plans were made for the gathering of \"$1,000,000 or more\" to provide a permanent endowment for the Wilson Foundation's prizes. Donors were to receive an attractive certificate in acknowledgment of their donations, with the motif determined through an artistic contest in the fall of 1921\\. Monday, January 16, 1922, was scheduled for the mass launch of the endowment\\-raising campaign.",
"In an event to generate a tidal wave of energy, enthusiasm, and publicity to start the fundraising campaign, even the January 16 date was more tightly focused, with the National Committee advising through the Wilson Foundation's official organ, *The Foundation News Letter,* that the hour of noon until 1 pm be declared \"The Wilson Hour,\" in which all supporters of Wilson's ideas should show up in person at their local office of the Wilson Foundation to make donations in person.[\"A Wilson Hour Fixed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874446/a_wilson_hour_fixed/) *Lincoln County \\[NC] News,* Jan. 2, 1922, pg. 3\\.",
"In addition, the Wilson Foundation made use of newspaper advertisingSee, for example, [\"Do It Now\" (ad)](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874481/do_it_now_woodrow_wilson_foundation/), *Louisville Courier\\-Journal,* Jan. 11, 1922, pg. 7\\. and planned a fundraising canvas in connection with its January 1922 endowment drive. Rather than a door\\-to\\-door drive, this canvas seems to have taken the form of volunteers from various organizations, frequently women, operating fundraising tables at banks, drug stores, and other well\\-trafficked places.[\"Wilson Foundation Canvas is Kept Up,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874511/wilson_foundation_canvas_is_kept_up/) *Charlotte News,* Jan. 16, 1922, pg. 2\\.",
"The Monday, January 16 focused fundraising event was to be preceded by mass meetings in major cities on Saturday, January 14, and by advocacy of the project by religious ministers speaking from the pulpit on what was deemed \"Woodrow Wilson Sunday,\" January 15\\.[Speakers for Wilson Fund to Open City Drive: John Temple Graves, Hamilton Holt and Others to Address Mass Meeting,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874493/speakers_fo_wilson_fund_to_open_city/) *Washington Times,* Jan. 14, 1922, pg. 10\\. Both of these tactics — the use of fundraising rallies and coordination of fundraising through Sunday sermons by friendly ministers — were revisitations to tried\\-and\\-true methods used in generating funds for the Liberty Loans during wartime.",
"Despite planning for a mass launch of fundraising activities, funds were already being raised by the various state organizations by December 1921, with temporary receipts being provisionally provided until the engraved certificates for donors were ready for distribution the following month.[\"Wilson Foundation in New Quarters: Attached Coupon for Subscribers,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874224/wilson_foundation_in_new_quarters/) *Oregon Daily Journal,* Dec. 23, 1921, pg. 17\\.",
"The organization took pains to emphasize that operation costs of the organization were previously covered by supporters of the project and that \"every dollar received by the National Treasurer\" in the January 1922 endowment drive was to be put towards the endowment for the Wilson Foundation's awards.",
"State and local fundraising quotas were set and \"canvassing\" continued throughout the month of January and into February as funds slowly rolled in.See, for example, [\"No Work Done on Foundation Fund,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874633/no_work_done_on_foundation_fund/) *Durham \\[NC] Morning Herald,* Jan. 28, 1922, pg. 5\\. The drive seems to have begun to run out of steam late in February 1922,See, for example, [\"Warren Short on Wilson Fund,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874651/warren_short_on_wilson_fund/) *Warren \\[NC] Record,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 1\\. with many locales failing to meet their fundraising targets and the national fundraising effort coming up far short of its $1 million goal. On February 11 the Foundation's official *News Letter* announced that [Oklahoma](/wiki/Oklahoma \"Oklahoma\") had thus far led all states with fulfillment of 67% of its financial target; an optimistic spin was placed on the ongoing fundraising effort, which was characterized as just launching at that late date in some localities.[\"Status of the Foundation,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874663/status_of_the_foundation/) *Charlotte Observer,* Feb. 17, 1922, pg. 6\\.",
"The halfway point in fundraising was only reached on February 15, 1922, National Committee chair Franklin D. Roosevelt announced.[\"More Than Half of Wilson Fund Has Been Pledged,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3874684/more_than_half_of_wilson_foundation/) *Twin\\-City Daily Sentinel* \\[Winston\\-Salem, NC], Feb. 18, 1922, pg. 1\\. The second month of fundraising had only brought the endowment to $660,000, with no state exceeding 82% of its fundraising quota.[\"$660,000 Estimated Total at Two\\-Months' Mark,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876314/660000_estimated_total_for_woodrow/) *Greene \\[IA] Recorder,* April 5, 1922, pg. 2\\. By the end of 1922, only $800,000 had been raised.",
""
] |
### Awards
[thumb\|right\|200px\|The *[Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial](/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial "Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial")*, by [Paul Manship](/wiki/Paul_Manship "Paul Manship"), presented in 1939 to the League of Nations by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation and installed in Geneva.](/wiki/File:Sculpture_onu_geneve3.jpg "Sculpture onu geneve3.jpg")
On April 16, 1922, Frank L. Polk announced on behalf of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation that the organization would make its awards internationally, not limiting prize winners to Americans. It would remain to the 15\-member board of trustees to determine the size and frequency of such awards, Polk noted.
An awards jury of 9 was decided upon late in 1923, headed by the elderly former President of [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College "Harvard College"), [Charles William Eliot](/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot "Charles William Eliot").["Wilson Foundation Award in 1924: Prize of $25,000 to Be Given,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876411/wilson_foundation_award_in_1924_prize/) *Decatur \[IL] Daily Review,* Jan. 1, 1924, pg. 21\. Owing to the failure of the fund to achieve its $1 million target, awards of $25,000 were declared for the first three years — somewhat less than the estimated $27,000 in interest revenue generated by the endowment. Nominations were to remain open until June 1, with the award made in conjunction with the December 28th birthday of Wilson.
Prizes were to be granted to individuals, not organizations, it was decided, with "unselfish public service of enduring virtue" held to be the chief qualification of award recipients.
The Wilson Foundation made its first award, a [bronze medal](/wiki/Medal "Medal") 12 inches in diameter and a cash award of $25,000, in the fall of 1924 to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood "Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood") — a British architect of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"). With its medal and endowment to allow for annual financial prizes, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation in its initial iteration resembled the [Nobel Foundation](/wiki/Nobel_Foundation "Nobel Foundation") and its [Nobel Prizes](/wiki/Nobel_Prize "Nobel Prize"), albeit on a smaller financial scale. The choice of Cecil was editorially lauded by the *[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle "Brooklyn Daily Eagle"),* which called the British statesman a man who had "labored arduously and unselfishly for the realization of Mr. Wilson's ideals."["A Great Prize Worthily Bestowed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876482/a_great_prize_worthily_bestowed/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Dec. 29, 1924; pg. 6\.
Although approximately 1,000 people gathered at the [Hotel Astor](/wiki/Hotel_Astor "Hotel Astor") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan") for the annual banquet of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to eulogize the late President on what would have been his 69th birthday in December 1925,["Hail Locarno Pact as Achievement of Wilson's Idealism,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876529/hail_locarno_pact_as_achievement_of/) Dec. 29, 1925, pg. 5\. no prize was granted in that year owing to a failure of the award jury to agree upon a worthy candidate.["Wilson Award for Unselfish Act Delayed,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876659/wilson_award_for_unselfish_act_delayed/) *Oakland Tribune,* Jan. 6, 1926, pg. 10\.
A second medal and $25,000 award was made in 1926 to former Senator, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State "Secretary of State"), and 1912 [Nobel Peace Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize "Nobel Peace Prize") winner [Elihu Root](/wiki/Elihu_Root "Elihu Root").["Wilson Medal for Root Pleasing to Democrats,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877366/wilson_medal_for_root_pleasing_to/) *The Pantagraph* \[Bloomington, IL], Dec. 31, 1926, pg. 4\. Root was recognized for his advocacy of American entry into the League of Nations — regarded by the decision\-makers of the Wilson Foundation as a fundamental principle of Wilsonian internationalism. Root promptly signed over his prize check to the fledgling magazine *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs "Foreign Affairs"),* which was itself attempting to build an endowment fund to insure its longterm survival.["Root's Prize Money to Aid Peace,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877453/roots_prize_money_to_aid_peace/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Jan. 2, 1927, pg. 26\.
A special donation made possible an essay contest in 1927, in which a pair of $25,000 prizes were offered to female and male authors for the best work on the theme "What Woodrow Wilson Means To Me."["Prize Offered for Essays on Wilson: Woodrow Wilson Foundation Will Give $25,000 Each to Young Man, Young Woman,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877417/prize_offered_for_essays_on_wilson_ww/) *Kingsport \[TN] Times,* Jan. 3, 1927, pg. 1\. The lucrative essay competition was to be opened to anyone between the ages of 20 and 30, with submissions to close on October 1\. Once again the prize jury could not agree, however, and no $25,000 first prizes or $1,000 second prizes were granted; instead 14 "third prizes" of $100 were paid, a tiny fraction of the purported prize pool.["Wilson Essay Prizes Given to Fourteen: No First or Second Places are Allowed by Jury of Award,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877512/wilson_essay_prizes_given_to_fourteen/) *Anniston \[AL] Star,* Dec. 29, 1927, pg. 1\. No other medal or award was granted in that year.["Lindbergh in Line for Woodrow Wilson Award,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877560/lindbergh_in_line_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Indianapolis News,* Feb. 14, 1928, pg. 17\.
In 1928 the Wilson Foundation presented its medal and a $25,000 prize to aviator [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh "Charles Lindbergh"), ostensibly for his "contributions to international friendship."["Another Honor for Lindbergh,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880181/another_honor_for_lindbergh/) *Shamokin \[PA] News\-Dispatch,* March 1, 1928, pg. 7\. Ironically, Lindbergh would later become the face of a most un\-Wilsonian [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism "Isolationism") in the 1930s. The following year the Wilson Foundation chose to honor the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"), with the $25,000 prize expected to be used for the construction of a monument to President Wilson at League headquarters in Geneva.["Peace Prize is Given to League: Woodrow Wilson Prize for 1929 Goes to Geneva,"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880237/peace_prize_is_given_to_league_woodrow/) *Sterling \[IL] Daily Gazette,* Dec. 28, 1929, pg. 1\.
The organization continued to grant its "Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Service" to deserving individuals annually, although whether there was a cash award connected to this honor is unclear.
In 1947, an award was created for the "best book on government, politics, or international affairs." It is today awarded by the [American Political Science Association](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association "American Political Science Association") (APSA).["Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award" American Political Science Association](http://www.apsanet.org/content_4343.cfm), accessed 23 December 2008
|
[
"### Awards",
"[thumb\\|right\\|200px\\|The *[Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial](/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial \"Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial\")*, by [Paul Manship](/wiki/Paul_Manship \"Paul Manship\"), presented in 1939 to the League of Nations by the Woodrow Wilson Foundation and installed in Geneva.](/wiki/File:Sculpture_onu_geneve3.jpg \"Sculpture onu geneve3.jpg\")",
"On April 16, 1922, Frank L. Polk announced on behalf of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation that the organization would make its awards internationally, not limiting prize winners to Americans. It would remain to the 15\\-member board of trustees to determine the size and frequency of such awards, Polk noted.",
"An awards jury of 9 was decided upon late in 1923, headed by the elderly former President of [Harvard College](/wiki/Harvard_College \"Harvard College\"), [Charles William Eliot](/wiki/Charles_William_Eliot \"Charles William Eliot\").[\"Wilson Foundation Award in 1924: Prize of $25,000 to Be Given,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876411/wilson_foundation_award_in_1924_prize/) *Decatur \\[IL] Daily Review,* Jan. 1, 1924, pg. 21\\. Owing to the failure of the fund to achieve its $1 million target, awards of $25,000 were declared for the first three years — somewhat less than the estimated $27,000 in interest revenue generated by the endowment. Nominations were to remain open until June 1, with the award made in conjunction with the December 28th birthday of Wilson.",
"Prizes were to be granted to individuals, not organizations, it was decided, with \"unselfish public service of enduring virtue\" held to be the chief qualification of award recipients.",
"The Wilson Foundation made its first award, a [bronze medal](/wiki/Medal \"Medal\") 12 inches in diameter and a cash award of $25,000, in the fall of 1924 to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood \"Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood\") — a British architect of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\"). With its medal and endowment to allow for annual financial prizes, the Woodrow Wilson Foundation in its initial iteration resembled the [Nobel Foundation](/wiki/Nobel_Foundation \"Nobel Foundation\") and its [Nobel Prizes](/wiki/Nobel_Prize \"Nobel Prize\"), albeit on a smaller financial scale. The choice of Cecil was editorially lauded by the *[Brooklyn Daily Eagle](/wiki/Brooklyn_Daily_Eagle \"Brooklyn Daily Eagle\"),* which called the British statesman a man who had \"labored arduously and unselfishly for the realization of Mr. Wilson's ideals.\"[\"A Great Prize Worthily Bestowed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876482/a_great_prize_worthily_bestowed/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Dec. 29, 1924; pg. 6\\.",
"Although approximately 1,000 people gathered at the [Hotel Astor](/wiki/Hotel_Astor \"Hotel Astor\") in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") for the annual banquet of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation to eulogize the late President on what would have been his 69th birthday in December 1925,[\"Hail Locarno Pact as Achievement of Wilson's Idealism,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876529/hail_locarno_pact_as_achievement_of/) Dec. 29, 1925, pg. 5\\. no prize was granted in that year owing to a failure of the award jury to agree upon a worthy candidate.[\"Wilson Award for Unselfish Act Delayed,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3876659/wilson_award_for_unselfish_act_delayed/) *Oakland Tribune,* Jan. 6, 1926, pg. 10\\.",
"A second medal and $25,000 award was made in 1926 to former Senator, [Republican](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State \"Secretary of State\"), and 1912 [Nobel Peace Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize \"Nobel Peace Prize\") winner [Elihu Root](/wiki/Elihu_Root \"Elihu Root\").[\"Wilson Medal for Root Pleasing to Democrats,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877366/wilson_medal_for_root_pleasing_to/) *The Pantagraph* \\[Bloomington, IL], Dec. 31, 1926, pg. 4\\. Root was recognized for his advocacy of American entry into the League of Nations — regarded by the decision\\-makers of the Wilson Foundation as a fundamental principle of Wilsonian internationalism. Root promptly signed over his prize check to the fledgling magazine *[Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Foreign_Affairs \"Foreign Affairs\"),* which was itself attempting to build an endowment fund to insure its longterm survival.[\"Root's Prize Money to Aid Peace,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877453/roots_prize_money_to_aid_peace/) *Brooklyn Daily Eagle,* Jan. 2, 1927, pg. 26\\.",
"A special donation made possible an essay contest in 1927, in which a pair of $25,000 prizes were offered to female and male authors for the best work on the theme \"What Woodrow Wilson Means To Me.\"[\"Prize Offered for Essays on Wilson: Woodrow Wilson Foundation Will Give $25,000 Each to Young Man, Young Woman,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877417/prize_offered_for_essays_on_wilson_ww/) *Kingsport \\[TN] Times,* Jan. 3, 1927, pg. 1\\. The lucrative essay competition was to be opened to anyone between the ages of 20 and 30, with submissions to close on October 1\\. Once again the prize jury could not agree, however, and no $25,000 first prizes or $1,000 second prizes were granted; instead 14 \"third prizes\" of $100 were paid, a tiny fraction of the purported prize pool.[\"Wilson Essay Prizes Given to Fourteen: No First or Second Places are Allowed by Jury of Award,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877512/wilson_essay_prizes_given_to_fourteen/) *Anniston \\[AL] Star,* Dec. 29, 1927, pg. 1\\. No other medal or award was granted in that year.[\"Lindbergh in Line for Woodrow Wilson Award,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3877560/lindbergh_in_line_for_woodrow_wilson/) *Indianapolis News,* Feb. 14, 1928, pg. 17\\.",
"In 1928 the Wilson Foundation presented its medal and a $25,000 prize to aviator [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh \"Charles Lindbergh\"), ostensibly for his \"contributions to international friendship.\"[\"Another Honor for Lindbergh,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880181/another_honor_for_lindbergh/) *Shamokin \\[PA] News\\-Dispatch,* March 1, 1928, pg. 7\\. Ironically, Lindbergh would later become the face of a most un\\-Wilsonian [isolationism](/wiki/Isolationism \"Isolationism\") in the 1930s. The following year the Wilson Foundation chose to honor the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\"), with the $25,000 prize expected to be used for the construction of a monument to President Wilson at League headquarters in Geneva.[\"Peace Prize is Given to League: Woodrow Wilson Prize for 1929 Goes to Geneva,\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/3880237/peace_prize_is_given_to_league_woodrow/) *Sterling \\[IL] Daily Gazette,* Dec. 28, 1929, pg. 1\\.",
"The organization continued to grant its \"Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Service\" to deserving individuals annually, although whether there was a cash award connected to this honor is unclear.",
"In 1947, an award was created for the \"best book on government, politics, or international affairs.\" It is today awarded by the [American Political Science Association](/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association \"American Political Science Association\") (APSA).[\"Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award\" American Political Science Association](http://www.apsanet.org/content_4343.cfm), accessed 23 December 2008",
""
] |
Military career
---------------
In order to be accepted into the [St. Cyr](/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr "École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr") Special Military School, he served in the [volunteers](/wiki/Military_volunteer "Military volunteer") until 1913\. He failed a medical examination, however, which prevented him from entering the school and was assigned to an infantry regiment instead. He managed to get the support of then\-[War Minister](/wiki/War_Minister "War Minister") [Millerand](/wiki/Alexandre_Millerand "Alexandre Millerand"), a family friend, to get a transfer from the 33rd Infantry Regiment, though, and, after receiving his transfer, he was able to attend St. Cyr. He graduated before the start of World War I and eventually became a lieutenant in the 9th [Cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassiers "Cuirassiers"), stationed in Noyon.
Due to the characteristics of World War I's [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)"), the 9th Cuirassiers were effectively forced to serve as infantry, fighting in the trenches against German military forces holding similar lines in France. By 1918, Touzet du Vigier had risen to the temporary rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 "Captain (land)"). He was then sent to join the 2nd Regiment of [Chasseurs d'Afrique](/wiki/Chasseurs_d%27Afrique "Chasseurs d'Afrique") in Morocco, but stayed only a few months before being transferred back to St. Cyr as an instructor.
### Interwar Period
In 1920, Touzet du Vigier was assigned to the staff of General [Henri Niessel](/wiki/Henri_Niessel "Henri Niessel"), the head of the French military mission to newly independent Poland, which was involved in a [war with Bolshevik Russia](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War "Polish-Soviet War"). Touzet du Vigier's direct superior while training the Polish troops was future French president [Charles De Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_De_Gaulle "Charles De Gaulle").
Throughout the 1920s, Touzet du Vigier, now a permanent captain, served in the 18th Chasseurs and on various staffs, becoming a proponent of the motorization of cavalry. In 1932, as a military instructor and major, he joined the 18th Dragoon Regiment, which was located in [Reims](/wiki/Reims "Reims"), where the 1st Light Mechanized Division was being raised. Touzet du Vigier, in his classes, began to speak more about the mechanization of the French army.
In 1936, he was reassigned to the Joint Tactical Studies Center at [Versailles](/wiki/Versailles_%28city%29 "Versailles (city)"), where he was appointed head of the cavalry section. He continued to lecture others on the importance of mechanized cavalry, and, promoted in 1938 to lieutenant colonel, he was constantly reassigned to areas where his technical knowledge would prove useful.
### World War II
By 1940, he had been given command of the 2nd Armored Cuirassier Regiment. His regiment attempted to block the German [blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg "Blitzkrieg") in Belgium, but, like so many other French units, was forced to retreat. When France fell to the Nazis, Touzet du Vigier, now serving the [Marshal Petain's Vichy regime](/wiki/Vichy_France "Vichy France"), was chosen to head the cavalry department of the army headquarters in Versailles. However, Touzet du Vigier secretly collaborated with the [French resistance](/wiki/French_resistance "French resistance"). His superiors, who ignored his underground activities, sent him to Mascara, [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia "Tunisia"), where he took command of a sub\-division.Biography of Lt. General jean\-Louis\-Alain Touget du Vigier, generals.dk When the [Allies invaded Africa](/wiki/Operation_Torch "Operation Torch"), Touzet du Vigier switched sides to that of De Gaulle's [Free French](/wiki/Free_French "Free French").
Temporarily promoted to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general "Brigadier general"), Touzet du Vigier took command of the 1st Mechanized Brigade and then, in 1943, of the 1st Armored Division. By now a major general, again temporarily, he served under the command of General [Tassigny](/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny "Jean de Lattre de Tassigny"), the commander of the 1st French Army.
Touzet du Vigier's troops were some of the first to reach the Rhine.[http://www.39\-45\.org](http://www.39-45.org) Forum in the Second World War translated In January 1945, he was placed in command of the fortress\-city of [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg "Strasbourg"), which was threatened by a [German offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge"). The city did not fall, however, and Touzet du Vigier remained in this post until the end of the war.
Now a lieutenant general, Touzet du Vigier was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff to General de Tassigny and served in this position until 1947, when he reached the mandatory retirement age.
Touzet du Vigier died in Paris on 16 August 1980\.
|
[
"Military career\n---------------",
"In order to be accepted into the [St. Cyr](/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_militaire_de_Saint-Cyr \"École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr\") Special Military School, he served in the [volunteers](/wiki/Military_volunteer \"Military volunteer\") until 1913\\. He failed a medical examination, however, which prevented him from entering the school and was assigned to an infantry regiment instead. He managed to get the support of then\\-[War Minister](/wiki/War_Minister \"War Minister\") [Millerand](/wiki/Alexandre_Millerand \"Alexandre Millerand\"), a family friend, to get a transfer from the 33rd Infantry Regiment, though, and, after receiving his transfer, he was able to attend St. Cyr. He graduated before the start of World War I and eventually became a lieutenant in the 9th [Cuirassiers](/wiki/Cuirassiers \"Cuirassiers\"), stationed in Noyon.",
"Due to the characteristics of World War I's [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\"), the 9th Cuirassiers were effectively forced to serve as infantry, fighting in the trenches against German military forces holding similar lines in France. By 1918, Touzet du Vigier had risen to the temporary rank of [captain](/wiki/Captain_%28land%29 \"Captain (land)\"). He was then sent to join the 2nd Regiment of [Chasseurs d'Afrique](/wiki/Chasseurs_d%27Afrique \"Chasseurs d'Afrique\") in Morocco, but stayed only a few months before being transferred back to St. Cyr as an instructor.",
"### Interwar Period",
"In 1920, Touzet du Vigier was assigned to the staff of General [Henri Niessel](/wiki/Henri_Niessel \"Henri Niessel\"), the head of the French military mission to newly independent Poland, which was involved in a [war with Bolshevik Russia](/wiki/Polish-Soviet_War \"Polish-Soviet War\"). Touzet du Vigier's direct superior while training the Polish troops was future French president [Charles De Gaulle](/wiki/Charles_De_Gaulle \"Charles De Gaulle\").",
"Throughout the 1920s, Touzet du Vigier, now a permanent captain, served in the 18th Chasseurs and on various staffs, becoming a proponent of the motorization of cavalry. In 1932, as a military instructor and major, he joined the 18th Dragoon Regiment, which was located in [Reims](/wiki/Reims \"Reims\"), where the 1st Light Mechanized Division was being raised. Touzet du Vigier, in his classes, began to speak more about the mechanization of the French army.",
"In 1936, he was reassigned to the Joint Tactical Studies Center at [Versailles](/wiki/Versailles_%28city%29 \"Versailles (city)\"), where he was appointed head of the cavalry section. He continued to lecture others on the importance of mechanized cavalry, and, promoted in 1938 to lieutenant colonel, he was constantly reassigned to areas where his technical knowledge would prove useful.",
"### World War II",
"By 1940, he had been given command of the 2nd Armored Cuirassier Regiment. His regiment attempted to block the German [blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg \"Blitzkrieg\") in Belgium, but, like so many other French units, was forced to retreat. When France fell to the Nazis, Touzet du Vigier, now serving the [Marshal Petain's Vichy regime](/wiki/Vichy_France \"Vichy France\"), was chosen to head the cavalry department of the army headquarters in Versailles. However, Touzet du Vigier secretly collaborated with the [French resistance](/wiki/French_resistance \"French resistance\"). His superiors, who ignored his underground activities, sent him to Mascara, [Tunisia](/wiki/Tunisia \"Tunisia\"), where he took command of a sub\\-division.Biography of Lt. General jean\\-Louis\\-Alain Touget du Vigier, generals.dk When the [Allies invaded Africa](/wiki/Operation_Torch \"Operation Torch\"), Touzet du Vigier switched sides to that of De Gaulle's [Free French](/wiki/Free_French \"Free French\").",
"Temporarily promoted to [brigadier general](/wiki/Brigadier_general \"Brigadier general\"), Touzet du Vigier took command of the 1st Mechanized Brigade and then, in 1943, of the 1st Armored Division. By now a major general, again temporarily, he served under the command of General [Tassigny](/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny \"Jean de Lattre de Tassigny\"), the commander of the 1st French Army.",
"Touzet du Vigier's troops were some of the first to reach the Rhine.[http://www.39\\-45\\.org](http://www.39-45.org) Forum in the Second World War translated In January 1945, he was placed in command of the fortress\\-city of [Strasbourg](/wiki/Strasbourg \"Strasbourg\"), which was threatened by a [German offensive](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\"). The city did not fall, however, and Touzet du Vigier remained in this post until the end of the war.",
"Now a lieutenant general, Touzet du Vigier was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff to General de Tassigny and served in this position until 1947, when he reached the mandatory retirement age.",
"Touzet du Vigier died in Paris on 16 August 1980\\.",
""
] |
Competitive skating career
--------------------------
### Early career
Fernández started skating at the age of six, after his older sister began taking lessons. For a while, he also played soccer, tennis, and ice hockey, but dropped the other sports to focus on skating at age eight. He skated at a small rink in the San Martín district before switching a year later to a rink in [Majadahonda](/wiki/Majadahonda "Majadahonda"). One of his earliest coaches was Carolina Sanz, who stated that he had natural talent but initially lacked discipline.
Fernández landed his first triple jump at the age of 12\. He had to leave Majadahonda after his sister decided to switch to the Jaca skating club, which offered to cover her costs. The youngest Fernández joined his sister in Jaca six months later.
Fernández began skating in senior events in the 2006–2007 season, but failed to qualify for the free skate at the [European Championships](/wiki/2007_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2007 European Figure Skating Championships") and the [World Championships](/wiki/2007_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2007 World Figure Skating Championships") in his debut season.
After two years in Jaca, where he had been teased and discouraged by a lack of improvement in his skating, he returned to Madrid and considered switching to hockey.
### 2008–09 season
In 2008, Fernández attended a summer camp in [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra "Andorra") where Russian coach [Nikolai Morozov](/wiki/Nikolai_Morozov_%28figure_skater%29 "Nikolai Morozov (figure skater)") was an instructor. Morozov offered to train him in the United States and Fernández quickly agreed. Fernández relocated to [Hackensack, New Jersey](/wiki/Hackensack%2C_New_Jersey "Hackensack, New Jersey") in late summer 2008\. Although he shared an apartment with a Spanish coach and Morozov charged him nothing for coaching, his expenses in the United States were between €2,000 and €3,000 a month and he received no financial support from Spain.
Fernández had a breakthrough season in 2008–2009, finishing 11th at the [2009 European Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2009 European Figure Skating Championships") and qualifying an Olympic spot for Spain with his 19th\-place result at the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2009 World Figure Skating Championships"). He was the first Spanish men's skater to qualify for the Olympics since 1956\.
### 2009–10 season
Fernández received his first senior [Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "Grand Prix of Figure Skating") assignment, the [2009 Trophée Eric Bompard](/wiki/2009_Troph%C3%A9e_Eric_Bompard "2009 Trophée Eric Bompard") where he finished 11th. He was eighth at the [2010 European Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2010 European Figure Skating Championships"), earning two spots for Spain in the following year's event. In his first [Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics "Figure skating at the 2010 Winter Olympics"), Fernández placed 16th in the short program, 10th in the free skate, and finished 14th overall. He was the first man in half a century to compete for Spain in Olympic figure skating – since the [1956 Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_1956_Winter_Olympics "Figure skating at the 1956 Winter Olympics") when Dario Villalba competed.
Fernández set a new personal best score on his way to a 12th\-place finish at the [2010 World Championships](/wiki/2010_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2010 World Figure Skating Championships"). He added the 4T to his jump repertoire in the 2009–10 season.
### 2010–11 season
[thumb\|left\|upright\|Fernandez performs his *[Pirates of the Caribbean](/wiki/Pirates_of_the_Caribbean "Pirates of the Caribbean")* program at the [2011 World Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2011 World Figure Skating Championships").](/wiki/File:2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Javier_Fernandez.jpg "2011 Figure Skating WC Javier Fernandez.jpg")
After Morozov moved back to Russia, Fernández trained with him in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow") and also [Daugavpils](/wiki/Daugavpils "Daugavpils") in neighboring Latvia. His assigned events for the [2010–11 ISU Grand Prix](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2010–11 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") season were the [2010 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2010_Skate_Canada_International "2010 Skate Canada International") and the [2010 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2010_Cup_of_Russia "2010 Cup of Russia"). He placed fifth at Skate Canada and ninth at Cup of Russia. At the 2011 [Spanish Championships](/wiki/Spanish_Figure_Skating_Championships "Spanish Figure Skating Championships"), Fernández cut his hand during the warm\-up and received medical attention for twenty minutes, leaving him no time to warm up again. He was unable to defend his title, placing second behind [Javier Raya](/wiki/Javier_Raya "Javier Raya"). Since Spain had two men's slots at the [2011 European Championships](/wiki/2011_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2011 European Figure Skating Championships") due to Fernández' result the previous year, both skaters were sent to [Bern](/wiki/Bern "Bern"), Switzerland. Fernández fell twice in the short program, leaving him in eleventh place, but was able to move up to ninth after the free skate and once again earned two spots for Spain at the next Europeans. At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2011 World Figure Skating Championships"), Fernández landed two different quads, ([toe loop](/wiki/Toe_loop_jump "Toe loop jump") and [Salchow](/wiki/Salchow_jump "Salchow jump")), in the free skate. He earned his first top\-ten finish at the event, giving Spain two spots for the [2012 Worlds](/wiki/2012_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2012 World Figure Skating Championships") men's event.
In June 2011, Fernández confirmed that he was no longer working with Morozov and would temporarily train in Canada with [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser "Brian Orser"). This was due to instability resulting from Morozov's training group moving around frequently and Morozov's focus on [Florent Amodio](/wiki/Florent_Amodio "Florent Amodio"). He said that adding a quad to his short program and improving his basic skating were some of his goals for the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_figure_skating_season "2011–12 figure skating season").
### 2011–12 season
[thumb\|right\|upright\|Fernández at the [2011 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada_International "2011 Skate Canada International").](/wiki/File:2011_Skate_Canada_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez.jpg "2011 Skate Canada Javier Fernández.jpg")
Fernández finished 4th at his first competition of the season, the [2011 Nebelhorn Trophy](/wiki/2011_Nebelhorn_Trophy "2011 Nebelhorn Trophy"). At an interview conducted at the event, he said that he would continue to train in Canada, with David Wilson and [Jeffrey Buttle](/wiki/Jeffrey_Buttle "Jeffrey Buttle") as his choreographers. Fernández and Orser said they were working on saving energy and improving spins, transitions and skating skills.
His assigned events for the [2011–12 Grand Prix](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2011–12 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") season were [Skate Canada](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada "2011 Skate Canada") and [Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia "2011 Cup of Russia"). At Skate Canada, Fernández executed the only clean quadruple jump in the short program to take the lead over [Daisuke Takahashi](/wiki/Daisuke_Takahashi "Daisuke Takahashi") and [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan "Patrick Chan"). He placed second in the free skate and won the silver medal overall, exceeding his combined total personal best by over thirty points. He became the first Spanish skater to win a Grand Prix medal. At the [Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia "2011 Cup of Russia"), he placed fourth in the short program, first in the free skate, and finished second overall with an overall total of 241\.63 points — only 0\.03 behind gold medalist [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") of Japan. Fernández became the first Spanish skater to ever qualify for the [Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") when he qualified for the [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2011–12 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") event. In Quebec City, he was third in the short program and fourth in the long to win the bronze medal, and in so doing, became the first Spaniard to medal at a Grand Prix Final. Fernández reclaimed his national title, winning by over eighty points.
The remainder of the season proved less successful for Fernández. Although considered a medal favorite at the [2012 Europeans](/wiki/2012_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2012 European Figure Skating Championships"), he finished sixth. At the [2012 World Championships](/wiki/2012_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2012 World Figure Skating Championships"), Fernández placed fifth in the short program but dropped to ninth overall after the free skate. After these results, he agreed to perform full run\-throughs of his programs more frequently in practice.
### 2012–13 season
| ISU abbreviations: [Jumps](/wiki/Figure_skating_jumps "Figure skating jumps") | |
| --- | --- |
| T | [Toe loop](/wiki/Toe_loop_jump "Toe loop jump") |
| S | [Salchow](/wiki/Salchow_jump "Salchow jump") |
| Lo | [Loop](/wiki/Loop_jump "Loop jump") |
| F | [Flip](/wiki/Flip_jump "Flip jump") |
| Lz | [Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump "Lutz jump") |
| A | [Axel](/wiki/Axel_jump "Axel jump") |
Fernández started his season at the [2012 Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2012_Finlandia_Trophy "2012 Finlandia Trophy") where he won the bronze medal. His first [Grand Prix](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2012–13 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") event of the season was [Skate Canada](/wiki/2012_Skate_Canada_International "2012 Skate Canada International"), where he beat defending Skate Canada and World champion, [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan "Patrick Chan"), to take the gold medal. Fernández became the first Spaniard to win a gold medal in the Grand Prix series. Despite his fourth place at the [2012 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2012_NHK_Trophy "2012 NHK Trophy"), he qualified for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2012–13 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"). He finished fourth overall at the final after winning the free program with a 4S\-3T jump combination, 4S, and 4T. He became the second European to execute three quads in one program — the first being [Brian Joubert](/wiki/Brian_Joubert "Brian Joubert") who landed a 4T\-2T combination, 4T, and 4S at the [2006 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2006_Cup_of_Russia "2006 Cup of Russia") — and the first European to do so with a quad\-triple combination.
[thumb\|left\|250x250px\|Fernández (center) claims his first Grand Prix gold at the [2012 Skate Canada](/wiki/2012_Skate_Canada_International "2012 Skate Canada International"), with [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan "Patrick Chan") (left) and [Nobunari Oda](/wiki/Nobunari_Oda "Nobunari Oda") (right).](/wiki/File:Skate_Canada_2012_%E2%80%93_Men.jpg "Skate Canada 2012 – Men.jpg")
In December 2012, Fernández won his third national title. At the [2013 European Championships](/wiki/2013_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2013 European Figure Skating Championships") he missed some practice time due to his skates being lost at the airport, but they were found one day before the start of the competition. Second in the short program, Fernández then placed first in the free skate, landing three quads jumps with one in combination. He won the gold medal and became the first Spanish skater to win a European title. He posted a new personal best overall score of 274\.87 points. He later joked, "I have to make sure I lose my skates again!" At this time, Spain had just 14 indoor rinks and 600 registered figure skaters.
At the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2013 World Figure Skating Championships") in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario "London, Ontario"), Fernández placed 7th in the short program and 4th in the free skate. His total score of 249\.06 points won him the bronze medal behind three\-time World champion Patrick Chan and silver medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten "Denis Ten"). He became the first Spanish skater to stand on a World Championships podium in figure skating.
### 2013–14 season
In October 2013, Fernández was invited to skate at the [2013 Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 "Japan Open (figure skating)") as part of Team Europe alongside [Michal Březina](/wiki/Michal_B%C5%99ezina "Michal Březina"), [Adelina Sotnikova](/wiki/Adelina_Sotnikova "Adelina Sotnikova") and [Irina Slutskaya](/wiki/Irina_Slutskaya "Irina Slutskaya"). He scored 176\.91 points in the free program and won the men's event while Team Europe placed third. In the [2013–14 Grand Prix season](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2013–14 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating"), Fernández placed fifth at the [2013 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2013_NHK_Trophy "2013 NHK Trophy") and third at the [2013 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2013_Rostelecom_Cup "2013 Rostelecom Cup"), not enough to qualify for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2013–14 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"). In December, he won his fourth national title.
Fernández chose to use old skates after struggling with two new pairs of boots. He entered the [2014 European Championships](/wiki/2014_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2014 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest"), Hungary, as the defending champion. He placed first in the short program with a clean skate, 6 points ahead of Russia's [Sergei Voronov](/wiki/Sergei_Voronov_%28figure_skater%29 "Sergei Voronov (figure skater)"). His score of 91\.56 was a new personal best at the time – the first occasion he crossed the 90 point mark in international competition. In his free skate, Fernández completed three quads (stepping out of the opening toe loop and the second quad Salchow), a triple Axel and five more triples, but doubled a Lutz and underrotated the second jump of his quad Salchow\-triple toe loop combination. He scored 175\.55 points in the segment, 267\.11 points overall, and won the European title for the second year in a row.
In February, Fernández competed in the [men's singles](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles "Figure skating at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Men's singles") event at the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics "2014 Winter Olympics") in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi "Sochi"), Russia. He was the flag bearer for Spain during the opening ceremony. Earning 86\.98 points in the short program, he placed third behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") and [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan "Patrick Chan"), having stepped out of his quad Salchow and triple Lutz\-triple toe loop combination. In the free skate, he landed a quad toe loop and a quad Salchow – the latter in combination – but tripled a second quad Salchow attempt. He went on to complete another triple Salchow as the last jump of his skate, which – having been repeated in the program – was rated as an invalid element, and received no points. He placed fifth in the free skate segment with 166\.94 points, ultimately coming in fourth, 1\.18 points behind Olympic bronze medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten "Denis Ten") of [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan").
Fernández ended his season at the [2014 World Championships](/wiki/2014_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2014 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama "Saitama, Saitama"), Japan. He skated a clean short program and earned 96\.42 points, improving on his personal best in the segment by 4\.86 points. He stood in third place behind Sochi Olympic champion [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") and [Tatsuki Machida](/wiki/Tatsuki_Machida "Tatsuki Machida") of Japan. He landed three quads in his free skate along with five triples, but singled a planned triple Lutz and added only a double as the second jump of his quad Salchow combination. He placed third in the segment with 179\.51 points for a total score of 275\.93, and repeated as World bronze medalist, behind Hanyu (gold) and Machida (silver).
### 2014–15 season
Fernández originally planned to sit out of the Grand Prix series but decided to take part after he found out that the Final would be held in his home country.
Fernández began his Grand Prix season with a silver medal at the [2014 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2014_Skate_Canada_International "2014 Skate Canada International"), finishing eleven points behind Japan's [Takahito Mura](/wiki/Takahito_Mura "Takahito Mura"). Defeating Russia's [Sergei Voronov](/wiki/Sergei_Voronov_%28figure_skater%29 "Sergei Voronov (figure skater)") by thirteen points, he won gold at the [2014 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2014_Rostelecom_Cup "2014 Rostelecom Cup") and qualified for his third [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2014–15 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"). At the Final, held in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"), Fernández placed fifth in the short program after he fell on his quadruple Salchow jump, doubled the first jump of his planned tiple Lutz\-triple toe loop combination, and stumbled during connecting steps. He scored 79\.18 points, trailing leader [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") by almost 15 points. He recovered to place second in the free skate, again behind Hanyu, with a program that included two quad jumps, six triple jumps, and level\-four spins and footwork, but he tripled a planned quad Salchow jump and singled a triple Lutz jump. He scored 174\.72 points in the free skate, and 253\.90 in total. Overall, he won the silver medal behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu").
[thumb\|271x271px\|Fernández (center) atop the podium at the [2015 World Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 World Figure Skating Championships") with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (left) and [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten "Denis Ten") (right).](/wiki/File:2015_Worlds_Figure_Skating_Championships_Podium.jpg "2015 Worlds Figure Skating Championships Podium.jpg")
At the [2015 European Championships](/wiki/2015_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"), Fernández took the lead in the short program after he stepped out of his quad Salchow and the second jump of his triple Lutz\-triple toe loop combination, but completed a triple Axel jump and level\-four spins and footwork, scoring 89\.24 points in the segment. In the free skate, he completed a quad toe loop and six triple jumps, but fell on a quad Salchow jump attempt and tripled another. Despite the errors, he won the free skate with 173\.25 points, more than 15 points ahead of Russia's [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun "Maxim Kovtun"), and claimed his third consecutive European title with a total of 262\.49 points.
Fernández skated a clean short program at the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), which included a quad Salchow, a triple Lutz\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level\-four spins. But his step sequence was rated level\-three and his triple Axel was not perfect. He earned 92\.74 points and stood in second place, less than 2\.5 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu"). He produced a free skate with two quads, six triples, level\-four spins and level\-three step sequence. His only major error was a fall on a quad Salchow attempt. He placed second in the segment with 181\.16 points – his strongest free skate of the season – more than 5 points ahead of Hanyu and just 0\.67 behind Kazakhstan's [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten "Denis Ten"). Overall, he outscored Olympic champion [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (silver) and Olympic bronze medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten "Denis Ten") (bronze) for the gold medal, having received a total of 273\.90 points. He became the first skater from Spain to win a world title in figure skating.
### 2015–16 season
[thumb\|271x271px\|Fernández (left) as the silver medalist at the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") (right)](/wiki/File:2015_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final_men%27s_singles_medal_ceremonies_IMG_9483.JPG "2015 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final men's singles medal ceremonies IMG 9483.JPG")
During the [2015–16 Grand Prix](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2015–16 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series, Fernández won gold at both of his events, the [2015 Cup of China](/wiki/2015_Cup_of_China "2015 Cup of China") and [2015 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2015_Rostelecom_Cup "2015 Rostelecom Cup"), and qualified for the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"). Second to Hanyu in both segments in Barcelona, he won silver in the Grand Prix Final for the second year in a row. In the free program, he landed his three planned quadruple jumps and scored 201\.43 points, becoming the second skater in history to receive over 200 points in this segment.
Fernández defended his national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2015, attempting and completing two quadruple jumps in the short program for the first time in his career (a quad toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and a quad Salchow).
At the [2016 European Championships](/wiki/2016_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava"), Fernández successfully landed a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, quad Salchow, and triple Axel to score a new personal best of 102\.54 points in the short program. With this score, he became only the second man in history to break 100 points in that segment. With a 14\-point advantage going into the free skate, Fernández landed three quadruple jumps, but fell on the second triple Axel of the program (which he had just added). He scored 200\.23 points, for a combined total of 302\.77, becoming the second skater in history to cross the 300 point mark. He finished ahead of silver medalist [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko "Oleksii Bychenko") by a margin of over 60 points.
Entering the [2016 World Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") as the defending champion, Fernández opened his short program with a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, then fell on his quad Salchow attempt, but recovered to complete a triple Axel, two level\-four spins and level\-four footwork, scoring 98\.52 points and securing second place. After the short program, he could do little practice due to a recurring [bursa](/wiki/Synovial_bursa "Synovial bursa") on the heel of his right foot. On the day of the free skate, the medical team of the event attended to his injury for several hours and helped him to alleviate the problem. Fernández entered the free skate segment with a 12\.04 deficit behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") – the largest point gap at the time between first and second place after the short program in any discipline at a World Championships or Olympic Games under the [ISU judging system](/wiki/ISU_judging_system "ISU judging system"). Fernández completed a clean free skate, which included three quads (a toe loop and two Salchows, one in combination with a triple toe loop), two triple Axels, four more triples as well as difficult spins and level\-four footwork, and scored 216\.41, surpassing his personal best in the segment by 14\.98 points. He reached a total score of 314\.93, also a new personal best. His free skating and total scores were the second and third highest, respectively, under the ISU judging system as of the event. Hanyu made mistakes in his free skate, allowing Fernández to close the point gap and overtake him by a further 19\.76 points to become the 2016 World champion.
According to a May 2016 news article, Fernández's income from shows is greater than his competitive earnings. When he won his second World title, Spain had 17 ice rinks, compared to a hundred in Toronto, and 300 licensed skaters, compared to about 15,000 in France.
### 2016–17 season
Fernández was assigned to the [Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup "2016 Rostelecom Cup") and the [Trophée de France](/wiki/2016_Troph%C3%A9e_de_France "2016 Trophée de France") for the [2016–17 Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series. He trailed Japan's [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") after the short program at the Russian Grand Prix event, having tripled one of his quad attempts. In the free skate, Fernández produced three quads, two triple Axels, and received the first 200\+ long program score of the season: 201\.43\. One week later, he won both the short program and the free skate at the French Grand Prix, despite a fall in each segment of the event – on a quad toe loop in the short program, and a triple Axel in the free skate. He collected 15 points from both events and qualified for the [2016–17 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2016–17 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") with maximum points.
At the Grand Prix Final in [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"), Fernández placed third in the short program with 91\.76 points, after landing a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, but stumbling on his quad Salchow and falling on the triple Axel. In the free skate, he tripled a planned quad toe loop, underrotated and stumbled on a quad Salchow and fell on his second triple Axel. He finished fourth in the free skate with 177\.01 points and dropped to 4th place overall with a total score of 268\.77\. This was the first event since the [2014 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics "2014 Winter Olympics") in which Fernández failed to make the podium.
Fernández won his seventh national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2016\. He landed two quads in his short program (the toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and the Salchow with a hand down) to take the lead, and followed with a free skate which included two quads (a toe loop and a Salchow) and two triple Axels (the first in combination with a triple toe loop – a new element for Fernández).
The [2017 European Championships](/wiki/2017_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 European Figure Skating Championships") were held in [Ostrava](/wiki/Ostrava "Ostrava"). Fernández skated a clean short program including two quads (one in combination with a triple), a triple Axel and all level four elements to claim first place in the segment and achieve a new personal best of 104\.25 points. His free skate included three quads and seven triples, however he over\-rotated his first quad Salchow and fell on the second. Fernández recovered to finish his routine and earned 190\.59 points, winning the free skating segment over Russian [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun "Maxim Kovtun") by over 18 points. Fernández received 294\.84 points overall to win the gold medal, and became only the third men's skater to win five consecutive European titles, following [Ondrej Nepela](/wiki/Ondrej_Nepela "Ondrej Nepela") (1969–73\), and [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 "Karl Schäfer (figure skater)"), who won the title 8 consecutive times (1929–36\).
At the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki"), Fernández set a new personal best in the short program, in which he successfully executed all the jump elements (a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow and a triple Axel), three level four spins, and received maximum grades of execution from every judge for the step sequence. He received 109\.05 points in the short program to take the lead, the third highest mark ever at the time of the event. Fernández started his free skate a quad toe loop, quad Salchow\-triple toe loop and triple Axel\-double toe loop, but fell on another quad Salchow attempt, doubled a planned triple flip and stumbled on the landing of the triple loop to finish 6th in the segment, dropping him to 4th place overall. It was the first time off the podium at a World Championships since 2012\.
### 2017–18 season
Fernández began the season earlier than usual by participating in the [Skate Canada Autumn Classic International](/wiki/2017_CS_Autumn_Classic_International "2017 CS Autumn Classic International"). Although other skaters were now incorporating more quad jumps into their programs, Fernández stuck with two quads in the short program and three in the free program. He received 101\.20 points for his short program after executing a quad toe loop\-double toe loop, a quad Salchow, and a triple Axel, 11\.52 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu"). Fernández popped his first quad Salchow attempt during the free program, which was subsequently downgraded, but landed two clean quads and five triples to receive 177\.87 points. He earned 279\.07 points in total to overtake Hanyu and win the gold medal.
Fernández competed for Team Europe at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 "Japan Open (figure skating)") invitational tournament in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama "Saitama, Saitama"), alongside [Evgenia Medvedeva](/wiki/Evgenia_Medvedeva "Evgenia Medvedeva"), [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova "Alina Zagitova") and [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko "Oleksii Bychenko"). He performed two quads and two triple Axels in his free skate, winning the men's discipline with 189\.47 points. Team Europe narrowly beat Team Japan to win the overall competition.
During the 2017–18 Grand Prix series, Fernández first competed in the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China "2017 Cup of China"). He placed 3rd in the short program after popping his planned quadruple\-triple combination, scoring 90\.57 points. He made several mistakes in the free skate to finish 6th in this segment (162\.49\) and 6th overall (253\.06\). It was revealed after the competition that Fernández had been suffering from stomach problems. His second Grand Prix assignment was the [2017 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2017_Internationaux_de_France "2017 Internationaux de France") in Grenoble. Fernández won the short program with a clean skate for which he received 107\.86 points, the 5th highest short program score on record at the time of the event.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\-grand\-prix\-news/11736\-fernandez\-esp\-soars\-past\-field\-in\-men\-s\-short\-program?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Fernandez (ESP) soars past field in Men's Short Program \- ISU \|last\=Flade \|first\=Tatjana \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-19}} In the free skate, Fernández fell twice and stepped out of the landings of three other jumps to finish 2nd behind [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") in the segment with 175\.85 points. His lead from the short program was enough to win the event overall with 283\.71 points. This was the 7th career Grand Prix title for Fernández.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\-grand\-prix\-news/11749\-fernandez\-esp\-claims\-seventh\-grand\-prix\-gold\-medal\-of\-his\-career?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Fernandez (ESP) claims seventh Grand Prix gold medal of his career \- ISU \|last\=Flade \|first\=Tatjana \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-19}}
In December 2017, Fernández claimed his 7th consecutive and 8th overall senior Spanish national title. He hit all planned jumps in the short program to receive 107\.73 points, and landed two quads during the free skate before falling on the third to score 180\.57 points in the segment and 288\.30 points overall.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men SP \|access\-date\=1 January 2018 \|archive\-date\=30 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630093823/https://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men FS }} His qualification for the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics") was not determined by this event, as it had been announced previously that Fernández would take the first of Spain's two spots in the men's discipline.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/criterios\-de\-seleccion\-de\-patinaje\-artistico\-para\-los\-jjoo/ \|title\=Criterios de selección de patinaje artístico para los JJOO \|work\=Federación Española Deportes de Hielo \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-01 \|language\=es\-ES}} Fernández announced that the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang would be his last Olympic Games.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.es/deportes/abci\-javier\-fernandez\-estos\-ultimos\-juegos\-seguir\-seria\-locura\-201712270817\_noticia.html \|title\=Javier Fernández: "Estos son mis últimos Juegos; seguir sería una locura" \|work\=abc \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-01 \|language\=es\-ES}}
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Fernández at the [2018 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 European Figure Skating Championships"), where he claimed his sixth consecutive title.](/wiki/File:2018_EC_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez_2018-01-19_21-38-40_%282%29.jpg "2018 EC Javier Fernández 2018-01-19 21-38-40 (2).jpg")
At the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), Fernández had a sizable lead following the short program, which included a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level 4 spins, but also a turn out on the landing of the quad Salchow. Fernández received 103\.82 points in the segment, 12\.49 points ahead of nearest rival [Dmitri Aliev](/wiki/Dmitri_Aliev "Dmitri Aliev").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\_Men\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 European Championships \- Men Short Program Judges Details }} Fernández hit two quads, two triple Axels and three other triples to win the free skating, but popped his third quad attempt to a triple and stumbled on a downgraded triple flip. He earned 191\.73 points in the segment,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\_Men\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 European Championships \- Men Free Skating Judges Details }} improving on his previous season's best by nearly 14 points, and won the gold medal with a total of 295\.55 points. Fernández became the first man in 82 years to have won the [European Championships](/wiki/European_Figure_Skating_Championships "European Figure Skating Championships") 6 consecutive times (2013–18\). The other skaters who won at least six consecutive European titles are [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 "Karl Schäfer (figure skater)"), [Sonja Henie](/wiki/Sonja_Henie "Sonja Henie") (1931–36\), [Katarina Witt](/wiki/Katarina_Witt "Katarina Witt") (6 years, 1983–88\), [Marika Kilius](/wiki/Marika_Kilius "Marika Kilius") / [Hans\-Jürgen Bäumler](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_B%C3%A4umler "Hans-Jürgen Bäumler") (1959–64\), and [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina "Irina Rodnina") (with two partners: [Alexei Ulanov](/wiki/Alexei_Ulanov "Alexei Ulanov"), 1969–72 and [Alexander Zaitsev](/wiki/Alexander_Zaitsev_%28figure_skater%29 "Alexander Zaitsev (figure skater)"), 1973–78\).
[thumb\|right\|Fernández (right) after winning the bronze medal at the [2018 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympic_Games "2018 Winter Olympic Games"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") (left)](/wiki/File:2018_Winter_Olympic_Games_Men_Podium.jpg "2018 Winter Olympic Games Men Podium.jpg")
At the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics"), Fernández skated his "Modern Times" short program, executing a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow, a triple Axel and all level 4 elements. He received nine perfect 10\.00 scores in program components and received 107\.58 points,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\_MenSingleSkating\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 Winter Olympics \- Men Single Skating Short Program Scores }} placing him second in that segment behind defending champion Yuzuru Hanyu.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.isu.org/news\-inside\-isu/127\-owg\-figure\-skating\-news/11956\-hanyu\-returns\-in\-style\-to\-competition\-wins\-men\-s\-short\-program?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Hanyu returns in style to competition, wins Men's Short Program \- ISU \|last\=Duran \|first\=Andres \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-16}} In the free skate, Fernández landed a quad toe loop, a quad Salchow in combination, two triple Axels and five more triples, and earned four perfect 10\.00 component marks. His only major mistake was popping a planned second quad Salchow into a double. His free skate performance earned 197\.66 points {{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\_MenSingleSkating\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 Winter Olympics \- Men Single Skating \- Free Skating Scores }} and a total competition score of 305\.24{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/CAT001RS.HTM \|title\=Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 \- Men Single Skating \|website\=www.isuresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-17}} – both season's best for him. Fernández won the bronze medal behind Japan's [Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno"), the first ever figure skating Olympic medal for Spain. In the figure skating gala, Fernández performed his aerobics class exhibition program wearing in a "Super Javi" Spanish\-colored Superman costume.; the program included parodies of [Flashdance](/wiki/Flashdance "Flashdance") and iconic 1980's workout jams.
After the men's individual competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics concluded, Fernández returned to Madrid where he confirmed to Spanish media that he would not be competing at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 World Figure Skating Championships") in Milan. He cited his satisfaction with winning the bronze medal in PyeongChang to finish his season as the reason for the decision. Fernández also stated his intention to leave Canada, where he had trained since 2011, and return to Madrid to promote figure skating in Spain. Although he did not rule out future competitions entirely, he confirmed that he would not participate in another World Championships or Olympics.
### 2018–19 season
With the establishment of the new \+5 / \-5 Grade of Execution (GOE) scale at the start of the season, all previously recorded scores since the 2004 introduction of the [ISU Judging System](/wiki/ISU_Judging_System "ISU Judging System") (IJS) were archived as historical statistics. During the 14 seasons the \+3 / \-3 GOE scale was in use, Fernández achieved the 2nd highest personal best short program score (109\.05\),{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmsp.htm \|title\=Personal Best Scores \|website\=www.isuresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30}} the 3rd highest free skating score (216\.41\){{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmfs.htm \|title\=Personal Best Scores \|website\=www.isuresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30}} and the 4th highest total score (314\.93\).{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmto.htm \|title\=Personal Best Scores \|website\=www.isuresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30}}
Fernández decided to skip the 2018–19 Grand Prix series,{{Cite news \|url\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2018/06/19/javier\-fernandez\-figure\-skating\-retire/ \|title\=Javier Fernandez to skip Grand Prix, still compete next season \|date\=2018\-06\-19 \|work\=OlympicTalk \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=en\-US}} and elected to skate at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 "Japan Open (figure skating)") invitational tournament as his only competition during the first part of the season. He competed for Team Europe at the event, and placed 3rd among men with a score of 157\.86 for his free program. Team Europe won the silver medal overall.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.jsfresults.com/InterNational/2018\-2019/japanopen/index.htm \|title\=Japan Open 2018 \|website\=www.jsfresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30}}
On 28 November, Fernández officially stated that he would retire from competitive skating, with the [2019 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 European Figure Skating Championships") as his last competition.{{Cite news \|url\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2018/11/28/javier\-fernandez\-retire\-figure\-skating/ \|title\=Javier Fernandez confirms figure skating retirement plan \|date\=2018\-11\-28 \|work\=OlympicTalk \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=en\-US}} Speaking about his decision, he expressed the need to think about the level of competition he wanted to be at, because he felt his body and mind were no longer there, which he had to accept. He added that he preferred to retire at the right time, when he was satisfied with his career and had plans for the future, referring among other projects to his Revolution ON Ice skating show, with which he toured Spain in November and December 2018\. The news of his retirement was widely reported in Spanish as well as global media.{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.marca.com/deportes\-invierno/2018/11/28/5bfe6eb022601de3208b45d7\.html \|title\=Javier Fernández confirma que se retirará en 2019 \|work\=Marca.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=es}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://elpais.com/deportes/2018/11/28/actualidad/1543403632\_572315\.html \|title\=Javier Fernández anuncia su retirada tras el Campeonato Europeo de patinaje artístico de 2019 \|last\=EFE \|date\=2018\-11\-28 \|work\=El País \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=es \|issn\=1134\-6582}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://as.com/masdeporte/2018/11/28/polideportivo/1543401914\_131508\.html \|title\=Javier Fernández confirma su retirada deportiva en 2019 \|work\=AS.com \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=es}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.elconfidencial.com/deportes/2018\-11\-28/javier\-fernandez\-se\-retira\-patinaje\_1672830/ \|title\=Javier Fernández se retira del patinaje: dentro de dos meses dirá adiós \|work\=El Confidencial \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=es}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2018/11/29/figure\-skating/two\-time\-world\-champion\-javier\-fernandez\-retire\-european\-championships\-reports/ \|title\=Two\-time world champion Javier Fernandez to retire after European championships: reports \|date\=2018\-11\-29 \|work\=The Japan Times Online \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=en\-US \|issn\=0447\-5763}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.lemonde.fr/sport/article/2018/11/28/le\-patineur\-espagnol\-javier\-fernandez\-annonce\-sa\-retraite\_5389979\_3242\.html \|title\=Le patineur espagnol Javier Fernandez annonce sa retraite \|work\=Le Monde.fr \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=fr\-FR}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://headlines.yahoo.co.jp/article?a\=20181128\-00044991\-theanswer\-spo \|title\=羽生の盟友フェルナンデス、1月欧州選手権を最後に引退へ 平昌五輪銅メダルの27歳（THE ANSWER） \- Yahoo!ニュース \|work\=Yahoo!ニュース \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=ja\-JP}}{{Cite news \|url\=https://www.bild.de/sport/wintersport/wintersport/eiskunstlauf\-weltmeister\-javier\-fernandez\-tritt\-zurueck\-58704430\.bild.html \|title\=Eiskunstlauf: Weltmeister Javier Fernandez tritt zurück \|work\=bild.de \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30 \|language\=de}} It was also confirmed that Fernández would not compete at the Spanish National Championships in December.{{Cite web \|url\=http://hieloespanol.es/1/asi\_sera\_la\_retirada\_de\_javier\_fernandez\_del\_patinaje\_de\_competicion\_3079818\.html \|title\=Así será la retirada de Javier Fernández del patinaje de competición {{!}} HIELO ESPAÑOL\|website\=hieloespanol.es\|language\=es\|access\-date\=2018\-11\-30}}
Fernández returned to his Toronto base in early January to train for three weeks leading up to the [2019 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 European Figure Skating Championships"). As a tribute to his home country, he selected two Spanish themed programs from his earlier repertoire for his final competition: [Malagueña](/wiki/Malague%C3%B1a_%28song%29 "Malagueña (song)") as the short program, and [Man of La Mancha](/wiki/Man_of_La_Mancha "Man of La Mancha") for the free skate.{{Cite web \|url\=http://hieloespanol.es/1/javier\_fernandez\_busca\_un\_broche\_historico\_para\_rematar\_su\_carrera\_3096516\.html \|title\=Javier Fernández busca un broche histórico para rematar su carrera {{!}} HIELO ESPAÑOL\|website\=hieloespanol.es\|language\=es\|access\-date\=2019\-01\-28}}
Fernández placed third in the short program at [European Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 European Figure Skating Championships") with 91\.84 points after stepping out of the landing of the triple Axel and receiving an underrotation call on his quad Salchow.{{cite news \|author1\=Paula Slater \|title\=Kolyada grabs eight\-point lead in Minsk \|url\=https://goldenskate.com/2019/01/kolyada\-grabs\-eight\-point\-lead\-in\-minsk/ \|access\-date\=28 January 2019 \|agency\=Golden Skate \|date\=24 January 2019}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\=%2F\&files\=EFSC19\_PC\_MenSP.pdf \|title\=2019 European Figure Skating Championships \- Men Short Program press conference \|access\-date\=28 January 2019 \|archive\-date\=29 January 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129065604/http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\=%2F\&files\=EFSC19\_PC\_MenSP.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} In the free skate, Fernández landed two quads (with a turnout on the landing of the second jump of his quad\-triple toe loop combination), two triple Axels and three more triples, but missed out on his triple flip attempt. He finished first in the segment with 179\.75 points, receiving the highest free program component scores (94\.20\) since the introduction of the revised scoring system at the start of the season, and rose from third to first overall with 271\.59 points.{{cite news \|author1\=Paula Slater \|title\=Fernanez snags seventh consecutive European title \|url\=https://goldenskate.com/2019/01/fernanez\-snags\-seventh\-consecutive\-european\-title/ \|access\-date\=28 January 2019 \|agency\=Golden Skate \|date\=26 January 2019}} Fernández retired from competitive figure skating with the third highest number of consecutive European titles behind pairs skater [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina "Irina Rodnina") (who had won 10\) and men's skater [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 "Karl Schäfer (figure skater)") (with 8\).
Commenting on what he leaves behind as legacy, Fernández stated: "I think it's good for the world to know that not only skaters from strong countries can appear. I'm from Spain, I’ve got a friend here at my side from Italy \[bronze medalist Matteo Rizzo] and another from Russia \[silver medalist Alexander Samarin]. Everyone has his own story to tell and it's good that everyone does not come from a strong figure skating country because that means more stories to tell to everyone. I hope I can develop skating more in my home country to try and make it bigger, but I hope with the work I was able to do I've made history and in 20 years some people will still recollect my name."{{Cite web \|url\=http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\=%2F\&files\=EFSC19\_PC\_MenFS.pdf \|title\=2019 European Figure Skating Championships \- Men Free Skating press conference }}{{Dead link\|date\=October 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} As for what heritage he would like to leave to skaters, he said: "I would like to leave behind a question to think about. What do they prefer: jumps, skating skills or performance? I would like to see these from more skaters. I think this is what our sport needs – complete skaters who embody something from every aspect of the sport."{{Cite web \|url\=http://ujszo.com/sport/te\-akarod\-otthagyni\-a\-sportot\-vagy\-azt\-akarod\-hogy\-a\-sport\-hagyjon\-ott\-teged \|title\="Te akarod otthagyni a sportot, vagy azt akarod, hogy a sport hagyjon ott téged?" \|website\=ujszo.com \|date\=25 January 2019 \|language\=hu \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-28}}
When asked about what his student's legacy to the sport will be, long\-time coach [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser "Brian Orser") said: "For me and [Tracy](/wiki/Tracy_Wilson "Tracy Wilson") \[Wilson, coaching partner], he is our “poster child,” the very example of what we do with our style of training and coaching. He has done something great for men's skating. He is a perfect model for what male skating should be: athletic and aesthetic, bringing a very personal style. He is also the young boy from Spain who made it. This is something very important and special about him. He promotes skating in his home country, through his shows all over Spain and skating camps. I’ve seen him teaching. He teaches technique and style the way we do. This makes me very proud. He will be an excellent coach."{{Cite web \|url\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2019/01/24/brian\-orser\-gives\-updates\-on\-students\-javier\-fernandez\-yuzuru\-hanyu\-and\-yevgenia\-medvedeva/ \|title\=Brian Orser gives updates on students Javier Fernandez, Yuzuru Hanyu and Yevgenia Medvedeva \|last\=Berlot \|first\=Jean\-Christophe \|date\=2019\-01\-24 \|website\=OlympicTalk \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2019\-01\-28}}
|
[
"Competitive skating career\n--------------------------",
"### Early career",
"Fernández started skating at the age of six, after his older sister began taking lessons. For a while, he also played soccer, tennis, and ice hockey, but dropped the other sports to focus on skating at age eight. He skated at a small rink in the San Martín district before switching a year later to a rink in [Majadahonda](/wiki/Majadahonda \"Majadahonda\"). One of his earliest coaches was Carolina Sanz, who stated that he had natural talent but initially lacked discipline.",
"Fernández landed his first triple jump at the age of 12\\. He had to leave Majadahonda after his sister decided to switch to the Jaca skating club, which offered to cover her costs. The youngest Fernández joined his sister in Jaca six months later.",
"Fernández began skating in senior events in the 2006–2007 season, but failed to qualify for the free skate at the [European Championships](/wiki/2007_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2007 European Figure Skating Championships\") and the [World Championships](/wiki/2007_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2007 World Figure Skating Championships\") in his debut season.",
"After two years in Jaca, where he had been teased and discouraged by a lack of improvement in his skating, he returned to Madrid and considered switching to hockey.",
"### 2008–09 season",
"In 2008, Fernández attended a summer camp in [Andorra](/wiki/Andorra \"Andorra\") where Russian coach [Nikolai Morozov](/wiki/Nikolai_Morozov_%28figure_skater%29 \"Nikolai Morozov (figure skater)\") was an instructor. Morozov offered to train him in the United States and Fernández quickly agreed. Fernández relocated to [Hackensack, New Jersey](/wiki/Hackensack%2C_New_Jersey \"Hackensack, New Jersey\") in late summer 2008\\. Although he shared an apartment with a Spanish coach and Morozov charged him nothing for coaching, his expenses in the United States were between €2,000 and €3,000 a month and he received no financial support from Spain.",
"Fernández had a breakthrough season in 2008–2009, finishing 11th at the [2009 European Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2009 European Figure Skating Championships\") and qualifying an Olympic spot for Spain with his 19th\\-place result at the [2009 World Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2009 World Figure Skating Championships\"). He was the first Spanish men's skater to qualify for the Olympics since 1956\\.",
"### 2009–10 season",
"Fernández received his first senior [Grand Prix](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") assignment, the [2009 Trophée Eric Bompard](/wiki/2009_Troph%C3%A9e_Eric_Bompard \"2009 Trophée Eric Bompard\") where he finished 11th. He was eighth at the [2010 European Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2010 European Figure Skating Championships\"), earning two spots for Spain in the following year's event. In his first [Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2010_Winter_Olympics \"Figure skating at the 2010 Winter Olympics\"), Fernández placed 16th in the short program, 10th in the free skate, and finished 14th overall. He was the first man in half a century to compete for Spain in Olympic figure skating – since the [1956 Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_1956_Winter_Olympics \"Figure skating at the 1956 Winter Olympics\") when Dario Villalba competed.",
"Fernández set a new personal best score on his way to a 12th\\-place finish at the [2010 World Championships](/wiki/2010_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2010 World Figure Skating Championships\"). He added the 4T to his jump repertoire in the 2009–10 season.",
"### 2010–11 season",
"[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\|Fernandez performs his *[Pirates of the Caribbean](/wiki/Pirates_of_the_Caribbean \"Pirates of the Caribbean\")* program at the [2011 World Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2011 World Figure Skating Championships\").](/wiki/File:2011_Figure_Skating_WC_Javier_Fernandez.jpg \"2011 Figure Skating WC Javier Fernandez.jpg\")",
"After Morozov moved back to Russia, Fernández trained with him in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\") and also [Daugavpils](/wiki/Daugavpils \"Daugavpils\") in neighboring Latvia. His assigned events for the [2010–11 ISU Grand Prix](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2010–11 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") season were the [2010 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2010_Skate_Canada_International \"2010 Skate Canada International\") and the [2010 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2010_Cup_of_Russia \"2010 Cup of Russia\"). He placed fifth at Skate Canada and ninth at Cup of Russia. At the 2011 [Spanish Championships](/wiki/Spanish_Figure_Skating_Championships \"Spanish Figure Skating Championships\"), Fernández cut his hand during the warm\\-up and received medical attention for twenty minutes, leaving him no time to warm up again. He was unable to defend his title, placing second behind [Javier Raya](/wiki/Javier_Raya \"Javier Raya\"). Since Spain had two men's slots at the [2011 European Championships](/wiki/2011_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2011 European Figure Skating Championships\") due to Fernández' result the previous year, both skaters were sent to [Bern](/wiki/Bern \"Bern\"), Switzerland. Fernández fell twice in the short program, leaving him in eleventh place, but was able to move up to ninth after the free skate and once again earned two spots for Spain at the next Europeans. At the [2011 World Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2011 World Figure Skating Championships\"), Fernández landed two different quads, ([toe loop](/wiki/Toe_loop_jump \"Toe loop jump\") and [Salchow](/wiki/Salchow_jump \"Salchow jump\")), in the free skate. He earned his first top\\-ten finish at the event, giving Spain two spots for the [2012 Worlds](/wiki/2012_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2012 World Figure Skating Championships\") men's event.",
"In June 2011, Fernández confirmed that he was no longer working with Morozov and would temporarily train in Canada with [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser \"Brian Orser\"). This was due to instability resulting from Morozov's training group moving around frequently and Morozov's focus on [Florent Amodio](/wiki/Florent_Amodio \"Florent Amodio\"). He said that adding a quad to his short program and improving his basic skating were some of his goals for the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_figure_skating_season \"2011–12 figure skating season\").",
"### 2011–12 season",
"[thumb\\|right\\|upright\\|Fernández at the [2011 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada_International \"2011 Skate Canada International\").](/wiki/File:2011_Skate_Canada_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez.jpg \"2011 Skate Canada Javier Fernández.jpg\")",
"Fernández finished 4th at his first competition of the season, the [2011 Nebelhorn Trophy](/wiki/2011_Nebelhorn_Trophy \"2011 Nebelhorn Trophy\"). At an interview conducted at the event, he said that he would continue to train in Canada, with David Wilson and [Jeffrey Buttle](/wiki/Jeffrey_Buttle \"Jeffrey Buttle\") as his choreographers. Fernández and Orser said they were working on saving energy and improving spins, transitions and skating skills.",
"His assigned events for the [2011–12 Grand Prix](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2011–12 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") season were [Skate Canada](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada \"2011 Skate Canada\") and [Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia \"2011 Cup of Russia\"). At Skate Canada, Fernández executed the only clean quadruple jump in the short program to take the lead over [Daisuke Takahashi](/wiki/Daisuke_Takahashi \"Daisuke Takahashi\") and [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan \"Patrick Chan\"). He placed second in the free skate and won the silver medal overall, exceeding his combined total personal best by over thirty points. He became the first Spanish skater to win a Grand Prix medal. At the [Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia \"2011 Cup of Russia\"), he placed fourth in the short program, first in the free skate, and finished second overall with an overall total of 241\\.63 points — only 0\\.03 behind gold medalist [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") of Japan. Fernández became the first Spanish skater to ever qualify for the [Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final](/wiki/Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") when he qualified for the [2011–12](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2011–12 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") event. In Quebec City, he was third in the short program and fourth in the long to win the bronze medal, and in so doing, became the first Spaniard to medal at a Grand Prix Final. Fernández reclaimed his national title, winning by over eighty points.",
"The remainder of the season proved less successful for Fernández. Although considered a medal favorite at the [2012 Europeans](/wiki/2012_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2012 European Figure Skating Championships\"), he finished sixth. At the [2012 World Championships](/wiki/2012_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2012 World Figure Skating Championships\"), Fernández placed fifth in the short program but dropped to ninth overall after the free skate. After these results, he agreed to perform full run\\-throughs of his programs more frequently in practice.",
"### 2012–13 season",
"",
"| ISU abbreviations: [Jumps](/wiki/Figure_skating_jumps \"Figure skating jumps\") | |\n| --- | --- |\n| T | [Toe loop](/wiki/Toe_loop_jump \"Toe loop jump\") |\n| S | [Salchow](/wiki/Salchow_jump \"Salchow jump\") |\n| Lo | [Loop](/wiki/Loop_jump \"Loop jump\") |\n| F | [Flip](/wiki/Flip_jump \"Flip jump\") |\n| Lz | [Lutz](/wiki/Lutz_jump \"Lutz jump\") |\n| A | [Axel](/wiki/Axel_jump \"Axel jump\") |",
"Fernández started his season at the [2012 Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2012_Finlandia_Trophy \"2012 Finlandia Trophy\") where he won the bronze medal. His first [Grand Prix](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2012–13 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") event of the season was [Skate Canada](/wiki/2012_Skate_Canada_International \"2012 Skate Canada International\"), where he beat defending Skate Canada and World champion, [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan \"Patrick Chan\"), to take the gold medal. Fernández became the first Spaniard to win a gold medal in the Grand Prix series. Despite his fourth place at the [2012 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2012_NHK_Trophy \"2012 NHK Trophy\"), he qualified for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2012–13 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"). He finished fourth overall at the final after winning the free program with a 4S\\-3T jump combination, 4S, and 4T. He became the second European to execute three quads in one program — the first being [Brian Joubert](/wiki/Brian_Joubert \"Brian Joubert\") who landed a 4T\\-2T combination, 4T, and 4S at the [2006 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2006_Cup_of_Russia \"2006 Cup of Russia\") — and the first European to do so with a quad\\-triple combination.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|250x250px\\|Fernández (center) claims his first Grand Prix gold at the [2012 Skate Canada](/wiki/2012_Skate_Canada_International \"2012 Skate Canada International\"), with [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan \"Patrick Chan\") (left) and [Nobunari Oda](/wiki/Nobunari_Oda \"Nobunari Oda\") (right).](/wiki/File:Skate_Canada_2012_%E2%80%93_Men.jpg \"Skate Canada 2012 – Men.jpg\")",
"In December 2012, Fernández won his third national title. At the [2013 European Championships](/wiki/2013_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2013 European Figure Skating Championships\") he missed some practice time due to his skates being lost at the airport, but they were found one day before the start of the competition. Second in the short program, Fernández then placed first in the free skate, landing three quads jumps with one in combination. He won the gold medal and became the first Spanish skater to win a European title. He posted a new personal best overall score of 274\\.87 points. He later joked, \"I have to make sure I lose my skates again!\" At this time, Spain had just 14 indoor rinks and 600 registered figure skaters.",
"At the [2013 World Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2013 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario \"London, Ontario\"), Fernández placed 7th in the short program and 4th in the free skate. His total score of 249\\.06 points won him the bronze medal behind three\\-time World champion Patrick Chan and silver medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten \"Denis Ten\"). He became the first Spanish skater to stand on a World Championships podium in figure skating.",
"### 2013–14 season",
"In October 2013, Fernández was invited to skate at the [2013 Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 \"Japan Open (figure skating)\") as part of Team Europe alongside [Michal Březina](/wiki/Michal_B%C5%99ezina \"Michal Březina\"), [Adelina Sotnikova](/wiki/Adelina_Sotnikova \"Adelina Sotnikova\") and [Irina Slutskaya](/wiki/Irina_Slutskaya \"Irina Slutskaya\"). He scored 176\\.91 points in the free program and won the men's event while Team Europe placed third. In the [2013–14 Grand Prix season](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2013–14 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\"), Fernández placed fifth at the [2013 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2013_NHK_Trophy \"2013 NHK Trophy\") and third at the [2013 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2013_Rostelecom_Cup \"2013 Rostelecom Cup\"), not enough to qualify for the [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2013–14 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"). In December, he won his fourth national title.",
"Fernández chose to use old skates after struggling with two new pairs of boots. He entered the [2014 European Championships](/wiki/2014_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2014 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\"), Hungary, as the defending champion. He placed first in the short program with a clean skate, 6 points ahead of Russia's [Sergei Voronov](/wiki/Sergei_Voronov_%28figure_skater%29 \"Sergei Voronov (figure skater)\"). His score of 91\\.56 was a new personal best at the time – the first occasion he crossed the 90 point mark in international competition. In his free skate, Fernández completed three quads (stepping out of the opening toe loop and the second quad Salchow), a triple Axel and five more triples, but doubled a Lutz and underrotated the second jump of his quad Salchow\\-triple toe loop combination. He scored 175\\.55 points in the segment, 267\\.11 points overall, and won the European title for the second year in a row.",
"In February, Fernández competed in the [men's singles](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2014_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_singles \"Figure skating at the 2014 Winter Olympics – Men's singles\") event at the [2014 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics \"2014 Winter Olympics\") in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi \"Sochi\"), Russia. He was the flag bearer for Spain during the opening ceremony. Earning 86\\.98 points in the short program, he placed third behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") and [Patrick Chan](/wiki/Patrick_Chan \"Patrick Chan\"), having stepped out of his quad Salchow and triple Lutz\\-triple toe loop combination. In the free skate, he landed a quad toe loop and a quad Salchow – the latter in combination – but tripled a second quad Salchow attempt. He went on to complete another triple Salchow as the last jump of his skate, which – having been repeated in the program – was rated as an invalid element, and received no points. He placed fifth in the free skate segment with 166\\.94 points, ultimately coming in fourth, 1\\.18 points behind Olympic bronze medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten \"Denis Ten\") of [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\").",
"Fernández ended his season at the [2014 World Championships](/wiki/2014_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2014 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama \"Saitama, Saitama\"), Japan. He skated a clean short program and earned 96\\.42 points, improving on his personal best in the segment by 4\\.86 points. He stood in third place behind Sochi Olympic champion [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") and [Tatsuki Machida](/wiki/Tatsuki_Machida \"Tatsuki Machida\") of Japan. He landed three quads in his free skate along with five triples, but singled a planned triple Lutz and added only a double as the second jump of his quad Salchow combination. He placed third in the segment with 179\\.51 points for a total score of 275\\.93, and repeated as World bronze medalist, behind Hanyu (gold) and Machida (silver).",
"### 2014–15 season",
"Fernández originally planned to sit out of the Grand Prix series but decided to take part after he found out that the Final would be held in his home country.",
"Fernández began his Grand Prix season with a silver medal at the [2014 Skate Canada International](/wiki/2014_Skate_Canada_International \"2014 Skate Canada International\"), finishing eleven points behind Japan's [Takahito Mura](/wiki/Takahito_Mura \"Takahito Mura\"). Defeating Russia's [Sergei Voronov](/wiki/Sergei_Voronov_%28figure_skater%29 \"Sergei Voronov (figure skater)\") by thirteen points, he won gold at the [2014 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2014_Rostelecom_Cup \"2014 Rostelecom Cup\") and qualified for his third [Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2014–15 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"). At the Final, held in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"), Fernández placed fifth in the short program after he fell on his quadruple Salchow jump, doubled the first jump of his planned tiple Lutz\\-triple toe loop combination, and stumbled during connecting steps. He scored 79\\.18 points, trailing leader [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") by almost 15 points. He recovered to place second in the free skate, again behind Hanyu, with a program that included two quad jumps, six triple jumps, and level\\-four spins and footwork, but he tripled a planned quad Salchow jump and singled a triple Lutz jump. He scored 174\\.72 points in the free skate, and 253\\.90 in total. Overall, he won the silver medal behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\").",
"[thumb\\|271x271px\\|Fernández (center) atop the podium at the [2015 World Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 World Figure Skating Championships\") with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (left) and [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten \"Denis Ten\") (right).](/wiki/File:2015_Worlds_Figure_Skating_Championships_Podium.jpg \"2015 Worlds Figure Skating Championships Podium.jpg\")",
"At the [2015 European Championships](/wiki/2015_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"), Fernández took the lead in the short program after he stepped out of his quad Salchow and the second jump of his triple Lutz\\-triple toe loop combination, but completed a triple Axel jump and level\\-four spins and footwork, scoring 89\\.24 points in the segment. In the free skate, he completed a quad toe loop and six triple jumps, but fell on a quad Salchow jump attempt and tripled another. Despite the errors, he won the free skate with 173\\.25 points, more than 15 points ahead of Russia's [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun \"Maxim Kovtun\"), and claimed his third consecutive European title with a total of 262\\.49 points.",
"Fernández skated a clean short program at the [2015 World Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), which included a quad Salchow, a triple Lutz\\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level\\-four spins. But his step sequence was rated level\\-three and his triple Axel was not perfect. He earned 92\\.74 points and stood in second place, less than 2\\.5 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\"). He produced a free skate with two quads, six triples, level\\-four spins and level\\-three step sequence. His only major error was a fall on a quad Salchow attempt. He placed second in the segment with 181\\.16 points – his strongest free skate of the season – more than 5 points ahead of Hanyu and just 0\\.67 behind Kazakhstan's [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten \"Denis Ten\"). Overall, he outscored Olympic champion [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (silver) and Olympic bronze medalist [Denis Ten](/wiki/Denis_Ten \"Denis Ten\") (bronze) for the gold medal, having received a total of 273\\.90 points. He became the first skater from Spain to win a world title in figure skating.",
"### 2015–16 season",
"[thumb\\|271x271px\\|Fernández (left) as the silver medalist at the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") (right)](/wiki/File:2015_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final_men%27s_singles_medal_ceremonies_IMG_9483.JPG \"2015 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final men's singles medal ceremonies IMG 9483.JPG\")",
"During the [2015–16 Grand Prix](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2015–16 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series, Fernández won gold at both of his events, the [2015 Cup of China](/wiki/2015_Cup_of_China \"2015 Cup of China\") and [2015 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2015_Rostelecom_Cup \"2015 Rostelecom Cup\"), and qualified for the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"). Second to Hanyu in both segments in Barcelona, he won silver in the Grand Prix Final for the second year in a row. In the free program, he landed his three planned quadruple jumps and scored 201\\.43 points, becoming the second skater in history to receive over 200 points in this segment.",
"Fernández defended his national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2015, attempting and completing two quadruple jumps in the short program for the first time in his career (a quad toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and a quad Salchow).",
"At the [2016 European Championships](/wiki/2016_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\"), Fernández successfully landed a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, quad Salchow, and triple Axel to score a new personal best of 102\\.54 points in the short program. With this score, he became only the second man in history to break 100 points in that segment. With a 14\\-point advantage going into the free skate, Fernández landed three quadruple jumps, but fell on the second triple Axel of the program (which he had just added). He scored 200\\.23 points, for a combined total of 302\\.77, becoming the second skater in history to cross the 300 point mark. He finished ahead of silver medalist [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko \"Oleksii Bychenko\") by a margin of over 60 points.",
"Entering the [2016 World Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") as the defending champion, Fernández opened his short program with a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, then fell on his quad Salchow attempt, but recovered to complete a triple Axel, two level\\-four spins and level\\-four footwork, scoring 98\\.52 points and securing second place. After the short program, he could do little practice due to a recurring [bursa](/wiki/Synovial_bursa \"Synovial bursa\") on the heel of his right foot. On the day of the free skate, the medical team of the event attended to his injury for several hours and helped him to alleviate the problem. Fernández entered the free skate segment with a 12\\.04 deficit behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") – the largest point gap at the time between first and second place after the short program in any discipline at a World Championships or Olympic Games under the [ISU judging system](/wiki/ISU_judging_system \"ISU judging system\"). Fernández completed a clean free skate, which included three quads (a toe loop and two Salchows, one in combination with a triple toe loop), two triple Axels, four more triples as well as difficult spins and level\\-four footwork, and scored 216\\.41, surpassing his personal best in the segment by 14\\.98 points. He reached a total score of 314\\.93, also a new personal best. His free skating and total scores were the second and third highest, respectively, under the ISU judging system as of the event. Hanyu made mistakes in his free skate, allowing Fernández to close the point gap and overtake him by a further 19\\.76 points to become the 2016 World champion.",
"According to a May 2016 news article, Fernández's income from shows is greater than his competitive earnings. When he won his second World title, Spain had 17 ice rinks, compared to a hundred in Toronto, and 300 licensed skaters, compared to about 15,000 in France.",
"### 2016–17 season",
"Fernández was assigned to the [Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup \"2016 Rostelecom Cup\") and the [Trophée de France](/wiki/2016_Troph%C3%A9e_de_France \"2016 Trophée de France\") for the [2016–17 Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series. He trailed Japan's [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") after the short program at the Russian Grand Prix event, having tripled one of his quad attempts. In the free skate, Fernández produced three quads, two triple Axels, and received the first 200\\+ long program score of the season: 201\\.43\\. One week later, he won both the short program and the free skate at the French Grand Prix, despite a fall in each segment of the event – on a quad toe loop in the short program, and a triple Axel in the free skate. He collected 15 points from both events and qualified for the [2016–17 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2016–17 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") with maximum points.",
"At the Grand Prix Final in [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"), Fernández placed third in the short program with 91\\.76 points, after landing a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, but stumbling on his quad Salchow and falling on the triple Axel. In the free skate, he tripled a planned quad toe loop, underrotated and stumbled on a quad Salchow and fell on his second triple Axel. He finished fourth in the free skate with 177\\.01 points and dropped to 4th place overall with a total score of 268\\.77\\. This was the first event since the [2014 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics \"2014 Winter Olympics\") in which Fernández failed to make the podium.",
"Fernández won his seventh national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2016\\. He landed two quads in his short program (the toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and the Salchow with a hand down) to take the lead, and followed with a free skate which included two quads (a toe loop and a Salchow) and two triple Axels (the first in combination with a triple toe loop – a new element for Fernández).",
"The [2017 European Championships](/wiki/2017_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 European Figure Skating Championships\") were held in [Ostrava](/wiki/Ostrava \"Ostrava\"). Fernández skated a clean short program including two quads (one in combination with a triple), a triple Axel and all level four elements to claim first place in the segment and achieve a new personal best of 104\\.25 points. His free skate included three quads and seven triples, however he over\\-rotated his first quad Salchow and fell on the second. Fernández recovered to finish his routine and earned 190\\.59 points, winning the free skating segment over Russian [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun \"Maxim Kovtun\") by over 18 points. Fernández received 294\\.84 points overall to win the gold medal, and became only the third men's skater to win five consecutive European titles, following [Ondrej Nepela](/wiki/Ondrej_Nepela \"Ondrej Nepela\") (1969–73\\), and [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 \"Karl Schäfer (figure skater)\"), who won the title 8 consecutive times (1929–36\\).",
"At the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\"), Fernández set a new personal best in the short program, in which he successfully executed all the jump elements (a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow and a triple Axel), three level four spins, and received maximum grades of execution from every judge for the step sequence. He received 109\\.05 points in the short program to take the lead, the third highest mark ever at the time of the event. Fernández started his free skate a quad toe loop, quad Salchow\\-triple toe loop and triple Axel\\-double toe loop, but fell on another quad Salchow attempt, doubled a planned triple flip and stumbled on the landing of the triple loop to finish 6th in the segment, dropping him to 4th place overall. It was the first time off the podium at a World Championships since 2012\\.",
"### 2017–18 season",
"Fernández began the season earlier than usual by participating in the [Skate Canada Autumn Classic International](/wiki/2017_CS_Autumn_Classic_International \"2017 CS Autumn Classic International\"). Although other skaters were now incorporating more quad jumps into their programs, Fernández stuck with two quads in the short program and three in the free program. He received 101\\.20 points for his short program after executing a quad toe loop\\-double toe loop, a quad Salchow, and a triple Axel, 11\\.52 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\"). Fernández popped his first quad Salchow attempt during the free program, which was subsequently downgraded, but landed two clean quads and five triples to receive 177\\.87 points. He earned 279\\.07 points in total to overtake Hanyu and win the gold medal.",
"Fernández competed for Team Europe at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 \"Japan Open (figure skating)\") invitational tournament in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama \"Saitama, Saitama\"), alongside [Evgenia Medvedeva](/wiki/Evgenia_Medvedeva \"Evgenia Medvedeva\"), [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova \"Alina Zagitova\") and [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko \"Oleksii Bychenko\"). He performed two quads and two triple Axels in his free skate, winning the men's discipline with 189\\.47 points. Team Europe narrowly beat Team Japan to win the overall competition.",
"During the 2017–18 Grand Prix series, Fernández first competed in the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China \"2017 Cup of China\"). He placed 3rd in the short program after popping his planned quadruple\\-triple combination, scoring 90\\.57 points. He made several mistakes in the free skate to finish 6th in this segment (162\\.49\\) and 6th overall (253\\.06\\). It was revealed after the competition that Fernández had been suffering from stomach problems. His second Grand Prix assignment was the [2017 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2017_Internationaux_de_France \"2017 Internationaux de France\") in Grenoble. Fernández won the short program with a clean skate for which he received 107\\.86 points, the 5th highest short program score on record at the time of the event.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\\-grand\\-prix\\-news/11736\\-fernandez\\-esp\\-soars\\-past\\-field\\-in\\-men\\-s\\-short\\-program?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Fernandez (ESP) soars past field in Men's Short Program \\- ISU \\|last\\=Flade \\|first\\=Tatjana \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19}} In the free skate, Fernández fell twice and stepped out of the landings of three other jumps to finish 2nd behind [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") in the segment with 175\\.85 points. His lead from the short program was enough to win the event overall with 283\\.71 points. This was the 7th career Grand Prix title for Fernández.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\\-grand\\-prix\\-news/11749\\-fernandez\\-esp\\-claims\\-seventh\\-grand\\-prix\\-gold\\-medal\\-of\\-his\\-career?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Fernandez (ESP) claims seventh Grand Prix gold medal of his career \\- ISU \\|last\\=Flade \\|first\\=Tatjana \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19}}",
"In December 2017, Fernández claimed his 7th consecutive and 8th overall senior Spanish national title. He hit all planned jumps in the short program to receive 107\\.73 points, and landed two quads during the free skate before falling on the third to score 180\\.57 points in the segment and 288\\.30 points overall.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men SP \\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630093823/https://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men FS }} His qualification for the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\") was not determined by this event, as it had been announced previously that Fernández would take the first of Spain's two spots in the men's discipline.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/criterios\\-de\\-seleccion\\-de\\-patinaje\\-artistico\\-para\\-los\\-jjoo/ \\|title\\=Criterios de selección de patinaje artístico para los JJOO \\|work\\=Federación Española Deportes de Hielo \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-01 \\|language\\=es\\-ES}} Fernández announced that the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang would be his last Olympic Games.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.es/deportes/abci\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-estos\\-ultimos\\-juegos\\-seguir\\-seria\\-locura\\-201712270817\\_noticia.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández: \"Estos son mis últimos Juegos; seguir sería una locura\" \\|work\\=abc \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-01 \\|language\\=es\\-ES}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Fernández at the [2018 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 European Figure Skating Championships\"), where he claimed his sixth consecutive title.](/wiki/File:2018_EC_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez_2018-01-19_21-38-40_%282%29.jpg \"2018 EC Javier Fernández 2018-01-19 21-38-40 (2).jpg\")",
"At the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), Fernández had a sizable lead following the short program, which included a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level 4 spins, but also a turn out on the landing of the quad Salchow. Fernández received 103\\.82 points in the segment, 12\\.49 points ahead of nearest rival [Dmitri Aliev](/wiki/Dmitri_Aliev \"Dmitri Aliev\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\\_Men\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 European Championships \\- Men Short Program Judges Details }} Fernández hit two quads, two triple Axels and three other triples to win the free skating, but popped his third quad attempt to a triple and stumbled on a downgraded triple flip. He earned 191\\.73 points in the segment,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\\_Men\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 European Championships \\- Men Free Skating Judges Details }} improving on his previous season's best by nearly 14 points, and won the gold medal with a total of 295\\.55 points. Fernández became the first man in 82 years to have won the [European Championships](/wiki/European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"European Figure Skating Championships\") 6 consecutive times (2013–18\\). The other skaters who won at least six consecutive European titles are [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 \"Karl Schäfer (figure skater)\"), [Sonja Henie](/wiki/Sonja_Henie \"Sonja Henie\") (1931–36\\), [Katarina Witt](/wiki/Katarina_Witt \"Katarina Witt\") (6 years, 1983–88\\), [Marika Kilius](/wiki/Marika_Kilius \"Marika Kilius\") / [Hans\\-Jürgen Bäumler](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_B%C3%A4umler \"Hans-Jürgen Bäumler\") (1959–64\\), and [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina \"Irina Rodnina\") (with two partners: [Alexei Ulanov](/wiki/Alexei_Ulanov \"Alexei Ulanov\"), 1969–72 and [Alexander Zaitsev](/wiki/Alexander_Zaitsev_%28figure_skater%29 \"Alexander Zaitsev (figure skater)\"), 1973–78\\).",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Fernández (right) after winning the bronze medal at the [2018 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympic_Games \"2018 Winter Olympic Games\"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") (left)](/wiki/File:2018_Winter_Olympic_Games_Men_Podium.jpg \"2018 Winter Olympic Games Men Podium.jpg\")",
"At the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\"), Fernández skated his \"Modern Times\" short program, executing a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow, a triple Axel and all level 4 elements. He received nine perfect 10\\.00 scores in program components and received 107\\.58 points,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\\_MenSingleSkating\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 Winter Olympics \\- Men Single Skating Short Program Scores }} placing him second in that segment behind defending champion Yuzuru Hanyu.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.isu.org/news\\-inside\\-isu/127\\-owg\\-figure\\-skating\\-news/11956\\-hanyu\\-returns\\-in\\-style\\-to\\-competition\\-wins\\-men\\-s\\-short\\-program?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Hanyu returns in style to competition, wins Men's Short Program \\- ISU \\|last\\=Duran \\|first\\=Andres \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-16}} In the free skate, Fernández landed a quad toe loop, a quad Salchow in combination, two triple Axels and five more triples, and earned four perfect 10\\.00 component marks. His only major mistake was popping a planned second quad Salchow into a double. His free skate performance earned 197\\.66 points {{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\\_MenSingleSkating\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 Winter Olympics \\- Men Single Skating \\- Free Skating Scores }} and a total competition score of 305\\.24{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/CAT001RS.HTM \\|title\\=Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 \\- Men Single Skating \\|website\\=www.isuresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-17}} – both season's best for him. Fernández won the bronze medal behind Japan's [Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\"), the first ever figure skating Olympic medal for Spain. In the figure skating gala, Fernández performed his aerobics class exhibition program wearing in a \"Super Javi\" Spanish\\-colored Superman costume.; the program included parodies of [Flashdance](/wiki/Flashdance \"Flashdance\") and iconic 1980's workout jams.",
"After the men's individual competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics concluded, Fernández returned to Madrid where he confirmed to Spanish media that he would not be competing at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 World Figure Skating Championships\") in Milan. He cited his satisfaction with winning the bronze medal in PyeongChang to finish his season as the reason for the decision. Fernández also stated his intention to leave Canada, where he had trained since 2011, and return to Madrid to promote figure skating in Spain. Although he did not rule out future competitions entirely, he confirmed that he would not participate in another World Championships or Olympics.",
"### 2018–19 season",
"With the establishment of the new \\+5 / \\-5 Grade of Execution (GOE) scale at the start of the season, all previously recorded scores since the 2004 introduction of the [ISU Judging System](/wiki/ISU_Judging_System \"ISU Judging System\") (IJS) were archived as historical statistics. During the 14 seasons the \\+3 / \\-3 GOE scale was in use, Fernández achieved the 2nd highest personal best short program score (109\\.05\\),{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmsp.htm \\|title\\=Personal Best Scores \\|website\\=www.isuresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30}} the 3rd highest free skating score (216\\.41\\){{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmfs.htm \\|title\\=Personal Best Scores \\|website\\=www.isuresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30}} and the 4th highest total score (314\\.93\\).{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/isujsstat/historicbefore1819/pbsmto.htm \\|title\\=Personal Best Scores \\|website\\=www.isuresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30}}",
"Fernández decided to skip the 2018–19 Grand Prix series,{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2018/06/19/javier\\-fernandez\\-figure\\-skating\\-retire/ \\|title\\=Javier Fernandez to skip Grand Prix, still compete next season \\|date\\=2018\\-06\\-19 \\|work\\=OlympicTalk \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} and elected to skate at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 \"Japan Open (figure skating)\") invitational tournament as his only competition during the first part of the season. He competed for Team Europe at the event, and placed 3rd among men with a score of 157\\.86 for his free program. Team Europe won the silver medal overall.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.jsfresults.com/InterNational/2018\\-2019/japanopen/index.htm \\|title\\=Japan Open 2018 \\|website\\=www.jsfresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30}}",
"On 28 November, Fernández officially stated that he would retire from competitive skating, with the [2019 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 European Figure Skating Championships\") as his last competition.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2018/11/28/javier\\-fernandez\\-retire\\-figure\\-skating/ \\|title\\=Javier Fernandez confirms figure skating retirement plan \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-28 \\|work\\=OlympicTalk \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Speaking about his decision, he expressed the need to think about the level of competition he wanted to be at, because he felt his body and mind were no longer there, which he had to accept. He added that he preferred to retire at the right time, when he was satisfied with his career and had plans for the future, referring among other projects to his Revolution ON Ice skating show, with which he toured Spain in November and December 2018\\. The news of his retirement was widely reported in Spanish as well as global media.{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.marca.com/deportes\\-invierno/2018/11/28/5bfe6eb022601de3208b45d7\\.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández confirma que se retirará en 2019 \\|work\\=Marca.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=es}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://elpais.com/deportes/2018/11/28/actualidad/1543403632\\_572315\\.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández anuncia su retirada tras el Campeonato Europeo de patinaje artístico de 2019 \\|last\\=EFE \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-28 \\|work\\=El País \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=es \\|issn\\=1134\\-6582}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://as.com/masdeporte/2018/11/28/polideportivo/1543401914\\_131508\\.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández confirma su retirada deportiva en 2019 \\|work\\=AS.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=es}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.elconfidencial.com/deportes/2018\\-11\\-28/javier\\-fernandez\\-se\\-retira\\-patinaje\\_1672830/ \\|title\\=Javier Fernández se retira del patinaje: dentro de dos meses dirá adiós \\|work\\=El Confidencial \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=es}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2018/11/29/figure\\-skating/two\\-time\\-world\\-champion\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-retire\\-european\\-championships\\-reports/ \\|title\\=Two\\-time world champion Javier Fernandez to retire after European championships: reports \\|date\\=2018\\-11\\-29 \\|work\\=The Japan Times Online \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|issn\\=0447\\-5763}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.lemonde.fr/sport/article/2018/11/28/le\\-patineur\\-espagnol\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-annonce\\-sa\\-retraite\\_5389979\\_3242\\.html \\|title\\=Le patineur espagnol Javier Fernandez annonce sa retraite \\|work\\=Le Monde.fr \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=fr\\-FR}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://headlines.yahoo.co.jp/article?a\\=20181128\\-00044991\\-theanswer\\-spo \\|title\\=羽生の盟友フェルナンデス、1月欧州選手権を最後に引退へ 平昌五輪銅メダルの27歳（THE ANSWER） \\- Yahoo!ニュース \\|work\\=Yahoo!ニュース \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=ja\\-JP}}{{Cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bild.de/sport/wintersport/wintersport/eiskunstlauf\\-weltmeister\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-tritt\\-zurueck\\-58704430\\.bild.html \\|title\\=Eiskunstlauf: Weltmeister Javier Fernandez tritt zurück \\|work\\=bild.de \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30 \\|language\\=de}} It was also confirmed that Fernández would not compete at the Spanish National Championships in December.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://hieloespanol.es/1/asi\\_sera\\_la\\_retirada\\_de\\_javier\\_fernandez\\_del\\_patinaje\\_de\\_competicion\\_3079818\\.html \\|title\\=Así será la retirada de Javier Fernández del patinaje de competición {{!}} HIELO ESPAÑOL\\|website\\=hieloespanol.es\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-30}}",
"Fernández returned to his Toronto base in early January to train for three weeks leading up to the [2019 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 European Figure Skating Championships\"). As a tribute to his home country, he selected two Spanish themed programs from his earlier repertoire for his final competition: [Malagueña](/wiki/Malague%C3%B1a_%28song%29 \"Malagueña (song)\") as the short program, and [Man of La Mancha](/wiki/Man_of_La_Mancha \"Man of La Mancha\") for the free skate.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://hieloespanol.es/1/javier\\_fernandez\\_busca\\_un\\_broche\\_historico\\_para\\_rematar\\_su\\_carrera\\_3096516\\.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández busca un broche histórico para rematar su carrera {{!}} HIELO ESPAÑOL\\|website\\=hieloespanol.es\\|language\\=es\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-28}}",
"Fernández placed third in the short program at [European Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 European Figure Skating Championships\") with 91\\.84 points after stepping out of the landing of the triple Axel and receiving an underrotation call on his quad Salchow.{{cite news \\|author1\\=Paula Slater \\|title\\=Kolyada grabs eight\\-point lead in Minsk \\|url\\=https://goldenskate.com/2019/01/kolyada\\-grabs\\-eight\\-point\\-lead\\-in\\-minsk/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2019 \\|agency\\=Golden Skate \\|date\\=24 January 2019}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\\=%2F\\&files\\=EFSC19\\_PC\\_MenSP.pdf \\|title\\=2019 European Figure Skating Championships \\- Men Short Program press conference \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 January 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129065604/http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\\=%2F\\&files\\=EFSC19\\_PC\\_MenSP.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In the free skate, Fernández landed two quads (with a turnout on the landing of the second jump of his quad\\-triple toe loop combination), two triple Axels and three more triples, but missed out on his triple flip attempt. He finished first in the segment with 179\\.75 points, receiving the highest free program component scores (94\\.20\\) since the introduction of the revised scoring system at the start of the season, and rose from third to first overall with 271\\.59 points.{{cite news \\|author1\\=Paula Slater \\|title\\=Fernanez snags seventh consecutive European title \\|url\\=https://goldenskate.com/2019/01/fernanez\\-snags\\-seventh\\-consecutive\\-european\\-title/ \\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2019 \\|agency\\=Golden Skate \\|date\\=26 January 2019}} Fernández retired from competitive figure skating with the third highest number of consecutive European titles behind pairs skater [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina \"Irina Rodnina\") (who had won 10\\) and men's skater [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 \"Karl Schäfer (figure skater)\") (with 8\\).",
"Commenting on what he leaves behind as legacy, Fernández stated: \"I think it's good for the world to know that not only skaters from strong countries can appear. I'm from Spain, I’ve got a friend here at my side from Italy \\[bronze medalist Matteo Rizzo] and another from Russia \\[silver medalist Alexander Samarin]. Everyone has his own story to tell and it's good that everyone does not come from a strong figure skating country because that means more stories to tell to everyone. I hope I can develop skating more in my home country to try and make it bigger, but I hope with the work I was able to do I've made history and in 20 years some people will still recollect my name.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://cloud.isu.org/index.php/s/RTknt6Dd7LyqX0c/download?path\\=%2F\\&files\\=EFSC19\\_PC\\_MenFS.pdf \\|title\\=2019 European Figure Skating Championships \\- Men Free Skating press conference }}{{Dead link\\|date\\=October 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} As for what heritage he would like to leave to skaters, he said: \"I would like to leave behind a question to think about. What do they prefer: jumps, skating skills or performance? I would like to see these from more skaters. I think this is what our sport needs – complete skaters who embody something from every aspect of the sport.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://ujszo.com/sport/te\\-akarod\\-otthagyni\\-a\\-sportot\\-vagy\\-azt\\-akarod\\-hogy\\-a\\-sport\\-hagyjon\\-ott\\-teged \\|title\\=\"Te akarod otthagyni a sportot, vagy azt akarod, hogy a sport hagyjon ott téged?\" \\|website\\=ujszo.com \\|date\\=25 January 2019 \\|language\\=hu \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-28}}",
"When asked about what his student's legacy to the sport will be, long\\-time coach [Brian Orser](/wiki/Brian_Orser \"Brian Orser\") said: \"For me and [Tracy](/wiki/Tracy_Wilson \"Tracy Wilson\") \\[Wilson, coaching partner], he is our “poster child,” the very example of what we do with our style of training and coaching. He has done something great for men's skating. He is a perfect model for what male skating should be: athletic and aesthetic, bringing a very personal style. He is also the young boy from Spain who made it. This is something very important and special about him. He promotes skating in his home country, through his shows all over Spain and skating camps. I’ve seen him teaching. He teaches technique and style the way we do. This makes me very proud. He will be an excellent coach.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://olympics.nbcsports.com/2019/01/24/brian\\-orser\\-gives\\-updates\\-on\\-students\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-yuzuru\\-hanyu\\-and\\-yevgenia\\-medvedeva/ \\|title\\=Brian Orser gives updates on students Javier Fernandez, Yuzuru Hanyu and Yevgenia Medvedeva \\|last\\=Berlot \\|first\\=Jean\\-Christophe \\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-24 \\|website\\=OlympicTalk \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-01\\-28}}",
""
] |
### 2015–16 season
[thumb\|271x271px\|Fernández (left) as the silver medalist at the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") (right)](/wiki/File:2015_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final_men%27s_singles_medal_ceremonies_IMG_9483.JPG "2015 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final men's singles medal ceremonies IMG 9483.JPG")
During the [2015–16 Grand Prix](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2015–16 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series, Fernández won gold at both of his events, the [2015 Cup of China](/wiki/2015_Cup_of_China "2015 Cup of China") and [2015 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2015_Rostelecom_Cup "2015 Rostelecom Cup"), and qualified for the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona"). Second to Hanyu in both segments in Barcelona, he won silver in the Grand Prix Final for the second year in a row. In the free program, he landed his three planned quadruple jumps and scored 201\.43 points, becoming the second skater in history to receive over 200 points in this segment.
Fernández defended his national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2015, attempting and completing two quadruple jumps in the short program for the first time in his career (a quad toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and a quad Salchow).
At the [2016 European Championships](/wiki/2016_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava"), Fernández successfully landed a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, quad Salchow, and triple Axel to score a new personal best of 102\.54 points in the short program. With this score, he became only the second man in history to break 100 points in that segment. With a 14\-point advantage going into the free skate, Fernández landed three quadruple jumps, but fell on the second triple Axel of the program (which he had just added). He scored 200\.23 points, for a combined total of 302\.77, becoming the second skater in history to cross the 300 point mark. He finished ahead of silver medalist [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko "Oleksii Bychenko") by a margin of over 60 points.
Entering the [2016 World Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston") as the defending champion, Fernández opened his short program with a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, then fell on his quad Salchow attempt, but recovered to complete a triple Axel, two level\-four spins and level\-four footwork, scoring 98\.52 points and securing second place. After the short program, he could do little practice due to a recurring [bursa](/wiki/Synovial_bursa "Synovial bursa") on the heel of his right foot. On the day of the free skate, the medical team of the event attended to his injury for several hours and helped him to alleviate the problem. Fernández entered the free skate segment with a 12\.04 deficit behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") – the largest point gap at the time between first and second place after the short program in any discipline at a World Championships or Olympic Games under the [ISU judging system](/wiki/ISU_judging_system "ISU judging system"). Fernández completed a clean free skate, which included three quads (a toe loop and two Salchows, one in combination with a triple toe loop), two triple Axels, four more triples as well as difficult spins and level\-four footwork, and scored 216\.41, surpassing his personal best in the segment by 14\.98 points. He reached a total score of 314\.93, also a new personal best. His free skating and total scores were the second and third highest, respectively, under the ISU judging system as of the event. Hanyu made mistakes in his free skate, allowing Fernández to close the point gap and overtake him by a further 19\.76 points to become the 2016 World champion.
According to a May 2016 news article, Fernández's income from shows is greater than his competitive earnings. When he won his second World title, Spain had 17 ice rinks, compared to a hundred in Toronto, and 300 licensed skaters, compared to about 15,000 in France.
|
[
"### 2015–16 season",
"[thumb\\|271x271px\\|Fernández (left) as the silver medalist at the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") (right)](/wiki/File:2015_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final_men%27s_singles_medal_ceremonies_IMG_9483.JPG \"2015 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final men's singles medal ceremonies IMG 9483.JPG\")",
"During the [2015–16 Grand Prix](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2015–16 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series, Fernández won gold at both of his events, the [2015 Cup of China](/wiki/2015_Cup_of_China \"2015 Cup of China\") and [2015 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2015_Rostelecom_Cup \"2015 Rostelecom Cup\"), and qualified for the [2015–16 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2015–16 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") in [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\"). Second to Hanyu in both segments in Barcelona, he won silver in the Grand Prix Final for the second year in a row. In the free program, he landed his three planned quadruple jumps and scored 201\\.43 points, becoming the second skater in history to receive over 200 points in this segment.",
"Fernández defended his national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2015, attempting and completing two quadruple jumps in the short program for the first time in his career (a quad toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and a quad Salchow).",
"At the [2016 European Championships](/wiki/2016_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Bratislava](/wiki/Bratislava \"Bratislava\"), Fernández successfully landed a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, quad Salchow, and triple Axel to score a new personal best of 102\\.54 points in the short program. With this score, he became only the second man in history to break 100 points in that segment. With a 14\\-point advantage going into the free skate, Fernández landed three quadruple jumps, but fell on the second triple Axel of the program (which he had just added). He scored 200\\.23 points, for a combined total of 302\\.77, becoming the second skater in history to cross the 300 point mark. He finished ahead of silver medalist [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko \"Oleksii Bychenko\") by a margin of over 60 points.",
"Entering the [2016 World Championships](/wiki/2016_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\") as the defending champion, Fernández opened his short program with a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, then fell on his quad Salchow attempt, but recovered to complete a triple Axel, two level\\-four spins and level\\-four footwork, scoring 98\\.52 points and securing second place. After the short program, he could do little practice due to a recurring [bursa](/wiki/Synovial_bursa \"Synovial bursa\") on the heel of his right foot. On the day of the free skate, the medical team of the event attended to his injury for several hours and helped him to alleviate the problem. Fernández entered the free skate segment with a 12\\.04 deficit behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") – the largest point gap at the time between first and second place after the short program in any discipline at a World Championships or Olympic Games under the [ISU judging system](/wiki/ISU_judging_system \"ISU judging system\"). Fernández completed a clean free skate, which included three quads (a toe loop and two Salchows, one in combination with a triple toe loop), two triple Axels, four more triples as well as difficult spins and level\\-four footwork, and scored 216\\.41, surpassing his personal best in the segment by 14\\.98 points. He reached a total score of 314\\.93, also a new personal best. His free skating and total scores were the second and third highest, respectively, under the ISU judging system as of the event. Hanyu made mistakes in his free skate, allowing Fernández to close the point gap and overtake him by a further 19\\.76 points to become the 2016 World champion.",
"According to a May 2016 news article, Fernández's income from shows is greater than his competitive earnings. When he won his second World title, Spain had 17 ice rinks, compared to a hundred in Toronto, and 300 licensed skaters, compared to about 15,000 in France.",
""
] |
### 2016–17 season
Fernández was assigned to the [Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup "2016 Rostelecom Cup") and the [Trophée de France](/wiki/2016_Troph%C3%A9e_de_France "2016 Trophée de France") for the [2016–17 Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series. He trailed Japan's [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") after the short program at the Russian Grand Prix event, having tripled one of his quad attempts. In the free skate, Fernández produced three quads, two triple Axels, and received the first 200\+ long program score of the season: 201\.43\. One week later, he won both the short program and the free skate at the French Grand Prix, despite a fall in each segment of the event – on a quad toe loop in the short program, and a triple Axel in the free skate. He collected 15 points from both events and qualified for the [2016–17 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2016–17 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") with maximum points.
At the Grand Prix Final in [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"), Fernández placed third in the short program with 91\.76 points, after landing a quad toe loop\-triple toe loop combination, but stumbling on his quad Salchow and falling on the triple Axel. In the free skate, he tripled a planned quad toe loop, underrotated and stumbled on a quad Salchow and fell on his second triple Axel. He finished fourth in the free skate with 177\.01 points and dropped to 4th place overall with a total score of 268\.77\. This was the first event since the [2014 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics "2014 Winter Olympics") in which Fernández failed to make the podium.
Fernández won his seventh national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2016\. He landed two quads in his short program (the toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and the Salchow with a hand down) to take the lead, and followed with a free skate which included two quads (a toe loop and a Salchow) and two triple Axels (the first in combination with a triple toe loop – a new element for Fernández).
The [2017 European Championships](/wiki/2017_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 European Figure Skating Championships") were held in [Ostrava](/wiki/Ostrava "Ostrava"). Fernández skated a clean short program including two quads (one in combination with a triple), a triple Axel and all level four elements to claim first place in the segment and achieve a new personal best of 104\.25 points. His free skate included three quads and seven triples, however he over\-rotated his first quad Salchow and fell on the second. Fernández recovered to finish his routine and earned 190\.59 points, winning the free skating segment over Russian [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun "Maxim Kovtun") by over 18 points. Fernández received 294\.84 points overall to win the gold medal, and became only the third men's skater to win five consecutive European titles, following [Ondrej Nepela](/wiki/Ondrej_Nepela "Ondrej Nepela") (1969–73\), and [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 "Karl Schäfer (figure skater)"), who won the title 8 consecutive times (1929–36\).
At the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki "Helsinki"), Fernández set a new personal best in the short program, in which he successfully executed all the jump elements (a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow and a triple Axel), three level four spins, and received maximum grades of execution from every judge for the step sequence. He received 109\.05 points in the short program to take the lead, the third highest mark ever at the time of the event. Fernández started his free skate a quad toe loop, quad Salchow\-triple toe loop and triple Axel\-double toe loop, but fell on another quad Salchow attempt, doubled a planned triple flip and stumbled on the landing of the triple loop to finish 6th in the segment, dropping him to 4th place overall. It was the first time off the podium at a World Championships since 2012\.
|
[
"### 2016–17 season",
"Fernández was assigned to the [Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup \"2016 Rostelecom Cup\") and the [Trophée de France](/wiki/2016_Troph%C3%A9e_de_France \"2016 Trophée de France\") for the [2016–17 Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series. He trailed Japan's [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") after the short program at the Russian Grand Prix event, having tripled one of his quad attempts. In the free skate, Fernández produced three quads, two triple Axels, and received the first 200\\+ long program score of the season: 201\\.43\\. One week later, he won both the short program and the free skate at the French Grand Prix, despite a fall in each segment of the event – on a quad toe loop in the short program, and a triple Axel in the free skate. He collected 15 points from both events and qualified for the [2016–17 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2016–17 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") with maximum points.",
"At the Grand Prix Final in [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"), Fernández placed third in the short program with 91\\.76 points, after landing a quad toe loop\\-triple toe loop combination, but stumbling on his quad Salchow and falling on the triple Axel. In the free skate, he tripled a planned quad toe loop, underrotated and stumbled on a quad Salchow and fell on his second triple Axel. He finished fourth in the free skate with 177\\.01 points and dropped to 4th place overall with a total score of 268\\.77\\. This was the first event since the [2014 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics \"2014 Winter Olympics\") in which Fernández failed to make the podium.",
"Fernández won his seventh national title at the Spanish Championships in December 2016\\. He landed two quads in his short program (the toe loop in combination with a triple toe loop, and the Salchow with a hand down) to take the lead, and followed with a free skate which included two quads (a toe loop and a Salchow) and two triple Axels (the first in combination with a triple toe loop – a new element for Fernández).",
"The [2017 European Championships](/wiki/2017_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 European Figure Skating Championships\") were held in [Ostrava](/wiki/Ostrava \"Ostrava\"). Fernández skated a clean short program including two quads (one in combination with a triple), a triple Axel and all level four elements to claim first place in the segment and achieve a new personal best of 104\\.25 points. His free skate included three quads and seven triples, however he over\\-rotated his first quad Salchow and fell on the second. Fernández recovered to finish his routine and earned 190\\.59 points, winning the free skating segment over Russian [Maxim Kovtun](/wiki/Maxim_Kovtun \"Maxim Kovtun\") by over 18 points. Fernández received 294\\.84 points overall to win the gold medal, and became only the third men's skater to win five consecutive European titles, following [Ondrej Nepela](/wiki/Ondrej_Nepela \"Ondrej Nepela\") (1969–73\\), and [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 \"Karl Schäfer (figure skater)\"), who won the title 8 consecutive times (1929–36\\).",
"At the [2017 World Championships](/wiki/2017_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Helsinki](/wiki/Helsinki \"Helsinki\"), Fernández set a new personal best in the short program, in which he successfully executed all the jump elements (a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow and a triple Axel), three level four spins, and received maximum grades of execution from every judge for the step sequence. He received 109\\.05 points in the short program to take the lead, the third highest mark ever at the time of the event. Fernández started his free skate a quad toe loop, quad Salchow\\-triple toe loop and triple Axel\\-double toe loop, but fell on another quad Salchow attempt, doubled a planned triple flip and stumbled on the landing of the triple loop to finish 6th in the segment, dropping him to 4th place overall. It was the first time off the podium at a World Championships since 2012\\.",
""
] |
### 2017–18 season
Fernández began the season earlier than usual by participating in the [Skate Canada Autumn Classic International](/wiki/2017_CS_Autumn_Classic_International "2017 CS Autumn Classic International"). Although other skaters were now incorporating more quad jumps into their programs, Fernández stuck with two quads in the short program and three in the free program. He received 101\.20 points for his short program after executing a quad toe loop\-double toe loop, a quad Salchow, and a triple Axel, 11\.52 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu"). Fernández popped his first quad Salchow attempt during the free program, which was subsequently downgraded, but landed two clean quads and five triples to receive 177\.87 points. He earned 279\.07 points in total to overtake Hanyu and win the gold medal.
Fernández competed for Team Europe at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 "Japan Open (figure skating)") invitational tournament in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama "Saitama, Saitama"), alongside [Evgenia Medvedeva](/wiki/Evgenia_Medvedeva "Evgenia Medvedeva"), [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova "Alina Zagitova") and [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko "Oleksii Bychenko"). He performed two quads and two triple Axels in his free skate, winning the men's discipline with 189\.47 points. Team Europe narrowly beat Team Japan to win the overall competition.
During the 2017–18 Grand Prix series, Fernández first competed in the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China "2017 Cup of China"). He placed 3rd in the short program after popping his planned quadruple\-triple combination, scoring 90\.57 points. He made several mistakes in the free skate to finish 6th in this segment (162\.49\) and 6th overall (253\.06\). It was revealed after the competition that Fernández had been suffering from stomach problems. His second Grand Prix assignment was the [2017 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2017_Internationaux_de_France "2017 Internationaux de France") in Grenoble. Fernández won the short program with a clean skate for which he received 107\.86 points, the 5th highest short program score on record at the time of the event.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\-grand\-prix\-news/11736\-fernandez\-esp\-soars\-past\-field\-in\-men\-s\-short\-program?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Fernandez (ESP) soars past field in Men's Short Program \- ISU \|last\=Flade \|first\=Tatjana \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-19}} In the free skate, Fernández fell twice and stepped out of the landings of three other jumps to finish 2nd behind [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") in the segment with 175\.85 points. His lead from the short program was enough to win the event overall with 283\.71 points. This was the 7th career Grand Prix title for Fernández.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\-grand\-prix\-news/11749\-fernandez\-esp\-claims\-seventh\-grand\-prix\-gold\-medal\-of\-his\-career?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Fernandez (ESP) claims seventh Grand Prix gold medal of his career \- ISU \|last\=Flade \|first\=Tatjana \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2017\-11\-19}}
In December 2017, Fernández claimed his 7th consecutive and 8th overall senior Spanish national title. He hit all planned jumps in the short program to receive 107\.73 points, and landed two quads during the free skate before falling on the third to score 180\.57 points in the segment and 288\.30 points overall.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men SP \|access\-date\=1 January 2018 \|archive\-date\=30 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630093823/https://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\_2017/CESP2017\_SeniorMasculino\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men FS }} His qualification for the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics") was not determined by this event, as it had been announced previously that Fernández would take the first of Spain's two spots in the men's discipline.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.fedhielo.com/criterios\-de\-seleccion\-de\-patinaje\-artistico\-para\-los\-jjoo/ \|title\=Criterios de selección de patinaje artístico para los JJOO \|work\=Federación Española Deportes de Hielo \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-01 \|language\=es\-ES}} Fernández announced that the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang would be his last Olympic Games.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.abc.es/deportes/abci\-javier\-fernandez\-estos\-ultimos\-juegos\-seguir\-seria\-locura\-201712270817\_noticia.html \|title\=Javier Fernández: "Estos son mis últimos Juegos; seguir sería una locura" \|work\=abc \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-01 \|language\=es\-ES}}
[thumb\|left\|200px\|Fernández at the [2018 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 European Figure Skating Championships"), where he claimed his sixth consecutive title.](/wiki/File:2018_EC_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez_2018-01-19_21-38-40_%282%29.jpg "2018 EC Javier Fernández 2018-01-19 21-38-40 (2).jpg")
At the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 European Figure Skating Championships") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), Fernández had a sizable lead following the short program, which included a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level 4 spins, but also a turn out on the landing of the quad Salchow. Fernández received 103\.82 points in the segment, 12\.49 points ahead of nearest rival [Dmitri Aliev](/wiki/Dmitri_Aliev "Dmitri Aliev").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\_Men\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 European Championships \- Men Short Program Judges Details }} Fernández hit two quads, two triple Axels and three other triples to win the free skating, but popped his third quad attempt to a triple and stumbled on a downgraded triple flip. He earned 191\.73 points in the segment,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\_Men\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 European Championships \- Men Free Skating Judges Details }} improving on his previous season's best by nearly 14 points, and won the gold medal with a total of 295\.55 points. Fernández became the first man in 82 years to have won the [European Championships](/wiki/European_Figure_Skating_Championships "European Figure Skating Championships") 6 consecutive times (2013–18\). The other skaters who won at least six consecutive European titles are [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 "Karl Schäfer (figure skater)"), [Sonja Henie](/wiki/Sonja_Henie "Sonja Henie") (1931–36\), [Katarina Witt](/wiki/Katarina_Witt "Katarina Witt") (6 years, 1983–88\), [Marika Kilius](/wiki/Marika_Kilius "Marika Kilius") / [Hans\-Jürgen Bäumler](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_B%C3%A4umler "Hans-Jürgen Bäumler") (1959–64\), and [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina "Irina Rodnina") (with two partners: [Alexei Ulanov](/wiki/Alexei_Ulanov "Alexei Ulanov"), 1969–72 and [Alexander Zaitsev](/wiki/Alexander_Zaitsev_%28figure_skater%29 "Alexander Zaitsev (figure skater)"), 1973–78\).
[thumb\|right\|Fernández (right) after winning the bronze medal at the [2018 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympic_Games "2018 Winter Olympic Games"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno") (left)](/wiki/File:2018_Winter_Olympic_Games_Men_Podium.jpg "2018 Winter Olympic Games Men Podium.jpg")
At the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics"), Fernández skated his "Modern Times" short program, executing a quad\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow, a triple Axel and all level 4 elements. He received nine perfect 10\.00 scores in program components and received 107\.58 points,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\_MenSingleSkating\_SP\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 Winter Olympics \- Men Single Skating Short Program Scores }} placing him second in that segment behind defending champion Yuzuru Hanyu.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.isu.org/news\-inside\-isu/127\-owg\-figure\-skating\-news/11956\-hanyu\-returns\-in\-style\-to\-competition\-wins\-men\-s\-short\-program?templateParam\=15 \|title\=Hanyu returns in style to competition, wins Men's Short Program \- ISU \|last\=Duran \|first\=Andres \|website\=www.isu.org \|language\=en\-gb \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-16}} In the free skate, Fernández landed a quad toe loop, a quad Salchow in combination, two triple Axels and five more triples, and earned four perfect 10\.00 component marks. His only major mistake was popping a planned second quad Salchow into a double. His free skate performance earned 197\.66 points {{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\_MenSingleSkating\_FS\_Scores.pdf \|title\=2018 Winter Olympics \- Men Single Skating \- Free Skating Scores }} and a total competition score of 305\.24{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/CAT001RS.HTM \|title\=Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 \- Men Single Skating \|website\=www.isuresults.com \|access\-date\=2018\-02\-17}} – both season's best for him. Fernández won the bronze medal behind Japan's [Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu "Yuzuru Hanyu") and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno "Shoma Uno"), the first ever figure skating Olympic medal for Spain. In the figure skating gala, Fernández performed his aerobics class exhibition program wearing in a "Super Javi" Spanish\-colored Superman costume.; the program included parodies of [Flashdance](/wiki/Flashdance "Flashdance") and iconic 1980's workout jams.
After the men's individual competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics concluded, Fernández returned to Madrid where he confirmed to Spanish media that he would not be competing at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 World Figure Skating Championships") in Milan. He cited his satisfaction with winning the bronze medal in PyeongChang to finish his season as the reason for the decision. Fernández also stated his intention to leave Canada, where he had trained since 2011, and return to Madrid to promote figure skating in Spain. Although he did not rule out future competitions entirely, he confirmed that he would not participate in another World Championships or Olympics.
|
[
"### 2017–18 season",
"Fernández began the season earlier than usual by participating in the [Skate Canada Autumn Classic International](/wiki/2017_CS_Autumn_Classic_International \"2017 CS Autumn Classic International\"). Although other skaters were now incorporating more quad jumps into their programs, Fernández stuck with two quads in the short program and three in the free program. He received 101\\.20 points for his short program after executing a quad toe loop\\-double toe loop, a quad Salchow, and a triple Axel, 11\\.52 points behind [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\"). Fernández popped his first quad Salchow attempt during the free program, which was subsequently downgraded, but landed two clean quads and five triples to receive 177\\.87 points. He earned 279\\.07 points in total to overtake Hanyu and win the gold medal.",
"Fernández competed for Team Europe at the [Japan Open](/wiki/Japan_Open_%28figure_skating%29 \"Japan Open (figure skating)\") invitational tournament in [Saitama](/wiki/Saitama%2C_Saitama \"Saitama, Saitama\"), alongside [Evgenia Medvedeva](/wiki/Evgenia_Medvedeva \"Evgenia Medvedeva\"), [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova \"Alina Zagitova\") and [Oleksii Bychenko](/wiki/Oleksii_Bychenko \"Oleksii Bychenko\"). He performed two quads and two triple Axels in his free skate, winning the men's discipline with 189\\.47 points. Team Europe narrowly beat Team Japan to win the overall competition.",
"During the 2017–18 Grand Prix series, Fernández first competed in the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China \"2017 Cup of China\"). He placed 3rd in the short program after popping his planned quadruple\\-triple combination, scoring 90\\.57 points. He made several mistakes in the free skate to finish 6th in this segment (162\\.49\\) and 6th overall (253\\.06\\). It was revealed after the competition that Fernández had been suffering from stomach problems. His second Grand Prix assignment was the [2017 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2017_Internationaux_de_France \"2017 Internationaux de France\") in Grenoble. Fernández won the short program with a clean skate for which he received 107\\.86 points, the 5th highest short program score on record at the time of the event.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\\-grand\\-prix\\-news/11736\\-fernandez\\-esp\\-soars\\-past\\-field\\-in\\-men\\-s\\-short\\-program?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Fernandez (ESP) soars past field in Men's Short Program \\- ISU \\|last\\=Flade \\|first\\=Tatjana \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19}} In the free skate, Fernández fell twice and stepped out of the landings of three other jumps to finish 2nd behind [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") in the segment with 175\\.85 points. His lead from the short program was enough to win the event overall with 283\\.71 points. This was the 7th career Grand Prix title for Fernández.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isu.org/news/125\\-grand\\-prix\\-news/11749\\-fernandez\\-esp\\-claims\\-seventh\\-grand\\-prix\\-gold\\-medal\\-of\\-his\\-career?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Fernandez (ESP) claims seventh Grand Prix gold medal of his career \\- ISU \\|last\\=Flade \\|first\\=Tatjana \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-11\\-19}}",
"In December 2017, Fernández claimed his 7th consecutive and 8th overall senior Spanish national title. He hit all planned jumps in the short program to receive 107\\.73 points, and landed two quads during the free skate before falling on the third to score 180\\.57 points in the segment and 288\\.30 points overall.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men SP \\|access\\-date\\=1 January 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630093823/https://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/images/resultados/CEsp\\_2017/CESP2017\\_SeniorMasculino\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2017 Spanish National Championships Senior Men FS }} His qualification for the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\") was not determined by this event, as it had been announced previously that Fernández would take the first of Spain's two spots in the men's discipline.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.fedhielo.com/criterios\\-de\\-seleccion\\-de\\-patinaje\\-artistico\\-para\\-los\\-jjoo/ \\|title\\=Criterios de selección de patinaje artístico para los JJOO \\|work\\=Federación Española Deportes de Hielo \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-01 \\|language\\=es\\-ES}} Fernández announced that the 2018 Winter Olympics in PyeongChang would be his last Olympic Games.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.abc.es/deportes/abci\\-javier\\-fernandez\\-estos\\-ultimos\\-juegos\\-seguir\\-seria\\-locura\\-201712270817\\_noticia.html \\|title\\=Javier Fernández: \"Estos son mis últimos Juegos; seguir sería una locura\" \\|work\\=abc \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-01 \\|language\\=es\\-ES}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|Fernández at the [2018 European Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 European Figure Skating Championships\"), where he claimed his sixth consecutive title.](/wiki/File:2018_EC_Javier_Fern%C3%A1ndez_2018-01-19_21-38-40_%282%29.jpg \"2018 EC Javier Fernández 2018-01-19 21-38-40 (2).jpg\")",
"At the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 European Figure Skating Championships\") in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), Fernández had a sizable lead following the short program, which included a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a triple Axel and level 4 spins, but also a turn out on the landing of the quad Salchow. Fernández received 103\\.82 points in the segment, 12\\.49 points ahead of nearest rival [Dmitri Aliev](/wiki/Dmitri_Aliev \"Dmitri Aliev\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\\_Men\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 European Championships \\- Men Short Program Judges Details }} Fernández hit two quads, two triple Axels and three other triples to win the free skating, but popped his third quad attempt to a triple and stumbled on a downgraded triple flip. He earned 191\\.73 points in the segment,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/ec2018/ec2018\\_Men\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 European Championships \\- Men Free Skating Judges Details }} improving on his previous season's best by nearly 14 points, and won the gold medal with a total of 295\\.55 points. Fernández became the first man in 82 years to have won the [European Championships](/wiki/European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"European Figure Skating Championships\") 6 consecutive times (2013–18\\). The other skaters who won at least six consecutive European titles are [Karl Schäfer](/wiki/Karl_Sch%C3%A4fer_%28figure_skater%29 \"Karl Schäfer (figure skater)\"), [Sonja Henie](/wiki/Sonja_Henie \"Sonja Henie\") (1931–36\\), [Katarina Witt](/wiki/Katarina_Witt \"Katarina Witt\") (6 years, 1983–88\\), [Marika Kilius](/wiki/Marika_Kilius \"Marika Kilius\") / [Hans\\-Jürgen Bäumler](/wiki/Hans-J%C3%BCrgen_B%C3%A4umler \"Hans-Jürgen Bäumler\") (1959–64\\), and [Irina Rodnina](/wiki/Irina_Rodnina \"Irina Rodnina\") (with two partners: [Alexei Ulanov](/wiki/Alexei_Ulanov \"Alexei Ulanov\"), 1969–72 and [Alexander Zaitsev](/wiki/Alexander_Zaitsev_%28figure_skater%29 \"Alexander Zaitsev (figure skater)\"), 1973–78\\).",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Fernández (right) after winning the bronze medal at the [2018 Winter Olympic Games](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympic_Games \"2018 Winter Olympic Games\"), with [Yuzuru Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") (center) and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\") (left)](/wiki/File:2018_Winter_Olympic_Games_Men_Podium.jpg \"2018 Winter Olympic Games Men Podium.jpg\")",
"At the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\"), Fernández skated his \"Modern Times\" short program, executing a quad\\-triple toe loop combination, a quad Salchow, a triple Axel and all level 4 elements. He received nine perfect 10\\.00 scores in program components and received 107\\.58 points,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\\_MenSingleSkating\\_SP\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 Winter Olympics \\- Men Single Skating Short Program Scores }} placing him second in that segment behind defending champion Yuzuru Hanyu.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.isu.org/news\\-inside\\-isu/127\\-owg\\-figure\\-skating\\-news/11956\\-hanyu\\-returns\\-in\\-style\\-to\\-competition\\-wins\\-men\\-s\\-short\\-program?templateParam\\=15 \\|title\\=Hanyu returns in style to competition, wins Men's Short Program \\- ISU \\|last\\=Duran \\|first\\=Andres \\|website\\=www.isu.org \\|language\\=en\\-gb \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-16}} In the free skate, Fernández landed a quad toe loop, a quad Salchow in combination, two triple Axels and five more triples, and earned four perfect 10\\.00 component marks. His only major mistake was popping a planned second quad Salchow into a double. His free skate performance earned 197\\.66 points {{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/OWG2018\\_MenSingleSkating\\_FS\\_Scores.pdf \\|title\\=2018 Winter Olympics \\- Men Single Skating \\- Free Skating Scores }} and a total competition score of 305\\.24{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.isuresults.com/results/season1718/owg2018/CAT001RS.HTM \\|title\\=Olympic Winter Games PyeongChang 2018 \\- Men Single Skating \\|website\\=www.isuresults.com \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-02\\-17}} – both season's best for him. Fernández won the bronze medal behind Japan's [Hanyu](/wiki/Yuzuru_Hanyu \"Yuzuru Hanyu\") and [Shoma Uno](/wiki/Shoma_Uno \"Shoma Uno\"), the first ever figure skating Olympic medal for Spain. In the figure skating gala, Fernández performed his aerobics class exhibition program wearing in a \"Super Javi\" Spanish\\-colored Superman costume.; the program included parodies of [Flashdance](/wiki/Flashdance \"Flashdance\") and iconic 1980's workout jams.",
"After the men's individual competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics concluded, Fernández returned to Madrid where he confirmed to Spanish media that he would not be competing at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 World Figure Skating Championships\") in Milan. He cited his satisfaction with winning the bronze medal in PyeongChang to finish his season as the reason for the decision. Fernández also stated his intention to leave Canada, where he had trained since 2011, and return to Madrid to promote figure skating in Spain. Although he did not rule out future competitions entirely, he confirmed that he would not participate in another World Championships or Olympics.",
""
] |
"A secular canonisation"
------------------------
The British government had traditionally paid little attention to the poor, but in the wake of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") attitudes towards the accomplishments of the lower classes were changing. The growth of the railways, the mechanisation of agriculture and the need for labour in the new inner\-city factories had broken the traditional feudal economy and caused the rapid growth of cities,{{cite book\|last\=Cunningham\|first\=William\|title\=The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times\|publisher\=Routledge\|location\=Abingdon\|year\=1968\|volume\=2\|page\=613\|isbn\=0\-7146\-1296\-0}} while increasing literacy rates led to a greater interest in the media and current affairs among ordinary workers.{{cite book\|last\=West\|first\=E. G.\|title\=The Economics of the Industrial Revolution\|editor\=Joel Mokyr\|publisher\=\[\[Rowman \& Littlefield]]\|location\=Lanham, Maryland\|year\=1985\|page\=190\|isbn\=0\-86598\-154\-X}} In 1856, the first military honour for bravery open to all ranks, the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross "Victoria Cross"), had been instituted, while in 1866, the [Albert Medal](/wiki/Albert_Medal_for_Lifesaving "Albert Medal for Lifesaving"), the first official honour open to civilians of all classes, was introduced.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=65}} Additionally, a number of private and charitable organisations dedicated to lifesaving, most prominently the [Royal Humane Society](/wiki/Royal_Humane_Society "Royal Humane Society") (1776\) and [Royal National Lifeboat Institution](/wiki/Royal_National_Lifeboat_Institution "Royal National Lifeboat Institution") (1824\), were increasing in activity and prominence, and gave awards and medals as a means of publicising their activities and lifesaving advice.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=66}}
Painter and sculptor [George Frederic Watts](/wiki/George_Frederic_Watts "George Frederic Watts") and his second wife, designer and artist [Mary Fraser Tytler](/wiki/Mary_Fraser_Tytler "Mary Fraser Tytler"), had long been advocates of the idea of art as a force for social change, and of the principle that narratives of great deeds would provide guidance to address the serious social problems of British cities.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=41}}{{refn\|The idea of inspirational examples as a force for social improvement, as advocated in \[\[Samuel Smiles]]'s 1859 ''\[\[Self\-Help (book)\|Self\-Help]]'', was a key tenet of late\-19th\-century Liberalism and of the \[\[settlement movement]].{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=42}} The most vocal advocate of this approach was probably the historian \[\[James Anthony Froude]], who in his ''Short Studies on Great Subjects'' had called for biographies that could be given to the lower classes with the injunction "Read that; there is a man—such a man as you ought to be; read it; meditate on it; see who he was and how he made himself what he was, and try to be yourself like him".\|group\=n}} Watts had recently painted a series of portraits of leading figures he considered to be a positive social influence, the "Hall of Fame", which was donated to the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28London%29 "National Portrait Gallery (London)");[Sandy Nairne](/wiki/Sandy_Nairne "Sandy Nairne"), in {{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=7}}{{refn\|Owing to National Portrait Gallery acquisition rules, the portraits were not allowed to be exhibited in the NPG until ten years after the death of their subjects, and were housed in the \[\[Watts Gallery]] until the NPG was permitted to display them. Seventeen portraits in total were donated to the NPG as part of Watts's Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame is now divided between the NPG and \[\[Bodelwyddan Castle]].\|group\=n}} since at least 1866 he had proposed as a companion piece a monument to "unknown worth", celebrating the bravery of ordinary people.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=15}}
On 5 September 1887, a letter was published in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* from Watts, proposing a scheme to commemorate the [Golden Jubilee](/wiki/Golden_Jubilee "Golden Jubilee") of Queen Victoria by means of collecting and commemorating "a complete record of the stories of heroism in every\-day life".{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=Another Jubilee Suggestion \|author\=George Frederic Watts \|department\=Letters to the Editor \|date\=5 September 1887 \|page\=14 \|column\=B }} He cited the death of Alice Ayres as an example of the type of event he proposed to commemorate, and included in his letter a distorted account of Ayres's actions during the Union Street fire.
{{Quotation\|text\=The roll would be a long one, but I would cite as an example the name of Alice Ayres, the maid of all work at an oilmonger's in Gravel\-lane, in April, 1885, who lost her life in saving those of her master's children.
The facts, in case your readers have forgotten them, were shortly these:—Roused by the cries of "Fire" and the heat of the fiercely advancing flames the girl is seen at the window of an upper story, and the crowd, holding up some clothes to break her fall, entreat her to jump at once for her life. Instead she goes back, and reappears dragging a feather bed after her, which, with great difficulty, she pushes through the window. The bed caught and stretched, the girl is again at the window, a child of three in her arms, which with great care and skill she throws safely upon the mattress. Twice again with still older children she repeats the heroic feat. When her turn comes to jump, suffocated or too exhausted by her efforts, she cannot save herself. She jumps, but too feebly, falls upon the pavement, and is carried insensibly to St. Thomas's Hospital, where she dies.\|author\=George Frederic Watts\|source\=''Another Jubilee Suggestion'', 5 Sep 1887}}
Watts had originally proposed that the monument take the form of a colossal bronze figure, but by 1887 was proposing that the memorial take the form of "a kind of [Campo Santo](/wiki/Camposanto_Monumentale "Camposanto Monumentale")", consisting of a covered way and marble wall inscribed with the names of everyday heroes, to be built in [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_London "Hyde Park, London").{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=21}}{{refn\|In 1902, shortly before his death, Watts would eventually realise his ambition of erecting a giant bronze monument. ''\[\[Physical Energy (sculpture)\|Physical Energy]]'' is a colossal statue of a naked man on horseback shielding his eyes from the sun as he looks ahead of him. Bronze casts of ''Physical Energy'' stand at the \[\[Rhodes Memorial]] in \[\[Cape Town]] and in \[\[Kensington Gardens]], London.{{cite book\|last\=Baker\|first\=Margaret\|title\=Discovering London Statues and Monuments \|publisher\=\[\[Osprey Publishing]]\|location\=Oxford\|year\=2002\|page\=77\|isbn\=0\-7478\-0495\-8}}\|group\=n}} Watts's suggestion was not taken up,{{cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1898/10/16/archives/valhalla\-for\-humble\-heroes\-artist\-wattss\-scheme\-to\-perpetuate.html\|title\=Valhalla for Humble Heroes: Artist Watts's Scheme to Perpetuate Deserving Deeds – Public Gallery of Life Savers' Portraits\|date\=16 October 1898\|work\=New York Times\|access\-date\=27 August 2009}} leading Watts to comment that "if I had proposed a race course round Hyde Park, there would have been plenty of sympathisers". However, his high\-profile lobbying further raised the already high public awareness of the death of Alice Ayres.
### Depiction in literature and art
[Emilia Aylmer Blake](/wiki/Emilia_Aylmer_Blake "Emilia Aylmer Blake") wrote perhaps the first poem about Ayres, titled [*Alice Ayres*](/wiki/s:Alice_Ayres_%28Blake%29 "Alice Ayres (Blake)"), which she recited at a social gathering in June 1885\.{{cite news\|title\=Mrs Ashley's Entertainment\|date\=13 June 1885\|work\=\[\[The Era (newspaper)\|The Era]]}} Sir [Francis Hastings Doyle](/wiki/Francis_Hastings_Doyle "Francis Hastings Doyle") also wrote a well\-received poem in honour of Ayres,{{cite book\|last\=Andrews\|first\=William\|title\=North Country Poets: Poems and biographies of natives or residents of Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire\|publisher\=Simpkin, Marshall, \& Co\|location\=London\|year\=1888\|page\=57\|oclc\=37163256\|url\=https://archive.org/stream/northcountrypoet00andriala\#page/n5/mode/2up}} as did leading social reformer and women's rights campaigner [Laura Ormiston Chant](/wiki/Laura_Ormiston_Chant "Laura Ormiston Chant"). By the late 1880s Ayres was coming to be seen as a model of British devotion to duty, and her story was told in collections of heroic and inspirational stories for children,{{cite journal\|last\=Price\|first\=John\|year\=2007\|title\=Heroism in Everyday Life: the Watts Memorial for Heroic Self Sacrifice\|journal\=\[\[History Workshop Journal]]\|volume\=63\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|location\=Oxford\|issue\=63\|pages\=254–278\|doi\=10\.1093/hwj/dbm013\|issn\=1363\-3554 }} including as the first story in [F. J. Cross](/wiki/F._J._Cross "F. J. Cross")'s influential *Beneath the Banner*, in which Cross remarked that: "She had tried to do her best *always*. Her loving tenderness to the children committed to her care and her pure gentle life were remarked by those around her before there was any thought of her dying a heroic death. So, when the great trial came, she was prepared; and what seems to us Divine unselfishness appeared to her but simple duty."
[right\|upright\|thumb\|*The Union Street Fire*, [Walter Crane](/wiki/Walter_Crane "Walter Crane")\|alt\=Stylised black and white engraving in the style of Edward Burne\-Jones. A woman in heroic pose in a flowing white dress stands in a window holding a child, while a fireman stands on a ladder, roughly level to the window, and reaches out to take the child. A Royal Navy sailor in full uniform, further down the ladder, holds another child.](/wiki/File:Union_Street_Fire%2C_1885.jpg "Union Street Fire, 1885.jpg")
In 1890, a series of painted panels by [Walter Crane](/wiki/Walter_Crane "Walter Crane") were unveiled in [Octavia Hill](/wiki/Octavia_Hill "Octavia Hill")'s [Red Cross Hall](/wiki/Red_Cross_Hall "Red Cross Hall"), {{convert\|550\|yd\|m}} from the site of the Union Street fire.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=39}}{{refn\|The Red Cross Hall has no relationship with the \[\[International Committee of the Red Cross]]; it was built on Redcross Way in Southwark, as part of a number of cottages in the area planned by Hill. The parallel White Cross Street has since been renamed Ayres Street.\|group\=n}} Inspired by George Frederic Watts's proposals, the panels depicted instances of heroism in everyday life;{{cite news\|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\-article3522167\|title\=Religion and Temperance\|date\=7 February 1891\|work\=\[\[Brisbane Courier]]\|page\=6\|access\-date\=27 August 2009}} Watts himself refused to become involved in the project, as his proposed monument was intended to be a source of inspiration and contemplation as opposed to simply commemoration, and he felt that an artistic work would potentially distract viewers from the most important element of the cases, the heroic sacrifices of the individuals involved.
The first of Crane's panels depicted the Union Street fire.{{harvnb\|Barrington\|1896\|p\=313}} It is an idealised image depicting Ayres as the rescued rather than the rescuer, blending religious imagery with traditional 19th\-century symbols of British heroism, and bears no relationship to actual events.The murals are discussed in detail in chapter two of, John Price, *Everyday Heroism: Victorian Constructions of the Heroic Civilian* (Bloomsbury: London, 2014\) Ayres, in a long and flowing pure white gown, stands at a first floor window, surrounded in flames and holding a small child. A fireman stands on a ladder and reaches out to Ayres and the child; meanwhile, a sailor in full [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") uniform holds a second child. Although in reality Ayres had been at a much higher level of the building and the heat of the burning oil and gunpowder had made it impossible for the fire brigade to approach the building, by depicting Ayres with the fireman and sailor, widely seen as symbols of British heroism and British strength, Crane's picture further enhanced her growing reputation as a heroic figure. Crane's picture in the Red Cross Hall was itself mentioned in [*Alice Ayres*](/wiki/s:Alice_Ayres "Alice Ayres"), a [border ballad](/wiki/Border_ballad "Border ballad") by [National Trust](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty") founder [Canon](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 "Canon (priest)") [Hardwicke Rawnsley](/wiki/Hardwicke_Rawnsley "Hardwicke Rawnsley") published in his 1896 *Ballads of Brave Deeds*, for which George Frederic Watts wrote the preface.{{cite book\|last\=Rawnsley\|first\=H. D.\|title\=Ballads of Brave Deeds\|url\=https://archive.org/details/balladsbravedee00rawngoog\|publisher\=\[\[J. M. Dent]]\|location\=London\|year\=1896\|oclc\=9725182\|author\-link\=Hardwicke Rawnsley}}
{{anchor\|The Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice}}
### Memorial to Heroic Self\-Sacrifice
In 1898, George Frederic Watts was approached by [Henry Gamble](/wiki/Henry_Gamble "Henry Gamble"), vicar of [St Botolph's, Aldersgate](/wiki/St_Botolph%27s%2C_Aldersgate "St Botolph's, Aldersgate") church in the [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London "City of London"). St Botolph's former [churchyard](/wiki/Churchyard "Churchyard") had recently been converted, along with two smaller adjoining burial grounds, into [Postman's Park](/wiki/Postman%27s_Park "Postman's Park"), one of the largest public parks in the City of London, and the church was engaged in a protracted financial and legal dispute over ownership of part of the park.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=14}} To provide a public justification for keeping the disputed land as part of the park, and to raise the park's profile and assist in fundraising, the church offered part of the park as a site for his proposed memorial. Watts agreed, and in 1900 the [Memorial to Heroic Self\-Sacrifice](/wiki/Memorial_to_Heroic_Self-Sacrifice "Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice") was unveiled by Alfred Newton, [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London "Lord Mayor of London"), and [Mandell Creighton](/wiki/Mandell_Creighton "Mandell Creighton"), [Bishop of London](/wiki/Bishop_of_London "Bishop of London").{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=The Postmen's Park and Cloister \|department\=News \|date\=31 July 1900 \|page\=2 \|column\=E }}{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=17}} The memorial consisted of a {{convert\|50\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-long}} and {{convert\|9\|ft\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-tall}} wooden [loggia](/wiki/Loggia "Loggia") with a tiled roof, designed by [Ernest George](/wiki/Ernest_George "Ernest George"), sheltering a wall with space for 120 ceramic memorial tablets.
[right\|thumb\|Alice Ayres's memorial tablet, designed by [William De Morgan](/wiki/William_De_Morgan "William De Morgan") and added to the [Memorial to Heroic Self\-Sacrifice](/wiki/Memorial_to_Heroic_Self-Sacrifice "Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice") in 1902\|alt\=A tablet formed of six standard sized tiles, bordered by green flowers in the style of the Arts and Crafts movement, with an inscription in green capital letters on a white background](/wiki/File:Alice_Ayres.jpg "Alice Ayres.jpg")
The memorial tablets were handmade and expensive to produce, and at the time of the memorial's unveiling only four were in place. In 1902, a further nine tablets were unveiled, including the memorial to Alice Ayres for which Watts had long lobbied.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=22}} Made by [William De Morgan](/wiki/William_De_Morgan "William De Morgan") in the [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement "Arts and Crafts movement") style, the green\-and\-white tablet reads "Alice Ayres, daughter of a bricklayer's labourer who by intrepid conduct saved 3 children from a burning house in [Union Street, Borough](/wiki/Union_Street%2C_Borough "Union Street, Borough"), at the cost of her own young life April 24, 1885".{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=50}}
### Changing attitudes and differing perceptions
Although the public would have been familiar with the concept of a female national heroic figure following the widespread coverage and public admiration of [Harriet Newell](/wiki/Harriet_Newell "Harriet Newell"), [Grace Darling](/wiki/Grace_Darling "Grace Darling") and [Florence Nightingale](/wiki/Florence_Nightingale "Florence Nightingale"), the ongoing coverage of Ayres and her elevation as a national hero was unusual for the period. Ayres was an uneducated working\-class woman, who after her death underwent what has been described as "a secular canonisation",{{cite book\|last\=Perry\|first\=Lara\|title\=History's Beauties\|publisher\=\[\[Ashgate Publishing]]\|location\=Aldershot\|year\=2006\|page\=163\|isbn\=0\-7546\-3081\-1\|oclc\=60697164}} at a time when, despite the gradual formal recognition of the contributions of the lower classes, national heroes were generally male and engaged in exploration, the military, religion or science and engineering.
This was a period in which political pressures for social reform were growing. The version of Ayres presented to the public as a woman devoted entirely to duty embodied the idealised British character at the time, while the image of a hard\-working but uncomplaining woman who set the welfare of others above her own embodied the idealised vision of the working class presented by social reformers, and the ideal selfless and dedicated woman presented by campaigners for women's rights. At the unveiling of the Memorial to Heroic Self\-Sacrifice the Lord Mayor, Alfred Newton, had remarked that it was "intended to perpetuate the acts of heroism which belonged to the working classes",{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=68}} while George Frederic Watts, although he was opposed in principle to discrimination based on class and saw the Memorial as being theoretically open to all classes, had remarked that "the higher classes do not or ought not to require reminders or inducements". Watts saw the purpose of his Memorial not as a commemoration of deeds, but as a tool for the education of the lower classes.
Watts's view was shared by others who sought to provide inspirational material on British heroes, and authors writing about Ayres systematically altered the fact that the children rescued were members of her family, instead describing them as the children of her employer.{{harvnb\|Price\|2008\|p\=69}} Press reports at the time of the fire described Ayres variously as a "little nursemaid", "a willing, honest, hard\-working servant", and a "poor little domestic".{{cite news\|url\=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi\-bin/paperspast?a\=d\&d\=TT18850624\.2\.36\|title\=Heroism of a Servant Girl\|date\=24 June 1885\|work\=Tuapeka Times\|page\=5\|access\-date\=27 August 2009}} As well as Watts's 1887 description of Ayres as "the maid of all work at an oilmonger's", Cross's chapter on Ayres in *Beneath the Banner* is titled "Only a Nurse Girl!", while Rawnsley called her "the nursemaid in the household". Barrington, writing five years after the fire at the unveiling of Price's panel, acknowledges in a footnote that Ayres was related to the Chandlers,{{harvnb\|Barrington\|1896\|p\=316}} but nonetheless describes her as displaying the "typical English virtues—courage, fortitude, and an unquestioning sense of duty".{{harvnb\|Barrington\|1896\|p\=319}}
While George and Mary Watts and their fellow [paternalist](/wiki/Paternalism "Paternalism") social reformers, along with the broadly sympathetic mainstream British press, portrayed Ayres as an inspirational selfless servant to her employer, others had a different view. The left\-wing *[Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper](/wiki/Reynold%27s_News "Reynold's News")* complained that the lack of support for Ayres's family from the state was symbolic of poor treatment of workers as a whole. The pioneering feminist periodical *[The Englishwoman's Review](/wiki/The_Englishwoman%27s_Review "The Englishwoman's Review")* described their "righteous pride" at Ayres's "instinctive motherhood"; on the other hand *[Young England](/wiki/Young_England_%28magazine%29 "Young England (magazine)")*, a children's [story paper](/wiki/Story_paper "Story paper") with imperialist ideals, said that "there is no sex in self\-sacrifice", lauding Ayres as a model of devotion to duty.
|
[
"\"A secular canonisation\"\n------------------------",
"The British government had traditionally paid little attention to the poor, but in the wake of the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") attitudes towards the accomplishments of the lower classes were changing. The growth of the railways, the mechanisation of agriculture and the need for labour in the new inner\\-city factories had broken the traditional feudal economy and caused the rapid growth of cities,{{cite book\\|last\\=Cunningham\\|first\\=William\\|title\\=The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|location\\=Abingdon\\|year\\=1968\\|volume\\=2\\|page\\=613\\|isbn\\=0\\-7146\\-1296\\-0}} while increasing literacy rates led to a greater interest in the media and current affairs among ordinary workers.{{cite book\\|last\\=West\\|first\\=E. G.\\|title\\=The Economics of the Industrial Revolution\\|editor\\=Joel Mokyr\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Rowman \\& Littlefield]]\\|location\\=Lanham, Maryland\\|year\\=1985\\|page\\=190\\|isbn\\=0\\-86598\\-154\\-X}} In 1856, the first military honour for bravery open to all ranks, the [Victoria Cross](/wiki/Victoria_Cross \"Victoria Cross\"), had been instituted, while in 1866, the [Albert Medal](/wiki/Albert_Medal_for_Lifesaving \"Albert Medal for Lifesaving\"), the first official honour open to civilians of all classes, was introduced.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=65}} Additionally, a number of private and charitable organisations dedicated to lifesaving, most prominently the [Royal Humane Society](/wiki/Royal_Humane_Society \"Royal Humane Society\") (1776\\) and [Royal National Lifeboat Institution](/wiki/Royal_National_Lifeboat_Institution \"Royal National Lifeboat Institution\") (1824\\), were increasing in activity and prominence, and gave awards and medals as a means of publicising their activities and lifesaving advice.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=66}}",
"Painter and sculptor [George Frederic Watts](/wiki/George_Frederic_Watts \"George Frederic Watts\") and his second wife, designer and artist [Mary Fraser Tytler](/wiki/Mary_Fraser_Tytler \"Mary Fraser Tytler\"), had long been advocates of the idea of art as a force for social change, and of the principle that narratives of great deeds would provide guidance to address the serious social problems of British cities.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=41}}{{refn\\|The idea of inspirational examples as a force for social improvement, as advocated in \\[\\[Samuel Smiles]]'s 1859 ''\\[\\[Self\\-Help (book)\\|Self\\-Help]]'', was a key tenet of late\\-19th\\-century Liberalism and of the \\[\\[settlement movement]].{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=42}} The most vocal advocate of this approach was probably the historian \\[\\[James Anthony Froude]], who in his ''Short Studies on Great Subjects'' had called for biographies that could be given to the lower classes with the injunction \"Read that; there is a man—such a man as you ought to be; read it; meditate on it; see who he was and how he made himself what he was, and try to be yourself like him\".\\|group\\=n}} Watts had recently painted a series of portraits of leading figures he considered to be a positive social influence, the \"Hall of Fame\", which was donated to the [National Portrait Gallery](/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery_%28London%29 \"National Portrait Gallery (London)\");[Sandy Nairne](/wiki/Sandy_Nairne \"Sandy Nairne\"), in {{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=7}}{{refn\\|Owing to National Portrait Gallery acquisition rules, the portraits were not allowed to be exhibited in the NPG until ten years after the death of their subjects, and were housed in the \\[\\[Watts Gallery]] until the NPG was permitted to display them. Seventeen portraits in total were donated to the NPG as part of Watts's Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame is now divided between the NPG and \\[\\[Bodelwyddan Castle]].\\|group\\=n}} since at least 1866 he had proposed as a companion piece a monument to \"unknown worth\", celebrating the bravery of ordinary people.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=15}}",
"On 5 September 1887, a letter was published in *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* from Watts, proposing a scheme to commemorate the [Golden Jubilee](/wiki/Golden_Jubilee \"Golden Jubilee\") of Queen Victoria by means of collecting and commemorating \"a complete record of the stories of heroism in every\\-day life\".{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=Another Jubilee Suggestion \\|author\\=George Frederic Watts \\|department\\=Letters to the Editor \\|date\\=5 September 1887 \\|page\\=14 \\|column\\=B }} He cited the death of Alice Ayres as an example of the type of event he proposed to commemorate, and included in his letter a distorted account of Ayres's actions during the Union Street fire.",
"{{Quotation\\|text\\=The roll would be a long one, but I would cite as an example the name of Alice Ayres, the maid of all work at an oilmonger's in Gravel\\-lane, in April, 1885, who lost her life in saving those of her master's children. \nThe facts, in case your readers have forgotten them, were shortly these:—Roused by the cries of \"Fire\" and the heat of the fiercely advancing flames the girl is seen at the window of an upper story, and the crowd, holding up some clothes to break her fall, entreat her to jump at once for her life. Instead she goes back, and reappears dragging a feather bed after her, which, with great difficulty, she pushes through the window. The bed caught and stretched, the girl is again at the window, a child of three in her arms, which with great care and skill she throws safely upon the mattress. Twice again with still older children she repeats the heroic feat. When her turn comes to jump, suffocated or too exhausted by her efforts, she cannot save herself. She jumps, but too feebly, falls upon the pavement, and is carried insensibly to St. Thomas's Hospital, where she dies.\\|author\\=George Frederic Watts\\|source\\=''Another Jubilee Suggestion'', 5 Sep 1887}}",
"Watts had originally proposed that the monument take the form of a colossal bronze figure, but by 1887 was proposing that the memorial take the form of \"a kind of [Campo Santo](/wiki/Camposanto_Monumentale \"Camposanto Monumentale\")\", consisting of a covered way and marble wall inscribed with the names of everyday heroes, to be built in [Hyde Park](/wiki/Hyde_Park%2C_London \"Hyde Park, London\").{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=21}}{{refn\\|In 1902, shortly before his death, Watts would eventually realise his ambition of erecting a giant bronze monument. ''\\[\\[Physical Energy (sculpture)\\|Physical Energy]]'' is a colossal statue of a naked man on horseback shielding his eyes from the sun as he looks ahead of him. Bronze casts of ''Physical Energy'' stand at the \\[\\[Rhodes Memorial]] in \\[\\[Cape Town]] and in \\[\\[Kensington Gardens]], London.{{cite book\\|last\\=Baker\\|first\\=Margaret\\|title\\=Discovering London Statues and Monuments \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Osprey Publishing]]\\|location\\=Oxford\\|year\\=2002\\|page\\=77\\|isbn\\=0\\-7478\\-0495\\-8}}\\|group\\=n}} Watts's suggestion was not taken up,{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1898/10/16/archives/valhalla\\-for\\-humble\\-heroes\\-artist\\-wattss\\-scheme\\-to\\-perpetuate.html\\|title\\=Valhalla for Humble Heroes: Artist Watts's Scheme to Perpetuate Deserving Deeds – Public Gallery of Life Savers' Portraits\\|date\\=16 October 1898\\|work\\=New York Times\\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2009}} leading Watts to comment that \"if I had proposed a race course round Hyde Park, there would have been plenty of sympathisers\". However, his high\\-profile lobbying further raised the already high public awareness of the death of Alice Ayres.",
"### Depiction in literature and art",
"[Emilia Aylmer Blake](/wiki/Emilia_Aylmer_Blake \"Emilia Aylmer Blake\") wrote perhaps the first poem about Ayres, titled [*Alice Ayres*](/wiki/s:Alice_Ayres_%28Blake%29 \"Alice Ayres (Blake)\"), which she recited at a social gathering in June 1885\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Mrs Ashley's Entertainment\\|date\\=13 June 1885\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Era (newspaper)\\|The Era]]}} Sir [Francis Hastings Doyle](/wiki/Francis_Hastings_Doyle \"Francis Hastings Doyle\") also wrote a well\\-received poem in honour of Ayres,{{cite book\\|last\\=Andrews\\|first\\=William\\|title\\=North Country Poets: Poems and biographies of natives or residents of Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire\\|publisher\\=Simpkin, Marshall, \\& Co\\|location\\=London\\|year\\=1888\\|page\\=57\\|oclc\\=37163256\\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/northcountrypoet00andriala\\#page/n5/mode/2up}} as did leading social reformer and women's rights campaigner [Laura Ormiston Chant](/wiki/Laura_Ormiston_Chant \"Laura Ormiston Chant\"). By the late 1880s Ayres was coming to be seen as a model of British devotion to duty, and her story was told in collections of heroic and inspirational stories for children,{{cite journal\\|last\\=Price\\|first\\=John\\|year\\=2007\\|title\\=Heroism in Everyday Life: the Watts Memorial for Heroic Self Sacrifice\\|journal\\=\\[\\[History Workshop Journal]]\\|volume\\=63\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|location\\=Oxford\\|issue\\=63\\|pages\\=254–278\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/hwj/dbm013\\|issn\\=1363\\-3554 }} including as the first story in [F. J. Cross](/wiki/F._J._Cross \"F. J. Cross\")'s influential *Beneath the Banner*, in which Cross remarked that: \"She had tried to do her best *always*. Her loving tenderness to the children committed to her care and her pure gentle life were remarked by those around her before there was any thought of her dying a heroic death. So, when the great trial came, she was prepared; and what seems to us Divine unselfishness appeared to her but simple duty.\"",
"[right\\|upright\\|thumb\\|*The Union Street Fire*, [Walter Crane](/wiki/Walter_Crane \"Walter Crane\")\\|alt\\=Stylised black and white engraving in the style of Edward Burne\\-Jones. A woman in heroic pose in a flowing white dress stands in a window holding a child, while a fireman stands on a ladder, roughly level to the window, and reaches out to take the child. A Royal Navy sailor in full uniform, further down the ladder, holds another child.](/wiki/File:Union_Street_Fire%2C_1885.jpg \"Union Street Fire, 1885.jpg\")\nIn 1890, a series of painted panels by [Walter Crane](/wiki/Walter_Crane \"Walter Crane\") were unveiled in [Octavia Hill](/wiki/Octavia_Hill \"Octavia Hill\")'s [Red Cross Hall](/wiki/Red_Cross_Hall \"Red Cross Hall\"), {{convert\\|550\\|yd\\|m}} from the site of the Union Street fire.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=39}}{{refn\\|The Red Cross Hall has no relationship with the \\[\\[International Committee of the Red Cross]]; it was built on Redcross Way in Southwark, as part of a number of cottages in the area planned by Hill. The parallel White Cross Street has since been renamed Ayres Street.\\|group\\=n}} Inspired by George Frederic Watts's proposals, the panels depicted instances of heroism in everyday life;{{cite news\\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news\\-article3522167\\|title\\=Religion and Temperance\\|date\\=7 February 1891\\|work\\=\\[\\[Brisbane Courier]]\\|page\\=6\\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2009}} Watts himself refused to become involved in the project, as his proposed monument was intended to be a source of inspiration and contemplation as opposed to simply commemoration, and he felt that an artistic work would potentially distract viewers from the most important element of the cases, the heroic sacrifices of the individuals involved.",
"The first of Crane's panels depicted the Union Street fire.{{harvnb\\|Barrington\\|1896\\|p\\=313}} It is an idealised image depicting Ayres as the rescued rather than the rescuer, blending religious imagery with traditional 19th\\-century symbols of British heroism, and bears no relationship to actual events.The murals are discussed in detail in chapter two of, John Price, *Everyday Heroism: Victorian Constructions of the Heroic Civilian* (Bloomsbury: London, 2014\\) Ayres, in a long and flowing pure white gown, stands at a first floor window, surrounded in flames and holding a small child. A fireman stands on a ladder and reaches out to Ayres and the child; meanwhile, a sailor in full [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") uniform holds a second child. Although in reality Ayres had been at a much higher level of the building and the heat of the burning oil and gunpowder had made it impossible for the fire brigade to approach the building, by depicting Ayres with the fireman and sailor, widely seen as symbols of British heroism and British strength, Crane's picture further enhanced her growing reputation as a heroic figure. Crane's picture in the Red Cross Hall was itself mentioned in [*Alice Ayres*](/wiki/s:Alice_Ayres \"Alice Ayres\"), a [border ballad](/wiki/Border_ballad \"Border ballad\") by [National Trust](/wiki/National_Trust_for_Places_of_Historic_Interest_or_Natural_Beauty \"National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty\") founder [Canon](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 \"Canon (priest)\") [Hardwicke Rawnsley](/wiki/Hardwicke_Rawnsley \"Hardwicke Rawnsley\") published in his 1896 *Ballads of Brave Deeds*, for which George Frederic Watts wrote the preface.{{cite book\\|last\\=Rawnsley\\|first\\=H. D.\\|title\\=Ballads of Brave Deeds\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/balladsbravedee00rawngoog\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[J. M. Dent]]\\|location\\=London\\|year\\=1896\\|oclc\\=9725182\\|author\\-link\\=Hardwicke Rawnsley}}",
"{{anchor\\|The Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice}}",
"### Memorial to Heroic Self\\-Sacrifice",
"In 1898, George Frederic Watts was approached by [Henry Gamble](/wiki/Henry_Gamble \"Henry Gamble\"), vicar of [St Botolph's, Aldersgate](/wiki/St_Botolph%27s%2C_Aldersgate \"St Botolph's, Aldersgate\") church in the [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London \"City of London\"). St Botolph's former [churchyard](/wiki/Churchyard \"Churchyard\") had recently been converted, along with two smaller adjoining burial grounds, into [Postman's Park](/wiki/Postman%27s_Park \"Postman's Park\"), one of the largest public parks in the City of London, and the church was engaged in a protracted financial and legal dispute over ownership of part of the park.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=14}} To provide a public justification for keeping the disputed land as part of the park, and to raise the park's profile and assist in fundraising, the church offered part of the park as a site for his proposed memorial. Watts agreed, and in 1900 the [Memorial to Heroic Self\\-Sacrifice](/wiki/Memorial_to_Heroic_Self-Sacrifice \"Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice\") was unveiled by Alfred Newton, [Lord Mayor of London](/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London \"Lord Mayor of London\"), and [Mandell Creighton](/wiki/Mandell_Creighton \"Mandell Creighton\"), [Bishop of London](/wiki/Bishop_of_London \"Bishop of London\").{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=The Postmen's Park and Cloister \\|department\\=News \\|date\\=31 July 1900 \\|page\\=2 \\|column\\=E }}{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=17}} The memorial consisted of a {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-long}} and {{convert\\|9\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-tall}} wooden [loggia](/wiki/Loggia \"Loggia\") with a tiled roof, designed by [Ernest George](/wiki/Ernest_George \"Ernest George\"), sheltering a wall with space for 120 ceramic memorial tablets.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|Alice Ayres's memorial tablet, designed by [William De Morgan](/wiki/William_De_Morgan \"William De Morgan\") and added to the [Memorial to Heroic Self\\-Sacrifice](/wiki/Memorial_to_Heroic_Self-Sacrifice \"Memorial to Heroic Self-Sacrifice\") in 1902\\|alt\\=A tablet formed of six standard sized tiles, bordered by green flowers in the style of the Arts and Crafts movement, with an inscription in green capital letters on a white background](/wiki/File:Alice_Ayres.jpg \"Alice Ayres.jpg\")\nThe memorial tablets were handmade and expensive to produce, and at the time of the memorial's unveiling only four were in place. In 1902, a further nine tablets were unveiled, including the memorial to Alice Ayres for which Watts had long lobbied.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=22}} Made by [William De Morgan](/wiki/William_De_Morgan \"William De Morgan\") in the [Arts and Crafts](/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement \"Arts and Crafts movement\") style, the green\\-and\\-white tablet reads \"Alice Ayres, daughter of a bricklayer's labourer who by intrepid conduct saved 3 children from a burning house in [Union Street, Borough](/wiki/Union_Street%2C_Borough \"Union Street, Borough\"), at the cost of her own young life April 24, 1885\".{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=50}}",
"### Changing attitudes and differing perceptions",
"Although the public would have been familiar with the concept of a female national heroic figure following the widespread coverage and public admiration of [Harriet Newell](/wiki/Harriet_Newell \"Harriet Newell\"), [Grace Darling](/wiki/Grace_Darling \"Grace Darling\") and [Florence Nightingale](/wiki/Florence_Nightingale \"Florence Nightingale\"), the ongoing coverage of Ayres and her elevation as a national hero was unusual for the period. Ayres was an uneducated working\\-class woman, who after her death underwent what has been described as \"a secular canonisation\",{{cite book\\|last\\=Perry\\|first\\=Lara\\|title\\=History's Beauties\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Ashgate Publishing]]\\|location\\=Aldershot\\|year\\=2006\\|page\\=163\\|isbn\\=0\\-7546\\-3081\\-1\\|oclc\\=60697164}} at a time when, despite the gradual formal recognition of the contributions of the lower classes, national heroes were generally male and engaged in exploration, the military, religion or science and engineering.",
"This was a period in which political pressures for social reform were growing. The version of Ayres presented to the public as a woman devoted entirely to duty embodied the idealised British character at the time, while the image of a hard\\-working but uncomplaining woman who set the welfare of others above her own embodied the idealised vision of the working class presented by social reformers, and the ideal selfless and dedicated woman presented by campaigners for women's rights. At the unveiling of the Memorial to Heroic Self\\-Sacrifice the Lord Mayor, Alfred Newton, had remarked that it was \"intended to perpetuate the acts of heroism which belonged to the working classes\",{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=68}} while George Frederic Watts, although he was opposed in principle to discrimination based on class and saw the Memorial as being theoretically open to all classes, had remarked that \"the higher classes do not or ought not to require reminders or inducements\". Watts saw the purpose of his Memorial not as a commemoration of deeds, but as a tool for the education of the lower classes.",
"Watts's view was shared by others who sought to provide inspirational material on British heroes, and authors writing about Ayres systematically altered the fact that the children rescued were members of her family, instead describing them as the children of her employer.{{harvnb\\|Price\\|2008\\|p\\=69}} Press reports at the time of the fire described Ayres variously as a \"little nursemaid\", \"a willing, honest, hard\\-working servant\", and a \"poor little domestic\".{{cite news\\|url\\=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi\\-bin/paperspast?a\\=d\\&d\\=TT18850624\\.2\\.36\\|title\\=Heroism of a Servant Girl\\|date\\=24 June 1885\\|work\\=Tuapeka Times\\|page\\=5\\|access\\-date\\=27 August 2009}} As well as Watts's 1887 description of Ayres as \"the maid of all work at an oilmonger's\", Cross's chapter on Ayres in *Beneath the Banner* is titled \"Only a Nurse Girl!\", while Rawnsley called her \"the nursemaid in the household\". Barrington, writing five years after the fire at the unveiling of Price's panel, acknowledges in a footnote that Ayres was related to the Chandlers,{{harvnb\\|Barrington\\|1896\\|p\\=316}} but nonetheless describes her as displaying the \"typical English virtues—courage, fortitude, and an unquestioning sense of duty\".{{harvnb\\|Barrington\\|1896\\|p\\=319}}",
"While George and Mary Watts and their fellow [paternalist](/wiki/Paternalism \"Paternalism\") social reformers, along with the broadly sympathetic mainstream British press, portrayed Ayres as an inspirational selfless servant to her employer, others had a different view. The left\\-wing *[Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper](/wiki/Reynold%27s_News \"Reynold's News\")* complained that the lack of support for Ayres's family from the state was symbolic of poor treatment of workers as a whole. The pioneering feminist periodical *[The Englishwoman's Review](/wiki/The_Englishwoman%27s_Review \"The Englishwoman's Review\")* described their \"righteous pride\" at Ayres's \"instinctive motherhood\"; on the other hand *[Young England](/wiki/Young_England_%28magazine%29 \"Young England (magazine)\")*, a children's [story paper](/wiki/Story_paper \"Story paper\") with imperialist ideals, said that \"there is no sex in self\\-sacrifice\", lauding Ayres as a model of devotion to duty.",
""
] |
*Chimurenga:* the Bush War begins in earnest
--------------------------------------------
### ZANLA attacks Altena and Whistlefield Farms
{{Quote box\|align\=right\|width\=30%\|quote\=The revolutionary drive to eliminate settler oppression, imperialism and capitalism, the achievement of independence and freedom in Zimbabwe is gaining ground. The balance of power is shifting in favour of revolutionary forces. Each day the forces of liberation and progress are gaining strength and experience while the forces of fascism meet setback after setback and resort to naked mass murder, terror, destruction of villages, crops, property and animals of innocent people.\|source\=The opening paragraph of a typical ZANU "''\[\[chimurenga]]'' war communiqué",{{\#tag:ref\|''\[\[Chimurenga]]'' is a \[\[Shona language\|Shona]] word meaning "revolutionary struggle".{{Harvnb\|Williams\|Hackland\|1988\|p\=50}}\|group\="n"}} Number 8, issued from \[\[Lusaka]] on 27 March 1974{{cite news\|title\=Chimurenga war communiqué No. 8\. Period from 30 Jan to 20 March 1974\|date\=27 March 1974\|publisher\=\[\[Zimbabwe African National Union]]\|location\=Lusaka}}\|quoted \= 1}}
Rhodesian intelligence, which had been monitoring ZANLA's activity and preparations, grew curious when over a four\-week period in November 1972 sources of information suddenly began to "dry up", in the words of historian Alexandre Binda. "They sensed that something was afoot, but their superiors brushed off their fears," Binda says. "The senior Rhodesian authorities had been lulled into a sense of arrogant self\-confidence based on the security forces' past successes." This false veneer of security was smashed on 21 December 1972 when a group of ten ZANLA cadres led by [Rex Nhongo](/wiki/Solomon_Mujuru "Solomon Mujuru"){{\#tag:ref\|"Rex Nhongo" was the ''chimurenga'' name (''\[\[Pseudonym\#Noms de guerre\|nom de guerre]]'') of \[\[Solomon Mujuru\|Solomon Tapfumaneyi Mutuswa]], who changed his surname to Mujuru during the mid\-1970s. ''Nhongo'' is Shona for "male goat".{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=150}}\|group\="n"}} attacked the white\-owned Altena Farm near the north\-eastern village of [Centenary](/wiki/Centenary%2C_Zimbabwe "Centenary, Zimbabwe"), about {{convert\|30\|km}} west of [Mount Darwin](/wiki/Mount_Darwin%2C_Zimbabwe "Mount Darwin, Zimbabwe").
ZANLA had planned for four attacks to take place simultaneously but in the event only Nhongo's men did so. According to historian Elaine Windrich, Nhongo was a former employee of the tobacco farm's 37\-year\-old owner, Marc de Borchgrave, and held a grudge against him. The cadres shot up the farm house with [AK\-47](/wiki/AK-47 "AK-47") assault rifles and threw grenades through the windows, then retreated and hid amongst the local population.{{Harvnb\|Windrich\|1975\|p\=301}} Nobody was killed in the attack but the farmer's eight\-year\-old daughter, Jane, was wounded in the foot. The isolated house had no telephone or any other means of contacting neighbours, and de Borchgrave was wary of being ambushed should he drive his car out, so after a short time comforting the children he set out across country on foot to seek help and alert the authorities. This done, he returned and took his wife and children to another farm nearby,{{Harvnb\|Petter\-Bowyer\|2005\|pp\=187–188}} Whistlefield, which was owned by Archie Dalgluish and his family.
Despite the warnings of their intelligence officers, the security chiefs were caught completely by surprise. The RLI headquarters and all three Commandos were deployed in the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi "Zambezi") valley on routine border\-control duty, and Support Group was at Cranborne Barracks. A troop of Support Group men under Second Lieutenant Ian Buttenshaw was despatched to Centenary the next day along with a troop of SAS, led by Bert Sachse. In their preliminary sweep around Altena Farm they discovered a [land mine](/wiki/Land_mine "Land mine") planted in the road, but no insurgents. While the security forces were patrolling around Altena, Nhongo's men approached Whistlefield Farm in the late evening of 22 December and, as at Altena, attacked the farm house with rifle fire, grenades and an [RPG\-7](/wiki/RPG-7 "RPG-7") rocket launcher, which was aimed into the bedroom in which de Borchgrave was sleeping. The rocket hit the window frame and lightly wounded the tobacco farmer and his nine\-year\-old daughter Anne. The ZANLA cadres then retreated and hid themselves. News of the second attack reached Buttenshaw and Sachse around midnight, and they deployed immediately, but having discovered a mine near Altena they disembarked from the vehicles {{convert\|1\|km}} from Whistlefield and made the final approach on foot. Anne was evacuated by helicopter as the RLI and SAS men secured the area for the night.{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|pp\=133–136}}
The next morning, on 24 December 1972, two tracking teams arrived at Whistlefield to assist Buttenshaw and Sachse in a 360\-degree search: one was from the SAS, and led by Ron Marillier, while the other was a [British South Africa Police](/wiki/British_South_Africa_Police "British South Africa Police") (BSAP) team including tracking dogs. The security forces searched for tracks while also investigating reported sightings. The tracks of the ZANLA fighters were discovered on 27 December on the western side of the farm and the trackers asked Buttenshaw and Sachse to bring the vehicles carrying the heavy equipment around to meet them. On the way the truck carrying Buttenshaw ran over a mine with one of its rear wheels, causing it to detonate. Buttenshaw himself, who was sitting on the bonnet of the vehicle, was thrown clear but Corporal Norman Moore and Trooper Pete Botha, sitting in the back, were not as fortunate, taking the brunt of the blast. Captain Gordon Holloway, behind the wheel, and Trooper Rod Boden in the passenger seat went into severe shock but were ultimately unharmed. Moore, on the other hand, died two days later from his wounds, while Botha survived but lost both legs.
In their haste, Nhongo's cadres had not attempted to conceal their tracks as they headed west, towards the Musengezi river—Buttenshaw's pursuant RLI men therefore realised how quickly the guerrillas were moving and sped up their chase. The Rhodesians stopped for the night in a rocky area near a stream, replenished their scanty water supply and continued at dawn. About half an hour after setting off they crossed a [vlei](/wiki/Vlei "Vlei") to discover a recently vacated guerrilla camp. "The fire was still burning and the food still warm," Buttenshaw writes. "From the abandoned kit a hurried departure appeared evident." Support was summoned from the SAS, who were tasked to set up stops along the Musengezi to the west. Buttenshaw's men reached the top of the Musengezi valley to see Rhodesian helicopters dropping the SAS soldiers at regular intervals along the river, as well as the ZANLA cadres, who were moving straight towards one of the SAS stops. The stop opened fire and killed some; the rest of the guerrillas scattered and ran. Buttenshaw's RLI men were then withdrawn from the follow\-up for a day and a half and placed in stop positions. The chase was temporarily taken over by the SAS under Lieutenant [Chris Schulenburg](/wiki/Chris_Schulenburg "Chris Schulenburg") before Buttenshaw's men returned on 30 December 1972\. Soon after setting out that morning they discovered an unarmed, wounded ZANLA fighter who had been shot in the arm by the SAS in the initial contact two days earlier. He had hidden himself after being abandoned by his comrades, and since then had lost a great deal of blood.
{{Quote box\|align\=right\|width\=30%\|quote\=For the first time the Rhodesian Security Forces were faced with a seemingly insoluble problem ... after carrying out their attacks the terrorists had not gone to ground in bush\-camps in uninhabited areas where they could eventually be tracked down ... neither had they gone to ground in inhabited areas where information from the local population to the \[\[British South Africa Police\|Police]] or \[\[Special Branch]] had indicated their whereabouts. This time there was nothing. No tracks ... no information.\|source\=Lieutenant\-Colonel \[\[Ronald Reid\-Daly\|Ron Reid\-Daly]], writing in 1982, explains the effect of ZANLA's subversion on rural Rhodesia{{Harvnb\|Reid\-Daly\|Stiff\|1982\|p\=16}}\|quoted \= 1}}
After two years of patient preparation, the farm attacks by ZANLA near Centenary marked the effective start of its "Second *[Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga "Chimurenga")*"{{\#tag:ref\|The "First ''Chimurenga''" in question is the \[\[Second Matabele War]], a series of \[\[Northern Ndebele people\|Ndebele]] and \[\[Shona people\|Shona]] insurgencies against the \[\[British South Africa Company]] \[\[Company rule in Rhodesia\|administration]] in 1896–97\.{{Harvnb\|Moorcraft\|McLaughlin\|2008\|p\=75}}\|group\="n"}} against the Rhodesian government.{{Harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|p\=33}} The effectiveness of ZANLA's adopted Maoist tactics was demonstrated in particular by the element of surprise they were now able to use against the security forces, and by the ability they had achieved to melt seamlessly into the local population between strikes. The rural black people in the north\-east of the country were now, in Binda's words, "almost totally subverted and intimidated" by ZANLA and provided the guerrillas with food, shelter and manpower. Rather than having the tribesmen actively volunteer information about insurgent movements and locations, as had happened during previous infiltrations,{{Harvnb\|SADET\|2005\|p\=497}} the Rhodesian Security Forces now met an increasingly silent and sometimes hostile welcome from the rural blacks. More farm attacks took place over the following weeks, during December 1972 and January 1973, leading the security forces to set up [Operation Hurricane](/wiki/Operation_Hurricane_%28Rhodesia%29 "Operation Hurricane (Rhodesia)") in northern [Mashonaland](/wiki/Mashonaland "Mashonaland"). This counter\-insurgency operation would continue right up to 1980\. "It was the start of a whole new ball game," writes Lieutenant\-Colonel R. E. H. Lockley. "The war proper had started."{{Harvnb\|Lockley\|1990}}
{{clear}}
### *Cordon sanitaire*—protected villages and minefields
[thumb\|Existing and planned [protected villages](/wiki/Villagization "Villagization") (PVs) on 6 January 1978:{{harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|p\=91}}](/wiki/File:Rhodesia_protected_villages_1978.png "Rhodesia protected villages 1978.png")
As another part of their tactical shift the Rhodesians set up [protected villages](/wiki/Villagization "Villagization") (PVs) to protect tribesmen and their families and deny the insurgents access to them. Starting in May 1974, they also set up a so\-called "*[cordon sanitaire](/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_%28international_relations%29 "Cordon sanitaire (international relations)")*"—a vast mine field along the borders with [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia "Zambia") and Mozambique, about {{convert\|1400\|km}} long and varying between {{convert\|8\|km\|0}} and {{convert\|30\|km}} wide. ZANLA eventually estimated that during the entire war it lost 8,000 of its fighters to the minefield while attempting to cross it. Lieutenant\-Colonel A. N. O. MacIntyre was replaced as commanding officer of the RLI on 17 April 1973 by Lieutenant\-Colonel R. W. Southey.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=488}}
ZANLA cadres attacked the school at [St Albert's Mission](/wiki/Saint_Alberts_High_School "Saint Alberts High School") between Centenary and Mount Darwin in July 1973 and abducted 292 pupils and staff, whom they [force\-marched](/wiki/Death_march "Death march") north into the Zambezi valley and towards Mozambique. They were intercepted by the Rhodesian Security Forces and all but eight of the children and staff were recovered. Similar abductions were repeated over the following years and the security forces found themselves increasingly unable to prevent them.{{Harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|p\=17}} The captured schoolchildren would be marched to ZANLA bases in Mozambique where they would undergo "political 're\-education'" (Abbott's and Botham's words{{Harvnb\|Abbott\|Botham\|1986\|p\=12}}) and guerrilla training.
The security forces attempted to prevent the rural blacks from cooperating with ZANLA by instituting collective punishment on villages where cadres were known to have received assistance: for example, curfews would be imposed, and schools and stores closed. A more extreme example came in April 1974 when nearly 200 local people from the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands were resettled to another part of the country "as punishment for assisting terrorists."{{Harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|p\=16}} "At this stage the majority of the local population were not necessarily supporters of either [ZANU](/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union "Zimbabwe African National Union") or [ZAPU](/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union "Zimbabwe African People's Union")," writes historian Jakkie Cilliers. "Collective punishment measures such as these could only have had serious negative effects on the attitude of the black rural masses."
The Protected Village Programme started on 27 July 1974, when [Operation Overload](/wiki/Operation_Overload "Operation Overload") began in the Chiweshe Tribal Trust Lands, where according to Reid\-Daly "apparent support for the ZANLA cause was, without doubt, overwhelming".{{Harvnb\|Reid\-Daly\|Stiff\|1982\|p\=89}} Over the course of six weeks, 49,960 rural people were moved into 21 protected villages. People in the northern Chiweshe area had been subject to violent political intimidation by ZANLA, and so for the most part moved willingly, but in the southern part of the area, where support for the cadres was stronger, resistance was encountered. The security forces destroyed the old huts after their occupants had moved. "In the short term, benefits seemed substantial," says Cilliers, "as insurgent activities were severely disrupted in Chiweshe for the following six months." The security forces immediately set about a similar operation called Overload Two in the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands, which met with further success.{{\#tag:ref\|Although initially successful, the protected villages ultimately proved counter\-productive for the security forces. Cilliers cites the "lack of emphasis on concurrent socio\-economic conditions" as a negative factor, pointing out the lack of sanitation and other facilities in most of the villages, as well as the fact that they were not sufficiently guarded. Wood agrees, saying that the villages "were never adequately policed or protected and the people were not involved in their management \[or] persuaded of their necessity." Because of the inadequate financial backing for the PVs they were not developed properly, and their locations were often too far from the fields where the villagers grew their crops. Village administration was poor to the extent that in numerous cases ZANLA guerrillas were able to use them as hiding places. "Most important of all," Wood concludes, the protected villages "took the people away from the burial sites of their ancestors, which they venerated." The PVs lasted until 1978, when they were dismantled.\|group\="n"}}{{Harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|pp\=83–86}} This combined with the effectiveness of the recently formed Selous Scouts to reduce ZANLA influence in the area and force the cadres back to the north, towards Mozambique. After their lapse in concentration the security forces had begun to regain control.
### The birth of Fireforce
The doctrine which became the RLI's characteristic action, [Fireforce](/wiki/Fireforce "Fireforce"), had first been discussed by RLI and [Rhodesian Air Force](/wiki/Rhodesian_Air_Force "Rhodesian Air Force") (RhAF) officers in the early 1970s. The security forces considered how to contact the guerrillas on their own terms; the new ZANLA tactics were based around deliberately avoiding confrontation so far as was possible and hiding amongst the local population, so it was difficult for the Rhodesians to fight them face\-to\-face. Chasing the nationalists with trackers was ineffective as the tracker, in order to find the guerrilla's tracks, had to move slower, and air pursuit, when used alone, was deemed similarly ineffective. A tactic which combined the two was developed jointly, given the name "Fireforce" by Lieutenant Chris Pearce of the RLI,{{\#tag:ref\|Pearce's original spelling was "Fire Force", but the name is now generally rendered as one word.\|group\="n"}} and first deployed in January 1974, at Mount Darwin. When it was first used in action a month later, on 24 February 1974, the RLI and RhAF air support eliminated a ZANLA group.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|pp\=158–160}}
[thumb\|left\|alt\=A small, camouflaged military helicopter, seen from the right and from below. South African markings can be seen on the aircraft's tail.\|[Fireforce](/wiki/Fireforce "Fireforce") was based largely around the use of [Alouette IIIs](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III "Aérospatiale Alouette III"), like this one of the [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force "South African Air Force").](/wiki/File:SAAF-Alouette_III-001.jpg "SAAF-Alouette III-001.jpg")
Fireforce was a variant on the [vertical envelopment](/wiki/Air_assault "Air assault") tactic in which ground troops would be carried directly to the target by air and dropped.{{harvnb\|Wood\|2009\|p\=90}} It was designed to react instantly to guerrilla ambushes, farm attacks and sightings, and could also be called upon by members of the security forces as reinforcements. Preparatory deployment was very flexible: all that was required for a base was an airstrip. There would usually be three main Fireforces in operation at each time, each of which would be handled by a company\-sized body of men, usually one of the RLI Commandos or a company of the [Rhodesian African Rifles](/wiki/Rhodesian_African_Rifles "Rhodesian African Rifles").{{\#tag:ref\|The basic Fireforce doctrine, published by the Operations Co\-ordinating Committee in June 1975, recommended that only "well\-trained troops" such as the \[\[Rhodesian Light Infantry]] or \[\[Rhodesian African Rifles]] be assigned the procedure.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=164}} However, other units with their own high level of specifically\-relevant training were sometimes used, such as the SAS and Territorial Force.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=183}}\|group\="n"}} The unit in question would be posted at a forward airfield for six weeks (though sometimes for longer) and given responsibility for thousands of square kilometres of Rhodesian countryside. The Selous Scouts' hidden forward [observation posts](/wiki/Observation_post "Observation post") (OPs) allowed for instant reactions by Fireforce to sightings of the enemy guerrillas.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=162}}
When an attack, contact or sighting was reported a siren would sound throughout the base and the troopers would rush out to react in two "Waves". The First Wave of 32 soldiers would be transported to the area aboard [Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III "Aérospatiale Alouette III") helicopters, commonly called "G\-cars",{{\#tag:ref\|The word "G\-car" comes from "gunship".\|group\="n"}} and would be accompanied by a further Alouette III, acting as command gunship (or "K\-car"{{\#tag:ref\|The term "K\-car" originated as an abbreviation of "killer car".{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|pp\=483–486}}\|group\="n"}}) and a [Cessna Skymaster](/wiki/Cessna_Skymaster "Cessna Skymaster") (or "Lynx") light support aircraft. Each Alouette could carry a "stick" of four soldiers,{{\#tag:ref\|From a "stick" of \[\[paratrooper]]s\|group\="n"}} so on Fireforce the First Wave was organised into eight four\-man "stops". The remainder of the Commando, the Second Wave, would either be carried by the same aircraft, which returned to collect them, or move by truck at the same time as the First Wave.{{harvnb\|Wood\|2009\|p\=96}} The object of Fireforce was to quickly trap and wipe out guerrilla groups before they could evacuate the area,{{harvnb\|Cocks\|2009\|p\=32}} so the element of surprise was important, but this was difficult to maintain because of the noise of an Alouette III's jet engine; on a windy day in the quiet bush, an Alouette III can be heard [downwind](/wiki/wiktionary:Downwind "Downwind") many kilometres away. Hearing the Fireforce coming from this distance would give the cadres plenty of time to hide themselves, so the RhAF pilots would attempt to approach their targets heading upwind to minimise this effect.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=158}}
Fireforce, used in conjunction with the Selous Scouts' methods, proved very effective for the security forces, who began to gain the upper hand; the doubling of the length of [National Service](/wiki/National_service "National service") from six to 12 months also contributed, as it gave the Rhodesians more troops. Conscripted men had first entered the RLI ranks in 1973 and were used in increasing numbers to make up shortages in manpower. Under the leadership of a new commanding officer, Lieutenant\-Colonel David Parker{{\#tag:ref\|Lieutenant\-Colonel David Gladwell Parker became the RLI's commanding officer on 1 May 1974\.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=495}}\|group\="n"}}—nicknamed "The King" by the RLI men—the Battalion also embarked on a large and successful overseas recruitment drive starting in 1974, seeking [foreign volunteers](/wiki/Foreign_volunteers "Foreign volunteers") from Europe, the Americas and Oceania.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=481}} The security forces struck back strongly against ZANLA during 1974, killing 345 of its guerrillas and 75% of its leadership; during October and November 1974 the Rhodesians killed more insurgents than they had during the entire previous two years.{{Harvnb\|Martin\|Johnson\|1981\|p\=161}} Less than 300 ZANLA cadres remained in the country at the end of that year, with Cilliers giving an official Rhodesian figure of 70\. All were confined to north\-eastern Rhodesia and were retreating towards Mozambique.{{harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=166}}
|
[
"*Chimurenga:* the Bush War begins in earnest\n--------------------------------------------",
"### ZANLA attacks Altena and Whistlefield Farms",
"{{Quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=30%\\|quote\\=The revolutionary drive to eliminate settler oppression, imperialism and capitalism, the achievement of independence and freedom in Zimbabwe is gaining ground. The balance of power is shifting in favour of revolutionary forces. Each day the forces of liberation and progress are gaining strength and experience while the forces of fascism meet setback after setback and resort to naked mass murder, terror, destruction of villages, crops, property and animals of innocent people.\\|source\\=The opening paragraph of a typical ZANU \"''\\[\\[chimurenga]]'' war communiqué\",{{\\#tag:ref\\|''\\[\\[Chimurenga]]'' is a \\[\\[Shona language\\|Shona]] word meaning \"revolutionary struggle\".{{Harvnb\\|Williams\\|Hackland\\|1988\\|p\\=50}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}} Number 8, issued from \\[\\[Lusaka]] on 27 March 1974{{cite news\\|title\\=Chimurenga war communiqué No. 8\\. Period from 30 Jan to 20 March 1974\\|date\\=27 March 1974\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Zimbabwe African National Union]]\\|location\\=Lusaka}}\\|quoted \\= 1}}",
"Rhodesian intelligence, which had been monitoring ZANLA's activity and preparations, grew curious when over a four\\-week period in November 1972 sources of information suddenly began to \"dry up\", in the words of historian Alexandre Binda. \"They sensed that something was afoot, but their superiors brushed off their fears,\" Binda says. \"The senior Rhodesian authorities had been lulled into a sense of arrogant self\\-confidence based on the security forces' past successes.\" This false veneer of security was smashed on 21 December 1972 when a group of ten ZANLA cadres led by [Rex Nhongo](/wiki/Solomon_Mujuru \"Solomon Mujuru\"){{\\#tag:ref\\|\"Rex Nhongo\" was the ''chimurenga'' name (''\\[\\[Pseudonym\\#Noms de guerre\\|nom de guerre]]'') of \\[\\[Solomon Mujuru\\|Solomon Tapfumaneyi Mutuswa]], who changed his surname to Mujuru during the mid\\-1970s. ''Nhongo'' is Shona for \"male goat\".{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=150}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}} attacked the white\\-owned Altena Farm near the north\\-eastern village of [Centenary](/wiki/Centenary%2C_Zimbabwe \"Centenary, Zimbabwe\"), about {{convert\\|30\\|km}} west of [Mount Darwin](/wiki/Mount_Darwin%2C_Zimbabwe \"Mount Darwin, Zimbabwe\").",
"ZANLA had planned for four attacks to take place simultaneously but in the event only Nhongo's men did so. According to historian Elaine Windrich, Nhongo was a former employee of the tobacco farm's 37\\-year\\-old owner, Marc de Borchgrave, and held a grudge against him. The cadres shot up the farm house with [AK\\-47](/wiki/AK-47 \"AK-47\") assault rifles and threw grenades through the windows, then retreated and hid amongst the local population.{{Harvnb\\|Windrich\\|1975\\|p\\=301}} Nobody was killed in the attack but the farmer's eight\\-year\\-old daughter, Jane, was wounded in the foot. The isolated house had no telephone or any other means of contacting neighbours, and de Borchgrave was wary of being ambushed should he drive his car out, so after a short time comforting the children he set out across country on foot to seek help and alert the authorities. This done, he returned and took his wife and children to another farm nearby,{{Harvnb\\|Petter\\-Bowyer\\|2005\\|pp\\=187–188}} Whistlefield, which was owned by Archie Dalgluish and his family.",
"Despite the warnings of their intelligence officers, the security chiefs were caught completely by surprise. The RLI headquarters and all three Commandos were deployed in the [Zambezi](/wiki/Zambezi \"Zambezi\") valley on routine border\\-control duty, and Support Group was at Cranborne Barracks. A troop of Support Group men under Second Lieutenant Ian Buttenshaw was despatched to Centenary the next day along with a troop of SAS, led by Bert Sachse. In their preliminary sweep around Altena Farm they discovered a [land mine](/wiki/Land_mine \"Land mine\") planted in the road, but no insurgents. While the security forces were patrolling around Altena, Nhongo's men approached Whistlefield Farm in the late evening of 22 December and, as at Altena, attacked the farm house with rifle fire, grenades and an [RPG\\-7](/wiki/RPG-7 \"RPG-7\") rocket launcher, which was aimed into the bedroom in which de Borchgrave was sleeping. The rocket hit the window frame and lightly wounded the tobacco farmer and his nine\\-year\\-old daughter Anne. The ZANLA cadres then retreated and hid themselves. News of the second attack reached Buttenshaw and Sachse around midnight, and they deployed immediately, but having discovered a mine near Altena they disembarked from the vehicles {{convert\\|1\\|km}} from Whistlefield and made the final approach on foot. Anne was evacuated by helicopter as the RLI and SAS men secured the area for the night.{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|pp\\=133–136}}",
"The next morning, on 24 December 1972, two tracking teams arrived at Whistlefield to assist Buttenshaw and Sachse in a 360\\-degree search: one was from the SAS, and led by Ron Marillier, while the other was a [British South Africa Police](/wiki/British_South_Africa_Police \"British South Africa Police\") (BSAP) team including tracking dogs. The security forces searched for tracks while also investigating reported sightings. The tracks of the ZANLA fighters were discovered on 27 December on the western side of the farm and the trackers asked Buttenshaw and Sachse to bring the vehicles carrying the heavy equipment around to meet them. On the way the truck carrying Buttenshaw ran over a mine with one of its rear wheels, causing it to detonate. Buttenshaw himself, who was sitting on the bonnet of the vehicle, was thrown clear but Corporal Norman Moore and Trooper Pete Botha, sitting in the back, were not as fortunate, taking the brunt of the blast. Captain Gordon Holloway, behind the wheel, and Trooper Rod Boden in the passenger seat went into severe shock but were ultimately unharmed. Moore, on the other hand, died two days later from his wounds, while Botha survived but lost both legs.",
"In their haste, Nhongo's cadres had not attempted to conceal their tracks as they headed west, towards the Musengezi river—Buttenshaw's pursuant RLI men therefore realised how quickly the guerrillas were moving and sped up their chase. The Rhodesians stopped for the night in a rocky area near a stream, replenished their scanty water supply and continued at dawn. About half an hour after setting off they crossed a [vlei](/wiki/Vlei \"Vlei\") to discover a recently vacated guerrilla camp. \"The fire was still burning and the food still warm,\" Buttenshaw writes. \"From the abandoned kit a hurried departure appeared evident.\" Support was summoned from the SAS, who were tasked to set up stops along the Musengezi to the west. Buttenshaw's men reached the top of the Musengezi valley to see Rhodesian helicopters dropping the SAS soldiers at regular intervals along the river, as well as the ZANLA cadres, who were moving straight towards one of the SAS stops. The stop opened fire and killed some; the rest of the guerrillas scattered and ran. Buttenshaw's RLI men were then withdrawn from the follow\\-up for a day and a half and placed in stop positions. The chase was temporarily taken over by the SAS under Lieutenant [Chris Schulenburg](/wiki/Chris_Schulenburg \"Chris Schulenburg\") before Buttenshaw's men returned on 30 December 1972\\. Soon after setting out that morning they discovered an unarmed, wounded ZANLA fighter who had been shot in the arm by the SAS in the initial contact two days earlier. He had hidden himself after being abandoned by his comrades, and since then had lost a great deal of blood.",
"{{Quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=30%\\|quote\\=For the first time the Rhodesian Security Forces were faced with a seemingly insoluble problem ... after carrying out their attacks the terrorists had not gone to ground in bush\\-camps in uninhabited areas where they could eventually be tracked down ... neither had they gone to ground in inhabited areas where information from the local population to the \\[\\[British South Africa Police\\|Police]] or \\[\\[Special Branch]] had indicated their whereabouts. This time there was nothing. No tracks ... no information.\\|source\\=Lieutenant\\-Colonel \\[\\[Ronald Reid\\-Daly\\|Ron Reid\\-Daly]], writing in 1982, explains the effect of ZANLA's subversion on rural Rhodesia{{Harvnb\\|Reid\\-Daly\\|Stiff\\|1982\\|p\\=16}}\\|quoted \\= 1}}\nAfter two years of patient preparation, the farm attacks by ZANLA near Centenary marked the effective start of its \"Second *[Chimurenga](/wiki/Chimurenga \"Chimurenga\")*\"{{\\#tag:ref\\|The \"First ''Chimurenga''\" in question is the \\[\\[Second Matabele War]], a series of \\[\\[Northern Ndebele people\\|Ndebele]] and \\[\\[Shona people\\|Shona]] insurgencies against the \\[\\[British South Africa Company]] \\[\\[Company rule in Rhodesia\\|administration]] in 1896–97\\.{{Harvnb\\|Moorcraft\\|McLaughlin\\|2008\\|p\\=75}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}} against the Rhodesian government.{{Harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|p\\=33}} The effectiveness of ZANLA's adopted Maoist tactics was demonstrated in particular by the element of surprise they were now able to use against the security forces, and by the ability they had achieved to melt seamlessly into the local population between strikes. The rural black people in the north\\-east of the country were now, in Binda's words, \"almost totally subverted and intimidated\" by ZANLA and provided the guerrillas with food, shelter and manpower. Rather than having the tribesmen actively volunteer information about insurgent movements and locations, as had happened during previous infiltrations,{{Harvnb\\|SADET\\|2005\\|p\\=497}} the Rhodesian Security Forces now met an increasingly silent and sometimes hostile welcome from the rural blacks. More farm attacks took place over the following weeks, during December 1972 and January 1973, leading the security forces to set up [Operation Hurricane](/wiki/Operation_Hurricane_%28Rhodesia%29 \"Operation Hurricane (Rhodesia)\") in northern [Mashonaland](/wiki/Mashonaland \"Mashonaland\"). This counter\\-insurgency operation would continue right up to 1980\\. \"It was the start of a whole new ball game,\" writes Lieutenant\\-Colonel R. E. H. Lockley. \"The war proper had started.\"{{Harvnb\\|Lockley\\|1990}}\n{{clear}}",
"### *Cordon sanitaire*—protected villages and minefields",
"[thumb\\|Existing and planned [protected villages](/wiki/Villagization \"Villagization\") (PVs) on 6 January 1978:{{harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|p\\=91}}](/wiki/File:Rhodesia_protected_villages_1978.png \"Rhodesia protected villages 1978.png\")",
"As another part of their tactical shift the Rhodesians set up [protected villages](/wiki/Villagization \"Villagization\") (PVs) to protect tribesmen and their families and deny the insurgents access to them. Starting in May 1974, they also set up a so\\-called \"*[cordon sanitaire](/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_%28international_relations%29 \"Cordon sanitaire (international relations)\")*\"—a vast mine field along the borders with [Zambia](/wiki/Zambia \"Zambia\") and Mozambique, about {{convert\\|1400\\|km}} long and varying between {{convert\\|8\\|km\\|0}} and {{convert\\|30\\|km}} wide. ZANLA eventually estimated that during the entire war it lost 8,000 of its fighters to the minefield while attempting to cross it. Lieutenant\\-Colonel A. N. O. MacIntyre was replaced as commanding officer of the RLI on 17 April 1973 by Lieutenant\\-Colonel R. W. Southey.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=488}}",
"ZANLA cadres attacked the school at [St Albert's Mission](/wiki/Saint_Alberts_High_School \"Saint Alberts High School\") between Centenary and Mount Darwin in July 1973 and abducted 292 pupils and staff, whom they [force\\-marched](/wiki/Death_march \"Death march\") north into the Zambezi valley and towards Mozambique. They were intercepted by the Rhodesian Security Forces and all but eight of the children and staff were recovered. Similar abductions were repeated over the following years and the security forces found themselves increasingly unable to prevent them.{{Harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|p\\=17}} The captured schoolchildren would be marched to ZANLA bases in Mozambique where they would undergo \"political 're\\-education'\" (Abbott's and Botham's words{{Harvnb\\|Abbott\\|Botham\\|1986\\|p\\=12}}) and guerrilla training.",
"The security forces attempted to prevent the rural blacks from cooperating with ZANLA by instituting collective punishment on villages where cadres were known to have received assistance: for example, curfews would be imposed, and schools and stores closed. A more extreme example came in April 1974 when nearly 200 local people from the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands were resettled to another part of the country \"as punishment for assisting terrorists.\"{{Harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|p\\=16}} \"At this stage the majority of the local population were not necessarily supporters of either [ZANU](/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union \"Zimbabwe African National Union\") or [ZAPU](/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_People%27s_Union \"Zimbabwe African People's Union\"),\" writes historian Jakkie Cilliers. \"Collective punishment measures such as these could only have had serious negative effects on the attitude of the black rural masses.\"",
"The Protected Village Programme started on 27 July 1974, when [Operation Overload](/wiki/Operation_Overload \"Operation Overload\") began in the Chiweshe Tribal Trust Lands, where according to Reid\\-Daly \"apparent support for the ZANLA cause was, without doubt, overwhelming\".{{Harvnb\\|Reid\\-Daly\\|Stiff\\|1982\\|p\\=89}} Over the course of six weeks, 49,960 rural people were moved into 21 protected villages. People in the northern Chiweshe area had been subject to violent political intimidation by ZANLA, and so for the most part moved willingly, but in the southern part of the area, where support for the cadres was stronger, resistance was encountered. The security forces destroyed the old huts after their occupants had moved. \"In the short term, benefits seemed substantial,\" says Cilliers, \"as insurgent activities were severely disrupted in Chiweshe for the following six months.\" The security forces immediately set about a similar operation called Overload Two in the Madziwa Tribal Trust Lands, which met with further success.{{\\#tag:ref\\|Although initially successful, the protected villages ultimately proved counter\\-productive for the security forces. Cilliers cites the \"lack of emphasis on concurrent socio\\-economic conditions\" as a negative factor, pointing out the lack of sanitation and other facilities in most of the villages, as well as the fact that they were not sufficiently guarded. Wood agrees, saying that the villages \"were never adequately policed or protected and the people were not involved in their management \\[or] persuaded of their necessity.\" Because of the inadequate financial backing for the PVs they were not developed properly, and their locations were often too far from the fields where the villagers grew their crops. Village administration was poor to the extent that in numerous cases ZANLA guerrillas were able to use them as hiding places. \"Most important of all,\" Wood concludes, the protected villages \"took the people away from the burial sites of their ancestors, which they venerated.\" The PVs lasted until 1978, when they were dismantled.\\|group\\=\"n\"}}{{Harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|pp\\=83–86}} This combined with the effectiveness of the recently formed Selous Scouts to reduce ZANLA influence in the area and force the cadres back to the north, towards Mozambique. After their lapse in concentration the security forces had begun to regain control.",
"### The birth of Fireforce",
"The doctrine which became the RLI's characteristic action, [Fireforce](/wiki/Fireforce \"Fireforce\"), had first been discussed by RLI and [Rhodesian Air Force](/wiki/Rhodesian_Air_Force \"Rhodesian Air Force\") (RhAF) officers in the early 1970s. The security forces considered how to contact the guerrillas on their own terms; the new ZANLA tactics were based around deliberately avoiding confrontation so far as was possible and hiding amongst the local population, so it was difficult for the Rhodesians to fight them face\\-to\\-face. Chasing the nationalists with trackers was ineffective as the tracker, in order to find the guerrilla's tracks, had to move slower, and air pursuit, when used alone, was deemed similarly ineffective. A tactic which combined the two was developed jointly, given the name \"Fireforce\" by Lieutenant Chris Pearce of the RLI,{{\\#tag:ref\\|Pearce's original spelling was \"Fire Force\", but the name is now generally rendered as one word.\\|group\\=\"n\"}} and first deployed in January 1974, at Mount Darwin. When it was first used in action a month later, on 24 February 1974, the RLI and RhAF air support eliminated a ZANLA group.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|pp\\=158–160}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=A small, camouflaged military helicopter, seen from the right and from below. South African markings can be seen on the aircraft's tail.\\|[Fireforce](/wiki/Fireforce \"Fireforce\") was based largely around the use of [Alouette IIIs](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III \"Aérospatiale Alouette III\"), like this one of the [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force \"South African Air Force\").](/wiki/File:SAAF-Alouette_III-001.jpg \"SAAF-Alouette III-001.jpg\")\nFireforce was a variant on the [vertical envelopment](/wiki/Air_assault \"Air assault\") tactic in which ground troops would be carried directly to the target by air and dropped.{{harvnb\\|Wood\\|2009\\|p\\=90}} It was designed to react instantly to guerrilla ambushes, farm attacks and sightings, and could also be called upon by members of the security forces as reinforcements. Preparatory deployment was very flexible: all that was required for a base was an airstrip. There would usually be three main Fireforces in operation at each time, each of which would be handled by a company\\-sized body of men, usually one of the RLI Commandos or a company of the [Rhodesian African Rifles](/wiki/Rhodesian_African_Rifles \"Rhodesian African Rifles\").{{\\#tag:ref\\|The basic Fireforce doctrine, published by the Operations Co\\-ordinating Committee in June 1975, recommended that only \"well\\-trained troops\" such as the \\[\\[Rhodesian Light Infantry]] or \\[\\[Rhodesian African Rifles]] be assigned the procedure.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=164}} However, other units with their own high level of specifically\\-relevant training were sometimes used, such as the SAS and Territorial Force.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=183}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}} The unit in question would be posted at a forward airfield for six weeks (though sometimes for longer) and given responsibility for thousands of square kilometres of Rhodesian countryside. The Selous Scouts' hidden forward [observation posts](/wiki/Observation_post \"Observation post\") (OPs) allowed for instant reactions by Fireforce to sightings of the enemy guerrillas.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=162}}",
"When an attack, contact or sighting was reported a siren would sound throughout the base and the troopers would rush out to react in two \"Waves\". The First Wave of 32 soldiers would be transported to the area aboard [Alouette III](/wiki/A%C3%A9rospatiale_Alouette_III \"Aérospatiale Alouette III\") helicopters, commonly called \"G\\-cars\",{{\\#tag:ref\\|The word \"G\\-car\" comes from \"gunship\".\\|group\\=\"n\"}} and would be accompanied by a further Alouette III, acting as command gunship (or \"K\\-car\"{{\\#tag:ref\\|The term \"K\\-car\" originated as an abbreviation of \"killer car\".{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|pp\\=483–486}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}}) and a [Cessna Skymaster](/wiki/Cessna_Skymaster \"Cessna Skymaster\") (or \"Lynx\") light support aircraft. Each Alouette could carry a \"stick\" of four soldiers,{{\\#tag:ref\\|From a \"stick\" of \\[\\[paratrooper]]s\\|group\\=\"n\"}} so on Fireforce the First Wave was organised into eight four\\-man \"stops\". The remainder of the Commando, the Second Wave, would either be carried by the same aircraft, which returned to collect them, or move by truck at the same time as the First Wave.{{harvnb\\|Wood\\|2009\\|p\\=96}} The object of Fireforce was to quickly trap and wipe out guerrilla groups before they could evacuate the area,{{harvnb\\|Cocks\\|2009\\|p\\=32}} so the element of surprise was important, but this was difficult to maintain because of the noise of an Alouette III's jet engine; on a windy day in the quiet bush, an Alouette III can be heard [downwind](/wiki/wiktionary:Downwind \"Downwind\") many kilometres away. Hearing the Fireforce coming from this distance would give the cadres plenty of time to hide themselves, so the RhAF pilots would attempt to approach their targets heading upwind to minimise this effect.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=158}}",
"Fireforce, used in conjunction with the Selous Scouts' methods, proved very effective for the security forces, who began to gain the upper hand; the doubling of the length of [National Service](/wiki/National_service \"National service\") from six to 12 months also contributed, as it gave the Rhodesians more troops. Conscripted men had first entered the RLI ranks in 1973 and were used in increasing numbers to make up shortages in manpower. Under the leadership of a new commanding officer, Lieutenant\\-Colonel David Parker{{\\#tag:ref\\|Lieutenant\\-Colonel David Gladwell Parker became the RLI's commanding officer on 1 May 1974\\.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=495}}\\|group\\=\"n\"}}—nicknamed \"The King\" by the RLI men—the Battalion also embarked on a large and successful overseas recruitment drive starting in 1974, seeking [foreign volunteers](/wiki/Foreign_volunteers \"Foreign volunteers\") from Europe, the Americas and Oceania.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=481}} The security forces struck back strongly against ZANLA during 1974, killing 345 of its guerrillas and 75% of its leadership; during October and November 1974 the Rhodesians killed more insurgents than they had during the entire previous two years.{{Harvnb\\|Martin\\|Johnson\\|1981\\|p\\=161}} Less than 300 ZANLA cadres remained in the country at the end of that year, with Cilliers giving an official Rhodesian figure of 70\\. All were confined to north\\-eastern Rhodesia and were retreating towards Mozambique.{{harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=166}}",
""
] |
After the failure of détente, the war resumes and escalates
-----------------------------------------------------------
[thumb\|350px\|Over the course of the 1970s, the Rhodesian Security Forces defined seven operational areas across the country. The first, Operation Hurricane, was set up in December 1972\. Operation Thrasher followed in February 1976, and by the end of the war Operations Grapple, Repulse, Splinter and Tangent were also running. A seventh operational area existed for the capital, [Salisbury](/wiki/Harare "Harare"), which was called SALOPS ("Salisbury Operations").{{Harvnb\|Cilliers\|1984\|p\=29}}](/wiki/File:Rhodesian_Security_Forces_operational_areas.png "Rhodesian Security Forces operational areas.png")
### The opening of Operations Thrasher, Repulse and Tangent
Lieutenant\-Colonel Peter Rich took over the command of the RLI on the same day as the accident near Cashel. One of his first acts was to make Support Group a Commando in its own right: the new "Support Commando" was created on 6 January 1976, under the command of Major Pat Armstrong, and moved out of Base Group headquarters into its own offices directly next door. Guerrilla incursions renewed in the first months of 1976, with three waves of nationalists crossing from Mozambique between January and April. The first group of 90 fighters crossed the border south of [Nyamapanda](/wiki/Nyamapanda "Nyamapanda") on 21 January, and was immediately repulsed, four cadres being killed and one captured by the security forces. The attack on Nyamapanda was supposed to be one part of a three\-pronged invasion, but the nationalist operation did not go to plan: the second group of 130 guerrillas attacked the Melsetter area five weeks later and the third assault, in Rhodesia's south\-east, did not take place until another seven weeks after that, in April 1976—three months behind schedule.
Smith addressed the nation on the evening of 6 February 1976, warning that "a new terrorist offensive has begun and, to defeat it, Rhodesians will have to face heavier military commitments."{{Harvnb\|Smith\|1997\|p\=191}} Mozambique formally declared a state of war with Rhodesia a month later, on 3 March.{{Harvnb\|Smith\|1997\|p\=184}} With security force reports indicating that around 1,000 fighters were active within Rhodesia, with a further 15,000 encamped in various states of readiness in Mozambique, three more Rhodesian operational areas were defined in addition to Operation Hurricane. Operation Thrasher, covering Rhodesia's eastern highlands, was designated in February 1976, and Operations Repulse and Tangent, handling the south\-east and west respectively, followed in May and August.
The ZANLA and ZIPRA cadres were officially working together, but in reality the armies' relationship was fraught with tension. As well as tribal lines—ZANLA's men were predominantly Shona, whilst ZIPRA's were mostly Ndebele—there were political issues and differences of opinion regarding doctrine. ZANLA favoured a continuation of their existing Maoist tactics, spreading themselves amongst the rural people and politicising them "by fair means or foul", as Wood says, while ZIPRA preferred to overtly recruit fighters and train them overseas for conventional invasions.{{Harvnb\|Wood\|1995\|loc\=Phase 3\. 1974–1977}} ZIPRA's relative inactivity in the war since 1970 also contributed to the sentiment amongst some ZANLA cadres that their supposed allies in the *chimurenga* were not pulling their weight. As ZANLA were superior in number to ZIPRA, their men began to usurp positions of command and authority at the joint training facilities abroad, which made the strain yet more potent. The mutual ill\-feeling finally boiled over into open clashes at two training camps in Tanzania, Mugagao and [Morogoro](/wiki/Morogoro "Morogoro"), in early 1976; in one incident, 400 nationalists were killed, while in another 200 died. Despite the continued animosity, combined guerrilla groups continued to enter Rhodesia, usually made up of eight ZANLA and two ZIPRA men; according to Lockley, the ZIPRA fighters so disliked their ZANLA comrades that they would sometimes deliberately become separated, desert and go home rather than fight alongside them.
### The Rhodesian "foreign legion": the RLI ranks are bolstered by conscripts and foreign volunteers
{{Quote box\|align\=right\|width\=30%\|quote\=In many respects the RLI was a mirror of the \[\[French Foreign Legion]], in that recruiters paid little heed as to a man's past and asked no questions ... And like the Foreign Legion, once in the ranks, a man's past was irrelevant.\|source\=Lance\-Corporal Chris Cocks, RLI, on the recruitment of foreign soldiers\|quoted \= 1}}
The RLI's drive for foreign volunteers, launched in earnest in 1974, proved very successful, attracting hundreds of recruits from all over the world. The increased inclusion of conscripted men combined with this to gradually change the character and dynamics of the Regiment. A "watershed in the history of the RLI", says Cocks, is Intake 150, which passed out in May 1976\. RLI Intake 150 was the largest ever, and was made up mostly of 18\-year\-old national servicemen, "many of whom", Cocks continues, "simply did not want to be there". The foreign volunteers alongside them were greater in number than ever before, and the absorption of men from overseas would increase yet further as the war went on.
Whereas conscripted men had previously been of a small enough volume that they could be gently assimilated into the combat ranks over time, Intake 150 gave the RLI so many new, inexperienced rookies that they would often outnumber the veterans in the field. Casualties were unusually high amongst Intake 150 members during their first month in action, and this trend continued for inexperienced men for the rest of the Battalion's history—in the most extreme case, on 10 June 1979, Trooper Robbie Francis was killed on his first day as a member of 3 Commando. [P. K. van der Byl](/wiki/P._K._van_der_Byl "P. K. van der Byl"), the Minister of Defence, reviewed the new recruits and addressed them with fiery vigour as they passed out, then answered questions from the press in a similar vein. When the possibility of open Cuban military intervention on the side of the guerrillas was raised, Van der Byl declared that the Rhodesian Army would "beat the life and soul out of them".{{Harvnb\|Wessels\|2010\|p\=203}}
Soldiers from overseas serving in the Rhodesian forces received the same pay and conditions of service as locally based regulars.{{Harvnb\|Moorcraft\|McLaughlin\|2008\|p\=52}} Almost all of them mustered into the RLI, though some joined the SAS. Many were professional soldiers, attracted by the Regiment's reputation:{{Harvnb\|Abbott\|Botham\|1986\|p\=17}} most prevalent were former members of the [British Armed Forces](/wiki/British_Armed_Forces "British Armed Forces"), and [Vietnam veterans](/wiki/Vietnam_veteran "Vietnam veteran") from the [United States](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces"), [Australian](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force "Australian Defence Force") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_Defence_Force "New Zealand Defence Force") forces.{{\#tag:ref\|In ''The Saints'', Cocks gives a list of "\[veterans of the] American \[\[Special Forces (United States Army)\|Green Berets]] and \[\[Airborne forces\|Airborne]] units, the \[\[Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)\|British Paras]], \[\[Royal Green Jackets\|Green Jackets]], \[\[Royal Marines]], \[\[Special Air Service\|SAS]], \[\[Grenadier Guards]] (to name but a few) and a fair sprinkling of Aussie and Kiwi \[\[Vietnam veteran\|Vietnam vets]], plus sundry \[\[French Foreign Legion\|Legionnaires]], South Africans, Germans, Brazilians, Portuguese et al."\|group\="n"}} The seasoned foreigners "soon became an integral part of the Battalion", Cocks writes, contributing to the RLI's fine reputation and also passing their experience onto the young, recently conscripted men.{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|pp\=186–188}}
Some foreign volunteers had no military experience and found themselves in a similar situation to the Rhodesian teenagers. These foreigners were generally motivated to enlist by [anti\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism "Anti-communism") political views, hunger for adventure, turbulent personal lives in their home countries or some combination of these factors. The Canadian [Mathew Charles Lamb](/wiki/Mathew_Charles_Lamb "Mathew Charles Lamb") joined 3 Commando, RLI in 1973, having just spent six years in a psychiatric hospital. In June 1966, aged 18, he had killed two strangers in a [shooting spree](/wiki/Spree_killer "Spree killer") in his home\-town, but avoided the [death penalty](/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Canada "Capital punishment in Canada") on a court ruling that at the time of the incident he [had been insane](/wiki/Mental_disorder_defence "Mental disorder defence").{{Harvnb\|Nosanchuk\|1999}} Keeping his past life a secret, he became a popular and well\-regarded soldier in 3 Commando,{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=126}} and eventually rose to the rank of Lance\-Corporal, taking command of a Fireforce stick on Operation Thrasher shortly before he was killed in action on 7 November 1976 by an errant shot from one of his own men.{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|p\=198}}
### The Battle of "Hill 31"
{{main\|Battle of Hill 31}}
[Call sign](/wiki/Call_sign "Call sign") 81A of K Company, [Rhodesia Regiment](/wiki/Rhodesia_Regiment "Rhodesia Regiment") (RR), patrolling the Mutasa North Tribal Trust Lands on Operation Thrasher, spotted a group of insurgents about 30 to 40 strong at 04:45 on 15 November 1976, just south of a kraal in the [Honde Valley](/wiki/Honde_Valley "Honde Valley"), about {{convert\|55\|km}} north of Umtali and {{convert\|10\|km}} from the Mozambique border. The guerrillas were marching south in single file along a steep slope on the western side of a rugged, bush\-covered [kopje](/wiki/wiktionary:Kopje "Kopje"), which was tall and littered with gullies and other natural obstacles. Call sign 81A called up Fireforce, and 3 Commando, RLI soon arrived, commanded from the K\-car by Captain Chris "Kip" Donald. The 3 Commando men were dropped to the west of the area and four Territorial Force trackers, headed by Sergeant Laurie Ryan, came down beside the RR men and followed the insurgents' tracks to the south along a footpath. They found two cadres lying down in the grass, about {{convert\|2\|m}} away from the path, and shot and killed both. As they continued around the mountain, Ryan's men ran straight into the main group of nationalists at about 05:45\. A succession of frantic contacts followed at extremely close range as Donald's RLI sticks swept around and in towards the area. An armed insurgent was discovered in hiding by one of the sticks, and flushed out; as he ran, he pointed his AK\-47 behind him and let off a burst of blind shots. One of these hit and killed Trooper Francisco Deart da Costa of 11 Troop, 3 Commando, RLI, a 31\-year\-old man from Portugal who had recently volunteered because of unemployment in his home country. His body was casevaced to Ruda, the local Special Branch base, as the battle continued, turning swiftly in the security forces' favour.{{cite news\|title\=Forces Bag 31 in One Battle\|last\=Reynolds\|first\=Chris\|work\=\[\[The Herald (Zimbabwe)\|The Rhodesia Herald]]\|publisher\=Argus Group\|location\=Salisbury\|date\=16 November 1976\|pages\=1–2}}{{Harvnb\|Binda\|2008\|pp\=199–202}}
The [MG 151/20](/wiki/MG_151_cannon "MG 151 cannon") 20 mm cannon mounted on the K\-car "proved extremely effective", Binda says, firing down on the cadres to cut off escape routes, and killing several of them as the Rhodesian soldiers advanced in from all directions. Support Company of the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR) was called as backup. Donald's stick leaders were all performing well, with the leader of Stop 3, Trooper Pete Garnett, moving forward particularly aggressively. RLI Rifleman Grobler was lightly wounded and evacuated to Ruda, as were two privates of the RAR, Philip Chagwiza and Chikoto Saxon, who were both hit by small arms fire from the ground while still in the helicopters. The cadres had taken up a defensive position near the top of the western side of the mountain and were directing almost all of their rifle fire at the aircraft. An RPG was fired, which narrowly missed a Rhodesian G\-car carrying troops and exploded only {{convert\|20\|m}} behind it; another helicopter was forced to land by damage caused by insurgent rifle fire. The RLI and RAR sticks, who now had the nationalist fighters surrounded, continued to close in throughout the day, and by the end of the battle at 20:00 31 cadres had been killed and one captured; the rest escaped. The security forces recovered 21 AK\-47 assault rifles, 11 SKS semi\-automatic rifles, one [RPD](/wiki/RPD_machine_gun "RPD machine gun") light machine\-gun, one [RPG\-2](/wiki/RPG-2 "RPG-2") rocket launcher (with 21 rockets), 19 boxes of ammunition and a landmine.
Of the Rhodesian units involved in the battle, the most prolific in terms of kills was 3 Commando, RLI. The kopje was informally dubbed "Hill 31" by the Rhodesian troopers, after the number of guerrillas killed. Donald was widely applauded for his conduct of the Rhodesian action, with Sergeant Laurie Graham telling *The Rhodesia Herald* that "It was a well commanded operation by Captain Donald ... at times exhilarating." Cocks agrees. "I remember how awed I was by Kip Donald's control of the battle," he writes. "He was controlling a good couple of hundred troops—RLI, RAR and TF, all spread out over several square kilometres, on all sides of the mountain." More cadres had been killed in the battle than in any other internal contact up to that point, but after "Hill 31", encounters such as this became more regular: as the war intensified and the size of the guerrilla incursions grew, the security forces would regularly engage groups of 50 insurgents or more inside Rhodesia.
|
[
"After the failure of détente, the war resumes and escalates\n-----------------------------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|350px\\|Over the course of the 1970s, the Rhodesian Security Forces defined seven operational areas across the country. The first, Operation Hurricane, was set up in December 1972\\. Operation Thrasher followed in February 1976, and by the end of the war Operations Grapple, Repulse, Splinter and Tangent were also running. A seventh operational area existed for the capital, [Salisbury](/wiki/Harare \"Harare\"), which was called SALOPS (\"Salisbury Operations\").{{Harvnb\\|Cilliers\\|1984\\|p\\=29}}](/wiki/File:Rhodesian_Security_Forces_operational_areas.png \"Rhodesian Security Forces operational areas.png\")",
"### The opening of Operations Thrasher, Repulse and Tangent",
"Lieutenant\\-Colonel Peter Rich took over the command of the RLI on the same day as the accident near Cashel. One of his first acts was to make Support Group a Commando in its own right: the new \"Support Commando\" was created on 6 January 1976, under the command of Major Pat Armstrong, and moved out of Base Group headquarters into its own offices directly next door. Guerrilla incursions renewed in the first months of 1976, with three waves of nationalists crossing from Mozambique between January and April. The first group of 90 fighters crossed the border south of [Nyamapanda](/wiki/Nyamapanda \"Nyamapanda\") on 21 January, and was immediately repulsed, four cadres being killed and one captured by the security forces. The attack on Nyamapanda was supposed to be one part of a three\\-pronged invasion, but the nationalist operation did not go to plan: the second group of 130 guerrillas attacked the Melsetter area five weeks later and the third assault, in Rhodesia's south\\-east, did not take place until another seven weeks after that, in April 1976—three months behind schedule.",
"Smith addressed the nation on the evening of 6 February 1976, warning that \"a new terrorist offensive has begun and, to defeat it, Rhodesians will have to face heavier military commitments.\"{{Harvnb\\|Smith\\|1997\\|p\\=191}} Mozambique formally declared a state of war with Rhodesia a month later, on 3 March.{{Harvnb\\|Smith\\|1997\\|p\\=184}} With security force reports indicating that around 1,000 fighters were active within Rhodesia, with a further 15,000 encamped in various states of readiness in Mozambique, three more Rhodesian operational areas were defined in addition to Operation Hurricane. Operation Thrasher, covering Rhodesia's eastern highlands, was designated in February 1976, and Operations Repulse and Tangent, handling the south\\-east and west respectively, followed in May and August.",
"The ZANLA and ZIPRA cadres were officially working together, but in reality the armies' relationship was fraught with tension. As well as tribal lines—ZANLA's men were predominantly Shona, whilst ZIPRA's were mostly Ndebele—there were political issues and differences of opinion regarding doctrine. ZANLA favoured a continuation of their existing Maoist tactics, spreading themselves amongst the rural people and politicising them \"by fair means or foul\", as Wood says, while ZIPRA preferred to overtly recruit fighters and train them overseas for conventional invasions.{{Harvnb\\|Wood\\|1995\\|loc\\=Phase 3\\. 1974–1977}} ZIPRA's relative inactivity in the war since 1970 also contributed to the sentiment amongst some ZANLA cadres that their supposed allies in the *chimurenga* were not pulling their weight. As ZANLA were superior in number to ZIPRA, their men began to usurp positions of command and authority at the joint training facilities abroad, which made the strain yet more potent. The mutual ill\\-feeling finally boiled over into open clashes at two training camps in Tanzania, Mugagao and [Morogoro](/wiki/Morogoro \"Morogoro\"), in early 1976; in one incident, 400 nationalists were killed, while in another 200 died. Despite the continued animosity, combined guerrilla groups continued to enter Rhodesia, usually made up of eight ZANLA and two ZIPRA men; according to Lockley, the ZIPRA fighters so disliked their ZANLA comrades that they would sometimes deliberately become separated, desert and go home rather than fight alongside them.",
"### The Rhodesian \"foreign legion\": the RLI ranks are bolstered by conscripts and foreign volunteers",
"{{Quote box\\|align\\=right\\|width\\=30%\\|quote\\=In many respects the RLI was a mirror of the \\[\\[French Foreign Legion]], in that recruiters paid little heed as to a man's past and asked no questions ... And like the Foreign Legion, once in the ranks, a man's past was irrelevant.\\|source\\=Lance\\-Corporal Chris Cocks, RLI, on the recruitment of foreign soldiers\\|quoted \\= 1}}\nThe RLI's drive for foreign volunteers, launched in earnest in 1974, proved very successful, attracting hundreds of recruits from all over the world. The increased inclusion of conscripted men combined with this to gradually change the character and dynamics of the Regiment. A \"watershed in the history of the RLI\", says Cocks, is Intake 150, which passed out in May 1976\\. RLI Intake 150 was the largest ever, and was made up mostly of 18\\-year\\-old national servicemen, \"many of whom\", Cocks continues, \"simply did not want to be there\". The foreign volunteers alongside them were greater in number than ever before, and the absorption of men from overseas would increase yet further as the war went on.",
"Whereas conscripted men had previously been of a small enough volume that they could be gently assimilated into the combat ranks over time, Intake 150 gave the RLI so many new, inexperienced rookies that they would often outnumber the veterans in the field. Casualties were unusually high amongst Intake 150 members during their first month in action, and this trend continued for inexperienced men for the rest of the Battalion's history—in the most extreme case, on 10 June 1979, Trooper Robbie Francis was killed on his first day as a member of 3 Commando. [P. K. van der Byl](/wiki/P._K._van_der_Byl \"P. K. van der Byl\"), the Minister of Defence, reviewed the new recruits and addressed them with fiery vigour as they passed out, then answered questions from the press in a similar vein. When the possibility of open Cuban military intervention on the side of the guerrillas was raised, Van der Byl declared that the Rhodesian Army would \"beat the life and soul out of them\".{{Harvnb\\|Wessels\\|2010\\|p\\=203}}",
"Soldiers from overseas serving in the Rhodesian forces received the same pay and conditions of service as locally based regulars.{{Harvnb\\|Moorcraft\\|McLaughlin\\|2008\\|p\\=52}} Almost all of them mustered into the RLI, though some joined the SAS. Many were professional soldiers, attracted by the Regiment's reputation:{{Harvnb\\|Abbott\\|Botham\\|1986\\|p\\=17}} most prevalent were former members of the [British Armed Forces](/wiki/British_Armed_Forces \"British Armed Forces\"), and [Vietnam veterans](/wiki/Vietnam_veteran \"Vietnam veteran\") from the [United States](/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces \"United States Armed Forces\"), [Australian](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force \"Australian Defence Force\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_Defence_Force \"New Zealand Defence Force\") forces.{{\\#tag:ref\\|In ''The Saints'', Cocks gives a list of \"\\[veterans of the] American \\[\\[Special Forces (United States Army)\\|Green Berets]] and \\[\\[Airborne forces\\|Airborne]] units, the \\[\\[Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)\\|British Paras]], \\[\\[Royal Green Jackets\\|Green Jackets]], \\[\\[Royal Marines]], \\[\\[Special Air Service\\|SAS]], \\[\\[Grenadier Guards]] (to name but a few) and a fair sprinkling of Aussie and Kiwi \\[\\[Vietnam veteran\\|Vietnam vets]], plus sundry \\[\\[French Foreign Legion\\|Legionnaires]], South Africans, Germans, Brazilians, Portuguese et al.\"\\|group\\=\"n\"}} The seasoned foreigners \"soon became an integral part of the Battalion\", Cocks writes, contributing to the RLI's fine reputation and also passing their experience onto the young, recently conscripted men.{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|pp\\=186–188}}",
"Some foreign volunteers had no military experience and found themselves in a similar situation to the Rhodesian teenagers. These foreigners were generally motivated to enlist by [anti\\-communist](/wiki/Anti-communism \"Anti-communism\") political views, hunger for adventure, turbulent personal lives in their home countries or some combination of these factors. The Canadian [Mathew Charles Lamb](/wiki/Mathew_Charles_Lamb \"Mathew Charles Lamb\") joined 3 Commando, RLI in 1973, having just spent six years in a psychiatric hospital. In June 1966, aged 18, he had killed two strangers in a [shooting spree](/wiki/Spree_killer \"Spree killer\") in his home\\-town, but avoided the [death penalty](/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Canada \"Capital punishment in Canada\") on a court ruling that at the time of the incident he [had been insane](/wiki/Mental_disorder_defence \"Mental disorder defence\").{{Harvnb\\|Nosanchuk\\|1999}} Keeping his past life a secret, he became a popular and well\\-regarded soldier in 3 Commando,{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=126}} and eventually rose to the rank of Lance\\-Corporal, taking command of a Fireforce stick on Operation Thrasher shortly before he was killed in action on 7 November 1976 by an errant shot from one of his own men.{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|p\\=198}}",
"### The Battle of \"Hill 31\"",
"{{main\\|Battle of Hill 31}}\n[Call sign](/wiki/Call_sign \"Call sign\") 81A of K Company, [Rhodesia Regiment](/wiki/Rhodesia_Regiment \"Rhodesia Regiment\") (RR), patrolling the Mutasa North Tribal Trust Lands on Operation Thrasher, spotted a group of insurgents about 30 to 40 strong at 04:45 on 15 November 1976, just south of a kraal in the [Honde Valley](/wiki/Honde_Valley \"Honde Valley\"), about {{convert\\|55\\|km}} north of Umtali and {{convert\\|10\\|km}} from the Mozambique border. The guerrillas were marching south in single file along a steep slope on the western side of a rugged, bush\\-covered [kopje](/wiki/wiktionary:Kopje \"Kopje\"), which was tall and littered with gullies and other natural obstacles. Call sign 81A called up Fireforce, and 3 Commando, RLI soon arrived, commanded from the K\\-car by Captain Chris \"Kip\" Donald. The 3 Commando men were dropped to the west of the area and four Territorial Force trackers, headed by Sergeant Laurie Ryan, came down beside the RR men and followed the insurgents' tracks to the south along a footpath. They found two cadres lying down in the grass, about {{convert\\|2\\|m}} away from the path, and shot and killed both. As they continued around the mountain, Ryan's men ran straight into the main group of nationalists at about 05:45\\. A succession of frantic contacts followed at extremely close range as Donald's RLI sticks swept around and in towards the area. An armed insurgent was discovered in hiding by one of the sticks, and flushed out; as he ran, he pointed his AK\\-47 behind him and let off a burst of blind shots. One of these hit and killed Trooper Francisco Deart da Costa of 11 Troop, 3 Commando, RLI, a 31\\-year\\-old man from Portugal who had recently volunteered because of unemployment in his home country. His body was casevaced to Ruda, the local Special Branch base, as the battle continued, turning swiftly in the security forces' favour.{{cite news\\|title\\=Forces Bag 31 in One Battle\\|last\\=Reynolds\\|first\\=Chris\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Herald (Zimbabwe)\\|The Rhodesia Herald]]\\|publisher\\=Argus Group\\|location\\=Salisbury\\|date\\=16 November 1976\\|pages\\=1–2}}{{Harvnb\\|Binda\\|2008\\|pp\\=199–202}}",
"The [MG 151/20](/wiki/MG_151_cannon \"MG 151 cannon\") 20 mm cannon mounted on the K\\-car \"proved extremely effective\", Binda says, firing down on the cadres to cut off escape routes, and killing several of them as the Rhodesian soldiers advanced in from all directions. Support Company of the Rhodesian African Rifles (RAR) was called as backup. Donald's stick leaders were all performing well, with the leader of Stop 3, Trooper Pete Garnett, moving forward particularly aggressively. RLI Rifleman Grobler was lightly wounded and evacuated to Ruda, as were two privates of the RAR, Philip Chagwiza and Chikoto Saxon, who were both hit by small arms fire from the ground while still in the helicopters. The cadres had taken up a defensive position near the top of the western side of the mountain and were directing almost all of their rifle fire at the aircraft. An RPG was fired, which narrowly missed a Rhodesian G\\-car carrying troops and exploded only {{convert\\|20\\|m}} behind it; another helicopter was forced to land by damage caused by insurgent rifle fire. The RLI and RAR sticks, who now had the nationalist fighters surrounded, continued to close in throughout the day, and by the end of the battle at 20:00 31 cadres had been killed and one captured; the rest escaped. The security forces recovered 21 AK\\-47 assault rifles, 11 SKS semi\\-automatic rifles, one [RPD](/wiki/RPD_machine_gun \"RPD machine gun\") light machine\\-gun, one [RPG\\-2](/wiki/RPG-2 \"RPG-2\") rocket launcher (with 21 rockets), 19 boxes of ammunition and a landmine.",
"Of the Rhodesian units involved in the battle, the most prolific in terms of kills was 3 Commando, RLI. The kopje was informally dubbed \"Hill 31\" by the Rhodesian troopers, after the number of guerrillas killed. Donald was widely applauded for his conduct of the Rhodesian action, with Sergeant Laurie Graham telling *The Rhodesia Herald* that \"It was a well commanded operation by Captain Donald ... at times exhilarating.\" Cocks agrees. \"I remember how awed I was by Kip Donald's control of the battle,\" he writes. \"He was controlling a good couple of hundred troops—RLI, RAR and TF, all spread out over several square kilometres, on all sides of the mountain.\" More cadres had been killed in the battle than in any other internal contact up to that point, but after \"Hill 31\", encounters such as this became more regular: as the war intensified and the size of the guerrilla incursions grew, the security forces would regularly engage groups of 50 insurgents or more inside Rhodesia.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Vietnam War
[thumb\|left\|A\-1E at Pleiku](/wiki/File:A-1E_6SOS_Pleiku_1968-69.jpg "A-1E 6SOS Pleiku 1968-69.jpg")
The [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 "Wing (military aviation unit)") was originally organized as the **633d Combat Support Group** at [Pleiku Air Base](/wiki/Pleiku_Air_Base "Pleiku Air Base") in April 1966, when it took over the mission, personnel and equipment of the 6254th Combat Support Group, which was simultaneously discontinued. The 6254th had been organized on 8 July 1965 to provide security and maintenance support for Air Force organizations operating from Pleiku, primarily the [19th Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/19th_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron "19th Tactical Air Support Squadron").*See* {{cite web\|url\=http://www.afhra.af.mil/About\-Us/Fact\-Sheets/Display/Article/433939/19\-weapons\-squadron\-acc/\|title\=Factsheet 19 Weapons Squadron (ACC)\|last1\=Endicott\|first1\=Judy G.\|date\=8 January 2008\|publisher\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\|access\-date\=31 October 2015}} (19th Tactical Air Support Squadron operations)
Operations at Pleiku expanded in February 1968, when the [6th Air Commando Squadron](/wiki/6th_Air_Commando_Squadron "6th Air Commando Squadron") moved to Pleiku from [England Air Force Base](/wiki/England_Air_Force_Base "England Air Force Base"), Louisiana and began flying [Douglas A\-1 Skyraiders](/wiki/Douglas_A-1_Skyraider "Douglas A-1 Skyraider") from the base.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=10478 \|last1\=Robertson\|first1\=Patsy\|title\=Factsheet 6 Special Operations Squadron (AFSOC)\|date\=9 April 2015\|publisher\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001551/http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\=10478 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|access\-date\=24 October 2016}} The expanded operations resulted in the [633d Special Operations Wing](/wiki/633d_Special_Operations_Wing "633d Special Operations Wing") being activated on 15 July 1968 from elements of the [14th Special Operations Wing](/wiki/14th_Special_Operations_Wing "14th Special Operations Wing") and [1st Special Operations Wing](/wiki/1st_Special_Operations_Wing "1st Special Operations Wing") personnel on temporary duty at Pleiku to command operations at Pleiku. The 633d Group was assigned to the 633d Wing upon its formation. The 633d Wing conducted strike missions and advised the South Vietnamese. The wing and group inactivated in March 1970 and Pleiku was turned over to the [Republic of Vietnam Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Air_Force "Republic of Vietnam Air Force").
### Andersen Air Force Base
The group was redesignated the **633d Air Base Wing** and was activated on 1 October 1989, when [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces "Pacific Air Forces") took over [Andersen Air Force Base](/wiki/Andersen_Air_Force_Base "Andersen Air Force Base"), Guam from [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command "Strategic Air Command"). The base replaced the 43d Combat Support Group, which was inactivated, although the 633d continued to support the [43d Bombardment Wing](/wiki/43d_Bombardment_Wing "43d Bombardment Wing") until it inactivated the following September.
In August 1990, 633d personnel began shipping more than 37,000 tons of munitions to forces in the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf "Persian Gulf") during [Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm](/wiki/Gulf_War "Gulf War"). – More than 30,000 tons went by sealift, and more than 2,200 troops and 2,200 tons of cargo moved aboard 200 aircraft. Wing personnel cared for more than 20,000 people and 1,100 pets in June 1991 when [Operation Fiery Vigil](/wiki/Operation_Fiery_Vigil "Operation Fiery Vigil") evacuated Americans from [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon "Luzon") following the eruption of [Mount Pinatubo](/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo "Mount Pinatubo") in the Philippines.
On 1 October 1994, the 633d inactivated and the [36th Air Base Wing](/wiki/36th_Air_Base_Wing "36th Air Base Wing") was activated and absorbed its mission in keeping with the policy of the [Air Force Chief of Staff](/wiki/Air_Force_Chief_of_Staff "Air Force Chief of Staff") to maintain the most highly decorated and longest\-serving Air Force units on active duty.
### Joint Base Support
The [2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission](/wiki/2005_Base_Realignment_and_Closure_Commission "2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission") recommended the consolidation of support functions for military installations located close to one another. This consolidation included installations that served different services. [Langley Air Force Base](/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base "Langley Air Force Base"), a [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force "United States Air Force") station and [Fort Eustis](/wiki/Fort_Eustis "Fort Eustis"), a [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") post, are both located near [Hampton, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton%2C_Virginia "Hampton, Virginia"), and the commission recommended combining them into [Joint Base Langley\-Eustis](/wiki/Joint_Base_Langley-Eustis "Joint Base Langley-Eustis"). This recommendation was implemented on 7 January 2010, when the wing was reactivated, taking over support activities at Langley from the 1st Mission Support Group, which was inactivated.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jble.af.mil/News/Article\-Display/Article/259107/\|title\=Historic 633d ABW activation begins new era at Langley\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=A1C Jason J.\|date\=8 January 2010\|publisher\=633d Air Base Wing Public Affairs\|access\-date\=31 October 2015}} Later that month, the 733d Mission Support Group was activated to manage support functions at Ft Eustis.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Vietnam War",
"[thumb\\|left\\|A\\-1E at Pleiku](/wiki/File:A-1E_6SOS_Pleiku_1968-69.jpg \"A-1E 6SOS Pleiku 1968-69.jpg\")\nThe [wing](/wiki/Wing_%28military_aviation_unit%29 \"Wing (military aviation unit)\") was originally organized as the **633d Combat Support Group** at [Pleiku Air Base](/wiki/Pleiku_Air_Base \"Pleiku Air Base\") in April 1966, when it took over the mission, personnel and equipment of the 6254th Combat Support Group, which was simultaneously discontinued. The 6254th had been organized on 8 July 1965 to provide security and maintenance support for Air Force organizations operating from Pleiku, primarily the [19th Tactical Air Support Squadron](/wiki/19th_Tactical_Air_Support_Squadron \"19th Tactical Air Support Squadron\").*See* {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.afhra.af.mil/About\\-Us/Fact\\-Sheets/Display/Article/433939/19\\-weapons\\-squadron\\-acc/\\|title\\=Factsheet 19 Weapons Squadron (ACC)\\|last1\\=Endicott\\|first1\\=Judy G.\\|date\\=8 January 2008\\|publisher\\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2015}} (19th Tactical Air Support Squadron operations)",
"Operations at Pleiku expanded in February 1968, when the [6th Air Commando Squadron](/wiki/6th_Air_Commando_Squadron \"6th Air Commando Squadron\") moved to Pleiku from [England Air Force Base](/wiki/England_Air_Force_Base \"England Air Force Base\"), Louisiana and began flying [Douglas A\\-1 Skyraiders](/wiki/Douglas_A-1_Skyraider \"Douglas A-1 Skyraider\") from the base.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=10478 \\|last1\\=Robertson\\|first1\\=Patsy\\|title\\=Factsheet 6 Special Operations Squadron (AFSOC)\\|date\\=9 April 2015\\|publisher\\=Air Force Historical Research Agency\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001551/http://www.afhra.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id\\=10478 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|access\\-date\\=24 October 2016}} The expanded operations resulted in the [633d Special Operations Wing](/wiki/633d_Special_Operations_Wing \"633d Special Operations Wing\") being activated on 15 July 1968 from elements of the [14th Special Operations Wing](/wiki/14th_Special_Operations_Wing \"14th Special Operations Wing\") and [1st Special Operations Wing](/wiki/1st_Special_Operations_Wing \"1st Special Operations Wing\") personnel on temporary duty at Pleiku to command operations at Pleiku. The 633d Group was assigned to the 633d Wing upon its formation. The 633d Wing conducted strike missions and advised the South Vietnamese. The wing and group inactivated in March 1970 and Pleiku was turned over to the [Republic of Vietnam Air Force](/wiki/Republic_of_Vietnam_Air_Force \"Republic of Vietnam Air Force\").",
"### Andersen Air Force Base",
"The group was redesignated the **633d Air Base Wing** and was activated on 1 October 1989, when [Pacific Air Forces](/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces \"Pacific Air Forces\") took over [Andersen Air Force Base](/wiki/Andersen_Air_Force_Base \"Andersen Air Force Base\"), Guam from [Strategic Air Command](/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command \"Strategic Air Command\"). The base replaced the 43d Combat Support Group, which was inactivated, although the 633d continued to support the [43d Bombardment Wing](/wiki/43d_Bombardment_Wing \"43d Bombardment Wing\") until it inactivated the following September.",
"In August 1990, 633d personnel began shipping more than 37,000 tons of munitions to forces in the [Persian Gulf](/wiki/Persian_Gulf \"Persian Gulf\") during [Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm](/wiki/Gulf_War \"Gulf War\"). – More than 30,000 tons went by sealift, and more than 2,200 troops and 2,200 tons of cargo moved aboard 200 aircraft. Wing personnel cared for more than 20,000 people and 1,100 pets in June 1991 when [Operation Fiery Vigil](/wiki/Operation_Fiery_Vigil \"Operation Fiery Vigil\") evacuated Americans from [Luzon](/wiki/Luzon \"Luzon\") following the eruption of [Mount Pinatubo](/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo \"Mount Pinatubo\") in the Philippines.",
"On 1 October 1994, the 633d inactivated and the [36th Air Base Wing](/wiki/36th_Air_Base_Wing \"36th Air Base Wing\") was activated and absorbed its mission in keeping with the policy of the [Air Force Chief of Staff](/wiki/Air_Force_Chief_of_Staff \"Air Force Chief of Staff\") to maintain the most highly decorated and longest\\-serving Air Force units on active duty.",
"### Joint Base Support",
"The [2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission](/wiki/2005_Base_Realignment_and_Closure_Commission \"2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission\") recommended the consolidation of support functions for military installations located close to one another. This consolidation included installations that served different services. [Langley Air Force Base](/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base \"Langley Air Force Base\"), a [United States Air Force](/wiki/United_States_Air_Force \"United States Air Force\") station and [Fort Eustis](/wiki/Fort_Eustis \"Fort Eustis\"), a [United States Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") post, are both located near [Hampton, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton%2C_Virginia \"Hampton, Virginia\"), and the commission recommended combining them into [Joint Base Langley\\-Eustis](/wiki/Joint_Base_Langley-Eustis \"Joint Base Langley-Eustis\"). This recommendation was implemented on 7 January 2010, when the wing was reactivated, taking over support activities at Langley from the 1st Mission Support Group, which was inactivated.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jble.af.mil/News/Article\\-Display/Article/259107/\\|title\\=Historic 633d ABW activation begins new era at Langley\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=A1C Jason J.\\|date\\=8 January 2010\\|publisher\\=633d Air Base Wing Public Affairs\\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2015}} Later that month, the 733d Mission Support Group was activated to manage support functions at Ft Eustis.",
""
] |
Architecture
------------
The most important valencian architects of the Valencian Gothic style are: [Pere Compte](/wiki/Pere_Compte "Pere Compte"), {{ill\|Francesc Baldomar\|es}}, [Pere Balaguer](/wiki/Pere_Balaguer "Pere Balaguer"), {{ill\|Andreu Julià\|es}}, etc.
### Religious building examples
Province of Alicante
* In [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante "Alicante"), [Basilica of Santa Maria](/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria%2C_Alicante "Basilica of Santa Maria, Alicante"), [Concatedral de San Nicolás](/wiki/Concatedral_de_San_Nicol%C3%A1s%2C_Alicante "Concatedral de San Nicolás, Alicante").
* In [Castalla](/wiki/Castalla "Castalla"), [Ermita de la Sangre](/wiki/Ermita_de_la_Sangre_%28Castalla%29 "Ermita de la Sangre (Castalla)").
* In [Orihuela](/wiki/Orihuela "Orihuela"), [Orihuela Cathedral](/wiki/Orihuela_Cathedral "Orihuela Cathedral").
* In [Teulada](/wiki/Teulada%2C_Spain "Teulada, Spain"), [Iglesia de Santa Catalina](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Catalina_%28Teulada%29 "Iglesia de Santa Catalina (Teulada)").
* In [Villena](/wiki/Villena "Villena"), [Iglesia Arciprestal de Santiago](/wiki/Iglesia_Arciprestal_de_Santiago_%28Villena%29 "Iglesia Arciprestal de Santiago (Villena)"), [Iglesia de Santa María](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_%28Villena%29 "Iglesia de Santa María (Villena)").
* In [Xàbia](/wiki/X%C3%A0bia "Xàbia"), [Iglesia de San Bartolomé](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9_%28X%C3%A0bia%29 "Iglesia de San Bartolomé (Xàbia)").
Province of Castellón
* In [L'Alcora](/wiki/L%27Alcora "L'Alcora"), [Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Asunci%C3%B3n_%28Alcora%29 "Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Alcora)").
* In [Borriana](/wiki/Borriana%2C_Castell%C3%B3n "Borriana, Castellón"), [Basílica de El Salvador](/wiki/Bas%C3%ADlica_de_El_Salvador_%28Burriana%29 "Basílica de El Salvador (Burriana)").
* In [Castellfort](/wiki/Castellfort "Castellfort"), [Ermita de San Pedro](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Pedro_%28Castellfort%29 "Ermita de San Pedro (Castellfort)").
* In [Castellón](/wiki/Castell%C3%B3n_de_la_Plana "Castellón de la Plana"), [Castelló Cathedral](/wiki/Castell%C3%B3_Cathedral "Castelló Cathedral"), [El Fadrí](/wiki/El_Fadr%C3%AD "El Fadrí").
* In [Jérica](/wiki/J%C3%A9rica "Jérica"), [Ermita de San Roque](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Roque_%28J%C3%A9rica%29 "Ermita de San Roque (Jérica)").
* In [Morella](/wiki/Morella%2C_Castell%C3%B3n "Morella, Castellón"), [Iglesia de Santa María](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_%28Morella%29 "Iglesia de Santa María (Morella)").
* In [Sant Mateu](/wiki/Sant_Mateu "Sant Mateu"), [Iglesia arciprestal de San Mateo](/wiki/Iglesia_arciprestal_de_San_Mateo "Iglesia arciprestal de San Mateo")
* In [Segorbe](/wiki/Segorbe "Segorbe"), [Segorbe Cathedral](/wiki/Segorbe_Cathedral "Segorbe Cathedral").
* In [Vallibona](/wiki/Vallibona "Vallibona"), [Iglesia de la Asunción de la Virgen.](/wiki/Iglesia_de_la_Asunci%C3%B3n_de_la_Virgen_%28Vallibona%29 "Iglesia de la Asunción de la Virgen (Vallibona)")
Province of Valencia
* In [Ademuz](/wiki/Ademuz "Ademuz"), [Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Huerta](/wiki/Ermita_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Huerta_%28Ademuz%29 "Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Huerta (Ademuz)").
* In [Alfauir](/wiki/Alfauir "Alfauir"), [Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba](/wiki/Monastery_of_Sant_Jeroni_de_Cotalba "Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba").
* In [Carcaixent](/wiki/Carcaixent "Carcaixent"), [Ermita de San Roque de Ternils](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Roque_de_Ternils "Ermita de San Roque de Ternils").
* In [Castielfabib](/wiki/Castielfabib "Castielfabib"), [Ermita de Nuestra Señora de Gracia](/wiki/Ermita_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_Gracia_%28Castielfabib%29 "Ermita de Nuestra Señora de Gracia (Castielfabib)").
* In [Gandia](/wiki/Gandia "Gandia"), [Collegiate Basilica of Gandia](/wiki/Collegiate_Basilica_of_Gandia "Collegiate Basilica of Gandia"), [Convent of Santa Clara of Gandia](/wiki/Convent_of_Santa_Clara_of_Gandia "Convent of Santa Clara of Gandia").
* In [Llutxent](/wiki/Llutxent "Llutxent"), [Monastery of the Corpus Christi](/wiki/Monastery_of_the_Corpus_Christi_%28Llutxent%29 "Monastery of the Corpus Christi (Llutxent)").
* In [Serra](/wiki/Serra%2C_Valencia "Serra, Valencia"), Cartuja de Porta Coeli.
* In [Simat de la Valldigna](/wiki/Simat_de_la_Valldigna "Simat de la Valldigna"), [Monastery of Santa María de la Valldigna](/wiki/Monastery_of_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_de_la_Valldigna "Monastery of Santa María de la Valldigna").
* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), [Valencia Cathedral](/wiki/Valencia_Cathedral "Valencia Cathedral"), [El Miguelete](/wiki/Miguelete_Tower "Miguelete Tower"), [Iglesia de San Juan del Hospital](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Juan_del_Hospital_%28Valencia%29 "Iglesia de San Juan del Hospital (Valencia)"), [Iglesia de San Martín](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_y_San_Antonio "Iglesia de San Martín y San Antonio"), [Antiguo Convento del Carmen](/wiki/Antiguo_Convento_del_Carmen_%28Valencia%29 "Antiguo Convento del Carmen (Valencia)"), [Convento de Santo Domingo](/wiki/Convento_de_Santo_Domingo_%28Valencia%29 "Convento de Santo Domingo (Valencia)"), [Iglesia de Santa Catalina](/wiki/St._Catherine%27s_Church%2C_Valencia "St. Catherine's Church, Valencia"), [Monasterio de la Trinidad](/wiki/Real_monasterio_de_la_Trinidad_de_Valencia "Real monasterio de la Trinidad de Valencia"), [Church of San Nicolás](/wiki/St._Nicholas%27_Church%2C_Valencia "St. Nicholas' Church, Valencia"), [Iglesia de San Agustín](/wiki/Sant_Agust%C3%AD%2C_Valencia "Sant Agustí, Valencia"), etc.
* In [Xàtiva](/wiki/X%C3%A0tiva "Xàtiva"), [Iglesia de San Francisco](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Francisco_%28X%C3%A0tiva%29 "Iglesia de San Francisco (Xàtiva)"), [Hermitage of Santa Ana](/wiki/Hermitage_of_Santa_Ana_%28X%C3%A0tiva%29 "Hermitage of Santa Ana (Xàtiva)"), etc.
### Civil buildings
The most important buildings of the Valencian civil Gothic style are:
Province of Alicante
* In [Cocentaina](/wiki/Cocentaina "Cocentaina"), [Palace of the Counts of Cocentaina](/wiki/Palace_of_the_Counts_of_Cocentaina "Palace of the Counts of Cocentaina").
* In [Alcoy](/wiki/Alcoy "Alcoy"), palace of the [Archaeological Museum Camil Visedo](/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_Camil_Visedo "Archaeological Museum Camil Visedo").
Province of Castellón
* In [Cinctorres](/wiki/Cinctorres "Cinctorres"), [Palacio de los San Juan](/wiki/Palacio_de_los_San_Juan "Palacio de los San Juan").
* In [Vilafamés](/wiki/Vilafam%C3%A9s "Vilafamés"), palacio del [Museo de Vilafamés](/wiki/Museo_de_Vilafam%C3%A9s "Museo de Vilafamés").
Province of Valencia
* In [Gandia](/wiki/Gandia "Gandia"), [Ducal Palace of Gandia](/wiki/Ducal_Palace_of_Gandia "Ducal Palace of Gandia"), [Archaeological Museum of Gandia](/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Gandia "Archaeological Museum of Gandia").
* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), [Llotja de la Seda](/wiki/Llotja_de_la_Seda "Llotja de la Seda"), [Palace of the Borgias](/wiki/Palace_of_the_Borgias "Palace of the Borgias"), [Torres de Serranos](/wiki/Torres_de_Serranos "Torres de Serranos"), [Almudín de Valencia](/wiki/Almud%C3%ADn_de_Valencia "Almudín de Valencia"), [Atarazanas del Grao](/wiki/Atarazanas_del_Grao "Atarazanas del Grao"), [Casa del Almirante](/wiki/Casa_del_Almirante_%28Valencia%29 "Casa del Almirante (Valencia)"), [Palacio de Joan de Valeriola](/wiki/Palacio_de_Joan_de_Valeriola "Palacio de Joan de Valeriola"), [Palacio de los Escrivà](/wiki/Palacio_de_los_Escriv%C3%A0 "Palacio de los Escrivà"), etc.
* In [Xàtiva](/wiki/X%C3%A0tiva "Xàtiva"), [Almodí de Xativa](/wiki/Almod%C3%AD_de_Xativa "Almodí de Xativa").
### Blending Valencian Gothic with Mudéjar
Province of Castellón
* In [Jérica](/wiki/J%C3%A9rica "Jérica"), [Torre mudéjar de la Alcudia](/wiki/Torre_mud%C3%A9jar_de_la_Alcudia "Torre mudéjar de la Alcudia").
* In [Onda](/wiki/Onda%2C_Castell%C3%B3n "Onda, Castellón"), [Iglesia de la Sangre](/wiki/Iglesia_de_la_Sangre_%28Onda%29 "Iglesia de la Sangre (Onda)").
* In [Segorbe](/wiki/Segorbe "Segorbe"), artesonado del Salón de Sesiones del antiguo Palacio Ducal (actualmente sede del Ayuntamiento de Segorbe).
Province of Valencia
* In [Alfauir](/wiki/Alfauir "Alfauir"), the cloister of the [Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba](/wiki/Monastery_of_Sant_Jeroni_de_Cotalba "Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba").
* In [Godella](/wiki/Godella "Godella"), la capilla del Cristo de la Paz en la Iglesia de San Bartolomé Apóstol.
* In [Llíria](/wiki/Ll%C3%ADria "Llíria"), la iglesia de la Sangre de Liria.
* In [Sagunto](/wiki/Sagunto "Sagunto"), la iglesia vieja de Sagunto.
* In [Torres Torres](/wiki/Torres_Torres "Torres Torres"), [baños árabes](/wiki/Ba%C3%B1os_%C3%A1rabes_%28Torres_Torres%29 "Baños árabes (Torres Torres)").
* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), [Baños del Almirante](/wiki/Ba%C3%B1os_del_Almirante "Baños del Almirante").
|
[
"Architecture\n------------",
"The most important valencian architects of the Valencian Gothic style are: [Pere Compte](/wiki/Pere_Compte \"Pere Compte\"), {{ill\\|Francesc Baldomar\\|es}}, [Pere Balaguer](/wiki/Pere_Balaguer \"Pere Balaguer\"), {{ill\\|Andreu Julià\\|es}}, etc.",
"### Religious building examples",
"Province of Alicante\n* In [Alicante](/wiki/Alicante \"Alicante\"), [Basilica of Santa Maria](/wiki/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria%2C_Alicante \"Basilica of Santa Maria, Alicante\"), [Concatedral de San Nicolás](/wiki/Concatedral_de_San_Nicol%C3%A1s%2C_Alicante \"Concatedral de San Nicolás, Alicante\").\n* In [Castalla](/wiki/Castalla \"Castalla\"), [Ermita de la Sangre](/wiki/Ermita_de_la_Sangre_%28Castalla%29 \"Ermita de la Sangre (Castalla)\").\n* In [Orihuela](/wiki/Orihuela \"Orihuela\"), [Orihuela Cathedral](/wiki/Orihuela_Cathedral \"Orihuela Cathedral\").\n* In [Teulada](/wiki/Teulada%2C_Spain \"Teulada, Spain\"), [Iglesia de Santa Catalina](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Catalina_%28Teulada%29 \"Iglesia de Santa Catalina (Teulada)\").\n* In [Villena](/wiki/Villena \"Villena\"), [Iglesia Arciprestal de Santiago](/wiki/Iglesia_Arciprestal_de_Santiago_%28Villena%29 \"Iglesia Arciprestal de Santiago (Villena)\"), [Iglesia de Santa María](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_%28Villena%29 \"Iglesia de Santa María (Villena)\").\n* In [Xàbia](/wiki/X%C3%A0bia \"Xàbia\"), [Iglesia de San Bartolomé](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Bartolom%C3%A9_%28X%C3%A0bia%29 \"Iglesia de San Bartolomé (Xàbia)\").",
"Province of Castellón\n* In [L'Alcora](/wiki/L%27Alcora \"L'Alcora\"), [Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Asunci%C3%B3n_%28Alcora%29 \"Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Alcora)\").\n* In [Borriana](/wiki/Borriana%2C_Castell%C3%B3n \"Borriana, Castellón\"), [Basílica de El Salvador](/wiki/Bas%C3%ADlica_de_El_Salvador_%28Burriana%29 \"Basílica de El Salvador (Burriana)\").\n* In [Castellfort](/wiki/Castellfort \"Castellfort\"), [Ermita de San Pedro](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Pedro_%28Castellfort%29 \"Ermita de San Pedro (Castellfort)\").\n* In [Castellón](/wiki/Castell%C3%B3n_de_la_Plana \"Castellón de la Plana\"), [Castelló Cathedral](/wiki/Castell%C3%B3_Cathedral \"Castelló Cathedral\"), [El Fadrí](/wiki/El_Fadr%C3%AD \"El Fadrí\").\n* In [Jérica](/wiki/J%C3%A9rica \"Jérica\"), [Ermita de San Roque](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Roque_%28J%C3%A9rica%29 \"Ermita de San Roque (Jérica)\").\n* In [Morella](/wiki/Morella%2C_Castell%C3%B3n \"Morella, Castellón\"), [Iglesia de Santa María](/wiki/Iglesia_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_%28Morella%29 \"Iglesia de Santa María (Morella)\").\n* In [Sant Mateu](/wiki/Sant_Mateu \"Sant Mateu\"), [Iglesia arciprestal de San Mateo](/wiki/Iglesia_arciprestal_de_San_Mateo \"Iglesia arciprestal de San Mateo\")\n* In [Segorbe](/wiki/Segorbe \"Segorbe\"), [Segorbe Cathedral](/wiki/Segorbe_Cathedral \"Segorbe Cathedral\").\n* In [Vallibona](/wiki/Vallibona \"Vallibona\"), [Iglesia de la Asunción de la Virgen.](/wiki/Iglesia_de_la_Asunci%C3%B3n_de_la_Virgen_%28Vallibona%29 \"Iglesia de la Asunción de la Virgen (Vallibona)\")",
"Province of Valencia\n* In [Ademuz](/wiki/Ademuz \"Ademuz\"), [Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Huerta](/wiki/Ermita_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_la_Huerta_%28Ademuz%29 \"Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Huerta (Ademuz)\").\n* In [Alfauir](/wiki/Alfauir \"Alfauir\"), [Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba](/wiki/Monastery_of_Sant_Jeroni_de_Cotalba \"Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba\").\n* In [Carcaixent](/wiki/Carcaixent \"Carcaixent\"), [Ermita de San Roque de Ternils](/wiki/Ermita_de_San_Roque_de_Ternils \"Ermita de San Roque de Ternils\").\n* In [Castielfabib](/wiki/Castielfabib \"Castielfabib\"), [Ermita de Nuestra Señora de Gracia](/wiki/Ermita_de_Nuestra_Se%C3%B1ora_de_Gracia_%28Castielfabib%29 \"Ermita de Nuestra Señora de Gracia (Castielfabib)\").\n* In [Gandia](/wiki/Gandia \"Gandia\"), [Collegiate Basilica of Gandia](/wiki/Collegiate_Basilica_of_Gandia \"Collegiate Basilica of Gandia\"), [Convent of Santa Clara of Gandia](/wiki/Convent_of_Santa_Clara_of_Gandia \"Convent of Santa Clara of Gandia\").\n* In [Llutxent](/wiki/Llutxent \"Llutxent\"), [Monastery of the Corpus Christi](/wiki/Monastery_of_the_Corpus_Christi_%28Llutxent%29 \"Monastery of the Corpus Christi (Llutxent)\").\n* In [Serra](/wiki/Serra%2C_Valencia \"Serra, Valencia\"), Cartuja de Porta Coeli.\n* In [Simat de la Valldigna](/wiki/Simat_de_la_Valldigna \"Simat de la Valldigna\"), [Monastery of Santa María de la Valldigna](/wiki/Monastery_of_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_de_la_Valldigna \"Monastery of Santa María de la Valldigna\").\n* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), [Valencia Cathedral](/wiki/Valencia_Cathedral \"Valencia Cathedral\"), [El Miguelete](/wiki/Miguelete_Tower \"Miguelete Tower\"), [Iglesia de San Juan del Hospital](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Juan_del_Hospital_%28Valencia%29 \"Iglesia de San Juan del Hospital (Valencia)\"), [Iglesia de San Martín](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn_y_San_Antonio \"Iglesia de San Martín y San Antonio\"), [Antiguo Convento del Carmen](/wiki/Antiguo_Convento_del_Carmen_%28Valencia%29 \"Antiguo Convento del Carmen (Valencia)\"), [Convento de Santo Domingo](/wiki/Convento_de_Santo_Domingo_%28Valencia%29 \"Convento de Santo Domingo (Valencia)\"), [Iglesia de Santa Catalina](/wiki/St._Catherine%27s_Church%2C_Valencia \"St. Catherine's Church, Valencia\"), [Monasterio de la Trinidad](/wiki/Real_monasterio_de_la_Trinidad_de_Valencia \"Real monasterio de la Trinidad de Valencia\"), [Church of San Nicolás](/wiki/St._Nicholas%27_Church%2C_Valencia \"St. Nicholas' Church, Valencia\"), [Iglesia de San Agustín](/wiki/Sant_Agust%C3%AD%2C_Valencia \"Sant Agustí, Valencia\"), etc.\n* In [Xàtiva](/wiki/X%C3%A0tiva \"Xàtiva\"), [Iglesia de San Francisco](/wiki/Iglesia_de_San_Francisco_%28X%C3%A0tiva%29 \"Iglesia de San Francisco (Xàtiva)\"), [Hermitage of Santa Ana](/wiki/Hermitage_of_Santa_Ana_%28X%C3%A0tiva%29 \"Hermitage of Santa Ana (Xàtiva)\"), etc.",
"### Civil buildings",
"The most important buildings of the Valencian civil Gothic style are:",
"Province of Alicante\n* In [Cocentaina](/wiki/Cocentaina \"Cocentaina\"), [Palace of the Counts of Cocentaina](/wiki/Palace_of_the_Counts_of_Cocentaina \"Palace of the Counts of Cocentaina\").\n* In [Alcoy](/wiki/Alcoy \"Alcoy\"), palace of the [Archaeological Museum Camil Visedo](/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_Camil_Visedo \"Archaeological Museum Camil Visedo\").",
"Province of Castellón\n* In [Cinctorres](/wiki/Cinctorres \"Cinctorres\"), [Palacio de los San Juan](/wiki/Palacio_de_los_San_Juan \"Palacio de los San Juan\").\n* In [Vilafamés](/wiki/Vilafam%C3%A9s \"Vilafamés\"), palacio del [Museo de Vilafamés](/wiki/Museo_de_Vilafam%C3%A9s \"Museo de Vilafamés\").",
"Province of Valencia\n* In [Gandia](/wiki/Gandia \"Gandia\"), [Ducal Palace of Gandia](/wiki/Ducal_Palace_of_Gandia \"Ducal Palace of Gandia\"), [Archaeological Museum of Gandia](/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Gandia \"Archaeological Museum of Gandia\").\n* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), [Llotja de la Seda](/wiki/Llotja_de_la_Seda \"Llotja de la Seda\"), [Palace of the Borgias](/wiki/Palace_of_the_Borgias \"Palace of the Borgias\"), [Torres de Serranos](/wiki/Torres_de_Serranos \"Torres de Serranos\"), [Almudín de Valencia](/wiki/Almud%C3%ADn_de_Valencia \"Almudín de Valencia\"), [Atarazanas del Grao](/wiki/Atarazanas_del_Grao \"Atarazanas del Grao\"), [Casa del Almirante](/wiki/Casa_del_Almirante_%28Valencia%29 \"Casa del Almirante (Valencia)\"), [Palacio de Joan de Valeriola](/wiki/Palacio_de_Joan_de_Valeriola \"Palacio de Joan de Valeriola\"), [Palacio de los Escrivà](/wiki/Palacio_de_los_Escriv%C3%A0 \"Palacio de los Escrivà\"), etc.\n* In [Xàtiva](/wiki/X%C3%A0tiva \"Xàtiva\"), [Almodí de Xativa](/wiki/Almod%C3%AD_de_Xativa \"Almodí de Xativa\").",
"### Blending Valencian Gothic with Mudéjar",
"Province of Castellón\n* In [Jérica](/wiki/J%C3%A9rica \"Jérica\"), [Torre mudéjar de la Alcudia](/wiki/Torre_mud%C3%A9jar_de_la_Alcudia \"Torre mudéjar de la Alcudia\").\n* In [Onda](/wiki/Onda%2C_Castell%C3%B3n \"Onda, Castellón\"), [Iglesia de la Sangre](/wiki/Iglesia_de_la_Sangre_%28Onda%29 \"Iglesia de la Sangre (Onda)\").\n* In [Segorbe](/wiki/Segorbe \"Segorbe\"), artesonado del Salón de Sesiones del antiguo Palacio Ducal (actualmente sede del Ayuntamiento de Segorbe).",
"Province of Valencia\n* In [Alfauir](/wiki/Alfauir \"Alfauir\"), the cloister of the [Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba](/wiki/Monastery_of_Sant_Jeroni_de_Cotalba \"Monastery of Sant Jeroni de Cotalba\").\n* In [Godella](/wiki/Godella \"Godella\"), la capilla del Cristo de la Paz en la Iglesia de San Bartolomé Apóstol.\n* In [Llíria](/wiki/Ll%C3%ADria \"Llíria\"), la iglesia de la Sangre de Liria.\n* In [Sagunto](/wiki/Sagunto \"Sagunto\"), la iglesia vieja de Sagunto.\n* In [Torres Torres](/wiki/Torres_Torres \"Torres Torres\"), [baños árabes](/wiki/Ba%C3%B1os_%C3%A1rabes_%28Torres_Torres%29 \"Baños árabes (Torres Torres)\").\n* In [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), [Baños del Almirante](/wiki/Ba%C3%B1os_del_Almirante \"Baños del Almirante\")."
] |
The raid on Carlisle
--------------------
Perhaps the best known of the Border reivers (outlaw raiders or rustlers), William Armstrong of Kinmont's first recorded raid was against the Milburns of [Tynedale](/wiki/Tynedale "Tynedale") in August 1583, when Armstrong was probably in his forties. In 1585 he accompanied the Earl of Angus's campaign against the [Earl of Arran](/wiki/James_Stewart%2C_Earl_of_Arran "James Stewart, Earl of Arran") and pillaged [Stirling](/wiki/Stirling "Stirling"). Eight years later he was in Tynedale again with 1,000 men, carrying off over 2,000 beasts and £300 in spoils.
Armstrong was captured in violation of a border truce day in 1596\. At a Truce Day all who attended to witness the criminal trials were granted "safe conduct" for the Day and until the following sunrise. Kinmont was arrested by the deputies of the English warden [Lord Scrope](/wiki/Thomas_Scrope%2C_10th_Baron_Scrope_of_Bolton "Thomas Scrope, 10th Baron Scrope of Bolton") and imprisoned in [Carlisle Castle](/wiki/Carlisle_Castle "Carlisle Castle").*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\), p. 244\. The Scottish warden of the West March [Walter Scott of Buccleuch](/wiki/Walter_Scott%2C_1st_Lord_Scott_of_Buccleuch "Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch"), Keeper of [Liddesdale](/wiki/Liddesdale "Liddesdale"), protested to Lord Scrope. When Scrope refused to release Armstrong, Buccleuch led a party of men on a daring raid into England and broke Armstrong out of the castle with inside help from the English Grahams and Carletons. [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England "Elizabeth I of England") was furious that one of her Border fortresses had been broken into at a time when peace existed between England and Scotland. Her relationship with [James VI of Scotland](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland "James VI of Scotland") was tested. Elizabeth demanded that Buccleuch and Walter Kerr of Cessford should be sent to England.*HMC 6th Report: Earl of Moray* (London, 1877\), p. 659\.
James VI was caught between allegiance to the Scots who were adamant Buccleuch had done no wrong in rescuing a man who was captured illegally and his desire to pander to his English benefactor, Elizabeth. She threatened to suspend a [yearly subsidy](/wiki/English_subsidy_of_James_VI "English subsidy of James VI") that she sent to James VI.M. S. Giuseppi, *Calendar of State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\), p. 253 no. 212\. Buccleuch eventually freely rode from King James to Queen Elizabeth. After their audience, Queen Elizabeth said: "With ten thousand such men, our brother in Scotland might shake the firmest throne of Europe."
A contemporary Scottish narrative written around 1603, after the death of Elizabeth, gives more details on Armstrong, Buccleuch, and the raid on Carlisle Castle. Armstrong was riding home in Liddesdale when he was pursued by 200 followers of the English deputy, Thomas Salkeld. He was captured after a chase of four miles and taken to Carlisle. The Laird of Buccleuch complained to the deputy and the warden Lord Scrope, and also asked [Sir Robert Bowes](/wiki/Robert_Bowes_%28diplomat%29 "Robert Bowes (diplomat)") to write to Scrope. Buccleuch received no reply and interpreted this as an insult to James VI. He sent men to Carlisle to examine a postern gate and the height of the walls. A woman went into the castle as a visitor to identify where Armstrong was held. He mustered 200 men at the Tower of Morton (Sark Tower) on the [River Sark](/wiki/River_Sark "River Sark") with scaling ladders and siege tools. They reached Stanwix Bank to cross the [River Eden](/wiki/River_Eden%2C_Cumbria "River Eden, Cumbria") two hours before dawn. The ladders were too short so his men broke through the wall near the postern gate. They fought with the watchmen and sentinels while Scrope and Salkeld and their men held back, and then withdrew with Armstrong and some other prisoners. According to this narrative, Buccleuch returned the other prisoners and looted goods, and only the gate and prison door were damaged.Annie I. Cameron, *Warrender Papers*, vol. 2 (SHS: Edinburgh, 1932\), pp. 285, 292\-299 [scanned by National Library of Scotland](https://digital.nls.uk/scottish-history-society-publications/browse/archive/126705387#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=308&xywh=-320%2C0%2C2275%2C2755).
In July 1596 Armstrong was said to have captured [Thomas Musgrave](/wiki/Thomas_Musgrave_of_Bewcastle "Thomas Musgrave of Bewcastle"), Captain of [Bewcastle](/wiki/Bewcastle_Castle "Bewcastle Castle"), in Scotland and transferred him to royal custody at [Hawick](/wiki/Hawick "Hawick"). James VI was said to be pleased because Musgrave was a lawful prisoner in comparison with Armstrong's recent detention at Carlisle Castle.*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\), p. 292 no. 239\. In 1600, Armstrong attacked the village of Scotby with 140 riders, burning and taking prisoners and cattle. In 1602 he rode his last foray, south of Carlisle. He was still alive two years later, and his four sons who had helped to get him out of Carlisle Castle are frequently named in the later Border raids. Legend supposes he died in his bed of old age, sometime between 1608 and 1611\.
The story of the raid on Carlisle Castle is told in the [ballad](/wiki/Ballad "Ballad") "[Kinmont Willie](/wiki/Kinmont_Willie "Kinmont Willie")".
|
[
"The raid on Carlisle\n--------------------",
"Perhaps the best known of the Border reivers (outlaw raiders or rustlers), William Armstrong of Kinmont's first recorded raid was against the Milburns of [Tynedale](/wiki/Tynedale \"Tynedale\") in August 1583, when Armstrong was probably in his forties. In 1585 he accompanied the Earl of Angus's campaign against the [Earl of Arran](/wiki/James_Stewart%2C_Earl_of_Arran \"James Stewart, Earl of Arran\") and pillaged [Stirling](/wiki/Stirling \"Stirling\"). Eight years later he was in Tynedale again with 1,000 men, carrying off over 2,000 beasts and £300 in spoils.",
"Armstrong was captured in violation of a border truce day in 1596\\. At a Truce Day all who attended to witness the criminal trials were granted \"safe conduct\" for the Day and until the following sunrise. Kinmont was arrested by the deputies of the English warden [Lord Scrope](/wiki/Thomas_Scrope%2C_10th_Baron_Scrope_of_Bolton \"Thomas Scrope, 10th Baron Scrope of Bolton\") and imprisoned in [Carlisle Castle](/wiki/Carlisle_Castle \"Carlisle Castle\").*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\\), p. 244\\. The Scottish warden of the West March [Walter Scott of Buccleuch](/wiki/Walter_Scott%2C_1st_Lord_Scott_of_Buccleuch \"Walter Scott, 1st Lord Scott of Buccleuch\"), Keeper of [Liddesdale](/wiki/Liddesdale \"Liddesdale\"), protested to Lord Scrope. When Scrope refused to release Armstrong, Buccleuch led a party of men on a daring raid into England and broke Armstrong out of the castle with inside help from the English Grahams and Carletons. [Elizabeth I of England](/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England \"Elizabeth I of England\") was furious that one of her Border fortresses had been broken into at a time when peace existed between England and Scotland. Her relationship with [James VI of Scotland](/wiki/James_VI_of_Scotland \"James VI of Scotland\") was tested. Elizabeth demanded that Buccleuch and Walter Kerr of Cessford should be sent to England.*HMC 6th Report: Earl of Moray* (London, 1877\\), p. 659\\.",
"James VI was caught between allegiance to the Scots who were adamant Buccleuch had done no wrong in rescuing a man who was captured illegally and his desire to pander to his English benefactor, Elizabeth. She threatened to suspend a [yearly subsidy](/wiki/English_subsidy_of_James_VI \"English subsidy of James VI\") that she sent to James VI.M. S. Giuseppi, *Calendar of State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\\), p. 253 no. 212\\. Buccleuch eventually freely rode from King James to Queen Elizabeth. After their audience, Queen Elizabeth said: \"With ten thousand such men, our brother in Scotland might shake the firmest throne of Europe.\"",
"A contemporary Scottish narrative written around 1603, after the death of Elizabeth, gives more details on Armstrong, Buccleuch, and the raid on Carlisle Castle. Armstrong was riding home in Liddesdale when he was pursued by 200 followers of the English deputy, Thomas Salkeld. He was captured after a chase of four miles and taken to Carlisle. The Laird of Buccleuch complained to the deputy and the warden Lord Scrope, and also asked [Sir Robert Bowes](/wiki/Robert_Bowes_%28diplomat%29 \"Robert Bowes (diplomat)\") to write to Scrope. Buccleuch received no reply and interpreted this as an insult to James VI. He sent men to Carlisle to examine a postern gate and the height of the walls. A woman went into the castle as a visitor to identify where Armstrong was held. He mustered 200 men at the Tower of Morton (Sark Tower) on the [River Sark](/wiki/River_Sark \"River Sark\") with scaling ladders and siege tools. They reached Stanwix Bank to cross the [River Eden](/wiki/River_Eden%2C_Cumbria \"River Eden, Cumbria\") two hours before dawn. The ladders were too short so his men broke through the wall near the postern gate. They fought with the watchmen and sentinels while Scrope and Salkeld and their men held back, and then withdrew with Armstrong and some other prisoners. According to this narrative, Buccleuch returned the other prisoners and looted goods, and only the gate and prison door were damaged.Annie I. Cameron, *Warrender Papers*, vol. 2 (SHS: Edinburgh, 1932\\), pp. 285, 292\\-299 [scanned by National Library of Scotland](https://digital.nls.uk/scottish-history-society-publications/browse/archive/126705387#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=308&xywh=-320%2C0%2C2275%2C2755).",
"In July 1596 Armstrong was said to have captured [Thomas Musgrave](/wiki/Thomas_Musgrave_of_Bewcastle \"Thomas Musgrave of Bewcastle\"), Captain of [Bewcastle](/wiki/Bewcastle_Castle \"Bewcastle Castle\"), in Scotland and transferred him to royal custody at [Hawick](/wiki/Hawick \"Hawick\"). James VI was said to be pleased because Musgrave was a lawful prisoner in comparison with Armstrong's recent detention at Carlisle Castle.*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 12 (Edinburgh, 1952\\), p. 292 no. 239\\. In 1600, Armstrong attacked the village of Scotby with 140 riders, burning and taking prisoners and cattle. In 1602 he rode his last foray, south of Carlisle. He was still alive two years later, and his four sons who had helped to get him out of Carlisle Castle are frequently named in the later Border raids. Legend supposes he died in his bed of old age, sometime between 1608 and 1611\\.",
"The story of the raid on Carlisle Castle is told in the [ballad](/wiki/Ballad \"Ballad\") \"[Kinmont Willie](/wiki/Kinmont_Willie \"Kinmont Willie\")\".",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|The tower was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and included in the registry of the [Seven Wonders of Portugal](/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Portugal "Seven Wonders of Portugal") in 2007\.](/wiki/File:Torre_de_Bel%C3%A9m%2C_Lisboa%2C_Portugal%2C_2012-05-12%2C_DD_18.JPG "Torre de Belém, Lisboa, Portugal, 2012-05-12, DD 18.JPG")
In the late 15th century, [King John II](/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal "John II of Portugal") had designed a defence system for the mouth of the Tagus that depended on the fortresses of [Cascais](/wiki/Cascais "Cascais") and *São Sebastião* (or *Torre Velha*) in [Caparica](/wiki/Caparica_%28Almada%29 "Caparica (Almada)") on the south side of the river.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\=white\&pid\=179\&identificador\=\|title\=A Torre de São Vicente XVIII\|editor\=IGESPAR – Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico\|access\-date\=16 July 2011\|year\=2011\|location\=Lisbon\|language\=pt\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802205251/http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\=white\&pid\=179\&identificador\=\|archive\-date\=2 August 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} These fortresses did not completely protect the river's mouth, and further protection was required. In his "Chronicle of [John II](/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal "John II of Portugal")" (*Chronica de D. Joao II*), which appeared in 1545,{{cite book\|first\=Elisabeth Feist \|last\=Hirsch\|title\=Damião de Gois: The Life and Thought of a Portuguese Humanist, 1502–1574\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=v2IURME9XY4C\&pg\=PA197\|date\=31 July 1967\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-90\-247\-0195\-7\|page\=197}} the author [Garcia de Resende](/wiki/Garcia_de_Resende "Garcia de Resende") affirmed the king's opinion that the defences of Lisbon were inadequate, and that he had insisted on building fortifications along the entrance to the River [Tagus](/wiki/Tagus "Tagus") to supplement the existing defences.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\=white\&pid\=180\&identificador\=\|title\=Cronologia\|editor\=IGESPAR –Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico\|access\-date\=16 July 2011\|year\=2011\|location\=Lisbon\|language\=pt\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802144952/http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\=white\&pid\=180\&identificador\=\|archive\-date\=2 August 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} To this end, he ordered the "making of a strong fort", but died before any plans were drawn. King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") revisited the proposal twenty years later and ordered the construction of a military fortification on the northern margin of the Tagus at Belém. In 1513, Lourenço Fernandes wrote a letter to his friends referring to the king's intention of constructing a tower near Restelo Velho, having determined it to be essential.
[thumb\|280x280px\|Portuguese presence in India, the Gulf of Bengal and the Himalayas (maximum extent) between the 15th and 17th centuries](/wiki/File:Portuguese_India_16-17th_centuries_v05.jpg "Portuguese India 16-17th centuries v05.jpg")
The presence of this military element was also a celebration of the round trip of the Portuguese to India and a way of receiving the fleets that arrived at the mouth of the Tagus, glorifying the feat, as if it were a mimetic of what those who arrived could identify with the they had seen in the East. The best example is the carved rhinoceros, the result of an offer from an Indian ruler who offered it to King Dom Manuel. This Rhinoceros would be the same one that Albert Durer would immortalize in his drawings.
The project was started on a basaltic rock outcrop a short distance from the riverbank, using some of the stone being collected to build the [Monastery of Santa Maria de Belém](/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimos_Monastery "Jerónimos Monastery"). The tower was designed by military architect [Francisco de Arruda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Arruda "Francisco de Arruda"),{{cite book\|first\=Colum \|last\=Hourihane\|title\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FtlMAgAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA277\|year\= 2012\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-539536\-5\|page\=277}} named "Master of the works of the Belém stronghold" by King Manuel,{{cite book\|first\=Justino Mendes \|last\=de Almeida\|title\=De Olisipo a Lisboa: estudos olisiponenses\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=C5cvAQAAMAAJ\&q\=%221514%22\|year\=1992\|publisher\=Edições Cosmos\|isbn\=978\-972\-9170\-75\-1\|pages\=45–46}} and in 1516 he began receiving 763 blocks and 504 stones for its construction, delivered by Diogo Rodrigues, treasurer for the project. As construction progressed, a man\-of\-war called the *Grande Nau* (Great Ship), a heavily armed, 1000–ton ship continued to guard the estuary at the mouth of the Tagus until the fort's completion.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wmf.org/project/tower\-bel%C3%A9m\|title\=Tower of Belém\|publisher\=World Monuments Fund\|access\-date\=7 April 2010}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ippar.pt/english/monumentos/castelo\_belem.html\|author\=IPPAR – Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico (Portuguese Institute of Architectural Heritage)\|year\=2006\|title\=IPPAR Services: Belém Tower\|access\-date\=9 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220000054/http://www.ippar.pt/english/monumentos/castelo\_belem.html\|archive\-date\=20 December 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}}
The building was finished in 1519, just two years before Manuel's death, and Gaspar de Paiva was temporarily stationed to command the fortress;Paiva was the brother of King Manuel's tutor. his commission was made permanent on 15 September 1521, when he was appointed the first Captain\-General, or [alcalde](/wiki/Alcalde "Alcalde"), and the fortress was named the Castle of St Vincent (*Castelo de São Vicente de Belém*),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/hist\_intro.html\|title\=History/Introduction\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=7 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624091751/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/hist\_intro.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}} in honour of the patron saint of Lisbon.
In 1571, [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda "Francisco de Holanda") advised the monarch that it was necessary to improve the coastal defences in order to protect the kingdom's capital. He suggested the construction of a "strong and impregnable" fort that could easily defend Lisbon and that the Belém Tower "should be strengthened, repaired and completed...that it has cost so much without being completed". D'Holanda designed an improved rectangular bastion with several turrets. In 1580, after a few hours of battle, the garrison stationed in the tower surrendered to Spanish forces under the command of the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_4th_Duke_of_Alba "Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba"). After this defeat, the dungeons of the tower served as a prison until 1830\. It was also during the last quarter of the 16th century that the construction of the Philippine Barracks began. A rectangular two\-storey space was constructed over the bastion, giving the tower the visual profile that it has retained to the present, with sculpted crosses of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 "Order of Christ (Portugal)") and domed turrets.
In 1589, [Philip I of Portugal](/wiki/Philip_I_of_Portugal "Philip I of Portugal") ordered Italian engineer Friar João Vicenzio Casale to build a well\-defended fort to be constructed in place of the "useless castle of São Vicente". The engineer submitted three designs, proposing that the bastion would be surrounded by another bastion of greater dimensions, but the project never materialized.
A 1633 codex for the House of Cadaval was inserted into one of the floors, in one of the arches of the barracks, and in the four largest arches at the top of the southern façade. Similarly, a reference to the year 1655 was inscribed on a plaque placed on the northern wall of the cloister, which certified the tower's function as a customs control point and for navigation along the Tagus; vessels were obliged to pay a tax as they entered the harbour, which was imposed incrementally.
Between 1780 and 1782, under the reign of [Maria I of Portugal](/wiki/Maria_I_of_Portugal "Maria I of Portugal"), General Guilherme de Valleré constructed the [Fort of Bom Sucesso](/wiki/Fort_of_Bom_Sucesso "Fort of Bom Sucesso"), whose battery was connected by a western corridor wall to the tower. When French forces invaded Lisbon during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War"), detachments of their troops were quartered in the tower from 1808 to 1814\. After the French retreated, [Lord Beresford](/wiki/William_Beresford%2C_1st_Viscount_Beresford "William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford") advised that coastal artillery batteries should be reinforced along the Tagus, and specifically noted that stronger batteries should be placed on the sides of the tower's bastion, with carts placed to better protect the soldiers, since the walls were very low.
[thumb\|French ships exchanging fire with the tower at the [Battle of the Tagus](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tagus "Battle of the Tagus") during the [Liberal Wars](/wiki/Liberal_Wars "Liberal Wars") (1831\)](/wiki/File:Combat_du_Tage.jpg "Combat du Tage.jpg")
[King Miguel I](/wiki/Miguel_of_Portugal "Miguel of Portugal") (1828–1834\) used the dungeons to imprison his liberal opponents, while another level was used as a [custom house](/wiki/Custom_house "Custom house") for ships until the duty on foreign ships was abolished in 1833\.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Y7ArAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA172\|title\=The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge\|author\=Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (Great Britain)\|publisher\=C. Knight\|page\=172\|year\=1835}} The tower received military upgrades in 1589 and 1809–1814\.
During the reign of [Maria II](/wiki/Maria_II_of_Portugal "Maria II of Portugal"), [Almeida Garrett](/wiki/Almeida_Garrett "Almeida Garrett") protested the site's degradation and under the persuasion of the [Duke of Terceira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Jos%C3%A9_Severim_de_Noronha%2C_1st_Duke_of_Terceira "António José Severim de Noronha, 1st Duke of Terceira"), renovations were begun by military engineer António de Azevedo e Cunha. He demolished the Philippine barracks and extended revivalist elements in 1845–46 (such as the armoured merlons, the [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster "Baluster") of the veranda along the southern façade, the laced fascia in the cloister and the niche with an image of the [Virgin and Child](/wiki/Virgin_and_Child "Virgin and Child")).
In 1865–67 a beacon was installed on the southeast terrace of the building and a telegraph service was started, while nearby a gas factory was built, producing smoke that prompted many protests. The first moves to preserve and rehabilitate the tower began in the latter part of the 20th century. First, the tower was transferred to the [Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_%28Portugal%29 "Ministry of Finance (Portugal)") in 1940, which undertook small conservation works. Then the military quarters on the battlements were removed and the inner [cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister") was built. The architectural landscape designer António Viana Barreto began a three\-year project in 1953 to integrate the tower with the local shoreline. In 1983 the site hosted the 17th European Exhibition on Art, Science and Culture, and various projects involving the building were undertaken, among them covering the cloister with a transparent plastic cupola. In the same year the Belém Tower was classified by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site").
In the 1990s, the property was transferred to the *Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico* (forerunner of [IGESPAR](/wiki/IGESPAR "IGESPAR")), which began a full restoration of the building that lasted from February 1997 to January 1998; this included reinforcing the tower and bastion, reinforcing the south balcony supports with stainless steel rods and [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy "Epoxy") resin, treating the mortar joints, and general structural cleaning. The statues of Saint [Vincent of Saragossa](/wiki/Vincent_of_Saragossa "Vincent of Saragossa") and the [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 "Michael (archangel)") received the same treatment.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/cons\_prog\_interv.html\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|title\=Conservation and Restoration: Restoration works timetable\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=14 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624085232/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/cons\_prog\_interv.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}} In 1999 the project received the *[Europa Nostra](/wiki/Europa_Nostra "Europa Nostra")* award for its restoration of the exterior. The Belém Tower was added on 7 July 2007 to the registry of the [Seven Wonders of Portugal](/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Portugal "Seven Wonders of Portugal").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The tower was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and included in the registry of the [Seven Wonders of Portugal](/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Portugal \"Seven Wonders of Portugal\") in 2007\\.](/wiki/File:Torre_de_Bel%C3%A9m%2C_Lisboa%2C_Portugal%2C_2012-05-12%2C_DD_18.JPG \"Torre de Belém, Lisboa, Portugal, 2012-05-12, DD 18.JPG\") \nIn the late 15th century, [King John II](/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal \"John II of Portugal\") had designed a defence system for the mouth of the Tagus that depended on the fortresses of [Cascais](/wiki/Cascais \"Cascais\") and *São Sebastião* (or *Torre Velha*) in [Caparica](/wiki/Caparica_%28Almada%29 \"Caparica (Almada)\") on the south side of the river.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\\=white\\&pid\\=179\\&identificador\\=\\|title\\=A Torre de São Vicente XVIII\\|editor\\=IGESPAR – Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico\\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2011\\|year\\=2011\\|location\\=Lisbon\\|language\\=pt\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802205251/http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\\=white\\&pid\\=179\\&identificador\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} These fortresses did not completely protect the river's mouth, and further protection was required. In his \"Chronicle of [John II](/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal \"John II of Portugal\")\" (*Chronica de D. Joao II*), which appeared in 1545,{{cite book\\|first\\=Elisabeth Feist \\|last\\=Hirsch\\|title\\=Damião de Gois: The Life and Thought of a Portuguese Humanist, 1502–1574\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=v2IURME9XY4C\\&pg\\=PA197\\|date\\=31 July 1967\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-247\\-0195\\-7\\|page\\=197}} the author [Garcia de Resende](/wiki/Garcia_de_Resende \"Garcia de Resende\") affirmed the king's opinion that the defences of Lisbon were inadequate, and that he had insisted on building fortifications along the entrance to the River [Tagus](/wiki/Tagus \"Tagus\") to supplement the existing defences.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\\=white\\&pid\\=180\\&identificador\\=\\|title\\=Cronologia\\|editor\\=IGESPAR –Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico\\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2011\\|year\\=2011\\|location\\=Lisbon\\|language\\=pt\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802144952/http://www.torrebelem.pt/pt/index.php?s\\=white\\&pid\\=180\\&identificador\\=\\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} To this end, he ordered the \"making of a strong fort\", but died before any plans were drawn. King [Manuel I of Portugal](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") revisited the proposal twenty years later and ordered the construction of a military fortification on the northern margin of the Tagus at Belém. In 1513, Lourenço Fernandes wrote a letter to his friends referring to the king's intention of constructing a tower near Restelo Velho, having determined it to be essential.\n[thumb\\|280x280px\\|Portuguese presence in India, the Gulf of Bengal and the Himalayas (maximum extent) between the 15th and 17th centuries](/wiki/File:Portuguese_India_16-17th_centuries_v05.jpg \"Portuguese India 16-17th centuries v05.jpg\")\nThe presence of this military element was also a celebration of the round trip of the Portuguese to India and a way of receiving the fleets that arrived at the mouth of the Tagus, glorifying the feat, as if it were a mimetic of what those who arrived could identify with the they had seen in the East. The best example is the carved rhinoceros, the result of an offer from an Indian ruler who offered it to King Dom Manuel. This Rhinoceros would be the same one that Albert Durer would immortalize in his drawings.",
"The project was started on a basaltic rock outcrop a short distance from the riverbank, using some of the stone being collected to build the [Monastery of Santa Maria de Belém](/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimos_Monastery \"Jerónimos Monastery\"). The tower was designed by military architect [Francisco de Arruda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Arruda \"Francisco de Arruda\"),{{cite book\\|first\\=Colum \\|last\\=Hourihane\\|title\\=The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FtlMAgAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA277\\|year\\= 2012\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-539536\\-5\\|page\\=277}} named \"Master of the works of the Belém stronghold\" by King Manuel,{{cite book\\|first\\=Justino Mendes \\|last\\=de Almeida\\|title\\=De Olisipo a Lisboa: estudos olisiponenses\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=C5cvAQAAMAAJ\\&q\\=%221514%22\\|year\\=1992\\|publisher\\=Edições Cosmos\\|isbn\\=978\\-972\\-9170\\-75\\-1\\|pages\\=45–46}} and in 1516 he began receiving 763 blocks and 504 stones for its construction, delivered by Diogo Rodrigues, treasurer for the project. As construction progressed, a man\\-of\\-war called the *Grande Nau* (Great Ship), a heavily armed, 1000–ton ship continued to guard the estuary at the mouth of the Tagus until the fort's completion.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wmf.org/project/tower\\-bel%C3%A9m\\|title\\=Tower of Belém\\|publisher\\=World Monuments Fund\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2010}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ippar.pt/english/monumentos/castelo\\_belem.html\\|author\\=IPPAR – Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico (Portuguese Institute of Architectural Heritage)\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=IPPAR Services: Belém Tower\\|access\\-date\\=9 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091220000054/http://www.ippar.pt/english/monumentos/castelo\\_belem.html\\|archive\\-date\\=20 December 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"The building was finished in 1519, just two years before Manuel's death, and Gaspar de Paiva was temporarily stationed to command the fortress;Paiva was the brother of King Manuel's tutor. his commission was made permanent on 15 September 1521, when he was appointed the first Captain\\-General, or [alcalde](/wiki/Alcalde \"Alcalde\"), and the fortress was named the Castle of St Vincent (*Castelo de São Vicente de Belém*),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/hist\\_intro.html\\|title\\=History/Introduction\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624091751/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/hist\\_intro.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} in honour of the patron saint of Lisbon.",
"In 1571, [Francisco de Holanda](/wiki/Francisco_de_Holanda \"Francisco de Holanda\") advised the monarch that it was necessary to improve the coastal defences in order to protect the kingdom's capital. He suggested the construction of a \"strong and impregnable\" fort that could easily defend Lisbon and that the Belém Tower \"should be strengthened, repaired and completed...that it has cost so much without being completed\". D'Holanda designed an improved rectangular bastion with several turrets. In 1580, after a few hours of battle, the garrison stationed in the tower surrendered to Spanish forces under the command of the [Duke of Alba](/wiki/Fadrique_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo%2C_4th_Duke_of_Alba \"Fadrique Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Duke of Alba\"). After this defeat, the dungeons of the tower served as a prison until 1830\\. It was also during the last quarter of the 16th century that the construction of the Philippine Barracks began. A rectangular two\\-storey space was constructed over the bastion, giving the tower the visual profile that it has retained to the present, with sculpted crosses of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 \"Order of Christ (Portugal)\") and domed turrets.",
"In 1589, [Philip I of Portugal](/wiki/Philip_I_of_Portugal \"Philip I of Portugal\") ordered Italian engineer Friar João Vicenzio Casale to build a well\\-defended fort to be constructed in place of the \"useless castle of São Vicente\". The engineer submitted three designs, proposing that the bastion would be surrounded by another bastion of greater dimensions, but the project never materialized.",
"A 1633 codex for the House of Cadaval was inserted into one of the floors, in one of the arches of the barracks, and in the four largest arches at the top of the southern façade. Similarly, a reference to the year 1655 was inscribed on a plaque placed on the northern wall of the cloister, which certified the tower's function as a customs control point and for navigation along the Tagus; vessels were obliged to pay a tax as they entered the harbour, which was imposed incrementally.",
"Between 1780 and 1782, under the reign of [Maria I of Portugal](/wiki/Maria_I_of_Portugal \"Maria I of Portugal\"), General Guilherme de Valleré constructed the [Fort of Bom Sucesso](/wiki/Fort_of_Bom_Sucesso \"Fort of Bom Sucesso\"), whose battery was connected by a western corridor wall to the tower. When French forces invaded Lisbon during the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\"), detachments of their troops were quartered in the tower from 1808 to 1814\\. After the French retreated, [Lord Beresford](/wiki/William_Beresford%2C_1st_Viscount_Beresford \"William Beresford, 1st Viscount Beresford\") advised that coastal artillery batteries should be reinforced along the Tagus, and specifically noted that stronger batteries should be placed on the sides of the tower's bastion, with carts placed to better protect the soldiers, since the walls were very low.",
"[thumb\\|French ships exchanging fire with the tower at the [Battle of the Tagus](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tagus \"Battle of the Tagus\") during the [Liberal Wars](/wiki/Liberal_Wars \"Liberal Wars\") (1831\\)](/wiki/File:Combat_du_Tage.jpg \"Combat du Tage.jpg\")\n[King Miguel I](/wiki/Miguel_of_Portugal \"Miguel of Portugal\") (1828–1834\\) used the dungeons to imprison his liberal opponents, while another level was used as a [custom house](/wiki/Custom_house \"Custom house\") for ships until the duty on foreign ships was abolished in 1833\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Y7ArAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA172\\|title\\=The Penny cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge\\|author\\=Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (Great Britain)\\|publisher\\=C. Knight\\|page\\=172\\|year\\=1835}} The tower received military upgrades in 1589 and 1809–1814\\.",
"During the reign of [Maria II](/wiki/Maria_II_of_Portugal \"Maria II of Portugal\"), [Almeida Garrett](/wiki/Almeida_Garrett \"Almeida Garrett\") protested the site's degradation and under the persuasion of the [Duke of Terceira](/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Jos%C3%A9_Severim_de_Noronha%2C_1st_Duke_of_Terceira \"António José Severim de Noronha, 1st Duke of Terceira\"), renovations were begun by military engineer António de Azevedo e Cunha. He demolished the Philippine barracks and extended revivalist elements in 1845–46 (such as the armoured merlons, the [balustrade](/wiki/Baluster \"Baluster\") of the veranda along the southern façade, the laced fascia in the cloister and the niche with an image of the [Virgin and Child](/wiki/Virgin_and_Child \"Virgin and Child\")).",
"In 1865–67 a beacon was installed on the southeast terrace of the building and a telegraph service was started, while nearby a gas factory was built, producing smoke that prompted many protests. The first moves to preserve and rehabilitate the tower began in the latter part of the 20th century. First, the tower was transferred to the [Ministry of Finance](/wiki/Ministry_of_Finance_%28Portugal%29 \"Ministry of Finance (Portugal)\") in 1940, which undertook small conservation works. Then the military quarters on the battlements were removed and the inner [cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\") was built. The architectural landscape designer António Viana Barreto began a three\\-year project in 1953 to integrate the tower with the local shoreline. In 1983 the site hosted the 17th European Exhibition on Art, Science and Culture, and various projects involving the building were undertaken, among them covering the cloister with a transparent plastic cupola. In the same year the Belém Tower was classified by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") as a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\").",
"In the 1990s, the property was transferred to the *Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico* (forerunner of [IGESPAR](/wiki/IGESPAR \"IGESPAR\")), which began a full restoration of the building that lasted from February 1997 to January 1998; this included reinforcing the tower and bastion, reinforcing the south balcony supports with stainless steel rods and [epoxy](/wiki/Epoxy \"Epoxy\") resin, treating the mortar joints, and general structural cleaning. The statues of Saint [Vincent of Saragossa](/wiki/Vincent_of_Saragossa \"Vincent of Saragossa\") and the [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 \"Michael (archangel)\") received the same treatment.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/cons\\_prog\\_interv.html\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|title\\=Conservation and Restoration: Restoration works timetable\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=14 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624085232/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/cons\\_prog\\_interv.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} In 1999 the project received the *[Europa Nostra](/wiki/Europa_Nostra \"Europa Nostra\")* award for its restoration of the exterior. The Belém Tower was added on 7 July 2007 to the registry of the [Seven Wonders of Portugal](/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_Portugal \"Seven Wonders of Portugal\").",
""
] |
Architecture
------------
The Belém Tower is situated on the northern bank of the [Tagus River](/wiki/Tagus_River "Tagus River") in the civil parish of [Santa Maria de Belém](/wiki/Santa_Maria_de_Bel%C3%A9m "Santa Maria de Belém"), municipality of Lisbon, accessible at the western end of the *Avenida de Brasília* by a small bridge. Nearby are the [Jeronimos Monastery](/wiki/Jeronimos_Monastery "Jeronimos Monastery") to the east and the *Forte do Bom Sucesso* to the west, while to the north are the tower Governor's residence, the old Governor's residence for the Bom Successo fort, and the Chapel of São Jerónimo.
The tower is isolated along the riverbank, between the dock of Bom Sucesso and Pedrouços, on a basaltic outcropping of rocks belonging to the geomorphological volcanic complex of Lisboa\-Mafra.{{cite book\|first\=João \|last\=Pais\|title\=The Paleogene and Neogene of Western Iberia (Portugal): A Cenozoic record in the European Atlantic domain\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KThwwV\_APVIC\&pg\=PA35\|date\=6 October 2011\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-3\-642\-22401\-0\|page\=35}} Although various guides have claimed that the tower was built in the middle of the Tagus, and now sits near the shore after the [1755 earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake "1755 Lisbon earthquake") redirected the river, they are incorrect. The Portuguese [Ministry of Culture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_%28Portugal%29 "Ministry of Culture (Portugal)") and the [Institute of Architectural Heritage](/wiki/IGESPAR "IGESPAR") indicate that the tower was constructed on a small island near the bank of the Tagus, opposite the shore of Restelo. As development extended the shoreline progressively, more and more of the northern bank crept southwards into the Tagus, the tower becoming integrated into the riverbank over time.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Xmmf4qRsf\_gC\|title\=The Rough Guide to Portugal\|edition\=10th\|first1\=Mark \|last1\=Ellingham\|first2\=John \|last2\=Fisher\|first3\=Graham \|last3\=Kenyon\|publisher\=Rough Guides, Ltd.\|page\=97\|year\=2002\|isbn\=1\-85828\-877\-0}}
The Belém Tower was built from a beige\-white [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone") local to the Lisbon area and thereabouts called *Lioz*.{{cite book\|editor\-first1\=R. \|editor\-last1\=Přikryl\|editor\-first2\=B. J. \|editor\-last2\=Smith\|title\=Building Stone Decay: From Diagnosis to Conservation\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_NS5PaO\_LeQC\&pg\=PA99\|author1\=Figueiredo\|author2\=Aires\-Barros\|author3\=Basto\|author4\=Graca\|author5\=Mauricio\|year\= 2007\|publisher\=Geological Society of London\|isbn\=978\-1\-86239\-218\-2\|page\=99}} The building is divided into two parts: the [bastion](/wiki/Bastion "Bastion") and the four\-story tower located on the north side of the bastion.
The 16th\-century tower is considered one of the principal works of the [Portuguese Late Gothic](/wiki/Architecture_of_Portugal%23Manueline_style_%28c._1490_%E2%80%93_c._1520%29 "Architecture of Portugal#Manueline style (c. 1490 – c. 1520)") [Manueline](/wiki/Manueline "Manueline") style. This is especially apparent in its elaborate [rib vaulting](/wiki/Rib_vault "Rib vault"), crosses of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 "Order of Christ (Portugal)"), [armillary spheres](/wiki/Armillary_sphere "Armillary sphere") and twisted rope, common to the nautically inspired organic Manueline style.
### Exterior
[thumb\|upright\|alt\=A detailed view of a turret. A cross sits atop each turret. Two Order of Christ crosses can be seen on the edge of the bastion.\|Bastion terrace with its [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish_architecture "Moorish architecture") bartizan [turrets](/wiki/Turret_%28architecture%29 "Turret (architecture)") and cupolas from the northwest.](/wiki/File:Tour_de_Belem_detail_1_082006.JPG "Tour de Belem detail 1 082006.JPG")
[thumb\|upright\|alt\=The inner cloister and the back side of the virgin niche. In the center is the opening into the casemate and in the background are two turrets on the bastion deck.\|The inner [cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister") of the tower displaying the back side of the niche of the virgin and two turrets](/wiki/File:Belem.Torre04.jpg "Belem.Torre04.jpg")
The building's plan consists of a rectangular tower and an irregular, hexagonal bastion, with elongated flanks, that projects south into the river. It is basically a large articulated vertical space resting on a horizontal stone slab, covered by masonry enclosures. On the northeast angle of the structure, protected by a defensive wall with [bartizans](/wiki/Bartizan "Bartizan"), is a drawbridge to access the bulwark, decorated in plant motifs, surmounted by the royal coat of arms and flanked by small columns, complemented with [armillary spheres](/wiki/Armillary_sphere "Armillary sphere"). The Manueline armillary spheres appear at the tower's entrance, symbolizing Portugal's [nautical explorations](/wiki/History_of_Portugal_%281415%E2%80%931542%29 "History of Portugal (1415–1542)"), and were used on King Manuel I's personal banner to represent Portuguese discoveries during his rule.{{cite web\|url\=http://cvc.instituto\-camoes.pt/ciencia\_eng/e15\.html\|title\=The Star of Cabral\|author\=Instituto Camões\|year\=2005\|access\-date\=8 December 2009}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.tuvalkin.web.pt/terravista/guincho/1421/bandeira/pt\_real.htm\#rme1\|title\=Bandeiras navais históricas\|work\=Bandeiras de Portugal\|publisher\=Bandeiras do Bacano\|access\-date\=24 February 2007\|last\=Martins\|first\=António\|language\=pt\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223153456/http://www.tuvalkin.web.pt/terravista/guincho/1421/bandeira/pt\_real.htm\#rme1\|archive\-date\=23 February 2007\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} The decorative carved, twisted rope and elegant knots also point to Portugal's nautical history and are common elements of the Manueline style.
On the outside of the lower bastion, the walls have spaces for 17 cannons with [embrasures](/wiki/Embrasure "Embrasure") affording a view of the river.{{cite book\|author\=DK Publishing\|title\=Great Buildings\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=aRsGFSNXJ4AC\&pg\=PA113\|year\=2012\|publisher\=DK Publishing\|isbn\=978\-1\-4654\-0774\-0\|page\=113}} The upper tier of the bastion is crowned by a small wall with bartizans in strategic places, decorated by rounded shields with the cross of the Order of Christ encircling the platform. King [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") was a member of the Order of Christ,{{cite encyclopedia\|url\=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title\=Catholic\_Encyclopedia\_(1913\)/Order\_of\_the\_Knights\_of\_Christ\&oldid\=338922\|title\=Order of the Knights of Christ\|encyclopedia\=Catholic Encyclopedia\|publisher\=Wikisource, The Free Library\|date\=1913\|access\-date\=8 December 2009}} thus the cross of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 "Order of Christ (Portugal)") is used numerous times on the [parapets](/wiki/Parapet "Parapet"). These were a symbol of Manuel's military power, as the knights of the Order of Christ participated in several military conquests in that era. The bartizans, cylindrical turrets ([guerites](/wiki/Guerite "Guerite")) in the corners that served as watchtowers, have corbels with zoomorphic ornaments and domes covered with ridges unusual in European architecture, topped with ornate [finials](/wiki/Finial "Finial"). The bases of the turrets have images of beasts, including a rhinoceros. This rhinoceros is considered to be the first sculpture of such an animal in Western European art and probably depicts [the rhinoceros](/wiki/D%C3%BCrer%27s_Rhinoceros "Dürer's Rhinoceros") that Manuel I sent to [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo%C2%A0X "Pope Leo X") in 1515\.{{cite book\|first1\=L. C. \|last1\=Rookmaaker\|first2\=Marvin L. \|last2\= Jones\|first3\=Heinz\-Georg \|last3\=Klös\|first4\=Richard J.\|last4\=Reynolds III\|title\=The Rhinoceros in Captivity: A List of 2439 Rhinoceroses Kept from Roman Times to 1994\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vDijgNs\_7Q0C\&pg\=PA80\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Kugler Publications\|isbn\=978\-90\-5103\-134\-8\|page\=80}}
While the tower is predominantly Manueline in style, it also incorporates features of other architectural styles. It was built by the military architect Francisco de Arruda, who had already supervised the construction of several fortresses in Portuguese territories in [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco"). The influence of [Moorish architecture](/wiki/Moorish_architecture "Moorish architecture") is manifested in the delicate decorations, the arched windows, the balconies, and the ribbed [cupolas](/wiki/Cupola_%28military%29 "Cupola (military)") of the [watchtowers](/wiki/Watchtower "Watchtower").
The tower has four storeys, with fenestrations and battlements, the ground floor being occupied by a vaulted cistern. On the first floor, there is a south\-facing rectangular door with arched windows on the east and north, and bartizans in the northeast and northwest corners. The southern part of the second floor is dominated by a covered veranda with a [loggia](/wiki/Loggia "Loggia") (*matacães*), consisting of an arcade of seven arches, resting on large [corbels](/wiki/Corbel "Corbel") with balusters. It is covered by laced stonework to form a porch, and its sloped roof ends in a sculpted twisted rope. The eastern, northern and western walls are occupied by double\-arched enclosures, with the northeast and northwest corners occupied by statues of Saint [Vincent of Saragossa](/wiki/Vincent_of_Saragossa "Vincent of Saragossa") and the [archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 "Michael (archangel)") in niches. The third floor has twin windows in the northern, eastern and western façades, with balusters, interspersed by two armillary spheres and large relief with the Royal coat of arms. The final floor is encircled by a terrace with shields of the Order of Christ, and a northern arched door and eastern arched window. The terrace is enclosed by a low wall with colonnaded pyramidal merlons with bartizans in the four corners. A similar terrace above this floor offers a view of the surrounding landscape.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.bluffton.edu/\~sullivanm/portugal/Lisbon/belem/belem.html\|title\=Belém Tower (Torre de Belém)\|first\=Mary Ann \|last\=Sullivan\|year\=2005\|access\-date\=8 December 2009}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_09\.html\|title\=Tower Terrace\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=8 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624083305/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_09\.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}}
### Interior
[thumb\|left\|Interior casemate of the main bastion showing the cannon niches](/wiki/File:TorreBelem1-IPPAR.jpg "TorreBelem1-IPPAR.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|A view from the second floor loggia](/wiki/File:Belem.Torre09.jpg "Belem.Torre09.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Tourists visiting inside](/wiki/File:Lisbon_holiday_%2818798806522%29.jpg "Lisbon holiday (18798806522).jpg")
The interior of the bastion, with a circular staircase at the north end, has two contiguous halls with vaulted ceilings supported by masonry arches, as well as four storage lockers and sanitary facilities. On the ground floor bunker, the floor is inclined towards the outside, while the ceilings are supported by masonry pilasters and vaulted spines. Gothic rib vaulting is evident in this [casemate](/wiki/Casemate "Casemate"),{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_02\.html\|title\=Bulwark\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=7 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624084453/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_02\.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}} the rooms of the tower{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_08\.html\|title\=Chapel\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=7 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624084611/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_08\.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}} and the cupolas of the [watchtowers](/wiki/Watchtowers "Watchtowers") on the bastion terrace. Peripheral compartments on the edges of the bunker allow the individual cannons to occupy their own space, with the ceiling designed with several asymmetrical domes of various heights. The ancillary storerooms were later used as prison cells.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_03\.html\|title\=Bulwark terrace\|author\=Ministry of Culture\|year\=2000\|access\-date\=7 December 2009\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20090624085034/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\_torre\_belem/visi\_03\.html\|archive\-date\=24 June 2009\|df\=dmy\-all}}
Two archways open to the main cloister in the north and south, while six broken arches stretch along the eastern and western parts of the cloister, interspersed with square pillars in the bastion interior, with gargoyle facets. The open cloister above the casemate, although decorative, was designed to dispel cannon smoke. The upper level is connected by a railing decorated with crosses of the Order of Christ, while at the terrace the space has rising columns topped with armillary spheres. This space could also be used for light calibre infantry. This was the first Portuguese fortification with a two\-level gun emplacement and marks a new development in military architecture. Some of the decoration dates from the renovation of the 1840s and is [Neo\-Manueline](/wiki/Neo-Manueline "Neo-Manueline") in style, like the decoration of the small cloister on the bastion.
On the southern portion of the cloister terrace is an image of the Virgin and Child. The statue of the Virgin of Belém, also referred to as *Nossa Senhora de Bom Successo* (Our Lady of Good Success), *Nossa Senhora das Uvas* (Our Lady of the Grapes) or the *Virgem da Boa Viagem* (Virgin of Safe Homecoming) is depicted holding a child in her right hand and a bunch of grapes in her left.
The tower is about {{convert\|12\|m\|ft}} wide and {{convert\|30\|m\|ft}} tall. The first\-floor interior contains the *Sala do Governador* (Governor's Hall), an octagonal space that opens into the cistern, while in the northeast and northwest corners are corridors that link to the bartizans. A small door provides access via a spiral staircase to the subsequent floors. On the second floor, the *Sala dos Reis* (King's Hall) opens to the [loggia](/wiki/Loggia "Loggia") overlooking the river, while a small corner fireplace extends from this floor to the third floor fireplace in the *Sala das Audiências* (Audience Hall). The ceilings of all three floors are covered in hollow concrete slabs. The fourth floor chapel has a vaulted rib ceiling with niches emblematic of the Manueline style, supported by carved corbels.
{{clear left}}
|
[
"Architecture\n------------",
"The Belém Tower is situated on the northern bank of the [Tagus River](/wiki/Tagus_River \"Tagus River\") in the civil parish of [Santa Maria de Belém](/wiki/Santa_Maria_de_Bel%C3%A9m \"Santa Maria de Belém\"), municipality of Lisbon, accessible at the western end of the *Avenida de Brasília* by a small bridge. Nearby are the [Jeronimos Monastery](/wiki/Jeronimos_Monastery \"Jeronimos Monastery\") to the east and the *Forte do Bom Sucesso* to the west, while to the north are the tower Governor's residence, the old Governor's residence for the Bom Successo fort, and the Chapel of São Jerónimo.",
"The tower is isolated along the riverbank, between the dock of Bom Sucesso and Pedrouços, on a basaltic outcropping of rocks belonging to the geomorphological volcanic complex of Lisboa\\-Mafra.{{cite book\\|first\\=João \\|last\\=Pais\\|title\\=The Paleogene and Neogene of Western Iberia (Portugal): A Cenozoic record in the European Atlantic domain\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KThwwV\\_APVIC\\&pg\\=PA35\\|date\\=6 October 2011\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-642\\-22401\\-0\\|page\\=35}} Although various guides have claimed that the tower was built in the middle of the Tagus, and now sits near the shore after the [1755 earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake \"1755 Lisbon earthquake\") redirected the river, they are incorrect. The Portuguese [Ministry of Culture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture_%28Portugal%29 \"Ministry of Culture (Portugal)\") and the [Institute of Architectural Heritage](/wiki/IGESPAR \"IGESPAR\") indicate that the tower was constructed on a small island near the bank of the Tagus, opposite the shore of Restelo. As development extended the shoreline progressively, more and more of the northern bank crept southwards into the Tagus, the tower becoming integrated into the riverbank over time.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Xmmf4qRsf\\_gC\\|title\\=The Rough Guide to Portugal\\|edition\\=10th\\|first1\\=Mark \\|last1\\=Ellingham\\|first2\\=John \\|last2\\=Fisher\\|first3\\=Graham \\|last3\\=Kenyon\\|publisher\\=Rough Guides, Ltd.\\|page\\=97\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=1\\-85828\\-877\\-0}}",
"The Belém Tower was built from a beige\\-white [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\") local to the Lisbon area and thereabouts called *Lioz*.{{cite book\\|editor\\-first1\\=R. \\|editor\\-last1\\=Přikryl\\|editor\\-first2\\=B. J. \\|editor\\-last2\\=Smith\\|title\\=Building Stone Decay: From Diagnosis to Conservation\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_NS5PaO\\_LeQC\\&pg\\=PA99\\|author1\\=Figueiredo\\|author2\\=Aires\\-Barros\\|author3\\=Basto\\|author4\\=Graca\\|author5\\=Mauricio\\|year\\= 2007\\|publisher\\=Geological Society of London\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-86239\\-218\\-2\\|page\\=99}} The building is divided into two parts: the [bastion](/wiki/Bastion \"Bastion\") and the four\\-story tower located on the north side of the bastion.",
"The 16th\\-century tower is considered one of the principal works of the [Portuguese Late Gothic](/wiki/Architecture_of_Portugal%23Manueline_style_%28c._1490_%E2%80%93_c._1520%29 \"Architecture of Portugal#Manueline style (c. 1490 – c. 1520)\") [Manueline](/wiki/Manueline \"Manueline\") style. This is especially apparent in its elaborate [rib vaulting](/wiki/Rib_vault \"Rib vault\"), crosses of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 \"Order of Christ (Portugal)\"), [armillary spheres](/wiki/Armillary_sphere \"Armillary sphere\") and twisted rope, common to the nautically inspired organic Manueline style.",
"### Exterior",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=A detailed view of a turret. A cross sits atop each turret. Two Order of Christ crosses can be seen on the edge of the bastion.\\|Bastion terrace with its [Moorish](/wiki/Moorish_architecture \"Moorish architecture\") bartizan [turrets](/wiki/Turret_%28architecture%29 \"Turret (architecture)\") and cupolas from the northwest.](/wiki/File:Tour_de_Belem_detail_1_082006.JPG \"Tour de Belem detail 1 082006.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|alt\\=The inner cloister and the back side of the virgin niche. In the center is the opening into the casemate and in the background are two turrets on the bastion deck.\\|The inner [cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\") of the tower displaying the back side of the niche of the virgin and two turrets](/wiki/File:Belem.Torre04.jpg \"Belem.Torre04.jpg\")\nThe building's plan consists of a rectangular tower and an irregular, hexagonal bastion, with elongated flanks, that projects south into the river. It is basically a large articulated vertical space resting on a horizontal stone slab, covered by masonry enclosures. On the northeast angle of the structure, protected by a defensive wall with [bartizans](/wiki/Bartizan \"Bartizan\"), is a drawbridge to access the bulwark, decorated in plant motifs, surmounted by the royal coat of arms and flanked by small columns, complemented with [armillary spheres](/wiki/Armillary_sphere \"Armillary sphere\"). The Manueline armillary spheres appear at the tower's entrance, symbolizing Portugal's [nautical explorations](/wiki/History_of_Portugal_%281415%E2%80%931542%29 \"History of Portugal (1415–1542)\"), and were used on King Manuel I's personal banner to represent Portuguese discoveries during his rule.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://cvc.instituto\\-camoes.pt/ciencia\\_eng/e15\\.html\\|title\\=The Star of Cabral\\|author\\=Instituto Camões\\|year\\=2005\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.tuvalkin.web.pt/terravista/guincho/1421/bandeira/pt\\_real.htm\\#rme1\\|title\\=Bandeiras navais históricas\\|work\\=Bandeiras de Portugal\\|publisher\\=Bandeiras do Bacano\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2007\\|last\\=Martins\\|first\\=António\\|language\\=pt\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223153456/http://www.tuvalkin.web.pt/terravista/guincho/1421/bandeira/pt\\_real.htm\\#rme1\\|archive\\-date\\=23 February 2007\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} The decorative carved, twisted rope and elegant knots also point to Portugal's nautical history and are common elements of the Manueline style.",
"On the outside of the lower bastion, the walls have spaces for 17 cannons with [embrasures](/wiki/Embrasure \"Embrasure\") affording a view of the river.{{cite book\\|author\\=DK Publishing\\|title\\=Great Buildings\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=aRsGFSNXJ4AC\\&pg\\=PA113\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=DK Publishing\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4654\\-0774\\-0\\|page\\=113}} The upper tier of the bastion is crowned by a small wall with bartizans in strategic places, decorated by rounded shields with the cross of the Order of Christ encircling the platform. King [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") was a member of the Order of Christ,{{cite encyclopedia\\|url\\=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title\\=Catholic\\_Encyclopedia\\_(1913\\)/Order\\_of\\_the\\_Knights\\_of\\_Christ\\&oldid\\=338922\\|title\\=Order of the Knights of Christ\\|encyclopedia\\=Catholic Encyclopedia\\|publisher\\=Wikisource, The Free Library\\|date\\=1913\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009}} thus the cross of the [Order of Christ](/wiki/Order_of_Christ_%28Portugal%29 \"Order of Christ (Portugal)\") is used numerous times on the [parapets](/wiki/Parapet \"Parapet\"). These were a symbol of Manuel's military power, as the knights of the Order of Christ participated in several military conquests in that era. The bartizans, cylindrical turrets ([guerites](/wiki/Guerite \"Guerite\")) in the corners that served as watchtowers, have corbels with zoomorphic ornaments and domes covered with ridges unusual in European architecture, topped with ornate [finials](/wiki/Finial \"Finial\"). The bases of the turrets have images of beasts, including a rhinoceros. This rhinoceros is considered to be the first sculpture of such an animal in Western European art and probably depicts [the rhinoceros](/wiki/D%C3%BCrer%27s_Rhinoceros \"Dürer's Rhinoceros\") that Manuel I sent to [Pope Leo X](/wiki/Pope_Leo%C2%A0X \"Pope Leo X\") in 1515\\.{{cite book\\|first1\\=L. C. \\|last1\\=Rookmaaker\\|first2\\=Marvin L. \\|last2\\= Jones\\|first3\\=Heinz\\-Georg \\|last3\\=Klös\\|first4\\=Richard J.\\|last4\\=Reynolds III\\|title\\=The Rhinoceros in Captivity: A List of 2439 Rhinoceroses Kept from Roman Times to 1994\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vDijgNs\\_7Q0C\\&pg\\=PA80\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Kugler Publications\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-5103\\-134\\-8\\|page\\=80}}",
"While the tower is predominantly Manueline in style, it also incorporates features of other architectural styles. It was built by the military architect Francisco de Arruda, who had already supervised the construction of several fortresses in Portuguese territories in [Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\"). The influence of [Moorish architecture](/wiki/Moorish_architecture \"Moorish architecture\") is manifested in the delicate decorations, the arched windows, the balconies, and the ribbed [cupolas](/wiki/Cupola_%28military%29 \"Cupola (military)\") of the [watchtowers](/wiki/Watchtower \"Watchtower\").",
"The tower has four storeys, with fenestrations and battlements, the ground floor being occupied by a vaulted cistern. On the first floor, there is a south\\-facing rectangular door with arched windows on the east and north, and bartizans in the northeast and northwest corners. The southern part of the second floor is dominated by a covered veranda with a [loggia](/wiki/Loggia \"Loggia\") (*matacães*), consisting of an arcade of seven arches, resting on large [corbels](/wiki/Corbel \"Corbel\") with balusters. It is covered by laced stonework to form a porch, and its sloped roof ends in a sculpted twisted rope. The eastern, northern and western walls are occupied by double\\-arched enclosures, with the northeast and northwest corners occupied by statues of Saint [Vincent of Saragossa](/wiki/Vincent_of_Saragossa \"Vincent of Saragossa\") and the [archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 \"Michael (archangel)\") in niches. The third floor has twin windows in the northern, eastern and western façades, with balusters, interspersed by two armillary spheres and large relief with the Royal coat of arms. The final floor is encircled by a terrace with shields of the Order of Christ, and a northern arched door and eastern arched window. The terrace is enclosed by a low wall with colonnaded pyramidal merlons with bartizans in the four corners. A similar terrace above this floor offers a view of the surrounding landscape.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bluffton.edu/\\~sullivanm/portugal/Lisbon/belem/belem.html\\|title\\=Belém Tower (Torre de Belém)\\|first\\=Mary Ann \\|last\\=Sullivan\\|year\\=2005\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_09\\.html\\|title\\=Tower Terrace\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624083305/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_09\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"### Interior",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Interior casemate of the main bastion showing the cannon niches](/wiki/File:TorreBelem1-IPPAR.jpg \"TorreBelem1-IPPAR.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|A view from the second floor loggia](/wiki/File:Belem.Torre09.jpg \"Belem.Torre09.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Tourists visiting inside](/wiki/File:Lisbon_holiday_%2818798806522%29.jpg \"Lisbon holiday (18798806522).jpg\")\nThe interior of the bastion, with a circular staircase at the north end, has two contiguous halls with vaulted ceilings supported by masonry arches, as well as four storage lockers and sanitary facilities. On the ground floor bunker, the floor is inclined towards the outside, while the ceilings are supported by masonry pilasters and vaulted spines. Gothic rib vaulting is evident in this [casemate](/wiki/Casemate \"Casemate\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_02\\.html\\|title\\=Bulwark\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624084453/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_02\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} the rooms of the tower{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_08\\.html\\|title\\=Chapel\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624084611/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_08\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} and the cupolas of the [watchtowers](/wiki/Watchtowers \"Watchtowers\") on the bastion terrace. Peripheral compartments on the edges of the bunker allow the individual cannons to occupy their own space, with the ceiling designed with several asymmetrical domes of various heights. The ancillary storerooms were later used as prison cells.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_03\\.html\\|title\\=Bulwark terrace\\|author\\=Ministry of Culture\\|year\\=2000\\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2009\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20090624085034/http://www.mosteirojeronimos.pt/english/web\\_torre\\_belem/visi\\_03\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=24 June 2009\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}}",
"Two archways open to the main cloister in the north and south, while six broken arches stretch along the eastern and western parts of the cloister, interspersed with square pillars in the bastion interior, with gargoyle facets. The open cloister above the casemate, although decorative, was designed to dispel cannon smoke. The upper level is connected by a railing decorated with crosses of the Order of Christ, while at the terrace the space has rising columns topped with armillary spheres. This space could also be used for light calibre infantry. This was the first Portuguese fortification with a two\\-level gun emplacement and marks a new development in military architecture. Some of the decoration dates from the renovation of the 1840s and is [Neo\\-Manueline](/wiki/Neo-Manueline \"Neo-Manueline\") in style, like the decoration of the small cloister on the bastion.",
"On the southern portion of the cloister terrace is an image of the Virgin and Child. The statue of the Virgin of Belém, also referred to as *Nossa Senhora de Bom Successo* (Our Lady of Good Success), *Nossa Senhora das Uvas* (Our Lady of the Grapes) or the *Virgem da Boa Viagem* (Virgin of Safe Homecoming) is depicted holding a child in her right hand and a bunch of grapes in her left.",
"The tower is about {{convert\\|12\\|m\\|ft}} wide and {{convert\\|30\\|m\\|ft}} tall. The first\\-floor interior contains the *Sala do Governador* (Governor's Hall), an octagonal space that opens into the cistern, while in the northeast and northwest corners are corridors that link to the bartizans. A small door provides access via a spiral staircase to the subsequent floors. On the second floor, the *Sala dos Reis* (King's Hall) opens to the [loggia](/wiki/Loggia \"Loggia\") overlooking the river, while a small corner fireplace extends from this floor to the third floor fireplace in the *Sala das Audiências* (Audience Hall). The ceilings of all three floors are covered in hollow concrete slabs. The fourth floor chapel has a vaulted rib ceiling with niches emblematic of the Manueline style, supported by carved corbels.\n{{clear left}}",
""
] |
Managerial career
-----------------
### the early days of a leader
After retiring from Busan I'Park, he went through the process of obtaining a leadership certificate and was appointed as a coach in his alma mater Ajou University's soccer department since 2011\.
After serving as a head coach under coach Ha Seok\-joo, he was promoted to coach when Ha Seok\-joo took over as manager of [Jeonnam Dragons](/wiki/Jeonnam_Dragons "Jeonnam Dragons") in August 2012, and began his coaching career early on. He has won numerous championship trophies for about three years at Ajou University and began to be recognized as a competent leader in the U\-League.{{Cite web \|title\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \|url\=https://m.sports.naver.com/general/article/076/0002355898 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-27 \|website\=m.sports.naver.com}}
Ahead of the 2015 season, he changed seats with coach Ha Seok\-joo. He joined the Jeonnam Dragons as a coach and made his debut as a professional leader.{{Cite web \|title\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \|url\=https://m.sports.naver.com/general/article/001/0007302454 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-27 \|website\=m.sports.naver.com}}
### the Nam Ki\-il Division
With his appointment as a coach of Gwangju FC in 2016, he will serve as a major member of the division that will remain.
Along with coach Ma Chul\-joon and goalkeeper coach Ki Woo\-sung, he continued to assist coach Nam Ki\-il through [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC "Seongnam FC") and [Jeju United FC](/wiki/Jeju_United_FC "Jeju United FC") and served as the right arm of coach [Nam Ki\-il](/wiki/Nam_Ki-il "Nam Ki-il") as a senior coach.{{Cite web \|title\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \|url\=https://m.sports.naver.com/kfootball/article/018/0003988301 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=m.sports.naver.com}}
After that, he moved to [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC "Seongnam FC") with [Nam Ki\-il](/wiki/Nam_Ki-il "Nam Ki-il"), leading Seongnam to promotion and stay in the top division, and in 2020, he moved back to [Jeju United](/wiki/Jeju_United "Jeju United"), manager Nam Ki\-il's former club, to build leadership as a senior coach,{{Cite web \|title\='정조국 코치 합류' 제주의 남기일 사단 시즌2, 함께 달리고 끈끈함 더하다 \|url\=https://m.sports.naver.com/kfootball/article/396/0000569370 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=m.sports.naver.com}} including Jeju's promotion and fourth place in the league.
### Gwangju FC
On December 28, 2021, he officially took over as the 7th manager of [Gwangju FC](/wiki/Gwangju_FC "Gwangju FC"), which was relegated to the [K League 2](/wiki/K_League_2 "K League 2"), making his debut as a professional club manager, and returning to Gwangju after about five years.{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-12\-29 \|title\=\[오피셜] 광주, 새 사령탑에 이정효 감독 선임…5년 만에 감독으로 컴백 {{!}} Goal.com 한국어 \|url\=https://www.goal.com/kr/%EB%89%B4%EC%8A%A4/a/bltd7748bb60f2ac904 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=www.goal.com \|language\=kr}}
### 2022 season in Gwangju FC
He made his managerial debut through the league's opening game against [Gimpo FC](/wiki/Gimpo_FC "Gimpo FC"), but unfortunately lost 1:2\.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-02\-19 \|title\=이정효 광주FC 감독 사령탑 데뷔전 쓴맛 \|url\=http://www.jndn.com/article.php?aid\=1645255833331814105 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=jndn.com \|language\=ko}}
In a series of matches against [Daejeon Hana Citizen](/wiki/Daejeon_Hana_Citizen "Daejeon Hana Citizen"), he beat everyone's expectations and achieved his first win since his debut as a coach.{{Cite web \|title\=광주일보 \|url\=http://www.kwangju.co.kr/article.php?aid\=1645962900734294008 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=www.kwangju.co.kr}} He was aggressive in this game, but he was aggressive and pushed Daejeon hard, blocking Daejeon's build\-up and causing pass misses, interfering with the attack and stealing the ball. He showed strong pressure and prepared well for Daejeon, which plays a lot of soccer. It was a famous game that predicted Gwangju's victory.
In particular, with rookie [Jung Ho\-yeon](/wiki/Jeong_Hyun-woo "Jeong Hyun-woo") as the first starter in the game, he blocked Lee Hyun\-sik, Daejeon's playmaker, and blocked Daejeon's build\-up. In addition, Jung Ho\-yeon acted as a cleaner in the center of Gwangju, overwhelmed the center of Daejeon, raising the morale of the team and fans with determined plays and leading the game in an advantageous direction.
Since then, he has continued to rise, leading [Bucheon FC 1995](/wiki/Bucheon_FC_1995 "Bucheon FC 1995") and leading the league,{{Cite web \|title\=광주FC, 부천FC 꺾고 선두 탈환 성공 \- 전남일보 \|url\=https://www.jnilbo.com/67455373736 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=www.jnilbo.com}} and in the third round of the FA Cup away match against [Incheon United](/wiki/Incheon_United "Incheon United") in the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 "K League 1"), he has created a stir by winning 6\-1 in a big victory.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-04\-27 \|title\='광주 잇몸이 인천 복귀생 압도' 광주, 인천에 6대1 대승\[FA컵 리뷰… \|url\=https://sports.chosun.com/football/2022\-04\-27/202204270100225220014718 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=스포츠조선 \|language\=ko}}
Based on Gwangju's upturn, he became the winner of the Paradise City Coach of the Month award in April. Since the main prize is awarded through integration of the first and second parts, it is quite difficult for the K League 2 coach to receive, but he made it through.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-05\-02 \|title\=4월 ‘4승 1무’ 광주 이정효 감독, 4월 ‘파라다이스시티 이달의 감독’ \|url\=https://www.besteleven.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=208205 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=Best Eleven \|language\=ko}}
In the face\-off against Gimpo FC at home on September 3, he made an aggressive replacement while being dragged 0:1, resulting in a crazy come\-from\-behind victory by scoring goals in the 90th and 94th minutes.{{Cite web \|last\=tf.co.kr \|date\=2022\-09\-05 \|title\=K리그2 선두 광주FC, 추가시간 4분에 2골 '김포에 2\-1' 극적인 역전승 \|url\=https://news.tf.co.kr/read/national/1963188\.htm \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=더팩트 \|language\=ko}} Now, regardless of the results of FC Anyang's fierce pursuit, if they achieve four wins, they can win the K League 2 title and win direct promotion on their own.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-09\-07 \|title\=\[프로축구 K리그2] ‘승격 매직넘버 4’ 광주, 추석 선물로 승리 안겨주나 \|url\=https://www.namdonews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=694605 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=남도일보 \|language\=ko}}
On Sept. 21, then\-second\-ranked Anyang lost to Daejeon at the FC Anyang vs. Daejeon Hana Citizen match. Thanks to the double\-digit gap that it has accumulated, it has secured early victory in the K League 2 and promotion to the K League 1 regardless of the results of the remaining matches.{{Cite web \|last\=뉴시스 \|date\=2022\-09\-21 \|title\=광주FC, K리그2 우승 확정…강등 1년 만에 K리그1 승격(종합) \|url\=https://www.newsis.com/view/?id\=NISX20220921\_0002021853\&cID\=10503\&pID\=10500 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=뉴시스 \|language\=ko}}
Along with the 2022 season's coach award, he contributed greatly to the team winning nine gold medals.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-10\-25 \|title\=광주FC, 2022 K리그 대상 시상식 '9관왕' 등극 \|url\=https://www.gukjenews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\=2578272 \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=국제뉴스 \|language\=ko}}
|
[
"Managerial career\n-----------------",
"### the early days of a leader",
"After retiring from Busan I'Park, he went through the process of obtaining a leadership certificate and was appointed as a coach in his alma mater Ajou University's soccer department since 2011\\.",
"After serving as a head coach under coach Ha Seok\\-joo, he was promoted to coach when Ha Seok\\-joo took over as manager of [Jeonnam Dragons](/wiki/Jeonnam_Dragons \"Jeonnam Dragons\") in August 2012, and began his coaching career early on. He has won numerous championship trophies for about three years at Ajou University and began to be recognized as a competent leader in the U\\-League.{{Cite web \\|title\\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \\|url\\=https://m.sports.naver.com/general/article/076/0002355898 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-27 \\|website\\=m.sports.naver.com}}",
"Ahead of the 2015 season, he changed seats with coach Ha Seok\\-joo. He joined the Jeonnam Dragons as a coach and made his debut as a professional leader.{{Cite web \\|title\\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \\|url\\=https://m.sports.naver.com/general/article/001/0007302454 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-27 \\|website\\=m.sports.naver.com}}",
"### the Nam Ki\\-il Division",
"With his appointment as a coach of Gwangju FC in 2016, he will serve as a major member of the division that will remain.",
"Along with coach Ma Chul\\-joon and goalkeeper coach Ki Woo\\-sung, he continued to assist coach Nam Ki\\-il through [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC \"Seongnam FC\") and [Jeju United FC](/wiki/Jeju_United_FC \"Jeju United FC\") and served as the right arm of coach [Nam Ki\\-il](/wiki/Nam_Ki-il \"Nam Ki-il\") as a senior coach.{{Cite web \\|title\\=뉴스 : 네이버스포츠 \\|url\\=https://m.sports.naver.com/kfootball/article/018/0003988301 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=m.sports.naver.com}}",
"After that, he moved to [Seongnam FC](/wiki/Seongnam_FC \"Seongnam FC\") with [Nam Ki\\-il](/wiki/Nam_Ki-il \"Nam Ki-il\"), leading Seongnam to promotion and stay in the top division, and in 2020, he moved back to [Jeju United](/wiki/Jeju_United \"Jeju United\"), manager Nam Ki\\-il's former club, to build leadership as a senior coach,{{Cite web \\|title\\='정조국 코치 합류' 제주의 남기일 사단 시즌2, 함께 달리고 끈끈함 더하다 \\|url\\=https://m.sports.naver.com/kfootball/article/396/0000569370 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=m.sports.naver.com}} including Jeju's promotion and fourth place in the league.",
"### Gwangju FC",
"On December 28, 2021, he officially took over as the 7th manager of [Gwangju FC](/wiki/Gwangju_FC \"Gwangju FC\"), which was relegated to the [K League 2](/wiki/K_League_2 \"K League 2\"), making his debut as a professional club manager, and returning to Gwangju after about five years.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-12\\-29 \\|title\\=\\[오피셜] 광주, 새 사령탑에 이정효 감독 선임…5년 만에 감독으로 컴백 {{!}} Goal.com 한국어 \\|url\\=https://www.goal.com/kr/%EB%89%B4%EC%8A%A4/a/bltd7748bb60f2ac904 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=www.goal.com \\|language\\=kr}}",
"### 2022 season in Gwangju FC",
"He made his managerial debut through the league's opening game against [Gimpo FC](/wiki/Gimpo_FC \"Gimpo FC\"), but unfortunately lost 1:2\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-19 \\|title\\=이정효 광주FC 감독 사령탑 데뷔전 쓴맛 \\|url\\=http://www.jndn.com/article.php?aid\\=1645255833331814105 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=jndn.com \\|language\\=ko}}",
"In a series of matches against [Daejeon Hana Citizen](/wiki/Daejeon_Hana_Citizen \"Daejeon Hana Citizen\"), he beat everyone's expectations and achieved his first win since his debut as a coach.{{Cite web \\|title\\=광주일보 \\|url\\=http://www.kwangju.co.kr/article.php?aid\\=1645962900734294008 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=www.kwangju.co.kr}} He was aggressive in this game, but he was aggressive and pushed Daejeon hard, blocking Daejeon's build\\-up and causing pass misses, interfering with the attack and stealing the ball. He showed strong pressure and prepared well for Daejeon, which plays a lot of soccer. It was a famous game that predicted Gwangju's victory.",
"In particular, with rookie [Jung Ho\\-yeon](/wiki/Jeong_Hyun-woo \"Jeong Hyun-woo\") as the first starter in the game, he blocked Lee Hyun\\-sik, Daejeon's playmaker, and blocked Daejeon's build\\-up. In addition, Jung Ho\\-yeon acted as a cleaner in the center of Gwangju, overwhelmed the center of Daejeon, raising the morale of the team and fans with determined plays and leading the game in an advantageous direction.",
"Since then, he has continued to rise, leading [Bucheon FC 1995](/wiki/Bucheon_FC_1995 \"Bucheon FC 1995\") and leading the league,{{Cite web \\|title\\=광주FC, 부천FC 꺾고 선두 탈환 성공 \\- 전남일보 \\|url\\=https://www.jnilbo.com/67455373736 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=www.jnilbo.com}} and in the third round of the FA Cup away match against [Incheon United](/wiki/Incheon_United \"Incheon United\") in the [K League 1](/wiki/K_League_1 \"K League 1\"), he has created a stir by winning 6\\-1 in a big victory.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-27 \\|title\\='광주 잇몸이 인천 복귀생 압도' 광주, 인천에 6대1 대승\\[FA컵 리뷰… \\|url\\=https://sports.chosun.com/football/2022\\-04\\-27/202204270100225220014718 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=스포츠조선 \\|language\\=ko}}",
"Based on Gwangju's upturn, he became the winner of the Paradise City Coach of the Month award in April. Since the main prize is awarded through integration of the first and second parts, it is quite difficult for the K League 2 coach to receive, but he made it through.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-02 \\|title\\=4월 ‘4승 1무’ 광주 이정효 감독, 4월 ‘파라다이스시티 이달의 감독’ \\|url\\=https://www.besteleven.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=208205 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=Best Eleven \\|language\\=ko}}",
"In the face\\-off against Gimpo FC at home on September 3, he made an aggressive replacement while being dragged 0:1, resulting in a crazy come\\-from\\-behind victory by scoring goals in the 90th and 94th minutes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=tf.co.kr \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-05 \\|title\\=K리그2 선두 광주FC, 추가시간 4분에 2골 '김포에 2\\-1' 극적인 역전승 \\|url\\=https://news.tf.co.kr/read/national/1963188\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=더팩트 \\|language\\=ko}} Now, regardless of the results of FC Anyang's fierce pursuit, if they achieve four wins, they can win the K League 2 title and win direct promotion on their own.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-07 \\|title\\=\\[프로축구 K리그2] ‘승격 매직넘버 4’ 광주, 추석 선물로 승리 안겨주나 \\|url\\=https://www.namdonews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=694605 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=남도일보 \\|language\\=ko}}",
"On Sept. 21, then\\-second\\-ranked Anyang lost to Daejeon at the FC Anyang vs. Daejeon Hana Citizen match. Thanks to the double\\-digit gap that it has accumulated, it has secured early victory in the K League 2 and promotion to the K League 1 regardless of the results of the remaining matches.{{Cite web \\|last\\=뉴시스 \\|date\\=2022\\-09\\-21 \\|title\\=광주FC, K리그2 우승 확정…강등 1년 만에 K리그1 승격(종합) \\|url\\=https://www.newsis.com/view/?id\\=NISX20220921\\_0002021853\\&cID\\=10503\\&pID\\=10500 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=뉴시스 \\|language\\=ko}}",
"Along with the 2022 season's coach award, he contributed greatly to the team winning nine gold medals.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-10\\-25 \\|title\\=광주FC, 2022 K리그 대상 시상식 '9관왕' 등극 \\|url\\=https://www.gukjenews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno\\=2578272 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=국제뉴스 \\|language\\=ko}}",
""
] |
Plot
----
The film begins in a bowling alley, where a group of friends are awaiting the arrival of Salim. Meanwhile, Deepak arrives with his fiancée Sheetal. When a conversation about love arises, Deepak and the rest find it necessary to make Sheetal aware that true love does exist. They tell her the story of Raj and Priya, two of their closest friends.
Raj Mathur, a graduate of engineering, is the owner of Raj Transport, a small trucking company he founded himself. Raj is a carefree man who is unorganized, messy, lazy, and never on time. Although he isn't the richest, he's always happy.
On the other hand, Priya Chopra is a successful fashion designer from a wealthy family. Originally from [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece"), she lives with her aunt Anna, who wants to give her the best in life. Priya has her life all planned out – the complete opposite of Raj. These two completely different people meet in a car accident when Priya crashes her car into Raj's truck. Though the two get off to a rocky start, they meet again at the wedding of Salim and Farah, eventually becoming friends. The two slowly fall in love.
Raj learns that Priya is engaged to a man named Sameer. Desperate, he follows Priya to Greece, where he continues to woo her. When it's time to part, Priya realizes that she is in love with Raj. They get married after persuading Priya's parents, and arrive in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai "Mumbai"), where Raj welcomes Priya into their home.
Back to the bowling alley in the present: Salim arrives along with Farah and announces that today was Raj and Priya's first wedding anniversary, so they were planning a surprise party. Excited, Sheetal can't wait to meet the famous Raj and Priya, but when they do arrive, they're nothing like what they seemed. The two can't stop arguing.
It is revealed that Raj feels the pressure to meet the expectations of Priya's family and is struggling financially. Priya cannot stand to see her husband in this state and secretly asks her former fiancé for money. When Raj learns of this truth, he gets really angry and accuses Priya of infidelity with Sameer, causing her to run away to her parents. Raj, realizing his error, goes after Priya, only to be insulted by her family.
Priya decides to leave for [Greece](/wiki/Greece "Greece") because she can't stay *with* Raj but can't stay *without* him. When Raj is informed of this, he races to the airport to stop Priya. He says he will change and that he has a dream of the two of them starting a family together. Although Priya expresses that she has the same dream, she feels it is impossible for them to be together, so she boards the plane. Giving up, Raj remembers his oath of never giving up on their love and sends his talisman as a reminder to Priya. When Priya receives the talisman, she too recalls Raj's confession. Raj sadly returns home to find Priya waiting for him. She says that the only way to make their dream come true is to be together. In a playful manner, the two get into another argument but they say that this is how they express their love. They continue to argue as the credits roll.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"The film begins in a bowling alley, where a group of friends are awaiting the arrival of Salim. Meanwhile, Deepak arrives with his fiancée Sheetal. When a conversation about love arises, Deepak and the rest find it necessary to make Sheetal aware that true love does exist. They tell her the story of Raj and Priya, two of their closest friends.",
"Raj Mathur, a graduate of engineering, is the owner of Raj Transport, a small trucking company he founded himself. Raj is a carefree man who is unorganized, messy, lazy, and never on time. Although he isn't the richest, he's always happy.",
"On the other hand, Priya Chopra is a successful fashion designer from a wealthy family. Originally from [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\"), she lives with her aunt Anna, who wants to give her the best in life. Priya has her life all planned out – the complete opposite of Raj. These two completely different people meet in a car accident when Priya crashes her car into Raj's truck. Though the two get off to a rocky start, they meet again at the wedding of Salim and Farah, eventually becoming friends. The two slowly fall in love.",
"Raj learns that Priya is engaged to a man named Sameer. Desperate, he follows Priya to Greece, where he continues to woo her. When it's time to part, Priya realizes that she is in love with Raj. They get married after persuading Priya's parents, and arrive in [Mumbai](/wiki/Mumbai \"Mumbai\"), where Raj welcomes Priya into their home.",
"Back to the bowling alley in the present: Salim arrives along with Farah and announces that today was Raj and Priya's first wedding anniversary, so they were planning a surprise party. Excited, Sheetal can't wait to meet the famous Raj and Priya, but when they do arrive, they're nothing like what they seemed. The two can't stop arguing.",
"It is revealed that Raj feels the pressure to meet the expectations of Priya's family and is struggling financially. Priya cannot stand to see her husband in this state and secretly asks her former fiancé for money. When Raj learns of this truth, he gets really angry and accuses Priya of infidelity with Sameer, causing her to run away to her parents. Raj, realizing his error, goes after Priya, only to be insulted by her family.",
"Priya decides to leave for [Greece](/wiki/Greece \"Greece\") because she can't stay *with* Raj but can't stay *without* him. When Raj is informed of this, he races to the airport to stop Priya. He says he will change and that he has a dream of the two of them starting a family together. Although Priya expresses that she has the same dream, she feels it is impossible for them to be together, so she boards the plane. Giving up, Raj remembers his oath of never giving up on their love and sends his talisman as a reminder to Priya. When Priya receives the talisman, she too recalls Raj's confession. Raj sadly returns home to find Priya waiting for him. She says that the only way to make their dream come true is to be together. In a playful manner, the two get into another argument but they say that this is how they express their love. They continue to argue as the credits roll.",
""
] |
Afghanistan War
---------------
On the night of 27 December, from [Kushka](/wiki/Serhetabat "Serhetabat"), the 5th GMRD entered Afghanistan bound for [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat") and [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat"). A battalion of the [56th Guards Air Assault Brigade](/wiki/56th_Guards_Air_Assault_Brigade "56th Guards Air Assault Brigade") had taken control of the Rabat Mirza pass on 26 December, between Kushkov and Herat.Source for this section is [Site Veteran 5 Zimovnikovskoy Guards Red Banner ordena Kutuzov II degree Cavalry Division Name the 60th anniversary of the USSR.](http://www.5d.webio.ru/content.php?id=4) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042122/http://5d.webio.ru/content.php?id\=4 \|date\=2011\-04\-30 }} On December 26 at 7:20 pm, the commander of the 5th GMRD, Major\-General [Yuri Shatalin](/wiki/Yuri_Shatalin "Yuri Shatalin"), gave orders to cross the Afghanistan border. The division was pulled out of the Kushka, Tahta\-Bazaar, and [Iolotan](/wiki/Iolotan "Iolotan"). At a set time one of the 5th GMRD units came out at the juncture near the towns: \- [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat"), [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat"), [Kandahar](/wiki/Kandahar "Kandahar"), the division headquarters was located under the [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat"). The first casualties amounted to 2 people. The division commander, and future Commander in Chief of the Russian [Internal Troops](/wiki/Internal_Troops_%28Russia%29 "Internal Troops (Russia)"), Colonel\-General Yuri Shatalin recalls:
> "It happened at dawn on December 27th. Surprised: 5:00 am, and the streets full of people with flowers. It turned out, meet the *[shuravi](/wiki/Shuravi "Shuravi")*, as we were called, the Soviet soldiers. A similar meeting was warm and in other towns and villages in the north of Afghanistan."
At the beginning of 1980, the 5th GMRD began to participate in raids against the Afghan [Mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen "Mujahideen"). During the period of the Afghan war, the division participated in 156 scheduled and unscheduled operations.
On 1 March 1980 the division was reorganized. The 373rd Guards Red Banner Order of Kutuzov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment, had formed part of the division on its arrival in the country. It had been stationed in [Adraskan](/wiki/Adraskan "Adraskan"). On 1 March 1980, the regiment was reorganized as the [70th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade](/wiki/70th_Separate_Guards_Motor_Rifle_Brigade "70th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade"), by reorganizing the staffing structure of departments and integrating the 2nd Battalion of the [56th Guards Air Assault Brigade](/wiki/56th_Guards_Air_Assault_Brigade "56th Guards Air Assault Brigade"). After the reorganization the brigade was relocated to the city of [Kandahar](/wiki/Kandahar "Kandahar").
From 1980 to 1982 the division was commanded by the future commander of the famous [40th Combined Arms Army](/wiki/40th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 "40th Army (Soviet Union)") General [Boris Gromov](/wiki/Boris_Gromov "Boris Gromov").
In March 1985 the 12th Guards Motorized Rifle Regiment arrived from Kaliningrad and joined the division.
On February 15, 1989, the last units of the 40th Combined Arms Army, along with Gromov, left Afghanistan to the west. Withdrawal was carried out by two methods: by air (5,142 people) and land (6,986 people). 10 colonies from 4 garrisons were withdrawn ([Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat"), [Adraskan](/wiki/Adraskan "Adraskan"), [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat"), [Turgundi](/wiki/Turgundi "Turgundi")).
During the [Afghan war](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War "Soviet–Afghan War"), four soldiers from the division were awarded the [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union "Hero of the Soviet Union"), and 12,825 in total were awarded orders and medals. From May 1988 the division, under the [Geneva conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Accords_%281988%29 "Geneva Accords (1988)"), prepared to withdraw from Afghanistan. The withdrawal of the 5th GMRD began as scheduled on 29 January 1989, and ended 15 February 1989\. The division was relocated permanently to the city of [Kushka](/wiki/Serhetabat "Serhetabat").
Total number of killed in the division from 27 December 1979 to 15 February 1989 was 1135 (910 of them in combat).
The division was absorbed into the [88th Motor Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Motor_Rifle_Division "88th Motor Rifle Division") in March 1989\.
### Organisation
[thumb\|right\|Invasion map](/wiki/File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png "SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png")
In Afghanistan war (1979–1989\),{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/event/Soviet\-invasion\-of\-Afghanistan\|title \= Soviet invasion of Afghanistan \| Summary \& Facts \| Britannica}} the 5th GMRD comprised
* Divisional Headquarters – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
+ Agitotryad.
+ Headquarters company.
+ Bakery.
+ 795th Station courier mail service.
+ 251st Battery Management and artillery reconnaissance.
+ 814th military fire brigade.
+ 582nd\-second bath and laundry item
+ Field establishment of the State Bank of the USSR
+ 164th Separate flame thrower Company(before March 1985 – 164th Separate Company of Chemical Protection).
* [101st Motor Rifle Regiment](/wiki/101st_Motor_Rifle_Regiment "101st Motor Rifle Regiment") – [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat")
* 371st Guards Berlin Orders of Suvorov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 12th Guards Red Banner Order of Kutuzov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment – [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat").
* 24th Guards Prague Orders of Suvorov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Tank Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 1060th Artillery regiment [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 1122nd Sevastopol Redflag Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 1377th Separate Antitank Artillery Battalion [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* *650th separate Prague Order of Alexander Nevsky reconnaissance battalion.* [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* *68th Guards separate engineering battalion.* pos. Adraskan.
* *388th separate battalion.* [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* *307th separate missile division.* [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat").
* 177th separate repair battalion of recovery [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 375th independent battalion of material support [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat "Shindand, Herat").
* 46th separate medical\-sanitary battalion [Herat](/wiki/Herat "Herat").
### After the withdrawal from Afghanistan
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, 'Zimovnikovskoy,' a unit of [Turkmenistan's Ministry of Defense](/wiki/Military_of_Turkmenistan "Military of Turkmenistan") was established with the honorary title of "Turkmenbashi Saparmurat Niyazov's" located in Kushka, based on the 5th GMRD.
|
[
"Afghanistan War\n---------------",
"On the night of 27 December, from [Kushka](/wiki/Serhetabat \"Serhetabat\"), the 5th GMRD entered Afghanistan bound for [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\") and [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\"). A battalion of the [56th Guards Air Assault Brigade](/wiki/56th_Guards_Air_Assault_Brigade \"56th Guards Air Assault Brigade\") had taken control of the Rabat Mirza pass on 26 December, between Kushkov and Herat.Source for this section is [Site Veteran 5 Zimovnikovskoy Guards Red Banner ordena Kutuzov II degree Cavalry Division Name the 60th anniversary of the USSR.](http://www.5d.webio.ru/content.php?id=4) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042122/http://5d.webio.ru/content.php?id\\=4 \\|date\\=2011\\-04\\-30 }} On December 26 at 7:20 pm, the commander of the 5th GMRD, Major\\-General [Yuri Shatalin](/wiki/Yuri_Shatalin \"Yuri Shatalin\"), gave orders to cross the Afghanistan border. The division was pulled out of the Kushka, Tahta\\-Bazaar, and [Iolotan](/wiki/Iolotan \"Iolotan\"). At a set time one of the 5th GMRD units came out at the juncture near the towns: \\- [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\"), [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\"), [Kandahar](/wiki/Kandahar \"Kandahar\"), the division headquarters was located under the [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\"). The first casualties amounted to 2 people. The division commander, and future Commander in Chief of the Russian [Internal Troops](/wiki/Internal_Troops_%28Russia%29 \"Internal Troops (Russia)\"), Colonel\\-General Yuri Shatalin recalls:",
"> \"It happened at dawn on December 27th. Surprised: 5:00 am, and the streets full of people with flowers. It turned out, meet the *[shuravi](/wiki/Shuravi \"Shuravi\")*, as we were called, the Soviet soldiers. A similar meeting was warm and in other towns and villages in the north of Afghanistan.\"",
"",
"At the beginning of 1980, the 5th GMRD began to participate in raids against the Afghan [Mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen \"Mujahideen\"). During the period of the Afghan war, the division participated in 156 scheduled and unscheduled operations.",
"On 1 March 1980 the division was reorganized. The 373rd Guards Red Banner Order of Kutuzov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment, had formed part of the division on its arrival in the country. It had been stationed in [Adraskan](/wiki/Adraskan \"Adraskan\"). On 1 March 1980, the regiment was reorganized as the [70th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade](/wiki/70th_Separate_Guards_Motor_Rifle_Brigade \"70th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade\"), by reorganizing the staffing structure of departments and integrating the 2nd Battalion of the [56th Guards Air Assault Brigade](/wiki/56th_Guards_Air_Assault_Brigade \"56th Guards Air Assault Brigade\"). After the reorganization the brigade was relocated to the city of [Kandahar](/wiki/Kandahar \"Kandahar\").",
"From 1980 to 1982 the division was commanded by the future commander of the famous [40th Combined Arms Army](/wiki/40th_Army_%28Soviet_Union%29 \"40th Army (Soviet Union)\") General [Boris Gromov](/wiki/Boris_Gromov \"Boris Gromov\").",
"In March 1985 the 12th Guards Motorized Rifle Regiment arrived from Kaliningrad and joined the division.",
"On February 15, 1989, the last units of the 40th Combined Arms Army, along with Gromov, left Afghanistan to the west. Withdrawal was carried out by two methods: by air (5,142 people) and land (6,986 people). 10 colonies from 4 garrisons were withdrawn ([Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\"), [Adraskan](/wiki/Adraskan \"Adraskan\"), [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\"), [Turgundi](/wiki/Turgundi \"Turgundi\")).",
"During the [Afghan war](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War \"Soviet–Afghan War\"), four soldiers from the division were awarded the [Hero of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Hero_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Hero of the Soviet Union\"), and 12,825 in total were awarded orders and medals. From May 1988 the division, under the [Geneva conventions](/wiki/Geneva_Accords_%281988%29 \"Geneva Accords (1988)\"), prepared to withdraw from Afghanistan. The withdrawal of the 5th GMRD began as scheduled on 29 January 1989, and ended 15 February 1989\\. The division was relocated permanently to the city of [Kushka](/wiki/Serhetabat \"Serhetabat\").",
"Total number of killed in the division from 27 December 1979 to 15 February 1989 was 1135 (910 of them in combat).",
"The division was absorbed into the [88th Motor Rifle Division](/wiki/88th_Motor_Rifle_Division \"88th Motor Rifle Division\") in March 1989\\.",
"### Organisation",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Invasion map](/wiki/File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png \"SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png\")\nIn Afghanistan war (1979–1989\\),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/event/Soviet\\-invasion\\-of\\-Afghanistan\\|title \\= Soviet invasion of Afghanistan \\| Summary \\& Facts \\| Britannica}} the 5th GMRD comprised\n* Divisional Headquarters – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n\t+ Agitotryad.\n\t+ Headquarters company.\n\t+ Bakery.\n\t+ 795th Station courier mail service.\n\t+ 251st Battery Management and artillery reconnaissance.\n\t+ 814th military fire brigade.\n\t+ 582nd\\-second bath and laundry item\n\t+ Field establishment of the State Bank of the USSR\n\t+ 164th Separate flame thrower Company(before March 1985 – 164th Separate Company of Chemical Protection).\n* [101st Motor Rifle Regiment](/wiki/101st_Motor_Rifle_Regiment \"101st Motor Rifle Regiment\") – [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\")\n* 371st Guards Berlin Orders of Suvorov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 12th Guards Red Banner Order of Kutuzov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Motor Rifle Regiment – [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\").\n* 24th Guards Prague Orders of Suvorov and Bogdan Khmelnitsky Tank Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 1060th Artillery regiment [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 1122nd Sevastopol Redflag Antiaircraft Artillery Regiment – [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 1377th Separate Antitank Artillery Battalion [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* *650th separate Prague Order of Alexander Nevsky reconnaissance battalion.* [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* *68th Guards separate engineering battalion.* pos. Adraskan.\n* *388th separate battalion.* [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* *307th separate missile division.* [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\").\n* 177th separate repair battalion of recovery [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 375th independent battalion of material support [Shindand](/wiki/Shindand%2C_Herat \"Shindand, Herat\").\n* 46th separate medical\\-sanitary battalion [Herat](/wiki/Herat \"Herat\").",
"### After the withdrawal from Afghanistan",
"After the collapse of the Soviet Union, 'Zimovnikovskoy,' a unit of [Turkmenistan's Ministry of Defense](/wiki/Military_of_Turkmenistan \"Military of Turkmenistan\") was established with the honorary title of \"Turkmenbashi Saparmurat Niyazov's\" located in Kushka, based on the 5th GMRD.",
""
] |
Federal politics
----------------
### Criticism of U.S. President George W. Bush
Never promoted from the parliamentary backbench, Parrish was largely unknown nationally until the eve of the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States "United States")\-led [Invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq "2003 invasion of Iraq") in 2003\. On her way out of a meeting on February 26, 2003, in a [media scrum](/wiki/Media_scrum "Media scrum") Parrish was overheard on a [boom mike](/wiki/Microphone "Microphone") saying, "Damn Americans, I hate those bastards!"{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/mp\-apologizes\-for\-calling\-americans\-bastards\-1\.361586\|title\=MP apologizes for calling Americans 'bastards'\|work\=\[\[CBC News]]\|date\=February 27, 2003\|access\-date\=December 25, 2011}} She later told the media that her comments were directed towards [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush "George W. Bush") and [his administration](/wiki/George_W._Bush%27s_first_term_as_President_of_the_United_States "George W. Bush's first term as President of the United States") and not the American people as a whole. Members of the opposition [Canadian Alliance](/wiki/Canadian_Alliance "Canadian Alliance") party called for her to be punished by then Liberal leader and [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada "Prime Minister of Canada") [Jean Chrétien](/wiki/Jean_Chr%C3%A9tien "Jean Chrétien"), but no disciplinary action occurred.
After the widespread media attention on her "[America\-bashing](/wiki/America-bashing "America-bashing")" incident, she remained popular in her home [riding](/wiki/Electoral_district_%28Canada%29 "Electoral district (Canada)"). After electoral [redistribution](/wiki/Redistricting "Redistricting") leading up to the [2004 election](/wiki/2004_Canadian_federal_election "2004 Canadian federal election"), she faced fellow Liberal [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28Canada%29 "Member of Parliament (Canada)") [Steve Mahoney](/wiki/Steve_Mahoney "Steve Mahoney") in a nomination battle and narrowly won.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cp24\.com/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20040308/parrish\_nomination\_20040307?hub\=CP24Sports80 \|title\=Parrish wins bitter Liberal nomination battle \|work\=CP24 \|date\=March 8, 2004 \|accessdate\=December 25, 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615024153/http://www.cp24\.com/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20040308/parrish\_nomination\_20040307?hub\=CP24Sports80 \|archivedate\=June 15, 2012 }} She was re\-elected with 54% of the vote in the general election, against 32% for her [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada "Conservative Party of Canada") opponent.
In August 2004, Parrish again created controversy by referring to those supporting the [North American missile defence](/wiki/National_Missile_Defense "National Missile Defense") proposal as "a coalition of the idiots," mocking the phrase "[coalition of the willing](/wiki/Coalition_of_the_willing "Coalition of the willing")" used by Bush describing the American\-led alliance in the invasion of Iraq. [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin "Paul Martin"), who had succeeded Chrétien as Prime Minister, asked her to use more tact and discretion when sharing her opinions about such subjects but stopped short of asking her to apologize. She responded by saying, "I was elected by thousands of people in my riding. They have known me for years. I think they like my style."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Canada/20040827/Parrish\_Insult\_040827/ \|title\=MP Parrish won't apologize for American barb \|work\=\[\[CTV News Channel (Canada)\|CTV.ca]] \|date\=August 27, 2004 \|accessdate\=December 25, 2011 }}{{dead link\|date\=July 2021\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}}
Following the [November U.S. election](/wiki/2004_U.S._presidential_election "2004 U.S. presidential election"), she expressed shock at the re\-election of George W. Bush. She said that "America is completely out of touch with the rest of the free world" and blamed this on collective "profound psychological damage" due to the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks "September 11, 2001 attacks").{{cite news\|url\=http://swo.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20041104/martin\_parrish\_041104?hub\=EdmontonHome\|title\=Outspoken Parrish doesn't seek approval\|work\=CTV News\|date\=November 4, 2004\|accessdate\=December 25, 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421104212/http://swo.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20041104/martin\_parrish\_041104?hub\=EdmontonHome\|archivedate\=April 21, 2012}} She was also quoted as saying, "I wouldn't guess what's next on his agenda, but it's probably not peace and love."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/parliament38/characters.html\|title\=A cast of characters\|work\=\[\[CBC News]]\|date\=April 13, 2006\|accessdate\=October 27, 2015}} When Conservative Party members called on her to apologize for these remarks she said that such comments "are in the best traditions of free speech and independence of thought." These comments came just hours after Paul Martin warned his MPs in a private [caucus](/wiki/Caucus "Caucus") meeting not to make incendiary comments in the wake of the U.S. election.{{cite news\|title\=Martin slams anti\-American rhetoric by Liberal MP, Parrish unapologetic\|work\=Canadian Press\|date\=November 4, 2004}} Parrish explained that she wasn't at the meeting, but that even if she had been, it wouldn't have stopped her from speaking her mind.
In October 2004, at the annual [Parliamentary Press Gallery](/wiki/Parliamentary_Press_Gallery_%28Canada%29 "Parliamentary Press Gallery (Canada)") dinner in Ottawa, Martin joked about meeting with Bush and discussing the possibility of a crewed mission to Mars. "I thought to myself, wouldn't it be great if we could get a Canadian on board? If a Canadian could be sent tens of millions of miles into the dark void of space. And as we all as a nation watch on television and together say aloud, \`Bon voyage, Carolyn Parrish!'"{{cite news\|title\=Wit and warmth highlight press gallery dinner\|url\=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1098644606236\_57/\|accessdate\=February 22, 2018\|work\=CTV News\|date\=October 24, 2004\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114050419/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1098644606236\_57/\|archivedate\=January 14, 2005\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=mdy\-all}}
### *This Hour Has 22 Minutes* incident and departure from caucus
On November 17, 2004, clips of a skit for the [CBC Television](/wiki/CBC_Television "CBC Television") comedy series *[This Hour Has 22 Minutes](/wiki/This_Hour_Has_22_Minutes "This Hour Has 22 Minutes")* were released, in which she stomped on a Bush doll and stuck a pin in its head, where she said "it would do the least damage." The full version was to air on November 19\. The sketch caused outrage from Conservative members and prompted Martin to ask for a meeting with her.{{Citation\|title\=22 Minutes at 22 Years: What Could Possibly Go Wrong?\| date\=December 9, 2014 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=UFRV3a5X\_m8 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/UFRV3a5X\_m8 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-21 \|url\-status\=live\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2021\-10\-25}}{{cbignore}}
On November 18, a [Canadian Press](/wiki/Canadian_Press "Canadian Press") story quoted her as saying Martin, and those around him, could "go to hell" if they wanted her to stop making similar comments. She went on to say that she had no loyalty towards the Liberal Party and that if it were defeated in the next election, she "would not shed a tear," as she had felt betrayed by Martin's lack of help for her during her nomination and election campaigns.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/parrish\-refuses\-to\-tone\-down\-criticism/article20436614/\|title\=Parrish refuses to tone down criticism\|work\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]]\|last\=Clark\|first\=Campbell\|date\=November 18, 2004\|accessdate\=October 27, 2015}} In response to these comments, Martin, with the support of National Liberal [Caucus chair](/wiki/Caucus_chair "Caucus chair") [Andy Savoy](/wiki/Andy_Savoy "Andy Savoy"), expelled her from caucus, saying, "I told her that, while I have defended her right to express her views frankly, I cannot, as leader of our party and the government caucus, tolerate behaviour that demeans and disrespects others."{{cite news \|last\=Dawson \|first\=Anne \|date\=November 19, 2004 \|title\=Martin kicks MP Parrish out of caucus \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-martin\-kicks\-mp\-parrish\-out/141117019/}} and {{cite news \|title\=Parrish \| Behaviour demeans others: Martin \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-parrish\-behaviour\-demeans/141117742/ \|work\=\[\[The Gazette (Montreal)\|Montreal Gazette]] \|agency\=\[\[Postmedia Network\|CanWest News Services]] \|location\=Ottawa, Ontario \|pages\=A1–A4 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2024}}
On November 19, Parrish spoke to the press about her expulsion from caucus. She said that had she been in Martin's place, she would have done the same. She went on to say, however, that the party under Martin had fallen into disarray and that Martin and his inner circle ran the party using [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") tactics. She said she would still vote with the Liberals on the vast majority of legislation, but would now be free to express her views without fear of reprisal.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ex\-liberal\-says\-she\-has\-no\-regrets\-over\-firing\-1\.485423\|title\=Ex\-Liberal says she has no regrets over firing\|work\=CBC News\|date\=November 19, 2004\|access\-date\=December 8, 2011}}
Though excluded from caucus, Parrish initially still sat as a Liberal in the House of Commons but became an independent on November 21 so that the [speaker](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_of_Canada "Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada") would give her time in member's statements and question period without the notice of the Liberal [whip](/wiki/Chief_Whip "Chief Whip").
On November 30, 2004, Parrish appeared on [CNN](/wiki/CNN "CNN") in an interview with [Wolf Blitzer](/wiki/Wolf_Blitzer "Wolf Blitzer") and [Tucker Carlson](/wiki/Tucker_Carlson "Tucker Carlson"), defending her position against Bush and her recent actions that led to ousting from the Liberal party. She also defended the overall Canadian stance regarding the Iraq War and the National Missile Defence program.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/parrish\-to\-carlson\-theres\-life\-after\-the\-axe/article18181312/\|title\=Parrish to Carlson: There's life after the axe\|work\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]]\|last\=Adams\|first\=James\|date\=January 8, 2005\|accessdate\=May 16, 2023}} Several days later Martin appeared on *[Late Edition](/wiki/Late_Edition_with_Wolf_Blitzer "Late Edition with Wolf Blitzer"),* with Blitzer hosting. Blitzer talked about several MPs attacking Bush and Martin replied that only Parrish had made attacks and that they had been condemned throughout Parliament.{{cite journal \|last\=Rythoven \|first\=Eric Van \|date\=October 2022 \|title\=Backstage Mockery: Impoliteness and Asymmetry on the World Stage \|url\=https://academic.oup.com/isagsq/article/2/4/ksac064/6779563 \|journal\=Global Studies Quarterly \|volume\=2 \|issue\=4 \|access\-date\=16 May 2023}}
### Independent MP and retirement from federal politics
Parrish announced in December 2004 that she would oppose the Martin government's proposed legislation to legally establish [same\-sex marriage in Canada](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Canada "Same-sex marriage in Canada"). A surprise to the Prime Minister, Parrish claimed that, although she personally supports same\-sex marriage, her constituents were generally opposed to it.{{cite news\|last1\=Gallant\|first1\=Paul\|title\=Same\-sex marriage: Harassing the squeamish\|url\=https://www.dailyxtra.com/same\-sex\-marriage\-harassing\-the\-squeamish\-23340\|accessdate\=February 22, 2018\|work\=Xtra\|date\=January 5, 2005\|quote\=Once one of the strongest Parliamentary supporters of lesbian and gay rights, Parrish's feud with Martin seems to have had an effect on her personal beliefs. Though she claims to support same\-sex marriage personally, she says her constituents oppose it and that she'll vote against the bill}}
On May 19, 2005, Paul Martin's Liberal government faced two [votes of confidence](/wiki/Vote_of_confidence "Vote of confidence") on its 2005\-06 budget legislation. In the days leading up to the vote, Parrish said that she would support the government despite her difficulties with Martin's administration. Her support was critical to the government's survival, given the even division in the house. On the morning of the vote, Parrish informed a media representative that she was suffering from severe pain due to a medical ailment. She attended the vote, which the government won by one vote.
In July 2005, Parrish chastised [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28Canada%29 "Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)") General [Rick Hillier](/wiki/Rick_Hillier "Rick Hillier") as being "dangerous" and a "testosterone\-filled general" after he made comments stating that a soldier's purpose was "to be able to kill people" such as terrorists whom he described as "murderers and scumbags."{{cite news\|last\=Taber\|first\=Jane\|title\=Parrish, Liberals may kiss and make up\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/parrish\-liberals\-may\-kiss\-and\-make\-up/article20424655/\|accessdate\=16 May 2023\|work\=The Mississauga News\|publisher\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]]\|date\=26 July 2005}}
Although Parrish indicated that she was considering returning to the Liberal Caucus and remains to date a card\-carrying member of the Liberal Party, an aide to the Prime Minister stated on July 29, 2005, that "he's not even entertaining the thought of welcoming Carolyn Parrish back to caucus." Parrish was the only one of four [Independent](/wiki/Independent_%28politician%29 "Independent (politician)") MPs in the House to vote with the government against the successful November 28, 2005 [motion of non\-confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_non-confidence "Motion of non-confidence") that brought down the Liberal government.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/former\-liberal\-mp\-parrish\-won\-t\-run\-again\-1\.558640\|title\=Former Liberal MP Parrish won't run again\|work\=\[\[CBC News]]\|date\=October 13, 2005\|accessdate\=May 16, 2023}}
On October 13, 2005, Parrish's spokeswoman announced that the MP had sent a letter to her constituents stating that she would not stand for re\-election. She publicly supported the Liberal candidate, [Omar Alghabra](/wiki/Omar_Alghabra "Omar Alghabra"), ahead of the [2006 election](/wiki/2006_Canadian_federal_election "2006 Canadian federal election").
|
[
"Federal politics\n----------------",
"### Criticism of U.S. President George W. Bush",
"Never promoted from the parliamentary backbench, Parrish was largely unknown nationally until the eve of the [U.S.](/wiki/United_States \"United States\")\\-led [Invasion of Iraq](/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq \"2003 invasion of Iraq\") in 2003\\. On her way out of a meeting on February 26, 2003, in a [media scrum](/wiki/Media_scrum \"Media scrum\") Parrish was overheard on a [boom mike](/wiki/Microphone \"Microphone\") saying, \"Damn Americans, I hate those bastards!\"{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/mp\\-apologizes\\-for\\-calling\\-americans\\-bastards\\-1\\.361586\\|title\\=MP apologizes for calling Americans 'bastards'\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]\\|date\\=February 27, 2003\\|access\\-date\\=December 25, 2011}} She later told the media that her comments were directed towards [George W. Bush](/wiki/George_W._Bush \"George W. Bush\") and [his administration](/wiki/George_W._Bush%27s_first_term_as_President_of_the_United_States \"George W. Bush's first term as President of the United States\") and not the American people as a whole. Members of the opposition [Canadian Alliance](/wiki/Canadian_Alliance \"Canadian Alliance\") party called for her to be punished by then Liberal leader and [Prime Minister](/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada \"Prime Minister of Canada\") [Jean Chrétien](/wiki/Jean_Chr%C3%A9tien \"Jean Chrétien\"), but no disciplinary action occurred.",
"After the widespread media attention on her \"[America\\-bashing](/wiki/America-bashing \"America-bashing\")\" incident, she remained popular in her home [riding](/wiki/Electoral_district_%28Canada%29 \"Electoral district (Canada)\"). After electoral [redistribution](/wiki/Redistricting \"Redistricting\") leading up to the [2004 election](/wiki/2004_Canadian_federal_election \"2004 Canadian federal election\"), she faced fellow Liberal [MP](/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_%28Canada%29 \"Member of Parliament (Canada)\") [Steve Mahoney](/wiki/Steve_Mahoney \"Steve Mahoney\") in a nomination battle and narrowly won.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cp24\\.com/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20040308/parrish\\_nomination\\_20040307?hub\\=CP24Sports80 \\|title\\=Parrish wins bitter Liberal nomination battle \\|work\\=CP24 \\|date\\=March 8, 2004 \\|accessdate\\=December 25, 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615024153/http://www.cp24\\.com/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20040308/parrish\\_nomination\\_20040307?hub\\=CP24Sports80 \\|archivedate\\=June 15, 2012 }} She was re\\-elected with 54% of the vote in the general election, against 32% for her [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_Canada \"Conservative Party of Canada\") opponent.",
"In August 2004, Parrish again created controversy by referring to those supporting the [North American missile defence](/wiki/National_Missile_Defense \"National Missile Defense\") proposal as \"a coalition of the idiots,\" mocking the phrase \"[coalition of the willing](/wiki/Coalition_of_the_willing \"Coalition of the willing\")\" used by Bush describing the American\\-led alliance in the invasion of Iraq. [Paul Martin](/wiki/Paul_Martin \"Paul Martin\"), who had succeeded Chrétien as Prime Minister, asked her to use more tact and discretion when sharing her opinions about such subjects but stopped short of asking her to apologize. She responded by saying, \"I was elected by thousands of people in my riding. They have known me for years. I think they like my style.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/Canada/20040827/Parrish\\_Insult\\_040827/ \\|title\\=MP Parrish won't apologize for American barb \\|work\\=\\[\\[CTV News Channel (Canada)\\|CTV.ca]] \\|date\\=August 27, 2004 \\|accessdate\\=December 25, 2011 }}{{dead link\\|date\\=July 2021\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}}",
"Following the [November U.S. election](/wiki/2004_U.S._presidential_election \"2004 U.S. presidential election\"), she expressed shock at the re\\-election of George W. Bush. She said that \"America is completely out of touch with the rest of the free world\" and blamed this on collective \"profound psychological damage\" due to the [September 11, 2001 attacks](/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks \"September 11, 2001 attacks\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://swo.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20041104/martin\\_parrish\\_041104?hub\\=EdmontonHome\\|title\\=Outspoken Parrish doesn't seek approval\\|work\\=CTV News\\|date\\=November 4, 2004\\|accessdate\\=December 25, 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421104212/http://swo.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20041104/martin\\_parrish\\_041104?hub\\=EdmontonHome\\|archivedate\\=April 21, 2012}} She was also quoted as saying, \"I wouldn't guess what's next on his agenda, but it's probably not peace and love.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/parliament38/characters.html\\|title\\=A cast of characters\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]\\|date\\=April 13, 2006\\|accessdate\\=October 27, 2015}} When Conservative Party members called on her to apologize for these remarks she said that such comments \"are in the best traditions of free speech and independence of thought.\" These comments came just hours after Paul Martin warned his MPs in a private [caucus](/wiki/Caucus \"Caucus\") meeting not to make incendiary comments in the wake of the U.S. election.{{cite news\\|title\\=Martin slams anti\\-American rhetoric by Liberal MP, Parrish unapologetic\\|work\\=Canadian Press\\|date\\=November 4, 2004}} Parrish explained that she wasn't at the meeting, but that even if she had been, it wouldn't have stopped her from speaking her mind.",
"In October 2004, at the annual [Parliamentary Press Gallery](/wiki/Parliamentary_Press_Gallery_%28Canada%29 \"Parliamentary Press Gallery (Canada)\") dinner in Ottawa, Martin joked about meeting with Bush and discussing the possibility of a crewed mission to Mars. \"I thought to myself, wouldn't it be great if we could get a Canadian on board? If a Canadian could be sent tens of millions of miles into the dark void of space. And as we all as a nation watch on television and together say aloud, \\`Bon voyage, Carolyn Parrish!'\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Wit and warmth highlight press gallery dinner\\|url\\=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1098644606236\\_57/\\|accessdate\\=February 22, 2018\\|work\\=CTV News\\|date\\=October 24, 2004\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050114050419/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1098644606236\\_57/\\|archivedate\\=January 14, 2005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=mdy\\-all}}",
"### *This Hour Has 22 Minutes* incident and departure from caucus",
"On November 17, 2004, clips of a skit for the [CBC Television](/wiki/CBC_Television \"CBC Television\") comedy series *[This Hour Has 22 Minutes](/wiki/This_Hour_Has_22_Minutes \"This Hour Has 22 Minutes\")* were released, in which she stomped on a Bush doll and stuck a pin in its head, where she said \"it would do the least damage.\" The full version was to air on November 19\\. The sketch caused outrage from Conservative members and prompted Martin to ask for a meeting with her.{{Citation\\|title\\=22 Minutes at 22 Years: What Could Possibly Go Wrong?\\| date\\=December 9, 2014 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=UFRV3a5X\\_m8 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/UFRV3a5X\\_m8 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-10\\-25}}{{cbignore}}",
"On November 18, a [Canadian Press](/wiki/Canadian_Press \"Canadian Press\") story quoted her as saying Martin, and those around him, could \"go to hell\" if they wanted her to stop making similar comments. She went on to say that she had no loyalty towards the Liberal Party and that if it were defeated in the next election, she \"would not shed a tear,\" as she had felt betrayed by Martin's lack of help for her during her nomination and election campaigns.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/parrish\\-refuses\\-to\\-tone\\-down\\-criticism/article20436614/\\|title\\=Parrish refuses to tone down criticism\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]]\\|last\\=Clark\\|first\\=Campbell\\|date\\=November 18, 2004\\|accessdate\\=October 27, 2015}} In response to these comments, Martin, with the support of National Liberal [Caucus chair](/wiki/Caucus_chair \"Caucus chair\") [Andy Savoy](/wiki/Andy_Savoy \"Andy Savoy\"), expelled her from caucus, saying, \"I told her that, while I have defended her right to express her views frankly, I cannot, as leader of our party and the government caucus, tolerate behaviour that demeans and disrespects others.\"{{cite news \\|last\\=Dawson \\|first\\=Anne \\|date\\=November 19, 2004 \\|title\\=Martin kicks MP Parrish out of caucus \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-martin\\-kicks\\-mp\\-parrish\\-out/141117019/}} and {{cite news \\|title\\=Parrish \\| Behaviour demeans others: Martin \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-parrish\\-behaviour\\-demeans/141117742/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Gazette (Montreal)\\|Montreal Gazette]] \\|agency\\=\\[\\[Postmedia Network\\|CanWest News Services]] \\|location\\=Ottawa, Ontario \\|pages\\=A1–A4 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2024}}",
"On November 19, Parrish spoke to the press about her expulsion from caucus. She said that had she been in Martin's place, she would have done the same. She went on to say, however, that the party under Martin had fallen into disarray and that Martin and his inner circle ran the party using [guerrilla warfare](/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare \"Guerrilla warfare\") tactics. She said she would still vote with the Liberals on the vast majority of legislation, but would now be free to express her views without fear of reprisal.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ex\\-liberal\\-says\\-she\\-has\\-no\\-regrets\\-over\\-firing\\-1\\.485423\\|title\\=Ex\\-Liberal says she has no regrets over firing\\|work\\=CBC News\\|date\\=November 19, 2004\\|access\\-date\\=December 8, 2011}}",
"Though excluded from caucus, Parrish initially still sat as a Liberal in the House of Commons but became an independent on November 21 so that the [speaker](/wiki/Speaker_of_the_House_of_Commons_of_Canada \"Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada\") would give her time in member's statements and question period without the notice of the Liberal [whip](/wiki/Chief_Whip \"Chief Whip\").",
"On November 30, 2004, Parrish appeared on [CNN](/wiki/CNN \"CNN\") in an interview with [Wolf Blitzer](/wiki/Wolf_Blitzer \"Wolf Blitzer\") and [Tucker Carlson](/wiki/Tucker_Carlson \"Tucker Carlson\"), defending her position against Bush and her recent actions that led to ousting from the Liberal party. She also defended the overall Canadian stance regarding the Iraq War and the National Missile Defence program.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/parrish\\-to\\-carlson\\-theres\\-life\\-after\\-the\\-axe/article18181312/\\|title\\=Parrish to Carlson: There's life after the axe\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]]\\|last\\=Adams\\|first\\=James\\|date\\=January 8, 2005\\|accessdate\\=May 16, 2023}} Several days later Martin appeared on *[Late Edition](/wiki/Late_Edition_with_Wolf_Blitzer \"Late Edition with Wolf Blitzer\"),* with Blitzer hosting. Blitzer talked about several MPs attacking Bush and Martin replied that only Parrish had made attacks and that they had been condemned throughout Parliament.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Rythoven \\|first\\=Eric Van \\|date\\=October 2022 \\|title\\=Backstage Mockery: Impoliteness and Asymmetry on the World Stage \\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/isagsq/article/2/4/ksac064/6779563 \\|journal\\=Global Studies Quarterly \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=4 \\|access\\-date\\=16 May 2023}}",
"### Independent MP and retirement from federal politics",
"Parrish announced in December 2004 that she would oppose the Martin government's proposed legislation to legally establish [same\\-sex marriage in Canada](/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_Canada \"Same-sex marriage in Canada\"). A surprise to the Prime Minister, Parrish claimed that, although she personally supports same\\-sex marriage, her constituents were generally opposed to it.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Gallant\\|first1\\=Paul\\|title\\=Same\\-sex marriage: Harassing the squeamish\\|url\\=https://www.dailyxtra.com/same\\-sex\\-marriage\\-harassing\\-the\\-squeamish\\-23340\\|accessdate\\=February 22, 2018\\|work\\=Xtra\\|date\\=January 5, 2005\\|quote\\=Once one of the strongest Parliamentary supporters of lesbian and gay rights, Parrish's feud with Martin seems to have had an effect on her personal beliefs. Though she claims to support same\\-sex marriage personally, she says her constituents oppose it and that she'll vote against the bill}}",
"On May 19, 2005, Paul Martin's Liberal government faced two [votes of confidence](/wiki/Vote_of_confidence \"Vote of confidence\") on its 2005\\-06 budget legislation. In the days leading up to the vote, Parrish said that she would support the government despite her difficulties with Martin's administration. Her support was critical to the government's survival, given the even division in the house. On the morning of the vote, Parrish informed a media representative that she was suffering from severe pain due to a medical ailment. She attended the vote, which the government won by one vote.",
"In July 2005, Parrish chastised [Chief of Defence Staff](/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_%28Canada%29 \"Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)\") General [Rick Hillier](/wiki/Rick_Hillier \"Rick Hillier\") as being \"dangerous\" and a \"testosterone\\-filled general\" after he made comments stating that a soldier's purpose was \"to be able to kill people\" such as terrorists whom he described as \"murderers and scumbags.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Taber\\|first\\=Jane\\|title\\=Parrish, Liberals may kiss and make up\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/parrish\\-liberals\\-may\\-kiss\\-and\\-make\\-up/article20424655/\\|accessdate\\=16 May 2023\\|work\\=The Mississauga News\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]]\\|date\\=26 July 2005}}",
"Although Parrish indicated that she was considering returning to the Liberal Caucus and remains to date a card\\-carrying member of the Liberal Party, an aide to the Prime Minister stated on July 29, 2005, that \"he's not even entertaining the thought of welcoming Carolyn Parrish back to caucus.\" Parrish was the only one of four [Independent](/wiki/Independent_%28politician%29 \"Independent (politician)\") MPs in the House to vote with the government against the successful November 28, 2005 [motion of non\\-confidence](/wiki/Motion_of_non-confidence \"Motion of non-confidence\") that brought down the Liberal government.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/former\\-liberal\\-mp\\-parrish\\-won\\-t\\-run\\-again\\-1\\.558640\\|title\\=Former Liberal MP Parrish won't run again\\|work\\=\\[\\[CBC News]]\\|date\\=October 13, 2005\\|accessdate\\=May 16, 2023}}",
"On October 13, 2005, Parrish's spokeswoman announced that the MP had sent a letter to her constituents stating that she would not stand for re\\-election. She publicly supported the Liberal candidate, [Omar Alghabra](/wiki/Omar_Alghabra \"Omar Alghabra\"), ahead of the [2006 election](/wiki/2006_Canadian_federal_election \"2006 Canadian federal election\").",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|High school in Bluefield, 1910](/wiki/File:American_school_building_standards_%281910%29_%2814747411096%29.jpg "American school building standards (1910) (14747411096).jpg")
The European\-American history of Bluefield began in the 18th century, when the Davidson and Bailey families settled in a rugged and remote part of what is now southern West Virginia.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wvencyclopedia.org/articles/562 \|title\=Bluefield \|author\=McGee, C. Stewart \|publisher\= e\-WV: The West Virginia Encyclopedia \|date\=February 10, 2023 \|access\-date\=April 15, 2023 }} Others joined them, and they built a small village with a mill, a church, a one\-room schoolhouse, and a fort for defending the settlement against invasions by the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee "Shawnee") tribe, which had a village on the banks of the [Bluestone River](/wiki/Bluestone_River "Bluestone River").
In 1882, the descendants of the Davidson and Bailey families sold a portion of their land, when Captain John Fields of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway "Norfolk and Western Railway") pioneered the area and began building a new railroad through the hills of Bluefield. The city is traditionally thought to be named after the [chicory](/wiki/Chicory "Chicory") flowers in the area, which give the fields a purplish blue hue during the summer. Research has shown that this settlement, also known as Higginbotham's Summit in the 1880s, was probably named for the coal fields that were developed in the area of the Bluestone River.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}}
### Coal rush
Beneath the land of the Davidsons and Baileys lay the largest and richest deposit of [bituminous coal](/wiki/Bituminous_coal "Bituminous coal") in the world. The first seam was discovered in nearby [Pocahontas, Virginia](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia "Pocahontas, Virginia") in the backyard of Jordan Nelson. President [Frederick Kimball](/wiki/Frederick_J._Kimball "Frederick J. Kimball") of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway "Norfolk and Western Railway") described this as the "most spectacular find on the continent and indeed perhaps of the entire planet."{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}} The coal seam had been mentioned much earlier in [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson")'s *[Notes on the State of Virginia](/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia "Notes on the State of Virginia")*, but it was not mined until 1882\.{{Cite book \|last\=Lambie \|first\=Joseph T. \|title\=From Mine to Markets: The History of Coal Transportation on the Norfolk and Western Railway \|publisher\=New York University Press \|year\=1954 \|location\=New York, New York \|page\=33 \|asin\=B0007EEEVK}} Around that time, coal mines were developed in the area around [Harman](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia "Bluefield, Virginia"), Bluefield, [War](/wiki/War%2C_West_Virginia "War, West Virginia"), and [Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia "Pocahontas, Virginia"), which together were known as the Pocahontas Coal Fields. They helped support the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") in the United States. The development of the coal industry in this area created a boom in the local and national economy and attracted immigrant European workers and migrant [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") from the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") to the mountains in search of industrial work.
In the late 19th century, the Norfolk and Western Railway Company selected Bluefield as the site for a repair center and a major division point, which greatly stimulated the town's growth. In the one\-year period from 1887 to 1888, passenger travel along the railroad increased 317%. As with the extremely accelerated growth of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") during the [gold rush](/wiki/Gold_rush "Gold rush"), Bluefield became a city that seemed to spring up "overnight." Growth far outpaced the existing infrastructure. [Urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl "Urban sprawl") and [blight](/wiki/Urban_decay "Urban decay") were common complaints in the early days, as workers crowded into aging housing.
The growth and decay of the city depended almost entirely upon Norfolk and Western Railroad. A bustling metropolis, it had a nightlife and a personality that was "a little bit Chicago, a little bit New York, and a whole lot of Pittsburgh"{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}}—rugged and with steel and coal embedded in its soul.
The coal boom generated a flood of money in the area. Nearby [Bramwell](/wiki/Bramwell%2C_West_Virginia "Bramwell, West Virginia"), incorporated in 1888, boasted that it was the "Millionaires' Town" because more millionaires per capita lived there than anywhere in the nation. The city also had more automobiles per capita than any other city in the country. In 1889, the city of Bluefield was officially incorporated.
Bluefield headquartered the [Baldwin\-Felts Detective Agency](/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency "Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency") who initially worked train crimes but became famous strike breakers and were prominent figures in the [Coal Wars](/wiki/Coal_Wars "Coal Wars"), including the [Battle of Matewan](/wiki/Battle_of_Matewan "Battle of Matewan").
With a strong [Black](/wiki/Black_Americans "Black Americans") community, Bluefield was the site of the 1895 founding of the Bluefield Colored Institute, an [historically black college](/wiki/Historically_black_college "Historically black college").{{cite web \|title\=Heritage \|url\=https://bluefieldstate.edu/community/heritage \|website\=Bluefield State College \|access\-date\=5 January 2021}} It developed as today's [Bluefield State University](/wiki/Bluefield_State_University "Bluefield State University"). Demographics began to shift with the hiring of its first white President, Dr. Hardway, and his closing of dormitories after the 1968 bombing.{{cite web \| url\=https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/this\-school\-is\-the\-whitest\-hbcu\-in\-america/ \| title\=This School is the Whitest HBCU in America \| date\=April 18, 2016 }} It is known as "The Whitest Historically Black College in America".{{cite news \|title\=The Whitest Historically Black College In America \|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/10/18/236345546/the\-whitest\-historically\-black\-college\-in\-america \|newspaper\=NPR.org \|access\-date\=5 January 2021}}
### 20th century
[thumb\|left\|The [Upper Oakhurst Historic District](/wiki/Upper_Oakhurst_Historic_District "Upper Oakhurst Historic District") was primarily developed during the 1920s](/wiki/File:Edgewood_near_Mountain_View%2C_Bluefield.jpg "Edgewood near Mountain View, Bluefield.jpg")
During the 1920s, the twelve\-story West Virginian Hotel was built. It has been adapted and in the 21st century is operated as the West Virginia Manor and Retirement Home. In 1924, nearby Graham, Virginia decided to rename itself as [Bluefield](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia "Bluefield, Virginia") to try to unite the two towns, which had been feuding since the civil war. Nobel Prize\-winning economist and mathematician [John Forbes Nash](/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash "John Forbes Nash") was born in Bluefield in 1928\. George Marshall Palmer, the well\-renowned Purdue University professor of aeronautics and director of the AerospaceSciences Laboratory at Purdue, lead of the invention of the Boeing wind tunnel and a pioneer in the aerodynamic and structural testing of skyscrapers{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.legacy.com/obituaries/jconline/obituary.aspx?pid\=191945140\|title \= George Marshall Palmer Obituary (1921 \- 2019\) Journal \& Courier\|website \= \[\[Legacy.com]]}} was born in Bluefield in 1921\.
The [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") was particularly damaging to Bluefield. With the government nearly bankrupt, after a series of devastating structural fires swept through the downtown area, the city was nearly destroyed. It was not until the outbreak of World War II that coal production revived. The strategic importance of the city was so great that [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") put Bluefield on his reputed list of German air raid targets in the United States. Air raid practice drills were common in the city during this time.
In 1964 Helen Compton opened the now demolished Shamrock Bar, the oldest gay bar in WV.[http://clgbthistory.org/wp\-content/uploads/2010/11/NestlePrize2011\_Milam\_GayWestVirginia.pdf](http://clgbthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NestlePrize2011_Milam_GayWestVirginia.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=August 2024}}
The [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System "Interstate Highway System") was constructed through [East River Mountain](/wiki/East_River_Mountain_Tunnel "East River Mountain Tunnel") on December 20, 1974; for the first time automobile traffic could reach the city without crossing the top of the mountain. The dependence on the railroads waned and restructuring changed the industry. Bluefield lost jobs and population as a result. Its [Amtrak](/wiki/Amtrak "Amtrak") station closed in the 1980s. [Mercer Mall](/wiki/Mercer_Mall "Mercer Mall"), the area's major shopping mall, opened in 1980\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|High school in Bluefield, 1910](/wiki/File:American_school_building_standards_%281910%29_%2814747411096%29.jpg \"American school building standards (1910) (14747411096).jpg\")\nThe European\\-American history of Bluefield began in the 18th century, when the Davidson and Bailey families settled in a rugged and remote part of what is now southern West Virginia.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wvencyclopedia.org/articles/562 \\|title\\=Bluefield \\|author\\=McGee, C. Stewart \\|publisher\\= e\\-WV: The West Virginia Encyclopedia \\|date\\=February 10, 2023 \\|access\\-date\\=April 15, 2023 }} Others joined them, and they built a small village with a mill, a church, a one\\-room schoolhouse, and a fort for defending the settlement against invasions by the [Shawnee](/wiki/Shawnee \"Shawnee\") tribe, which had a village on the banks of the [Bluestone River](/wiki/Bluestone_River \"Bluestone River\").",
"In 1882, the descendants of the Davidson and Bailey families sold a portion of their land, when Captain John Fields of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway \"Norfolk and Western Railway\") pioneered the area and began building a new railroad through the hills of Bluefield. The city is traditionally thought to be named after the [chicory](/wiki/Chicory \"Chicory\") flowers in the area, which give the fields a purplish blue hue during the summer. Research has shown that this settlement, also known as Higginbotham's Summit in the 1880s, was probably named for the coal fields that were developed in the area of the Bluestone River.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}}",
"### Coal rush",
"Beneath the land of the Davidsons and Baileys lay the largest and richest deposit of [bituminous coal](/wiki/Bituminous_coal \"Bituminous coal\") in the world. The first seam was discovered in nearby [Pocahontas, Virginia](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia \"Pocahontas, Virginia\") in the backyard of Jordan Nelson. President [Frederick Kimball](/wiki/Frederick_J._Kimball \"Frederick J. Kimball\") of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway \"Norfolk and Western Railway\") described this as the \"most spectacular find on the continent and indeed perhaps of the entire planet.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}} The coal seam had been mentioned much earlier in [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\")'s *[Notes on the State of Virginia](/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia \"Notes on the State of Virginia\")*, but it was not mined until 1882\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lambie \\|first\\=Joseph T. \\|title\\=From Mine to Markets: The History of Coal Transportation on the Norfolk and Western Railway \\|publisher\\=New York University Press \\|year\\=1954 \\|location\\=New York, New York \\|page\\=33 \\|asin\\=B0007EEEVK}} Around that time, coal mines were developed in the area around [Harman](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia \"Bluefield, Virginia\"), Bluefield, [War](/wiki/War%2C_West_Virginia \"War, West Virginia\"), and [Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia \"Pocahontas, Virginia\"), which together were known as the Pocahontas Coal Fields. They helped support the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") in the United States. The development of the coal industry in this area created a boom in the local and national economy and attracted immigrant European workers and migrant [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") from the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") to the mountains in search of industrial work.",
"In the late 19th century, the Norfolk and Western Railway Company selected Bluefield as the site for a repair center and a major division point, which greatly stimulated the town's growth. In the one\\-year period from 1887 to 1888, passenger travel along the railroad increased 317%. As with the extremely accelerated growth of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") during the [gold rush](/wiki/Gold_rush \"Gold rush\"), Bluefield became a city that seemed to spring up \"overnight.\" Growth far outpaced the existing infrastructure. [Urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl \"Urban sprawl\") and [blight](/wiki/Urban_decay \"Urban decay\") were common complaints in the early days, as workers crowded into aging housing.",
"The growth and decay of the city depended almost entirely upon Norfolk and Western Railroad. A bustling metropolis, it had a nightlife and a personality that was \"a little bit Chicago, a little bit New York, and a whole lot of Pittsburgh\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}}—rugged and with steel and coal embedded in its soul.",
"The coal boom generated a flood of money in the area. Nearby [Bramwell](/wiki/Bramwell%2C_West_Virginia \"Bramwell, West Virginia\"), incorporated in 1888, boasted that it was the \"Millionaires' Town\" because more millionaires per capita lived there than anywhere in the nation. The city also had more automobiles per capita than any other city in the country. In 1889, the city of Bluefield was officially incorporated.",
"Bluefield headquartered the [Baldwin\\-Felts Detective Agency](/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency \"Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency\") who initially worked train crimes but became famous strike breakers and were prominent figures in the [Coal Wars](/wiki/Coal_Wars \"Coal Wars\"), including the [Battle of Matewan](/wiki/Battle_of_Matewan \"Battle of Matewan\").",
"With a strong [Black](/wiki/Black_Americans \"Black Americans\") community, Bluefield was the site of the 1895 founding of the Bluefield Colored Institute, an [historically black college](/wiki/Historically_black_college \"Historically black college\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Heritage \\|url\\=https://bluefieldstate.edu/community/heritage \\|website\\=Bluefield State College \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021}} It developed as today's [Bluefield State University](/wiki/Bluefield_State_University \"Bluefield State University\"). Demographics began to shift with the hiring of its first white President, Dr. Hardway, and his closing of dormitories after the 1968 bombing.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/this\\-school\\-is\\-the\\-whitest\\-hbcu\\-in\\-america/ \\| title\\=This School is the Whitest HBCU in America \\| date\\=April 18, 2016 }} It is known as \"The Whitest Historically Black College in America\".{{cite news \\|title\\=The Whitest Historically Black College In America \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/10/18/236345546/the\\-whitest\\-historically\\-black\\-college\\-in\\-america \\|newspaper\\=NPR.org \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021}}",
"### 20th century",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The [Upper Oakhurst Historic District](/wiki/Upper_Oakhurst_Historic_District \"Upper Oakhurst Historic District\") was primarily developed during the 1920s](/wiki/File:Edgewood_near_Mountain_View%2C_Bluefield.jpg \"Edgewood near Mountain View, Bluefield.jpg\")\nDuring the 1920s, the twelve\\-story West Virginian Hotel was built. It has been adapted and in the 21st century is operated as the West Virginia Manor and Retirement Home. In 1924, nearby Graham, Virginia decided to rename itself as [Bluefield](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia \"Bluefield, Virginia\") to try to unite the two towns, which had been feuding since the civil war. Nobel Prize\\-winning economist and mathematician [John Forbes Nash](/wiki/John_Forbes_Nash \"John Forbes Nash\") was born in Bluefield in 1928\\. George Marshall Palmer, the well\\-renowned Purdue University professor of aeronautics and director of the AerospaceSciences Laboratory at Purdue, lead of the invention of the Boeing wind tunnel and a pioneer in the aerodynamic and structural testing of skyscrapers{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.legacy.com/obituaries/jconline/obituary.aspx?pid\\=191945140\\|title \\= George Marshall Palmer Obituary (1921 \\- 2019\\) Journal \\& Courier\\|website \\= \\[\\[Legacy.com]]}} was born in Bluefield in 1921\\.",
"The [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") was particularly damaging to Bluefield. With the government nearly bankrupt, after a series of devastating structural fires swept through the downtown area, the city was nearly destroyed. It was not until the outbreak of World War II that coal production revived. The strategic importance of the city was so great that [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") put Bluefield on his reputed list of German air raid targets in the United States. Air raid practice drills were common in the city during this time.",
"In 1964 Helen Compton opened the now demolished Shamrock Bar, the oldest gay bar in WV.[http://clgbthistory.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2010/11/NestlePrize2011\\_Milam\\_GayWestVirginia.pdf](http://clgbthistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/NestlePrize2011_Milam_GayWestVirginia.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=August 2024}}",
"The [Interstate Highway System](/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System \"Interstate Highway System\") was constructed through [East River Mountain](/wiki/East_River_Mountain_Tunnel \"East River Mountain Tunnel\") on December 20, 1974; for the first time automobile traffic could reach the city without crossing the top of the mountain. The dependence on the railroads waned and restructuring changed the industry. Bluefield lost jobs and population as a result. Its [Amtrak](/wiki/Amtrak \"Amtrak\") station closed in the 1980s. [Mercer Mall](/wiki/Mercer_Mall \"Mercer Mall\"), the area's major shopping mall, opened in 1980\\.",
""
] |
### Coal rush
Beneath the land of the Davidsons and Baileys lay the largest and richest deposit of [bituminous coal](/wiki/Bituminous_coal "Bituminous coal") in the world. The first seam was discovered in nearby [Pocahontas, Virginia](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia "Pocahontas, Virginia") in the backyard of Jordan Nelson. President [Frederick Kimball](/wiki/Frederick_J._Kimball "Frederick J. Kimball") of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway "Norfolk and Western Railway") described this as the "most spectacular find on the continent and indeed perhaps of the entire planet."{{citation needed\|date\=March 2018}} The coal seam had been mentioned much earlier in [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson")'s *[Notes on the State of Virginia](/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia "Notes on the State of Virginia")*, but it was not mined until 1882\.{{Cite book \|last\=Lambie \|first\=Joseph T. \|title\=From Mine to Markets: The History of Coal Transportation on the Norfolk and Western Railway \|publisher\=New York University Press \|year\=1954 \|location\=New York, New York \|page\=33 \|asin\=B0007EEEVK}} Around that time, coal mines were developed in the area around [Harman](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia "Bluefield, Virginia"), Bluefield, [War](/wiki/War%2C_West_Virginia "War, West Virginia"), and [Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia "Pocahontas, Virginia"), which together were known as the Pocahontas Coal Fields. They helped support the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") in the United States. The development of the coal industry in this area created a boom in the local and national economy and attracted immigrant European workers and migrant [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") from the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South "Deep South") to the mountains in search of industrial work.
In the late 19th century, the Norfolk and Western Railway Company selected Bluefield as the site for a repair center and a major division point, which greatly stimulated the town's growth. In the one\-year period from 1887 to 1888, passenger travel along the railroad increased 317%. As with the extremely accelerated growth of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") during the [gold rush](/wiki/Gold_rush "Gold rush"), Bluefield became a city that seemed to spring up "overnight." Growth far outpaced the existing infrastructure. [Urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl "Urban sprawl") and [blight](/wiki/Urban_decay "Urban decay") were common complaints in the early days, as workers crowded into aging housing.
The growth and decay of the city depended almost entirely upon Norfolk and Western Railroad. A bustling metropolis, it had a nightlife and a personality that was "a little bit Chicago, a little bit New York, and a whole lot of Pittsburgh"{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2011}}—rugged and with steel and coal embedded in its soul.
The coal boom generated a flood of money in the area. Nearby [Bramwell](/wiki/Bramwell%2C_West_Virginia "Bramwell, West Virginia"), incorporated in 1888, boasted that it was the "Millionaires' Town" because more millionaires per capita lived there than anywhere in the nation. The city also had more automobiles per capita than any other city in the country. In 1889, the city of Bluefield was officially incorporated.
Bluefield headquartered the [Baldwin\-Felts Detective Agency](/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency "Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency") who initially worked train crimes but became famous strike breakers and were prominent figures in the [Coal Wars](/wiki/Coal_Wars "Coal Wars"), including the [Battle of Matewan](/wiki/Battle_of_Matewan "Battle of Matewan").
With a strong [Black](/wiki/Black_Americans "Black Americans") community, Bluefield was the site of the 1895 founding of the Bluefield Colored Institute, an [historically black college](/wiki/Historically_black_college "Historically black college").{{cite web \|title\=Heritage \|url\=https://bluefieldstate.edu/community/heritage \|website\=Bluefield State College \|access\-date\=5 January 2021}} It developed as today's [Bluefield State University](/wiki/Bluefield_State_University "Bluefield State University"). Demographics began to shift with the hiring of its first white President, Dr. Hardway, and his closing of dormitories after the 1968 bombing.{{cite web \| url\=https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/this\-school\-is\-the\-whitest\-hbcu\-in\-america/ \| title\=This School is the Whitest HBCU in America \| date\=April 18, 2016 }} It is known as "The Whitest Historically Black College in America".{{cite news \|title\=The Whitest Historically Black College In America \|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/10/18/236345546/the\-whitest\-historically\-black\-college\-in\-america \|newspaper\=NPR.org \|access\-date\=5 January 2021}}
|
[
"### Coal rush",
"Beneath the land of the Davidsons and Baileys lay the largest and richest deposit of [bituminous coal](/wiki/Bituminous_coal \"Bituminous coal\") in the world. The first seam was discovered in nearby [Pocahontas, Virginia](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia \"Pocahontas, Virginia\") in the backyard of Jordan Nelson. President [Frederick Kimball](/wiki/Frederick_J._Kimball \"Frederick J. Kimball\") of the [Norfolk and Western Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_and_Western_Railway \"Norfolk and Western Railway\") described this as the \"most spectacular find on the continent and indeed perhaps of the entire planet.\"{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2018}} The coal seam had been mentioned much earlier in [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\")'s *[Notes on the State of Virginia](/wiki/Notes_on_the_State_of_Virginia \"Notes on the State of Virginia\")*, but it was not mined until 1882\\.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Lambie \\|first\\=Joseph T. \\|title\\=From Mine to Markets: The History of Coal Transportation on the Norfolk and Western Railway \\|publisher\\=New York University Press \\|year\\=1954 \\|location\\=New York, New York \\|page\\=33 \\|asin\\=B0007EEEVK}} Around that time, coal mines were developed in the area around [Harman](/wiki/Bluefield%2C_Virginia \"Bluefield, Virginia\"), Bluefield, [War](/wiki/War%2C_West_Virginia \"War, West Virginia\"), and [Pocahontas](/wiki/Pocahontas%2C_Virginia \"Pocahontas, Virginia\"), which together were known as the Pocahontas Coal Fields. They helped support the [Industrial Revolution](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") in the United States. The development of the coal industry in this area created a boom in the local and national economy and attracted immigrant European workers and migrant [African Americans](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") from the [Deep South](/wiki/Deep_South \"Deep South\") to the mountains in search of industrial work.",
"In the late 19th century, the Norfolk and Western Railway Company selected Bluefield as the site for a repair center and a major division point, which greatly stimulated the town's growth. In the one\\-year period from 1887 to 1888, passenger travel along the railroad increased 317%. As with the extremely accelerated growth of [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") during the [gold rush](/wiki/Gold_rush \"Gold rush\"), Bluefield became a city that seemed to spring up \"overnight.\" Growth far outpaced the existing infrastructure. [Urban sprawl](/wiki/Urban_sprawl \"Urban sprawl\") and [blight](/wiki/Urban_decay \"Urban decay\") were common complaints in the early days, as workers crowded into aging housing.",
"The growth and decay of the city depended almost entirely upon Norfolk and Western Railroad. A bustling metropolis, it had a nightlife and a personality that was \"a little bit Chicago, a little bit New York, and a whole lot of Pittsburgh\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2011}}—rugged and with steel and coal embedded in its soul.",
"The coal boom generated a flood of money in the area. Nearby [Bramwell](/wiki/Bramwell%2C_West_Virginia \"Bramwell, West Virginia\"), incorporated in 1888, boasted that it was the \"Millionaires' Town\" because more millionaires per capita lived there than anywhere in the nation. The city also had more automobiles per capita than any other city in the country. In 1889, the city of Bluefield was officially incorporated.",
"Bluefield headquartered the [Baldwin\\-Felts Detective Agency](/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Felts_Detective_Agency \"Baldwin–Felts Detective Agency\") who initially worked train crimes but became famous strike breakers and were prominent figures in the [Coal Wars](/wiki/Coal_Wars \"Coal Wars\"), including the [Battle of Matewan](/wiki/Battle_of_Matewan \"Battle of Matewan\").",
"With a strong [Black](/wiki/Black_Americans \"Black Americans\") community, Bluefield was the site of the 1895 founding of the Bluefield Colored Institute, an [historically black college](/wiki/Historically_black_college \"Historically black college\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Heritage \\|url\\=https://bluefieldstate.edu/community/heritage \\|website\\=Bluefield State College \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021}} It developed as today's [Bluefield State University](/wiki/Bluefield_State_University \"Bluefield State University\"). Demographics began to shift with the hiring of its first white President, Dr. Hardway, and his closing of dormitories after the 1968 bombing.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://jacksonvillefreepress.com/this\\-school\\-is\\-the\\-whitest\\-hbcu\\-in\\-america/ \\| title\\=This School is the Whitest HBCU in America \\| date\\=April 18, 2016 }} It is known as \"The Whitest Historically Black College in America\".{{cite news \\|title\\=The Whitest Historically Black College In America \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2013/10/18/236345546/the\\-whitest\\-historically\\-black\\-college\\-in\\-america \\|newspaper\\=NPR.org \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2021}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1890\= 1775
\|1900\= 4644
\|1910\= 11188
\|1920\= 15282
\|1930\= 19339
\|1940\= 20641
\|1950\= 21506
\|1960\= 19256
\|1970\= 15921
\|1980\= 16060
\|1990\= 12756
\|2000\= 11451
\|2010\= 10447
\|2020\= 9658
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=August 27, 2013\|df\=mdy\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2013\-01\-24}} of 2010, there were 10,447 people, 4,643 households, and 2,772 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1179\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 5,457 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|615\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 73\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 23\.0% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.9% of the population.
There were 4,643 households, of which 26\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 16\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40\.3% were non\-families. 35\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.21 and the average family size was 2\.83\.
The median age in the city was 43\.1 years. 20\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 19\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\.8% male and 53\.2% female.
### 2000 census
As of the census{{cite web \|url\=https://www.census.gov \|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]] \|access\-date\=2008\-01\-31 \|title\=U.S. Census website \|df\=mdy }} of 2000, there were 11,451 people, 5,038 households, and 3,078 families living in the city. The population density was 1,311\.3 people per square mile (506\.4/km{{sup\|2}}). There were 5,966 housing units at an average density of 683\.2 per square mile (263\.9/km{{sup\|2}}). The racial makeup of the city was 75\.84% White, 22\.14% African American, 0\.12% Native American, 0\.56% Asian, 0\.01% Pacific Islander, 0\.21% from other races, and 1\.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\.52% of the population.
There were 5,038 households, out of which 24\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.5% were married couples living together, 13\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\.9% were non\-families. 34\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17\.5% had someone living alone who was 55 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.23 and the average family size was 2\.87\.
The age distribution was 21\.9% under the age of 18, 9\.0% from 18 to 24, 23\.5% from 25 to 44, 24\.5% from 45 to 64, and 21\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 84\.4 males.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 1775\n\\|1900\\= 4644\n\\|1910\\= 11188\n\\|1920\\= 15282\n\\|1930\\= 19339\n\\|1940\\= 20641\n\\|1950\\= 21506\n\\|1960\\= 19256\n\\|1970\\= 15921\n\\|1980\\= 16060\n\\|1990\\= 12756\n\\|2000\\= 11451\n\\|2010\\= 10447\n\\|2020\\= 9658\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=August 27, 2013\\|df\\=mdy\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-24}} of 2010, there were 10,447 people, 4,643 households, and 2,772 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1179\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 5,457 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|615\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 73\\.7% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 23\\.0% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.9% of the population.",
"There were 4,643 households, of which 26\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 16\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4\\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40\\.3% were non\\-families. 35\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.21 and the average family size was 2\\.83\\.",
"The median age in the city was 43\\.1 years. 20\\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 9\\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\\.6% were from 45 to 64; and 19\\.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\\.8% male and 53\\.2% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the census{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]] \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-31 \\|title\\=U.S. Census website \\|df\\=mdy }} of 2000, there were 11,451 people, 5,038 households, and 3,078 families living in the city. The population density was 1,311\\.3 people per square mile (506\\.4/km{{sup\\|2}}). There were 5,966 housing units at an average density of 683\\.2 per square mile (263\\.9/km{{sup\\|2}}). The racial makeup of the city was 75\\.84% White, 22\\.14% African American, 0\\.12% Native American, 0\\.56% Asian, 0\\.01% Pacific Islander, 0\\.21% from other races, and 1\\.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0\\.52% of the population.",
"There were 5,038 households, out of which 24\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.5% were married couples living together, 13\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38\\.9% were non\\-families. 34\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17\\.5% had someone living alone who was 55 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.23 and the average family size was 2\\.87\\.",
"The age distribution was 21\\.9% under the age of 18, 9\\.0% from 18 to 24, 23\\.5% from 25 to 44, 24\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 21\\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 84\\.4 males.",
""
] |
History
-------
The large settlement of Hatfield was well established by the time of the [Norman Conquest](/wiki/Norman_Conquest "Norman Conquest"), and the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book "Domesday Book") lists the presence of a Saxon church. At one time a royal manor of [Harold I](/wiki/Harold_I_of_England "Harold I of England"), it fell into the possession of [William I](/wiki/William_I_of_England "William I of England") at the Norman Conquest. Popular for hunting in the neighbouring forest, the royal estate came to be known as Hatfield Regis (Latin for the king's Hatfield)."The Monastery of Hatfield Regis", Rev. Alan Jones. Displayed in Hatfield Broad Oak church
The Benedictine monastery itself was founded in or before 1139, one of the five religious communities of that order to be founded in Essex. The priory was a daughter house of the [Breton](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany") monastery of *Notre\-Dame\-en\-Saint\-Melaine de Rennes* in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes "Rennes"), and was dedicated to "God, [St Mary](/wiki/St_Mary "St Mary"), and St. Melanius Redonensis". It was thus considered an "[alien priory](/wiki/Alien_priory "Alien priory")" as it was subordinate to a monastery outside England.Frederic J. Longrais, "Les moines de l'abbaye Saint Melaine en Angleterre. Les chartes du prieuré d'Hatfield Régis," Recueil de travaux offert à M. Clovis Brunel, v. 2, (Paris, 1955\).
In around 1230 a fire destroyed part of the priory church, for whose repairs [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England "Henry III of England") granted ten oaks each from the forests of Hatfield and Wristle.
[John Lydgate](/wiki/John_Lydgate "John Lydgate"), the poet, was elected prior in 1423 but resigned the office a few years later to concentrate on his travels and writing.The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6th Ed., Edited by Margaret Drabble, Oxford University Press, 2000 p. 616
### Disputes
A dispute over tithes from the royal manor of Hatfield granted to the [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") [canons](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 "Canon (priest)") of St. Botolph, [Colchester](/wiki/Colchester "Colchester"), by King [Henry I](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England "Henry I of England") continued for decades. A compromise was established by two clerical commissioners appointed by the pope in 1194, but the issue was not entirely resolved for several more years.{{cite web\|title\='Houses of Austin canons: Priory of St Botolph, Colchester'\|publisher\=A History of the County of Essex: Volume 2, pp. 148\-50\.\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid\=39844\&strquery\=hatfield%20regis%20priory\|year\=1907}}
Another dispute arose over the appointment of the prior. Patronage of the priory always belonged to the de Veres, earls of Oxford. The de Vere earls of Oxford and the abbot of St. Melanie both claimed the right, resulting in a series of unpleasant episodes in 1235\. The matter was appealed to Rome, and in 1236 Pope Gregory IX ordered commissioners to hear the matter. A final settlement was reached eighteen years later. On the death of the prior, the Hatfield monks were to ask permission of the earl of Oxford to hold an election. The new prior would be presented to the earl, who would request his confirmation by the bishop of London. The prior was to notify the abbot and convent of Rennes of the death of his predecessor and of his own election and confirmation.Historical Manuscripts Commission Report, viii, 632\. This is an example of an assertion of practical independence by an English cell of a foreign monastery.
The conventual church was built, or rebuilt, in the first part of the fourteenth century. The priory reached its peak in the first half of the fourteenth century with its great church, 230 feet in length, dominating the local countryside. Roger de Wautham, canon of St. Paul's, London, donated precious vessels for the use of the abbey and of the parish church."Houses of Benedictine monks: Priory of Hatfield Regis or Broadoak.[*A History of the County of Essex* Volume 2\. (Eds. William Page, and J Horace Round). London: Victoria County History, 1907\. 107\-110\. British History Online. Web. 5 September 2022](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/essex/vol2/pp107-110)
### Dissolution
The priory was dissolved in 1536 by [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England "Henry VIII of England")'s [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries "Dissolution of the Monasteries"). At the time only the prior and four monks lived there, though had thirty servants to attend to their needs. The tithes and patronage were initially granted to [Barking Abbey](/wiki/Barking_Abbey "Barking Abbey") but after Barking was dissolved they were given to Trinity College, Cambridge, by Henry VIII in 1546\.{{cite book\|url\=http://www.british\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\=63851\|title\=Victoria County History, Essex: Volume 8\|year\=1983}} The tomb effigy of [Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford](/wiki/Robert_de_Vere%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Oxford "Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford") was reportedly moved from the priory chapel to the parish church at Hatfield.
Some parts of the priory church remain as part of St Mary's parish church. The remaining buildings were dismantled and no trace remains of them above ground where they stood in the field to the north of the church.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The large settlement of Hatfield was well established by the time of the [Norman Conquest](/wiki/Norman_Conquest \"Norman Conquest\"), and the [Domesday Book](/wiki/Domesday_Book \"Domesday Book\") lists the presence of a Saxon church. At one time a royal manor of [Harold I](/wiki/Harold_I_of_England \"Harold I of England\"), it fell into the possession of [William I](/wiki/William_I_of_England \"William I of England\") at the Norman Conquest. Popular for hunting in the neighbouring forest, the royal estate came to be known as Hatfield Regis (Latin for the king's Hatfield).\"The Monastery of Hatfield Regis\", Rev. Alan Jones. Displayed in Hatfield Broad Oak church",
"The Benedictine monastery itself was founded in or before 1139, one of the five religious communities of that order to be founded in Essex. The priory was a daughter house of the [Breton](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\") monastery of *Notre\\-Dame\\-en\\-Saint\\-Melaine de Rennes* in [Rennes](/wiki/Rennes \"Rennes\"), and was dedicated to \"God, [St Mary](/wiki/St_Mary \"St Mary\"), and St. Melanius Redonensis\". It was thus considered an \"[alien priory](/wiki/Alien_priory \"Alien priory\")\" as it was subordinate to a monastery outside England.Frederic J. Longrais, \"Les moines de l'abbaye Saint Melaine en Angleterre. Les chartes du prieuré d'Hatfield Régis,\" Recueil de travaux offert à M. Clovis Brunel, v. 2, (Paris, 1955\\).",
"In around 1230 a fire destroyed part of the priory church, for whose repairs [Henry III](/wiki/Henry_III_of_England \"Henry III of England\") granted ten oaks each from the forests of Hatfield and Wristle.",
"[John Lydgate](/wiki/John_Lydgate \"John Lydgate\"), the poet, was elected prior in 1423 but resigned the office a few years later to concentrate on his travels and writing.The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6th Ed., Edited by Margaret Drabble, Oxford University Press, 2000 p. 616",
"### Disputes",
"A dispute over tithes from the royal manor of Hatfield granted to the [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") [canons](/wiki/Canon_%28priest%29 \"Canon (priest)\") of St. Botolph, [Colchester](/wiki/Colchester \"Colchester\"), by King [Henry I](/wiki/Henry_I_of_England \"Henry I of England\") continued for decades. A compromise was established by two clerical commissioners appointed by the pope in 1194, but the issue was not entirely resolved for several more years.{{cite web\\|title\\='Houses of Austin canons: Priory of St Botolph, Colchester'\\|publisher\\=A History of the County of Essex: Volume 2, pp. 148\\-50\\.\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid\\=39844\\&strquery\\=hatfield%20regis%20priory\\|year\\=1907}}",
"Another dispute arose over the appointment of the prior. Patronage of the priory always belonged to the de Veres, earls of Oxford. The de Vere earls of Oxford and the abbot of St. Melanie both claimed the right, resulting in a series of unpleasant episodes in 1235\\. The matter was appealed to Rome, and in 1236 Pope Gregory IX ordered commissioners to hear the matter. A final settlement was reached eighteen years later. On the death of the prior, the Hatfield monks were to ask permission of the earl of Oxford to hold an election. The new prior would be presented to the earl, who would request his confirmation by the bishop of London. The prior was to notify the abbot and convent of Rennes of the death of his predecessor and of his own election and confirmation.Historical Manuscripts Commission Report, viii, 632\\. This is an example of an assertion of practical independence by an English cell of a foreign monastery.",
"The conventual church was built, or rebuilt, in the first part of the fourteenth century. The priory reached its peak in the first half of the fourteenth century with its great church, 230 feet in length, dominating the local countryside. Roger de Wautham, canon of St. Paul's, London, donated precious vessels for the use of the abbey and of the parish church.\"Houses of Benedictine monks: Priory of Hatfield Regis or Broadoak.[*A History of the County of Essex* Volume 2\\. (Eds. William Page, and J Horace Round). London: Victoria County History, 1907\\. 107\\-110\\. British History Online. Web. 5 September 2022](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/essex/vol2/pp107-110)",
"### Dissolution",
"The priory was dissolved in 1536 by [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England \"Henry VIII of England\")'s [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\"). At the time only the prior and four monks lived there, though had thirty servants to attend to their needs. The tithes and patronage were initially granted to [Barking Abbey](/wiki/Barking_Abbey \"Barking Abbey\") but after Barking was dissolved they were given to Trinity College, Cambridge, by Henry VIII in 1546\\.{{cite book\\|url\\=http://www.british\\-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid\\=63851\\|title\\=Victoria County History, Essex: Volume 8\\|year\\=1983}} The tomb effigy of [Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford](/wiki/Robert_de_Vere%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Oxford \"Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford\") was reportedly moved from the priory chapel to the parish church at Hatfield.",
"Some parts of the priory church remain as part of St Mary's parish church. The remaining buildings were dismantled and no trace remains of them above ground where they stood in the field to the north of the church.",
""
] |
Life and times
--------------
### Background
[thumb\|One of the [Xanten Horse\-Phalerae](/wiki/Xanten_Horse-Phalerae "Xanten Horse-Phalerae") located in the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum"), measuring {{convert\|10\.5\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web\|title\=Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder\|publisher\=The British Museum: Highlights\|url\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\_objects/gr/m/military\_horse\_trapping.aspx\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083856/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\_objects/gr/m/military\_horse\_trapping.aspx\|archive\-date\=3 December 2013}} It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: *PLINIO PRAEF EQ*; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.](/wiki/File:Plinio_praefecto.jpg "Plinio praefecto.jpg")
Pliny's dates are pinned to the [eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD "Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD") and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth {{nowrap\|in AD 23 or 24\.}}
Pliny was the son of an [equestrian](/wiki/Equites "Equites") Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription ([CIL V 1 3442](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum")) found in a field in [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona") and recorded by the 16th\-century [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") friar [Onofrio Panvinio](/wiki/Onofrio_Panvinio "Onofrio Panvinio"). The form is an [elegy](/wiki/Elegy "Elegy"). The most commonly accepted reconstruction is
{{quote\|PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO}}
{{quote\|Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father \[Ce]ler and his mother \[Grania] Marcella}}
The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,{{cite book \|author\= Gaius Plinius Secundus \|author2\= Jean Harduin (commentator) \|others\= C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors) \|language\= la, fr \|title\= Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII \|series\= Bibliotheca Classica Latina \|volume\=1 \|chapter\= Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria \|year\=1827 \|pages\=XLIX\-L \|location\= Paris \|publisher\= Didot \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zWw9AAAAcAAJ}} but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an [augur](/wiki/Augur "Augur") and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the *Titii Pomponii* on his mother's side, and a connection with the *Caecilii* (*Celer* was a *cognomen* used by that *[Gens](/wiki/Gens "Gens")*) on his father's side: {{cite book\|first1\=Manuel Arnao \|last1\=Metello\|author2\=João Carlos Metello de Nápoles\|title\=Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas\|publisher\=Edição Nova Arrancada\|location\=Lisboa\|date\=1998\|isbn\= 978\-972\-8369\-18\-7\|language\=pt}} [Jean Hardouin](/wiki/Jean_Hardouin "Jean Hardouin") presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.{{cite book \|pages\=281–282 \|language\= fr \|title\= Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers \|edition\= ''ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans'' \|first\= Eugène \|last\= Allain \|publisher\= A. Fontemoing \|year\=1902 \|volume\=3}} Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus "Catullus").
[thumb\|City and Lake of [Como](/wiki/Como "Como"), painted by [Jean\-Baptiste\-Camille Corot](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot "Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot"), 1834](/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg "Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - Como and Lake Como.jpg")
How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from [Pliny the Younger](/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger "Pliny the Younger")'s [estate at Colle Plinio](/wiki/Roman_Villa_of_Pliny_%22in_Tuscis%22 "Roman Villa of Pliny "), north of [Città di Castello](/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello "Città di Castello"), identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at [Como](/wiki/Como "Como"), not at Verona: it is only as a native of old *[Gallia Transpadana](/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul "Cisalpine Gaul")* that he calls [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus "Catullus") of Verona his *conterraneus*, or fellow\-countryman, not his *municeps*, or fellow\-townsman.{{SmithDGRBM\|author\=Charles Peter Mason\|article\=C. Plinius Secundus\|volume\=3\|page\=414}}{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=I, Dedication\|quote\=if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow\-countryman}} A statue of Pliny on the façade of the [Como Cathedral](/wiki/Como_Cathedral "Como Cathedral") celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail.
In one of his letters to Tacitus (*avunculus meus*), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (*levis et facilis*) following the customs of our forefathers (*veterum more interdiu*). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.
Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One ([CIL V 5262](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum")) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667\) identifies his father Lucius' village as present\-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of [Cantù](/wiki/Cant%C3%B9 "Cantù"), near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.{{cite book\|chapter\=Appendix A: Inscriptions\|title\=The letters of the younger Pliny\|author\=Pliny the Younger\|translator\-first\=Betty\|translator\-last\=Radice\|edition\=6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated\|publisher\=Penguin Classics\|year\=1969\|isbn\=978\-0\-14\-044127\-7\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lettersofyounger00plin}}
Gaius was a member of the [Plinia](/wiki/Plinia_gens "Plinia gens") *[gens](/wiki/Gens "Gens"):* the [Insubric](/wiki/Insubres "Insubres") root *Plina* still persists, with [rhotacism](/wiki/Rhotacism_%28sound_change%29 "Rhotacism (sound change)"), in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's [cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen "Cognomen"), Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own numerous estates around [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known.
In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar") founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a {{lang\|la\|\[\[Colonia (Roman)\|colonia]]}} to secure the region against the [Alpine tribes](/wiki/Rhaetian_people "Rhaetian people"), whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in [Comasco](/wiki/Comasco "Comasco") and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.{{cite book\|title\=Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar\|first\=Ernest George\|last\=Hardy\|publisher\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd\|year\=2007\|isbn\= 978\-1\-58477\-753\-3\|chapter\=V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC\|pages\=126–149}} The community was thus multi\-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or [Julius Pokorny](/wiki/Julius_Pokorny "Julius Pokorny")'s derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald"{{cite web\|first\=Julius\|last\=Pokorny\|title\=Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch\|language\=de\|pages\=834\|publisher\=University of Leiden\|url\=http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\.html\|archive\-date\=27 September 2006}} is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens.
Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic,{{who?\|date\=April 2021}} who assert that it applied to the name change{{clarify\|date\=August 2024\|post\-text\=what name change?}} only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.{{cite book\|author\=Pliny the Younger\|author2\=Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors)\|title\=Selected Letters\|page\=1\|publisher\=Clarendon Press\|location\=Oxford\|year\=1896}} For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno "Miseno") with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of [Mount Vesuvius](/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius "Mount Vesuvius"), and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance.
### Student and lawyer
Pliny's father took him to Rome to be educated in lawmaking. Pliny relates that he saw [Marcus Servilius Nonianus](/wiki/Servilius_Nonianus "Servilius Nonianus").
### Junior officer
In AD 46, at about age 23, Pliny entered the army as a junior officer, as was the custom for young men of equestrian rank. [Ronald Syme](/wiki/Ronald_Syme "Ronald Syme"), Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.Beagon (2005\) pg.3\.Syme (1969\), pg. 207\.
Pliny's interest in Roman literature attracted the attention and friendship of other men of letters in the higher ranks, with whom he formed lasting friendships. Later, these friendships assisted his entry into the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for his knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as a *praefectus cohortis*, a "commander of a [cohort](/wiki/Cohort_%28military_unit%29 "Cohort (military unit)")" (an infantry cohort, as junior officers began in the infantry), under [Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo](/wiki/Gnaeus_Domitius_Corbulo "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo"), himself a writer (whose works did not survive) in [Germania Inferior](/wiki/Germania_Inferior "Germania Inferior"). In AD 47, he took part in the Roman conquest of the [Chauci](/wiki/Chauci "Chauci") and the construction of the canal between the rivers [Maas](/wiki/Meuse "Meuse") and [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine"). His description of the Roman ships anchored in the stream overnight having to ward off floating trees has the stamp of an eyewitness account.{{cite book \|title\=Natural History \|chapter\=XVI.2 \|quote\=Many is the time that these trees have struck our fleets with alarm, when the waves have driven them, almost purposely it would seem, against their prows as they stood at anchor in the night; and the men, destitute of all remedy and resource, have had to engage in naval combat with a forest of trees!}}
[thumb\|left\|Map of [Castra Vetera](/wiki/Castra_Vetera "Castra Vetera"), a large permanent base (*castra stativa*) of Germania Inferior, where Pliny spent the last of his 10\-year term as a cavalry commander: The proximity of a naval base there means that he trained also in ships, as the Romans customarily trained all soldiers in all arms whenever possible. The location is on the lower [Rhine River](/wiki/Rhine_River "Rhine River").](/wiki/File:Castra-vetera.jpg "Castra-vetera.jpg")
At some uncertain date, Pliny was transferred to the command of [Germania Superior](/wiki/Germania_Superior "Germania Superior") under [Publius Pomponius Secundus](/wiki/Publius_Pomponius_Secundus "Publius Pomponius Secundus") with a promotion to [military tribune](/wiki/Military_tribune "Military tribune"), which was a staff position, with duties assigned by the district commander. Pomponius was a half\-brother of Corbulo.{{cite book \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi\_0/page/290 290] \|title\=Tiberius the politician \|first\=Barbara \|last\=Levick \|edition\=2, revised, illustrated \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-21753\-8 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi\_0/page/290 }} They had the same mother, [Vistilia](/wiki/Vistilia "Vistilia"), a powerful matron of the Roman upper classes, who had seven children by six husbands, some of whom had imperial connections, including a future empress. Pliny's assignments are not clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the [Chatti](/wiki/Chatti "Chatti") of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of service. Associated with the commander in the *[praetorium](/wiki/Praetorium "Praetorium")*, he became a familiar and close friend of Pomponius, who also was a man of letters.
At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo had moved on, assuming command in the east. This time, Pliny was promoted to *praefectus alae*, "commander of a wing", responsible for a cavalry battalion of about 480 men.{{cite book \|author\=Pliny the Younger \|title\=Letters \|chapter\=III.5 To Baebius Macer \|date\=26 September 2022 \|url\=http://www.bartleby.com/9/4/1027\.html}} He spent the rest of his military service there. A decorative *[phalera](/wiki/Phalera_%28military_decoration%29 "Phalera (military decoration)")*, or piece of harness, with his name on it has been found at *[Castra Vetera](/wiki/Xanten "Xanten")*, modern Xanten, then a large Roman army and naval base on the lower Rhine. Pliny's last commander there, apparently neither a man of letters nor a close friend of his, was [Pompeius Paullinus](/wiki/Pompeius_Paullinus "Pompeius Paullinus"), [governor of Germania Inferior](/wiki/List_of_Roman_governors_of_Germania_Inferior "List of Roman governors of Germania Inferior") AD 55–58\.Griffin (1992\), pg. 438\. Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus to have carried around 12,000 pounds of silver service on which to dine in a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not have endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=XXXIII.50\|quote\=to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus... had with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve thousand pounds!}}
According to his nephew, during this period, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more spare time was available), a work on the use of [missiles](/wiki/Projectile "Projectile") on horseback, *De Jaculatione Equestri* ("On the Use of the Dart by Cavalry"). It has not survived, but in *Natural History*, he seems to reveal at least part of its content, using the movements of the horse to assist the [javelin](/wiki/Javelin "Javelin")\-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.{{cite book \|title\=Natural History \|chapter\=VIII.65 \|quote\=Those who have to use the javelin are well aware how the horse, by its exertions and the supple movements of its body, aids the rider in any difficulty he may have in throwing his weapon.}} During this period, he also dreamed that the spirit of [Drusus Nero](/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus "Nero Claudius Drusus") begged him to save his memory from oblivion. The dream prompted Pliny to begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans and the Germans, which he did not complete for some years.
[thumb\|upright\|Colossal head of [Titus](/wiki/Titus "Titus"), son of Vespasian. [Glyptothek](/wiki/Glyptothek "Glyptothek"), Munich](/wiki/File:Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg "Head Titus Glyptothek Munich 338.jpg")
### Literary interlude
At the earliest time that Pliny could have left the service, [Nero](/wiki/Nero "Nero"), the last of the [Julio\-Claudian dynasty](/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty "Julio-Claudian dynasty"), had been emperor for two years. He did not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years old. During that time, Pliny did not hold any high office or work in the service of the state. In the subsequent [Flavian dynasty](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty "Flavian dynasty"), his services were in such demand that he had to give up his law practice, which suggests that he had been trying not to attract the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance.
Under Nero, Pliny lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of [Armenia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_%28antiquity%29 "Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)") and the neighbourhood of the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea "Caspian Sea"), which was sent to Rome by the staff of Corbulo in 58\.{{cite book \| title\=Natural History \| chapter\=VI.15}} He also witnessed the construction of Nero's [Domus Aurea](/wiki/Domus_Aurea "Domus Aurea") or "Golden House" after the [Great Fire of Rome](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome "Great Fire of Rome") in 64\.{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=XXXVI.24}}
Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second published work was *The Life of Pomponius Secundus*, a two\-volume biography of his old commander, Pomponius Secundus.
Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, *Bella Germaniae*, the only authority expressly quoted in the first six books of the *[Annales](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 "Annals (Tacitus)")* of [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus "Tacitus"), and probably one of the principal authorities for the same author's *[Germania](/wiki/Germania_%28book%29 "Germania (book)")*. It disappeared in favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, early in the fifth century, [Symmachus](/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus "Quintus Aurelius Symmachus") had little hope of finding a copy.{{cite book\|author\=Symmachus\|title\=Letters\|chapter\=IV.18}}
Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow gradually more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe subjects of [grammar](/wiki/Grammar "Grammar") and rhetoric. He published a three\-book, six\-volume educational manual on rhetoric, entitled *Studiosus*, "The Student". Pliny the Younger says of it: "The orator is trained from his very cradle and perfected." It was followed by eight books entitled *Dubii sermonis* (*Of Doubtful Phraseology*). These are both now [lost works](/wiki/Lost_literary_work "Lost literary work"). His nephew relates: "He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of his reign, when every kind of literary pursuit which was in the least independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude."
In 68, Nero no longer had any friends and supporters. He committed suicide, and the reign of terror was at an end, as was the interlude in Pliny's obligation to the state.
### Senior officer
[thumb\|upright\|Bust of [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian "Vespasian")](/wiki/File:Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG "Vespasiano, 80 dc ca, s.n..JPG")
At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil war consequent on the death of Nero, [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian "Vespasian"), a successful general, became emperor. Like Pliny, he had come from the equestrian class, rising through the ranks of the army and public offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His main tasks were to re\-establish peace under imperial control and to place the economy on a sound footing. He needed in his administration all the loyalty and assistance he could find. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perhaps (reading between the lines) recommended by Vespasian's son [Titus](/wiki/Titus "Titus"), was put to work immediately and was kept in a continuous succession of the most distinguished procuratorships, according to [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius "Suetonius").Syme (1969\), p. 224\. A [procurator](/wiki/Procurator_%28Roman%29 "Procurator (Roman)") was generally a governor of an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was always seeking, officeholders for its numerous offices.
Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations with Emperor Vespasian. As is written in the first line of Pliny the Younger's *Avunculus Meus*:
{{quote\|{{lang\|la\|Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum}}.}}
{{quote\|Before dawn he was going to Emperor Vespasian (for he also made use of the night), then he did the other duties assigned to him.}}
In this passage, Pliny the Younger conveys to Tacitus that his uncle was ever the academic, always working. The word *ibat* (imperfect, "he used to go") gives a sense of repeated or customary action. In the subsequent text, he mentions again how most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. He notes that Pliny "was indeed a very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping off in the middle of his studies and then waking up again."Epistles, III v
A definitive study of the procuratorships of Pliny was compiled by the classical scholar [Friedrich Münzer](/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCnzer "Friedrich Münzer"), which was reasserted by [Ronald Syme](/wiki/Ronald_Syme "Ronald Syme") and became a standard reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly attested and two are probable but not certain. However, two does not satisfy Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.Griffin (1992\), p. 439\. Consequently, Plinian scholars present two to four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Africa in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica in 74–76\.
According to Syme, Pliny may have been "successor to Valerius Paulinus", procurator of [Gallia Narbonensis](/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis "Gallia Narbonensis") (southeastern France), early in AD 70\. He seems to have a "familiarity with the *provincia*", which, however, might otherwise be explained.Syme (1969\), p. 225\. For example, he says{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=III.5 (.4\)}}
> In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province.
denoting a general popular familiarity with the region.
[thumb\|Oasis at [Gabès](/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s "Gabès")](/wiki/File:Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg "Palmeraie gabès2.jpg")
Pliny certainly spent some time in [the province of Africa](/wiki/Africa_Province "Africa Province"), most likely as a procurator.Syme (1969\), pp. 214–215\. Among other events or features that he saw are the provoking of *rubetae*, poisonous toads ([Bufonidae](/wiki/Bufonidae "Bufonidae")), by the [Psylli](/wiki/Psylli "Psylli");{{cite book \|title\= Natural History \|chapter\= XXV.76
\|quote\= I myself have seen the Psylli, in their exhibitions, irritate them by placing them upon flat vessels made red hot, their bite being fatal more instantaneously than the sting even of the asp.}} the buildings made with molded earthen walls, "superior in solidity to any cement;"{{cite book \|title\= Natural History \|chapter\=XXXV.48 (14\.)}} and the unusual, fertile seaside oasis of [Gabès](/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s "Gabès") (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site").{{cite book \|title\= Natural History \|chapter\= XVIII.51}} Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72\.
The procuratorship of [Hispania Tarraconensis](/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis "Hispania Tarraconensis") was next. A statement by Pliny the Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 *[sesterces](/wiki/Sesterce "Sesterce")* for his manuscripts by Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny the Elder) was procurator of Hispania makes it the most certain of the three. Pliny lists the peoples of "Hither Hispania", including population statistics and civic rights (modern [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias "Asturias") and [Gallaecia](/wiki/Gallaecia "Gallaecia")). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of "wearying the reader".{{cite book \|title\= Natural History \|chapter\= III.4 (.3\) Of Nearer Spain}} As this is the only geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Pliny contributed to the census of Hither Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, thus dating Pliny's procuratorship there.Syme (1969\), p. 216\.
[thumb\|[Las Médulas](/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas "Las Médulas"), Spain, site of a large Roman mine](/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg "Panorámica de Las Médulas.jpg")
During his stay in Hispania, he became familiar with the agriculture and especially the gold mines of the north and west of the country.{{cite book\|title\=Natural History \| chapter\=XXXIII.21 \| quote\=Asturia, Gallæcia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous fertility in gold.}} His descriptions of the various methods of mining appear to be [eyewitness](/wiki/wikt:Eyewitness "Eyewitness") judging by the discussion of [gold mining](/wiki/Gold_mining "Gold mining") methods in his *Natural History*. He might have visited the mine excavated at [Las Médulas](/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas "Las Médulas").
[thumb\|The [Porta Nigra](/wiki/Porta_Nigra "Porta Nigra") Roman gate, [Trier](/wiki/Trier "Trier"), Germany](/wiki/File:Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg "Porta Nigra morgens (100MP).jpg")
The last position of procurator, an uncertain one, was of [Gallia Belgica](/wiki/Gallia_Belgica "Gallia Belgica"), based on Pliny's familiarity with it. The capital of the province was Augusta Treverorum ([Trier](/wiki/History_of_Trier "History of Trier")), named for the [Treveri](/wiki/Treveri "Treveri") surrounding it. Pliny says that in "the year but one before this" a severe winter killed the first crops planted by the Treviri; they sowed again in March and had "a most abundant harvest."{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=XVIII.49 (.19\)}} The problem is to identify "this", the year in which the passage was written. Using 77 as the date of composition SymeSyme (1969\), p. 213\. arrives at AD 74–75 as the date of the procuratorship, when Pliny is presumed to have witnessed these events. The argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required to achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, if the one in Gallia Belgica occurred.
Pliny was allowed home (Rome) at some time in AD 75–76\. He was presumably at home for the first official release of *Natural History* in 77\. Whether he was in Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's [Temple of Peace](/wiki/Temple_of_Peace%2C_Rome "Temple of Peace, Rome") in the Forum in 75, which was in essence a museum for display of art works plundered by Nero and formerly adorning the Domus Aurea, is uncertain, as is his possible command of the *[vigiles](/wiki/Vigiles "Vigiles")* (night watchmen), a lesser post. No actual post is discernible for this period. On the bare circumstances, he was an official agent of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment as commander of the imperial fleet at [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno "Miseno"){{cite news\|author\=Ariel David\|title\=Pompeii Hero Pliny the Elder May Have Been Found 2,000 Years Later\|newspaper\=\[\[Haaretz]]\|location\=Tel Aviv\|date\=31 August 2017\|url\=https://www.haaretz.com/world\-news/MAGAZINE\-pompeii\-hero\-pliny\-the\-elder\-s\-body\-may\-have\-been\-found\-1\.5446901}} took him there, where he resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79\. Pliny outlived him by four months.
### Noted author
During Nero's reign of terror, Pliny avoided working on any writing that would attract attention to himself. His works on oratory in the last years of Nero's reign (67–68\) focused on form rather than on content. He began working on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, when the terror clearly was over and would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and later cancelled by his son Titus) when Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Rome, but not Pliny, who was not among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an encyclopedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).[Repository](https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2002&context=edissertations), upenn.edu. Accessed 31 August 2022\.
In his next work, *Bella Germaniae*, Pliny completed the history which [Aufidius Bassus](/wiki/Aufidius_Bassus "Aufidius Bassus") left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's *History* was one of the authorities followed by [Suetonius](/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars "Lives of the Twelve Caesars") and [Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch "Plutarch"). Tacitus also cites Pliny as a source. He is mentioned concerning the loyalty of [Burrus](/wiki/Sextus_Afranius_Burrus "Sextus Afranius Burrus"), commander of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard "Praetorian Guard"), whom [Nero](/wiki/Nero "Nero") removed for disloyalty.{{cite book\|author\=Tacitus\|title\=The Annals\|chapter\=13\.20\|url\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi\-bin/ptext?doc\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\.02\.0078\&layout\=\&loc\=13\.20}} Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's view of the [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy "Pisonian conspiracy") to kill Nero and make Piso emperor as "absurd"{{cite book\|author\=Tacitus\|title\=The Annals\|chapter\=15\.53\|url\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi\-bin/ptext?doc\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\.02\.0078\&layout\=\&loc\=15\.53}} and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account or that of [Messalla](/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Messala_Corvinus_%28consul_58%29 "Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus (consul 58)") was more accurate concerning some of the details of the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors "Year of the Four Emperors").{{cite book \|author\=Tacitus \|title\=The Histories\|chapter\=3\.29 \|url\=http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusHistory03\.html}} Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus extended at least from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian. Pliny seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as he deliberately reserved it for publication after his death:
> It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.{{cite book \| author\=Pliny \| title\=Natural History \| url\=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistory08plinuoft \| chapter\=Preface, 20\| year\=1938}}
|
[
"Life and times\n--------------",
"### Background",
"[thumb\\|One of the [Xanten Horse\\-Phalerae](/wiki/Xanten_Horse-Phalerae \"Xanten Horse-Phalerae\") located in the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\"), measuring {{convert\\|10\\.5\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web\\|title\\=Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder\\|publisher\\=The British Museum: Highlights\\|url\\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\\_objects/gr/m/military\\_horse\\_trapping.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083856/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\\_objects/gr/m/military\\_horse\\_trapping.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2013}} It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: *PLINIO PRAEF EQ*; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, \"Pliny prefect of cavalry\". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.](/wiki/File:Plinio_praefecto.jpg \"Plinio praefecto.jpg\")",
"Pliny's dates are pinned to the [eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD \"Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD\") and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth {{nowrap\\|in AD 23 or 24\\.}}",
"Pliny was the son of an [equestrian](/wiki/Equites \"Equites\") Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription ([CIL V 1 3442](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum \"Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\")) found in a field in [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\") and recorded by the 16th\\-century [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") friar [Onofrio Panvinio](/wiki/Onofrio_Panvinio \"Onofrio Panvinio\"). The form is an [elegy](/wiki/Elegy \"Elegy\"). The most commonly accepted reconstruction is\n{{quote\\|PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO}}",
"{{quote\\|Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father \\[Ce]ler and his mother \\[Grania] Marcella}}",
"The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,{{cite book \\|author\\= Gaius Plinius Secundus \\|author2\\= Jean Harduin (commentator) \\|others\\= C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors) \\|language\\= la, fr \\|title\\= Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII \\|series\\= Bibliotheca Classica Latina \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\= Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria \\|year\\=1827 \\|pages\\=XLIX\\-L \\|location\\= Paris \\|publisher\\= Didot \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zWw9AAAAcAAJ}} but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an [augur](/wiki/Augur \"Augur\") and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the *Titii Pomponii* on his mother's side, and a connection with the *Caecilii* (*Celer* was a *cognomen* used by that *[Gens](/wiki/Gens \"Gens\")*) on his father's side: {{cite book\\|first1\\=Manuel Arnao \\|last1\\=Metello\\|author2\\=João Carlos Metello de Nápoles\\|title\\=Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas\\|publisher\\=Edição Nova Arrancada\\|location\\=Lisboa\\|date\\=1998\\|isbn\\= 978\\-972\\-8369\\-18\\-7\\|language\\=pt}} [Jean Hardouin](/wiki/Jean_Hardouin \"Jean Hardouin\") presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.{{cite book \\|pages\\=281–282 \\|language\\= fr \\|title\\= Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers \\|edition\\= ''ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans'' \\|first\\= Eugène \\|last\\= Allain \\|publisher\\= A. Fontemoing \\|year\\=1902 \\|volume\\=3}} Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus \"Catullus\").",
"[thumb\\|City and Lake of [Como](/wiki/Como \"Como\"), painted by [Jean\\-Baptiste\\-Camille Corot](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot \"Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot\"), 1834](/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg \"Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - Como and Lake Como.jpg\")\nHow the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from [Pliny the Younger](/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger \"Pliny the Younger\")'s [estate at Colle Plinio](/wiki/Roman_Villa_of_Pliny_%22in_Tuscis%22 \"Roman Villa of Pliny \"), north of [Città di Castello](/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello \"Città di Castello\"), identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at [Como](/wiki/Como \"Como\"), not at Verona: it is only as a native of old *[Gallia Transpadana](/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul \"Cisalpine Gaul\")* that he calls [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus \"Catullus\") of Verona his *conterraneus*, or fellow\\-countryman, not his *municeps*, or fellow\\-townsman.{{SmithDGRBM\\|author\\=Charles Peter Mason\\|article\\=C. Plinius Secundus\\|volume\\=3\\|page\\=414}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=I, Dedication\\|quote\\=if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow\\-countryman}} A statue of Pliny on the façade of the [Como Cathedral](/wiki/Como_Cathedral \"Como Cathedral\") celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail.",
"In one of his letters to Tacitus (*avunculus meus*), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (*levis et facilis*) following the customs of our forefathers (*veterum more interdiu*). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a \"good Roman\", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.",
"Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One ([CIL V 5262](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum \"Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\")) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667\\) identifies his father Lucius' village as present\\-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of [Cantù](/wiki/Cant%C3%B9 \"Cantù\"), near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.{{cite book\\|chapter\\=Appendix A: Inscriptions\\|title\\=The letters of the younger Pliny\\|author\\=Pliny the Younger\\|translator\\-first\\=Betty\\|translator\\-last\\=Radice\\|edition\\=6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated\\|publisher\\=Penguin Classics\\|year\\=1969\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-14\\-044127\\-7\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lettersofyounger00plin}}",
"Gaius was a member of the [Plinia](/wiki/Plinia_gens \"Plinia gens\") *[gens](/wiki/Gens \"Gens\"):* the [Insubric](/wiki/Insubres \"Insubres\") root *Plina* still persists, with [rhotacism](/wiki/Rhotacism_%28sound_change%29 \"Rhotacism (sound change)\"), in the local surname \"Prina\". He did not take his father's [cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen \"Cognomen\"), Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own numerous estates around [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known.",
"In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\") founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[Colonia (Roman)\\|colonia]]}} to secure the region against the [Alpine tribes](/wiki/Rhaetian_people \"Rhaetian people\"), whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in [Comasco](/wiki/Comasco \"Comasco\") and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.{{cite book\\|title\\=Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar\\|first\\=Ernest George\\|last\\=Hardy\\|publisher\\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1\\-58477\\-753\\-3\\|chapter\\=V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC\\|pages\\=126–149}} The community was thus multi\\-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or [Julius Pokorny](/wiki/Julius_Pokorny \"Julius Pokorny\")'s derivation of the name from north Italic as \"bald\"{{cite web\\|first\\=Julius\\|last\\=Pokorny\\|title\\=Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch\\|language\\=de\\|pages\\=834\\|publisher\\=University of Leiden\\|url\\=http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2006}} is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens.",
"Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a \"testamental adoption\" by writers on the topic,{{who?\\|date\\=April 2021}} who assert that it applied to the name change{{clarify\\|date\\=August 2024\\|post\\-text\\=what name change?}} only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.{{cite book\\|author\\=Pliny the Younger\\|author2\\=Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors)\\|title\\=Selected Letters\\|page\\=1\\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press\\|location\\=Oxford\\|year\\=1896}} For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno \"Miseno\") with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of [Mount Vesuvius](/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius \"Mount Vesuvius\"), and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance.",
"### Student and lawyer",
"Pliny's father took him to Rome to be educated in lawmaking. Pliny relates that he saw [Marcus Servilius Nonianus](/wiki/Servilius_Nonianus \"Servilius Nonianus\").",
"### Junior officer",
"In AD 46, at about age 23, Pliny entered the army as a junior officer, as was the custom for young men of equestrian rank. [Ronald Syme](/wiki/Ronald_Syme \"Ronald Syme\"), Plinian scholar, reconstructs three periods at three ranks.Beagon (2005\\) pg.3\\.Syme (1969\\), pg. 207\\.",
"Pliny's interest in Roman literature attracted the attention and friendship of other men of letters in the higher ranks, with whom he formed lasting friendships. Later, these friendships assisted his entry into the upper echelons of the state; however, he was trusted for his knowledge and ability, as well. According to Syme, he began as a *praefectus cohortis*, a \"commander of a [cohort](/wiki/Cohort_%28military_unit%29 \"Cohort (military unit)\")\" (an infantry cohort, as junior officers began in the infantry), under [Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo](/wiki/Gnaeus_Domitius_Corbulo \"Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo\"), himself a writer (whose works did not survive) in [Germania Inferior](/wiki/Germania_Inferior \"Germania Inferior\"). In AD 47, he took part in the Roman conquest of the [Chauci](/wiki/Chauci \"Chauci\") and the construction of the canal between the rivers [Maas](/wiki/Meuse \"Meuse\") and [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\"). His description of the Roman ships anchored in the stream overnight having to ward off floating trees has the stamp of an eyewitness account.{{cite book \\|title\\=Natural History \\|chapter\\=XVI.2 \\|quote\\=Many is the time that these trees have struck our fleets with alarm, when the waves have driven them, almost purposely it would seem, against their prows as they stood at anchor in the night; and the men, destitute of all remedy and resource, have had to engage in naval combat with a forest of trees!}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Map of [Castra Vetera](/wiki/Castra_Vetera \"Castra Vetera\"), a large permanent base (*castra stativa*) of Germania Inferior, where Pliny spent the last of his 10\\-year term as a cavalry commander: The proximity of a naval base there means that he trained also in ships, as the Romans customarily trained all soldiers in all arms whenever possible. The location is on the lower [Rhine River](/wiki/Rhine_River \"Rhine River\").](/wiki/File:Castra-vetera.jpg \"Castra-vetera.jpg\")",
"At some uncertain date, Pliny was transferred to the command of [Germania Superior](/wiki/Germania_Superior \"Germania Superior\") under [Publius Pomponius Secundus](/wiki/Publius_Pomponius_Secundus \"Publius Pomponius Secundus\") with a promotion to [military tribune](/wiki/Military_tribune \"Military tribune\"), which was a staff position, with duties assigned by the district commander. Pomponius was a half\\-brother of Corbulo.{{cite book \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi\\_0/page/290 290] \\|title\\=Tiberius the politician \\|first\\=Barbara \\|last\\=Levick \\|edition\\=2, revised, illustrated \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-21753\\-8 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/tiberiuspolitici00levi\\_0/page/290 }} They had the same mother, [Vistilia](/wiki/Vistilia \"Vistilia\"), a powerful matron of the Roman upper classes, who had seven children by six husbands, some of whom had imperial connections, including a future empress. Pliny's assignments are not clear, but he must have participated in the campaign against the [Chatti](/wiki/Chatti \"Chatti\") of AD 50, at age 27, in his fourth year of service. Associated with the commander in the *[praetorium](/wiki/Praetorium \"Praetorium\")*, he became a familiar and close friend of Pomponius, who also was a man of letters.",
"At another uncertain date, Pliny was transferred back to Germania Inferior. Corbulo had moved on, assuming command in the east. This time, Pliny was promoted to *praefectus alae*, \"commander of a wing\", responsible for a cavalry battalion of about 480 men.{{cite book \\|author\\=Pliny the Younger \\|title\\=Letters \\|chapter\\=III.5 To Baebius Macer \\|date\\=26 September 2022 \\|url\\=http://www.bartleby.com/9/4/1027\\.html}} He spent the rest of his military service there. A decorative *[phalera](/wiki/Phalera_%28military_decoration%29 \"Phalera (military decoration)\")*, or piece of harness, with his name on it has been found at *[Castra Vetera](/wiki/Xanten \"Xanten\")*, modern Xanten, then a large Roman army and naval base on the lower Rhine. Pliny's last commander there, apparently neither a man of letters nor a close friend of his, was [Pompeius Paullinus](/wiki/Pompeius_Paullinus \"Pompeius Paullinus\"), [governor of Germania Inferior](/wiki/List_of_Roman_governors_of_Germania_Inferior \"List of Roman governors of Germania Inferior\") AD 55–58\\.Griffin (1992\\), pg. 438\\. Pliny relates that he personally knew Paulinus to have carried around 12,000 pounds of silver service on which to dine in a campaign against the Germans (a practice which would not have endeared him to the disciplined Pliny).{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=XXXIII.50\\|quote\\=to my own knowledge, Pompeius Paulinus... had with him, when serving with the army, and that, too, in a war against the most savage nations, a service of silver plate that weighed twelve thousand pounds!}}",
"According to his nephew, during this period, he wrote his first book (perhaps in winter quarters when more spare time was available), a work on the use of [missiles](/wiki/Projectile \"Projectile\") on horseback, *De Jaculatione Equestri* (\"On the Use of the Dart by Cavalry\"). It has not survived, but in *Natural History*, he seems to reveal at least part of its content, using the movements of the horse to assist the [javelin](/wiki/Javelin \"Javelin\")\\-man in throwing missiles while astride its back.{{cite book \\|title\\=Natural History \\|chapter\\=VIII.65 \\|quote\\=Those who have to use the javelin are well aware how the horse, by its exertions and the supple movements of its body, aids the rider in any difficulty he may have in throwing his weapon.}} During this period, he also dreamed that the spirit of [Drusus Nero](/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus \"Nero Claudius Drusus\") begged him to save his memory from oblivion. The dream prompted Pliny to begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans and the Germans, which he did not complete for some years.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Colossal head of [Titus](/wiki/Titus \"Titus\"), son of Vespasian. [Glyptothek](/wiki/Glyptothek \"Glyptothek\"), Munich](/wiki/File:Head_Titus_Glyptothek_Munich_338.jpg \"Head Titus Glyptothek Munich 338.jpg\")",
"### Literary interlude",
"At the earliest time that Pliny could have left the service, [Nero](/wiki/Nero \"Nero\"), the last of the [Julio\\-Claudian dynasty](/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty \"Julio-Claudian dynasty\"), had been emperor for two years. He did not leave office until AD 68, when Pliny was 45 years old. During that time, Pliny did not hold any high office or work in the service of the state. In the subsequent [Flavian dynasty](/wiki/Flavian_dynasty \"Flavian dynasty\"), his services were in such demand that he had to give up his law practice, which suggests that he had been trying not to attract the attention of Nero, who was a dangerous acquaintance.",
"Under Nero, Pliny lived mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of [Armenia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_%28antiquity%29 \"Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)\") and the neighbourhood of the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea \"Caspian Sea\"), which was sent to Rome by the staff of Corbulo in 58\\.{{cite book \\| title\\=Natural History \\| chapter\\=VI.15}} He also witnessed the construction of Nero's [Domus Aurea](/wiki/Domus_Aurea \"Domus Aurea\") or \"Golden House\" after the [Great Fire of Rome](/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Rome \"Great Fire of Rome\") in 64\\.{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=XXXVI.24}}",
"Besides pleading law cases, Pliny wrote, researched, and studied. His second published work was *The Life of Pomponius Secundus*, a two\\-volume biography of his old commander, Pomponius Secundus.",
"Meanwhile, he was completing his monumental work, *Bella Germaniae*, the only authority expressly quoted in the first six books of the *[Annales](/wiki/Annals_%28Tacitus%29 \"Annals (Tacitus)\")* of [Tacitus](/wiki/Tacitus \"Tacitus\"), and probably one of the principal authorities for the same author's *[Germania](/wiki/Germania_%28book%29 \"Germania (book)\")*. It disappeared in favor of the writings of Tacitus (which are far shorter), and, early in the fifth century, [Symmachus](/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus \"Quintus Aurelius Symmachus\") had little hope of finding a copy.{{cite book\\|author\\=Symmachus\\|title\\=Letters\\|chapter\\=IV.18}}",
"Like Caligula, Nero seemed to grow gradually more insane as his reign progressed. Pliny devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe subjects of [grammar](/wiki/Grammar \"Grammar\") and rhetoric. He published a three\\-book, six\\-volume educational manual on rhetoric, entitled *Studiosus*, \"The Student\". Pliny the Younger says of it: \"The orator is trained from his very cradle and perfected.\" It was followed by eight books entitled *Dubii sermonis* (*Of Doubtful Phraseology*). These are both now [lost works](/wiki/Lost_literary_work \"Lost literary work\"). His nephew relates: \"He wrote this under Nero, in the last years of his reign, when every kind of literary pursuit which was in the least independent or elevated had been rendered dangerous by servitude.\"",
"In 68, Nero no longer had any friends and supporters. He committed suicide, and the reign of terror was at an end, as was the interlude in Pliny's obligation to the state.",
"### Senior officer",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Bust of [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian \"Vespasian\")](/wiki/File:Vespasiano%2C_80_dc_ca%2C_s.n..JPG \"Vespasiano, 80 dc ca, s.n..JPG\")",
"At the end of AD 69, after a year of civil war consequent on the death of Nero, [Vespasian](/wiki/Vespasian \"Vespasian\"), a successful general, became emperor. Like Pliny, he had come from the equestrian class, rising through the ranks of the army and public offices and defeating the other contenders for the highest office. His main tasks were to re\\-establish peace under imperial control and to place the economy on a sound footing. He needed in his administration all the loyalty and assistance he could find. Pliny, apparently trusted without question, perhaps (reading between the lines) recommended by Vespasian's son [Titus](/wiki/Titus \"Titus\"), was put to work immediately and was kept in a continuous succession of the most distinguished procuratorships, according to [Suetonius](/wiki/Suetonius \"Suetonius\").Syme (1969\\), p. 224\\. A [procurator](/wiki/Procurator_%28Roman%29 \"Procurator (Roman)\") was generally a governor of an imperial province. The empire was perpetually short of, and was always seeking, officeholders for its numerous offices.",
"Throughout the latter stages of Pliny's life, he maintained good relations with Emperor Vespasian. As is written in the first line of Pliny the Younger's *Avunculus Meus*:",
"{{quote\\|{{lang\\|la\\|Ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem (nam ille quoque noctibus utebatur), deinde ad officium sibi delegatum}}.}}",
"{{quote\\|Before dawn he was going to Emperor Vespasian (for he also made use of the night), then he did the other duties assigned to him.}}",
"In this passage, Pliny the Younger conveys to Tacitus that his uncle was ever the academic, always working. The word *ibat* (imperfect, \"he used to go\") gives a sense of repeated or customary action. In the subsequent text, he mentions again how most of his uncle's day was spent working, reading, and writing. He notes that Pliny \"was indeed a very ready sleeper, sometimes dropping off in the middle of his studies and then waking up again.\"Epistles, III v",
"A definitive study of the procuratorships of Pliny was compiled by the classical scholar [Friedrich Münzer](/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCnzer \"Friedrich Münzer\"), which was reasserted by [Ronald Syme](/wiki/Ronald_Syme \"Ronald Syme\") and became a standard reference point. Münzer hypothesized four procuratorships, of which two are certainly attested and two are probable but not certain. However, two does not satisfy Suetonius' description of a continuous succession.Griffin (1992\\), p. 439\\. Consequently, Plinian scholars present two to four procuratorships, the four comprising (i) Gallia Narbonensis in 70, (ii) Africa in 70–72, (iii) Hispania Tarraconensis in 72–74, and (iv) Gallia Belgica in 74–76\\.",
"According to Syme, Pliny may have been \"successor to Valerius Paulinus\", procurator of [Gallia Narbonensis](/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis \"Gallia Narbonensis\") (southeastern France), early in AD 70\\. He seems to have a \"familiarity with the *provincia*\", which, however, might otherwise be explained.Syme (1969\\), p. 225\\. For example, he says{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=III.5 (.4\\)}} \n> In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province.",
"denoting a general popular familiarity with the region.",
"[thumb\\|Oasis at [Gabès](/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s \"Gabès\")](/wiki/File:Palmeraie_gab%C3%A8s2.jpg \"Palmeraie gabès2.jpg\")",
"Pliny certainly spent some time in [the province of Africa](/wiki/Africa_Province \"Africa Province\"), most likely as a procurator.Syme (1969\\), pp. 214–215\\. Among other events or features that he saw are the provoking of *rubetae*, poisonous toads ([Bufonidae](/wiki/Bufonidae \"Bufonidae\")), by the [Psylli](/wiki/Psylli \"Psylli\");{{cite book \\|title\\= Natural History \\|chapter\\= XXV.76\n\\|quote\\= I myself have seen the Psylli, in their exhibitions, irritate them by placing them upon flat vessels made red hot, their bite being fatal more instantaneously than the sting even of the asp.}} the buildings made with molded earthen walls, \"superior in solidity to any cement;\"{{cite book \\|title\\= Natural History \\|chapter\\=XXXV.48 (14\\.)}} and the unusual, fertile seaside oasis of [Gabès](/wiki/Gab%C3%A8s \"Gabès\") (then Tacape), Tunisia, currently a [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\").{{cite book \\|title\\= Natural History \\|chapter\\= XVIII.51}} Syme assigns the African procuratorship to AD 70–72\\.",
"The procuratorship of [Hispania Tarraconensis](/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis \"Hispania Tarraconensis\") was next. A statement by Pliny the Younger that his uncle was offered 400,000 *[sesterces](/wiki/Sesterce \"Sesterce\")* for his manuscripts by Larcius Licinius while he (Pliny the Elder) was procurator of Hispania makes it the most certain of the three. Pliny lists the peoples of \"Hither Hispania\", including population statistics and civic rights (modern [Asturias](/wiki/Asturias \"Asturias\") and [Gallaecia](/wiki/Gallaecia \"Gallaecia\")). He stops short of mentioning them all for fear of \"wearying the reader\".{{cite book \\|title\\= Natural History \\|chapter\\= III.4 (.3\\) Of Nearer Spain}} As this is the only geographic region for which he gives this information, Syme hypothesizes that Pliny contributed to the census of Hither Hispania conducted in 73/74 by Vibius Crispus, legate from the Emperor, thus dating Pliny's procuratorship there.Syme (1969\\), p. 216\\.",
"[thumb\\|[Las Médulas](/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas \"Las Médulas\"), Spain, site of a large Roman mine](/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_de_Las_M%C3%A9dulas.jpg \"Panorámica de Las Médulas.jpg\")",
"During his stay in Hispania, he became familiar with the agriculture and especially the gold mines of the north and west of the country.{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History \\| chapter\\=XXXIII.21 \\| quote\\=Asturia, Gallæcia, and Lusitania furnish in this manner, yearly, according to some authorities, twenty thousand pounds' weight of gold, the produce of Asturia forming the major part. Indeed, there is no part of the world that for centuries has maintained such a continuous fertility in gold.}} His descriptions of the various methods of mining appear to be [eyewitness](/wiki/wikt:Eyewitness \"Eyewitness\") judging by the discussion of [gold mining](/wiki/Gold_mining \"Gold mining\") methods in his *Natural History*. He might have visited the mine excavated at [Las Médulas](/wiki/Las_M%C3%A9dulas \"Las Médulas\").",
"[thumb\\|The [Porta Nigra](/wiki/Porta_Nigra \"Porta Nigra\") Roman gate, [Trier](/wiki/Trier \"Trier\"), Germany](/wiki/File:Porta_Nigra_morgens_%28100MP%29.jpg \"Porta Nigra morgens (100MP).jpg\")",
"The last position of procurator, an uncertain one, was of [Gallia Belgica](/wiki/Gallia_Belgica \"Gallia Belgica\"), based on Pliny's familiarity with it. The capital of the province was Augusta Treverorum ([Trier](/wiki/History_of_Trier \"History of Trier\")), named for the [Treveri](/wiki/Treveri \"Treveri\") surrounding it. Pliny says that in \"the year but one before this\" a severe winter killed the first crops planted by the Treviri; they sowed again in March and had \"a most abundant harvest.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=XVIII.49 (.19\\)}} The problem is to identify \"this\", the year in which the passage was written. Using 77 as the date of composition SymeSyme (1969\\), p. 213\\. arrives at AD 74–75 as the date of the procuratorship, when Pliny is presumed to have witnessed these events. The argument is based entirely on presumptions; nevertheless, this date is required to achieve Suetonius' continuity of procuratorships, if the one in Gallia Belgica occurred.",
"Pliny was allowed home (Rome) at some time in AD 75–76\\. He was presumably at home for the first official release of *Natural History* in 77\\. Whether he was in Rome for the dedication of Vespasian's [Temple of Peace](/wiki/Temple_of_Peace%2C_Rome \"Temple of Peace, Rome\") in the Forum in 75, which was in essence a museum for display of art works plundered by Nero and formerly adorning the Domus Aurea, is uncertain, as is his possible command of the *[vigiles](/wiki/Vigiles \"Vigiles\")* (night watchmen), a lesser post. No actual post is discernible for this period. On the bare circumstances, he was an official agent of the emperor in a quasiprivate capacity. Perhaps he was between posts. In any case, his appointment as commander of the imperial fleet at [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno \"Miseno\"){{cite news\\|author\\=Ariel David\\|title\\=Pompeii Hero Pliny the Elder May Have Been Found 2,000 Years Later\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Haaretz]]\\|location\\=Tel Aviv\\|date\\=31 August 2017\\|url\\=https://www.haaretz.com/world\\-news/MAGAZINE\\-pompeii\\-hero\\-pliny\\-the\\-elder\\-s\\-body\\-may\\-have\\-been\\-found\\-1\\.5446901}} took him there, where he resided with his sister and nephew. Vespasian died of disease on 23 June 79\\. Pliny outlived him by four months.",
"### Noted author",
"During Nero's reign of terror, Pliny avoided working on any writing that would attract attention to himself. His works on oratory in the last years of Nero's reign (67–68\\) focused on form rather than on content. He began working on content again probably after Vespasian's rule began in AD 69, when the terror clearly was over and would not be resumed. It was to some degree reinstituted (and later cancelled by his son Titus) when Vespasian suppressed the philosophers at Rome, but not Pliny, who was not among them, representing, as he says, something new in Rome, an encyclopedist (certainly, a venerable tradition outside Italy).[Repository](https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2002&context=edissertations), upenn.edu. Accessed 31 August 2022\\.",
"In his next work, *Bella Germaniae*, Pliny completed the history which [Aufidius Bassus](/wiki/Aufidius_Bassus \"Aufidius Bassus\") left unfinished. Pliny's continuation of Bassus's *History* was one of the authorities followed by [Suetonius](/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars \"Lives of the Twelve Caesars\") and [Plutarch](/wiki/Plutarch \"Plutarch\"). Tacitus also cites Pliny as a source. He is mentioned concerning the loyalty of [Burrus](/wiki/Sextus_Afranius_Burrus \"Sextus Afranius Burrus\"), commander of the [Praetorian Guard](/wiki/Praetorian_Guard \"Praetorian Guard\"), whom [Nero](/wiki/Nero \"Nero\") removed for disloyalty.{{cite book\\|author\\=Tacitus\\|title\\=The Annals\\|chapter\\=13\\.20\\|url\\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi\\-bin/ptext?doc\\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\\.02\\.0078\\&layout\\=\\&loc\\=13\\.20}} Tacitus portrays parts of Pliny's view of the [Pisonian conspiracy](/wiki/Pisonian_conspiracy \"Pisonian conspiracy\") to kill Nero and make Piso emperor as \"absurd\"{{cite book\\|author\\=Tacitus\\|title\\=The Annals\\|chapter\\=15\\.53\\|url\\=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi\\-bin/ptext?doc\\=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999\\.02\\.0078\\&layout\\=\\&loc\\=15\\.53}} and mentions that he could not decide whether Pliny's account or that of [Messalla](/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Messala_Corvinus_%28consul_58%29 \"Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus (consul 58)\") was more accurate concerning some of the details of the [Year of the Four Emperors](/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors \"Year of the Four Emperors\").{{cite book \\|author\\=Tacitus \\|title\\=The Histories\\|chapter\\=3\\.29 \\|url\\=http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusHistory03\\.html}} Evidently Pliny's extension of Bassus extended at least from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian. Pliny seems to have known it was going to be controversial, as he deliberately reserved it for publication after his death:",
"> It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.{{cite book \\| author\\=Pliny \\| title\\=Natural History \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/naturalhistory08plinuoft \\| chapter\\=Preface, 20\\| year\\=1938}}",
"",
""
] |
### Background
[thumb\|One of the [Xanten Horse\-Phalerae](/wiki/Xanten_Horse-Phalerae "Xanten Horse-Phalerae") located in the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum "British Museum"), measuring {{convert\|10\.5\|cm\|in\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web\|title\=Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder\|publisher\=The British Museum: Highlights\|url\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\_objects/gr/m/military\_horse\_trapping.aspx\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083856/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\_objects/gr/m/military\_horse\_trapping.aspx\|archive\-date\=3 December 2013}} It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: *PLINIO PRAEF EQ*; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.](/wiki/File:Plinio_praefecto.jpg "Plinio praefecto.jpg")
Pliny's dates are pinned to the [eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD "Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD") and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth {{nowrap\|in AD 23 or 24\.}}
Pliny was the son of an [equestrian](/wiki/Equites "Equites") Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription ([CIL V 1 3442](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum")) found in a field in [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona") and recorded by the 16th\-century [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians "Augustinians") friar [Onofrio Panvinio](/wiki/Onofrio_Panvinio "Onofrio Panvinio"). The form is an [elegy](/wiki/Elegy "Elegy"). The most commonly accepted reconstruction is
{{quote\|PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO}}
{{quote\|Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father \[Ce]ler and his mother \[Grania] Marcella}}
The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,{{cite book \|author\= Gaius Plinius Secundus \|author2\= Jean Harduin (commentator) \|others\= C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors) \|language\= la, fr \|title\= Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII \|series\= Bibliotheca Classica Latina \|volume\=1 \|chapter\= Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria \|year\=1827 \|pages\=XLIX\-L \|location\= Paris \|publisher\= Didot \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=zWw9AAAAcAAJ}} but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an [augur](/wiki/Augur "Augur") and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the *Titii Pomponii* on his mother's side, and a connection with the *Caecilii* (*Celer* was a *cognomen* used by that *[Gens](/wiki/Gens "Gens")*) on his father's side: {{cite book\|first1\=Manuel Arnao \|last1\=Metello\|author2\=João Carlos Metello de Nápoles\|title\=Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas\|publisher\=Edição Nova Arrancada\|location\=Lisboa\|date\=1998\|isbn\= 978\-972\-8369\-18\-7\|language\=pt}} [Jean Hardouin](/wiki/Jean_Hardouin "Jean Hardouin") presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.{{cite book \|pages\=281–282 \|language\= fr \|title\= Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers \|edition\= ''ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans'' \|first\= Eugène \|last\= Allain \|publisher\= A. Fontemoing \|year\=1902 \|volume\=3}} Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus "Catullus").
[thumb\|City and Lake of [Como](/wiki/Como "Como"), painted by [Jean\-Baptiste\-Camille Corot](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot "Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot"), 1834](/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg "Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - Como and Lake Como.jpg")
How the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from [Pliny the Younger](/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger "Pliny the Younger")'s [estate at Colle Plinio](/wiki/Roman_Villa_of_Pliny_%22in_Tuscis%22 "Roman Villa of Pliny "), north of [Città di Castello](/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello "Città di Castello"), identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at [Como](/wiki/Como "Como"), not at Verona: it is only as a native of old *[Gallia Transpadana](/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul "Cisalpine Gaul")* that he calls [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus "Catullus") of Verona his *conterraneus*, or fellow\-countryman, not his *municeps*, or fellow\-townsman.{{SmithDGRBM\|author\=Charles Peter Mason\|article\=C. Plinius Secundus\|volume\=3\|page\=414}}{{cite book\|title\=Natural History\|chapter\=I, Dedication\|quote\=if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow\-countryman}} A statue of Pliny on the façade of the [Como Cathedral](/wiki/Como_Cathedral "Como Cathedral") celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail.
In one of his letters to Tacitus (*avunculus meus*), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (*levis et facilis*) following the customs of our forefathers (*veterum more interdiu*). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a "good Roman", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.
Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One ([CIL V 5262](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum "Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum")) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667\) identifies his father Lucius' village as present\-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of [Cantù](/wiki/Cant%C3%B9 "Cantù"), near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.{{cite book\|chapter\=Appendix A: Inscriptions\|title\=The letters of the younger Pliny\|author\=Pliny the Younger\|translator\-first\=Betty\|translator\-last\=Radice\|edition\=6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated\|publisher\=Penguin Classics\|year\=1969\|isbn\=978\-0\-14\-044127\-7\|url\=https://archive.org/details/lettersofyounger00plin}}
Gaius was a member of the [Plinia](/wiki/Plinia_gens "Plinia gens") *[gens](/wiki/Gens "Gens"):* the [Insubric](/wiki/Insubres "Insubres") root *Plina* still persists, with [rhotacism](/wiki/Rhotacism_%28sound_change%29 "Rhotacism (sound change)"), in the local surname "Prina". He did not take his father's [cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen "Cognomen"), Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own numerous estates around [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known.
In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar "Julius Caesar") founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a {{lang\|la\|\[\[Colonia (Roman)\|colonia]]}} to secure the region against the [Alpine tribes](/wiki/Rhaetian_people "Rhaetian people"), whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in [Comasco](/wiki/Comasco "Comasco") and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.{{cite book\|title\=Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar\|first\=Ernest George\|last\=Hardy\|publisher\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd\|year\=2007\|isbn\= 978\-1\-58477\-753\-3\|chapter\=V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC\|pages\=126–149}} The community was thus multi\-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or [Julius Pokorny](/wiki/Julius_Pokorny "Julius Pokorny")'s derivation of the name from north Italic as "bald"{{cite web\|first\=Julius\|last\=Pokorny\|title\=Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch\|language\=de\|pages\=834\|publisher\=University of Leiden\|url\=http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\.html\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\.html\|archive\-date\=27 September 2006}} is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens.
Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a "testamental adoption" by writers on the topic,{{who?\|date\=April 2021}} who assert that it applied to the name change{{clarify\|date\=August 2024\|post\-text\=what name change?}} only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.{{cite book\|author\=Pliny the Younger\|author2\=Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors)\|title\=Selected Letters\|page\=1\|publisher\=Clarendon Press\|location\=Oxford\|year\=1896}} For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno "Miseno") with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of [Mount Vesuvius](/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius "Mount Vesuvius"), and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance.
|
[
"### Background",
"[thumb\\|One of the [Xanten Horse\\-Phalerae](/wiki/Xanten_Horse-Phalerae \"Xanten Horse-Phalerae\") located in the [British Museum](/wiki/British_Museum \"British Museum\"), measuring {{convert\\|10\\.5\\|cm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web\\|title\\=Military horse trapping inscribed with the name of Pliny the Elder\\|publisher\\=The British Museum: Highlights\\|url\\=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\\_objects/gr/m/military\\_horse\\_trapping.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083856/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight\\_objects/gr/m/military\\_horse\\_trapping.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2013}} It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: *PLINIO PRAEF EQ*; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, \"Pliny prefect of cavalry\". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.](/wiki/File:Plinio_praefecto.jpg \"Plinio praefecto.jpg\")",
"Pliny's dates are pinned to the [eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79](/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD \"Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD\") and a statement by his nephew that he died in his 56th year, which would put his birth {{nowrap\\|in AD 23 or 24\\.}}",
"Pliny was the son of an [equestrian](/wiki/Equites \"Equites\") Gaius Plinius Celer and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names. Their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription ([CIL V 1 3442](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum \"Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\")) found in a field in [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\") and recorded by the 16th\\-century [Augustinian](/wiki/Augustinians \"Augustinians\") friar [Onofrio Panvinio](/wiki/Onofrio_Panvinio \"Onofrio Panvinio\"). The form is an [elegy](/wiki/Elegy \"Elegy\"). The most commonly accepted reconstruction is\n{{quote\\|PLINIVS SECVNDVS AVGV. LERI. PATRI. MATRI. MARCELLAE. TESTAMENTO FIERI IVSSO}}",
"{{quote\\|Plinius Secundus augur ordered this to be made as a testament to his father \\[Ce]ler and his mother \\[Grania] Marcella}}",
"The actual words are fragmentary. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction,{{cite book \\|author\\= Gaius Plinius Secundus \\|author2\\= Jean Harduin (commentator) \\|others\\= C. Alexandre; N.E. Lemaire (editors and contributors) \\|language\\= la, fr \\|title\\= Caii Plinii Secundi Historiae Naturalis Libri XXXVII \\|series\\= Bibliotheca Classica Latina \\|volume\\=1 \\|chapter\\= Ad Pliniam Vitam Excursus I: de Plinii Patria \\|year\\=1827 \\|pages\\=XLIX\\-L \\|location\\= Paris \\|publisher\\= Didot \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=zWw9AAAAcAAJ}} but in all cases the names come through. Whether he was an [augur](/wiki/Augur \"Augur\") and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain.So also is the further speculation by Metello that she was the daughter of Titus, which suggests a possible connection with the *Titii Pomponii* on his mother's side, and a connection with the *Caecilii* (*Celer* was a *cognomen* used by that *[Gens](/wiki/Gens \"Gens\")*) on his father's side: {{cite book\\|first1\\=Manuel Arnao \\|last1\\=Metello\\|author2\\=João Carlos Metello de Nápoles\\|title\\=Metellos de Portugal, Brasil e Roma: compilações genealógicas\\|publisher\\=Edição Nova Arrancada\\|location\\=Lisboa\\|date\\=1998\\|isbn\\= 978\\-972\\-8369\\-18\\-7\\|language\\=pt}} [Jean Hardouin](/wiki/Jean_Hardouin \"Jean Hardouin\") presents a statement from an unknown source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona and that his parents were Celer and Marcella.{{cite book \\|pages\\=281–282 \\|language\\= fr \\|title\\= Pline le Jeune et ses héritiers \\|edition\\= ''ouvrage illustré d'environ 100 photogravures et de 15 cartes ou plans'' \\|first\\= Eugène \\|last\\= Allain \\|publisher\\= A. Fontemoing \\|year\\=1902 \\|volume\\=3}} Hardouin also cites the conterraneity (see below) of [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus \"Catullus\").",
"[thumb\\|City and Lake of [Como](/wiki/Como \"Como\"), painted by [Jean\\-Baptiste\\-Camille Corot](/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot \"Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot\"), 1834](/wiki/File:Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot_-_Como_and_Lake_Como.jpg \"Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot - Como and Lake Como.jpg\")\nHow the inscription got to Verona is unknown, but it could have arrived by dispersal of property from [Pliny the Younger](/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger \"Pliny the Younger\")'s [estate at Colle Plinio](/wiki/Roman_Villa_of_Pliny_%22in_Tuscis%22 \"Roman Villa of Pliny \"), north of [Città di Castello](/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_di_Castello \"Città di Castello\"), identified with certainty by his initials in the roof tiles. He kept statues of his ancestors there. Pliny the Elder was born at [Como](/wiki/Como \"Como\"), not at Verona: it is only as a native of old *[Gallia Transpadana](/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul \"Cisalpine Gaul\")* that he calls [Catullus](/wiki/Catullus \"Catullus\") of Verona his *conterraneus*, or fellow\\-countryman, not his *municeps*, or fellow\\-townsman.{{SmithDGRBM\\|author\\=Charles Peter Mason\\|article\\=C. Plinius Secundus\\|volume\\=3\\|page\\=414}}{{cite book\\|title\\=Natural History\\|chapter\\=I, Dedication\\|quote\\=if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow\\-countryman}} A statue of Pliny on the façade of the [Como Cathedral](/wiki/Como_Cathedral \"Como Cathedral\") celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail.",
"In one of his letters to Tacitus (*avunculus meus*), Pliny the Younger details how his uncle's breakfasts would be light and simple (*levis et facilis*) following the customs of our forefathers (*veterum more interdiu*). Pliny the Younger wanted to convey that Pliny the Elder was a \"good Roman\", which means that he maintained the customs of the great Roman forefathers. This statement would have pleased Tacitus.",
"Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory. One ([CIL V 5262](/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum \"Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum\")) commemorates the younger's career as the imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another (CIL V 5667\\) identifies his father Lucius' village as present\\-day Fecchio (tribe Oufentina), a hamlet of [Cantù](/wiki/Cant%C3%B9 \"Cantù\"), near Como. Therefore, Plinia likely was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como.{{cite book\\|chapter\\=Appendix A: Inscriptions\\|title\\=The letters of the younger Pliny\\|author\\=Pliny the Younger\\|translator\\-first\\=Betty\\|translator\\-last\\=Radice\\|edition\\=6, revised, reprint, reissue, illustrated\\|publisher\\=Penguin Classics\\|year\\=1969\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-14\\-044127\\-7\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/lettersofyounger00plin}}",
"Gaius was a member of the [Plinia](/wiki/Plinia_gens \"Plinia gens\") *[gens](/wiki/Gens \"Gens\"):* the [Insubric](/wiki/Insubres \"Insubres\") root *Plina* still persists, with [rhotacism](/wiki/Rhotacism_%28sound_change%29 \"Rhotacism (sound change)\"), in the local surname \"Prina\". He did not take his father's [cognomen](/wiki/Cognomen \"Cognomen\"), Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, the Plinii Secundi. The family was prosperous; Pliny the Younger's combined inherited estates made him so wealthy that he could found a school and a library, endow a fund to feed the women and children of Como, and own numerous estates around [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") and Lake Como, as well as enrich some of his friends as a personal favor. No earlier instances of the Plinii are known.",
"In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Pliny's birth, [Julius Caesar](/wiki/Julius_Caesar \"Julius Caesar\") founded Novum Comum (reverting to Comum) as a {{lang\\|la\\|\\[\\[Colonia (Roman)\\|colonia]]}} to secure the region against the [Alpine tribes](/wiki/Rhaetian_people \"Rhaetian people\"), whom he had been unable to defeat. He imported a population of 4,500 from other provinces to be placed in [Comasco](/wiki/Comasco \"Comasco\") and 500 aristocratic Greeks to found Novum Comum itself.{{cite book\\|title\\=Some Problems in Roman History: Ten Essays Bearing on the Administrative and Legislative Work of Julius Caesar\\|first\\=Ernest George\\|last\\=Hardy\\|publisher\\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\= 978\\-1\\-58477\\-753\\-3\\|chapter\\=V Caesar's Colony at Novum Comum in 59 BC\\|pages\\=126–149}} The community was thus multi\\-ethnic and the Plinies could have come from anywhere. Whether any conclusions can be drawn from Pliny's preference for Greek words, or [Julius Pokorny](/wiki/Julius_Pokorny \"Julius Pokorny\")'s derivation of the name from north Italic as \"bald\"{{cite web\\|first\\=Julius\\|last\\=Pokorny\\|title\\=Indogermanisches Etymologisches Woerterbuch\\|language\\=de\\|pages\\=834\\|publisher\\=University of Leiden\\|url\\=http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927151807/http://www.indoeuropean.nl/index2\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2006}} is a matter of speculative opinion. No record of any ethnic distinctions in Pliny's time is apparent—the population considered themselves to be Roman citizens.",
"Pliny the Elder did not marry and had no children. In his will, he adopted his nephew, which entitled the latter to inherit the entire estate. The adoption is called a \"testamental adoption\" by writers on the topic,{{who?\\|date\\=April 2021}} who assert that it applied to the name change{{clarify\\|date\\=August 2024\\|post\\-text\\=what name change?}} only, but Roman jurisprudence recognizes no such category. Pliny the Younger thus became the adopted son of Pliny the Elder after the latter's death.{{cite book\\|author\\=Pliny the Younger\\|author2\\=Constantine E. Prichard; Edward R. Bernard (Editors)\\|title\\=Selected Letters\\|page\\=1\\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press\\|location\\=Oxford\\|year\\=1896}} For at least some of the time, however, Pliny the Elder resided in the same house in [Misenum](/wiki/Miseno \"Miseno\") with his sister and nephew (whose husband and father, respectively, had died young); they were living there when Pliny the Elder decided to investigate the eruption of [Mount Vesuvius](/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius \"Mount Vesuvius\"), and was sidetracked by the need for rescue operations and a messenger from his friend asking for assistance.",
""
] |
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