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Biography
---------
### Rebellious youth
[thumb\|150px\|left\|Eloy Alfaro](/wiki/File:Eloy_Alfaro.JPG "Eloy Alfaro.JPG")
Alfaro was born in [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador "Montecristi, Ecuador"), [Manabí](/wiki/Manab%C3%AD_Province "Manabí Province"), on 25 June 1842\. His father was don Manuel Alfaro y González, a Spanish Republican native of [Cervera del Río Alhama](/wiki/Cervera_del_R%C3%ADo_Alhama "Cervera del Río Alhama"), [La Rioja, Spain](/wiki/La_Rioja_%28Spain%29 "La Rioja (Spain)") who arrived in Ecuador as a political exile; his mother was doña María Natividad Delgado López.
Alfaro received his primary education in his place of birth. After graduation he dedicated himself to helping his father with his business negotiations. During his youth he aligned himself with anticlerical liberalism, a doctrine later embodied in the [Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Radical_Liberal_Party "Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party"). He fought against Presidents García Moreno, Borrero, Veintemilla and Camaño, and as a result he is traditionally known as the "Viejo Luchador" (Old Warrior). Eloy Alfaro experienced many serious difficulties in the various campaigns he initiated against the conservative Ecuadorian governments. He spent his fortune, acquired with the help of his Panamanian wife, Ana Paredes Arosemena, in those battles. Nine children were born of their marriage: Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Colombia, Colón, Bolívar(2\), Ana María, América, Olmedo, and Colón Eloy; Rafael was born out of wedlock.
From a very early age Alfaro participated in acts of rebellion. He almost lost his life in the disastrous naval battle of Alajuela when he tried to disembark in Ecuador with a troop of revolutionaries and was defeated by Conservative Government forces. When his ship sank, he saved himself from drowning by clinging to a barrel. He participated in the battles of [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador "Montecristi, Ecuador"), San Mateo, [Esmeraldas](/wiki/Esmeraldas%2C_Ecuador "Esmeraldas, Ecuador"), [Guayaquil](/wiki/Guayaquil "Guayaquil"), [Jaramijó](/wiki/Jaramij%C3%B3 "Jaramijó"), [Gatazo](/wiki/Gatazo "Gatazo"), [Cuenca](/wiki/Cuenca%2C_Ecuador "Cuenca, Ecuador"), and [Chasqui](/wiki/Chasqui "Chasqui").
Alfaro was a model father and was magnanimous with friends and the destitute. He supported various liberals, such as the writer [Juan Montalvo](/wiki/Juan_Montalvo "Juan Montalvo"), to whom he offered monetary assistance. Once in power, he glorified the memory of Montalvo as a great teacher and an example to the Ecuadorian people. Even though Alfaro was not very well\-educated, through force of character he was able to overcome this fault and impress others with his clear intelligence. During his exile, he travelled Central America and was granted the rank of "General de División" by the Nicaraguan Congress.
[thumb\|Representation of the Battle of Chasqui, you can see the montoneros of Eloy Alfaro before the battle.](/wiki/File:Batalla-de-Chasqui.jpg "Batalla-de-Chasqui.jpg")
### First presidency (1895–1901\)
Alfaro, head of the [Radical Liberals](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Radical_Liberal_Party "Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party"), was the leader of the [Ecuadorian Liberal Revolution](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1895 "Liberal Revolution of 1895"), carrying out a struggle that he waged from his youth in the 1860s until 1895 when the [liberals](/wiki/Liberalism "Liberalism") finally took power in a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat "Coup d'état"). In this uprising, he deposed President [Vicente Lucio Salazar](/wiki/Vicente_Lucio_Salazar "Vicente Lucio Salazar") and declared himself a [dictator](/wiki/Dictator "Dictator") on 5 June 1895 and was later named *constitutional president* from 17 January 1897 until 1 September 1901\. The principal accomplishment of his first government was the introduction of the principle of [secularism](/wiki/Secularism "Secularism"). Many public buildings in Quito including the [Instituto Nacional Mejía](/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_Mej%C3%ADa "Instituto Nacional Mejía") and the first purpose build siege of the [National Polytechnic School](/wiki/National_Polytechnic_School "National Polytechnic School") were commissioned in his administration to French architects.
### Second presidency (1906–1911\)
After initially supporting, but later coming to oppose, his successor, in 1906 he led another revolt, deposing elected President [Lizardo García](/wiki/Lizardo_Garc%C3%ADa "Lizardo García"), being declared supreme dictator by the army and continuing in office until 12 August 1911\.[New International Encyclopedia, Volume 7](https://books.google.com/books?id=dhUoAAAAYAAJ&pg), p. 461, Dodd, Mead \& Co. 1915 During this second presidency he enacted a number of changes, among them [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech "Freedom of speech") and the legalization of [civil marriage](/wiki/Civil_marriage "Civil marriage") and divorce. He constructed numerous public schools and inaugurated the right to a free and secular education. What is considered to be his greatest public work during this period was the completion of the Ferrocarril Transandino (Trans\-Andean Railroad) connecting [Guayaquil](/wiki/Guayaquil "Guayaquil") to [Quito](/wiki/Quito "Quito"). Consistent with his anticlericalism, he suppressed the influence of the Catholic Church while in office.Roos, Wilma and Omer Van Renterghem, [*Ecuador: a guide to the people, politics and culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9T9RPRRR1z0C&pg), p. 14, Interlink Books 2000 He seized much property of the Church, expelled religious orders and prohibited the establishment of any new monasteries or convents.Jedin, Hubert, Roger Aubert, and John Dolan [History of the Church, Vol. IX, The Church in the industrial age](https://books.google.com/books?id=DANJJZnw2aIC&pg), p. 133, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1981 His attempts to secularize Ecuadorian society were opposed by the Archbishop of Quito [Federico González Suárez](/wiki/Federico_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Su%C3%A1rez "Federico González Suárez").Domenico, Roy P. and Mark Y. Hanley, [*Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8ZixRcQfV8C&pg), p. 244, 2006 Greenwood Publishing
[thumb\|upright\=1\|Mosaic of Eloy Alfaro in his hometown of Montecristi](/wiki/File:MONTECRISTI%2C_CENTRAL_PLAZA%2C_ECUADOR.jpg "MONTECRISTI, CENTRAL PLAZA, ECUADOR.jpg")
In 1911, he was removed from office by his former supporters. In 1911 he tried to strike a blow at the State in an attempt to return to power. He was captured near Guayaquil and sent to Quito on the railroad he had constructed. After he left office, during the administration of [Emilio Estrada](/wiki/Emilio_Estrada "Emilio Estrada") Carmona, Alfaro was severely critical of the government and his followers soon began to organize a series of military insurrections. Alfaro was exiled to Panama during the interim government of [Carlos Freile Zaldumbide](/wiki/Carlos_Freile_Zaldumbide "Carlos Freile Zaldumbide"). He returned to Ecuador on 4 January 1912, and attempted another coup but was defeated, arrested and jailed by General [Leonidas Plaza](/wiki/Leonidas_Plaza "Leonidas Plaza").
### Assassination
[thumb](/wiki/File:AL_MEDIOD%C3%8DA_EN_EL_CENTRO_DE_QUITO.jpg "AL MEDIODÍA EN EL CENTRO DE QUITO.jpg")
On 28 January 1912, a group of pro\-Catholic soldiers whose motto was "Muerte al indio Alfaro" (death to the Indian Alfaro), supported by a mob, broke into the prison where Alfaro and his colleagues were detained and dragged them along the cobbled streets of the city center. They were all dead when the horde arrived at the esplanade of [El Ejido](/wiki/Ejido "Ejido") (city gardens){{cite web\|url\=http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/a/alfaro\_eloy.htm\|title\=Biografia de Eloy Alfaro\|publisher\=biografiasyvidas.com}} in the northern outskirts of town. The crowd finally burnt the corpses in the area where the present day park of [El Ejido](/wiki/El_Ejido "El Ejido") is located.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.in\-quito.com/parks\-quito\-ecuador/quito\-parks\-el\-egido.htm\|title\=Quito parks\|publisher\=in\-quito.com}} (A monument was erected in the 1960s at the site.) Days later, Alfaro's remains were buried in Quito, in secret. They were transported to Guayaquil and deposited in a mausoleum there at some time in the 1940s. On the initiative of President [Rafael Correa](/wiki/Rafael_Correa "Rafael Correa") (in office from 2007 – 2017\), some of the ashes of Eloy Alfaro were exhumed and re\-interred with honors in the city of [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador "Montecristi, Ecuador"), seat of the 2008 [National Constitutional Convention](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Constituent_Assembly "Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Rebellious youth",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|left\\|Eloy Alfaro](/wiki/File:Eloy_Alfaro.JPG \"Eloy Alfaro.JPG\")",
"Alfaro was born in [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador \"Montecristi, Ecuador\"), [Manabí](/wiki/Manab%C3%AD_Province \"Manabí Province\"), on 25 June 1842\\. His father was don Manuel Alfaro y González, a Spanish Republican native of [Cervera del Río Alhama](/wiki/Cervera_del_R%C3%ADo_Alhama \"Cervera del Río Alhama\"), [La Rioja, Spain](/wiki/La_Rioja_%28Spain%29 \"La Rioja (Spain)\") who arrived in Ecuador as a political exile; his mother was doña María Natividad Delgado López.",
"Alfaro received his primary education in his place of birth. After graduation he dedicated himself to helping his father with his business negotiations. During his youth he aligned himself with anticlerical liberalism, a doctrine later embodied in the [Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Radical_Liberal_Party \"Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party\"). He fought against Presidents García Moreno, Borrero, Veintemilla and Camaño, and as a result he is traditionally known as the \"Viejo Luchador\" (Old Warrior). Eloy Alfaro experienced many serious difficulties in the various campaigns he initiated against the conservative Ecuadorian governments. He spent his fortune, acquired with the help of his Panamanian wife, Ana Paredes Arosemena, in those battles. Nine children were born of their marriage: Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Colombia, Colón, Bolívar(2\\), Ana María, América, Olmedo, and Colón Eloy; Rafael was born out of wedlock.",
"From a very early age Alfaro participated in acts of rebellion. He almost lost his life in the disastrous naval battle of Alajuela when he tried to disembark in Ecuador with a troop of revolutionaries and was defeated by Conservative Government forces. When his ship sank, he saved himself from drowning by clinging to a barrel. He participated in the battles of [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador \"Montecristi, Ecuador\"), San Mateo, [Esmeraldas](/wiki/Esmeraldas%2C_Ecuador \"Esmeraldas, Ecuador\"), [Guayaquil](/wiki/Guayaquil \"Guayaquil\"), [Jaramijó](/wiki/Jaramij%C3%B3 \"Jaramijó\"), [Gatazo](/wiki/Gatazo \"Gatazo\"), [Cuenca](/wiki/Cuenca%2C_Ecuador \"Cuenca, Ecuador\"), and [Chasqui](/wiki/Chasqui \"Chasqui\").",
"Alfaro was a model father and was magnanimous with friends and the destitute. He supported various liberals, such as the writer [Juan Montalvo](/wiki/Juan_Montalvo \"Juan Montalvo\"), to whom he offered monetary assistance. Once in power, he glorified the memory of Montalvo as a great teacher and an example to the Ecuadorian people. Even though Alfaro was not very well\\-educated, through force of character he was able to overcome this fault and impress others with his clear intelligence. During his exile, he travelled Central America and was granted the rank of \"General de División\" by the Nicaraguan Congress.\n[thumb\\|Representation of the Battle of Chasqui, you can see the montoneros of Eloy Alfaro before the battle.](/wiki/File:Batalla-de-Chasqui.jpg \"Batalla-de-Chasqui.jpg\")\n### First presidency (1895–1901\\)",
"Alfaro, head of the [Radical Liberals](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Radical_Liberal_Party \"Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party\"), was the leader of the [Ecuadorian Liberal Revolution](/wiki/Liberal_Revolution_of_1895 \"Liberal Revolution of 1895\"), carrying out a struggle that he waged from his youth in the 1860s until 1895 when the [liberals](/wiki/Liberalism \"Liberalism\") finally took power in a [coup d'état](/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat \"Coup d'état\"). In this uprising, he deposed President [Vicente Lucio Salazar](/wiki/Vicente_Lucio_Salazar \"Vicente Lucio Salazar\") and declared himself a [dictator](/wiki/Dictator \"Dictator\") on 5 June 1895 and was later named *constitutional president* from 17 January 1897 until 1 September 1901\\. The principal accomplishment of his first government was the introduction of the principle of [secularism](/wiki/Secularism \"Secularism\"). Many public buildings in Quito including the [Instituto Nacional Mejía](/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_Mej%C3%ADa \"Instituto Nacional Mejía\") and the first purpose build siege of the [National Polytechnic School](/wiki/National_Polytechnic_School \"National Polytechnic School\") were commissioned in his administration to French architects.",
"### Second presidency (1906–1911\\)",
"After initially supporting, but later coming to oppose, his successor, in 1906 he led another revolt, deposing elected President [Lizardo García](/wiki/Lizardo_Garc%C3%ADa \"Lizardo García\"), being declared supreme dictator by the army and continuing in office until 12 August 1911\\.[New International Encyclopedia, Volume 7](https://books.google.com/books?id=dhUoAAAAYAAJ&pg), p. 461, Dodd, Mead \\& Co. 1915 During this second presidency he enacted a number of changes, among them [freedom of speech](/wiki/Freedom_of_speech \"Freedom of speech\") and the legalization of [civil marriage](/wiki/Civil_marriage \"Civil marriage\") and divorce. He constructed numerous public schools and inaugurated the right to a free and secular education. What is considered to be his greatest public work during this period was the completion of the Ferrocarril Transandino (Trans\\-Andean Railroad) connecting [Guayaquil](/wiki/Guayaquil \"Guayaquil\") to [Quito](/wiki/Quito \"Quito\"). Consistent with his anticlericalism, he suppressed the influence of the Catholic Church while in office.Roos, Wilma and Omer Van Renterghem, [*Ecuador: a guide to the people, politics and culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9T9RPRRR1z0C&pg), p. 14, Interlink Books 2000 He seized much property of the Church, expelled religious orders and prohibited the establishment of any new monasteries or convents.Jedin, Hubert, Roger Aubert, and John Dolan [History of the Church, Vol. IX, The Church in the industrial age](https://books.google.com/books?id=DANJJZnw2aIC&pg), p. 133, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1981 His attempts to secularize Ecuadorian society were opposed by the Archbishop of Quito [Federico González Suárez](/wiki/Federico_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Su%C3%A1rez \"Federico González Suárez\").Domenico, Roy P. and Mark Y. Hanley, [*Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8ZixRcQfV8C&pg), p. 244, 2006 Greenwood Publishing\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\|Mosaic of Eloy Alfaro in his hometown of Montecristi](/wiki/File:MONTECRISTI%2C_CENTRAL_PLAZA%2C_ECUADOR.jpg \"MONTECRISTI, CENTRAL PLAZA, ECUADOR.jpg\")\nIn 1911, he was removed from office by his former supporters. In 1911 he tried to strike a blow at the State in an attempt to return to power. He was captured near Guayaquil and sent to Quito on the railroad he had constructed. After he left office, during the administration of [Emilio Estrada](/wiki/Emilio_Estrada \"Emilio Estrada\") Carmona, Alfaro was severely critical of the government and his followers soon began to organize a series of military insurrections. Alfaro was exiled to Panama during the interim government of [Carlos Freile Zaldumbide](/wiki/Carlos_Freile_Zaldumbide \"Carlos Freile Zaldumbide\"). He returned to Ecuador on 4 January 1912, and attempted another coup but was defeated, arrested and jailed by General [Leonidas Plaza](/wiki/Leonidas_Plaza \"Leonidas Plaza\").",
"### Assassination",
"[thumb](/wiki/File:AL_MEDIOD%C3%8DA_EN_EL_CENTRO_DE_QUITO.jpg \"AL MEDIODÍA EN EL CENTRO DE QUITO.jpg\")\nOn 28 January 1912, a group of pro\\-Catholic soldiers whose motto was \"Muerte al indio Alfaro\" (death to the Indian Alfaro), supported by a mob, broke into the prison where Alfaro and his colleagues were detained and dragged them along the cobbled streets of the city center. They were all dead when the horde arrived at the esplanade of [El Ejido](/wiki/Ejido \"Ejido\") (city gardens){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/a/alfaro\\_eloy.htm\\|title\\=Biografia de Eloy Alfaro\\|publisher\\=biografiasyvidas.com}} in the northern outskirts of town. The crowd finally burnt the corpses in the area where the present day park of [El Ejido](/wiki/El_Ejido \"El Ejido\") is located.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.in\\-quito.com/parks\\-quito\\-ecuador/quito\\-parks\\-el\\-egido.htm\\|title\\=Quito parks\\|publisher\\=in\\-quito.com}} (A monument was erected in the 1960s at the site.) Days later, Alfaro's remains were buried in Quito, in secret. They were transported to Guayaquil and deposited in a mausoleum there at some time in the 1940s. On the initiative of President [Rafael Correa](/wiki/Rafael_Correa \"Rafael Correa\") (in office from 2007 – 2017\\), some of the ashes of Eloy Alfaro were exhumed and re\\-interred with honors in the city of [Montecristi](/wiki/Montecristi%2C_Ecuador \"Montecristi, Ecuador\"), seat of the 2008 [National Constitutional Convention](/wiki/Ecuadorian_Constituent_Assembly \"Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly\").",
""
] |
Career
------
### 1996–2010
Cara has won five [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 "Grand Slam (tennis)") women's doubles titles in her career: [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon "The Championships, Wimbledon") 2004, 2005, and 2007; Australian Open 2007; and [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 "US Open (tennis)") 2008\. She reached the [2000 US Open](/wiki/2000_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2000 US Open (tennis)") doubles final with [Elena Likhovtseva](/wiki/Elena_Likhovtseva "Elena Likhovtseva"). She has also won five Grand Slam mixed doubles titles, two of them partnering with her brother Wayne: the [2002 French Open](/wiki/2002_French_Open "2002 French Open") and the [2004 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2004_Wimbledon_Championships "2004 Wimbledon Championships") (they reached the final of the [2004 French Open](/wiki/2004_French_Open "2004 French Open") and the semifinals of the [2003 French Open](/wiki/2003_French_Open "2003 French Open") and [2003 US Open](/wiki/2003_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2003 US Open (tennis)")). She won three further titles in partnership with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes"): the [2008 US Open](/wiki/2008_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2008 US Open (tennis)"), the [2010 Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open "2010 Australian Open") and the [2010 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships "2010 Wimbledon Championships").
From 1996 through to 2000, Black's debut years, she won 8 ITF doubles titles, 1 WTA doubles title in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland"), and 4 ITF singles titles.
Her only WTA singles title came at [Waikoloa](/wiki/Waikoloa_Championships "Waikoloa Championships") in 2002\. She also won a big ITF doubles tournament in [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California "Santa Clara, California") in 1999\.
In November 2005, Black was runner\-up in the WTA Championships doubles title. Australian [Samantha Stosur](/wiki/Samantha_Stosur "Samantha Stosur") and American [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond "Lisa Raymond") defeated Australian [Rennae Stubbs](/wiki/Rennae_Stubbs "Rennae Stubbs") and Black 6–7 (5–7\), 7–5, 6–4\.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/mauresmo\-wins\-biggest\-title\-of\-career/2005/11/14/1131951100524\.html \| location\=Melbourne \| work\=The Age \| title\=Mauresmo wins biggest title of career \| date\=15 November 2005}}
In 2007, Black came back to partner [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber "Liezel Huber"). They won the [2007 Australian Open](/wiki/2007_Australian_Open "2007 Australian Open") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2007_Wimbledon_Championships "2007 Wimbledon Championships"). The team ended the year as the number one team, winning the year\-end championships over [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik "Katarina Srebotnik") and [Ai Sugiyama](/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama "Ai Sugiyama") 5–7, 6–3, \[10–8].{{cite news\|author\=\[\[Women's Tennis Association]] \|url\=http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\=1899 \|title\=Black, Huber Enjoy Season\-Ending Glory in Madrid \|date\=11 November 2007 \|access\-date\=11 November 2007 \|publisher\=Women's Tennis Association \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114190740/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\=1899 \|archive\-date\=14 November 2007 }}
Black [represented Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics "Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics") at the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics "2008 Summer Olympics") in Beijing.["Zimbabwean Tennis Star Ready for Her Third Olympic Appearance"](https://archive.today/20120708074704/http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/04/30/1722@352270.htm), Xinhua, 30 April 2008 She lost to 2nd seeded [Jelena Janković](/wiki/Jelena_Jankovi%C4%87 "Jelena Janković") from Serbia in the first round on 11 August 2008\. She teamed up with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes") from India for the [mixed doubles](/wiki/Mixed_doubles_%28tennis%29 "Mixed doubles (tennis)") at the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 "US Open (tennis)"), triumphing over [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber "Liezel Huber") and [Jamie Murray](/wiki/Jamie_Murray "Jamie Murray") in the finals.
In 2009, she won five doubles titles leading to the year\-end championships in [Doha, Qatar](/wiki/2009_WTA_Tour_Championships "2009 WTA Tour Championships").
Black started 2010 strongly by winning two tournaments leading up to the [Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open "2010 Australian Open"), coming to the slam with an unbeaten record. Black made it to the finals in both the women's doubles and mixed doubles. She and Huber lost the women's doubles final to Venus and [Serena Williams](/wiki/Serena_Williams "Serena Williams") in straight sets, 4–6, 3–6\. However, she and [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes") won the mixed doubles in straight sets. The victory marked Black's first mixed doubles victory at the Australian Open. The victory also completed a 'Career Grand Slam' in mixed doubles.
Black and Huber broke up as exclusive doubles partners in April 2010\. Since then, Black has partnered with [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er "Shahar Pe'er"), [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina "Elena Vesnina"), [Yan Zi](/wiki/Yan_Zi_%28tennis%29 "Yan Zi (tennis)"), [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond "Lisa Raymond"), [Daniela Hantuchová](/wiki/Daniela_Hantuchov%C3%A1 "Daniela Hantuchová"), [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic "Marina Erakovic"), and [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova "Anastasia Rodionova"). Even though she made the final of [Warsaw](/wiki/2010_Polsat_Warsaw_Open "2010 Polsat Warsaw Open") and won a small tournament in [Birmingham](/wiki/2010_Aegon_Classic "2010 Aegon Classic"), she mostly achieved modest results after the break\-up. Partnering with Vesnina and Hantuchová respectively, she lost in the third round of the [French Open](/wiki/2010_French_Open "2010 French Open") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships "2010 Wimbledon Championships"). Partnering with Rodionova, she lost in the semifinals of the US Open to eventual champions [Vania King](/wiki/Vania_King "Vania King") and [Yaroslava Shvedova](/wiki/Yaroslava_Shvedova "Yaroslava Shvedova"). Black then missed all tournaments following the US Open and did not qualify for the [WTA Championships](/wiki/WTA_Tour_Championships "WTA Tour Championships") for the first time since 1999\. Black ended 2010 ranked 13th in doubles, the first time she finished a year outside the top 10 since 2000\.
However, Black continued her successful partnership with Paes in 2010 as the pair won the mixed\-doubles title at Wimbledon and reached the quarterfinals at the US Open.
### 2011
Entering the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_WTA_Tour "2011 WTA Tour"), Black continued her partnership with Australian [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova "Anastasia Rodionova") where they reached the semifinal of the [Brisbane International](/wiki/2011_Brisbane_International "2011 Brisbane International") and lost in the first round of [Sydney International](/wiki/2011_Medibank_International_Sydney "2011 Medibank International Sydney").
During the [Australian Open](/wiki/2011_Australian_Open "2011 Australian Open"), Black and Rodionova were seeded fifth and reached the quarterfinals where they lost to Huber and [Nadia Petrova](/wiki/Nadia_Petrova "Nadia Petrova"). In mixed doubles, Black partnered with Leander Paes and they were seeded fourth. They were eliminated in the second round by [Chan Yung\-jan](/wiki/Chan_Yung-jan "Chan Yung-jan") and [Paul Hanley](/wiki/Paul_Hanley_%28tennis%29 "Paul Hanley (tennis)") in a tight straight sets loss, 6–7, 6–7\. Despite Black being eliminated from both doubles and mixed doubles, Black was a sideline commentator for Seven, including the grand final for ladies doubles, and was present for former doubles partner Rennae Stubbs's speech.
Then, Black did not play until June, where she returned at the [ITF Nottingham](/wiki/2011_Aegon_Trophy "2011 Aegon Trophy"). She paired\-up with Russian [Arina Rodionova](/wiki/Arina_Rodionova "Arina Rodionova"). She was eliminated in the first round. Her next tournament was the [Nottingham Challenge](/wiki/2011_Aegon_Nottingham_Challenge "2011 Aegon Nottingham Challenge") where she made it to the quarterfinals alongside British [Sarah Borwell](/wiki/Sarah_Borwell "Sarah Borwell"). Then, at the [Eastbourne International](/wiki/2011_Aegon_International "2011 Aegon International"), she and Israeli [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er "Shahar Pe'er") were eliminated in the quarterfinals.
Going into the [Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2011_Wimbledon_Championships "2011 Wimbledon Championships"), she lost in her third round match to eventual champions [Květa Peschke](/wiki/Kv%C4%9Bta_Peschke "Květa Peschke") and [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik "Katarina Srebotnik"). In mixed doubles, she lost in the quarterfinals with Indian [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes") against [Daniel Nestor](/wiki/Daniel_Nestor "Daniel Nestor") and [Yung\-Jan Chan](/wiki/Yung-Jan_Chan "Yung-Jan Chan").
### 2012
Black did not compete on the [WTA Tour](/wiki/WTA_Tour "WTA Tour") during 2012, and began playing again in October on two $25k events in Australia with [Arina Rodionova](/wiki/Arina_Rodionova "Arina Rodionova"). The pair won the title in [Traralgon](/wiki/Traralgon "Traralgon"), defeating [Ashleigh Barty](/wiki/Ashleigh_Barty "Ashleigh Barty") and [Sally Peers](/wiki/Sally_Peers "Sally Peers") in the final. However, Black and Rodionova lost to the same team in the finals of [Bendigo](/wiki/Bendigo "Bendigo") the following week. She finished the year ranked outside the world's top 600\.
### 2013: Return to the top 20
During the 2013 season, Black had a significant comeback, as she returned to the [WTA Tour](/wiki/2013_WTA_Tour "2013 WTA Tour") at the [Auckland Open](/wiki/WTA_Auckland_Open "WTA Auckland Open"), partnering [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova "Anastasia Rodionova") in doubles. The pair managed to defeat the top three seeds to win the doubles title, Black's first WTA doubles title with Rodionova, and her first doubles title since 2010\. Black and Rodionova lost in the 3rd round of the [Australian Open](/wiki/2013_Australian_Open "2013 Australian Open"), and won only one match between [Indian Wells](/wiki/2013_BNP_Paribas_Open "2013 BNP Paribas Open") and [Miami](/wiki/2013_Sony_Open_Tennis "2013 Sony Open Tennis"), after which the two parted ways. During the clay court season, Black began playing alongside [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic "Marina Erakovic"), and they made an immediate impact, reaching the finals of the Premier Mandatory tournament in [Madrid](/wiki/2013_Mutua_Madrid_Open "2013 Mutua Madrid Open"), as well as in [Strasbourg](/wiki/2013_Internationaux_de_Strasbourg "2013 Internationaux de Strasbourg"). At the [French Open](/wiki/2013_French_Open "2013 French Open"), the pair reached the quarterfinals before losing to second seeds [Andrea Hlaváčková](/wiki/Andrea_Hlav%C3%A1%C4%8Dkov%C3%A1 "Andrea Hlaváčková") and [Lucie Hradecká](/wiki/Lucie_Hradeck%C3%A1 "Lucie Hradecká"). Despite reaching the final of the [Birmingham Classic](/wiki/2013_Aegon_Classic "2013 Aegon Classic"), Black and Erakovic went out in the second round of [Wimbledon](/wiki/2013_Wimbledon_Championships "2013 Wimbledon Championships"). After losing their opening match in [Cincinnati](/wiki/2013_Western_%26_Southern_Open "2013 Western & Southern Open"), the pair reached the third round of the [US Open](/wiki/2013_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2013 US Open (tennis)"), losing to [Ekaterina Makarova](/wiki/Ekaterina_Makarova "Ekaterina Makarova") and [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina "Elena Vesnina") of Russia.
Black began working with [Sania Mirza](/wiki/Sania_Mirza "Sania Mirza") in September, with whom she ended up winning back to back Premier\-5 tournaments in the far east. In [Tokyo](/wiki/2013_Toray_Pan_Pacific_Open "2013 Toray Pan Pacific Open"), Black and Mirza defeated the top seeded team of [Hsieh Su\-wei](/wiki/Hsieh_Su-wei "Hsieh Su-wei") and [Peng Shuai](/wiki/Peng_Shuai "Peng Shuai") in the semifinals before taking out [Chan Hao\-ching](/wiki/Chan_Hao-ching "Chan Hao-ching") and [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber "Liezel Huber"). It was Black's first Premier 5 title since 2009, and her second of the season. This was immediately followed by a win at the [China Open](/wiki/2013_China_Open_%28tennis%29 "2013 China Open (tennis)"), where en route to the final, they once again took out the top seeds of world number 1 team [Sara Errani](/wiki/Sara_Errani "Sara Errani") and [Roberta Vinci](/wiki/Roberta_Vinci "Roberta Vinci") in the semifinals, before defeating [Vera Dushevina](/wiki/Vera_Dushevina "Vera Dushevina") and [Arantxa Parra Santonja](/wiki/Arantxa_Parra_Santonja "Arantxa Parra Santonja") in the final. It was the first time since 2010 that Black had won back\-to\-back doubles titles, and it took her back up into the world's top 20, finishing the year ranked number 13 in the world.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### 1996–2010",
"Cara has won five [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 \"Grand Slam (tennis)\") women's doubles titles in her career: [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon \"The Championships, Wimbledon\") 2004, 2005, and 2007; Australian Open 2007; and [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"US Open (tennis)\") 2008\\. She reached the [2000 US Open](/wiki/2000_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2000 US Open (tennis)\") doubles final with [Elena Likhovtseva](/wiki/Elena_Likhovtseva \"Elena Likhovtseva\"). She has also won five Grand Slam mixed doubles titles, two of them partnering with her brother Wayne: the [2002 French Open](/wiki/2002_French_Open \"2002 French Open\") and the [2004 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2004_Wimbledon_Championships \"2004 Wimbledon Championships\") (they reached the final of the [2004 French Open](/wiki/2004_French_Open \"2004 French Open\") and the semifinals of the [2003 French Open](/wiki/2003_French_Open \"2003 French Open\") and [2003 US Open](/wiki/2003_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2003 US Open (tennis)\")). She won three further titles in partnership with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\"): the [2008 US Open](/wiki/2008_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2008 US Open (tennis)\"), the [2010 Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open \"2010 Australian Open\") and the [2010 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships \"2010 Wimbledon Championships\").",
"From 1996 through to 2000, Black's debut years, she won 8 ITF doubles titles, 1 WTA doubles title in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\"), and 4 ITF singles titles.",
"Her only WTA singles title came at [Waikoloa](/wiki/Waikoloa_Championships \"Waikoloa Championships\") in 2002\\. She also won a big ITF doubles tournament in [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California \"Santa Clara, California\") in 1999\\.\nIn November 2005, Black was runner\\-up in the WTA Championships doubles title. Australian [Samantha Stosur](/wiki/Samantha_Stosur \"Samantha Stosur\") and American [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond \"Lisa Raymond\") defeated Australian [Rennae Stubbs](/wiki/Rennae_Stubbs \"Rennae Stubbs\") and Black 6–7 (5–7\\), 7–5, 6–4\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/mauresmo\\-wins\\-biggest\\-title\\-of\\-career/2005/11/14/1131951100524\\.html \\| location\\=Melbourne \\| work\\=The Age \\| title\\=Mauresmo wins biggest title of career \\| date\\=15 November 2005}}",
"In 2007, Black came back to partner [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber \"Liezel Huber\"). They won the [2007 Australian Open](/wiki/2007_Australian_Open \"2007 Australian Open\") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2007_Wimbledon_Championships \"2007 Wimbledon Championships\"). The team ended the year as the number one team, winning the year\\-end championships over [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik \"Katarina Srebotnik\") and [Ai Sugiyama](/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama \"Ai Sugiyama\") 5–7, 6–3, \\[10–8].{{cite news\\|author\\=\\[\\[Women's Tennis Association]] \\|url\\=http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\\=1899 \\|title\\=Black, Huber Enjoy Season\\-Ending Glory in Madrid \\|date\\=11 November 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2007 \\|publisher\\=Women's Tennis Association \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114190740/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\\=1899 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2007 }}",
"Black [represented Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics \"Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics\") at the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics \"2008 Summer Olympics\") in Beijing.[\"Zimbabwean Tennis Star Ready for Her Third Olympic Appearance\"](https://archive.today/20120708074704/http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/04/30/1722@352270.htm), Xinhua, 30 April 2008 She lost to 2nd seeded [Jelena Janković](/wiki/Jelena_Jankovi%C4%87 \"Jelena Janković\") from Serbia in the first round on 11 August 2008\\. She teamed up with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\") from India for the [mixed doubles](/wiki/Mixed_doubles_%28tennis%29 \"Mixed doubles (tennis)\") at the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"US Open (tennis)\"), triumphing over [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber \"Liezel Huber\") and [Jamie Murray](/wiki/Jamie_Murray \"Jamie Murray\") in the finals.",
"In 2009, she won five doubles titles leading to the year\\-end championships in [Doha, Qatar](/wiki/2009_WTA_Tour_Championships \"2009 WTA Tour Championships\").",
"Black started 2010 strongly by winning two tournaments leading up to the [Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open \"2010 Australian Open\"), coming to the slam with an unbeaten record. Black made it to the finals in both the women's doubles and mixed doubles. She and Huber lost the women's doubles final to Venus and [Serena Williams](/wiki/Serena_Williams \"Serena Williams\") in straight sets, 4–6, 3–6\\. However, she and [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\") won the mixed doubles in straight sets. The victory marked Black's first mixed doubles victory at the Australian Open. The victory also completed a 'Career Grand Slam' in mixed doubles.",
"Black and Huber broke up as exclusive doubles partners in April 2010\\. Since then, Black has partnered with [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er \"Shahar Pe'er\"), [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina \"Elena Vesnina\"), [Yan Zi](/wiki/Yan_Zi_%28tennis%29 \"Yan Zi (tennis)\"), [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond \"Lisa Raymond\"), [Daniela Hantuchová](/wiki/Daniela_Hantuchov%C3%A1 \"Daniela Hantuchová\"), [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic \"Marina Erakovic\"), and [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova \"Anastasia Rodionova\"). Even though she made the final of [Warsaw](/wiki/2010_Polsat_Warsaw_Open \"2010 Polsat Warsaw Open\") and won a small tournament in [Birmingham](/wiki/2010_Aegon_Classic \"2010 Aegon Classic\"), she mostly achieved modest results after the break\\-up. Partnering with Vesnina and Hantuchová respectively, she lost in the third round of the [French Open](/wiki/2010_French_Open \"2010 French Open\") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships \"2010 Wimbledon Championships\"). Partnering with Rodionova, she lost in the semifinals of the US Open to eventual champions [Vania King](/wiki/Vania_King \"Vania King\") and [Yaroslava Shvedova](/wiki/Yaroslava_Shvedova \"Yaroslava Shvedova\"). Black then missed all tournaments following the US Open and did not qualify for the [WTA Championships](/wiki/WTA_Tour_Championships \"WTA Tour Championships\") for the first time since 1999\\. Black ended 2010 ranked 13th in doubles, the first time she finished a year outside the top 10 since 2000\\.",
"However, Black continued her successful partnership with Paes in 2010 as the pair won the mixed\\-doubles title at Wimbledon and reached the quarterfinals at the US Open.",
"### 2011",
"Entering the [2011 season](/wiki/2011_WTA_Tour \"2011 WTA Tour\"), Black continued her partnership with Australian [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova \"Anastasia Rodionova\") where they reached the semifinal of the [Brisbane International](/wiki/2011_Brisbane_International \"2011 Brisbane International\") and lost in the first round of [Sydney International](/wiki/2011_Medibank_International_Sydney \"2011 Medibank International Sydney\").",
"During the [Australian Open](/wiki/2011_Australian_Open \"2011 Australian Open\"), Black and Rodionova were seeded fifth and reached the quarterfinals where they lost to Huber and [Nadia Petrova](/wiki/Nadia_Petrova \"Nadia Petrova\"). In mixed doubles, Black partnered with Leander Paes and they were seeded fourth. They were eliminated in the second round by [Chan Yung\\-jan](/wiki/Chan_Yung-jan \"Chan Yung-jan\") and [Paul Hanley](/wiki/Paul_Hanley_%28tennis%29 \"Paul Hanley (tennis)\") in a tight straight sets loss, 6–7, 6–7\\. Despite Black being eliminated from both doubles and mixed doubles, Black was a sideline commentator for Seven, including the grand final for ladies doubles, and was present for former doubles partner Rennae Stubbs's speech.",
"Then, Black did not play until June, where she returned at the [ITF Nottingham](/wiki/2011_Aegon_Trophy \"2011 Aegon Trophy\"). She paired\\-up with Russian [Arina Rodionova](/wiki/Arina_Rodionova \"Arina Rodionova\"). She was eliminated in the first round. Her next tournament was the [Nottingham Challenge](/wiki/2011_Aegon_Nottingham_Challenge \"2011 Aegon Nottingham Challenge\") where she made it to the quarterfinals alongside British [Sarah Borwell](/wiki/Sarah_Borwell \"Sarah Borwell\"). Then, at the [Eastbourne International](/wiki/2011_Aegon_International \"2011 Aegon International\"), she and Israeli [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er \"Shahar Pe'er\") were eliminated in the quarterfinals.",
"Going into the [Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2011_Wimbledon_Championships \"2011 Wimbledon Championships\"), she lost in her third round match to eventual champions [Květa Peschke](/wiki/Kv%C4%9Bta_Peschke \"Květa Peschke\") and [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik \"Katarina Srebotnik\"). In mixed doubles, she lost in the quarterfinals with Indian [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\") against [Daniel Nestor](/wiki/Daniel_Nestor \"Daniel Nestor\") and [Yung\\-Jan Chan](/wiki/Yung-Jan_Chan \"Yung-Jan Chan\").",
"### 2012",
"Black did not compete on the [WTA Tour](/wiki/WTA_Tour \"WTA Tour\") during 2012, and began playing again in October on two $25k events in Australia with [Arina Rodionova](/wiki/Arina_Rodionova \"Arina Rodionova\"). The pair won the title in [Traralgon](/wiki/Traralgon \"Traralgon\"), defeating [Ashleigh Barty](/wiki/Ashleigh_Barty \"Ashleigh Barty\") and [Sally Peers](/wiki/Sally_Peers \"Sally Peers\") in the final. However, Black and Rodionova lost to the same team in the finals of [Bendigo](/wiki/Bendigo \"Bendigo\") the following week. She finished the year ranked outside the world's top 600\\.",
"### 2013: Return to the top 20",
"During the 2013 season, Black had a significant comeback, as she returned to the [WTA Tour](/wiki/2013_WTA_Tour \"2013 WTA Tour\") at the [Auckland Open](/wiki/WTA_Auckland_Open \"WTA Auckland Open\"), partnering [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova \"Anastasia Rodionova\") in doubles. The pair managed to defeat the top three seeds to win the doubles title, Black's first WTA doubles title with Rodionova, and her first doubles title since 2010\\. Black and Rodionova lost in the 3rd round of the [Australian Open](/wiki/2013_Australian_Open \"2013 Australian Open\"), and won only one match between [Indian Wells](/wiki/2013_BNP_Paribas_Open \"2013 BNP Paribas Open\") and [Miami](/wiki/2013_Sony_Open_Tennis \"2013 Sony Open Tennis\"), after which the two parted ways. During the clay court season, Black began playing alongside [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic \"Marina Erakovic\"), and they made an immediate impact, reaching the finals of the Premier Mandatory tournament in [Madrid](/wiki/2013_Mutua_Madrid_Open \"2013 Mutua Madrid Open\"), as well as in [Strasbourg](/wiki/2013_Internationaux_de_Strasbourg \"2013 Internationaux de Strasbourg\"). At the [French Open](/wiki/2013_French_Open \"2013 French Open\"), the pair reached the quarterfinals before losing to second seeds [Andrea Hlaváčková](/wiki/Andrea_Hlav%C3%A1%C4%8Dkov%C3%A1 \"Andrea Hlaváčková\") and [Lucie Hradecká](/wiki/Lucie_Hradeck%C3%A1 \"Lucie Hradecká\"). Despite reaching the final of the [Birmingham Classic](/wiki/2013_Aegon_Classic \"2013 Aegon Classic\"), Black and Erakovic went out in the second round of [Wimbledon](/wiki/2013_Wimbledon_Championships \"2013 Wimbledon Championships\"). After losing their opening match in [Cincinnati](/wiki/2013_Western_%26_Southern_Open \"2013 Western & Southern Open\"), the pair reached the third round of the [US Open](/wiki/2013_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2013 US Open (tennis)\"), losing to [Ekaterina Makarova](/wiki/Ekaterina_Makarova \"Ekaterina Makarova\") and [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina \"Elena Vesnina\") of Russia.",
"Black began working with [Sania Mirza](/wiki/Sania_Mirza \"Sania Mirza\") in September, with whom she ended up winning back to back Premier\\-5 tournaments in the far east. In [Tokyo](/wiki/2013_Toray_Pan_Pacific_Open \"2013 Toray Pan Pacific Open\"), Black and Mirza defeated the top seeded team of [Hsieh Su\\-wei](/wiki/Hsieh_Su-wei \"Hsieh Su-wei\") and [Peng Shuai](/wiki/Peng_Shuai \"Peng Shuai\") in the semifinals before taking out [Chan Hao\\-ching](/wiki/Chan_Hao-ching \"Chan Hao-ching\") and [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber \"Liezel Huber\"). It was Black's first Premier 5 title since 2009, and her second of the season. This was immediately followed by a win at the [China Open](/wiki/2013_China_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2013 China Open (tennis)\"), where en route to the final, they once again took out the top seeds of world number 1 team [Sara Errani](/wiki/Sara_Errani \"Sara Errani\") and [Roberta Vinci](/wiki/Roberta_Vinci \"Roberta Vinci\") in the semifinals, before defeating [Vera Dushevina](/wiki/Vera_Dushevina \"Vera Dushevina\") and [Arantxa Parra Santonja](/wiki/Arantxa_Parra_Santonja \"Arantxa Parra Santonja\") in the final. It was the first time since 2010 that Black had won back\\-to\\-back doubles titles, and it took her back up into the world's top 20, finishing the year ranked number 13 in the world.",
""
] |
### 1996–2010
Cara has won five [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 "Grand Slam (tennis)") women's doubles titles in her career: [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon "The Championships, Wimbledon") 2004, 2005, and 2007; Australian Open 2007; and [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 "US Open (tennis)") 2008\. She reached the [2000 US Open](/wiki/2000_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2000 US Open (tennis)") doubles final with [Elena Likhovtseva](/wiki/Elena_Likhovtseva "Elena Likhovtseva"). She has also won five Grand Slam mixed doubles titles, two of them partnering with her brother Wayne: the [2002 French Open](/wiki/2002_French_Open "2002 French Open") and the [2004 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2004_Wimbledon_Championships "2004 Wimbledon Championships") (they reached the final of the [2004 French Open](/wiki/2004_French_Open "2004 French Open") and the semifinals of the [2003 French Open](/wiki/2003_French_Open "2003 French Open") and [2003 US Open](/wiki/2003_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2003 US Open (tennis)")). She won three further titles in partnership with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes"): the [2008 US Open](/wiki/2008_US_Open_%28tennis%29 "2008 US Open (tennis)"), the [2010 Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open "2010 Australian Open") and the [2010 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships "2010 Wimbledon Championships").
From 1996 through to 2000, Black's debut years, she won 8 ITF doubles titles, 1 WTA doubles title in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland "Auckland"), and 4 ITF singles titles.
Her only WTA singles title came at [Waikoloa](/wiki/Waikoloa_Championships "Waikoloa Championships") in 2002\. She also won a big ITF doubles tournament in [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California "Santa Clara, California") in 1999\.
In November 2005, Black was runner\-up in the WTA Championships doubles title. Australian [Samantha Stosur](/wiki/Samantha_Stosur "Samantha Stosur") and American [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond "Lisa Raymond") defeated Australian [Rennae Stubbs](/wiki/Rennae_Stubbs "Rennae Stubbs") and Black 6–7 (5–7\), 7–5, 6–4\.{{cite news\| url\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/mauresmo\-wins\-biggest\-title\-of\-career/2005/11/14/1131951100524\.html \| location\=Melbourne \| work\=The Age \| title\=Mauresmo wins biggest title of career \| date\=15 November 2005}}
In 2007, Black came back to partner [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber "Liezel Huber"). They won the [2007 Australian Open](/wiki/2007_Australian_Open "2007 Australian Open") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2007_Wimbledon_Championships "2007 Wimbledon Championships"). The team ended the year as the number one team, winning the year\-end championships over [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik "Katarina Srebotnik") and [Ai Sugiyama](/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama "Ai Sugiyama") 5–7, 6–3, \[10–8].{{cite news\|author\=\[\[Women's Tennis Association]] \|url\=http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\=1899 \|title\=Black, Huber Enjoy Season\-Ending Glory in Madrid \|date\=11 November 2007 \|access\-date\=11 November 2007 \|publisher\=Women's Tennis Association \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114190740/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\=1899 \|archive\-date\=14 November 2007 }}
Black [represented Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics "Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics") at the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics "2008 Summer Olympics") in Beijing.["Zimbabwean Tennis Star Ready for Her Third Olympic Appearance"](https://archive.today/20120708074704/http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/04/30/1722@352270.htm), Xinhua, 30 April 2008 She lost to 2nd seeded [Jelena Janković](/wiki/Jelena_Jankovi%C4%87 "Jelena Janković") from Serbia in the first round on 11 August 2008\. She teamed up with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes") from India for the [mixed doubles](/wiki/Mixed_doubles_%28tennis%29 "Mixed doubles (tennis)") at the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 "US Open (tennis)"), triumphing over [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber "Liezel Huber") and [Jamie Murray](/wiki/Jamie_Murray "Jamie Murray") in the finals.
In 2009, she won five doubles titles leading to the year\-end championships in [Doha, Qatar](/wiki/2009_WTA_Tour_Championships "2009 WTA Tour Championships").
Black started 2010 strongly by winning two tournaments leading up to the [Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open "2010 Australian Open"), coming to the slam with an unbeaten record. Black made it to the finals in both the women's doubles and mixed doubles. She and Huber lost the women's doubles final to Venus and [Serena Williams](/wiki/Serena_Williams "Serena Williams") in straight sets, 4–6, 3–6\. However, she and [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes "Leander Paes") won the mixed doubles in straight sets. The victory marked Black's first mixed doubles victory at the Australian Open. The victory also completed a 'Career Grand Slam' in mixed doubles.
Black and Huber broke up as exclusive doubles partners in April 2010\. Since then, Black has partnered with [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er "Shahar Pe'er"), [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina "Elena Vesnina"), [Yan Zi](/wiki/Yan_Zi_%28tennis%29 "Yan Zi (tennis)"), [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond "Lisa Raymond"), [Daniela Hantuchová](/wiki/Daniela_Hantuchov%C3%A1 "Daniela Hantuchová"), [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic "Marina Erakovic"), and [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova "Anastasia Rodionova"). Even though she made the final of [Warsaw](/wiki/2010_Polsat_Warsaw_Open "2010 Polsat Warsaw Open") and won a small tournament in [Birmingham](/wiki/2010_Aegon_Classic "2010 Aegon Classic"), she mostly achieved modest results after the break\-up. Partnering with Vesnina and Hantuchová respectively, she lost in the third round of the [French Open](/wiki/2010_French_Open "2010 French Open") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships "2010 Wimbledon Championships"). Partnering with Rodionova, she lost in the semifinals of the US Open to eventual champions [Vania King](/wiki/Vania_King "Vania King") and [Yaroslava Shvedova](/wiki/Yaroslava_Shvedova "Yaroslava Shvedova"). Black then missed all tournaments following the US Open and did not qualify for the [WTA Championships](/wiki/WTA_Tour_Championships "WTA Tour Championships") for the first time since 1999\. Black ended 2010 ranked 13th in doubles, the first time she finished a year outside the top 10 since 2000\.
However, Black continued her successful partnership with Paes in 2010 as the pair won the mixed\-doubles title at Wimbledon and reached the quarterfinals at the US Open.
|
[
"### 1996–2010",
"Cara has won five [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28tennis%29 \"Grand Slam (tennis)\") women's doubles titles in her career: [Wimbledon](/wiki/The_Championships%2C_Wimbledon \"The Championships, Wimbledon\") 2004, 2005, and 2007; Australian Open 2007; and [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"US Open (tennis)\") 2008\\. She reached the [2000 US Open](/wiki/2000_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2000 US Open (tennis)\") doubles final with [Elena Likhovtseva](/wiki/Elena_Likhovtseva \"Elena Likhovtseva\"). She has also won five Grand Slam mixed doubles titles, two of them partnering with her brother Wayne: the [2002 French Open](/wiki/2002_French_Open \"2002 French Open\") and the [2004 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2004_Wimbledon_Championships \"2004 Wimbledon Championships\") (they reached the final of the [2004 French Open](/wiki/2004_French_Open \"2004 French Open\") and the semifinals of the [2003 French Open](/wiki/2003_French_Open \"2003 French Open\") and [2003 US Open](/wiki/2003_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2003 US Open (tennis)\")). She won three further titles in partnership with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\"): the [2008 US Open](/wiki/2008_US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"2008 US Open (tennis)\"), the [2010 Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open \"2010 Australian Open\") and the [2010 Wimbledon Championships](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships \"2010 Wimbledon Championships\").",
"From 1996 through to 2000, Black's debut years, she won 8 ITF doubles titles, 1 WTA doubles title in [Auckland](/wiki/Auckland \"Auckland\"), and 4 ITF singles titles.",
"Her only WTA singles title came at [Waikoloa](/wiki/Waikoloa_Championships \"Waikoloa Championships\") in 2002\\. She also won a big ITF doubles tournament in [Santa Clara](/wiki/Santa_Clara%2C_California \"Santa Clara, California\") in 1999\\.\nIn November 2005, Black was runner\\-up in the WTA Championships doubles title. Australian [Samantha Stosur](/wiki/Samantha_Stosur \"Samantha Stosur\") and American [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond \"Lisa Raymond\") defeated Australian [Rennae Stubbs](/wiki/Rennae_Stubbs \"Rennae Stubbs\") and Black 6–7 (5–7\\), 7–5, 6–4\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://www.theage.com.au/news/tennis/mauresmo\\-wins\\-biggest\\-title\\-of\\-career/2005/11/14/1131951100524\\.html \\| location\\=Melbourne \\| work\\=The Age \\| title\\=Mauresmo wins biggest title of career \\| date\\=15 November 2005}}",
"In 2007, Black came back to partner [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber \"Liezel Huber\"). They won the [2007 Australian Open](/wiki/2007_Australian_Open \"2007 Australian Open\") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2007_Wimbledon_Championships \"2007 Wimbledon Championships\"). The team ended the year as the number one team, winning the year\\-end championships over [Katarina Srebotnik](/wiki/Katarina_Srebotnik \"Katarina Srebotnik\") and [Ai Sugiyama](/wiki/Ai_Sugiyama \"Ai Sugiyama\") 5–7, 6–3, \\[10–8].{{cite news\\|author\\=\\[\\[Women's Tennis Association]] \\|url\\=http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\\=1899 \\|title\\=Black, Huber Enjoy Season\\-Ending Glory in Madrid \\|date\\=11 November 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=11 November 2007 \\|publisher\\=Women's Tennis Association \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114190740/http://www.sonyericssonwtatour.com/1/newsroom/stories/?ContentID\\=1899 \\|archive\\-date\\=14 November 2007 }}",
"Black [represented Zimbabwe](/wiki/Zimbabwe_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics \"Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics\") at the [2008 Summer Olympics](/wiki/2008_Summer_Olympics \"2008 Summer Olympics\") in Beijing.[\"Zimbabwean Tennis Star Ready for Her Third Olympic Appearance\"](https://archive.today/20120708074704/http://english.cri.cn/2886/2008/04/30/1722@352270.htm), Xinhua, 30 April 2008 She lost to 2nd seeded [Jelena Janković](/wiki/Jelena_Jankovi%C4%87 \"Jelena Janković\") from Serbia in the first round on 11 August 2008\\. She teamed up with [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\") from India for the [mixed doubles](/wiki/Mixed_doubles_%28tennis%29 \"Mixed doubles (tennis)\") at the [US Open](/wiki/US_Open_%28tennis%29 \"US Open (tennis)\"), triumphing over [Liezel Huber](/wiki/Liezel_Huber \"Liezel Huber\") and [Jamie Murray](/wiki/Jamie_Murray \"Jamie Murray\") in the finals.",
"In 2009, she won five doubles titles leading to the year\\-end championships in [Doha, Qatar](/wiki/2009_WTA_Tour_Championships \"2009 WTA Tour Championships\").",
"Black started 2010 strongly by winning two tournaments leading up to the [Australian Open](/wiki/2010_Australian_Open \"2010 Australian Open\"), coming to the slam with an unbeaten record. Black made it to the finals in both the women's doubles and mixed doubles. She and Huber lost the women's doubles final to Venus and [Serena Williams](/wiki/Serena_Williams \"Serena Williams\") in straight sets, 4–6, 3–6\\. However, she and [Leander Paes](/wiki/Leander_Paes \"Leander Paes\") won the mixed doubles in straight sets. The victory marked Black's first mixed doubles victory at the Australian Open. The victory also completed a 'Career Grand Slam' in mixed doubles.",
"Black and Huber broke up as exclusive doubles partners in April 2010\\. Since then, Black has partnered with [Shahar Pe'er](/wiki/Shahar_Pe%27er \"Shahar Pe'er\"), [Elena Vesnina](/wiki/Elena_Vesnina \"Elena Vesnina\"), [Yan Zi](/wiki/Yan_Zi_%28tennis%29 \"Yan Zi (tennis)\"), [Lisa Raymond](/wiki/Lisa_Raymond \"Lisa Raymond\"), [Daniela Hantuchová](/wiki/Daniela_Hantuchov%C3%A1 \"Daniela Hantuchová\"), [Marina Erakovic](/wiki/Marina_Erakovic \"Marina Erakovic\"), and [Anastasia Rodionova](/wiki/Anastasia_Rodionova \"Anastasia Rodionova\"). Even though she made the final of [Warsaw](/wiki/2010_Polsat_Warsaw_Open \"2010 Polsat Warsaw Open\") and won a small tournament in [Birmingham](/wiki/2010_Aegon_Classic \"2010 Aegon Classic\"), she mostly achieved modest results after the break\\-up. Partnering with Vesnina and Hantuchová respectively, she lost in the third round of the [French Open](/wiki/2010_French_Open \"2010 French Open\") and [Wimbledon](/wiki/2010_Wimbledon_Championships \"2010 Wimbledon Championships\"). Partnering with Rodionova, she lost in the semifinals of the US Open to eventual champions [Vania King](/wiki/Vania_King \"Vania King\") and [Yaroslava Shvedova](/wiki/Yaroslava_Shvedova \"Yaroslava Shvedova\"). Black then missed all tournaments following the US Open and did not qualify for the [WTA Championships](/wiki/WTA_Tour_Championships \"WTA Tour Championships\") for the first time since 1999\\. Black ended 2010 ranked 13th in doubles, the first time she finished a year outside the top 10 since 2000\\.",
"However, Black continued her successful partnership with Paes in 2010 as the pair won the mixed\\-doubles title at Wimbledon and reached the quarterfinals at the US Open.",
""
] |
Plot
----
When the al\-Jamil terrorist group assaults the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [spy ship](/wiki/Spy_ship "Spy ship") USS *Mt. St. Helens*, the National Intelligence Oversight Committee must rely on the Agency to secure the classified material within a cargo hold before the antagonists acquire it. NIOC Director Robert Cordell convinces Gabe Logan that he is their only option, but Teresa Lipan counters that this is an assignment outside of Agency jurisdiction. Gabe agrees to go anyway, for a chance at stopping terrorist leader Ghassan al\-Bitar, a Syrian he almost caught a year ago, and with whom he has a score to settle.
With his partner Lian Xing on vacation in [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus"), Gabe flies to the Indian Ocean where a clan of [Somali pirates](/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia "Piracy off the coast of Somalia") called the Warsingala Protectors have invaded the ship. Bitar is leading them, and Gabe suspects this assault involves more than a mere pirating operation. Intercepting Spec Ops communications, pilot Alima Haddad warns Gabe that Cordell did not tell him everything, and Logan realises the contents of Hold Five, a secret even to the U.S. Navy, are Bitar's primary target.
Establishing a link to *St. Helens*{{'}} communications dish, Alima attempts to extract Logan, but her helicopter is shot down. Despite Gabe's efforts, she dies. Frustrated and furious, Gabe destroys several pirate boats carrying stolen goods from *St Helens* and re\-enters the ship via the damaged main hull. However, Bitar has already stolen the cargo inside Hold Five, which NIOC couriers ship.
When Gabe reaches the bridge, {{sclass\|Arleigh Burke\|destroyer\|1}}s with the [Fifth Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet "United States Fifth Fleet") have already begun launching [cruise missiles](/wiki/Cruise_missiles "Cruise missiles") to scuttle their own ship. He tries to stop Bitar from escaping, but terrorist Fahid Tamer distracts him. Gabe kills Fahid and escapes from the ship before it sinks. His return to the Agency brings more complications when Cordell mentions Lian was "never" in Cyprus, and produces pictures of her with a Chinese man, both in a foreign land. From Cordell's point of view, Lian being a defector or a double agent, the Agency would be compromised, and the NIOC suspends the IPCA.
Despite Teresa's reservations, and running out of options, Gabe enlists a marine salvage expert Dane Bishop to explore the sunken *St Helens* for NIOC courier files that could have the information of where Lian was when she was photographed. The duo find Russian [Spetsnaz](/wiki/Spetsnaz "Spetsnaz") divers are also searching for evidence. Gabe realises they work for Surgei Kudrenko, another antagonist who survived an attempt that Gabe made on his life on a mission years prior. Bishop cuts a hole inside the ship, sucking Logan into the hull, and Gabe destroys the engine turbines to flood the chamber. When they rendezvous, the pair stop the ship's nuclear reactor from melting down and kill Kudrenko's right\-hand man, Surgeyev, before the enemy can escape with the courier codes.
The decoded microfiles show pictures captured by [MI6](/wiki/MI6 "MI6") in [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan "Azerbaijan"). Lian and the Chinese male are hostages, but the Spetsnaz are *also* looking for them, suggesting they found out about the St Helens through their intelligence resources. Compounding the situation are the Russians who are conducting genocidal killings and ethnic cleansing activities throughout the country. Believing that Lian might get killed, Gabe teams up with Maggie Powers, who claims to be in the same region to "track smugglers", to find out who captured Lian. While searching a hotel room shared by Lian and her accomplice, Gabe encounters a Chinese Secret Service agent, codenamed Trinidad. The two fight and kill Spetsnaz forces, but Trinidad abandons Logan to find Maggie on his own. Although he rescues her from interrogators, Kudrenko captures them after they destroy a Russian gunship.
Inside a derelict [gulag](/wiki/Gulag "Gulag") somewhere in [Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Republic_of_Georgia "Republic of Georgia"), Trinidad confronts Gabe, the Chinese admitting that she was Lian's instructor in the [MSS](/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_%28China%29 "Ministry of State Security (China)"); but Xing defected when Gabe recruited her into the Agency, tarnishing Trinidad's reputation. According to Trinidad, her student used to be married to the man seen in the pictures, Shen Rei. The Chinese government wants him back because he is the inventor of the device stolen from the *St. Helens*, and Trinidad helps free Gabe from custody so he can find them. Logan wonders about the significance of the device, such that countries like America, Russia, China and Syria all want it. He begins to suspect Maggie is attempting to acquire it as well for England, and does not know whom to trust.
Gabe and Maggie stage an escape from the Russian prison, whereupon Gabe kills Kudrenko during an aeroplane firefight, but Cordell arrests Maggie and tells Logan he has shut down the agency; because the NIOC believes that Shen and Lian work for Bitar. Cordell had used Gabe from the very start to locate them. The NIOC now knows where al\-Jamil's desert stronghold is, but Logan is forced to accept early retirement. Against his belief that Cordell is right, Teresa informs Gabe that Lian is in love with him, and must be Bitar's prisoner if none of the world powers have Shen. Gabe realises that Cordell will bomb al\-Jamil's base, and it will kill Lian.
He assists several [Army Rangers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Rangers "United States Army Rangers") in the assault on an al\-Jamil facility, but Gabe must enter the bunker on his own in search of Bitar. He finds Lian alive, and the two study Shen's device, the X\-Z\-2\. It then transpires that the device is Shen's solution to the [energy crisis](/wiki/Energy_crisis "Energy crisis"), but China wanted to weaponise it. Unwilling to have such a peaceful instrument become a weapon of war, Shen defected with Lian's help and fled to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan"). Gabe finds information proving that Cordell hired Bitar as a means to bring Shen to NIOC couriers. Cordell was desperate to retrieve the X\-Z\-2 before competing nations could, but Bitar had other plans. The latter elected to steal the device and use Shen to make bombs that would destroy oil sources, thus driving Western influence from the Middle East.
Everything Cordell did since then was a [cover\-up](/wiki/Cover-up "Cover-up"), and Gabe has him taken away by soldiers to ensure *his* own early retirement. Lian has difficulty talking to Gabe about Shen, and Gabe focuses on stopping al\-Jamil at a Syrian dam which Bitar will use to charge the last of the X\-Z\-2 devices for future attacks on the West. During the mission, Lian becomes distracted with saving Shen, and abandons her post to find him, rendering herself incommunicado in the process. Gabe reaches Shen first, and the two disable most of the X\-Z\-2 bombs before going after Bitar. The terrorist tries to escape with the final bomb, but Shen has rigged it as a dud. Gabe shoots the sabotaged device, destroying it and killing his adversary.
He finds Lian and Shen outside the dam, but Trinidad also appears. She has shadowed Gabe the entire time, even when he was in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"). Trinidad's opinion being that Logan must be kept alive just so he can lead her to Shen, she provides covering fire for Gabe and murdered al\-Jamil operatives on several occasions, but she still believes him expendable in the long run. Shen is unwilling to let his device become a weapon, so he commits suicide.
In a post\-credits cutscene, Gabe and Lian return to the gym in [Langley](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia "Langley, Virginia") where Teresa had set up the remote command center during the Agency's shutdown. Gabe has decided he will retire, believing there are too many secrets in his work. Instead, he will look for Addison and Blake Hargrove while trying to begin a new life. They enter to find Mujari lying on the floor dead, and Teresa injured. She warns them to be careful, and Trinidad ambushes them. Gabe pushes Lian aside and kills Trinidad, but is fatally shot four times himself. He lies on the floor as Lian shouts and tries to revive him.{{efn\|Sony artist Athey Moravetz confirmed that Gabe was killed.{{Cite web \|date\=2015\-01\-22 \|title\=Sony Bend's New PS4 Game Isn't Syphon Filter According to Former Employee; Provides More Information \|url\=https://www.dualshockers.com/sony\-bends\-new\-ps4\-game\-isnt\-syphon\-filter\-according\-to\-former\-employee\-provides\-more\-information/ \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-23 \|website\=DualShockers \|language\=en}}}}
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"When the al\\-Jamil terrorist group assaults the [U.S. Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [spy ship](/wiki/Spy_ship \"Spy ship\") USS *Mt. St. Helens*, the National Intelligence Oversight Committee must rely on the Agency to secure the classified material within a cargo hold before the antagonists acquire it. NIOC Director Robert Cordell convinces Gabe Logan that he is their only option, but Teresa Lipan counters that this is an assignment outside of Agency jurisdiction. Gabe agrees to go anyway, for a chance at stopping terrorist leader Ghassan al\\-Bitar, a Syrian he almost caught a year ago, and with whom he has a score to settle.",
"With his partner Lian Xing on vacation in [Cyprus](/wiki/Cyprus \"Cyprus\"), Gabe flies to the Indian Ocean where a clan of [Somali pirates](/wiki/Piracy_off_the_coast_of_Somalia \"Piracy off the coast of Somalia\") called the Warsingala Protectors have invaded the ship. Bitar is leading them, and Gabe suspects this assault involves more than a mere pirating operation. Intercepting Spec Ops communications, pilot Alima Haddad warns Gabe that Cordell did not tell him everything, and Logan realises the contents of Hold Five, a secret even to the U.S. Navy, are Bitar's primary target.",
"Establishing a link to *St. Helens*{{'}} communications dish, Alima attempts to extract Logan, but her helicopter is shot down. Despite Gabe's efforts, she dies. Frustrated and furious, Gabe destroys several pirate boats carrying stolen goods from *St Helens* and re\\-enters the ship via the damaged main hull. However, Bitar has already stolen the cargo inside Hold Five, which NIOC couriers ship.",
"When Gabe reaches the bridge, {{sclass\\|Arleigh Burke\\|destroyer\\|1}}s with the [Fifth Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fifth_Fleet \"United States Fifth Fleet\") have already begun launching [cruise missiles](/wiki/Cruise_missiles \"Cruise missiles\") to scuttle their own ship. He tries to stop Bitar from escaping, but terrorist Fahid Tamer distracts him. Gabe kills Fahid and escapes from the ship before it sinks. His return to the Agency brings more complications when Cordell mentions Lian was \"never\" in Cyprus, and produces pictures of her with a Chinese man, both in a foreign land. From Cordell's point of view, Lian being a defector or a double agent, the Agency would be compromised, and the NIOC suspends the IPCA.",
"Despite Teresa's reservations, and running out of options, Gabe enlists a marine salvage expert Dane Bishop to explore the sunken *St Helens* for NIOC courier files that could have the information of where Lian was when she was photographed. The duo find Russian [Spetsnaz](/wiki/Spetsnaz \"Spetsnaz\") divers are also searching for evidence. Gabe realises they work for Surgei Kudrenko, another antagonist who survived an attempt that Gabe made on his life on a mission years prior. Bishop cuts a hole inside the ship, sucking Logan into the hull, and Gabe destroys the engine turbines to flood the chamber. When they rendezvous, the pair stop the ship's nuclear reactor from melting down and kill Kudrenko's right\\-hand man, Surgeyev, before the enemy can escape with the courier codes.",
"The decoded microfiles show pictures captured by [MI6](/wiki/MI6 \"MI6\") in [Azerbaijan](/wiki/Azerbaijan \"Azerbaijan\"). Lian and the Chinese male are hostages, but the Spetsnaz are *also* looking for them, suggesting they found out about the St Helens through their intelligence resources. Compounding the situation are the Russians who are conducting genocidal killings and ethnic cleansing activities throughout the country. Believing that Lian might get killed, Gabe teams up with Maggie Powers, who claims to be in the same region to \"track smugglers\", to find out who captured Lian. While searching a hotel room shared by Lian and her accomplice, Gabe encounters a Chinese Secret Service agent, codenamed Trinidad. The two fight and kill Spetsnaz forces, but Trinidad abandons Logan to find Maggie on his own. Although he rescues her from interrogators, Kudrenko captures them after they destroy a Russian gunship.",
"Inside a derelict [gulag](/wiki/Gulag \"Gulag\") somewhere in [Republic of Georgia](/wiki/Republic_of_Georgia \"Republic of Georgia\"), Trinidad confronts Gabe, the Chinese admitting that she was Lian's instructor in the [MSS](/wiki/Ministry_of_State_Security_%28China%29 \"Ministry of State Security (China)\"); but Xing defected when Gabe recruited her into the Agency, tarnishing Trinidad's reputation. According to Trinidad, her student used to be married to the man seen in the pictures, Shen Rei. The Chinese government wants him back because he is the inventor of the device stolen from the *St. Helens*, and Trinidad helps free Gabe from custody so he can find them. Logan wonders about the significance of the device, such that countries like America, Russia, China and Syria all want it. He begins to suspect Maggie is attempting to acquire it as well for England, and does not know whom to trust.",
"Gabe and Maggie stage an escape from the Russian prison, whereupon Gabe kills Kudrenko during an aeroplane firefight, but Cordell arrests Maggie and tells Logan he has shut down the agency; because the NIOC believes that Shen and Lian work for Bitar. Cordell had used Gabe from the very start to locate them. The NIOC now knows where al\\-Jamil's desert stronghold is, but Logan is forced to accept early retirement. Against his belief that Cordell is right, Teresa informs Gabe that Lian is in love with him, and must be Bitar's prisoner if none of the world powers have Shen. Gabe realises that Cordell will bomb al\\-Jamil's base, and it will kill Lian.",
"He assists several [Army Rangers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Rangers \"United States Army Rangers\") in the assault on an al\\-Jamil facility, but Gabe must enter the bunker on his own in search of Bitar. He finds Lian alive, and the two study Shen's device, the X\\-Z\\-2\\. It then transpires that the device is Shen's solution to the [energy crisis](/wiki/Energy_crisis \"Energy crisis\"), but China wanted to weaponise it. Unwilling to have such a peaceful instrument become a weapon of war, Shen defected with Lian's help and fled to [Pakistan](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\"). Gabe finds information proving that Cordell hired Bitar as a means to bring Shen to NIOC couriers. Cordell was desperate to retrieve the X\\-Z\\-2 before competing nations could, but Bitar had other plans. The latter elected to steal the device and use Shen to make bombs that would destroy oil sources, thus driving Western influence from the Middle East.",
"Everything Cordell did since then was a [cover\\-up](/wiki/Cover-up \"Cover-up\"), and Gabe has him taken away by soldiers to ensure *his* own early retirement. Lian has difficulty talking to Gabe about Shen, and Gabe focuses on stopping al\\-Jamil at a Syrian dam which Bitar will use to charge the last of the X\\-Z\\-2 devices for future attacks on the West. During the mission, Lian becomes distracted with saving Shen, and abandons her post to find him, rendering herself incommunicado in the process. Gabe reaches Shen first, and the two disable most of the X\\-Z\\-2 bombs before going after Bitar. The terrorist tries to escape with the final bomb, but Shen has rigged it as a dud. Gabe shoots the sabotaged device, destroying it and killing his adversary.",
"He finds Lian and Shen outside the dam, but Trinidad also appears. She has shadowed Gabe the entire time, even when he was in [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"). Trinidad's opinion being that Logan must be kept alive just so he can lead her to Shen, she provides covering fire for Gabe and murdered al\\-Jamil operatives on several occasions, but she still believes him expendable in the long run. Shen is unwilling to let his device become a weapon, so he commits suicide.",
"In a post\\-credits cutscene, Gabe and Lian return to the gym in [Langley](/wiki/Langley%2C_Virginia \"Langley, Virginia\") where Teresa had set up the remote command center during the Agency's shutdown. Gabe has decided he will retire, believing there are too many secrets in his work. Instead, he will look for Addison and Blake Hargrove while trying to begin a new life. They enter to find Mujari lying on the floor dead, and Teresa injured. She warns them to be careful, and Trinidad ambushes them. Gabe pushes Lian aside and kills Trinidad, but is fatally shot four times himself. He lies on the floor as Lian shouts and tries to revive him.{{efn\\|Sony artist Athey Moravetz confirmed that Gabe was killed.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-22 \\|title\\=Sony Bend's New PS4 Game Isn't Syphon Filter According to Former Employee; Provides More Information \\|url\\=https://www.dualshockers.com/sony\\-bends\\-new\\-ps4\\-game\\-isnt\\-syphon\\-filter\\-according\\-to\\-former\\-employee\\-provides\\-more\\-information/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-23 \\|website\\=DualShockers \\|language\\=en}}}}",
""
] |
Differentiating between cultural origin and cultural influence
--------------------------------------------------------------
The origin of the civilization of Etruria is an ancient debate, because the terms in which historians have opened and contested theories have relied on out\-dated conceptions of origin and culture. The last two millennia of raising inconclusive theories towards a definitive location for the origins of Etruria has led modern scholarship to diverge from traditional approaches to national origins and instead focus on the development of concepts, such as national origin and cultural formation, differentiating between cultural influence and cultural origin.
[thumb\|300px\|Fresco in the [François Tomb](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tomb "François Tomb") (4th century BC)](/wiki/File:Achilles%27_Sacrifice_of_Trojan_Prisoners.jpg "Achilles' Sacrifice of Trojan Prisoners.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Etruscan helmet (9th century BC)](/wiki/File:MMA_etruscan_helmet1.jpg "MMA etruscan helmet1.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Etruscan terracotta figure of a young woman, late 4th–early 3rd century BC](/wiki/File:Femme_%C3%A9trusque_%28Terracotta%29.jpg "Femme étrusque (Terracotta).jpg")
The initial sources of inquiry for historians studying Etruscan origins are the classical sources provided by ancient scholars such as Herodotus and Dionysius. These writers were naturally interested in where such an advanced civilization originated. Herodotus initiated the Lydian theory which told the story of Etruscan origins as a mass migration from Lydia, led by King Tyrsenos, a migration due to the famine experienced shortly after the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War"). [Larissa Bonfante](/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante "Larissa Bonfante") argues that the traditional concept of origin that classical Greek writers subscribed to "had to be explained as the result of a migration, under the leadership of a mythical founding hero".Larissa Bonfante, *Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies*, Wayne State University Press, 1986
The second key hypothesis was launched by the Augustan historian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Being aware that his predecessors were "unanimous in stating that the Etruscans came from the East"Larissa Bonfante, Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies, Wayne State University he expressed an alternate hypothesis that the Etruscans were "native to the country",Dionysius, The Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Book 1 Section 30, Translated by Earnest Cary, Harvard University Press, 1950 and by doing so opened the autochthonous theory. Scholarship has questioned why ancient sources appear "unanimous" towards an Anatolian origin. Bonfante suggests that it is the natural response for Greek writers to connect other civilizations accomplishments to "Greek heroes" in an attempt to promote a "glorified national narrative". On the other hand [R.S.P. Beekes](/wiki/R.S.P._Beekes "R.S.P. Beekes") argues that these ancient writers, especially Herodotus, found the famine in Lydia an obvious connection to the migration to Etruria, rather than a debatable area of discussion. The autochthonous theory that Dionysius instigated was a view held by Etruscans themselves, whom he consulted, though how much these Etruscans knew about their own origins is questionable.
The reason modern scholarship, such as [John Bryan Perkins](/wiki/John_Bryan_Ward-Perkins "John Bryan Ward-Perkins"), sceptically uses ancient sources as evidence to support an argument, is because these sources generally promote a national image and harbour political prejudices. He argues that the ancient interpretation of Etruscan origins has derived from a "hostile tradition, of rivals and enemies; the Greeks and Romans". The extent of "classical prejudice" is exemplified in early records of the Etruscans. Classical literature typically portrayed Etruscans as 'pirates' and 'freebooters'. Massimo Pallottino points out that their reputation for piracy took shape between the time of [Homer](/wiki/Homer "Homer") and the image shown in the *[Homeric Hymns](/wiki/Homeric_Hymns "Homeric Hymns")*, and was clearly a product of the intense commercial and territorial rivalry between the Etruscans and Greek traders. Consequentially Perkins concludes that ancient "standards of historical criticism were not ours" in which "a great deal of it is seen through a veil of interpretation, misunderstanding, and at times, plain invention".John Bryan Ward\-Perkins, The Problem of Etruscan Origins, Harvard University, 1959 The ancient tendency to invent or apply a fabricated account within their historical record is evident in Herodotus' *Histories*. His use of fanciful story telling contributes to the overarching glorified narrative of Greece in the Persian wars and exemplifies the greatness of Greek conquest. This agenda is problematic when viewing his 'heroic' understanding of Etruscan origins, because Herodotus' stories tend to contribute to the national narrative rather than an intended historical record. His account is seen through, what Perkins refers to as, antiquity's "distorting mirror".
In the 1950s, Professor Pallottino resurrected the initial autochthonous theory and by doing so contended with traditional scholarship that has "remained fixated on the idea that the origins of the Italic people were to be found in the effects of immigration from outside". The argument has been developed on the basis that the Etruscan culture appears unique to any other known prehistoric culture, therefore must have developed nowhere else but within Italy".Massimo Pallottino, The Etruscans', Indiana University Press, 1955 He admits to foreign contributions to the cultural development of the Etruscans, however, he maintains that the mixture of culture took place on Italian soil; the "parent stock" was sufficiently homogeneous and therefore of Italian origin. Indigenous arguments are based on the unique attributes of Etruscan culture, believing that it is an "evolutionary sequence" in which Etruria developed its independent culture, a "formative process of the Etruscan which can only take place on the territory of Etruria itself". Nevertheless, to subscribe to this thesis a problem arises; Etruscan culture was "no doubt in itself a unique and developing phenomenon", however, this culture has been compounded of and developed from other earlier cultural strains. The question remains whether these strains were dominant in the finished product; it is difficult to differentiate between a product of a foreign culture and an independent culture with foreign influences. Other historical methodologies, such as linguistics, archaeology and DNA research, have attempted to clarify this distinction and highlight the extent of foreign influence in Etruscan culture.
Linguists have attempted to shed light on the degree of foreign influence on the Etruscan civilization. R.S.P. Beekes places reliance on his linguistic analysis of the Lemnian inscriptions, which he believes "provided the answer to the problem of the origins of the Etruscans".R.S.P. Beekes, The Origin of the Etruscans, Royal Dutch Academy, 2003 The Lemnos stele is a sixth\-century stele in a pre\-Hellenic tongue found in Lemnos, a Northern Greek island. The inscription shows distinct similarities to the Etruscan language; both languages apply a similar four vowel system, grammar and vocabulary. Beekes argues that autochthonous theories are merely "a desperate attempt to avoid the evident conclusion from the Lemnian inscription". He does not suggest that the language shaped the Etruscan culture, but rather that the similarities in the two languages proves that the Etruscans migrated from Asia Minor, as Herodotus suggested.
[Alison E. Cooley](/wiki/Alison_E._Cooley "Alison E. Cooley") criticises Beekes' assumption that the Eastern features found in the etymological research of the Lemnian inscription "simply settles the question", yet she imposes that the "later Eastern attributes of the Etruscan is often a product of acculturation".Alison. E Cooley, Critical Review of R.S.P Beekes, The Classical Associations, 2005 Cooley in contrary to Beekes argues that the similarities in the languages are a result of contact with Greek and Lydian civilization due to commercial trade.
Linguists, such as Beekes, are commonly criticised for the assumption that "because they speak a common language, they must belong to the same race". However, recently linguists such as Kari Gibson have argued that language is the predominant factor in the cultural formation of a national identity and therefore cannot be discarded as an independent attribute of a cultural identity, but rather the framework through which such a civilization functions. Gibson suggests that language is inextricably linked to national and cultural identity of the speaker, and as a "powerful symbol of national and ethnic identity" determines an individual's perception of their environment.Kari Gibson, The Myths of Language use and the Homogenization of Bilingual Workers' Identities, University of Hawaii, 2004 To place this argument in the linguistic debate of Etruscan origins, modern scholars such as Cooley are perhaps being overly dismissive of the impact of language on the development of the Etruscan identity; "Ethnic identity is twin skin to linguistic identity".Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands, (p. 59\), Aunt Lute Books, 1987 It is difficult for scholarship to evaluate the degree of influence the Lydian language would have had on the cultural development of Etruria, though language is undeniably a key ingredient in the development of Etruscan culture.
Archaeology has a prominent role in revealing aspects of Etruscan daily life and the social structure of such a sophisticated civilization, thus exposing foreign influences. The most significant archaeological discoveries of Etruscan civilization are found in the excavation of gravesites. Bonfante emphasises the unique cultural elements the funerary frescoes in these gravesites illustrate. The well preserved frescoes of the funerary chambers found in the necropolis of [Monterozzi](/wiki/Monterozzi "Monterozzi"), situated on a ridge southeast of the ancient city of Tarquinia, are vital to the reconstruction of Etruscan culture. Scholars of the autochthonous theory tend to draw attention to the frescoes' depiction of women. Material evidence for the high social status of Etruscan women can be found on the frescoes in the [Tomb of the Leopards](/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards "Tomb of the Leopards"), dating to the 5th century BC.Luisa Banti, Etruscan Cities and their Culture, University of California Press, 1973 The fresco illustrates women and men conversing together and wearing the same crowns of laurel, which implies that symbols of status in Etruscan society were similar for men and women. This advanced status for women is a unique Etruscan element that is not known from any other culture of its time.
Frescoes found in the [Tomb of Hunting and Fishing](/wiki/Tomb_of_Hunting_and_Fishing "Tomb of Hunting and Fishing") mark the earliest time where men are not depicted dominating their environment.{{Citation needed\|date\=April 2020}} In the fresco of birds flying over a boat of men, the men are shown to be proportionally smaller than the birds. Pallottino points out that this is a unique attribute from Etruscan artworks, because it provides an insight into how the Etruscans viewed themselves in comparison to their environment. Ancient works dated prior to this fresco tended to view men dominating their environment. However, the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing illustrates men in the background of the work, rather than typically the foreground, suggesting to scholars such as Pallottino that Etruria had developed a culture and social understanding unlike any other prehistoric civilization and therefore cannot be a product of any prior culture.
|
[
"Differentiating between cultural origin and cultural influence\n--------------------------------------------------------------",
"The origin of the civilization of Etruria is an ancient debate, because the terms in which historians have opened and contested theories have relied on out\\-dated conceptions of origin and culture. The last two millennia of raising inconclusive theories towards a definitive location for the origins of Etruria has led modern scholarship to diverge from traditional approaches to national origins and instead focus on the development of concepts, such as national origin and cultural formation, differentiating between cultural influence and cultural origin.",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Fresco in the [François Tomb](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Tomb \"François Tomb\") (4th century BC)](/wiki/File:Achilles%27_Sacrifice_of_Trojan_Prisoners.jpg \"Achilles' Sacrifice of Trojan Prisoners.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Etruscan helmet (9th century BC)](/wiki/File:MMA_etruscan_helmet1.jpg \"MMA etruscan helmet1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Etruscan terracotta figure of a young woman, late 4th–early 3rd century BC](/wiki/File:Femme_%C3%A9trusque_%28Terracotta%29.jpg \"Femme étrusque (Terracotta).jpg\")",
"The initial sources of inquiry for historians studying Etruscan origins are the classical sources provided by ancient scholars such as Herodotus and Dionysius. These writers were naturally interested in where such an advanced civilization originated. Herodotus initiated the Lydian theory which told the story of Etruscan origins as a mass migration from Lydia, led by King Tyrsenos, a migration due to the famine experienced shortly after the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\"). [Larissa Bonfante](/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante \"Larissa Bonfante\") argues that the traditional concept of origin that classical Greek writers subscribed to \"had to be explained as the result of a migration, under the leadership of a mythical founding hero\".Larissa Bonfante, *Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies*, Wayne State University Press, 1986",
"The second key hypothesis was launched by the Augustan historian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Being aware that his predecessors were \"unanimous in stating that the Etruscans came from the East\"Larissa Bonfante, Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies, Wayne State University he expressed an alternate hypothesis that the Etruscans were \"native to the country\",Dionysius, The Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Book 1 Section 30, Translated by Earnest Cary, Harvard University Press, 1950 and by doing so opened the autochthonous theory. Scholarship has questioned why ancient sources appear \"unanimous\" towards an Anatolian origin. Bonfante suggests that it is the natural response for Greek writers to connect other civilizations accomplishments to \"Greek heroes\" in an attempt to promote a \"glorified national narrative\". On the other hand [R.S.P. Beekes](/wiki/R.S.P._Beekes \"R.S.P. Beekes\") argues that these ancient writers, especially Herodotus, found the famine in Lydia an obvious connection to the migration to Etruria, rather than a debatable area of discussion. The autochthonous theory that Dionysius instigated was a view held by Etruscans themselves, whom he consulted, though how much these Etruscans knew about their own origins is questionable.",
"The reason modern scholarship, such as [John Bryan Perkins](/wiki/John_Bryan_Ward-Perkins \"John Bryan Ward-Perkins\"), sceptically uses ancient sources as evidence to support an argument, is because these sources generally promote a national image and harbour political prejudices. He argues that the ancient interpretation of Etruscan origins has derived from a \"hostile tradition, of rivals and enemies; the Greeks and Romans\". The extent of \"classical prejudice\" is exemplified in early records of the Etruscans. Classical literature typically portrayed Etruscans as 'pirates' and 'freebooters'. Massimo Pallottino points out that their reputation for piracy took shape between the time of [Homer](/wiki/Homer \"Homer\") and the image shown in the *[Homeric Hymns](/wiki/Homeric_Hymns \"Homeric Hymns\")*, and was clearly a product of the intense commercial and territorial rivalry between the Etruscans and Greek traders. Consequentially Perkins concludes that ancient \"standards of historical criticism were not ours\" in which \"a great deal of it is seen through a veil of interpretation, misunderstanding, and at times, plain invention\".John Bryan Ward\\-Perkins, The Problem of Etruscan Origins, Harvard University, 1959 The ancient tendency to invent or apply a fabricated account within their historical record is evident in Herodotus' *Histories*. His use of fanciful story telling contributes to the overarching glorified narrative of Greece in the Persian wars and exemplifies the greatness of Greek conquest. This agenda is problematic when viewing his 'heroic' understanding of Etruscan origins, because Herodotus' stories tend to contribute to the national narrative rather than an intended historical record. His account is seen through, what Perkins refers to as, antiquity's \"distorting mirror\".",
"In the 1950s, Professor Pallottino resurrected the initial autochthonous theory and by doing so contended with traditional scholarship that has \"remained fixated on the idea that the origins of the Italic people were to be found in the effects of immigration from outside\". The argument has been developed on the basis that the Etruscan culture appears unique to any other known prehistoric culture, therefore must have developed nowhere else but within Italy\".Massimo Pallottino, The Etruscans', Indiana University Press, 1955 He admits to foreign contributions to the cultural development of the Etruscans, however, he maintains that the mixture of culture took place on Italian soil; the \"parent stock\" was sufficiently homogeneous and therefore of Italian origin. Indigenous arguments are based on the unique attributes of Etruscan culture, believing that it is an \"evolutionary sequence\" in which Etruria developed its independent culture, a \"formative process of the Etruscan which can only take place on the territory of Etruria itself\". Nevertheless, to subscribe to this thesis a problem arises; Etruscan culture was \"no doubt in itself a unique and developing phenomenon\", however, this culture has been compounded of and developed from other earlier cultural strains. The question remains whether these strains were dominant in the finished product; it is difficult to differentiate between a product of a foreign culture and an independent culture with foreign influences. Other historical methodologies, such as linguistics, archaeology and DNA research, have attempted to clarify this distinction and highlight the extent of foreign influence in Etruscan culture.",
"Linguists have attempted to shed light on the degree of foreign influence on the Etruscan civilization. R.S.P. Beekes places reliance on his linguistic analysis of the Lemnian inscriptions, which he believes \"provided the answer to the problem of the origins of the Etruscans\".R.S.P. Beekes, The Origin of the Etruscans, Royal Dutch Academy, 2003 The Lemnos stele is a sixth\\-century stele in a pre\\-Hellenic tongue found in Lemnos, a Northern Greek island. The inscription shows distinct similarities to the Etruscan language; both languages apply a similar four vowel system, grammar and vocabulary. Beekes argues that autochthonous theories are merely \"a desperate attempt to avoid the evident conclusion from the Lemnian inscription\". He does not suggest that the language shaped the Etruscan culture, but rather that the similarities in the two languages proves that the Etruscans migrated from Asia Minor, as Herodotus suggested.",
"[Alison E. Cooley](/wiki/Alison_E._Cooley \"Alison E. Cooley\") criticises Beekes' assumption that the Eastern features found in the etymological research of the Lemnian inscription \"simply settles the question\", yet she imposes that the \"later Eastern attributes of the Etruscan is often a product of acculturation\".Alison. E Cooley, Critical Review of R.S.P Beekes, The Classical Associations, 2005 Cooley in contrary to Beekes argues that the similarities in the languages are a result of contact with Greek and Lydian civilization due to commercial trade.",
"Linguists, such as Beekes, are commonly criticised for the assumption that \"because they speak a common language, they must belong to the same race\". However, recently linguists such as Kari Gibson have argued that language is the predominant factor in the cultural formation of a national identity and therefore cannot be discarded as an independent attribute of a cultural identity, but rather the framework through which such a civilization functions. Gibson suggests that language is inextricably linked to national and cultural identity of the speaker, and as a \"powerful symbol of national and ethnic identity\" determines an individual's perception of their environment.Kari Gibson, The Myths of Language use and the Homogenization of Bilingual Workers' Identities, University of Hawaii, 2004 To place this argument in the linguistic debate of Etruscan origins, modern scholars such as Cooley are perhaps being overly dismissive of the impact of language on the development of the Etruscan identity; \"Ethnic identity is twin skin to linguistic identity\".Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands, (p. 59\\), Aunt Lute Books, 1987 It is difficult for scholarship to evaluate the degree of influence the Lydian language would have had on the cultural development of Etruria, though language is undeniably a key ingredient in the development of Etruscan culture.",
"Archaeology has a prominent role in revealing aspects of Etruscan daily life and the social structure of such a sophisticated civilization, thus exposing foreign influences. The most significant archaeological discoveries of Etruscan civilization are found in the excavation of gravesites. Bonfante emphasises the unique cultural elements the funerary frescoes in these gravesites illustrate. The well preserved frescoes of the funerary chambers found in the necropolis of [Monterozzi](/wiki/Monterozzi \"Monterozzi\"), situated on a ridge southeast of the ancient city of Tarquinia, are vital to the reconstruction of Etruscan culture. Scholars of the autochthonous theory tend to draw attention to the frescoes' depiction of women. Material evidence for the high social status of Etruscan women can be found on the frescoes in the [Tomb of the Leopards](/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Leopards \"Tomb of the Leopards\"), dating to the 5th century BC.Luisa Banti, Etruscan Cities and their Culture, University of California Press, 1973 The fresco illustrates women and men conversing together and wearing the same crowns of laurel, which implies that symbols of status in Etruscan society were similar for men and women. This advanced status for women is a unique Etruscan element that is not known from any other culture of its time.",
"Frescoes found in the [Tomb of Hunting and Fishing](/wiki/Tomb_of_Hunting_and_Fishing \"Tomb of Hunting and Fishing\") mark the earliest time where men are not depicted dominating their environment.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020}} In the fresco of birds flying over a boat of men, the men are shown to be proportionally smaller than the birds. Pallottino points out that this is a unique attribute from Etruscan artworks, because it provides an insight into how the Etruscans viewed themselves in comparison to their environment. Ancient works dated prior to this fresco tended to view men dominating their environment. However, the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing illustrates men in the background of the work, rather than typically the foreground, suggesting to scholars such as Pallottino that Etruria had developed a culture and social understanding unlike any other prehistoric civilization and therefore cannot be a product of any prior culture.",
""
] |
Genetic evidence
----------------
[thumb\|Etruscan votive heads, IV\-II century BC](/wiki/File:Etruscan_votive_heads_IV-II_century_BC.jpg "Etruscan votive heads IV-II century BC.jpg")
There have been a number of genetic studies of Etruscans and modern Tuscans compared with other populations, some of which indicate the local, European origin of Etruscans and others supportive of an origin from elsewhere. In general, the direct testing of ancient Etruscan DNA has supported a deep, local origin, while the testing of modern samples as a proxy for Etruscans is rather inconclusive and inconsistent.{{Cite book \|last\=Kron \|first\=Geof \|title\=The Etruscan World \|publisher\=Routledge \|year\=2013 \|isbn\=978\-0\-415\-67308\-2 \|editor\-last\=Macintosh Turfa \|editor\-first\=Jean \|location\=London; New York \|pages\=56–78 \|language\=en \|chapter\=Fleshing out the demography of Etruria}}{{Cite book \|last\=Perkins \|first\=Phil \|title\=Etruscology \|publisher\=De Gruyter \|year\=2017 \|isbn\=978\-1\-934078\-49\-5 \|editor\-last\=Naso \|editor\-first\=Alessandro \|location\=Berlin \|publication\-date\=2017 \|pages\=109–18 \|language\=en \|chapter\=DNA and Etruscan identity}}
The very large [mtDNA](/wiki/MtDNA "MtDNA") study from 2013 indicates, based on maternally\-inherited DNA from 30 bone samples taken from [tombs](/wiki/Tomb "Tomb") dating from the eight century to the first century BC from [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany") and [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio "Lazio"), that the Etruscans were a native population. The study extracted and typed the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of 14 individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoleis, analyzing them along with previously analyzed Etruscan mtDNA, other ancient European mtDNA, modern and [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") samples from Tuscany, and 4,910 modern individuals from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") basin. The ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval Tuscans) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans) were subjected to several million computer simulation runs, showing that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral to Medieval and, especially in the subpopulations from Casentino and [Volterra](/wiki/Volterra "Volterra"), of modern Tuscans; modern populations from Murlo and Florence, by contrast, were shown not to continue the Medieval population. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals), it was estimated that the genetic links between [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany") and [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia "Anatolia") date back to at least 5,000 years ago, and the "most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago", strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores. According to the study, ancient Etruscan mtDNA is closest among modern [European](/wiki/Europe "Europe") populations and is not particularly close to Anatolian or other Eastern Mediterranean populations. Among ancient populations based on mtDNA, ancient Etruscans were found to be closest to LBK Neolithic farmers from [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe "Central Europe").
This result is largely in line with previous mtDNA results from 2004 (in a smaller study also based on ancient DNA), and contradictory to results from 2007 (based on modern DNA). The 2004 study was based on [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA") (mtDNA) from 80 bone samples, reduced to 28 bone samples in the analysis phase, taken from [tombs](/wiki/Tomb "Tomb") dating from the seventh century to the third century BC from [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto "Veneto"), [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany"), [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio "Lazio") and [Campania](/wiki/Campania "Campania").{{Cite journal \|display\-authors\=etal \|vauthors\=Vernesi C, Caramelli D, Dupanloup I \|date\=April 2004 \|title\=The Etruscans: a population\-genetic study \|journal\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \|volume\=74 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=694–704 \|doi\=10\.1086/383284 \|pmc\=1181945 \|pmid\=15015132}} This study found that the ancient DNA extracted from the Etruscan remains had some affinities with modern European populations including [Germans](/wiki/Germans "Germans"), [English people from Cornwall](/wiki/English_people "English people"), and Tuscans in Italy. In addition the Etruscan samples possibly revealed more genetic inheritance from the eastern and southern Mediterranean than modern Italian samples contain. The study was marred by concerns that mtDNA sequences from the archeological samples represented severely damaged or contaminated DNA;{{Cite journal \|last\=Bandelt HJ \|date\=November 2004 \|title\=Etruscan artifacts \|journal\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \|volume\=75 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=919–20; author reply 923–7 \|doi\=10\.1086/425180 \|pmc\=1182123 \|pmid\=15457405}} however, subsequent investigation showed that the samples passed the most stringent tests of DNA degradation available.{{Cite journal \|vauthors\=Mateiu LM, Rannala BH \|year\=2008 \|title\=Bayesian inference of errors in ancient DNA caused by postmortem degradation \|journal\=Mol Biol Evol \|volume\=25 \|issue\=7 \|pages\=1503–11 \|doi\=10\.1093/molbev/msn095 \|pmid\=18420593 \|doi\-access\=free}}
A mtDNA study, published in 2018 in the journal [American Journal of Physical Anthropology](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology "American Journal of Physical Anthropology"), compared both ancient and modern samples from Tuscany, from the [Prehistory](/wiki/Prehistory "Prehistory"), Etruscan age, [Roman age](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance"), and Present\-day, and concluded that the Etruscans appear as a local population, intermediate between the prehistoric and the other samples, placing in the temporal network between the [Eneolithic Age](/wiki/Eneolithic "Eneolithic") and the Roman Age.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Leonardi \|first1\=Michela \|last2\=Sandionigi \|first2\=Anna \|last3\=Conzato \|first3\=Annalisa \|last4\=Vai \|first4\=Stefania \|last5\=Lari \|first5\=Martina \|year\=2018 \|title\=The female ancestor's tale: Long\-term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany \|url\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\.1002/ajpa.23679 \|journal\=American Journal of Physical Anthropology \|language\=English \|location\=New York City \|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons \|publication\-date\=September 6, 2018 \|volume\=167 \|issue\=3 \|pages\=497–506 \|doi\=10\.1002/ajpa.23679 \|pmid\=30187463 \|s2cid\=52161000}}
A 2019 genetic study published in the journal *[Science](/wiki/Science_%28journal%29 "Science (journal)")* analyzed the remains of eleven [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in [Veio Grotta Gramiccia](/wiki/Veio "Veio") from the Villanovan period (900\-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near [Civitavecchia](/wiki/Civitavecchia "Civitavecchia") from the Orientalizing period (700\-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the [Latins](/wiki/Latins_%28Italic_tribe%29 "Latins (Italic tribe)") (900–500 BC) from [Latium vetus](/wiki/Latium_vetus "Latium vetus") were genetically similar., genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins were found to be insignificant.{{sfn\|Antonio\|Gao\|Moots\|Lucci\|2019\|p\=3}} The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of 30\.7% [steppe ancestry](/wiki/Steppe_ancestry "Steppe ancestry").{{sfn\|Antonio\|Gao\|Moots\|Lucci\|2019\|p\=2}} Their DNA was a mixture of two\-thirds [Copper Age](/wiki/Copper_Age "Copper Age") ancestry ([EEF](/wiki/Early_European_Farmers "Early European Farmers") \+ [WHG](/wiki/Western_Hunter-Gatherer "Western Hunter-Gatherer"); Etruscans \~66–72%, Latins \~62–75%) and one\-third [Steppe\-related ancestry](/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry "Steppe-related ancestry") (Etruscans \~27–33%, Latins \~24–37%) (with the EEF component mainly deriving from Neolithic\-era migrants to Europe from Anatolia and the WHG being local Western European hunter\-gatherers, with both components, along with that from the steppe, being found in virtually all European populations). The only sample of [Y\-DNA](/wiki/Y-DNA "Y-DNA") extracted belonged to [haplogroup J\-M12 (J2b\-L283\)](/wiki/Haplogroup_J_%28Y-DNA%29 "Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)"), found in an individual dated 700\-600 BC, and carried exactly the [M314](/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172 "Haplogroup J-M172") derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age individual from [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia") (1631\-1531 calBCE). While the four samples of [mtDNA](/wiki/MtDNA "MtDNA") extracted belonged to haplogroups [U5a1](/wiki/Haplogroup_U_%28mtDNA%29%23Haplogroup_U5 "Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5"), [H](/wiki/Haplogroup_H_%28mtDNA%29 "Haplogroup H (mtDNA)"), [T2b32](/wiki/Haplogroup_T_%28mtDNA%29 "Haplogroup T (mtDNA)"), [K1a4](/wiki/Haplogroup_K_%28mtDNA%29 "Haplogroup K (mtDNA)").{{sfn\|Antonio\|Gao\|Moots\|Lucci\|2019\|loc\=Table 2 Sample Information, Rows 33\-35}} Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe\-related ancestry despite speaking a pre\-Indo\-European language.
A 2021 study by the [Max Planck Institute](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute "Max Planck Institute"), the [Universities of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen "University of Tübingen"), [Florence](/wiki/University_of_Florence "University of Florence"), and [Harvard](/wiki/University_of_Harvard "University of Harvard"), published in the journal [Science Advances](/wiki/Science_Advances "Science Advances"), analyzed the [Y\-chromosome](/wiki/Y-chromosome "Y-chromosome"), [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA "Mitochondrial DNA"), and [autosomal DNA](/wiki/Autosomal_DNA "Autosomal DNA") of 82 ancient samples from Etruria (Tuscany and Latium) and southern Italy (Basilicata) spanning from 800 BC to 1000 AD, including 48 Iron Age individuals. The study confirmed that in the samples of Etruscan individuals from Tuscany and Lazio the ancestral component [Steppe](/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry "Steppe-related ancestry") was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed samples of Iron Age Latins, and added that in the DNA of the Etruscans was completely absent, a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean. The study concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to that of their early Iron Age Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins belonged firmly to the European cluster: 75% of the samples of Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup [R1b](/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b%23R1b1a1b_%28R-M269%29 "Haplogroup R1b#R1b1a1b (R-M269)"), especially R1b\-P312 and its derivative R1b\-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b\-U152\. Regarding mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, the most prevalent was largely H, followed by J and T. Uniparental marker data and autosomal DNA data from samples of Iron Age Etruscan individuals suggest that Etruria received migrations with a large ancestral Steppe component during the [2nd millennium BC](/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC "2nd millennium BC"), related to the spread of [Indo\-European languages](/wiki/Indo-European_languages "Indo-European languages"), starting with the [Bell Beaker culture](/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture "Bell Beaker culture"), and that these migrations merged with populations of the oldest pre\-Indo\-European layer present since at least the Neolithic period, but it was the latter's language that survived, a situation similar to what happened in the [Basque region](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28greater_region%29 "Basque Country (greater region)") of northern [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"). The study also concluded that the samples analyzed show that the Etruscans kept their genetic profile unchanged for almost 1000 years, indicating the sparse presence in Etruria of foreigners, and that a demographic change in Etruria occurred only from the [Roman imperial period](/wiki/Roman_imperial_period_%28chronology%29 "Roman imperial period (chronology)"), in which there is the intermixture into the local population of ancestral components from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Analysis of samples of individuals who lived in the Roman imperial period and those of the Medieval Age also suggest that the genetic landscape of present\-day central Italy was formed largely around 1000 years ago after the [Barbarian invasions](/wiki/Migration_Period "Migration Period"), and that the arrival of the Germanic [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards "Lombards") in Italy contributed to the formation of the gene pool of the modern population of Tuscany and northern Latium.
In 2024, 6 individuals of Etruscan remains from [Tarquinia](/wiki/Tarquinia "Tarquinia"), [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio "Lazio"), dated the 9th\-7th Century BC, were studied and confirmed the previous finds. The admixture model showed that they were 84\-92% Italy Bell Beaker and 8\-26% additional Yamnaya Samara (Steppe\-related) ancestry, but with one individual being more similar to Iron Age populations from Scandinavia, and north\-west Europe. The two male individuals studied for Y\-Chromosome belonged to the J2b/J\-M12 lineage, and the five studied mitochondrial haplogroups were typical of post\-Neolithic Europe. Phenotypic traits showed blue\-eyes, light/dark brown hair, and pale to intermediate skin tones.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Bagnasco \|first1\=G. \|last2\=Marzullo \|first2\=M. \|last3\=Cattaneo \|first3\=C. \|last4\=Biehler\-Gomez \|first4\=L. \|last5\=Mazzarelli \|first5\=D. \|last6\=Ricciardi \|first6\=V. \|last7\=Müller \|first7\=W. \|last8\=Coppa \|first8\=A. \|last9\=McLaughlin \|first9\=R. \|last10\=Motta \|first10\=L. \|last11\=Prato \|first11\=O. \|last12\=Schmidt \|first12\=F. \|last13\=Gaveriaux \|first13\=F. \|last14\=Marras \|first14\=G. B. \|last15\=Millet \|first15\=M. A. \|date\=2024\-05\-28 \|title\=Bioarchaeology aids the cultural understanding of six characters in search of their agency (Tarquinia, ninth–seventh century BC, central Italy) \|journal\=Scientific Reports \|language\=en \|volume\=14 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=11895 \|doi\=10\.1038/s41598\-024\-61052\-z \|pmid\=38806487 \|issn\=2045\-2322 \|pmc\=11133411\|bibcode\=2024NatSR..1411895B }}
An mtDNA study from 2007, by contrast, earlier suggested a [Near Eastern](/wiki/Near_East "Near East") origin.{{Cite journal \|display\-authors\=etal \|vauthors\=Achilli A, Olivieri A, Pala M \|date\=April 2007 \|title\=Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the near eastern origin of Etruscans \|journal\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \|volume\=80 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=759–68 \|doi\=10\.1086/512822 \|pmc\=1852723 \|pmid\=17357081}} Achilli *et al*. (2007\) found in a modern sample of 86 individuals from Murlo, a small town in southern Tuscany, an unusually high frequency (17\.5%) of supposed Near Eastern mtDNA haplogroups, while other Tuscan populations do not show the same striking feature. Based on this result Achilli concluded that "their data support the scenario of a post\-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present\-day population of Tuscany, a scenario in agreement with the Lydian origin of Etruscans". This research has been much criticized by archeologists, etruscologists and classicists.{{Cite journal \|last\=Whitehead \|first\=Jane K. \|year\=2007 \|title\=DNA and Ethnic Origins: The Possible and the Improbable \|journal\=Etruscan News \|language\=en \|location\=New York City \|publisher\=American section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies \|publication\-date\=2007 \|issue\=8}} In the absence of any dating evidence, there is no direct link between this genetic input found in Murlo and the Etruscans. Furthermore, there is no evidence that these mtDNA haplogroups found in Murlo might be proof of an eastern origin of the Etruscans, as some of these mtDNA haplogroups have been found in other studies as early as the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") and [Aeneolithic](/wiki/Aeneolithic "Aeneolithic") in Italy and Germany. All the mtDNA haplogroups found in the modern sample from Murlo and classified by Achilli et al. as of Near Eastern origin are actually widespread in modern samples from other areas of Italy and Europe with no link with the Etruscans.{{Cite journal \|last\=Gandini \|first\=Francesca \|year\=2016 \|title\=Mapping human dispersals into the Horn of Africa from Arabian Ice Age refugia using mitogenomes \|journal\=Scientific Reports \|language\=en \|volume\=6 \|issue\=25472 \|page\=25472 \|bibcode\=2016NatSR...625472G \|doi\=10\.1038/srep25472 \|pmc\=4857117 \|pmid\=27146119}}
A recent Y\-DNA study from 2018 on a modern sample of 113 individuals from [Volterra](/wiki/Volterra "Volterra"), a town of Etruscan origin, Grugni at al. keeps all the possibilities open, although the autochthonous scenario is the most supported by numbers, and concludes that "the presence of [J2a\-M67\*](/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172 "Haplogroup J-M172") (2\.7%) suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, the finding of the Central European lineage [G2a\-L497](/wiki/Haplogroup_G-M201 "Haplogroup G-M201") (7\.1%) at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans, while the high incidence of European R1b lineages (R1b 49\.8%, R1b\-U152 24\.5%) cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus".{{Cite journal \|last\=Grugni \|first\=Viola \|year\=2018 \|title\=Reconstructing the genetic history of Italians: new insights from a male (Y\-chromosome) perspective \|journal\=Annals of Human Biology \|language\=en \|publication\-date\=30 January 2018 \|volume\=45 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=44–56 \|doi\=10\.1080/03014460\.2017\.1409801 \|pmid\=29382284 \|s2cid\=43501209 \|quote\=As a matter of fact, while the presence of J2a\-M67\* suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, in agreement with the Herodotus hypothesis of an external Anatolian source of Etruscans, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a\-L497 at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans. On the other hand, the high incidence of European R1b lineages cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as first suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; a detailed analysis of haplogroup R1b\-U152 could prove very informative in this regard.}} In Italy Y\-DNA J2a\-M67\*, not yet found in Etruscan samples, is more widespread on the Adriatic Sea coast between [Marche](/wiki/Marche "Marche") and [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo "Abruzzo"), and not in those where once lived the Etruscans, and in the study has its peak in the Ionian side of [Calabria](/wiki/Calabria "Calabria").{{Cite journal \|last\=Brisighelli \|first\=Francesca \|year\=2012 \|title\=Uniparental Markers of Contemporary Italian Population Reveals Details on Its Pre\-Roman Heritage \|journal\=\[\[PLOS ONE]] \|language\=en \|publisher\=\[\[Public Library of Science]] \|publication\-date\=10 December 2012 \|volume\=7 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=e50794 \|bibcode\=2012PLoSO...750794B \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0050794 \|pmc\=3519480 \|pmid\=23251386 \|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal \|last\=Boattini \|first\=Alessio \|year\=2013 \|title\=Uniparental Markers in Italy Reveal a Sex\-Biased Genetic Structure and Different Historical Strata \|journal\=\[\[PLOS ONE]] \|language\=en \|publisher\=\[\[Public Library of Science]] \|publication\-date\=29 May 2013 \|volume\=8 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=e65441 \|bibcode\=2013PLoSO...865441B \|doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0065441 \|pmc\=3666984 \|pmid\=23734255 \|doi\-access\=free}} In 2014, a late Bronze Age [Kyjatice culture](/wiki/Urnfield_culture%23Distribution_and_local_groups "Urnfield culture#Distribution and local groups") sample in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") was found to be J2a1\-M67,{{Cite journal \|last1\=Gamba \|first1\=Cristina \|last2\=Jones \|first2\=Eppie R. \|last3\=Teasdale \|first3\=Matthew D. \|year\=2014 \|title\=Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory \|journal\=Nature Communications \|language\=en \|location\=London \|publisher\=Nature Publishing Group \|publication\-date\=October 21, 2014 \|volume\=5 \|issue\=5257 \|page\=5257 \|bibcode\=2014NatCo...5\.5257G \|doi\=10\.1038/ncomms6257 \|pmc\=4218962 \|pmid\=25334030 \|doi\-access\=free}} a couple of J2a1b were found in Late Neolithic samples from the [LBK culture](/wiki/LBK_culture "LBK culture") in [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria"),{{Cite journal \|last\=Mathieson \|first\=Iain \|year\=2018 \|title\=The genomic history of southeastern Europe \|journal\=Nature \|language\=en \|location\=London \|publisher\=Nature Publishing Group \|publication\-date\=February 21, 2018 \|volume\=555 \|issue\=7695 \|pages\=197–203 \|bibcode\=2018Natur.555\..197M \|doi\=10\.1038/nature25778 \|pmc\=6091220 \|pmid\=29466330}} a J2a1a was found in a Middle Neolithic [Sopot culture](/wiki/Sopot_culture "Sopot culture") sample from [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia"), a J2a was found in a Late Neolithic [Lengyel Culture](/wiki/Lengyel_culture "Lengyel culture") sample from [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary").{{Cite journal \|last\=Lipson \|first\=Mark \|year\=2017 \|title\=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers \|journal\=Nature \|language\=en \|location\=London \|publisher\=Nature Publishing Group \|publication\-date\=November 8, 2017 \|volume\=551 \|issue\=7680 \|pages\=368–372 \|bibcode\=2017Natur.551\..368L \|doi\=10\.1038/nature24476 \|pmc\=5973800 \|pmid\=29144465}} In 2019, in a Stanford study published in Science, two ancient samples from the Neolithic settlement of Ripabianca di Monterado in the [province of Ancona](/wiki/Province_of_Ancona "Province of Ancona"), in the Marche region of Italy, were found to be Y\-DNA J\-L26 and J\-M304\. In 2021, two more ancient samples from the Chalcolitich settlement of Grotta La Sassa, in the [province of Latina](/wiki/Province_of_Latina "Province of Latina") in southern [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio "Lazio"), were found to be Y\-DNA J2a7\-Z2397\.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Saupe \|first1\=Tina \|last2\=Montinaro \|first2\=Francesco \|last3\=Scaggion \|first3\=Cinzia \|last4\=Carrara \|first4\=Nicola \|last5\=Kivisild \|first5\=Toomas \|last6\=D’Atanasio \|first6\=Eugenia \|last7\=Hui \|first7\=Ruoyun \|last8\=Solnik \|first8\=Anu \|last9\=Lebrasseur \|first9\=Ophélie \|last10\=Larson \|first10\=Greger \|last11\=Alessandri \|first11\=Luca \|date\=2021\-06\-21 \|title\=Ancient genomes reveal structural shifts after the arrival of Steppe\-related ancestry in the Italian Peninsula \|journal\=Current Biology \|language\=English \|volume\=31 \|issue\=12 \|pages\=2576–2591\.e12 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cub.2021\.04\.022 \|issn\=0960\-9822 \|pmid\=33974848 \|s2cid\=234471370 \|quote\=The Grotta La Sassa (National Cave Cadastre id: LA 2001\) was discovered in 2015 during a survey of the Ausoni Mountains natural caves carried out by two speleological groups: Gruppo Grotte Castelli Romani and Speleo Club Roma. (...) At La Sassa, the two males LSC002/004 and LSC011 have an identical Ychr haplotype (J2a\-M410/J2a7\-Z2397; Table 1; Data S1B and S1F) \|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2021CBio...31E2576S \|hdl\-access\=free \|hdl\=11585/827581}} Therefore, Y\-DNA J2a\-M67 is likely in Italy since the Neolithic and can't be the proof of recent contacts with Anatolia.
Recent studies on the population structure of modern\-day Italians have shown that in Italy there is a north–south cline for Y\-chromosome lineages and autosomal loci, with a clear differentiation of peninsular Italians from Sardinians, and that modern Tuscans are the population of [central Italy](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy") closest genetically to the inhabitants of [northern Italy](/wiki/Northern_Italy "Northern Italy").{{Cite journal \|last1\=Sazzini \|first1\=M. \|last2\=Gnecchi Ruscone \|first2\=G. \|last3\=Giuliani \|first3\=C. \|year\=2016 \|title\=Complex interplay between neutral and adaptive evolution shaped differential genomic background and disease susceptibility along the Italian peninsula \|journal\=Scientific Reports \|language\=English \|volume\=6 \|issue\=32513 \|page\=32513 \|bibcode\=2016NatSR...632513S \|doi\=10\.1038/srep32513 \|pmc\=5007512 \|pmid\=27582244}} A 2019 study, based on autosomal DNA of 1616 individuals from all 20 Italian administrative regions, concludes that Tuscans join the northern Italian cluster, close to the inhabitants of [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria "Liguria") and [Emilia\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna "Emilia-Romagna").{{Cite journal \|last\=Raveane \|first\=Marco \|year\=2019 \|title\=Population structure of modern\-day Italians reveals patterns of ancient and archaic ancestries in Southern Europe \|journal\=Science Advances \|language\=English \|volume\=5 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=eaaw3492 \|bibcode\=2019SciA....5\.3492R \|doi\=10\.1126/sciadv.aaw3492 \|pmc\=6726452 \|pmid\=31517044}} A 2013 study, based on uniparental markers of 884 unrelated individuals from 23 Italian locations, had shown that the structure observed for the paternal lineages in continental Italy and Sicily suggests a shared genetic background between people from Tuscany and Northern Italy from one side, and people from Southern Italy and the Adriatic coast from the other side. The most frequent Y\-DNA haplogroups in the group represented by populations from North\-Western Italy, including Tuscany and most of the Padana plain, are four R1b\-lineages (R\-U152\*, R\-M269\*, R\-P312\* and R\-L2\*).
In the collective volume *Etruscology* published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia" and "there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy".
In his book *A Short History of Humanity* published in 2021, German geneticist [Johannes Krause](/wiki/Johannes_Krause "Johannes Krause"), co\-director of the [Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_Science_of_Human_History "Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History") in [Jena](/wiki/Jena "Jena"), concludes that it is likely that the [Etruscan language](/wiki/Etruscan_language "Etruscan language") (as well as [Basque](/wiki/Basque_language "Basque language"), [Paleo\-Sardinian](/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian "Paleo-Sardinian") and [Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_language "Minoan language")) "developed on the continent in the course of the [Neolithic Revolution](/wiki/Neolithic_Europe "Neolithic Europe")".{{Cite book \|last1\=Krause \|first1\=Johannes \|author\-link\=Johannes Krause \|title\=A Short History of Humanity: A New History of Old Europe \|last2\=Trappe \|first2\=Thomas \|publisher\=Random House \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=9780593229422 \|edition\=I \|location\=New York \|page\=217 \|language\=English \|translator\-last\=Waight \|translator\-first\=Caroline \|trans\-title\=Die Reise unserer Gene: Eine Geschichte über uns und unsere Vorfahren \|quote\=It’s likely that Basque, Paleo\-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known. \|orig\-year\=2019}}
|
[
"Genetic evidence\n----------------",
"[thumb\\|Etruscan votive heads, IV\\-II century BC](/wiki/File:Etruscan_votive_heads_IV-II_century_BC.jpg \"Etruscan votive heads IV-II century BC.jpg\")\nThere have been a number of genetic studies of Etruscans and modern Tuscans compared with other populations, some of which indicate the local, European origin of Etruscans and others supportive of an origin from elsewhere. In general, the direct testing of ancient Etruscan DNA has supported a deep, local origin, while the testing of modern samples as a proxy for Etruscans is rather inconclusive and inconsistent.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kron \\|first\\=Geof \\|title\\=The Etruscan World \\|publisher\\=Routledge \\|year\\=2013 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-415\\-67308\\-2 \\|editor\\-last\\=Macintosh Turfa \\|editor\\-first\\=Jean \\|location\\=London; New York \\|pages\\=56–78 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=Fleshing out the demography of Etruria}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Perkins \\|first\\=Phil \\|title\\=Etruscology \\|publisher\\=De Gruyter \\|year\\=2017 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-934078\\-49\\-5 \\|editor\\-last\\=Naso \\|editor\\-first\\=Alessandro \\|location\\=Berlin \\|publication\\-date\\=2017 \\|pages\\=109–18 \\|language\\=en \\|chapter\\=DNA and Etruscan identity}}",
"The very large [mtDNA](/wiki/MtDNA \"MtDNA\") study from 2013 indicates, based on maternally\\-inherited DNA from 30 bone samples taken from [tombs](/wiki/Tomb \"Tomb\") dating from the eight century to the first century BC from [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\") and [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio \"Lazio\"), that the Etruscans were a native population. The study extracted and typed the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of 14 individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoleis, analyzing them along with previously analyzed Etruscan mtDNA, other ancient European mtDNA, modern and [Medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") samples from Tuscany, and 4,910 modern individuals from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") basin. The ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval Tuscans) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans) were subjected to several million computer simulation runs, showing that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral to Medieval and, especially in the subpopulations from Casentino and [Volterra](/wiki/Volterra \"Volterra\"), of modern Tuscans; modern populations from Murlo and Florence, by contrast, were shown not to continue the Medieval population. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals), it was estimated that the genetic links between [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\") and [Anatolia](/wiki/Anatolia \"Anatolia\") date back to at least 5,000 years ago, and the \"most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago\", strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores. According to the study, ancient Etruscan mtDNA is closest among modern [European](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\") populations and is not particularly close to Anatolian or other Eastern Mediterranean populations. Among ancient populations based on mtDNA, ancient Etruscans were found to be closest to LBK Neolithic farmers from [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe \"Central Europe\").",
"This result is largely in line with previous mtDNA results from 2004 (in a smaller study also based on ancient DNA), and contradictory to results from 2007 (based on modern DNA). The 2004 study was based on [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA \"Mitochondrial DNA\") (mtDNA) from 80 bone samples, reduced to 28 bone samples in the analysis phase, taken from [tombs](/wiki/Tomb \"Tomb\") dating from the seventh century to the third century BC from [Veneto](/wiki/Veneto \"Veneto\"), [Tuscany](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\"), [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio \"Lazio\") and [Campania](/wiki/Campania \"Campania\").{{Cite journal \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|vauthors\\=Vernesi C, Caramelli D, Dupanloup I \\|date\\=April 2004 \\|title\\=The Etruscans: a population\\-genetic study \\|journal\\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \\|volume\\=74 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=694–704 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/383284 \\|pmc\\=1181945 \\|pmid\\=15015132}} This study found that the ancient DNA extracted from the Etruscan remains had some affinities with modern European populations including [Germans](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\"), [English people from Cornwall](/wiki/English_people \"English people\"), and Tuscans in Italy. In addition the Etruscan samples possibly revealed more genetic inheritance from the eastern and southern Mediterranean than modern Italian samples contain. The study was marred by concerns that mtDNA sequences from the archeological samples represented severely damaged or contaminated DNA;{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Bandelt HJ \\|date\\=November 2004 \\|title\\=Etruscan artifacts \\|journal\\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \\|volume\\=75 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=919–20; author reply 923–7 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/425180 \\|pmc\\=1182123 \\|pmid\\=15457405}} however, subsequent investigation showed that the samples passed the most stringent tests of DNA degradation available.{{Cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Mateiu LM, Rannala BH \\|year\\=2008 \\|title\\=Bayesian inference of errors in ancient DNA caused by postmortem degradation \\|journal\\=Mol Biol Evol \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=7 \\|pages\\=1503–11 \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/molbev/msn095 \\|pmid\\=18420593 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}",
"A mtDNA study, published in 2018 in the journal [American Journal of Physical Anthropology](/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physical_Anthropology \"American Journal of Physical Anthropology\"), compared both ancient and modern samples from Tuscany, from the [Prehistory](/wiki/Prehistory \"Prehistory\"), Etruscan age, [Roman age](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\"), [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\"), and Present\\-day, and concluded that the Etruscans appear as a local population, intermediate between the prehistoric and the other samples, placing in the temporal network between the [Eneolithic Age](/wiki/Eneolithic \"Eneolithic\") and the Roman Age.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Leonardi \\|first1\\=Michela \\|last2\\=Sandionigi \\|first2\\=Anna \\|last3\\=Conzato \\|first3\\=Annalisa \\|last4\\=Vai \\|first4\\=Stefania \\|last5\\=Lari \\|first5\\=Martina \\|year\\=2018 \\|title\\=The female ancestor's tale: Long\\-term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany \\|url\\=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10\\.1002/ajpa.23679 \\|journal\\=American Journal of Physical Anthropology \\|language\\=English \\|location\\=New York City \\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons \\|publication\\-date\\=September 6, 2018 \\|volume\\=167 \\|issue\\=3 \\|pages\\=497–506 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/ajpa.23679 \\|pmid\\=30187463 \\|s2cid\\=52161000}}",
"A 2019 genetic study published in the journal *[Science](/wiki/Science_%28journal%29 \"Science (journal)\")* analyzed the remains of eleven [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in [Veio Grotta Gramiccia](/wiki/Veio \"Veio\") from the Villanovan period (900\\-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near [Civitavecchia](/wiki/Civitavecchia \"Civitavecchia\") from the Orientalizing period (700\\-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the [Latins](/wiki/Latins_%28Italic_tribe%29 \"Latins (Italic tribe)\") (900–500 BC) from [Latium vetus](/wiki/Latium_vetus \"Latium vetus\") were genetically similar., genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins were found to be insignificant.{{sfn\\|Antonio\\|Gao\\|Moots\\|Lucci\\|2019\\|p\\=3}} The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of 30\\.7% [steppe ancestry](/wiki/Steppe_ancestry \"Steppe ancestry\").{{sfn\\|Antonio\\|Gao\\|Moots\\|Lucci\\|2019\\|p\\=2}} Their DNA was a mixture of two\\-thirds [Copper Age](/wiki/Copper_Age \"Copper Age\") ancestry ([EEF](/wiki/Early_European_Farmers \"Early European Farmers\") \\+ [WHG](/wiki/Western_Hunter-Gatherer \"Western Hunter-Gatherer\"); Etruscans \\~66–72%, Latins \\~62–75%) and one\\-third [Steppe\\-related ancestry](/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry \"Steppe-related ancestry\") (Etruscans \\~27–33%, Latins \\~24–37%) (with the EEF component mainly deriving from Neolithic\\-era migrants to Europe from Anatolia and the WHG being local Western European hunter\\-gatherers, with both components, along with that from the steppe, being found in virtually all European populations). The only sample of [Y\\-DNA](/wiki/Y-DNA \"Y-DNA\") extracted belonged to [haplogroup J\\-M12 (J2b\\-L283\\)](/wiki/Haplogroup_J_%28Y-DNA%29 \"Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)\"), found in an individual dated 700\\-600 BC, and carried exactly the [M314](/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172 \"Haplogroup J-M172\") derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age individual from [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\") (1631\\-1531 calBCE). While the four samples of [mtDNA](/wiki/MtDNA \"MtDNA\") extracted belonged to haplogroups [U5a1](/wiki/Haplogroup_U_%28mtDNA%29%23Haplogroup_U5 \"Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U5\"), [H](/wiki/Haplogroup_H_%28mtDNA%29 \"Haplogroup H (mtDNA)\"), [T2b32](/wiki/Haplogroup_T_%28mtDNA%29 \"Haplogroup T (mtDNA)\"), [K1a4](/wiki/Haplogroup_K_%28mtDNA%29 \"Haplogroup K (mtDNA)\").{{sfn\\|Antonio\\|Gao\\|Moots\\|Lucci\\|2019\\|loc\\=Table 2 Sample Information, Rows 33\\-35}} Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe\\-related ancestry despite speaking a pre\\-Indo\\-European language.",
"A 2021 study by the [Max Planck Institute](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute \"Max Planck Institute\"), the [Universities of Tübingen](/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen \"University of Tübingen\"), [Florence](/wiki/University_of_Florence \"University of Florence\"), and [Harvard](/wiki/University_of_Harvard \"University of Harvard\"), published in the journal [Science Advances](/wiki/Science_Advances \"Science Advances\"), analyzed the [Y\\-chromosome](/wiki/Y-chromosome \"Y-chromosome\"), [mitochondrial DNA](/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA \"Mitochondrial DNA\"), and [autosomal DNA](/wiki/Autosomal_DNA \"Autosomal DNA\") of 82 ancient samples from Etruria (Tuscany and Latium) and southern Italy (Basilicata) spanning from 800 BC to 1000 AD, including 48 Iron Age individuals. The study confirmed that in the samples of Etruscan individuals from Tuscany and Lazio the ancestral component [Steppe](/wiki/Steppe-related_ancestry \"Steppe-related ancestry\") was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed samples of Iron Age Latins, and added that in the DNA of the Etruscans was completely absent, a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean. The study concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to that of their early Iron Age Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins belonged firmly to the European cluster: 75% of the samples of Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup [R1b](/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b%23R1b1a1b_%28R-M269%29 \"Haplogroup R1b#R1b1a1b (R-M269)\"), especially R1b\\-P312 and its derivative R1b\\-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b\\-U152\\. Regarding mitochondrial DNA haplogroups, the most prevalent was largely H, followed by J and T. Uniparental marker data and autosomal DNA data from samples of Iron Age Etruscan individuals suggest that Etruria received migrations with a large ancestral Steppe component during the [2nd millennium BC](/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC \"2nd millennium BC\"), related to the spread of [Indo\\-European languages](/wiki/Indo-European_languages \"Indo-European languages\"), starting with the [Bell Beaker culture](/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture \"Bell Beaker culture\"), and that these migrations merged with populations of the oldest pre\\-Indo\\-European layer present since at least the Neolithic period, but it was the latter's language that survived, a situation similar to what happened in the [Basque region](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28greater_region%29 \"Basque Country (greater region)\") of northern [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"). The study also concluded that the samples analyzed show that the Etruscans kept their genetic profile unchanged for almost 1000 years, indicating the sparse presence in Etruria of foreigners, and that a demographic change in Etruria occurred only from the [Roman imperial period](/wiki/Roman_imperial_period_%28chronology%29 \"Roman imperial period (chronology)\"), in which there is the intermixture into the local population of ancestral components from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Analysis of samples of individuals who lived in the Roman imperial period and those of the Medieval Age also suggest that the genetic landscape of present\\-day central Italy was formed largely around 1000 years ago after the [Barbarian invasions](/wiki/Migration_Period \"Migration Period\"), and that the arrival of the Germanic [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards \"Lombards\") in Italy contributed to the formation of the gene pool of the modern population of Tuscany and northern Latium.",
"In 2024, 6 individuals of Etruscan remains from [Tarquinia](/wiki/Tarquinia \"Tarquinia\"), [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio \"Lazio\"), dated the 9th\\-7th Century BC, were studied and confirmed the previous finds. The admixture model showed that they were 84\\-92% Italy Bell Beaker and 8\\-26% additional Yamnaya Samara (Steppe\\-related) ancestry, but with one individual being more similar to Iron Age populations from Scandinavia, and north\\-west Europe. The two male individuals studied for Y\\-Chromosome belonged to the J2b/J\\-M12 lineage, and the five studied mitochondrial haplogroups were typical of post\\-Neolithic Europe. Phenotypic traits showed blue\\-eyes, light/dark brown hair, and pale to intermediate skin tones.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Bagnasco \\|first1\\=G. \\|last2\\=Marzullo \\|first2\\=M. \\|last3\\=Cattaneo \\|first3\\=C. \\|last4\\=Biehler\\-Gomez \\|first4\\=L. \\|last5\\=Mazzarelli \\|first5\\=D. \\|last6\\=Ricciardi \\|first6\\=V. \\|last7\\=Müller \\|first7\\=W. \\|last8\\=Coppa \\|first8\\=A. \\|last9\\=McLaughlin \\|first9\\=R. \\|last10\\=Motta \\|first10\\=L. \\|last11\\=Prato \\|first11\\=O. \\|last12\\=Schmidt \\|first12\\=F. \\|last13\\=Gaveriaux \\|first13\\=F. \\|last14\\=Marras \\|first14\\=G. B. \\|last15\\=Millet \\|first15\\=M. A. \\|date\\=2024\\-05\\-28 \\|title\\=Bioarchaeology aids the cultural understanding of six characters in search of their agency (Tarquinia, ninth–seventh century BC, central Italy) \\|journal\\=Scientific Reports \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=14 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=11895 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s41598\\-024\\-61052\\-z \\|pmid\\=38806487 \\|issn\\=2045\\-2322 \\|pmc\\=11133411\\|bibcode\\=2024NatSR..1411895B }}",
"An mtDNA study from 2007, by contrast, earlier suggested a [Near Eastern](/wiki/Near_East \"Near East\") origin.{{Cite journal \\|display\\-authors\\=etal \\|vauthors\\=Achilli A, Olivieri A, Pala M \\|date\\=April 2007 \\|title\\=Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the near eastern origin of Etruscans \\|journal\\=Am. J. Hum. Genet. \\|volume\\=80 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=759–68 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/512822 \\|pmc\\=1852723 \\|pmid\\=17357081}} Achilli *et al*. (2007\\) found in a modern sample of 86 individuals from Murlo, a small town in southern Tuscany, an unusually high frequency (17\\.5%) of supposed Near Eastern mtDNA haplogroups, while other Tuscan populations do not show the same striking feature. Based on this result Achilli concluded that \"their data support the scenario of a post\\-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present\\-day population of Tuscany, a scenario in agreement with the Lydian origin of Etruscans\". This research has been much criticized by archeologists, etruscologists and classicists.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Whitehead \\|first\\=Jane K. \\|year\\=2007 \\|title\\=DNA and Ethnic Origins: The Possible and the Improbable \\|journal\\=Etruscan News \\|language\\=en \\|location\\=New York City \\|publisher\\=American section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies \\|publication\\-date\\=2007 \\|issue\\=8}} In the absence of any dating evidence, there is no direct link between this genetic input found in Murlo and the Etruscans. Furthermore, there is no evidence that these mtDNA haplogroups found in Murlo might be proof of an eastern origin of the Etruscans, as some of these mtDNA haplogroups have been found in other studies as early as the [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") and [Aeneolithic](/wiki/Aeneolithic \"Aeneolithic\") in Italy and Germany. All the mtDNA haplogroups found in the modern sample from Murlo and classified by Achilli et al. as of Near Eastern origin are actually widespread in modern samples from other areas of Italy and Europe with no link with the Etruscans.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Gandini \\|first\\=Francesca \\|year\\=2016 \\|title\\=Mapping human dispersals into the Horn of Africa from Arabian Ice Age refugia using mitogenomes \\|journal\\=Scientific Reports \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=25472 \\|page\\=25472 \\|bibcode\\=2016NatSR...625472G \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/srep25472 \\|pmc\\=4857117 \\|pmid\\=27146119}}",
"A recent Y\\-DNA study from 2018 on a modern sample of 113 individuals from [Volterra](/wiki/Volterra \"Volterra\"), a town of Etruscan origin, Grugni at al. keeps all the possibilities open, although the autochthonous scenario is the most supported by numbers, and concludes that \"the presence of [J2a\\-M67\\*](/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172 \"Haplogroup J-M172\") (2\\.7%) suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, the finding of the Central European lineage [G2a\\-L497](/wiki/Haplogroup_G-M201 \"Haplogroup G-M201\") (7\\.1%) at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans, while the high incidence of European R1b lineages (R1b 49\\.8%, R1b\\-U152 24\\.5%) cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus\".{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Grugni \\|first\\=Viola \\|year\\=2018 \\|title\\=Reconstructing the genetic history of Italians: new insights from a male (Y\\-chromosome) perspective \\|journal\\=Annals of Human Biology \\|language\\=en \\|publication\\-date\\=30 January 2018 \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=44–56 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/03014460\\.2017\\.1409801 \\|pmid\\=29382284 \\|s2cid\\=43501209 \\|quote\\=As a matter of fact, while the presence of J2a\\-M67\\* suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, in agreement with the Herodotus hypothesis of an external Anatolian source of Etruscans, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a\\-L497 at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans. On the other hand, the high incidence of European R1b lineages cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilization from the preceding Villanovan society, as first suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; a detailed analysis of haplogroup R1b\\-U152 could prove very informative in this regard.}} In Italy Y\\-DNA J2a\\-M67\\*, not yet found in Etruscan samples, is more widespread on the Adriatic Sea coast between [Marche](/wiki/Marche \"Marche\") and [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo \"Abruzzo\"), and not in those where once lived the Etruscans, and in the study has its peak in the Ionian side of [Calabria](/wiki/Calabria \"Calabria\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Brisighelli \\|first\\=Francesca \\|year\\=2012 \\|title\\=Uniparental Markers of Contemporary Italian Population Reveals Details on Its Pre\\-Roman Heritage \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PLOS ONE]] \\|language\\=en \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Public Library of Science]] \\|publication\\-date\\=10 December 2012 \\|volume\\=7 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=e50794 \\|bibcode\\=2012PLoSO...750794B \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0050794 \\|pmc\\=3519480 \\|pmid\\=23251386 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Boattini \\|first\\=Alessio \\|year\\=2013 \\|title\\=Uniparental Markers in Italy Reveal a Sex\\-Biased Genetic Structure and Different Historical Strata \\|journal\\=\\[\\[PLOS ONE]] \\|language\\=en \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Public Library of Science]] \\|publication\\-date\\=29 May 2013 \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=e65441 \\|bibcode\\=2013PLoSO...865441B \\|doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0065441 \\|pmc\\=3666984 \\|pmid\\=23734255 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} In 2014, a late Bronze Age [Kyjatice culture](/wiki/Urnfield_culture%23Distribution_and_local_groups \"Urnfield culture#Distribution and local groups\") sample in [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") was found to be J2a1\\-M67,{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Gamba \\|first1\\=Cristina \\|last2\\=Jones \\|first2\\=Eppie R. \\|last3\\=Teasdale \\|first3\\=Matthew D. \\|year\\=2014 \\|title\\=Genome flux and stasis in a five millennium transect of European prehistory \\|journal\\=Nature Communications \\|language\\=en \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Nature Publishing Group \\|publication\\-date\\=October 21, 2014 \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=5257 \\|page\\=5257 \\|bibcode\\=2014NatCo...5\\.5257G \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/ncomms6257 \\|pmc\\=4218962 \\|pmid\\=25334030 \\|doi\\-access\\=free}} a couple of J2a1b were found in Late Neolithic samples from the [LBK culture](/wiki/LBK_culture \"LBK culture\") in [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\"),{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Mathieson \\|first\\=Iain \\|year\\=2018 \\|title\\=The genomic history of southeastern Europe \\|journal\\=Nature \\|language\\=en \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Nature Publishing Group \\|publication\\-date\\=February 21, 2018 \\|volume\\=555 \\|issue\\=7695 \\|pages\\=197–203 \\|bibcode\\=2018Natur.555\\..197M \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature25778 \\|pmc\\=6091220 \\|pmid\\=29466330}} a J2a1a was found in a Middle Neolithic [Sopot culture](/wiki/Sopot_culture \"Sopot culture\") sample from [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\"), a J2a was found in a Late Neolithic [Lengyel Culture](/wiki/Lengyel_culture \"Lengyel culture\") sample from [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Lipson \\|first\\=Mark \\|year\\=2017 \\|title\\=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers \\|journal\\=Nature \\|language\\=en \\|location\\=London \\|publisher\\=Nature Publishing Group \\|publication\\-date\\=November 8, 2017 \\|volume\\=551 \\|issue\\=7680 \\|pages\\=368–372 \\|bibcode\\=2017Natur.551\\..368L \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/nature24476 \\|pmc\\=5973800 \\|pmid\\=29144465}} In 2019, in a Stanford study published in Science, two ancient samples from the Neolithic settlement of Ripabianca di Monterado in the [province of Ancona](/wiki/Province_of_Ancona \"Province of Ancona\"), in the Marche region of Italy, were found to be Y\\-DNA J\\-L26 and J\\-M304\\. In 2021, two more ancient samples from the Chalcolitich settlement of Grotta La Sassa, in the [province of Latina](/wiki/Province_of_Latina \"Province of Latina\") in southern [Lazio](/wiki/Lazio \"Lazio\"), were found to be Y\\-DNA J2a7\\-Z2397\\.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Saupe \\|first1\\=Tina \\|last2\\=Montinaro \\|first2\\=Francesco \\|last3\\=Scaggion \\|first3\\=Cinzia \\|last4\\=Carrara \\|first4\\=Nicola \\|last5\\=Kivisild \\|first5\\=Toomas \\|last6\\=D’Atanasio \\|first6\\=Eugenia \\|last7\\=Hui \\|first7\\=Ruoyun \\|last8\\=Solnik \\|first8\\=Anu \\|last9\\=Lebrasseur \\|first9\\=Ophélie \\|last10\\=Larson \\|first10\\=Greger \\|last11\\=Alessandri \\|first11\\=Luca \\|date\\=2021\\-06\\-21 \\|title\\=Ancient genomes reveal structural shifts after the arrival of Steppe\\-related ancestry in the Italian Peninsula \\|journal\\=Current Biology \\|language\\=English \\|volume\\=31 \\|issue\\=12 \\|pages\\=2576–2591\\.e12 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cub.2021\\.04\\.022 \\|issn\\=0960\\-9822 \\|pmid\\=33974848 \\|s2cid\\=234471370 \\|quote\\=The Grotta La Sassa (National Cave Cadastre id: LA 2001\\) was discovered in 2015 during a survey of the Ausoni Mountains natural caves carried out by two speleological groups: Gruppo Grotte Castelli Romani and Speleo Club Roma. (...) At La Sassa, the two males LSC002/004 and LSC011 have an identical Ychr haplotype (J2a\\-M410/J2a7\\-Z2397; Table 1; Data S1B and S1F) \\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2021CBio...31E2576S \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=11585/827581}} Therefore, Y\\-DNA J2a\\-M67 is likely in Italy since the Neolithic and can't be the proof of recent contacts with Anatolia.",
"Recent studies on the population structure of modern\\-day Italians have shown that in Italy there is a north–south cline for Y\\-chromosome lineages and autosomal loci, with a clear differentiation of peninsular Italians from Sardinians, and that modern Tuscans are the population of [central Italy](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\") closest genetically to the inhabitants of [northern Italy](/wiki/Northern_Italy \"Northern Italy\").{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Sazzini \\|first1\\=M. \\|last2\\=Gnecchi Ruscone \\|first2\\=G. \\|last3\\=Giuliani \\|first3\\=C. \\|year\\=2016 \\|title\\=Complex interplay between neutral and adaptive evolution shaped differential genomic background and disease susceptibility along the Italian peninsula \\|journal\\=Scientific Reports \\|language\\=English \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=32513 \\|page\\=32513 \\|bibcode\\=2016NatSR...632513S \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/srep32513 \\|pmc\\=5007512 \\|pmid\\=27582244}} A 2019 study, based on autosomal DNA of 1616 individuals from all 20 Italian administrative regions, concludes that Tuscans join the northern Italian cluster, close to the inhabitants of [Liguria](/wiki/Liguria \"Liguria\") and [Emilia\\-Romagna](/wiki/Emilia-Romagna \"Emilia-Romagna\").{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Raveane \\|first\\=Marco \\|year\\=2019 \\|title\\=Population structure of modern\\-day Italians reveals patterns of ancient and archaic ancestries in Southern Europe \\|journal\\=Science Advances \\|language\\=English \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=eaaw3492 \\|bibcode\\=2019SciA....5\\.3492R \\|doi\\=10\\.1126/sciadv.aaw3492 \\|pmc\\=6726452 \\|pmid\\=31517044}} A 2013 study, based on uniparental markers of 884 unrelated individuals from 23 Italian locations, had shown that the structure observed for the paternal lineages in continental Italy and Sicily suggests a shared genetic background between people from Tuscany and Northern Italy from one side, and people from Southern Italy and the Adriatic coast from the other side. The most frequent Y\\-DNA haplogroups in the group represented by populations from North\\-Western Italy, including Tuscany and most of the Padana plain, are four R1b\\-lineages (R\\-U152\\*, R\\-M269\\*, R\\-P312\\* and R\\-L2\\*).",
"In the collective volume *Etruscology* published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that \"none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia\" and \"there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy\".",
"In his book *A Short History of Humanity* published in 2021, German geneticist [Johannes Krause](/wiki/Johannes_Krause \"Johannes Krause\"), co\\-director of the [Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology](/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_Science_of_Human_History \"Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History\") in [Jena](/wiki/Jena \"Jena\"), concludes that it is likely that the [Etruscan language](/wiki/Etruscan_language \"Etruscan language\") (as well as [Basque](/wiki/Basque_language \"Basque language\"), [Paleo\\-Sardinian](/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian \"Paleo-Sardinian\") and [Minoan](/wiki/Minoan_language \"Minoan language\")) \"developed on the continent in the course of the [Neolithic Revolution](/wiki/Neolithic_Europe \"Neolithic Europe\")\".{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Krause \\|first1\\=Johannes \\|author\\-link\\=Johannes Krause \\|title\\=A Short History of Humanity: A New History of Old Europe \\|last2\\=Trappe \\|first2\\=Thomas \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=9780593229422 \\|edition\\=I \\|location\\=New York \\|page\\=217 \\|language\\=English \\|translator\\-last\\=Waight \\|translator\\-first\\=Caroline \\|trans\\-title\\=Die Reise unserer Gene: Eine Geschichte über uns und unsere Vorfahren \\|quote\\=It’s likely that Basque, Paleo\\-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known. \\|orig\\-year\\=2019}}",
""
] |
Career
------
### Early years
Saarinen started skating when she was about five years old. She began competing on the junior international level in the autumn of 2012\. She was assigned to the [2013 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2013 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"), Italy, where she finished 14th.
Saarinen made her [ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix "ISU Junior Grand Prix") (JGP) debut and won the junior title at the [2014 Finnish Championships](/wiki/2014_Finnish_Figure_Skating_Championships "2014 Finnish Figure Skating Championships"). She placed 13th at the [2014 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2014_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2014 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia "Sofia"), Bulgaria.
### Senior career
Saarinen continued competing on the JGP series before making her senior international debut at the [2014 Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2014_Finlandia_Trophy "2014 Finlandia Trophy"), a [Challenger Series (CS)](/wiki/ISU_Challenger_Series "ISU Challenger Series") event. In November 2014, she won a bronze medal at the CS [Volvo Open Cup](/wiki/Volvo_Open_Cup "Volvo Open Cup"). In the [2015 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") in [Tallinn](/wiki/Tallinn "Tallinn"), she placed 8th in the short program and 13th overall.
In the 2015–16 season, Saarinen was assigned to the [2015 Tallinn Trophy](/wiki/2015_Tallinn_Trophy "2015 Tallinn Trophy") but withdrew before the short program.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jennisaarinen.com/en/ \|title\=Jenni Saarinen, taitoluistelu \- Frontpage \|website\=Jennisaarinen.com \|date\=2014\-06\-07 \|accessdate\=2016\-01\-26}} In December, she won the silver medal at the [2016 Finnish Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2016_Finnish_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 Finnish Figure Skating Championships"), only 0\.15 points behind [Anni Järvenpää](/wiki/Anni_J%C3%A4rvenp%C3%A4%C3%A4 "Anni Järvenpää"). She was 3rd in the short program and won the free skating.
Saarinen made her senior World Championship debut at the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm "Stockholm"), placing twenty\-fourth. This result qualified a place for Finland at the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics "2022 Winter Olympics") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"). The following season, Saarinen won the senior Finnish national title for the first time and made the free skate at the [2022 European Championships](/wiki/2022_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2022 European Figure Skating Championships"), finishing seventeenth; she originally finished eighteenth overall, but the retroactive disqualification of [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva "Kamila Valieva") resulted in all other ladies singles skaters moving up a place. Named to the [Finnish Olympic team](/wiki/Finland_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics "Finland at the 2022 Winter Olympics"), Saarinen placed twenty\-fifth in the short program of the [Olympic women's event](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles "Figure skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Women's singles"). This would normally have had her one ordinal outside qualification to the free skate, but due to the controversial [Court of Arbitration for Sport](/wiki/Court_of_Arbitration_for_Sport "Court of Arbitration for Sport") (CAS) decision allowing Valieva to compete in the event despite suspicion of illegal [doping](/wiki/Doping_in_sport "Doping in sport") the [International Olympic Committee](/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee "International Olympic Committee") decreed that twenty\-five skaters would advance. Saarinen finished twenty\-fourth overall; she originally finished twenty\-fifth overall, but Valieva was disqualified by the CAS in 2024 and all skaters who originally placed fifth or lower moved up a place. She was twenty\-fifth as well at the [2022 World Championships](/wiki/2022_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2022 World Figure Skating Championships").
Illness delayed the start of Saarinen's [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022-23_figure_skating_season "2022-23 figure skating season"), while she also struggled with motivation and had it affect her everyday life. After finishing twelfth at the [2022 CS Ice Challenge](/wiki/2022_CS_Ice_Challenge "2022 CS Ice Challenge"), Saarinen decided that she would retire following the [2022 Grand Prix of Espoo](/wiki/2022_Grand_Prix_of_Espoo "2022 Grand Prix of Espoo"), the second special [Grand Prix](/wiki/2022-23_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2022-23 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") event held in Finland. She placed ninth at the event and explained afterward that she had "a long, great career with ups and downs. I'm starting to get to the point in life where there are other things in life."
|
[
"Career\n------",
"### Early years",
"Saarinen started skating when she was about five years old. She began competing on the junior international level in the autumn of 2012\\. She was assigned to the [2013 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2013_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2013 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"), Italy, where she finished 14th.",
"Saarinen made her [ISU Junior Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Junior_Grand_Prix \"ISU Junior Grand Prix\") (JGP) debut and won the junior title at the [2014 Finnish Championships](/wiki/2014_Finnish_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2014 Finnish Figure Skating Championships\"). She placed 13th at the [2014 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2014_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2014 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") in [Sofia](/wiki/Sofia \"Sofia\"), Bulgaria.",
"### Senior career",
"Saarinen continued competing on the JGP series before making her senior international debut at the [2014 Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2014_Finlandia_Trophy \"2014 Finlandia Trophy\"), a [Challenger Series (CS)](/wiki/ISU_Challenger_Series \"ISU Challenger Series\") event. In November 2014, she won a bronze medal at the CS [Volvo Open Cup](/wiki/Volvo_Open_Cup \"Volvo Open Cup\"). In the [2015 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2015_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") in [Tallinn](/wiki/Tallinn \"Tallinn\"), she placed 8th in the short program and 13th overall.",
"In the 2015–16 season, Saarinen was assigned to the [2015 Tallinn Trophy](/wiki/2015_Tallinn_Trophy \"2015 Tallinn Trophy\") but withdrew before the short program.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jennisaarinen.com/en/ \\|title\\=Jenni Saarinen, taitoluistelu \\- Frontpage \\|website\\=Jennisaarinen.com \\|date\\=2014\\-06\\-07 \\|accessdate\\=2016\\-01\\-26}} In December, she won the silver medal at the [2016 Finnish Figure Skating Championships](/wiki/2016_Finnish_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 Finnish Figure Skating Championships\"), only 0\\.15 points behind [Anni Järvenpää](/wiki/Anni_J%C3%A4rvenp%C3%A4%C3%A4 \"Anni Järvenpää\"). She was 3rd in the short program and won the free skating.",
"Saarinen made her senior World Championship debut at the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Stockholm](/wiki/Stockholm \"Stockholm\"), placing twenty\\-fourth. This result qualified a place for Finland at the [2022 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2022_Winter_Olympics \"2022 Winter Olympics\") in [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"). The following season, Saarinen won the senior Finnish national title for the first time and made the free skate at the [2022 European Championships](/wiki/2022_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2022 European Figure Skating Championships\"), finishing seventeenth; she originally finished eighteenth overall, but the retroactive disqualification of [Kamila Valieva](/wiki/Kamila_Valieva \"Kamila Valieva\") resulted in all other ladies singles skaters moving up a place. Named to the [Finnish Olympic team](/wiki/Finland_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics \"Finland at the 2022 Winter Olympics\"), Saarinen placed twenty\\-fifth in the short program of the [Olympic women's event](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2022_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles \"Figure skating at the 2022 Winter Olympics – Women's singles\"). This would normally have had her one ordinal outside qualification to the free skate, but due to the controversial [Court of Arbitration for Sport](/wiki/Court_of_Arbitration_for_Sport \"Court of Arbitration for Sport\") (CAS) decision allowing Valieva to compete in the event despite suspicion of illegal [doping](/wiki/Doping_in_sport \"Doping in sport\") the [International Olympic Committee](/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee \"International Olympic Committee\") decreed that twenty\\-five skaters would advance. Saarinen finished twenty\\-fourth overall; she originally finished twenty\\-fifth overall, but Valieva was disqualified by the CAS in 2024 and all skaters who originally placed fifth or lower moved up a place. She was twenty\\-fifth as well at the [2022 World Championships](/wiki/2022_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2022 World Figure Skating Championships\").",
"Illness delayed the start of Saarinen's [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022-23_figure_skating_season \"2022-23 figure skating season\"), while she also struggled with motivation and had it affect her everyday life. After finishing twelfth at the [2022 CS Ice Challenge](/wiki/2022_CS_Ice_Challenge \"2022 CS Ice Challenge\"), Saarinen decided that she would retire following the [2022 Grand Prix of Espoo](/wiki/2022_Grand_Prix_of_Espoo \"2022 Grand Prix of Espoo\"), the second special [Grand Prix](/wiki/2022-23_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2022-23 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") event held in Finland. She placed ninth at the event and explained afterward that she had \"a long, great career with ups and downs. I'm starting to get to the point in life where there are other things in life.\"",
""
] |
Football career
---------------
### Playing career
Kirkman was born in [Bolton](/wiki/Bolton "Bolton") and attended Folds Road School. His football career started when he joined [Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. "Burnley F.C.") in May 1939, but his professional career was immediately interrupted by the Second World War.
During the war, he trained as an [R.A.F.](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") navigator and represented the R.A.F. in a football match against an Army team. He also made guest appearances for [Brighton \& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. "Brighton & Hove Albion F.C."), [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. "Fulham F.C.") and [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.").
After he was "[demobbed](/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization")", he returned to Burnley before being signed by [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. "Rochdale A.F.C.") in October 1946\. He spent a little over a year in the [Third Division North](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_North "Football League Third Division North"), during which he made 53 League appearances{{cite web\|last\=Brown\|first\=Neil\|title\=Norman Kirkman \|url\=http://www.neilbrown.newcastlefans.com/player8/normankirkman.html\|work\=Career summary\|access\-date\=22 November 2012}} before moving up to the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") when he joined [Chesterfield](/wiki/Chesterfield_F.C. "Chesterfield F.C.") in November 1947\.
Two years later, in August 1949, Kirkman joined fellow Second Division club, [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. "Leicester City F.C."), for a fee of £8,500\. Although he made five appearances at the start of the [1949–50 season](/wiki/1949%E2%80%9350_in_English_football "1949–50 in English football"), he lost his place, firstly to [Sandy Scott](/wiki/Sandy_Scott_%28footballer%29 "Sandy Scott (footballer)") and then to [Ron Jackson](/wiki/Ron_Jackson_%28footballer%29 "Ron Jackson (footballer)"), before a return to the side in March for the final seven matches of the season.{{cite web\|title\=Norman Kirkman \|url\=http://www.foxestalk.co.uk/forums/page/playerdetails.php?pid\=710\|work\=Player profile \|publisher\=foxestalk.co.uk\|access\-date\=22 November 2012}}
In July 1950, he was signed by another Second Division side, [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C."), for "a four figure fee". Described as "a cool professional player", who "possessed a fastidious left foot", he made his debut for the "Saints" in the opening match of the [1950–51 season](/wiki/1950%E2%80%9351_in_English_football "1950–51 in English football"), playing at [left\-back](/wiki/Left-back "Left-back") in a 2–1 victory at [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. "Barnsley F.C.") on 19 August 1950\. After only one further match, he was replaced by [Ted Ballard](/wiki/Ted_Ballard "Ted Ballard"), although Kirkman regained his place in January before losing out again to [Jack Gregory](/wiki/Jack_Gregory_%28footballer%2C_born_1925%29 "Jack Gregory (footballer, born 1925)").{{cite book \| title\=Saints – A complete record\|last\= Chalk\|first\= Gary\|last2\=Holley\|first2\= Duncan \| publisher\= Breedon Books\| year\=1987\|isbn\= 0\-907969\-22\-4\|page\=119}} In [the following season](/wiki/1951%E2%80%9352_in_English_football "1951–52 in English football"), Kirkman made only seven further appearances, with the teenaged [Peter Sillett](/wiki/Peter_Sillett "Peter Sillett") being the first\-choice at left\-back.{{cite book \| title\=Saints – A complete record\|page\=121}}
In March 1952, Kirkman was "persuaded" to move to [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. "Exeter City F.C.") in a [player\-manager](/wiki/Player-manager "Player-manager") role, with [George Roughton](/wiki/George_Roughton "George Roughton") moving in the opposite direction to replace [Sid Cann](/wiki/Sid_Cann "Sid Cann"), who had been "relieved of his duties" in December, following a falling\-out with the board of directors.
### Management career
Kirkman spent a year at [St James Park](/wiki/St_James_Park%2C_Exeter "St James Park, Exeter") in the [Third Division South](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_South "Football League Third Division South") with no conspicuous success, before spending the [1953–54 season](/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_in_English_football "1953–54 in English football") at [Bradford Park Avenue](/wiki/Bradford_%28Park_Avenue%29_A.F.C. "Bradford (Park Avenue) A.F.C.") of the [Third Division North](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_North "Football League Third Division North").
He then dropped out of football, to become a baker{{cite web\|title\=The Return of Bradford Park Avenue \|url\=http://qprreport.proboards.com/index.cgi?board\=general\&action\=print\&thread\=12414\|access\-date\=22 November 2012\|date\=29 March 2010}} although he did return to management briefly in 1965 with [Northwich Victoria](/wiki/Northwich_Victoria_F.C. "Northwich Victoria F.C."). He also became a [scout](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 "Scout (sport)") for various clubs, including Southampton, [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C."), [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. "Leeds United F.C."), [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. "Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C."), [Stoke City](/wiki/Stoke_City_F.C. "Stoke City F.C.") and [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. "Carlisle United F.C.").
|
[
"Football career\n---------------",
"### Playing career",
"Kirkman was born in [Bolton](/wiki/Bolton \"Bolton\") and attended Folds Road School. His football career started when he joined [Burnley](/wiki/Burnley_F.C. \"Burnley F.C.\") in May 1939, but his professional career was immediately interrupted by the Second World War.",
"During the war, he trained as an [R.A.F.](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") navigator and represented the R.A.F. in a football match against an Army team. He also made guest appearances for [Brighton \\& Hove Albion](/wiki/Brighton_%26_Hove_Albion_F.C. \"Brighton & Hove Albion F.C.\"), [Fulham](/wiki/Fulham_F.C. \"Fulham F.C.\") and [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\").",
"After he was \"[demobbed](/wiki/Demobilization \"Demobilization\")\", he returned to Burnley before being signed by [Rochdale](/wiki/Rochdale_A.F.C. \"Rochdale A.F.C.\") in October 1946\\. He spent a little over a year in the [Third Division North](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_North \"Football League Third Division North\"), during which he made 53 League appearances{{cite web\\|last\\=Brown\\|first\\=Neil\\|title\\=Norman Kirkman \\|url\\=http://www.neilbrown.newcastlefans.com/player8/normankirkman.html\\|work\\=Career summary\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2012}} before moving up to the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") when he joined [Chesterfield](/wiki/Chesterfield_F.C. \"Chesterfield F.C.\") in November 1947\\.",
"Two years later, in August 1949, Kirkman joined fellow Second Division club, [Leicester City](/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C. \"Leicester City F.C.\"), for a fee of £8,500\\. Although he made five appearances at the start of the [1949–50 season](/wiki/1949%E2%80%9350_in_English_football \"1949–50 in English football\"), he lost his place, firstly to [Sandy Scott](/wiki/Sandy_Scott_%28footballer%29 \"Sandy Scott (footballer)\") and then to [Ron Jackson](/wiki/Ron_Jackson_%28footballer%29 \"Ron Jackson (footballer)\"), before a return to the side in March for the final seven matches of the season.{{cite web\\|title\\=Norman Kirkman \\|url\\=http://www.foxestalk.co.uk/forums/page/playerdetails.php?pid\\=710\\|work\\=Player profile \\|publisher\\=foxestalk.co.uk\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2012}}",
"In July 1950, he was signed by another Second Division side, [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\"), for \"a four figure fee\". Described as \"a cool professional player\", who \"possessed a fastidious left foot\", he made his debut for the \"Saints\" in the opening match of the [1950–51 season](/wiki/1950%E2%80%9351_in_English_football \"1950–51 in English football\"), playing at [left\\-back](/wiki/Left-back \"Left-back\") in a 2–1 victory at [Barnsley](/wiki/Barnsley_F.C. \"Barnsley F.C.\") on 19 August 1950\\. After only one further match, he was replaced by [Ted Ballard](/wiki/Ted_Ballard \"Ted Ballard\"), although Kirkman regained his place in January before losing out again to [Jack Gregory](/wiki/Jack_Gregory_%28footballer%2C_born_1925%29 \"Jack Gregory (footballer, born 1925)\").{{cite book \\| title\\=Saints – A complete record\\|last\\= Chalk\\|first\\= Gary\\|last2\\=Holley\\|first2\\= Duncan \\| publisher\\= Breedon Books\\| year\\=1987\\|isbn\\= 0\\-907969\\-22\\-4\\|page\\=119}} In [the following season](/wiki/1951%E2%80%9352_in_English_football \"1951–52 in English football\"), Kirkman made only seven further appearances, with the teenaged [Peter Sillett](/wiki/Peter_Sillett \"Peter Sillett\") being the first\\-choice at left\\-back.{{cite book \\| title\\=Saints – A complete record\\|page\\=121}}",
"In March 1952, Kirkman was \"persuaded\" to move to [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. \"Exeter City F.C.\") in a [player\\-manager](/wiki/Player-manager \"Player-manager\") role, with [George Roughton](/wiki/George_Roughton \"George Roughton\") moving in the opposite direction to replace [Sid Cann](/wiki/Sid_Cann \"Sid Cann\"), who had been \"relieved of his duties\" in December, following a falling\\-out with the board of directors.",
"### Management career",
"Kirkman spent a year at [St James Park](/wiki/St_James_Park%2C_Exeter \"St James Park, Exeter\") in the [Third Division South](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_South \"Football League Third Division South\") with no conspicuous success, before spending the [1953–54 season](/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_in_English_football \"1953–54 in English football\") at [Bradford Park Avenue](/wiki/Bradford_%28Park_Avenue%29_A.F.C. \"Bradford (Park Avenue) A.F.C.\") of the [Third Division North](/wiki/Football_League_Third_Division_North \"Football League Third Division North\").",
"He then dropped out of football, to become a baker{{cite web\\|title\\=The Return of Bradford Park Avenue \\|url\\=http://qprreport.proboards.com/index.cgi?board\\=general\\&action\\=print\\&thread\\=12414\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2012\\|date\\=29 March 2010}} although he did return to management briefly in 1965 with [Northwich Victoria](/wiki/Northwich_Victoria_F.C. \"Northwich Victoria F.C.\"). He also became a [scout](/wiki/Scout_%28sport%29 \"Scout (sport)\") for various clubs, including Southampton, [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\"), [Leeds United](/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C. \"Leeds United F.C.\"), [Wolverhampton Wanderers](/wiki/Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C. \"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.\"), [Stoke City](/wiki/Stoke_City_F.C. \"Stoke City F.C.\") and [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. \"Carlisle United F.C.\").",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|Provisional House of Deputies building, view from [Votive Church](/wiki/Votive_Church%2C_Vienna "Votive Church, Vienna"), 1860s](/wiki/File:Provisorisches_Abgeordnetenhaus_W%C3%A4hringerstra%C3%9Fe_Luft.jpg "Provisorisches Abgeordnetenhaus Währingerstraße Luft.jpg")
The constitution known as the [February Patent](/wiki/February_Patent "February Patent"), promulgated in 1861, created an Imperial Council as an Austrian legislature, and a new building had to be constructed to house this constitutional organ. The original plan was to construct two separate buildings, one for the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords_%28Austria%29 "House of Lords (Austria)") (*Herrenhaus*) and one for the [House of Deputies](/wiki/House_of_Deputies_%28Austria%29 "House of Deputies (Austria)") (*Abgeordnetenhaus*). However, after the [Austro\-Hungarian Compromise](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise "Austro-Hungarian Compromise") (*Ausgleich*) which effectively created the [Dual Monarchy](/wiki/The_Dual_monarchy "The Dual monarchy") in 1867, the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary "Kingdom of Hungary") received its own separate legislative body, the re\-established [Diet](/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary "Diet of Hungary"), and the original plan for two buildings was dropped.
The precursor to the present building was the temporary House of Representatives, located on Währinger Straße, off the newly laid\-out *Ringstraße* boulevard. It was erected within six weeks in March and April 1861 according to plans designed by [Ferdinand Fellner](/wiki/Fellner_%26_Helmer "Fellner & Helmer"), a famous Austrian theatre architect. In its layout with a ramp and a lobby area, the *Abgeordnetenhaus* was a model for the later Parliament Building. Completed on 25 April 1861 this temporary structure was opened by Emperor [Franz Joseph I of Austria](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria "Franz Joseph I of Austria"), and soon afterwards mocked *Schmerlingtheater*, after Minister [Anton von Schmerling](/wiki/Anton_von_Schmerling "Anton von Schmerling"). It was used by the deputies of [Cisleithania](/wiki/Cisleithania "Cisleithania") until the completion of the present\-day parliament building in 1883, while the House of Lords met at the [Estates House of Lower Austria](/wiki/Estates_House_of_Lower_Austria "Estates House of Lower Austria"), then the seat of the [Lower Austrian](/wiki/Lower_Austria "Lower Austria") *[Landtag](/wiki/Landtag "Landtag")*.
### Construction
[thumb\|Ringstraße and Parliament Building around 1900](/wiki/File:Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg "Wien Parlament um 1900.jpg")
The site for the new building was on the city's ancient fortifications and walls. In his famous decree *[Es ist Mein Wille](/wiki/s:De:Die_Erweiterung_der_Stadt_Wien "De:Die Erweiterung der Stadt Wien")* of 1857, Emperor Franz Joseph I had laid down plans for the *Ringstraße* to replace the old city walls. The parliament building was supposed to feature prominently on the boulevard, in close proximity to Hofburg Palace and the [Vienna City Hall](/wiki/Rathaus%2C_Vienna "Rathaus, Vienna").
An Imperial Commission was appointed to consider a design for a Parliament building. Influenced by the industrialist and politician [Nikolaus Dumba](/wiki/Nikolaus_Dumba "Nikolaus Dumba"), the Commission decided that its style should be [classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture "Classical architecture"), the argument being that classical Greek architecture was appropriate for a Parliament because of the connection to the [Ancient Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greece "Ancient Greece") and the ideal of [democracy](/wiki/Democracy "Democracy"). After studying rival proposals, the Imperial Commission chose the plan by Theophil Hansen, who could rely on his drafts for [Zappeion](/wiki/Zappeion "Zappeion") Hall in [Athens](/wiki/Athens "Athens"). In 1869 the *[k.k.](/wiki/Imperial_and_Royal "Imperial and Royal")* Ministry of the Interior gave von Hansen the order to design the new Austrian parliament building.
Ground was broken in June 1874; on the [cornerstone](/wiki/Cornerstone "Cornerstone") is inscribed the date "2 September 1874". At the same time, work also commenced on the nearby *[Kunsthistorisches Museum](/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum "Kunsthistorisches Museum")* and *[Naturhistorisches Museum](/wiki/Naturhistorisches_Museum "Naturhistorisches Museum")* on [Maria\-Theresien\-Platz](/wiki/Maria-Theresien-Platz "Maria-Theresien-Platz"), the City Hall, and the [University](/wiki/University_of_Vienna "University of Vienna"). In November 1883 the offices of the House of Representatives were completed and put to use. On 4 December 1883, the House of Representatives held its first session under its president, Franz Smolka. On 16 December 1884 the House of Lords under its president, Count Trauttmansdorff, held its first session. Both chambers would continue to meet in the building until the end of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire in 1918\.
The official name of the building was *Reichsratsgebäude* (Imperial Council Building), and the street behind the building, the *Reichsratsstraße*, still recalls this former name. The word "Parlament", however, has been in colloquial use since its construction.
### Building history
The building saw tumultuous years during the late years of the declining multi\-ethnic Austrian monarchy stretching from [Dalmatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dalmatia "Kingdom of Dalmatia") to [Bukovina](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bukovina "Duchy of Bukovina"), as the House of Representatives was extremely fractious with tensions among liberals and conservatives, [German nationalists](/wiki/German_nationalism_in_Austria "German nationalism in Austria") and [Young Czech](/wiki/Young_Czech_Party "Young Czech Party") deputies, as well as between the government and parliament. It became notorious for [filibusters](/wiki/Filibuster "Filibuster"), parliamentary brawls, and undisciplined deputies throwing inkwells at each other as a common feature. The joke on the Viennese streets was that Athena was so disgusted by the political infighting that she deliberately turned her back to the building. Nevertheless, the building housed the first form of a parliamentary system for many of the people of [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe "Central Europe"). Some of the former deputies continued their political careers after the dissolution of the Empire and became important politicians in their home countries.
The *Reichsratsgebäude* continued to function until 1918, when the building was occupied by demonstrators during the [disintegration of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I "Aftermath of World War I"). From 21 October 1918, the remaining German\-speaking deputies convened in a "Provisional National Assembly", initially at the *Palais Niederösterreich*, from 12 November onwards in the Parliament Building. On that day, the presidents of the assembly officially proclaimed the [Republic of German\-Austria](/wiki/Republic_of_German-Austria "Republic of German-Austria") from the ramp in front of the building. Upon the [Austrian Constitutional Assembly election](/wiki/Austrian_Constitutional_Assembly_election%2C_1919 "Austrian Constitutional Assembly election, 1919") in 1919 and the establishment of the [First Austrian Republic](/wiki/First_Austrian_Republic "First Austrian Republic"), the building itself was renamed the *Parlament*, with the new republican National Council (*Nationalrat*) and Federal Council (*Bundesrat*) replacing the old Imperial House of Deputies (*Abgeordnetenhaus*) and the House of Lords (*Herrenhaus*).
[thumb\|The parliament in session in 1930](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09038%2C_Wien%2C_%C3%96sterreichisches_Parlament.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 102-09038, Wien, Österreichisches Parlament.jpg")
The parliament was incapacitated, when on 4 March 1933 Chancellor [Engelbert Dollfuß](/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfu%C3%9F "Engelbert Dollfuß") [took the occasion of a parliamentary law quarrel](/wiki/Self-elimination_of_Parliament "Self-elimination of Parliament") to cease its function, the first step to the introduction of his [Austrofascist](/wiki/Austrofascism "Austrofascism") dictatorship. By the imposed "May Constitution" of 1934, the Parliament Building became the seat of the *Bundestag*, the formal legislature of the [Federal State of Austria](/wiki/Federal_State_of_Austria "Federal State of Austria"). It finally lost its function with the Austrian *[Anschluss](/wiki/Anschluss "Anschluss")* to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in 1938\. The Nazis used it as an administrative seat of the Vienna *[Reichsgau](/wiki/Reichsgau "Reichsgau")*. During the Second World War, half of the building suffered heavy damage by [Allied bombing](/wiki/Bombing_of_Vienna_in_World_War_II "Bombing of Vienna in World War II") and the [Vienna Offensive](/wiki/Vienna_Offensive "Vienna Offensive"). Parts of the interior, such as the former House of Lords Chamber and the Hall of Columns, were completely destroyed.
It was in the old *Abgeordnetenhaus* Chamber that the new Chancellor [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner "Karl Renner") on 27 April 1945 declared the rebirth of an independent Austria, backed by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") troops. [Max Fellerer](/wiki/Max_Fellerer "Max Fellerer") and [Eugen Wörle](/wiki/Eugen_W%C3%B6rle "Eugen Wörle") were commissioned as architects; they chose to redesign and adapt the former Lords Chamber into the National Council, and in the process, the meeting room of the National Council was rebuilt in a [Modern](/wiki/Modern_architecture "Modern architecture") and functional style. Work on the National Council Chamber was completed in 1956\. The original appearance of the other publicly accessible premises, such as the Hall of Columns, and the building's external appearance were largely restored to von Hansen's design.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Provisional House of Deputies building, view from [Votive Church](/wiki/Votive_Church%2C_Vienna \"Votive Church, Vienna\"), 1860s](/wiki/File:Provisorisches_Abgeordnetenhaus_W%C3%A4hringerstra%C3%9Fe_Luft.jpg \"Provisorisches Abgeordnetenhaus Währingerstraße Luft.jpg\")\nThe constitution known as the [February Patent](/wiki/February_Patent \"February Patent\"), promulgated in 1861, created an Imperial Council as an Austrian legislature, and a new building had to be constructed to house this constitutional organ. The original plan was to construct two separate buildings, one for the [House of Lords](/wiki/House_of_Lords_%28Austria%29 \"House of Lords (Austria)\") (*Herrenhaus*) and one for the [House of Deputies](/wiki/House_of_Deputies_%28Austria%29 \"House of Deputies (Austria)\") (*Abgeordnetenhaus*). However, after the [Austro\\-Hungarian Compromise](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Compromise \"Austro-Hungarian Compromise\") (*Ausgleich*) which effectively created the [Dual Monarchy](/wiki/The_Dual_monarchy \"The Dual monarchy\") in 1867, the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary \"Kingdom of Hungary\") received its own separate legislative body, the re\\-established [Diet](/wiki/Diet_of_Hungary \"Diet of Hungary\"), and the original plan for two buildings was dropped.",
"The precursor to the present building was the temporary House of Representatives, located on Währinger Straße, off the newly laid\\-out *Ringstraße* boulevard. It was erected within six weeks in March and April 1861 according to plans designed by [Ferdinand Fellner](/wiki/Fellner_%26_Helmer \"Fellner & Helmer\"), a famous Austrian theatre architect. In its layout with a ramp and a lobby area, the *Abgeordnetenhaus* was a model for the later Parliament Building. Completed on 25 April 1861 this temporary structure was opened by Emperor [Franz Joseph I of Austria](/wiki/Franz_Joseph_I_of_Austria \"Franz Joseph I of Austria\"), and soon afterwards mocked *Schmerlingtheater*, after Minister [Anton von Schmerling](/wiki/Anton_von_Schmerling \"Anton von Schmerling\"). It was used by the deputies of [Cisleithania](/wiki/Cisleithania \"Cisleithania\") until the completion of the present\\-day parliament building in 1883, while the House of Lords met at the [Estates House of Lower Austria](/wiki/Estates_House_of_Lower_Austria \"Estates House of Lower Austria\"), then the seat of the [Lower Austrian](/wiki/Lower_Austria \"Lower Austria\") *[Landtag](/wiki/Landtag \"Landtag\")*.",
"### Construction",
"[thumb\\|Ringstraße and Parliament Building around 1900](/wiki/File:Wien_Parlament_um_1900.jpg \"Wien Parlament um 1900.jpg\")\nThe site for the new building was on the city's ancient fortifications and walls. In his famous decree *[Es ist Mein Wille](/wiki/s:De:Die_Erweiterung_der_Stadt_Wien \"De:Die Erweiterung der Stadt Wien\")* of 1857, Emperor Franz Joseph I had laid down plans for the *Ringstraße* to replace the old city walls. The parliament building was supposed to feature prominently on the boulevard, in close proximity to Hofburg Palace and the [Vienna City Hall](/wiki/Rathaus%2C_Vienna \"Rathaus, Vienna\").",
"An Imperial Commission was appointed to consider a design for a Parliament building. Influenced by the industrialist and politician [Nikolaus Dumba](/wiki/Nikolaus_Dumba \"Nikolaus Dumba\"), the Commission decided that its style should be [classical](/wiki/Classical_architecture \"Classical architecture\"), the argument being that classical Greek architecture was appropriate for a Parliament because of the connection to the [Ancient Greeks](/wiki/Ancient_Greece \"Ancient Greece\") and the ideal of [democracy](/wiki/Democracy \"Democracy\"). After studying rival proposals, the Imperial Commission chose the plan by Theophil Hansen, who could rely on his drafts for [Zappeion](/wiki/Zappeion \"Zappeion\") Hall in [Athens](/wiki/Athens \"Athens\"). In 1869 the *[k.k.](/wiki/Imperial_and_Royal \"Imperial and Royal\")* Ministry of the Interior gave von Hansen the order to design the new Austrian parliament building.",
"Ground was broken in June 1874; on the [cornerstone](/wiki/Cornerstone \"Cornerstone\") is inscribed the date \"2 September 1874\". At the same time, work also commenced on the nearby *[Kunsthistorisches Museum](/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum \"Kunsthistorisches Museum\")* and *[Naturhistorisches Museum](/wiki/Naturhistorisches_Museum \"Naturhistorisches Museum\")* on [Maria\\-Theresien\\-Platz](/wiki/Maria-Theresien-Platz \"Maria-Theresien-Platz\"), the City Hall, and the [University](/wiki/University_of_Vienna \"University of Vienna\"). In November 1883 the offices of the House of Representatives were completed and put to use. On 4 December 1883, the House of Representatives held its first session under its president, Franz Smolka. On 16 December 1884 the House of Lords under its president, Count Trauttmansdorff, held its first session. Both chambers would continue to meet in the building until the end of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire in 1918\\.",
"The official name of the building was *Reichsratsgebäude* (Imperial Council Building), and the street behind the building, the *Reichsratsstraße*, still recalls this former name. The word \"Parlament\", however, has been in colloquial use since its construction.",
"### Building history",
"The building saw tumultuous years during the late years of the declining multi\\-ethnic Austrian monarchy stretching from [Dalmatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dalmatia \"Kingdom of Dalmatia\") to [Bukovina](/wiki/Duchy_of_Bukovina \"Duchy of Bukovina\"), as the House of Representatives was extremely fractious with tensions among liberals and conservatives, [German nationalists](/wiki/German_nationalism_in_Austria \"German nationalism in Austria\") and [Young Czech](/wiki/Young_Czech_Party \"Young Czech Party\") deputies, as well as between the government and parliament. It became notorious for [filibusters](/wiki/Filibuster \"Filibuster\"), parliamentary brawls, and undisciplined deputies throwing inkwells at each other as a common feature. The joke on the Viennese streets was that Athena was so disgusted by the political infighting that she deliberately turned her back to the building. Nevertheless, the building housed the first form of a parliamentary system for many of the people of [Central Europe](/wiki/Central_Europe \"Central Europe\"). Some of the former deputies continued their political careers after the dissolution of the Empire and became important politicians in their home countries.",
"The *Reichsratsgebäude* continued to function until 1918, when the building was occupied by demonstrators during the [disintegration of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I \"Aftermath of World War I\"). From 21 October 1918, the remaining German\\-speaking deputies convened in a \"Provisional National Assembly\", initially at the *Palais Niederösterreich*, from 12 November onwards in the Parliament Building. On that day, the presidents of the assembly officially proclaimed the [Republic of German\\-Austria](/wiki/Republic_of_German-Austria \"Republic of German-Austria\") from the ramp in front of the building. Upon the [Austrian Constitutional Assembly election](/wiki/Austrian_Constitutional_Assembly_election%2C_1919 \"Austrian Constitutional Assembly election, 1919\") in 1919 and the establishment of the [First Austrian Republic](/wiki/First_Austrian_Republic \"First Austrian Republic\"), the building itself was renamed the *Parlament*, with the new republican National Council (*Nationalrat*) and Federal Council (*Bundesrat*) replacing the old Imperial House of Deputies (*Abgeordnetenhaus*) and the House of Lords (*Herrenhaus*). \n[thumb\\|The parliament in session in 1930](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-09038%2C_Wien%2C_%C3%96sterreichisches_Parlament.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 102-09038, Wien, Österreichisches Parlament.jpg\")\nThe parliament was incapacitated, when on 4 March 1933 Chancellor [Engelbert Dollfuß](/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfu%C3%9F \"Engelbert Dollfuß\") [took the occasion of a parliamentary law quarrel](/wiki/Self-elimination_of_Parliament \"Self-elimination of Parliament\") to cease its function, the first step to the introduction of his [Austrofascist](/wiki/Austrofascism \"Austrofascism\") dictatorship. By the imposed \"May Constitution\" of 1934, the Parliament Building became the seat of the *Bundestag*, the formal legislature of the [Federal State of Austria](/wiki/Federal_State_of_Austria \"Federal State of Austria\"). It finally lost its function with the Austrian *[Anschluss](/wiki/Anschluss \"Anschluss\")* to [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") in 1938\\. The Nazis used it as an administrative seat of the Vienna *[Reichsgau](/wiki/Reichsgau \"Reichsgau\")*. During the Second World War, half of the building suffered heavy damage by [Allied bombing](/wiki/Bombing_of_Vienna_in_World_War_II \"Bombing of Vienna in World War II\") and the [Vienna Offensive](/wiki/Vienna_Offensive \"Vienna Offensive\"). Parts of the interior, such as the former House of Lords Chamber and the Hall of Columns, were completely destroyed.",
"It was in the old *Abgeordnetenhaus* Chamber that the new Chancellor [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner \"Karl Renner\") on 27 April 1945 declared the rebirth of an independent Austria, backed by [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") troops. [Max Fellerer](/wiki/Max_Fellerer \"Max Fellerer\") and [Eugen Wörle](/wiki/Eugen_W%C3%B6rle \"Eugen Wörle\") were commissioned as architects; they chose to redesign and adapt the former Lords Chamber into the National Council, and in the process, the meeting room of the National Council was rebuilt in a [Modern](/wiki/Modern_architecture \"Modern architecture\") and functional style. Work on the National Council Chamber was completed in 1956\\. The original appearance of the other publicly accessible premises, such as the Hall of Columns, and the building's external appearance were largely restored to von Hansen's design.",
""
] |
Exterior
--------
[thumb\|Front view of the Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude.JPG "Wien - Parlamentsgebäude.JPG")
[thumb\|Coloured sections of the facade. The architect Baron von Hansen's original intent was to have the whole exterior [polychrome](/wiki/Polychrome "Polychrome"), like in ancient Greece.](/wiki/File:Reichsratsgeb%C3%A4ude_2013_%284%29.JPG "Reichsratsgebäude 2013 (4).JPG")
Baron von Hansen's design for the *Reichsratsgebäude* uses the neo\-Greek style, which was popular during the 19th century [Classic revival](/wiki/Classic_revival "Classic revival"). Hansen worked at that time in Athens and was recruited by the Greek\-Austrian magnate Nikolaus Dumba, who was on the committee for constructing a new parliament building.
Hansen was inspired by the design of the [Zappeion](/wiki/Zappeion "Zappeion") hall in Athens. The original plans saw separate buildings for the House of Representatives and the House of Lords, but for practical and financial reasons it was later decided to house both chambers in one building. Von Hansen's concept of the layout reflected the structure of the Imperial Council (*Reichsrat*), as was stipulated by the so\-called February Patent of 1861, which laid down the constitutional structure for the empire. The two chambers were connected by the great [hypostyle](/wiki/Hypostyle "Hypostyle") hall, which was the central structure. The hall was supposed to be the meeting point between the commoners and the lords, reflecting the structure of society at the time.
The [gable](/wiki/Gable "Gable") has not changed since the monarchy and is decorated with symbols and allegories of the 17 provinces (*[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania "Cisleithania")*) of the old Austro\-Hungarian Empire. The ramp is about four meters high. The pillars are in the [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order") style. On both ends of the roof are quadrigas. The building used to be surrounded by small patches of lawns, which have since been transformed into parking spaces. The building is up to four stories high.
The architect's original plan was to have the entire exterior in [polychrome](/wiki/Polychrome "Polychrome"), like in ancient Greece. For this purpose, he created a showpiece on the southern side of the building, with gilded [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") and red and gilded [friezes](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze"). However, the plan was not implemented due to budgetary constraints.
### Roof
[thumb\|Bronze horse tamer (*Rossbändiger*)](/wiki/File:Parlament_Rossb%C3%A4ndiger%2C_Vienna.jpg "Parlament Rossbändiger, Vienna.jpg")
Corresponding to the horse tamers at the Ringstraße ramp, eight [quadrigas](/wiki/Quadriga "Quadriga") made of [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") decorate both ends of the roof. The quadriga is a symbol of victory, driven by the goddess of victory, [Nike](/wiki/Nike_%28mythology%29 "Nike (mythology)").
The [attic](/wiki/Attic_style "Attic style") design of both chambers is rich in symbolism, with 76 marble statues and 66 [reliefs](/wiki/Reliefs "Reliefs") forming a decorative ensemble. There are 44 allegorical statues that represent human qualities and branches of human activity, while 32 statues represent famous personalities from Classical Antiquity. The reliefs are allegorical as well and correspond to the areas of public life on which the famous personalities impacted. The crown lands, important cities, and rivers of the empire are portrayed in 50 smaller reliefs.
The roof is for the most part kept in the ancient Greek form, decorated with ancient Greek\-style [caps](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 "Capital (architecture)") and [palmettes](/wiki/Palmette "Palmette") made of [copper sheet metal](/wiki/Copper_sheet_metal "Copper sheet metal").
### Material
It was the emperor's personal wish to use Austrian marble for the construction of the buildings on the Ringstraße. For that purpose, marble from the village of [Laas](/wiki/Laas%2C_South_Tyrol "Laas, South Tyrol") in the [county of Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol "County of Tyrol") was brought in and used generously on the [Hofburg Palace](/wiki/Hofburg "Hofburg") and *Reichsratsgebäude*. The white, sturdy stone was perfect for von Hansen's aims, since the building blocks for the façade and statues could be made to look like those used in ancient Greece. Over the decades, with increased [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution"), the marble has proved remarkably resilient, stronger than its famous counterpart from [Carrara](/wiki/Carrara "Carrara").
### Bronzework
Four [bronze](/wiki/Bronze "Bronze") statues of horse tamers are located at the two lower ends of the ramp (*Auffahrtsrampe*). They are a powerful symbol of the suppression of passion, an important precondition for successful parliamentary cooperation. They were designed and executed by J. Lax in the Kaiserlich Königliche Kunst\-Erzgießerei in 1897 and 1900\. Further bronzeworks include the two [quadrigas](/wiki/Quadriga "Quadriga") on top of the roof, each chariot pulled by four horses and steered by the goddess Nike. The bronze works had to undergo extensive conservation and restoration work in the 1990s to combat damage from [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain "Acid rain") and air pollution. Further [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation") corroded the bronze over the decades and ate holes into the sculptures. For that purpose, each sculpture was completely encased in a separate structure to protect them from the elements while they underwent restoration.
### Pallas Athene Fountain
[thumb\|*Pallas\-Athena\-Brunnen* in front of parliament](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Pallas-Athene-Brunnen.JPG "Wien - Pallas-Athene-Brunnen.JPG")
The Athena Fountain (*Pallas\-Athene\-Brunnen*) in front of the Parliament was erected between 1893 and 1902 by [Carl Kundmann](/wiki/Carl_Kundmann "Carl Kundmann"), [Josef Tautenhayn](/wiki/Josef_Tautenhayn "Josef Tautenhayn") and Hugo Haerdtl, based on plans by Baron von Hansen. In the middle is a water basin and a richly decorated base. The four figures lying at the foot of Athena are [allegorical](/wiki/Allegorical "Allegorical") representations of the four most important rivers of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire. They represent at the front the [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") and [Inn](/wiki/Inn_River "Inn River"), in the back the [Elbe](/wiki/Elbe "Elbe") and [Vltava](/wiki/Vltava "Vltava") (German: Moldau) rivers. On the sides, little [cupids](/wiki/Cupid "Cupid") ride [dolphins](/wiki/Dolphin "Dolphin"). The statues of the Danube, Inn, and the cupids were executed by Haerdtl, those of the Elbe and Moldau by Kundmann. The female statues above represent the [legislative](/wiki/Legislative "Legislative") and [executive](/wiki/Executive_%28government%29 "Executive (government)") powers of the state and were executed by Tautenhayn. They are again dominated by the Goddess of Wisdom, [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena"), standing on a pillar. Athena is dressed in armour with a gilded helmet; her left\-hand carries a spear, while her right carries [Nike](/wiki/Nike_%28mythology%29 "Nike (mythology)").
### Grounds
The building is surrounded by greenery. On the north side, the *Rathausplatz*, a park is located, while on the southern side, there is a small lawn next to the *Justizpalast*. Monuments to the founders of the First Republic as well as to [Dr. Karl Renner](/wiki/Dr._Karl_Renner "Dr. Karl Renner") are located on either end.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"Exterior\n--------",
"[thumb\\|Front view of the Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Parlamentsgeb%C3%A4ude.JPG \"Wien - Parlamentsgebäude.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Coloured sections of the facade. The architect Baron von Hansen's original intent was to have the whole exterior [polychrome](/wiki/Polychrome \"Polychrome\"), like in ancient Greece.](/wiki/File:Reichsratsgeb%C3%A4ude_2013_%284%29.JPG \"Reichsratsgebäude 2013 (4).JPG\")\nBaron von Hansen's design for the *Reichsratsgebäude* uses the neo\\-Greek style, which was popular during the 19th century [Classic revival](/wiki/Classic_revival \"Classic revival\"). Hansen worked at that time in Athens and was recruited by the Greek\\-Austrian magnate Nikolaus Dumba, who was on the committee for constructing a new parliament building.",
"Hansen was inspired by the design of the [Zappeion](/wiki/Zappeion \"Zappeion\") hall in Athens. The original plans saw separate buildings for the House of Representatives and the House of Lords, but for practical and financial reasons it was later decided to house both chambers in one building. Von Hansen's concept of the layout reflected the structure of the Imperial Council (*Reichsrat*), as was stipulated by the so\\-called February Patent of 1861, which laid down the constitutional structure for the empire. The two chambers were connected by the great [hypostyle](/wiki/Hypostyle \"Hypostyle\") hall, which was the central structure. The hall was supposed to be the meeting point between the commoners and the lords, reflecting the structure of society at the time.",
"The [gable](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\") has not changed since the monarchy and is decorated with symbols and allegories of the 17 provinces (*[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania \"Cisleithania\")*) of the old Austro\\-Hungarian Empire. The ramp is about four meters high. The pillars are in the [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\") style. On both ends of the roof are quadrigas. The building used to be surrounded by small patches of lawns, which have since been transformed into parking spaces. The building is up to four stories high.",
"The architect's original plan was to have the entire exterior in [polychrome](/wiki/Polychrome \"Polychrome\"), like in ancient Greece. For this purpose, he created a showpiece on the southern side of the building, with gilded [capitals](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") and red and gilded [friezes](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\"). However, the plan was not implemented due to budgetary constraints.",
"### Roof",
"[thumb\\|Bronze horse tamer (*Rossbändiger*)](/wiki/File:Parlament_Rossb%C3%A4ndiger%2C_Vienna.jpg \"Parlament Rossbändiger, Vienna.jpg\")\nCorresponding to the horse tamers at the Ringstraße ramp, eight [quadrigas](/wiki/Quadriga \"Quadriga\") made of [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") decorate both ends of the roof. The quadriga is a symbol of victory, driven by the goddess of victory, [Nike](/wiki/Nike_%28mythology%29 \"Nike (mythology)\").\nThe [attic](/wiki/Attic_style \"Attic style\") design of both chambers is rich in symbolism, with 76 marble statues and 66 [reliefs](/wiki/Reliefs \"Reliefs\") forming a decorative ensemble. There are 44 allegorical statues that represent human qualities and branches of human activity, while 32 statues represent famous personalities from Classical Antiquity. The reliefs are allegorical as well and correspond to the areas of public life on which the famous personalities impacted. The crown lands, important cities, and rivers of the empire are portrayed in 50 smaller reliefs.\nThe roof is for the most part kept in the ancient Greek form, decorated with ancient Greek\\-style [caps](/wiki/Capital_%28architecture%29 \"Capital (architecture)\") and [palmettes](/wiki/Palmette \"Palmette\") made of [copper sheet metal](/wiki/Copper_sheet_metal \"Copper sheet metal\").",
"### Material",
"It was the emperor's personal wish to use Austrian marble for the construction of the buildings on the Ringstraße. For that purpose, marble from the village of [Laas](/wiki/Laas%2C_South_Tyrol \"Laas, South Tyrol\") in the [county of Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol \"County of Tyrol\") was brought in and used generously on the [Hofburg Palace](/wiki/Hofburg \"Hofburg\") and *Reichsratsgebäude*. The white, sturdy stone was perfect for von Hansen's aims, since the building blocks for the façade and statues could be made to look like those used in ancient Greece. Over the decades, with increased [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\"), the marble has proved remarkably resilient, stronger than its famous counterpart from [Carrara](/wiki/Carrara \"Carrara\").",
"### Bronzework",
"Four [bronze](/wiki/Bronze \"Bronze\") statues of horse tamers are located at the two lower ends of the ramp (*Auffahrtsrampe*). They are a powerful symbol of the suppression of passion, an important precondition for successful parliamentary cooperation. They were designed and executed by J. Lax in the Kaiserlich Königliche Kunst\\-Erzgießerei in 1897 and 1900\\. Further bronzeworks include the two [quadrigas](/wiki/Quadriga \"Quadriga\") on top of the roof, each chariot pulled by four horses and steered by the goddess Nike. The bronze works had to undergo extensive conservation and restoration work in the 1990s to combat damage from [acid rain](/wiki/Acid_rain \"Acid rain\") and air pollution. Further [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") corroded the bronze over the decades and ate holes into the sculptures. For that purpose, each sculpture was completely encased in a separate structure to protect them from the elements while they underwent restoration.",
"### Pallas Athene Fountain",
"[thumb\\|*Pallas\\-Athena\\-Brunnen* in front of parliament](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Pallas-Athene-Brunnen.JPG \"Wien - Pallas-Athene-Brunnen.JPG\")\nThe Athena Fountain (*Pallas\\-Athene\\-Brunnen*) in front of the Parliament was erected between 1893 and 1902 by [Carl Kundmann](/wiki/Carl_Kundmann \"Carl Kundmann\"), [Josef Tautenhayn](/wiki/Josef_Tautenhayn \"Josef Tautenhayn\") and Hugo Haerdtl, based on plans by Baron von Hansen. In the middle is a water basin and a richly decorated base. The four figures lying at the foot of Athena are [allegorical](/wiki/Allegorical \"Allegorical\") representations of the four most important rivers of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire. They represent at the front the [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") and [Inn](/wiki/Inn_River \"Inn River\"), in the back the [Elbe](/wiki/Elbe \"Elbe\") and [Vltava](/wiki/Vltava \"Vltava\") (German: Moldau) rivers. On the sides, little [cupids](/wiki/Cupid \"Cupid\") ride [dolphins](/wiki/Dolphin \"Dolphin\"). The statues of the Danube, Inn, and the cupids were executed by Haerdtl, those of the Elbe and Moldau by Kundmann. The female statues above represent the [legislative](/wiki/Legislative \"Legislative\") and [executive](/wiki/Executive_%28government%29 \"Executive (government)\") powers of the state and were executed by Tautenhayn. They are again dominated by the Goddess of Wisdom, [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\"), standing on a pillar. Athena is dressed in armour with a gilded helmet; her left\\-hand carries a spear, while her right carries [Nike](/wiki/Nike_%28mythology%29 \"Nike (mythology)\").",
"### Grounds",
"The building is surrounded by greenery. On the north side, the *Rathausplatz*, a park is located, while on the southern side, there is a small lawn next to the *Justizpalast*. Monuments to the founders of the First Republic as well as to [Dr. Karl Renner](/wiki/Dr._Karl_Renner \"Dr. Karl Renner\") are located on either end.",
"{{Clear}}",
""
] |
Interior
--------
### The entrance
[thumb\|Layout of the Austrian Parliament Building. Click on the image for a key to the annotations.](/wiki/File:Austria_Parlament.PNG "Austria Parlament.PNG")
The middle [axis](/wiki/Wiktionary:Axis "Axis") from east to west is divided into an entrance hall, [vestibule](/wiki/Vestibule_%28Architecture%29 "Vestibule (Architecture)"), [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 "Atrium (architecture)"), [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle "Peristyle"), and two large rooms at the far end. For the interior decoration, von Hansen used Greek architectural elements such as [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order "Doric order"), [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order "Ionic order") and [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order "Corinthian order") pillars, and in the two rooms [Pompeii\-style](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") [stucco](/wiki/Stucco "Stucco") technique for the walls.
The main entrance at the [portico](/wiki/Portico "Portico") is an exact copy of the gate of the [Erechtheion](/wiki/Erechtheion "Erechtheion") on the [Acropolis of Athens](/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens "Acropolis of Athens"), fitted with a bronze [portal](/wiki/Portal_%28architecture%29 "Portal (architecture)"). From the main entrance at the Ringstraße one passes into the vestibule of the building, which contains Ionic pillars. The walls are decorated with [Pavonazzo](/wiki/Pavonazzo "Pavonazzo") marble. The [niches](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 "Niche (architecture)") contain statues of Greek gods. Seen from the entrance starting from the left these are [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo"), [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena"), [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus "Zeus"), [Hera](/wiki/Hera "Hera"), and [Hephaestus](/wiki/Hephaestus "Hephaestus"), and from the right [Hermes](/wiki/Hermes "Hermes"), [Demeter](/wiki/Demeter "Demeter"), [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon "Poseidon"), [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") and [Ares](/wiki/Ares "Ares").
Above the niches with the gods is a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze"), more than 100 m long, by the Viennese artist [Alois Hans Schram](/wiki/Alois_Hans_Schram "Alois Hans Schram"). It runs along the corridor, continuing into the atrium, and contains an allegorical depiction of the blessing of [Peace](/wiki/Peace "Peace"), of the civic [Virtues](/wiki/Virtue "Virtue"), and of [Patriotism](/wiki/Patriotism "Patriotism").
Above the entrance that leads to the Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) is a frieze with an allegorical depiction of Austria on her throne. Representing the motto "Goods and Blood for thy country" (*Gut und Blut furs Vaterland*), warriors swear loyalty and women bring offerings.
### Hall of Pillars
[thumb\|Image of the Columned Hall of the Austrian Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Reichsrat_Vienna_2007.jpg "Reichsrat Vienna 2007.jpg")
Located behind the entrance [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 "Atrium (architecture)") is the grand Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) or [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle "Peristyle"). The hall is about 40 m long and 23 m wide. The 24 [Corinthian pillars](/wiki/Corinthian_pillar "Corinthian pillar") are made of [Adnet](/wiki/Adnet "Adnet") marble, and all of them are [monoliths](/wiki/Monolith "Monolith") weighing around 16 [tons](/wiki/Ton "Ton") each. The pillars carry the [skylighted](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 "Skylight (window)") main ceiling in the middle and the [coffered side ceilings](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling "Coffered ceiling"). The floor is made of polished marble resting on a concrete hull. The space below was designed as a [hypocaust](/wiki/Hypocaust "Hypocaust") for a floor heating and air circulation system for the hall.
Located on the [transverse](/wiki/Transverse "Transverse") axis at the end of the Hall of Pillars are the chamber of the former House of Representatives (on the left) and the chamber of the former House of Lords (on the right). Von Hansen's idea was to have the Hall of Pillars as the main central part of the building. It was designed to act as a meeting point between the House of Lords and the House of Representatives. Hansen also wanted to have the hall used by the monarch for the [State Opening of Parliament](/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament "State Opening of Parliament") and the [Speech from the Throne](/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne "Speech from the Throne"), similar to the British tradition. However, such ceremonies were never held in the building, since Emperor Franz Joseph I had a personal disdain for the parliamentary body. Speeches from the Throne in front of the parliamentarians were held in the Hofburg Palace instead.
The architect von Hansen paid particular attention to the design and construction of this hall. The marble floor was polished in a complicated process. The capitals of the pillars were gilded with 23 [carat](/wiki/Carat_%28purity%29 "Carat (purity)") (96%) gold. Running around the wall was a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") which was 126 m long and 2\.3 m high. It was designed and painted by [Eduard Lebiedzki](/wiki/Eduard_Lebiedzki "Eduard Lebiedzki"). The monumental piece of work took decades to prepare and design, and four years, from 1907 until 1911, to paint. The frieze showed allegories depicting the duties of parliament on a golden background.
The hall was heavily damaged by aerial bombardments by Allied forces during World War II. On February 7, 1945, the hall suffered direct hits by aerial bombs. At least two pillars and the skylight were completely destroyed. The gilded coffered side ceilings under which the frieze ran on the walls were almost completely destroyed. The few surviving parts of the frieze were removed and stored. Only in the 1990s were the surviving parts restored as much as possible.
Because of its representative character, the Hall of Pillars is presently used by the President of the National Council and the Federal Council for festive functions, as well as for traditional parliamentary receptions.
Located at the back of the Hall of Pillars is the reception [salon](/wiki/Drawing_room "Drawing room") (*Empfangssalon*) of the President of the National Council. The room is fitted with [Pompeian](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") wall decorations in stucco and a large glass [skylight](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 "Skylight (window)"). Hanging on the wall are portraits of the Presidents of the National Council since 1945\.
Further behind the reception salon is the former [reception](/wiki/Conference_hall "Conference hall") hall for both chambers of the Imperial Council. It is used today for committee meetings and hearings on financial, state budget, and [audit](/wiki/Audit "Audit") [court](/wiki/Court "Court") matters by the National Council, thus being presently named the *Budgetsaal*. The hall is richly decorated with marble, stucco, and a rich [coffered ceiling](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling "Coffered ceiling") in the Renaissance style. Inlaid into the ceiling are the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") of the 17 *[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania "Cisleithania")*, kingdoms and territories represented in the Imperial Council.
### Former House of Representatives Chamber
[thumb\|Debating Chamber of the former House of Deputies of Austria](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Parlament%2C_Bundesversammlungssaal.JPG "Wien - Parlament, Bundesversammlungssaal.JPG")
The chamber of the former [House of Deputies](/wiki/House_of_Deputies_%28Austria%29 "House of Deputies (Austria)") (*Abgeordnetenhaus*) is used today by the [Federal Assembly](/wiki/Federal_Assembly_%28Austria%29 "Federal Assembly (Austria)") (*Bundesversammlung*) whenever it convenes for special occasions such as [National Day](/wiki/National_Day "National Day") and the inauguration ceremony of a newly elected [Federal President of Austria](/wiki/Federal_President_of_Austria "Federal President of Austria"). The chamber is built in a semicircle of 34 m [diameter](/wiki/Diameter "Diameter") and 22\.5 m depth.
It originally contained 364 seats. With the introduction of various electoral reforms, the number was increased to 425 seats in 1896 and with the introduction of male universal suffrage in 1907 to 516 seats.
The chamber has viewing [galleries](/wiki/Auditorium "Auditorium") on two levels. The first gallery has in the middle a [box](/wiki/Box "Box") for the head of state. The right side of the gallery is for the [diplomatic corps](/wiki/Diplomatic_corps "Diplomatic corps") and the left side for the cabinet and family members of the head of state. On both far ends are seats for journalists. The gallery on the second level, which is slightly recessed from the one on the first level, is for the general public.
The chamber is architecturally based on an ancient Greek *[theatron](/wiki/Theatron "Theatron")*. The wall behind the presidium is designed like an antique *skene* with marble colonnades that carry a [gable](/wiki/Gable "Gable").
[thumb\|Marble Colonnade](/wiki/File:Parlament_-_B%C3%A9cs%2C_2014.12.03_%2831%29.JPG "Parlament - Bécs, 2014.12.03 (31).JPG")
The group of figures in the gable are made of [Laas](/wiki/Laas%2C_South_Tyrol "Laas, South Tyrol") marble and depict the allegorical times of the day. The columns and pilasters of the wall are made of marble from [Untersberg](/wiki/Untersberg "Untersberg"), the [stylobates](/wiki/Stylobate "Stylobate") of dark marble, the decorations of the doors of red [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg "Salzburg") marble. The wall space between the pillars is made of grey [scagliola](/wiki/Scagliola "Scagliola"), with niches in between decorated with statues made of Carrara marble. The statues show historical persons such as [Numa Pompilius](/wiki/Numa_Pompilius "Numa Pompilius"), [Cincinnatus](/wiki/Cincinnatus "Cincinnatus"), [Quintus Fabius Maximus](/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_%28consul_45_BC%29 "Quintus Fabius Maximus (consul 45 BC)"), [Cato the Elder](/wiki/Cato_the_Elder "Cato the Elder"), [Gaius Gracchus](/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus "Gaius Gracchus"), [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero "Cicero"), [Manlius Torquatus](/wiki/Titus_Manlius_Imperiosus_Torquatus "Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus"), [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus"), [Seneca the Younger](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger "Seneca the Younger") and [Constantine the Great](/wiki/Constantine_the_Great "Constantine the Great").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/PR/JAHR\_2002/PK0754/index.shtml \|title\=Themistokles \- Der Sieger von Salamis \|website\=Austrian Parliament}} The friezes above were painted by [August Eisenmenger](/wiki/August_Eisenmenger "August Eisenmenger") and depict the history of the [emergence](/wiki/Emergence "Emergence") of civic life. Starting from left to right it shows:
1. *Kampf der Kentauren und Lapithen* (Battle of the Centaurs and Lapithes)
2. *Minos richtet nach eigenem Ermessen* (Minos judges according to his own discretion)
3. *Einsetzung der Volksvertretung in Sparta* (Swearing\-in of the representatives of Sparta)
4. *Brutus verurteilt seine Söhne* (Brutus condemns his sons)
5. *Menenius Agrippa versöhnt die Stände* (Menenius Agrippa reconciles the estates)
6. *Sophokles im Wettkampf mit Aischylos* (Sophokles in competition with Aischylos)
7. *Sokrates auf dem Markte von Athen* (Sokrates visiting the market of Athens)
8. *Anordnung der Prachtbauten durch Perikles* (The order of the representative buildings through Pericles. Note: the head of Pericles actually has the features of Baron Theophil von Hansen)
9. *Herodot in Olympia*
10. *Plato lehrt die Gesetze* (Plato teaches law)
11. *Demosthenes redet zum Volke* (Demosthenes addresses the people)
12. *Decius Mus weiht sich dem Tode* (Decius Mus dedicates himself to death)
13. *Caius Gracchus auf der Rednertribüne* (Caius Gracchus holds a speech from the speaker's platform)
14. *Solon läßt die Athener auf die Gesetze schwören* (Solon has the Athenians swear on the laws)
15. *der Friede* (Peace)
The chamber of the House of Representatives was important for the history of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire. Many politicians started their career as deputies, such as [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner "Karl Renner"), later chancellor and president of Austria, and [Leopold Kunschak](/wiki/Leopold_Kunschak "Leopold Kunschak"), later conservative leader. Other deputies from outside core Austria played important roles in their native countries after the First and Second World Wars.
Important politicians who started their career and had their first democratic experience later played important roles in their native countries after the end of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire. These include:
In Austria
* [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner "Karl Renner"), former deputy of [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia "Moravia"), later Federal Chancellor and President of Austria
* [Leopold Kunschak](/wiki/Leopold_Kunschak "Leopold Kunschak"), former deputy of [Lower Austria](/wiki/Lower_Austria "Lower Austria"), later Austrian conservative leader
In Czechoslovakia
* [Tomáš Masaryk](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Masaryk "Tomáš Masaryk"), former delegate from [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia "Bohemia"), later first President of Czechoslovakia
* [Karel Kramář](/wiki/Karel_Kram%C3%A1%C5%99 "Karel Kramář"), former delegate from Bohemia, later first Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia
* [Vlastimil Tusar](/wiki/Vlastimil_Tusar "Vlastimil Tusar"), former delegate from Bohemia, later Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia und
* [Bohumír Šmeral](/wiki/Bohum%C3%ADr_%C5%A0meral "Bohumír Šmeral"), former delegate from Bohemia, later Czechoslovak Communist leader,
in Poland
* [Ignacy Daszyński](/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski "Ignacy Daszyński"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 "Galicia (Central Europe)"), later Sejm Marshal of the Second Polish Republic,
* [Wincenty Witos](/wiki/Wincenty_Witos "Wincenty Witos"), former delegate from Galicia, later Prime Minister of Poland,
in Italy
* [Alcide De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi "Alcide De Gasperi"), former delegate from the [Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol "County of Tyrol"), later Prime Minister of Italy,
in Yugoslavia
* [Anton Korošec](/wiki/Anton_Koro%C5%A1ec "Anton Korošec"), former delegate from [Styria](/wiki/Styria "Styria"), later Prime Minister of Yugoslavia
in Ukraine
* [Yevhen Petrushevych](/wiki/Yevhen_Petrushevych "Yevhen Petrushevych"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 "Galicia (Central Europe)"), later President of [Western Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Western_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "Western Ukrainian People's Republic")
* [Kost Levytskyi](/wiki/Kost_Levytskyi "Kost Levytskyi"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 "Galicia (Central Europe)"), later Head of the Government of [Western Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Western_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "Western Ukrainian People's Republic")
The Austrian [Imperial Council](/wiki/Imperial_Council_%28Austria%29 "Imperial Council (Austria)") (*Reichsrat*) was the [recruiting](/wiki/Recruitment "Recruitment") [school](/wiki/School "School") for central and southeastern democracy and socialism.
### National Council Chamber
[thumb\|National Council Chamber](/wiki/File:Brunner_Mit_Optimismus_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreich._Wohlstand_erhalten._Zukunft_gestalten._%2853267275968%29.jpg "Brunner Mit Optimismus für Österreich. Wohlstand erhalten. Zukunft gestalten. (53267275968).jpg")
Since 1920, the former meeting room of the House of Lords has been used as a plenary meeting room by the National Council. The House of Lords (*Herrenhaus*) used to have its chamber where today the National Council convenes. The chamber was designed in the classical style, with a horseshoe\-shaped seating arrangement facing the chair. The Chamber of the National Council was destroyed in 1945 during [aerial bombardments](/wiki/Strategic_bombing "Strategic bombing") and was completely rebuilt in a modern style. The new chamber was finished in 1956 and is a typical example of 1950s architecture. Apart from the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") made of steel, the chamber is without decoration. The carpet is mint\-green, considered to be neutral at the time since it was not the colour of any political party. Green was also said to have a soothing effect, something that apparently weighed in the decision, considering the tumultuous debates the building had to endure before the two World Wars. Behind the speaker's pult is the government bench (*Regierungsbank*), which is however only fully occupied during important events such as the declaration of the government (*Regierungserklärung*) or the state budget speech (*Budgetrede*).
### Federal Council Chamber
[thumb\|Chamber of the Federal Council (*Bundesrat*)Located](/wiki/File:Federalcouncilvienna.jpg "Federalcouncilvienna.jpg") next to the Chamber of the former House of Lords is the current Chamber of the [Federal Council of Austria](/wiki/Federal_Council_of_Austria "Federal Council of Austria") (*Bundesrat*). The room was used by the Lords as an [antechamber](/wiki/Antechamber "Antechamber") and informal meeting room. After the end of the Austro\-Hungarian Empire and the new republican constitution in 1920, the former Lords room became the Chamber for the Federal Council.
The seating arrangement of the present Chamber of the Federal Council is similar to the other two great chamber halls. Member of the Federal Council sit in a semicircle facing the [presidium](/wiki/Presidium "Presidium"). In front of the presidium is the cabinet bench. The furniture was completely renewed in 1999\. In 1970, the [coat of arms of Austria](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Austria "Coat of arms of Austria") as well as of the nine Austrian [states](/wiki/States_of_Austria "States of Austria") was installed above the presidium.
{{Clear}}
|
[
"Interior\n--------",
"### The entrance",
"[thumb\\|Layout of the Austrian Parliament Building. Click on the image for a key to the annotations.](/wiki/File:Austria_Parlament.PNG \"Austria Parlament.PNG\")\nThe middle [axis](/wiki/Wiktionary:Axis \"Axis\") from east to west is divided into an entrance hall, [vestibule](/wiki/Vestibule_%28Architecture%29 \"Vestibule (Architecture)\"), [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 \"Atrium (architecture)\"), [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle \"Peristyle\"), and two large rooms at the far end. For the interior decoration, von Hansen used Greek architectural elements such as [Doric](/wiki/Doric_order \"Doric order\"), [Ionic](/wiki/Ionic_order \"Ionic order\") and [Corinthian](/wiki/Corinthian_order \"Corinthian order\") pillars, and in the two rooms [Pompeii\\-style](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") [stucco](/wiki/Stucco \"Stucco\") technique for the walls.",
"The main entrance at the [portico](/wiki/Portico \"Portico\") is an exact copy of the gate of the [Erechtheion](/wiki/Erechtheion \"Erechtheion\") on the [Acropolis of Athens](/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens \"Acropolis of Athens\"), fitted with a bronze [portal](/wiki/Portal_%28architecture%29 \"Portal (architecture)\"). From the main entrance at the Ringstraße one passes into the vestibule of the building, which contains Ionic pillars. The walls are decorated with [Pavonazzo](/wiki/Pavonazzo \"Pavonazzo\") marble. The [niches](/wiki/Niche_%28architecture%29 \"Niche (architecture)\") contain statues of Greek gods. Seen from the entrance starting from the left these are [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\"), [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\"), [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus \"Zeus\"), [Hera](/wiki/Hera \"Hera\"), and [Hephaestus](/wiki/Hephaestus \"Hephaestus\"), and from the right [Hermes](/wiki/Hermes \"Hermes\"), [Demeter](/wiki/Demeter \"Demeter\"), [Poseidon](/wiki/Poseidon \"Poseidon\"), [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") and [Ares](/wiki/Ares \"Ares\").",
"Above the niches with the gods is a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\"), more than 100 m long, by the Viennese artist [Alois Hans Schram](/wiki/Alois_Hans_Schram \"Alois Hans Schram\"). It runs along the corridor, continuing into the atrium, and contains an allegorical depiction of the blessing of [Peace](/wiki/Peace \"Peace\"), of the civic [Virtues](/wiki/Virtue \"Virtue\"), and of [Patriotism](/wiki/Patriotism \"Patriotism\").",
"Above the entrance that leads to the Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) is a frieze with an allegorical depiction of Austria on her throne. Representing the motto \"Goods and Blood for thy country\" (*Gut und Blut furs Vaterland*), warriors swear loyalty and women bring offerings.",
"### Hall of Pillars",
"[thumb\\|Image of the Columned Hall of the Austrian Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Reichsrat_Vienna_2007.jpg \"Reichsrat Vienna 2007.jpg\")\nLocated behind the entrance [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 \"Atrium (architecture)\") is the grand Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) or [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle \"Peristyle\"). The hall is about 40 m long and 23 m wide. The 24 [Corinthian pillars](/wiki/Corinthian_pillar \"Corinthian pillar\") are made of [Adnet](/wiki/Adnet \"Adnet\") marble, and all of them are [monoliths](/wiki/Monolith \"Monolith\") weighing around 16 [tons](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\") each. The pillars carry the [skylighted](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 \"Skylight (window)\") main ceiling in the middle and the [coffered side ceilings](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling \"Coffered ceiling\"). The floor is made of polished marble resting on a concrete hull. The space below was designed as a [hypocaust](/wiki/Hypocaust \"Hypocaust\") for a floor heating and air circulation system for the hall.",
"Located on the [transverse](/wiki/Transverse \"Transverse\") axis at the end of the Hall of Pillars are the chamber of the former House of Representatives (on the left) and the chamber of the former House of Lords (on the right). Von Hansen's idea was to have the Hall of Pillars as the main central part of the building. It was designed to act as a meeting point between the House of Lords and the House of Representatives. Hansen also wanted to have the hall used by the monarch for the [State Opening of Parliament](/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament \"State Opening of Parliament\") and the [Speech from the Throne](/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne \"Speech from the Throne\"), similar to the British tradition. However, such ceremonies were never held in the building, since Emperor Franz Joseph I had a personal disdain for the parliamentary body. Speeches from the Throne in front of the parliamentarians were held in the Hofburg Palace instead.",
"The architect von Hansen paid particular attention to the design and construction of this hall. The marble floor was polished in a complicated process. The capitals of the pillars were gilded with 23 [carat](/wiki/Carat_%28purity%29 \"Carat (purity)\") (96%) gold. Running around the wall was a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") which was 126 m long and 2\\.3 m high. It was designed and painted by [Eduard Lebiedzki](/wiki/Eduard_Lebiedzki \"Eduard Lebiedzki\"). The monumental piece of work took decades to prepare and design, and four years, from 1907 until 1911, to paint. The frieze showed allegories depicting the duties of parliament on a golden background.",
"The hall was heavily damaged by aerial bombardments by Allied forces during World War II. On February 7, 1945, the hall suffered direct hits by aerial bombs. At least two pillars and the skylight were completely destroyed. The gilded coffered side ceilings under which the frieze ran on the walls were almost completely destroyed. The few surviving parts of the frieze were removed and stored. Only in the 1990s were the surviving parts restored as much as possible.",
"Because of its representative character, the Hall of Pillars is presently used by the President of the National Council and the Federal Council for festive functions, as well as for traditional parliamentary receptions.",
"Located at the back of the Hall of Pillars is the reception [salon](/wiki/Drawing_room \"Drawing room\") (*Empfangssalon*) of the President of the National Council. The room is fitted with [Pompeian](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") wall decorations in stucco and a large glass [skylight](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 \"Skylight (window)\"). Hanging on the wall are portraits of the Presidents of the National Council since 1945\\.",
"Further behind the reception salon is the former [reception](/wiki/Conference_hall \"Conference hall\") hall for both chambers of the Imperial Council. It is used today for committee meetings and hearings on financial, state budget, and [audit](/wiki/Audit \"Audit\") [court](/wiki/Court \"Court\") matters by the National Council, thus being presently named the *Budgetsaal*. The hall is richly decorated with marble, stucco, and a rich [coffered ceiling](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling \"Coffered ceiling\") in the Renaissance style. Inlaid into the ceiling are the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") of the 17 *[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania \"Cisleithania\")*, kingdoms and territories represented in the Imperial Council.",
"### Former House of Representatives Chamber",
"[thumb\\|Debating Chamber of the former House of Deputies of Austria](/wiki/File:Wien_-_Parlament%2C_Bundesversammlungssaal.JPG \"Wien - Parlament, Bundesversammlungssaal.JPG\")\nThe chamber of the former [House of Deputies](/wiki/House_of_Deputies_%28Austria%29 \"House of Deputies (Austria)\") (*Abgeordnetenhaus*) is used today by the [Federal Assembly](/wiki/Federal_Assembly_%28Austria%29 \"Federal Assembly (Austria)\") (*Bundesversammlung*) whenever it convenes for special occasions such as [National Day](/wiki/National_Day \"National Day\") and the inauguration ceremony of a newly elected [Federal President of Austria](/wiki/Federal_President_of_Austria \"Federal President of Austria\"). The chamber is built in a semicircle of 34 m [diameter](/wiki/Diameter \"Diameter\") and 22\\.5 m depth.",
"It originally contained 364 seats. With the introduction of various electoral reforms, the number was increased to 425 seats in 1896 and with the introduction of male universal suffrage in 1907 to 516 seats.",
"The chamber has viewing [galleries](/wiki/Auditorium \"Auditorium\") on two levels. The first gallery has in the middle a [box](/wiki/Box \"Box\") for the head of state. The right side of the gallery is for the [diplomatic corps](/wiki/Diplomatic_corps \"Diplomatic corps\") and the left side for the cabinet and family members of the head of state. On both far ends are seats for journalists. The gallery on the second level, which is slightly recessed from the one on the first level, is for the general public.",
"The chamber is architecturally based on an ancient Greek *[theatron](/wiki/Theatron \"Theatron\")*. The wall behind the presidium is designed like an antique *skene* with marble colonnades that carry a [gable](/wiki/Gable \"Gable\"). \n[thumb\\|Marble Colonnade](/wiki/File:Parlament_-_B%C3%A9cs%2C_2014.12.03_%2831%29.JPG \"Parlament - Bécs, 2014.12.03 (31).JPG\")\nThe group of figures in the gable are made of [Laas](/wiki/Laas%2C_South_Tyrol \"Laas, South Tyrol\") marble and depict the allegorical times of the day. The columns and pilasters of the wall are made of marble from [Untersberg](/wiki/Untersberg \"Untersberg\"), the [stylobates](/wiki/Stylobate \"Stylobate\") of dark marble, the decorations of the doors of red [Salzburg](/wiki/Salzburg \"Salzburg\") marble. The wall space between the pillars is made of grey [scagliola](/wiki/Scagliola \"Scagliola\"), with niches in between decorated with statues made of Carrara marble. The statues show historical persons such as [Numa Pompilius](/wiki/Numa_Pompilius \"Numa Pompilius\"), [Cincinnatus](/wiki/Cincinnatus \"Cincinnatus\"), [Quintus Fabius Maximus](/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_%28consul_45_BC%29 \"Quintus Fabius Maximus (consul 45 BC)\"), [Cato the Elder](/wiki/Cato_the_Elder \"Cato the Elder\"), [Gaius Gracchus](/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus \"Gaius Gracchus\"), [Cicero](/wiki/Cicero \"Cicero\"), [Manlius Torquatus](/wiki/Titus_Manlius_Imperiosus_Torquatus \"Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus\"), [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\"), [Seneca the Younger](/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger \"Seneca the Younger\") and [Constantine the Great](/wiki/Constantine_the_Great \"Constantine the Great\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.parlament.gv.at/PAKT/PR/JAHR\\_2002/PK0754/index.shtml \\|title\\=Themistokles \\- Der Sieger von Salamis \\|website\\=Austrian Parliament}} The friezes above were painted by [August Eisenmenger](/wiki/August_Eisenmenger \"August Eisenmenger\") and depict the history of the [emergence](/wiki/Emergence \"Emergence\") of civic life. Starting from left to right it shows:",
"1. *Kampf der Kentauren und Lapithen* (Battle of the Centaurs and Lapithes)\n2. *Minos richtet nach eigenem Ermessen* (Minos judges according to his own discretion)\n3. *Einsetzung der Volksvertretung in Sparta* (Swearing\\-in of the representatives of Sparta)\n4. *Brutus verurteilt seine Söhne* (Brutus condemns his sons)\n5. *Menenius Agrippa versöhnt die Stände* (Menenius Agrippa reconciles the estates)\n6. *Sophokles im Wettkampf mit Aischylos* (Sophokles in competition with Aischylos)\n7. *Sokrates auf dem Markte von Athen* (Sokrates visiting the market of Athens)\n8. *Anordnung der Prachtbauten durch Perikles* (The order of the representative buildings through Pericles. Note: the head of Pericles actually has the features of Baron Theophil von Hansen)\n9. *Herodot in Olympia*\n10. *Plato lehrt die Gesetze* (Plato teaches law)\n11. *Demosthenes redet zum Volke* (Demosthenes addresses the people)\n12. *Decius Mus weiht sich dem Tode* (Decius Mus dedicates himself to death)\n13. *Caius Gracchus auf der Rednertribüne* (Caius Gracchus holds a speech from the speaker's platform)\n14. *Solon läßt die Athener auf die Gesetze schwören* (Solon has the Athenians swear on the laws)\n15. *der Friede* (Peace)",
"The chamber of the House of Representatives was important for the history of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire. Many politicians started their career as deputies, such as [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner \"Karl Renner\"), later chancellor and president of Austria, and [Leopold Kunschak](/wiki/Leopold_Kunschak \"Leopold Kunschak\"), later conservative leader. Other deputies from outside core Austria played important roles in their native countries after the First and Second World Wars.",
"Important politicians who started their career and had their first democratic experience later played important roles in their native countries after the end of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire. These include:",
"In Austria\n* [Karl Renner](/wiki/Karl_Renner \"Karl Renner\"), former deputy of [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia \"Moravia\"), later Federal Chancellor and President of Austria\n* [Leopold Kunschak](/wiki/Leopold_Kunschak \"Leopold Kunschak\"), former deputy of [Lower Austria](/wiki/Lower_Austria \"Lower Austria\"), later Austrian conservative leader\nIn Czechoslovakia\n* [Tomáš Masaryk](/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Masaryk \"Tomáš Masaryk\"), former delegate from [Bohemia](/wiki/Bohemia \"Bohemia\"), later first President of Czechoslovakia\n* [Karel Kramář](/wiki/Karel_Kram%C3%A1%C5%99 \"Karel Kramář\"), former delegate from Bohemia, later first Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia\n* [Vlastimil Tusar](/wiki/Vlastimil_Tusar \"Vlastimil Tusar\"), former delegate from Bohemia, later Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia und\n* [Bohumír Šmeral](/wiki/Bohum%C3%ADr_%C5%A0meral \"Bohumír Šmeral\"), former delegate from Bohemia, later Czechoslovak Communist leader,\nin Poland\n* [Ignacy Daszyński](/wiki/Ignacy_Daszy%C5%84ski \"Ignacy Daszyński\"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Central Europe)\"), later Sejm Marshal of the Second Polish Republic,\n* [Wincenty Witos](/wiki/Wincenty_Witos \"Wincenty Witos\"), former delegate from Galicia, later Prime Minister of Poland,\nin Italy\n* [Alcide De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi \"Alcide De Gasperi\"), former delegate from the [Tyrol](/wiki/County_of_Tyrol \"County of Tyrol\"), later Prime Minister of Italy,\nin Yugoslavia\n* [Anton Korošec](/wiki/Anton_Koro%C5%A1ec \"Anton Korošec\"), former delegate from [Styria](/wiki/Styria \"Styria\"), later Prime Minister of Yugoslavia\nin Ukraine\n* [Yevhen Petrushevych](/wiki/Yevhen_Petrushevych \"Yevhen Petrushevych\"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Central Europe)\"), later President of [Western Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Western_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"Western Ukrainian People's Republic\")\n* [Kost Levytskyi](/wiki/Kost_Levytskyi \"Kost Levytskyi\"), former delegate from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Central_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Central Europe)\"), later Head of the Government of [Western Ukrainian People's Republic](/wiki/Western_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"Western Ukrainian People's Republic\")\nThe Austrian [Imperial Council](/wiki/Imperial_Council_%28Austria%29 \"Imperial Council (Austria)\") (*Reichsrat*) was the [recruiting](/wiki/Recruitment \"Recruitment\") [school](/wiki/School \"School\") for central and southeastern democracy and socialism.",
"### National Council Chamber",
"[thumb\\|National Council Chamber](/wiki/File:Brunner_Mit_Optimismus_f%C3%BCr_%C3%96sterreich._Wohlstand_erhalten._Zukunft_gestalten._%2853267275968%29.jpg \"Brunner Mit Optimismus für Österreich. Wohlstand erhalten. Zukunft gestalten. (53267275968).jpg\")\nSince 1920, the former meeting room of the House of Lords has been used as a plenary meeting room by the National Council. The House of Lords (*Herrenhaus*) used to have its chamber where today the National Council convenes. The chamber was designed in the classical style, with a horseshoe\\-shaped seating arrangement facing the chair. The Chamber of the National Council was destroyed in 1945 during [aerial bombardments](/wiki/Strategic_bombing \"Strategic bombing\") and was completely rebuilt in a modern style. The new chamber was finished in 1956 and is a typical example of 1950s architecture. Apart from the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") made of steel, the chamber is without decoration. The carpet is mint\\-green, considered to be neutral at the time since it was not the colour of any political party. Green was also said to have a soothing effect, something that apparently weighed in the decision, considering the tumultuous debates the building had to endure before the two World Wars. Behind the speaker's pult is the government bench (*Regierungsbank*), which is however only fully occupied during important events such as the declaration of the government (*Regierungserklärung*) or the state budget speech (*Budgetrede*).",
"### Federal Council Chamber",
"[thumb\\|Chamber of the Federal Council (*Bundesrat*)Located](/wiki/File:Federalcouncilvienna.jpg \"Federalcouncilvienna.jpg\") next to the Chamber of the former House of Lords is the current Chamber of the [Federal Council of Austria](/wiki/Federal_Council_of_Austria \"Federal Council of Austria\") (*Bundesrat*). The room was used by the Lords as an [antechamber](/wiki/Antechamber \"Antechamber\") and informal meeting room. After the end of the Austro\\-Hungarian Empire and the new republican constitution in 1920, the former Lords room became the Chamber for the Federal Council.",
"The seating arrangement of the present Chamber of the Federal Council is similar to the other two great chamber halls. Member of the Federal Council sit in a semicircle facing the [presidium](/wiki/Presidium \"Presidium\"). In front of the presidium is the cabinet bench. The furniture was completely renewed in 1999\\. In 1970, the [coat of arms of Austria](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Austria \"Coat of arms of Austria\") as well as of the nine Austrian [states](/wiki/States_of_Austria \"States of Austria\") was installed above the presidium.",
"{{Clear}}",
""
] |
### Hall of Pillars
[thumb\|Image of the Columned Hall of the Austrian Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Reichsrat_Vienna_2007.jpg "Reichsrat Vienna 2007.jpg")
Located behind the entrance [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 "Atrium (architecture)") is the grand Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) or [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle "Peristyle"). The hall is about 40 m long and 23 m wide. The 24 [Corinthian pillars](/wiki/Corinthian_pillar "Corinthian pillar") are made of [Adnet](/wiki/Adnet "Adnet") marble, and all of them are [monoliths](/wiki/Monolith "Monolith") weighing around 16 [tons](/wiki/Ton "Ton") each. The pillars carry the [skylighted](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 "Skylight (window)") main ceiling in the middle and the [coffered side ceilings](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling "Coffered ceiling"). The floor is made of polished marble resting on a concrete hull. The space below was designed as a [hypocaust](/wiki/Hypocaust "Hypocaust") for a floor heating and air circulation system for the hall.
Located on the [transverse](/wiki/Transverse "Transverse") axis at the end of the Hall of Pillars are the chamber of the former House of Representatives (on the left) and the chamber of the former House of Lords (on the right). Von Hansen's idea was to have the Hall of Pillars as the main central part of the building. It was designed to act as a meeting point between the House of Lords and the House of Representatives. Hansen also wanted to have the hall used by the monarch for the [State Opening of Parliament](/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament "State Opening of Parliament") and the [Speech from the Throne](/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne "Speech from the Throne"), similar to the British tradition. However, such ceremonies were never held in the building, since Emperor Franz Joseph I had a personal disdain for the parliamentary body. Speeches from the Throne in front of the parliamentarians were held in the Hofburg Palace instead.
The architect von Hansen paid particular attention to the design and construction of this hall. The marble floor was polished in a complicated process. The capitals of the pillars were gilded with 23 [carat](/wiki/Carat_%28purity%29 "Carat (purity)") (96%) gold. Running around the wall was a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze") which was 126 m long and 2\.3 m high. It was designed and painted by [Eduard Lebiedzki](/wiki/Eduard_Lebiedzki "Eduard Lebiedzki"). The monumental piece of work took decades to prepare and design, and four years, from 1907 until 1911, to paint. The frieze showed allegories depicting the duties of parliament on a golden background.
The hall was heavily damaged by aerial bombardments by Allied forces during World War II. On February 7, 1945, the hall suffered direct hits by aerial bombs. At least two pillars and the skylight were completely destroyed. The gilded coffered side ceilings under which the frieze ran on the walls were almost completely destroyed. The few surviving parts of the frieze were removed and stored. Only in the 1990s were the surviving parts restored as much as possible.
Because of its representative character, the Hall of Pillars is presently used by the President of the National Council and the Federal Council for festive functions, as well as for traditional parliamentary receptions.
Located at the back of the Hall of Pillars is the reception [salon](/wiki/Drawing_room "Drawing room") (*Empfangssalon*) of the President of the National Council. The room is fitted with [Pompeian](/wiki/Pompeii "Pompeii") wall decorations in stucco and a large glass [skylight](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 "Skylight (window)"). Hanging on the wall are portraits of the Presidents of the National Council since 1945\.
Further behind the reception salon is the former [reception](/wiki/Conference_hall "Conference hall") hall for both chambers of the Imperial Council. It is used today for committee meetings and hearings on financial, state budget, and [audit](/wiki/Audit "Audit") [court](/wiki/Court "Court") matters by the National Council, thus being presently named the *Budgetsaal*. The hall is richly decorated with marble, stucco, and a rich [coffered ceiling](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling "Coffered ceiling") in the Renaissance style. Inlaid into the ceiling are the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") of the 17 *[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania "Cisleithania")*, kingdoms and territories represented in the Imperial Council.
|
[
"### Hall of Pillars",
"[thumb\\|Image of the Columned Hall of the Austrian Parliament Building](/wiki/File:Reichsrat_Vienna_2007.jpg \"Reichsrat Vienna 2007.jpg\")\nLocated behind the entrance [atrium](/wiki/Atrium_%28architecture%29 \"Atrium (architecture)\") is the grand Hall of Pillars (*Säulenhalle*) or [peristyle](/wiki/Peristyle \"Peristyle\"). The hall is about 40 m long and 23 m wide. The 24 [Corinthian pillars](/wiki/Corinthian_pillar \"Corinthian pillar\") are made of [Adnet](/wiki/Adnet \"Adnet\") marble, and all of them are [monoliths](/wiki/Monolith \"Monolith\") weighing around 16 [tons](/wiki/Ton \"Ton\") each. The pillars carry the [skylighted](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 \"Skylight (window)\") main ceiling in the middle and the [coffered side ceilings](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling \"Coffered ceiling\"). The floor is made of polished marble resting on a concrete hull. The space below was designed as a [hypocaust](/wiki/Hypocaust \"Hypocaust\") for a floor heating and air circulation system for the hall.",
"Located on the [transverse](/wiki/Transverse \"Transverse\") axis at the end of the Hall of Pillars are the chamber of the former House of Representatives (on the left) and the chamber of the former House of Lords (on the right). Von Hansen's idea was to have the Hall of Pillars as the main central part of the building. It was designed to act as a meeting point between the House of Lords and the House of Representatives. Hansen also wanted to have the hall used by the monarch for the [State Opening of Parliament](/wiki/State_Opening_of_Parliament \"State Opening of Parliament\") and the [Speech from the Throne](/wiki/Speech_from_the_Throne \"Speech from the Throne\"), similar to the British tradition. However, such ceremonies were never held in the building, since Emperor Franz Joseph I had a personal disdain for the parliamentary body. Speeches from the Throne in front of the parliamentarians were held in the Hofburg Palace instead.",
"The architect von Hansen paid particular attention to the design and construction of this hall. The marble floor was polished in a complicated process. The capitals of the pillars were gilded with 23 [carat](/wiki/Carat_%28purity%29 \"Carat (purity)\") (96%) gold. Running around the wall was a [frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\") which was 126 m long and 2\\.3 m high. It was designed and painted by [Eduard Lebiedzki](/wiki/Eduard_Lebiedzki \"Eduard Lebiedzki\"). The monumental piece of work took decades to prepare and design, and four years, from 1907 until 1911, to paint. The frieze showed allegories depicting the duties of parliament on a golden background.",
"The hall was heavily damaged by aerial bombardments by Allied forces during World War II. On February 7, 1945, the hall suffered direct hits by aerial bombs. At least two pillars and the skylight were completely destroyed. The gilded coffered side ceilings under which the frieze ran on the walls were almost completely destroyed. The few surviving parts of the frieze were removed and stored. Only in the 1990s were the surviving parts restored as much as possible.",
"Because of its representative character, the Hall of Pillars is presently used by the President of the National Council and the Federal Council for festive functions, as well as for traditional parliamentary receptions.",
"Located at the back of the Hall of Pillars is the reception [salon](/wiki/Drawing_room \"Drawing room\") (*Empfangssalon*) of the President of the National Council. The room is fitted with [Pompeian](/wiki/Pompeii \"Pompeii\") wall decorations in stucco and a large glass [skylight](/wiki/Skylight_%28window%29 \"Skylight (window)\"). Hanging on the wall are portraits of the Presidents of the National Council since 1945\\.",
"Further behind the reception salon is the former [reception](/wiki/Conference_hall \"Conference hall\") hall for both chambers of the Imperial Council. It is used today for committee meetings and hearings on financial, state budget, and [audit](/wiki/Audit \"Audit\") [court](/wiki/Court \"Court\") matters by the National Council, thus being presently named the *Budgetsaal*. The hall is richly decorated with marble, stucco, and a rich [coffered ceiling](/wiki/Coffered_ceiling \"Coffered ceiling\") in the Renaissance style. Inlaid into the ceiling are the [coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") of the 17 *[Kronländer](/wiki/Cisleithania \"Cisleithania\")*, kingdoms and territories represented in the Imperial Council.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Development of earlier plainchant
Singing has been part of the Christian [liturgy](/wiki/Liturgy "Liturgy") since the earliest days of the Church. It is widely accepted that the [psalmody](/wiki/Psalms "Psalms") of [ancient Jewish](/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah "History of ancient Israel and Judah") worship significantly influenced and contributed to [early Christian](/wiki/Early_Christianity "Early Christianity") ritual and chant. Christians read Scriptures and sang chants, as their Jewish predecessors had done. Although new Christian liturgy was developed, the source of much of this Christian liturgy was Jewish psalmody. The source materials for newly emergent Christian chants were originally transmitted by Jews in sung form. {{cite web \|title\=The History of Gregorian Chant \|url\=https://stceciliasabbey.org.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2022/07/CHANT\-HISTORY\-1\.pdf \|website\=St. Cecilia's Abbey \|publisher\=St. Cecillia's Abbey \|access\-date\=21 May 2024}} Early Christian rites also incorporated elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [Canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours "Canonical hours") have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[Amen](/wiki/Amen "Amen")" and "[alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia "Alleluia")" come from [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"), and the threefold "[sanctus](/wiki/Sanctus "Sanctus")" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [Kedushah](/wiki/Kedushah_%28prayer%29 "Kedushah (prayer)").{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|\|p\=34}}
The [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament") mentions singing hymns during the [Last Supper](/wiki/Last_Supper "Last Supper"): "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [Mount of Olives](/wiki/Mount_of_Olives "Mount of Olives")" ({{bibleverse\|\|Matthew\|26\.30\|NT}}). Other ancient witnesses such as [Pope Clement I](/wiki/Pope_Clement_I "Pope Clement I"), [Tertullian](/wiki/Tertullian "Tertullian"), [St. Athanasius](/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria "Athanasius of Alexandria"), and [Egeria](/wiki/Egeria_%28pilgrim%29 "Egeria (pilgrim)") confirm the practice,{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=74}} although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|pp\=484–487}}{{sfn\|McKinnon\|1990\|p\=72}}
Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The *[Apostolic Tradition](/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition "Apostolic Tradition")*, attributed to the theologian [Hippolytus](/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome "Hippolytus of Rome"), attests the singing of [Hallel](/wiki/Hallel "Hallel") (Jewish) psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [*agape* feasts](/wiki/Agape_feast "Agape feast").{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=486}} Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [St. Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_the_Great "Anthony the Great") introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [antiphonal](/wiki/Antiphon "Antiphon") psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [St. Ambrose](/wiki/Ambrose "Ambrose") introduced this practice to the West. In the fifth century, a singing school, the Schola Cantorum, was founded at Rome to provide training in church musicianship.{{sfn\|Grout\|1960\|p\=28}}
Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [St. Augustine](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo "Augustine of Hippo") described the [responsorial](/wiki/Responsory "Responsory") singing of a [Gradual](/wiki/Gradual "Gradual") psalm at Mass. At c. 520, [Benedict of Nursia](/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia "Benedict of Nursia") established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [York](/wiki/York "York").{{sfn\|McKinnon\|1990\|p\=320}} Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([Celtic chant](/wiki/Celtic_chant "Celtic chant")), Spain (Mozarabic), Gaul (Gallican), and Italy ([Old Roman](/wiki/Old_Roman_chant "Old Roman chant"), Ambrosian and [Beneventan](/wiki/Beneventan_chant "Beneventan chant")). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year\-round repertory of 5th\-century plainchant after the western [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") collapsed.
[John the Deacon](/wiki/Johannes_Hymonides "Johannes Hymonides"), biographer (c. 872\) of [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I "Pope Gregory I"), modestly claimed that the saint "compiled a patchwork antiphonary",{{harvnb\|Bewerunge\|1913}} unsurprisingly, given his considerable work with liturgical development. He reorganized the Schola Cantorum and established a more uniform standard in church services, gathering chants from among the regional traditions as widely as he could manage. Of those, he retained what he could, revised where necessary, and assigned particular chants to the various services.{{sfn\|Grout\|1960\|pp\=28–29}} According to [Donald Jay Grout](/wiki/Donald_Jay_Grout "Donald Jay Grout"), his goal was to organize the bodies of chants from diverse traditions into a uniform and orderly whole for use by the entire western region of the Church.{{sfn\|Grout\|1960\|p\=30}} His renowned love for music was recorded only 34 years after his death; the epitaph of Honorius testified that comparison to Gregory was already considered the highest praise for a music\-loving pope. While later legends magnified his real achievements, these significant steps may account for why his name came to be attached to Gregorian chant.
### Origins of mature plainchant
[thumb\|A dove representing the [Holy Spirit](/wiki/Holy_Spirit "Holy Spirit") sitting on [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I "Pope Gregory I")'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration.](/wiki/File:Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg "Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg")
The Gregorian repertory was further systematized for use in the [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite "Roman Rite"), and scholars weigh the relative influences of Roman and [Carolingian](/wiki/Carolingian "Carolingian") practices upon the development of plainchant. The late 8th century saw a steadily increasing influence of the Carolingian monarchs over the popes. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [Pope Stephen II](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II "Pope Stephen II") celebrated [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") using Roman chant. According to [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"), his father [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short "Pepin the Short") abolished the local [Gallican Rites](/wiki/Gallican_Rite "Gallican Rite") in favor of the Roman use, to strengthen ties with Rome.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=79}} Thirty years later (785–786\), at Charlemagne's request, [Pope Adrian I](/wiki/Pope_Adrian_I "Pope Adrian I") sent a papal [sacramentary](/wiki/Sacramentary "Sacramentary") with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. According to [James McKinnon](/wiki/James_McKinnon "James McKinnon"), over a brief period in the 8th century, a project overseen by [Chrodegang of Metz](/wiki/Chrodegang_of_Metz "Chrodegang of Metz") in the favorable atmosphere of the Carolingian monarchs, also compiled the core liturgy of the Roman Mass and promoted its use in [Francia](/wiki/Franks "Franks") and throughout Gaul.{{sfn\|Levy\|Emerson\|Bellingham\|Hiley\|2001\|loc\=§2: History to the 10th century}}
[Willi Apel](/wiki/Willi_Apel "Willi Apel") and Robert Snow{{Full citation needed\|date\=April 2020\|reason\=this is the sole mention in this article of Robert Snow}} assert a scholarly consensus that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and Gallican chants, and was commissioned by the Carolingian rulers in France. Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery have shown that older melodic essentials from Roman chant are clear in the synthesized chant repertory. There were other developments as well. Chants were modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and fitted into the theory of the ancient Greek [octoechos](/wiki/Octoechos "Octoechos") system of modes in a manner that created what later came to be known as the western system of the eight [church modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 "Mode (music)"). The Metz project also invented an innovative [musical notation](/wiki/Musical_notation "Musical notation"), using freeform [neumes](/wiki/Neume "Neume") to show the shape of a remembered melody.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Grier \| first1 \= J.\| year \= 2003 \| title \= Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and Nota Romana \|journal\=\[\[Journal of the American Musicological Society]]\| volume \= 56 \| issue \= 1\| pages \= 43–98 \| doi \= 10\.1525/jams.2003\.56\.1\.43 }} This notation was further developed over time, culminating in the introduction of [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28music%29 "Staff (music)") lines (attributed to [Guido d'Arezzo](/wiki/Guido_d%27Arezzo "Guido d'Arezzo")) in the early 11th century, what we know today as plainchant notation. The whole body of Frankish\-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, coalesced into a single body of chant that was called "Gregorian."
The changes made in the new system of chants were so significant that they have led some scholars to speculate that it was named in honor of the contemporary [Pope Gregory II](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_II "Pope Gregory II").{{sfn\|McKinnon\|1990\|p\=114}} Nevertheless, the lore surrounding [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I "Pope Gregory I") was sufficient to culminate in his portrayal as the actual author of Gregorian Chant. He was often depicted as receiving the dictation of plainchant from a dove representing the [Holy Spirit](/wiki/Holy_Spirit "Holy Spirit"), thus giving Gregorian chant the stamp of being divinely inspired.{{Cite journal \|last\=Weyer \|first\=Christoph \|date\=2020 \|title\=Hartker, Gregor und die Taube: Zum Codex CH\-SGs 390/391\|url\=https://elibrary.steiner\-verlag.de/article/10\.25162/afmw\-2020\-0014 \|journal\=\[\[Archiv für Musikwissenschaft]]\|language\=de \|volume\=77 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=299 \|doi\=10\.25162/afmw\-2020\-0014 \|s2cid\=235004564 \|issn\=0003\-9292}} Scholars agree that the melodic content of much Gregorian Chant did not exist in that form in Gregory I's day. In addition, it is known definitively that the familiar neumatic system for notating plainchant had not been established in his time.[Taruskin, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Taruskin "Richard Taruskin"), *The Oxford History of Western Music, Volume I – Music from the earliest notations to the 16th century*, ch. 1, "The curtain goes up", p. 6\. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010\) Nevertheless, Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted by some as fact to this day.{{sfn\|Wilson\|1990\|p\=13}}
### Dissemination and hegemony
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"), once elevated to [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor"), aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.{{sfn\|Wilson\|1990\|p\=10}} From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia "Scandinavia"), [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland "Iceland") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland").{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=604}} In 885, [Pope Stephen V](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_V "Pope Stephen V") banned the [Slavonic](/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language "Church Slavonic language") liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia "Moravia") and [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia").
The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=80}} The Gregorian chant of the [Sarum Rite](/wiki/Sarum_Rite "Sarum Rite") displaced [Celtic chant](/wiki/Celtic_chant "Celtic chant"). Gregorian coexisted with Beneventan chant for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058\). Mozarabic chant survived the influx of the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths "Visigoths") and [Moors](/wiki/Moors "Moors"), but not the Roman\-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [Reconquista](/wiki/Reconquista "Reconquista"). Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. Ambrosian chant alone survived to the present day, preserved in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [St. Ambrose](/wiki/Ambrose "Ambrose").
Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as Old Roman chant. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from (German) Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [Credo](/wiki/Credo "Credo") was added to the [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite "Roman Rite") at the behest of the Emperor [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor") in 1014\.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|p\=47}} Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.
Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 "Mode (music)"). Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the *[Improperia](/wiki/Improperia "Improperia")* of [Good Friday](/wiki/Good_Friday "Good Friday") are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.{{sfn\|Parrish\|1986\|pp\=8–9}}
### Early sources and later revisions
[thumb\|Two plainchants from the Mass Proper, written in adiastematic neumes, from {{ill\|Codex Sangallensis 359\|de\|italic\=yes}}](/wiki/File:Ad_te_levavi_trimmed.jpg "Ad te levavi trimmed.jpg")
{{Listen\|type\=music\|filename\=Gradual chant \- Universi qui te expectant.ogg\|title\=''Universi qui te expectant'', Gradual for the Mass (first Sunday of Advent)\|description\=This chant corresponds to the second one on the manuscript folio above beneath the large rubric ''Responsorium Graduale''; by \[\[Schola Antiqua of Chicago]].}}
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg "Regensburg") in Germany, [St. Gall](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Gall "Abbey of Saint Gall") in Switzerland, [Laon](/wiki/Laon "Laon") and [St. Martial](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Martial%2C_Limoges "Abbey of Saint Martial, Limoges") in France.
Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of [St. Pierre, Solesmes](/wiki/Solesmes_Abbey "Solesmes Abbey"), has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 "Mode (music)"). In 1562–63, the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent") banned most [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 "Sequence (poetry)"). Guidette's *Directorium chori*, published in 1582, and the *Editio medicea*, published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=288–289}} In 1811, the French musicologist [Alexandre\-Étienne Choron](/wiki/Alexandre-%C3%89tienne_Choron "Alexandre-Étienne Choron"), as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution"), called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=622}}
In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [Prosper Guéranger](/wiki/Prosper_Gu%C3%A9ranger "Prosper Guéranger") revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re\-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([Pustet](/wiki/Pustet "Pustet"), Regensburg) which [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX "Pope Pius IX") declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of Solesmes released the first book in a planned series, the Paléographie Musicale.{{cite web\|url\=https://archive.org/details/palographiemusic15macq\|title\=Paléographie musicale\|volume\=XV Les principaux manuscrits de chant grégorien, ambrosien, mozarabe, gallican\|publisher\=Desclée \& Cie.\|location\=Tournay, Belgium\|via\=\[\[Internet Archive]]\|year\=1937}} The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms.
The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war\-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duly published in [facsimile](/wiki/Facsimile "Facsimile") editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII "Pope Leo XIII") died. His successor, [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X "Pope Pius X"), promptly accepted the Solesmes chant – now compiled as the *[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis "Liber usualis")* – as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing "Musical phrasing") marks and note\-lengthening *episema* and *mora* marks not found in the original sources.
Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices have placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|pp\=624–627}} Ever since restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the performance tradition officially promulgated since the onset of the Solesmes restoration is substantially at odds with musicological evidence.
In his [motu proprio](/wiki/Motu_proprio "Motu proprio") *[Tra le sollecitudini](/wiki/Tra_le_sollecitudini "Tra le sollecitudini")*, Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [Ordinary of the Mass](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass "Ordinary of the Mass"), although he reserved the singing of the [Propers](/wiki/Proper_%28liturgy%29 "Proper (liturgy)") for males. While this custom is maintained in [traditionalist Catholic](/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic "Traditionalist Catholic") communities (most of which allow all\-female scholas as well, though), the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican_II "Vatican II") officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship in the Roman Liturgy.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Development of earlier plainchant",
"Singing has been part of the Christian [liturgy](/wiki/Liturgy \"Liturgy\") since the earliest days of the Church. It is widely accepted that the [psalmody](/wiki/Psalms \"Psalms\") of [ancient Jewish](/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah \"History of ancient Israel and Judah\") worship significantly influenced and contributed to [early Christian](/wiki/Early_Christianity \"Early Christianity\") ritual and chant. Christians read Scriptures and sang chants, as their Jewish predecessors had done. Although new Christian liturgy was developed, the source of much of this Christian liturgy was Jewish psalmody. The source materials for newly emergent Christian chants were originally transmitted by Jews in sung form. {{cite web \\|title\\=The History of Gregorian Chant \\|url\\=https://stceciliasabbey.org.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2022/07/CHANT\\-HISTORY\\-1\\.pdf \\|website\\=St. Cecilia's Abbey \\|publisher\\=St. Cecillia's Abbey \\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2024}} Early Christian rites also incorporated elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [Canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours \"Canonical hours\") have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. \"[Amen](/wiki/Amen \"Amen\")\" and \"[alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia \"Alleluia\")\" come from [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\"), and the threefold \"[sanctus](/wiki/Sanctus \"Sanctus\")\" derives from the threefold \"kadosh\" of the [Kedushah](/wiki/Kedushah_%28prayer%29 \"Kedushah (prayer)\").{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|\\|p\\=34}}",
"The [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\") mentions singing hymns during the [Last Supper](/wiki/Last_Supper \"Last Supper\"): \"When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [Mount of Olives](/wiki/Mount_of_Olives \"Mount of Olives\")\" ({{bibleverse\\|\\|Matthew\\|26\\.30\\|NT}}). Other ancient witnesses such as [Pope Clement I](/wiki/Pope_Clement_I \"Pope Clement I\"), [Tertullian](/wiki/Tertullian \"Tertullian\"), [St. Athanasius](/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria \"Athanasius of Alexandria\"), and [Egeria](/wiki/Egeria_%28pilgrim%29 \"Egeria (pilgrim)\") confirm the practice,{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=74}} although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|pp\\=484–487}}{{sfn\\|McKinnon\\|1990\\|p\\=72}}",
"Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The *[Apostolic Tradition](/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition \"Apostolic Tradition\")*, attributed to the theologian [Hippolytus](/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome \"Hippolytus of Rome\"), attests the singing of [Hallel](/wiki/Hallel \"Hallel\") (Jewish) psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [*agape* feasts](/wiki/Agape_feast \"Agape feast\").{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=486}} Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [St. Anthony](/wiki/Anthony_the_Great \"Anthony the Great\") introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [antiphonal](/wiki/Antiphon \"Antiphon\") psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [St. Ambrose](/wiki/Ambrose \"Ambrose\") introduced this practice to the West. In the fifth century, a singing school, the Schola Cantorum, was founded at Rome to provide training in church musicianship.{{sfn\\|Grout\\|1960\\|p\\=28}}",
"Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [St. Augustine](/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo \"Augustine of Hippo\") described the [responsorial](/wiki/Responsory \"Responsory\") singing of a [Gradual](/wiki/Gradual \"Gradual\") psalm at Mass. At c. 520, [Benedict of Nursia](/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia \"Benedict of Nursia\") established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [York](/wiki/York \"York\").{{sfn\\|McKinnon\\|1990\\|p\\=320}} Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([Celtic chant](/wiki/Celtic_chant \"Celtic chant\")), Spain (Mozarabic), Gaul (Gallican), and Italy ([Old Roman](/wiki/Old_Roman_chant \"Old Roman chant\"), Ambrosian and [Beneventan](/wiki/Beneventan_chant \"Beneventan chant\")). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year\\-round repertory of 5th\\-century plainchant after the western [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") collapsed.",
"[John the Deacon](/wiki/Johannes_Hymonides \"Johannes Hymonides\"), biographer (c. 872\\) of [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I \"Pope Gregory I\"), modestly claimed that the saint \"compiled a patchwork antiphonary\",{{harvnb\\|Bewerunge\\|1913}} unsurprisingly, given his considerable work with liturgical development. He reorganized the Schola Cantorum and established a more uniform standard in church services, gathering chants from among the regional traditions as widely as he could manage. Of those, he retained what he could, revised where necessary, and assigned particular chants to the various services.{{sfn\\|Grout\\|1960\\|pp\\=28–29}} According to [Donald Jay Grout](/wiki/Donald_Jay_Grout \"Donald Jay Grout\"), his goal was to organize the bodies of chants from diverse traditions into a uniform and orderly whole for use by the entire western region of the Church.{{sfn\\|Grout\\|1960\\|p\\=30}} His renowned love for music was recorded only 34 years after his death; the epitaph of Honorius testified that comparison to Gregory was already considered the highest praise for a music\\-loving pope. While later legends magnified his real achievements, these significant steps may account for why his name came to be attached to Gregorian chant.",
"### Origins of mature plainchant",
"[thumb\\|A dove representing the [Holy Spirit](/wiki/Holy_Spirit \"Holy Spirit\") sitting on [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I \"Pope Gregory I\")'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration.](/wiki/File:Gregory_I_-_Antiphonary_of_Hartker_of_Sankt_Gallen.jpg \"Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg\")\nThe Gregorian repertory was further systematized for use in the [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite \"Roman Rite\"), and scholars weigh the relative influences of Roman and [Carolingian](/wiki/Carolingian \"Carolingian\") practices upon the development of plainchant. The late 8th century saw a steadily increasing influence of the Carolingian monarchs over the popes. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [Pope Stephen II](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II \"Pope Stephen II\") celebrated [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") using Roman chant. According to [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"), his father [Pepin](/wiki/Pepin_the_Short \"Pepin the Short\") abolished the local [Gallican Rites](/wiki/Gallican_Rite \"Gallican Rite\") in favor of the Roman use, to strengthen ties with Rome.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=79}} Thirty years later (785–786\\), at Charlemagne's request, [Pope Adrian I](/wiki/Pope_Adrian_I \"Pope Adrian I\") sent a papal [sacramentary](/wiki/Sacramentary \"Sacramentary\") with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. According to [James McKinnon](/wiki/James_McKinnon \"James McKinnon\"), over a brief period in the 8th century, a project overseen by [Chrodegang of Metz](/wiki/Chrodegang_of_Metz \"Chrodegang of Metz\") in the favorable atmosphere of the Carolingian monarchs, also compiled the core liturgy of the Roman Mass and promoted its use in [Francia](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") and throughout Gaul.{{sfn\\|Levy\\|Emerson\\|Bellingham\\|Hiley\\|2001\\|loc\\=§2: History to the 10th century}}",
"[Willi Apel](/wiki/Willi_Apel \"Willi Apel\") and Robert Snow{{Full citation needed\\|date\\=April 2020\\|reason\\=this is the sole mention in this article of Robert Snow}} assert a scholarly consensus that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and Gallican chants, and was commissioned by the Carolingian rulers in France. Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery have shown that older melodic essentials from Roman chant are clear in the synthesized chant repertory. There were other developments as well. Chants were modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and fitted into the theory of the ancient Greek [octoechos](/wiki/Octoechos \"Octoechos\") system of modes in a manner that created what later came to be known as the western system of the eight [church modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\"). The Metz project also invented an innovative [musical notation](/wiki/Musical_notation \"Musical notation\"), using freeform [neumes](/wiki/Neume \"Neume\") to show the shape of a remembered melody.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Grier \\| first1 \\= J.\\| year \\= 2003 \\| title \\= Ademar de Chabannes, Carolingian Musical Practices, and Nota Romana \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Journal of the American Musicological Society]]\\| volume \\= 56 \\| issue \\= 1\\| pages \\= 43–98 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1525/jams.2003\\.56\\.1\\.43 }} This notation was further developed over time, culminating in the introduction of [staff](/wiki/Staff_%28music%29 \"Staff (music)\") lines (attributed to [Guido d'Arezzo](/wiki/Guido_d%27Arezzo \"Guido d'Arezzo\")) in the early 11th century, what we know today as plainchant notation. The whole body of Frankish\\-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, coalesced into a single body of chant that was called \"Gregorian.\"",
"The changes made in the new system of chants were so significant that they have led some scholars to speculate that it was named in honor of the contemporary [Pope Gregory II](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_II \"Pope Gregory II\").{{sfn\\|McKinnon\\|1990\\|p\\=114}} Nevertheless, the lore surrounding [Pope Gregory I](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I \"Pope Gregory I\") was sufficient to culminate in his portrayal as the actual author of Gregorian Chant. He was often depicted as receiving the dictation of plainchant from a dove representing the [Holy Spirit](/wiki/Holy_Spirit \"Holy Spirit\"), thus giving Gregorian chant the stamp of being divinely inspired.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Weyer \\|first\\=Christoph \\|date\\=2020 \\|title\\=Hartker, Gregor und die Taube: Zum Codex CH\\-SGs 390/391\\|url\\=https://elibrary.steiner\\-verlag.de/article/10\\.25162/afmw\\-2020\\-0014 \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Archiv für Musikwissenschaft]]\\|language\\=de \\|volume\\=77 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=299 \\|doi\\=10\\.25162/afmw\\-2020\\-0014 \\|s2cid\\=235004564 \\|issn\\=0003\\-9292}} Scholars agree that the melodic content of much Gregorian Chant did not exist in that form in Gregory I's day. In addition, it is known definitively that the familiar neumatic system for notating plainchant had not been established in his time.[Taruskin, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Taruskin \"Richard Taruskin\"), *The Oxford History of Western Music, Volume I – Music from the earliest notations to the 16th century*, ch. 1, \"The curtain goes up\", p. 6\\. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010\\) Nevertheless, Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted by some as fact to this day.{{sfn\\|Wilson\\|1990\\|p\\=13}}",
"### Dissemination and hegemony",
"Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"), once elevated to [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\"), aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.{{sfn\\|Wilson\\|1990\\|p\\=10}} From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [Scandinavia](/wiki/Scandinavia \"Scandinavia\"), [Iceland](/wiki/Iceland \"Iceland\") and [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\").{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=604}} In 885, [Pope Stephen V](/wiki/Pope_Stephen_V \"Pope Stephen V\") banned the [Slavonic](/wiki/Church_Slavonic_language \"Church Slavonic language\") liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Moravia](/wiki/Moravia \"Moravia\") and [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\").",
"The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=80}} The Gregorian chant of the [Sarum Rite](/wiki/Sarum_Rite \"Sarum Rite\") displaced [Celtic chant](/wiki/Celtic_chant \"Celtic chant\"). Gregorian coexisted with Beneventan chant for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058\\). Mozarabic chant survived the influx of the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths \"Visigoths\") and [Moors](/wiki/Moors \"Moors\"), but not the Roman\\-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [Reconquista](/wiki/Reconquista \"Reconquista\"). Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. Ambrosian chant alone survived to the present day, preserved in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [St. Ambrose](/wiki/Ambrose \"Ambrose\").",
"Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as Old Roman chant. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from (German) Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [Credo](/wiki/Credo \"Credo\") was added to the [Roman Rite](/wiki/Roman_Rite \"Roman Rite\") at the behest of the Emperor [Henry II](/wiki/Henry_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor\") in 1014\\.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|p\\=47}} Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.",
"Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\"). Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the *[Improperia](/wiki/Improperia \"Improperia\")* of [Good Friday](/wiki/Good_Friday \"Good Friday\") are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.{{sfn\\|Parrish\\|1986\\|pp\\=8–9}}",
"### Early sources and later revisions",
"[thumb\\|Two plainchants from the Mass Proper, written in adiastematic neumes, from {{ill\\|Codex Sangallensis 359\\|de\\|italic\\=yes}}](/wiki/File:Ad_te_levavi_trimmed.jpg \"Ad te levavi trimmed.jpg\")\n{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=Gradual chant \\- Universi qui te expectant.ogg\\|title\\=''Universi qui te expectant'', Gradual for the Mass (first Sunday of Advent)\\|description\\=This chant corresponds to the second one on the manuscript folio above beneath the large rubric ''Responsorium Graduale''; by \\[\\[Schola Antiqua of Chicago]].}}\nThe first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [Regensburg](/wiki/Regensburg \"Regensburg\") in Germany, [St. Gall](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Gall \"Abbey of Saint Gall\") in Switzerland, [Laon](/wiki/Laon \"Laon\") and [St. Martial](/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Martial%2C_Limoges \"Abbey of Saint Martial, Limoges\") in France.",
"Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of [St. Pierre, Solesmes](/wiki/Solesmes_Abbey \"Solesmes Abbey\"), has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical \"original\" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\"). In 1562–63, the [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\") banned most [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 \"Sequence (poetry)\"). Guidette's *Directorium chori*, published in 1582, and the *Editio medicea*, published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed \"barbarism\" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=288–289}} In 1811, the French musicologist [Alexandre\\-Étienne Choron](/wiki/Alexandre-%C3%89tienne_Choron \"Alexandre-Étienne Choron\"), as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\"), called for returning to the \"purer\" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=622}}",
"In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [Prosper Guéranger](/wiki/Prosper_Gu%C3%A9ranger \"Prosper Guéranger\") revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re\\-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([Pustet](/wiki/Pustet \"Pustet\"), Regensburg) which [Pope Pius IX](/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX \"Pope Pius IX\") declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of Solesmes released the first book in a planned series, the Paléographie Musicale.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/palographiemusic15macq\\|title\\=Paléographie musicale\\|volume\\=XV Les principaux manuscrits de chant grégorien, ambrosien, mozarabe, gallican\\|publisher\\=Desclée \\& Cie.\\|location\\=Tournay, Belgium\\|via\\=\\[\\[Internet Archive]]\\|year\\=1937}} The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms.",
"The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war\\-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duly published in [facsimile](/wiki/Facsimile \"Facsimile\") editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [Pope Leo XIII](/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII \"Pope Leo XIII\") died. His successor, [Pope Pius X](/wiki/Pope_Pius_X \"Pope Pius X\"), promptly accepted the Solesmes chant – now compiled as the *[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis \"Liber usualis\")* – as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing \"Musical phrasing\") marks and note\\-lengthening *episema* and *mora* marks not found in the original sources.",
"Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices have placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|pp\\=624–627}} Ever since restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the performance tradition officially promulgated since the onset of the Solesmes restoration is substantially at odds with musicological evidence.",
"In his [motu proprio](/wiki/Motu_proprio \"Motu proprio\") *[Tra le sollecitudini](/wiki/Tra_le_sollecitudini \"Tra le sollecitudini\")*, Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [Ordinary of the Mass](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass \"Ordinary of the Mass\"), although he reserved the singing of the [Propers](/wiki/Proper_%28liturgy%29 \"Proper (liturgy)\") for males. While this custom is maintained in [traditionalist Catholic](/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholic \"Traditionalist Catholic\") communities (most of which allow all\\-female scholas as well, though), the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [Vatican II](/wiki/Vatican_II \"Vatican II\") officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship in the Roman Liturgy.",
""
] |
Musical form
------------
### Melodic types
Gregorian chant is, as 'chant' implies, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [ligatures](/wiki/Ligature_%28music%29 "Ligature (music)"), a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [Melismatic](/wiki/Melisma "Melisma") chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismata.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|pp\=85–88}}
{{Listen\|type\=music\|filename\=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg\|title\=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day\|description\=Example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}
Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [recitatives](/wiki/Recitative "Recitative") and free melodies.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=203}} The simplest kind of melody is the liturgical recitative. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the *[reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone "Reciting tone")*. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [incipits](/wiki/Incipit "Incipit"), partial [cadences](/wiki/Cadence "Cadence"), and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [Collect](/wiki/Collect "Collect") for [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978b\|p\=11}} Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [accentus](/wiki/Accentus_Ecclesiasticus "Accentus Ecclesiasticus") chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [Epistle](/wiki/Epistle "Epistle"), and [Gospel](/wiki/Gospel "Gospel") during the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)"), and in the direct [psalmody](/wiki/Psalmody "Psalmody") of the [Office](/wiki/Canonical_hours "Canonical hours").
Psalmodic chants, which intone [psalms](/wiki/Psalms "Psalms"), include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include *direct psalmody*, *antiphonal chants*, and *responsorial chants*.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|p\=81}} In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.
[thumb\|Antiphonary with Gregorian chants](/wiki/File:Evora06.jpg "Evora06.jpg")
{{Listen\|type\=music\|filename\=Loquetur Dominus.ogg\|title\=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time\|description\=Example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant
\|filename2\=De profundis.ogg\|title2\=''De profundis'', tract for the Requiem Mass\|description2\=Example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}
Antiphonal chants such as the [Introit](/wiki/Introit "Introit"), and [Communion](/wiki/Communion_%28chant%29 "Communion (chant)") originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an *[antiphon](/wiki/Antiphon "Antiphon")*. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [doxology](/wiki/Doxology "Doxology"), or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie "Kyrie") and [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_Excelsis_Deo "Gloria in Excelsis Deo"), are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.
Responsorial chants such as the [Gradual](/wiki/Gradual "Gradual"), [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia "Alleluia"), [Offertory](/wiki/Offertory "Offertory"), and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a *respond* sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [Responsorial](/wiki/Responsory "Responsory") chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called *[centonization](/wiki/Centonization "Centonization")*. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized.
Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of the Eucharist. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|p\=123}}
The non\-psalmodic chants, including the [Ordinary of the Mass](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass "Ordinary of the Mass"), [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 "Sequence (poetry)"), and [hymns](/wiki/Hymn "Hymn"), were originally intended for congregational singing.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|p\=131}} The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.
### Modality
{{Main\|Mode (music)}}
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [diatonic scale](/wiki/Diatonic_scale "Diatonic scale"). Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [Enchiriadis](/wiki/Musica_enchiriadis "Musica enchiriadis") group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone\-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F{{music\|\#}}, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b\-flat was first described by [Hucbald](/wiki/Hucbald "Hucbald"), who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.
Around 1025, [Guido d'Arezzo](/wiki/Guido_d%27Arezzo "Guido d'Arezzo") revolutionized Western music with the development of the *gamut*, in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [hexachords](/wiki/Hexachord "Hexachord"). Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C\-D\-E^F\-G\-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B\-flat, F\-G\-A^B{{music\|b}}\-C\-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B\-natural, G\-A\-B^C\-D\-E). The B\-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [accidental](/wiki/Accidental_%28music%29 "Accidental (music)"). The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [musica ficta](/wiki/Musica_ficta "Musica ficta").
Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 "Mode (music)"), influenced by the eightfold division of [Byzantine chants](/wiki/Byzantine_chant "Byzantine chant") called the *[oktoechos](/wiki/Oktoechos "Oktoechos")*.{{sfn\|Wilson\|1990\|p\=11}} Each mode is distinguished by its *final*, *dominant*, and *ambitus*. The *final* is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The *dominant* is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone "Reciting tone") in the melody. *[Ambitus](/wiki/Ambitus_%28music%29 "Ambitus (music)")* refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as *plagal*, while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as *authentic*. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|pp\=64–65}} The existent pseudo\-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "[hypo\-](/wiki/wikt:Hypo- "Hypo-")" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.
Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [Dorian](/wiki/Dorian_mode "Dorian mode") and [Hypodorian](/wiki/Hypodorian_mode "Hypodorian mode").
Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [Phrygian](/wiki/Phrygian_mode "Phrygian mode") and [Hypophrygian](/wiki/Hypophrygian_mode "Hypophrygian mode").
Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [Lydian](/wiki/Lydian_mode "Lydian mode") and [Hypolydian](/wiki/Hypolydian_mode "Hypolydian mode").
Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [Mixolydian](/wiki/Mixolydian_mode "Mixolydian mode") and [Hypomixolydian](/wiki/Hypomixolydian_mode "Hypomixolydian mode").
Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [Aeolian](/wiki/Aeolian_mode "Aeolian mode"), [Locrian](/wiki/Locrian_mode "Locrian mode"), and [Ionian](/wiki/Ionian_mode "Ionian mode"), these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [transpositions](/wiki/Transposition_%28music%29 "Transposition (music)") of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.
Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the psalm verses that are sung between the repetition of antiphons, or the Gloria Patri. Thus we find models for the recitation of psalmverses, Alleluia and Gloria Patri for all eight modes.{{sfn\|Hoppin\|1978a\|p\=82}}
Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants – especially from German sources – whose [neumes](/wiki/Neume "Neume") suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system, or in other words, employing a form of [chromaticism](/wiki/Chromaticism "Chromaticism").{{sfn\|Wilson\|1990\|p\=22}} Early Gregorian chant, like Ambrosian and Old Roman chant, whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=166–178}}{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=454}} The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th\-century [Cistercian](/wiki/Cistercian "Cistercian") reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismata trimmed, B\-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|pp\=608–610}} Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants – notably Communions – defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion *Circuibo* was transcribed using a different mode in each.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=171–172}}
### Musical idiom
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [stepwise](/wiki/Steps_and_skips "Steps and skips"). Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as Ambrosian chant or Beneventan chant. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D\-F\-G\-A\-C.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=256–257}}\> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F\-A\-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.{{sfn\|Wilson\|1990\|p\=21}} Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [Offertories](/wiki/Offertory "Offertory"); in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie "Kyrie") and [Agnus Dei](/wiki/Agnus_Dei_%28music%29 "Agnus Dei (music)"); and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_excelsis_Deo "Gloria in excelsis Deo"), and the [Credo](/wiki/Credo "Credo").{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=258–259}}
Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [centonized](/wiki/Centonization "Centonization") to create [Graduals](/wiki/Gradual "Gradual") and [Tracts](/wiki/Tract_%28liturgy%29 "Tract (liturgy)") follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the *[Iustus ut palma](/wiki/Iustus_ut_palma "Iustus ut palma")* family of Graduals.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|pp\=344–363}} Several [Introits](/wiki/Introit "Introit") in mode 3, including *Loquetur Dominus* above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|pp\=110–113}} Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.
### Notation
[thumb\|Offertory *Iubilate deo universa terra* in unheightened neume](/wiki/File:Neume2.jpg "Neume2.jpg"){{Main\|Neume}}
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written {{Circa\|950\|lk\=no}}) used symbols called *[neumes](/wiki/Neume "Neume")* (Gr. sign, of the hand) to indicate tone\-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone\-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy "Cheironomy") hand\-gestures, the [ekphonetic](/wiki/Ekphonetic "Ekphonetic") notation of [Byzantine chant](/wiki/Byzantine_chant "Byzantine chant"), punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.{{sfn\|Levy\|Emerson\|Bellingham\|Hiley\|2001\|loc\=§6\.1}} Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry\-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [St. Martial de Limoges](/wiki/Saint_Martial "Saint Martial"), in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German\-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the *custos*, placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [tenuto](/wiki/Tenuto "Tenuto"). Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [Shaker music](/wiki/Shaker_music "Shaker music") is notated.
[frame\|*[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis "Liber usualis")* in square notation (excerpt from the *Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)*)](/wiki/File:Gregorian_chant.gif "Gregorian chant.gif")
By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in *square notation* on a four\-line staff with a clef, as in the *Graduale Aboense* pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The [oriscus](/wiki/Oriscus "Oriscus"), [quilisma](/wiki/Quilisma "Quilisma"), and [liquescent](/wiki/Liquescent "Liquescent") neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of Dom {{ill\|Eugène Cardine\|fr}} (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.
B\-flat is indicated by a "b\-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b\-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B\-natural and serves to cancel the b\-mollum. This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.
|
[
"Musical form\n------------",
"### Melodic types",
"Gregorian chant is, as 'chant' implies, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called \"syllabic\" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. \"Neumatic\" chants are more embellished and [ligatures](/wiki/Ligature_%28music%29 \"Ligature (music)\"), a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [Melismatic](/wiki/Melisma \"Melisma\") chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismata.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|pp\\=85–88}}",
"{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg\\|title\\=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day\\|description\\=Example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}\nGregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [recitatives](/wiki/Recitative \"Recitative\") and free melodies.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=203}} The simplest kind of melody is the liturgical recitative. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the *[reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone \"Reciting tone\")*. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [incipits](/wiki/Incipit \"Incipit\"), partial [cadences](/wiki/Cadence \"Cadence\"), and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [Collect](/wiki/Collect \"Collect\") for [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978b\\|p\\=11}} Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [accentus](/wiki/Accentus_Ecclesiasticus \"Accentus Ecclesiasticus\") chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [Epistle](/wiki/Epistle \"Epistle\"), and [Gospel](/wiki/Gospel \"Gospel\") during the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\"), and in the direct [psalmody](/wiki/Psalmody \"Psalmody\") of the [Office](/wiki/Canonical_hours \"Canonical hours\").",
"Psalmodic chants, which intone [psalms](/wiki/Psalms \"Psalms\"), include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include *direct psalmody*, *antiphonal chants*, and *responsorial chants*.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|p\\=81}} In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.",
"[thumb\\|Antiphonary with Gregorian chants](/wiki/File:Evora06.jpg \"Evora06.jpg\")\n{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=Loquetur Dominus.ogg\\|title\\=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time\\|description\\=Example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant\n\\|filename2\\=De profundis.ogg\\|title2\\=''De profundis'', tract for the Requiem Mass\\|description2\\=Example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}\nAntiphonal chants such as the [Introit](/wiki/Introit \"Introit\"), and [Communion](/wiki/Communion_%28chant%29 \"Communion (chant)\") originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an *[antiphon](/wiki/Antiphon \"Antiphon\")*. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [doxology](/wiki/Doxology \"Doxology\"), or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie \"Kyrie\") and [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_Excelsis_Deo \"Gloria in Excelsis Deo\"), are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.",
"Responsorial chants such as the [Gradual](/wiki/Gradual \"Gradual\"), [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia \"Alleluia\"), [Offertory](/wiki/Offertory \"Offertory\"), and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a *respond* sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [Responsorial](/wiki/Responsory \"Responsory\") chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called *[centonization](/wiki/Centonization \"Centonization\")*. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized.",
"Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of the Eucharist. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|p\\=123}}",
"The non\\-psalmodic chants, including the [Ordinary of the Mass](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass \"Ordinary of the Mass\"), [sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 \"Sequence (poetry)\"), and [hymns](/wiki/Hymn \"Hymn\"), were originally intended for congregational singing.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|p\\=131}} The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.",
"### Modality",
"{{Main\\|Mode (music)}}\nEarly plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [diatonic scale](/wiki/Diatonic_scale \"Diatonic scale\"). Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [Enchiriadis](/wiki/Musica_enchiriadis \"Musica enchiriadis\") group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone\\-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F{{music\\|\\#}}, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b\\-flat was first described by [Hucbald](/wiki/Hucbald \"Hucbald\"), who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.",
"Around 1025, [Guido d'Arezzo](/wiki/Guido_d%27Arezzo \"Guido d'Arezzo\") revolutionized Western music with the development of the *gamut*, in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [hexachords](/wiki/Hexachord \"Hexachord\"). Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C\\-D\\-E^F\\-G\\-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B\\-flat, F\\-G\\-A^B{{music\\|b}}\\-C\\-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B\\-natural, G\\-A\\-B^C\\-D\\-E). The B\\-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [accidental](/wiki/Accidental_%28music%29 \"Accidental (music)\"). The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [musica ficta](/wiki/Musica_ficta \"Musica ficta\").",
"Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [modes](/wiki/Mode_%28music%29 \"Mode (music)\"), influenced by the eightfold division of [Byzantine chants](/wiki/Byzantine_chant \"Byzantine chant\") called the *[oktoechos](/wiki/Oktoechos \"Oktoechos\")*.{{sfn\\|Wilson\\|1990\\|p\\=11}} Each mode is distinguished by its *final*, *dominant*, and *ambitus*. The *final* is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The *dominant* is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone \"Reciting tone\") in the melody. *[Ambitus](/wiki/Ambitus_%28music%29 \"Ambitus (music)\")* refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as *plagal*, while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as *authentic*. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|pp\\=64–65}} The existent pseudo\\-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix \"[hypo\\-](/wiki/wikt:Hypo- \"Hypo-\")\" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.",
"Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [Dorian](/wiki/Dorian_mode \"Dorian mode\") and [Hypodorian](/wiki/Hypodorian_mode \"Hypodorian mode\").\nModes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [Phrygian](/wiki/Phrygian_mode \"Phrygian mode\") and [Hypophrygian](/wiki/Hypophrygian_mode \"Hypophrygian mode\").\nModes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [Lydian](/wiki/Lydian_mode \"Lydian mode\") and [Hypolydian](/wiki/Hypolydian_mode \"Hypolydian mode\").\nModes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [Mixolydian](/wiki/Mixolydian_mode \"Mixolydian mode\") and [Hypomixolydian](/wiki/Hypomixolydian_mode \"Hypomixolydian mode\").\nAlthough the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [Aeolian](/wiki/Aeolian_mode \"Aeolian mode\"), [Locrian](/wiki/Locrian_mode \"Locrian mode\"), and [Ionian](/wiki/Ionian_mode \"Ionian mode\"), these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [transpositions](/wiki/Transposition_%28music%29 \"Transposition (music)\") of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.",
"Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the psalm verses that are sung between the repetition of antiphons, or the Gloria Patri. Thus we find models for the recitation of psalmverses, Alleluia and Gloria Patri for all eight modes.{{sfn\\|Hoppin\\|1978a\\|p\\=82}}",
"Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants – especially from German sources – whose [neumes](/wiki/Neume \"Neume\") suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system, or in other words, employing a form of [chromaticism](/wiki/Chromaticism \"Chromaticism\").{{sfn\\|Wilson\\|1990\\|p\\=22}} Early Gregorian chant, like Ambrosian and Old Roman chant, whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=166–178}}{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=454}} The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th\\-century [Cistercian](/wiki/Cistercian \"Cistercian\") reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismata trimmed, B\\-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|pp\\=608–610}} Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants – notably Communions – defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion *Circuibo* was transcribed using a different mode in each.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=171–172}}",
"### Musical idiom",
"Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [stepwise](/wiki/Steps_and_skips \"Steps and skips\"). Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as Ambrosian chant or Beneventan chant. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D\\-F\\-G\\-A\\-C.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=256–257}}\\> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F\\-A\\-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.{{sfn\\|Wilson\\|1990\\|p\\=21}} Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [Offertories](/wiki/Offertory \"Offertory\"); in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie \"Kyrie\") and [Agnus Dei](/wiki/Agnus_Dei_%28music%29 \"Agnus Dei (music)\"); and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_excelsis_Deo \"Gloria in excelsis Deo\"), and the [Credo](/wiki/Credo \"Credo\").{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=258–259}}",
"Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [centonized](/wiki/Centonization \"Centonization\") to create [Graduals](/wiki/Gradual \"Gradual\") and [Tracts](/wiki/Tract_%28liturgy%29 \"Tract (liturgy)\") follow a musical \"grammar\" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the *[Iustus ut palma](/wiki/Iustus_ut_palma \"Iustus ut palma\")* family of Graduals.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|pp\\=344–363}} Several [Introits](/wiki/Introit \"Introit\") in mode 3, including *Loquetur Dominus* above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|pp\\=110–113}} Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.",
"### Notation",
"[thumb\\|Offertory *Iubilate deo universa terra* in unheightened neume](/wiki/File:Neume2.jpg \"Neume2.jpg\"){{Main\\|Neume}}\nThe earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written {{Circa\\|950\\|lk\\=no}}) used symbols called *[neumes](/wiki/Neume \"Neume\")* (Gr. sign, of the hand) to indicate tone\\-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone\\-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.\nScholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy \"Cheironomy\") hand\\-gestures, the [ekphonetic](/wiki/Ekphonetic \"Ekphonetic\") notation of [Byzantine chant](/wiki/Byzantine_chant \"Byzantine chant\"), punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.{{sfn\\|Levy\\|Emerson\\|Bellingham\\|Hiley\\|2001\\|loc\\=§6\\.1}} Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry\\-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [St. Martial de Limoges](/wiki/Saint_Martial \"Saint Martial\"), in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German\\-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the *custos*, placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter \"t\" to indicate a [tenuto](/wiki/Tenuto \"Tenuto\"). Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [Shaker music](/wiki/Shaker_music \"Shaker music\") is notated.",
"[frame\\|*[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis \"Liber usualis\")* in square notation (excerpt from the *Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)*)](/wiki/File:Gregorian_chant.gif \"Gregorian chant.gif\")\nBy the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in *square notation* on a four\\-line staff with a clef, as in the *Graduale Aboense* pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The [oriscus](/wiki/Oriscus \"Oriscus\"), [quilisma](/wiki/Quilisma \"Quilisma\"), and [liquescent](/wiki/Liquescent \"Liquescent\") neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of Dom {{ill\\|Eugène Cardine\\|fr}} (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.\nB\\-flat is indicated by a \"b\\-mollum\" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the \"Kyrie\" to the right. When necessary, a \"b\\-durum\" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B\\-natural and serves to cancel the b\\-mollum. This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.",
""
] |
Performance
-----------
### Texture
Gregorian chant was originally used for singing the [Office](/wiki/Canonical_hours "Canonical hours") (by male and female religious) and for singing the parts of the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)") pertaining to the lay faithful (male and female), the celebrant (priest, always male) and the choir (composed of male ordained clergy, except in convents). Outside the larger cities, the number of available clergy dropped, and lay men started singing these parts. The choir was considered an official liturgical duty reserved to clergy, so women were not allowed to sing in the *[Schola Cantorum](/wiki/Schola_Cantorum_%28disambiguation%29 "Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)")* or other choirs except in [convents](/wiki/Convent "Convent") where women were permitted to sing the Office and the parts of the Mass pertaining to the choir as a function of their consecrated life.{{sfn\|Neuls\-Bates\|1996\|p\=3}}
Chant was normally sung in unison. Later innovations included *[tropes](/wiki/Trope_%28music%29 "Trope (music)")*, which is a new text sung to the same melodic phrases in a melismatic chant (repeating an entire Alleluia\-melody on a new text for instance, or repeating a full phrase with a new text that comments on the previously sung text) and various forms of *[organum](/wiki/Organum "Organum")*, (improvised) harmonic embellishment of chant melodies focusing on octaves, fifths, fourths, and, later, thirds. Neither tropes nor organum, however, belong to the chant repertory proper. The main exception to this is the sequence, whose origins lay in troping the extended [melisma](/wiki/Melisma "Melisma") of [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia "Alleluia") chants known as the [jubilus](/wiki/Jubilus "Jubilus"), but the sequences, like the tropes, were later officially suppressed. The [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent "Council of Trent") struck sequences from the Gregorian corpus, except those for [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter"), [Pentecost](/wiki/Pentecost "Pentecost"), [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 "Corpus Christi (feast)") and [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day "All Souls' Day").
Not much is known about the particular vocal stylings or performance practices used for Gregorian chant in the Middle Ages. On occasion, the clergy was urged to have their singers perform with more restraint and piety. This suggests that virtuosic performances occurred, contrary to the modern stereotype of Gregorian chant as slow\-moving mood music. This tension between musicality and piety goes far back; [Gregory the Great](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I "Pope Gregory I") himself criticized the practice of promoting clerics based on their charming singing rather than their preaching.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=504}} However, [Odo of Cluny](/wiki/Odo_of_Cluny "Odo of Cluny"), a renowned monastic reformer, praised the intellectual and musical virtuosity to be found in chant:
{{blockquote\|For in these \[Offertories and Communions] there are the most varied kinds of ascent, descent, repeat..., delight for the ''cognoscenti'', difficulty for the beginners, and an admirable organization... that widely differs from other chants; they are not so much made according to the rules of music... but rather evince the authority and validity... of music.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=312}}}}
True antiphonal performance by two alternating choruses still occurs, as in certain German monasteries. However, antiphonal chants are generally performed in responsorial style by a solo cantor alternating with a chorus. This practice appears to have begun in the Middle Ages.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=197}} Another medieval innovation had the solo cantor sing the opening words of responsorial chants, with the full chorus finishing the end of the opening phrase. This innovation allowed the soloist to fix the pitch of the chant for the chorus and to cue the choral entrance.
### Rhythm
Given the oral teaching tradition of Gregorian chant, modern reconstruction of intended rhythm from the written notation of Gregorian chant has always been a source of debate among modern scholars. To complicate matters further, many ornamental neumes used in the earliest manuscripts pose difficulties on the interpretation of rhythm. Certain neumes such as the *pressus*, pes quassus, strophic neumes may indicate repeated notes, lengthening by repercussion, in some cases with added ornaments. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, most chant was sung with an approximately equal duration allotted to each note, although [Jerome of Moravia](/wiki/Jerome_of_Moravia "Jerome of Moravia") cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1990\|p\=44}}
While the standard repertory of Gregorian Chant was partly being supplanted by new forms of polyphony, the earlier melo\-rhythmic refinements of monophonic chant seem to have fallen into disuse. Later redactions such as the *Editio medicaea* of 1614 rewrote chant so that melismata, with their melodic accent, fell on accented syllables.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=289}} This aesthetic held sway until the re\-examination of chant in the late 19th century by such scholars as {{ill\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\|de\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\|lt\=Peter Wagner}}, [Pothier](/wiki/Joseph_Pothier "Joseph Pothier"), and [Mocquereau](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mocquereau "André Mocquereau"), who fell into two camps.
One school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, advocated imposing rhythmic meters on chants, although they disagreed on how that should be done. An opposing interpretation, represented by Pothier and Mocquereau, supported a free rhythm of equal note values, although some notes are lengthened for textual emphasis or musical effect. The modern Solesmes editions of Gregorian chant follow this interpretation. Mocquereau divided melodies into two\- and three\-note phrases, each beginning with an *ictus*, akin to a beat, notated in chantbooks as a small vertical mark. These basic melodic units combined into larger phrases through a complex system expressed by [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy "Cheironomy") hand\-gestures.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=127}} This approach prevailed during the twentieth century, propagated by [Justine Ward](/wiki/Justine_Ward "Justine Ward")'s program of music education for children, until the liturgical role of chant was diminished after the liturgical reforms of [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI "Pope Paul VI"), and new scholarship "essentially discredited" Mocquereau's rhythmic theories.{{sfn\|Dyer\|2001\|loc\=§VI.1}}
Common modern practice favors performing Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, largely for aesthetic reasons.{{sfn\|Mahrt\|2000\|p\=18}} The text determines the accent while the melodic contour determines the [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing "Musical phrasing"). The note lengthenings recommended by the Solesmes school remain influential, though not prescriptive.
Dom {{ill\|Eugène Cardine\|fr}} (1905–1988\), a monk from Solesmes, published his 'Semiologie Gregorienne' in 1970 in which he clearly explains the musical significance of the neumes of the early chant manuscripts. Cardine shows the great diversity of neumes and graphic variations of the basic shape of a particular neume, which can not be expressed in the square notation. This variety in notation must have served a practical purpose and therefore a musical significance. Nine years later, the *Graduale Triplex* was published, in which the Roman Gradual, containing all the chants for Mass in a Year's cycle, appeared with the neumes of the two most important manuscripts copied under and over the 4\-line staff of the square notation. The *Graduale Triplex* made widely accessible the original notation of Sankt Gallen and Laon (compiled after 930 AD) in a single chantbook and was a huge step forward. Dom Cardine had many students who have each in their own way continued their semiological studies, some of whom also started experimenting in applying the newly understood principles in performance practice.
The studies of Cardine and his students (Godehard Joppich, Luigi Augustoni, Johannes B. Göschl, Marie\-Noël Colette, Rupert Fischer, Marie\-Claire Billecocq, [Alexander M. Schweitzer](/wiki/Alexander_M._Schweitzer "Alexander M. Schweitzer") to name a few) have clearly demonstrated that rhythm in Gregorian chant as notated in the 10th century rhythmic manuscripts (notably Sankt Gallen and Laon) manifest such rhythmic diversity and melodic – rhythmic ornamentations for which there is hardly a living performance tradition in the Western world. Contemporary groups that endeavour to sing according to the manuscript traditions have evolved after 1975\. Some practising researchers favour a closer look at non\-Western (liturgical) traditions, in such cultures where the tradition of modal monophony was never abandoned.
Another group with different views are the mensuralists or the proportionalists, who maintain that rhythm has to be interpreted proportionately, where shorts are exactly half the longs. This school of interpretation claims the support of historical authorities such as St Augustine, Remigius, Guido and Aribo.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\.html \|title\=The symbolism of chant rhythm \|publisher\=Calumcille.com \|access\-date\=2012\-06\-06 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315074741/http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\.html \|archive\-date\=15 March 2012 }} This view is advocated by John Blackley and his 'Schola Antiqua New York'.
Recent research in the Netherlands by Dr. Dirk van Kampen has indicated that the authentic rhythm of Gregorian chant in the 10th century includes both proportional elements and elements that are in agreement with semiology.van Kampen, Dirk (1994\). *Het oorspronkelijke ritme van het Gregoriaans: Een 'semiologisch\-mensuralistische' studie*. Landsmeer, {{ISBN\|90\-900742\-8\-7}}. (in Dutch){{cite journal \| last1 \= van Kampen \| first1 \= Dirk \| year \= 2005 \| title \= Uitgangspunten voor de ritmiek van Gregoriaans \| journal \= Tijdschrift voor Gregoriaans\|language\=nl\| volume \= 30 \| pages \= 89–94 }} Starting with the expectation that the rhythm of Gregorian chant (and thus the duration of the individual notes) anyway adds to the expressivity of the sacred Latin texts, several word\-related variables were studied for their relationship with several neume\-related variables, exploring these relationships in a sample of introit chants using such statistical methods as correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis.
Beside the length of the syllables (measured in tenths of seconds), each text syllable was evaluated in terms of its position within the word to which it belongs, defining such variables as "the syllable has or has not the main accent", "the syllable is or is not at the end of a word", etc., and in terms of the particular sounds produced (for instance, the syllable contains the vowel "i"). The various neume elements were evaluated by attaching different duration values to them, both in terms of semiological propositions (nuanced durations according to the manner of neume writing in Chris Hakkennes' *Graduale Lagal*Chris Hakkennes (1984\). *Graduale Lagal*. Den Haag: Stichting Centrum voor de Kerkzang.), and in terms of fixed duration values that were based on mensuralistic notions, however with ratios between short and long notes ranging from 1 : 1, via 1 : 1\.2, 1 : 1\.4, etc. to 1 : 3\. To distinguish short and long notes, tables were consulted that were established by Van Kampen in an unpublished comparative study regarding the neume notations according to Sankt Gallen and Laon codices. With some exceptions, these tables confirm the short vs. long distinctions in Cardine's 'Semiologie Gregorienne'.
The lengths of the neumes were given values by adding up the duration values for the separate neume elements, each time following a particular hypothesis concerning the rhythm of Gregoriant chant. Both the syllable lengths and the neume lengths were also expressed in relation to the total duration of the syllables, resp. neumes for a word (contextual variables). Correlating the various word and neume variables, substantial correlations were found for the word variables 'accented syllable' and 'contextual syllable duration'. Moreover, it could be established that the multiple correlation (*R*) between the two types of variables reaches its maximum (*R* is about 0\.80\) if the neumatic elements are evaluated according to the following rules of duration: (a) neume elements that represent short notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 1 time; (b) neume elements that represent long notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 2 times; (c) neumes consisting of only one note are characterized by flexible duration values (with an average value of 2 times), which take over the duration values of the syllables to match.
The distinction between the first two rules and the latter rule can also be found in early treatises on music, introducing the terms *metrum* and *rhythmus*.{{ill\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\|de\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\|lt\=Peter Wagner}} (1916\). "Zur ursprünglichen Ausführung des Gregorianischen Gesanges". *Gregoriusblatt*, 81–82\. (in German){{cite journal \| last1 \= Jeannin \| first1 \= J. \| year \= 1930 \| title \= Proportionale Dauerwerte oder einfache Schattierungen im Gregorianischen Choral? \| journal \= Gregoriusblatt\|language\=de\| volume \= 54 \| pages \= 129–135 }} As it could also be demonstrated by Van Kampen that melodic peaks often coincide with the word accent (see also),G. Reese (1940\). *Music in the Middle Ages*. New York: Norton \& Comp., p. 166\. the conclusion seems warranted that the Gregorian melodies enhance the expressiveness of the Latin words by mimicking to some extent both the accentuation of the sacred words (pitch differences between neumes) and the relative duration of the word syllables (by paying attention to well\-defined length differences between the individual notes of a neume).
During the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries in France, the system of rhythmic notation became standardized, with printers and editors of chant books employing only four rhythmic values. Recent research by Christopher Holman indicates that chants whose texts are in a regular meter could even be altered to be performed in [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature "Time signature").{{Cite journal\|last\=Holman\|first\=Christopher\|date\=November 2017\|title\=Rhythm and metre in French Classical plainchant\|url\=https://academic.oup.com/em/article\-abstract/45/4/657/4781684\|journal\=Early Music\|volume\=45, vol. 4\|issue\=4\|pages\=657–664\|doi\=10\.1093/em/cax087}}
### Melodic restitution
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=October 2010}}
Recent developments involve an intensifying of the semiological approach according to Dom Cardine, which also gave a new impetus to the research into melodic variants in various manuscripts of chant. On the basis of this ongoing research it has become obvious that the Graduale and other chantbooks contain many melodic errors, some very consistently, (the mis\-interpretation of third and eighth mode) necessitating a new edition of the Graduale according to state\-of\-the\-art [melodic restitutions](/wiki/Melodic_restitution "Melodic restitution"). Since the 1970 a melodic restitution group of AISCGre (International Society for the Study of Gregorian Chant) has worked on an "editio magis critica" as requested by the 2\. Vatican Council Constitution "Sacrosanctum Concilium". As a response to this need and following the Holy See's invitation to edit a more critical edition, in 2011 the first volume "De Dominicis et Festis" of the *Graduale Novum Editio Magis Critica Iuxta SC 117* was published by Libreria Editrice Vatican and ConBrio Verlagsgesellschaft, Regensburg.
In this approach the so\-called earlier 'rhythmic' manuscripts of unheightened neumes that carry a wealth of melo\-rhythmic information but not of exact pitches, are compared in large tables of comparison with relevant later 'melodic' manuscripts' that are written on lines or use double alphabetic and neumes notation over the text, but as a rule have less rhythmic refinement compared to the earlier group. However, the comparison between the two groups has made it possible to correct what are obvious mistakes. In other instances it is not so easy to find a consensus. In 1984 Chris Hakkennes published his own transcription of the *Graduale Triplex*. He devised a new graphic adaptation of square notation 'simplex' in which he integrated the rhythmic indications of the two most relevant sources, that of Laon and Sankt Gallen.
Referring to these manuscripts, he called his own transcription Gradual Lagal. Furthermore, while making the transcription, he cross\-checked with the melodic manuscripts to correct modal errors or other melodic errors found in the Graduale Romanum. His intention was to provide a corrected melody in rhythmic notation but above all – he was also a choirmaster – suited for practical use, therefore a simplex, integrated notation. Although fully admitting the importance of Hakkennes' melodic revisions, the rhythmical solution suggested in the *Graduale Lagal* was actually found by Van Kampen (see above) to be rather modestly related to the text of the chant.
|
[
"Performance\n-----------",
"### Texture",
"Gregorian chant was originally used for singing the [Office](/wiki/Canonical_hours \"Canonical hours\") (by male and female religious) and for singing the parts of the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\") pertaining to the lay faithful (male and female), the celebrant (priest, always male) and the choir (composed of male ordained clergy, except in convents). Outside the larger cities, the number of available clergy dropped, and lay men started singing these parts. The choir was considered an official liturgical duty reserved to clergy, so women were not allowed to sing in the *[Schola Cantorum](/wiki/Schola_Cantorum_%28disambiguation%29 \"Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)\")* or other choirs except in [convents](/wiki/Convent \"Convent\") where women were permitted to sing the Office and the parts of the Mass pertaining to the choir as a function of their consecrated life.{{sfn\\|Neuls\\-Bates\\|1996\\|p\\=3}}",
"Chant was normally sung in unison. Later innovations included *[tropes](/wiki/Trope_%28music%29 \"Trope (music)\")*, which is a new text sung to the same melodic phrases in a melismatic chant (repeating an entire Alleluia\\-melody on a new text for instance, or repeating a full phrase with a new text that comments on the previously sung text) and various forms of *[organum](/wiki/Organum \"Organum\")*, (improvised) harmonic embellishment of chant melodies focusing on octaves, fifths, fourths, and, later, thirds. Neither tropes nor organum, however, belong to the chant repertory proper. The main exception to this is the sequence, whose origins lay in troping the extended [melisma](/wiki/Melisma \"Melisma\") of [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia \"Alleluia\") chants known as the [jubilus](/wiki/Jubilus \"Jubilus\"), but the sequences, like the tropes, were later officially suppressed. The [Council of Trent](/wiki/Council_of_Trent \"Council of Trent\") struck sequences from the Gregorian corpus, except those for [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\"), [Pentecost](/wiki/Pentecost \"Pentecost\"), [Corpus Christi](/wiki/Corpus_Christi_%28feast%29 \"Corpus Christi (feast)\") and [All Souls' Day](/wiki/All_Souls%27_Day \"All Souls' Day\").",
"Not much is known about the particular vocal stylings or performance practices used for Gregorian chant in the Middle Ages. On occasion, the clergy was urged to have their singers perform with more restraint and piety. This suggests that virtuosic performances occurred, contrary to the modern stereotype of Gregorian chant as slow\\-moving mood music. This tension between musicality and piety goes far back; [Gregory the Great](/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I \"Pope Gregory I\") himself criticized the practice of promoting clerics based on their charming singing rather than their preaching.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=504}} However, [Odo of Cluny](/wiki/Odo_of_Cluny \"Odo of Cluny\"), a renowned monastic reformer, praised the intellectual and musical virtuosity to be found in chant:",
"{{blockquote\\|For in these \\[Offertories and Communions] there are the most varied kinds of ascent, descent, repeat..., delight for the ''cognoscenti'', difficulty for the beginners, and an admirable organization... that widely differs from other chants; they are not so much made according to the rules of music... but rather evince the authority and validity... of music.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=312}}}}",
"True antiphonal performance by two alternating choruses still occurs, as in certain German monasteries. However, antiphonal chants are generally performed in responsorial style by a solo cantor alternating with a chorus. This practice appears to have begun in the Middle Ages.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=197}} Another medieval innovation had the solo cantor sing the opening words of responsorial chants, with the full chorus finishing the end of the opening phrase. This innovation allowed the soloist to fix the pitch of the chant for the chorus and to cue the choral entrance.",
"### Rhythm",
"Given the oral teaching tradition of Gregorian chant, modern reconstruction of intended rhythm from the written notation of Gregorian chant has always been a source of debate among modern scholars. To complicate matters further, many ornamental neumes used in the earliest manuscripts pose difficulties on the interpretation of rhythm. Certain neumes such as the *pressus*, pes quassus, strophic neumes may indicate repeated notes, lengthening by repercussion, in some cases with added ornaments. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, most chant was sung with an approximately equal duration allotted to each note, although [Jerome of Moravia](/wiki/Jerome_of_Moravia \"Jerome of Moravia\") cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1990\\|p\\=44}}",
"While the standard repertory of Gregorian Chant was partly being supplanted by new forms of polyphony, the earlier melo\\-rhythmic refinements of monophonic chant seem to have fallen into disuse. Later redactions such as the *Editio medicaea* of 1614 rewrote chant so that melismata, with their melodic accent, fell on accented syllables.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=289}} This aesthetic held sway until the re\\-examination of chant in the late 19th century by such scholars as {{ill\\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\\|de\\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\\|lt\\=Peter Wagner}}, [Pothier](/wiki/Joseph_Pothier \"Joseph Pothier\"), and [Mocquereau](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mocquereau \"André Mocquereau\"), who fell into two camps.",
"One school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, advocated imposing rhythmic meters on chants, although they disagreed on how that should be done. An opposing interpretation, represented by Pothier and Mocquereau, supported a free rhythm of equal note values, although some notes are lengthened for textual emphasis or musical effect. The modern Solesmes editions of Gregorian chant follow this interpretation. Mocquereau divided melodies into two\\- and three\\-note phrases, each beginning with an *ictus*, akin to a beat, notated in chantbooks as a small vertical mark. These basic melodic units combined into larger phrases through a complex system expressed by [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy \"Cheironomy\") hand\\-gestures.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=127}} This approach prevailed during the twentieth century, propagated by [Justine Ward](/wiki/Justine_Ward \"Justine Ward\")'s program of music education for children, until the liturgical role of chant was diminished after the liturgical reforms of [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI \"Pope Paul VI\"), and new scholarship \"essentially discredited\" Mocquereau's rhythmic theories.{{sfn\\|Dyer\\|2001\\|loc\\=§VI.1}}",
"Common modern practice favors performing Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, largely for aesthetic reasons.{{sfn\\|Mahrt\\|2000\\|p\\=18}} The text determines the accent while the melodic contour determines the [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing \"Musical phrasing\"). The note lengthenings recommended by the Solesmes school remain influential, though not prescriptive.",
"Dom {{ill\\|Eugène Cardine\\|fr}} (1905–1988\\), a monk from Solesmes, published his 'Semiologie Gregorienne' in 1970 in which he clearly explains the musical significance of the neumes of the early chant manuscripts. Cardine shows the great diversity of neumes and graphic variations of the basic shape of a particular neume, which can not be expressed in the square notation. This variety in notation must have served a practical purpose and therefore a musical significance. Nine years later, the *Graduale Triplex* was published, in which the Roman Gradual, containing all the chants for Mass in a Year's cycle, appeared with the neumes of the two most important manuscripts copied under and over the 4\\-line staff of the square notation. The *Graduale Triplex* made widely accessible the original notation of Sankt Gallen and Laon (compiled after 930 AD) in a single chantbook and was a huge step forward. Dom Cardine had many students who have each in their own way continued their semiological studies, some of whom also started experimenting in applying the newly understood principles in performance practice.",
"The studies of Cardine and his students (Godehard Joppich, Luigi Augustoni, Johannes B. Göschl, Marie\\-Noël Colette, Rupert Fischer, Marie\\-Claire Billecocq, [Alexander M. Schweitzer](/wiki/Alexander_M._Schweitzer \"Alexander M. Schweitzer\") to name a few) have clearly demonstrated that rhythm in Gregorian chant as notated in the 10th century rhythmic manuscripts (notably Sankt Gallen and Laon) manifest such rhythmic diversity and melodic – rhythmic ornamentations for which there is hardly a living performance tradition in the Western world. Contemporary groups that endeavour to sing according to the manuscript traditions have evolved after 1975\\. Some practising researchers favour a closer look at non\\-Western (liturgical) traditions, in such cultures where the tradition of modal monophony was never abandoned.",
"Another group with different views are the mensuralists or the proportionalists, who maintain that rhythm has to be interpreted proportionately, where shorts are exactly half the longs. This school of interpretation claims the support of historical authorities such as St Augustine, Remigius, Guido and Aribo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\\.html \\|title\\=The symbolism of chant rhythm \\|publisher\\=Calumcille.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-06 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315074741/http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2012 }} This view is advocated by John Blackley and his 'Schola Antiqua New York'.",
"Recent research in the Netherlands by Dr. Dirk van Kampen has indicated that the authentic rhythm of Gregorian chant in the 10th century includes both proportional elements and elements that are in agreement with semiology.van Kampen, Dirk (1994\\). *Het oorspronkelijke ritme van het Gregoriaans: Een 'semiologisch\\-mensuralistische' studie*. Landsmeer, {{ISBN\\|90\\-900742\\-8\\-7}}. (in Dutch){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= van Kampen \\| first1 \\= Dirk \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= Uitgangspunten voor de ritmiek van Gregoriaans \\| journal \\= Tijdschrift voor Gregoriaans\\|language\\=nl\\| volume \\= 30 \\| pages \\= 89–94 }} Starting with the expectation that the rhythm of Gregorian chant (and thus the duration of the individual notes) anyway adds to the expressivity of the sacred Latin texts, several word\\-related variables were studied for their relationship with several neume\\-related variables, exploring these relationships in a sample of introit chants using such statistical methods as correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis.",
"Beside the length of the syllables (measured in tenths of seconds), each text syllable was evaluated in terms of its position within the word to which it belongs, defining such variables as \"the syllable has or has not the main accent\", \"the syllable is or is not at the end of a word\", etc., and in terms of the particular sounds produced (for instance, the syllable contains the vowel \"i\"). The various neume elements were evaluated by attaching different duration values to them, both in terms of semiological propositions (nuanced durations according to the manner of neume writing in Chris Hakkennes' *Graduale Lagal*Chris Hakkennes (1984\\). *Graduale Lagal*. Den Haag: Stichting Centrum voor de Kerkzang.), and in terms of fixed duration values that were based on mensuralistic notions, however with ratios between short and long notes ranging from 1 : 1, via 1 : 1\\.2, 1 : 1\\.4, etc. to 1 : 3\\. To distinguish short and long notes, tables were consulted that were established by Van Kampen in an unpublished comparative study regarding the neume notations according to Sankt Gallen and Laon codices. With some exceptions, these tables confirm the short vs. long distinctions in Cardine's 'Semiologie Gregorienne'.",
"The lengths of the neumes were given values by adding up the duration values for the separate neume elements, each time following a particular hypothesis concerning the rhythm of Gregoriant chant. Both the syllable lengths and the neume lengths were also expressed in relation to the total duration of the syllables, resp. neumes for a word (contextual variables). Correlating the various word and neume variables, substantial correlations were found for the word variables 'accented syllable' and 'contextual syllable duration'. Moreover, it could be established that the multiple correlation (*R*) between the two types of variables reaches its maximum (*R* is about 0\\.80\\) if the neumatic elements are evaluated according to the following rules of duration: (a) neume elements that represent short notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 1 time; (b) neume elements that represent long notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 2 times; (c) neumes consisting of only one note are characterized by flexible duration values (with an average value of 2 times), which take over the duration values of the syllables to match.",
"The distinction between the first two rules and the latter rule can also be found in early treatises on music, introducing the terms *metrum* and *rhythmus*.{{ill\\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\\|de\\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\\|lt\\=Peter Wagner}} (1916\\). \"Zur ursprünglichen Ausführung des Gregorianischen Gesanges\". *Gregoriusblatt*, 81–82\\. (in German){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Jeannin \\| first1 \\= J. \\| year \\= 1930 \\| title \\= Proportionale Dauerwerte oder einfache Schattierungen im Gregorianischen Choral? \\| journal \\= Gregoriusblatt\\|language\\=de\\| volume \\= 54 \\| pages \\= 129–135 }} As it could also be demonstrated by Van Kampen that melodic peaks often coincide with the word accent (see also),G. Reese (1940\\). *Music in the Middle Ages*. New York: Norton \\& Comp., p. 166\\. the conclusion seems warranted that the Gregorian melodies enhance the expressiveness of the Latin words by mimicking to some extent both the accentuation of the sacred words (pitch differences between neumes) and the relative duration of the word syllables (by paying attention to well\\-defined length differences between the individual notes of a neume).",
"During the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries in France, the system of rhythmic notation became standardized, with printers and editors of chant books employing only four rhythmic values. Recent research by Christopher Holman indicates that chants whose texts are in a regular meter could even be altered to be performed in [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature \"Time signature\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Holman\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=November 2017\\|title\\=Rhythm and metre in French Classical plainchant\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/em/article\\-abstract/45/4/657/4781684\\|journal\\=Early Music\\|volume\\=45, vol. 4\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=657–664\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/em/cax087}}",
"### Melodic restitution",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2010}}\nRecent developments involve an intensifying of the semiological approach according to Dom Cardine, which also gave a new impetus to the research into melodic variants in various manuscripts of chant. On the basis of this ongoing research it has become obvious that the Graduale and other chantbooks contain many melodic errors, some very consistently, (the mis\\-interpretation of third and eighth mode) necessitating a new edition of the Graduale according to state\\-of\\-the\\-art [melodic restitutions](/wiki/Melodic_restitution \"Melodic restitution\"). Since the 1970 a melodic restitution group of AISCGre (International Society for the Study of Gregorian Chant) has worked on an \"editio magis critica\" as requested by the 2\\. Vatican Council Constitution \"Sacrosanctum Concilium\". As a response to this need and following the Holy See's invitation to edit a more critical edition, in 2011 the first volume \"De Dominicis et Festis\" of the *Graduale Novum Editio Magis Critica Iuxta SC 117* was published by Libreria Editrice Vatican and ConBrio Verlagsgesellschaft, Regensburg.",
"In this approach the so\\-called earlier 'rhythmic' manuscripts of unheightened neumes that carry a wealth of melo\\-rhythmic information but not of exact pitches, are compared in large tables of comparison with relevant later 'melodic' manuscripts' that are written on lines or use double alphabetic and neumes notation over the text, but as a rule have less rhythmic refinement compared to the earlier group. However, the comparison between the two groups has made it possible to correct what are obvious mistakes. In other instances it is not so easy to find a consensus. In 1984 Chris Hakkennes published his own transcription of the *Graduale Triplex*. He devised a new graphic adaptation of square notation 'simplex' in which he integrated the rhythmic indications of the two most relevant sources, that of Laon and Sankt Gallen.",
"Referring to these manuscripts, he called his own transcription Gradual Lagal. Furthermore, while making the transcription, he cross\\-checked with the melodic manuscripts to correct modal errors or other melodic errors found in the Graduale Romanum. His intention was to provide a corrected melody in rhythmic notation but above all – he was also a choirmaster – suited for practical use, therefore a simplex, integrated notation. Although fully admitting the importance of Hakkennes' melodic revisions, the rhythmical solution suggested in the *Graduale Lagal* was actually found by Van Kampen (see above) to be rather modestly related to the text of the chant.",
""
] |
### Rhythm
Given the oral teaching tradition of Gregorian chant, modern reconstruction of intended rhythm from the written notation of Gregorian chant has always been a source of debate among modern scholars. To complicate matters further, many ornamental neumes used in the earliest manuscripts pose difficulties on the interpretation of rhythm. Certain neumes such as the *pressus*, pes quassus, strophic neumes may indicate repeated notes, lengthening by repercussion, in some cases with added ornaments. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, most chant was sung with an approximately equal duration allotted to each note, although [Jerome of Moravia](/wiki/Jerome_of_Moravia "Jerome of Moravia") cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1990\|p\=44}}
While the standard repertory of Gregorian Chant was partly being supplanted by new forms of polyphony, the earlier melo\-rhythmic refinements of monophonic chant seem to have fallen into disuse. Later redactions such as the *Editio medicaea* of 1614 rewrote chant so that melismata, with their melodic accent, fell on accented syllables.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=289}} This aesthetic held sway until the re\-examination of chant in the late 19th century by such scholars as {{ill\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\|de\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\|lt\=Peter Wagner}}, [Pothier](/wiki/Joseph_Pothier "Joseph Pothier"), and [Mocquereau](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mocquereau "André Mocquereau"), who fell into two camps.
One school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, advocated imposing rhythmic meters on chants, although they disagreed on how that should be done. An opposing interpretation, represented by Pothier and Mocquereau, supported a free rhythm of equal note values, although some notes are lengthened for textual emphasis or musical effect. The modern Solesmes editions of Gregorian chant follow this interpretation. Mocquereau divided melodies into two\- and three\-note phrases, each beginning with an *ictus*, akin to a beat, notated in chantbooks as a small vertical mark. These basic melodic units combined into larger phrases through a complex system expressed by [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy "Cheironomy") hand\-gestures.{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=127}} This approach prevailed during the twentieth century, propagated by [Justine Ward](/wiki/Justine_Ward "Justine Ward")'s program of music education for children, until the liturgical role of chant was diminished after the liturgical reforms of [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI "Pope Paul VI"), and new scholarship "essentially discredited" Mocquereau's rhythmic theories.{{sfn\|Dyer\|2001\|loc\=§VI.1}}
Common modern practice favors performing Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, largely for aesthetic reasons.{{sfn\|Mahrt\|2000\|p\=18}} The text determines the accent while the melodic contour determines the [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing "Musical phrasing"). The note lengthenings recommended by the Solesmes school remain influential, though not prescriptive.
Dom {{ill\|Eugène Cardine\|fr}} (1905–1988\), a monk from Solesmes, published his 'Semiologie Gregorienne' in 1970 in which he clearly explains the musical significance of the neumes of the early chant manuscripts. Cardine shows the great diversity of neumes and graphic variations of the basic shape of a particular neume, which can not be expressed in the square notation. This variety in notation must have served a practical purpose and therefore a musical significance. Nine years later, the *Graduale Triplex* was published, in which the Roman Gradual, containing all the chants for Mass in a Year's cycle, appeared with the neumes of the two most important manuscripts copied under and over the 4\-line staff of the square notation. The *Graduale Triplex* made widely accessible the original notation of Sankt Gallen and Laon (compiled after 930 AD) in a single chantbook and was a huge step forward. Dom Cardine had many students who have each in their own way continued their semiological studies, some of whom also started experimenting in applying the newly understood principles in performance practice.
The studies of Cardine and his students (Godehard Joppich, Luigi Augustoni, Johannes B. Göschl, Marie\-Noël Colette, Rupert Fischer, Marie\-Claire Billecocq, [Alexander M. Schweitzer](/wiki/Alexander_M._Schweitzer "Alexander M. Schweitzer") to name a few) have clearly demonstrated that rhythm in Gregorian chant as notated in the 10th century rhythmic manuscripts (notably Sankt Gallen and Laon) manifest such rhythmic diversity and melodic – rhythmic ornamentations for which there is hardly a living performance tradition in the Western world. Contemporary groups that endeavour to sing according to the manuscript traditions have evolved after 1975\. Some practising researchers favour a closer look at non\-Western (liturgical) traditions, in such cultures where the tradition of modal monophony was never abandoned.
Another group with different views are the mensuralists or the proportionalists, who maintain that rhythm has to be interpreted proportionately, where shorts are exactly half the longs. This school of interpretation claims the support of historical authorities such as St Augustine, Remigius, Guido and Aribo.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\.html \|title\=The symbolism of chant rhythm \|publisher\=Calumcille.com \|access\-date\=2012\-06\-06 \|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315074741/http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\.html \|archive\-date\=15 March 2012 }} This view is advocated by John Blackley and his 'Schola Antiqua New York'.
Recent research in the Netherlands by Dr. Dirk van Kampen has indicated that the authentic rhythm of Gregorian chant in the 10th century includes both proportional elements and elements that are in agreement with semiology.van Kampen, Dirk (1994\). *Het oorspronkelijke ritme van het Gregoriaans: Een 'semiologisch\-mensuralistische' studie*. Landsmeer, {{ISBN\|90\-900742\-8\-7}}. (in Dutch){{cite journal \| last1 \= van Kampen \| first1 \= Dirk \| year \= 2005 \| title \= Uitgangspunten voor de ritmiek van Gregoriaans \| journal \= Tijdschrift voor Gregoriaans\|language\=nl\| volume \= 30 \| pages \= 89–94 }} Starting with the expectation that the rhythm of Gregorian chant (and thus the duration of the individual notes) anyway adds to the expressivity of the sacred Latin texts, several word\-related variables were studied for their relationship with several neume\-related variables, exploring these relationships in a sample of introit chants using such statistical methods as correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis.
Beside the length of the syllables (measured in tenths of seconds), each text syllable was evaluated in terms of its position within the word to which it belongs, defining such variables as "the syllable has or has not the main accent", "the syllable is or is not at the end of a word", etc., and in terms of the particular sounds produced (for instance, the syllable contains the vowel "i"). The various neume elements were evaluated by attaching different duration values to them, both in terms of semiological propositions (nuanced durations according to the manner of neume writing in Chris Hakkennes' *Graduale Lagal*Chris Hakkennes (1984\). *Graduale Lagal*. Den Haag: Stichting Centrum voor de Kerkzang.), and in terms of fixed duration values that were based on mensuralistic notions, however with ratios between short and long notes ranging from 1 : 1, via 1 : 1\.2, 1 : 1\.4, etc. to 1 : 3\. To distinguish short and long notes, tables were consulted that were established by Van Kampen in an unpublished comparative study regarding the neume notations according to Sankt Gallen and Laon codices. With some exceptions, these tables confirm the short vs. long distinctions in Cardine's 'Semiologie Gregorienne'.
The lengths of the neumes were given values by adding up the duration values for the separate neume elements, each time following a particular hypothesis concerning the rhythm of Gregoriant chant. Both the syllable lengths and the neume lengths were also expressed in relation to the total duration of the syllables, resp. neumes for a word (contextual variables). Correlating the various word and neume variables, substantial correlations were found for the word variables 'accented syllable' and 'contextual syllable duration'. Moreover, it could be established that the multiple correlation (*R*) between the two types of variables reaches its maximum (*R* is about 0\.80\) if the neumatic elements are evaluated according to the following rules of duration: (a) neume elements that represent short notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 1 time; (b) neume elements that represent long notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 2 times; (c) neumes consisting of only one note are characterized by flexible duration values (with an average value of 2 times), which take over the duration values of the syllables to match.
The distinction between the first two rules and the latter rule can also be found in early treatises on music, introducing the terms *metrum* and *rhythmus*.{{ill\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\|de\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\|lt\=Peter Wagner}} (1916\). "Zur ursprünglichen Ausführung des Gregorianischen Gesanges". *Gregoriusblatt*, 81–82\. (in German){{cite journal \| last1 \= Jeannin \| first1 \= J. \| year \= 1930 \| title \= Proportionale Dauerwerte oder einfache Schattierungen im Gregorianischen Choral? \| journal \= Gregoriusblatt\|language\=de\| volume \= 54 \| pages \= 129–135 }} As it could also be demonstrated by Van Kampen that melodic peaks often coincide with the word accent (see also),G. Reese (1940\). *Music in the Middle Ages*. New York: Norton \& Comp., p. 166\. the conclusion seems warranted that the Gregorian melodies enhance the expressiveness of the Latin words by mimicking to some extent both the accentuation of the sacred words (pitch differences between neumes) and the relative duration of the word syllables (by paying attention to well\-defined length differences between the individual notes of a neume).
During the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries in France, the system of rhythmic notation became standardized, with printers and editors of chant books employing only four rhythmic values. Recent research by Christopher Holman indicates that chants whose texts are in a regular meter could even be altered to be performed in [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature "Time signature").{{Cite journal\|last\=Holman\|first\=Christopher\|date\=November 2017\|title\=Rhythm and metre in French Classical plainchant\|url\=https://academic.oup.com/em/article\-abstract/45/4/657/4781684\|journal\=Early Music\|volume\=45, vol. 4\|issue\=4\|pages\=657–664\|doi\=10\.1093/em/cax087}}
|
[
"### Rhythm",
"Given the oral teaching tradition of Gregorian chant, modern reconstruction of intended rhythm from the written notation of Gregorian chant has always been a source of debate among modern scholars. To complicate matters further, many ornamental neumes used in the earliest manuscripts pose difficulties on the interpretation of rhythm. Certain neumes such as the *pressus*, pes quassus, strophic neumes may indicate repeated notes, lengthening by repercussion, in some cases with added ornaments. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, most chant was sung with an approximately equal duration allotted to each note, although [Jerome of Moravia](/wiki/Jerome_of_Moravia \"Jerome of Moravia\") cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1990\\|p\\=44}}",
"While the standard repertory of Gregorian Chant was partly being supplanted by new forms of polyphony, the earlier melo\\-rhythmic refinements of monophonic chant seem to have fallen into disuse. Later redactions such as the *Editio medicaea* of 1614 rewrote chant so that melismata, with their melodic accent, fell on accented syllables.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=289}} This aesthetic held sway until the re\\-examination of chant in the late 19th century by such scholars as {{ill\\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\\|de\\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\\|lt\\=Peter Wagner}}, [Pothier](/wiki/Joseph_Pothier \"Joseph Pothier\"), and [Mocquereau](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mocquereau \"André Mocquereau\"), who fell into two camps.",
"One school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, advocated imposing rhythmic meters on chants, although they disagreed on how that should be done. An opposing interpretation, represented by Pothier and Mocquereau, supported a free rhythm of equal note values, although some notes are lengthened for textual emphasis or musical effect. The modern Solesmes editions of Gregorian chant follow this interpretation. Mocquereau divided melodies into two\\- and three\\-note phrases, each beginning with an *ictus*, akin to a beat, notated in chantbooks as a small vertical mark. These basic melodic units combined into larger phrases through a complex system expressed by [cheironomic](/wiki/Cheironomy \"Cheironomy\") hand\\-gestures.{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=127}} This approach prevailed during the twentieth century, propagated by [Justine Ward](/wiki/Justine_Ward \"Justine Ward\")'s program of music education for children, until the liturgical role of chant was diminished after the liturgical reforms of [Pope Paul VI](/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI \"Pope Paul VI\"), and new scholarship \"essentially discredited\" Mocquereau's rhythmic theories.{{sfn\\|Dyer\\|2001\\|loc\\=§VI.1}}",
"Common modern practice favors performing Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, largely for aesthetic reasons.{{sfn\\|Mahrt\\|2000\\|p\\=18}} The text determines the accent while the melodic contour determines the [phrasing](/wiki/Musical_phrasing \"Musical phrasing\"). The note lengthenings recommended by the Solesmes school remain influential, though not prescriptive.",
"Dom {{ill\\|Eugène Cardine\\|fr}} (1905–1988\\), a monk from Solesmes, published his 'Semiologie Gregorienne' in 1970 in which he clearly explains the musical significance of the neumes of the early chant manuscripts. Cardine shows the great diversity of neumes and graphic variations of the basic shape of a particular neume, which can not be expressed in the square notation. This variety in notation must have served a practical purpose and therefore a musical significance. Nine years later, the *Graduale Triplex* was published, in which the Roman Gradual, containing all the chants for Mass in a Year's cycle, appeared with the neumes of the two most important manuscripts copied under and over the 4\\-line staff of the square notation. The *Graduale Triplex* made widely accessible the original notation of Sankt Gallen and Laon (compiled after 930 AD) in a single chantbook and was a huge step forward. Dom Cardine had many students who have each in their own way continued their semiological studies, some of whom also started experimenting in applying the newly understood principles in performance practice.",
"The studies of Cardine and his students (Godehard Joppich, Luigi Augustoni, Johannes B. Göschl, Marie\\-Noël Colette, Rupert Fischer, Marie\\-Claire Billecocq, [Alexander M. Schweitzer](/wiki/Alexander_M._Schweitzer \"Alexander M. Schweitzer\") to name a few) have clearly demonstrated that rhythm in Gregorian chant as notated in the 10th century rhythmic manuscripts (notably Sankt Gallen and Laon) manifest such rhythmic diversity and melodic – rhythmic ornamentations for which there is hardly a living performance tradition in the Western world. Contemporary groups that endeavour to sing according to the manuscript traditions have evolved after 1975\\. Some practising researchers favour a closer look at non\\-Western (liturgical) traditions, in such cultures where the tradition of modal monophony was never abandoned.",
"Another group with different views are the mensuralists or the proportionalists, who maintain that rhythm has to be interpreted proportionately, where shorts are exactly half the longs. This school of interpretation claims the support of historical authorities such as St Augustine, Remigius, Guido and Aribo.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\\.html \\|title\\=The symbolism of chant rhythm \\|publisher\\=Calumcille.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-06\\-06 \\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315074741/http://www.calumcille.com/griogair/9A14\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2012 }} This view is advocated by John Blackley and his 'Schola Antiqua New York'.",
"Recent research in the Netherlands by Dr. Dirk van Kampen has indicated that the authentic rhythm of Gregorian chant in the 10th century includes both proportional elements and elements that are in agreement with semiology.van Kampen, Dirk (1994\\). *Het oorspronkelijke ritme van het Gregoriaans: Een 'semiologisch\\-mensuralistische' studie*. Landsmeer, {{ISBN\\|90\\-900742\\-8\\-7}}. (in Dutch){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= van Kampen \\| first1 \\= Dirk \\| year \\= 2005 \\| title \\= Uitgangspunten voor de ritmiek van Gregoriaans \\| journal \\= Tijdschrift voor Gregoriaans\\|language\\=nl\\| volume \\= 30 \\| pages \\= 89–94 }} Starting with the expectation that the rhythm of Gregorian chant (and thus the duration of the individual notes) anyway adds to the expressivity of the sacred Latin texts, several word\\-related variables were studied for their relationship with several neume\\-related variables, exploring these relationships in a sample of introit chants using such statistical methods as correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis.",
"Beside the length of the syllables (measured in tenths of seconds), each text syllable was evaluated in terms of its position within the word to which it belongs, defining such variables as \"the syllable has or has not the main accent\", \"the syllable is or is not at the end of a word\", etc., and in terms of the particular sounds produced (for instance, the syllable contains the vowel \"i\"). The various neume elements were evaluated by attaching different duration values to them, both in terms of semiological propositions (nuanced durations according to the manner of neume writing in Chris Hakkennes' *Graduale Lagal*Chris Hakkennes (1984\\). *Graduale Lagal*. Den Haag: Stichting Centrum voor de Kerkzang.), and in terms of fixed duration values that were based on mensuralistic notions, however with ratios between short and long notes ranging from 1 : 1, via 1 : 1\\.2, 1 : 1\\.4, etc. to 1 : 3\\. To distinguish short and long notes, tables were consulted that were established by Van Kampen in an unpublished comparative study regarding the neume notations according to Sankt Gallen and Laon codices. With some exceptions, these tables confirm the short vs. long distinctions in Cardine's 'Semiologie Gregorienne'.",
"The lengths of the neumes were given values by adding up the duration values for the separate neume elements, each time following a particular hypothesis concerning the rhythm of Gregoriant chant. Both the syllable lengths and the neume lengths were also expressed in relation to the total duration of the syllables, resp. neumes for a word (contextual variables). Correlating the various word and neume variables, substantial correlations were found for the word variables 'accented syllable' and 'contextual syllable duration'. Moreover, it could be established that the multiple correlation (*R*) between the two types of variables reaches its maximum (*R* is about 0\\.80\\) if the neumatic elements are evaluated according to the following rules of duration: (a) neume elements that represent short notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 1 time; (b) neume elements that represent long notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 2 times; (c) neumes consisting of only one note are characterized by flexible duration values (with an average value of 2 times), which take over the duration values of the syllables to match.",
"The distinction between the first two rules and the latter rule can also be found in early treatises on music, introducing the terms *metrum* and *rhythmus*.{{ill\\|Peter Wagner (musicologist)\\|de\\|Peter Wagner (Musikwissenschaftler)\\|lt\\=Peter Wagner}} (1916\\). \"Zur ursprünglichen Ausführung des Gregorianischen Gesanges\". *Gregoriusblatt*, 81–82\\. (in German){{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Jeannin \\| first1 \\= J. \\| year \\= 1930 \\| title \\= Proportionale Dauerwerte oder einfache Schattierungen im Gregorianischen Choral? \\| journal \\= Gregoriusblatt\\|language\\=de\\| volume \\= 54 \\| pages \\= 129–135 }} As it could also be demonstrated by Van Kampen that melodic peaks often coincide with the word accent (see also),G. Reese (1940\\). *Music in the Middle Ages*. New York: Norton \\& Comp., p. 166\\. the conclusion seems warranted that the Gregorian melodies enhance the expressiveness of the Latin words by mimicking to some extent both the accentuation of the sacred words (pitch differences between neumes) and the relative duration of the word syllables (by paying attention to well\\-defined length differences between the individual notes of a neume).",
"During the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries in France, the system of rhythmic notation became standardized, with printers and editors of chant books employing only four rhythmic values. Recent research by Christopher Holman indicates that chants whose texts are in a regular meter could even be altered to be performed in [time signatures](/wiki/Time_signature \"Time signature\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Holman\\|first\\=Christopher\\|date\\=November 2017\\|title\\=Rhythm and metre in French Classical plainchant\\|url\\=https://academic.oup.com/em/article\\-abstract/45/4/657/4781684\\|journal\\=Early Music\\|volume\\=45, vol. 4\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=657–664\\|doi\\=10\\.1093/em/cax087}}",
""
] |
Liturgical functions
--------------------
Gregorian chant is sung in the Office during the [canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours "Canonical hours") and in the liturgy of the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 "Mass (liturgy)"). Texts known as *[accentus](/wiki/Accentus_Ecclesiasticus "Accentus Ecclesiasticus")* are intoned by bishops, priests, and deacons, mostly on a single [reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone "Reciting tone") with simple melodic formulae at certain places in each sentence. More complex chants are sung by trained soloists and choirs. The [Graduale Romanum](/wiki/Graduale_Romanum "Graduale Romanum") contains the proper chants of the Mass (i.e., Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory, Communion) and the complete [Kyriale](/wiki/Kyriale "Kyriale") (the collection of Mass Ordinary settings). The *[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis "Liber usualis")* contains the chants for the [Graduale Romanum](/wiki/Graduale_Romanum "Graduale Romanum") and the most commonly used Office chants.
### Proper chants of the Mass
The Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Sequence, Offertory and Communion chants are part of the [Proper](/wiki/Proper_%28liturgy%29 "Proper (liturgy)") of the Mass. "Proprium Missae" in Latin refers to the chants of the Mass that have their proper individual texts for each Sunday throughout the annual cycle, as opposed to 'Ordinarium Missae' which have fixed texts (but various melodies) (Kyrie, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei).
[Introits](/wiki/Introit "Introit") cover the procession of the officiants. Introits are antiphonal chants, typically consisting of an antiphon, a psalm verse, a repeat of the antiphon, an intonation of the Gloria Patri [Doxology](/wiki/Doxology "Doxology"), and a final repeat of the antiphon. [Reciting tones](/wiki/Reciting_tone "Reciting tone") often dominate their melodic structures.
[Graduals](/wiki/Gradual "Gradual") are responsorial chants that follow the reading of the [Epistle](/wiki/Epistle "Epistle"). Graduals usually result from *[centonization](/wiki/Centonization "Centonization")*; stock musical phrases are assembled like a patchwork to create the full melody of the chant, creating families of musically related melodies. Graduals are accompanied by an elaborate Verse, so that it actually consists in two different parts, A B. Often the first part is sung again, creating a 'rondeau' A B A. At least the verse, if not the complete gradual, is for the solo cantor and are in elaborate, ornate style with long, wide\-ranged melismata.
The [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia "Alleluia") is known for the *[jubilus](/wiki/Jubilus "Jubilus")*, an extended joyful melisma on the last vowel of 'Alleluia'. The Alleluia is also in two parts, the alleluia proper and the psalmverse, by which the Alleluia is identified (Alleluia V. Pascha nostrum). The last melisma of the verse is the same as the jubilus attached to the Alleluia. Alleluias are not sung during penitential times, such as [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent"). Instead, a [Tract](/wiki/Tract_%28liturgy%29 "Tract (liturgy)") is chanted, usually with texts from the Psalms.
[Sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 "Sequence (poetry)") are sung poems based on couplets. Although many sequences are not part of the liturgy and thus not part of the Gregorian repertory proper, Gregorian sequences include such well\-known chants as *[Victimae paschali laudes](/wiki/Victimae_paschali_laudes "Victimae paschali laudes")* and *[Veni Sancte Spiritus](/wiki/Veni_Sancte_Spiritus "Veni Sancte Spiritus")*. According to [Notker Balbulus](/wiki/Notker_Balbulus "Notker Balbulus"), an early sequence writer, their origins lie in the addition of words to the long melismata of the jubilus of Alleluia chants.{{sfn\|Crocker\|1977\|pp\=1–2}}
### Ordinary chants of the Mass
The Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus and Agnus Dei use the same text in every service of the Mass. Because they follow the regular invariable "order" of the Mass, these chants are called "[Ordinary](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass "Ordinary of the Mass")".
The [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie "Kyrie") consists of a threefold repetition of "Kyrie eleison" ("Lord, have mercy"), a threefold repetition of "Christe eleison" ("Christ have mercy"), followed by another threefold repetition of "Kyrie eleison." In older chants, "Kyrie eleison imas" ("Lord, have mercy on us") can be found. The Kyrie is distinguished by its use of the [Greek language](/wiki/Hellenistic_Greek "Hellenistic Greek") instead of Latin. Because of the textual repetition, various musical repeat structures occur in these chants. The following, Kyrie ad. lib. VI as transmitted in a Cambrai manuscript, uses the form ABA CDC EFE', with shifts in [tessitura](/wiki/Tessitura "Tessitura") between sections. The E' section, on the final "Kyrie eleison", itself has an aa'b structure, contributing to the sense of climax.{{sfn\|Hiley\|1995\|p\=153}}
{{Listen\|type\=music\|filename\=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, Cambrai.ogg\|title\=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, from Cambrai, Bibl. Mun. 61, fo.155v\|description\=As transcribed by \[\[David Hiley]]; example of musical repeat structures in Gregorian chant}}
The [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_excelsis_Deo "Gloria in excelsis Deo") recites the Greater [Doxology](/wiki/Doxology "Doxology"), and the [Credo](/wiki/Credo "Credo") intones the [Nicene Creed](/wiki/Nicene_Creed "Nicene Creed"). Because of the length of these texts, these chants often break into musical subsections corresponding with textual breaks. Because the Credo was the last Ordinary chant to be added to the Mass, there are relatively few Credo melodies in the Gregorian corpus.
The [Sanctus](/wiki/Sanctus "Sanctus") and the [Agnus Dei](/wiki/Agnus_Dei_%28music%29 "Agnus Dei (music)"), like the Kyrie, also contain repeated texts, which their musical structures often exploit.
Technically, the [Ite missa est](/wiki/Ite_missa_est "Ite missa est") and the [Benedicamus Domino](/wiki/Benedicamus_Domino "Benedicamus Domino"), which conclude the Mass, belong to the Ordinary. They have their own Gregorian melodies, but because they are short and simple, and have rarely been the subject of later musical composition, they are often omitted in discussion.
[thumb\|left\|Plainchant notation for the solemn setting of the [Salve Regina](/wiki/Salve_Regina "Salve Regina"); a simple setting is used more commonly.](/wiki/File:Salve_Regina.png "Salve Regina.png")
### Chants of the Office
Gregorian chant is sung in the [canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours "Canonical hours") of the [monastic](/wiki/Monastic "Monastic") Office, primarily in antiphons used to sing the [Psalms](/wiki/Psalms "Psalms"), in the Great [Responsories](/wiki/Responsory "Responsory") of [Matins](/wiki/Matins "Matins"), and the Short Responsories of the Lesser Hours and [Compline](/wiki/Compline "Compline"). The psalm antiphons of the Office tend to be short and simple, especially compared to the complex Great Responsories.
At the close of the Office, one of four *[Marian antiphons](/wiki/Marian_antiphon "Marian antiphon")* is sung. These songs, *Alma Redemptoris Mater* (see top of article), *Ave Regina caelorum*, *Regina caeli laetare*, and *Salve, Regina*, are relatively late chants, dating to the 11th century, and considerably more complex than most Office antiphons. [Willi Apel](/wiki/Willi_Apel "Willi Apel") has described these four songs as "among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages".{{sfn\|Apel\|1990\|p\=404}}
{{listen\|type\=music\|filename\=Alma Redemptoris Mater.ogg\|title\=Alma Redemptoris Mater\|description\=Marian antiphon sung at Compline and Lauds between the First Sunday of Advent and Candlemas\|format\=\[\[Ogg]]}}
|
[
"Liturgical functions\n--------------------",
"Gregorian chant is sung in the Office during the [canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours \"Canonical hours\") and in the liturgy of the [Mass](/wiki/Mass_%28liturgy%29 \"Mass (liturgy)\"). Texts known as *[accentus](/wiki/Accentus_Ecclesiasticus \"Accentus Ecclesiasticus\")* are intoned by bishops, priests, and deacons, mostly on a single [reciting tone](/wiki/Reciting_tone \"Reciting tone\") with simple melodic formulae at certain places in each sentence. More complex chants are sung by trained soloists and choirs. The [Graduale Romanum](/wiki/Graduale_Romanum \"Graduale Romanum\") contains the proper chants of the Mass (i.e., Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Offertory, Communion) and the complete [Kyriale](/wiki/Kyriale \"Kyriale\") (the collection of Mass Ordinary settings). The *[Liber usualis](/wiki/Liber_usualis \"Liber usualis\")* contains the chants for the [Graduale Romanum](/wiki/Graduale_Romanum \"Graduale Romanum\") and the most commonly used Office chants.",
"### Proper chants of the Mass",
"The Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Sequence, Offertory and Communion chants are part of the [Proper](/wiki/Proper_%28liturgy%29 \"Proper (liturgy)\") of the Mass. \"Proprium Missae\" in Latin refers to the chants of the Mass that have their proper individual texts for each Sunday throughout the annual cycle, as opposed to 'Ordinarium Missae' which have fixed texts (but various melodies) (Kyrie, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei).",
"[Introits](/wiki/Introit \"Introit\") cover the procession of the officiants. Introits are antiphonal chants, typically consisting of an antiphon, a psalm verse, a repeat of the antiphon, an intonation of the Gloria Patri [Doxology](/wiki/Doxology \"Doxology\"), and a final repeat of the antiphon. [Reciting tones](/wiki/Reciting_tone \"Reciting tone\") often dominate their melodic structures.",
"[Graduals](/wiki/Gradual \"Gradual\") are responsorial chants that follow the reading of the [Epistle](/wiki/Epistle \"Epistle\"). Graduals usually result from *[centonization](/wiki/Centonization \"Centonization\")*; stock musical phrases are assembled like a patchwork to create the full melody of the chant, creating families of musically related melodies. Graduals are accompanied by an elaborate Verse, so that it actually consists in two different parts, A B. Often the first part is sung again, creating a 'rondeau' A B A. At least the verse, if not the complete gradual, is for the solo cantor and are in elaborate, ornate style with long, wide\\-ranged melismata.",
"The [Alleluia](/wiki/Alleluia \"Alleluia\") is known for the *[jubilus](/wiki/Jubilus \"Jubilus\")*, an extended joyful melisma on the last vowel of 'Alleluia'. The Alleluia is also in two parts, the alleluia proper and the psalmverse, by which the Alleluia is identified (Alleluia V. Pascha nostrum). The last melisma of the verse is the same as the jubilus attached to the Alleluia. Alleluias are not sung during penitential times, such as [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\"). Instead, a [Tract](/wiki/Tract_%28liturgy%29 \"Tract (liturgy)\") is chanted, usually with texts from the Psalms.",
"[Sequences](/wiki/Sequence_%28poetry%29 \"Sequence (poetry)\") are sung poems based on couplets. Although many sequences are not part of the liturgy and thus not part of the Gregorian repertory proper, Gregorian sequences include such well\\-known chants as *[Victimae paschali laudes](/wiki/Victimae_paschali_laudes \"Victimae paschali laudes\")* and *[Veni Sancte Spiritus](/wiki/Veni_Sancte_Spiritus \"Veni Sancte Spiritus\")*. According to [Notker Balbulus](/wiki/Notker_Balbulus \"Notker Balbulus\"), an early sequence writer, their origins lie in the addition of words to the long melismata of the jubilus of Alleluia chants.{{sfn\\|Crocker\\|1977\\|pp\\=1–2}}",
"### Ordinary chants of the Mass",
"The Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus and Agnus Dei use the same text in every service of the Mass. Because they follow the regular invariable \"order\" of the Mass, these chants are called \"[Ordinary](/wiki/Ordinary_of_the_Mass \"Ordinary of the Mass\")\".",
"The [Kyrie](/wiki/Kyrie \"Kyrie\") consists of a threefold repetition of \"Kyrie eleison\" (\"Lord, have mercy\"), a threefold repetition of \"Christe eleison\" (\"Christ have mercy\"), followed by another threefold repetition of \"Kyrie eleison.\" In older chants, \"Kyrie eleison imas\" (\"Lord, have mercy on us\") can be found. The Kyrie is distinguished by its use of the [Greek language](/wiki/Hellenistic_Greek \"Hellenistic Greek\") instead of Latin. Because of the textual repetition, various musical repeat structures occur in these chants. The following, Kyrie ad. lib. VI as transmitted in a Cambrai manuscript, uses the form ABA CDC EFE', with shifts in [tessitura](/wiki/Tessitura \"Tessitura\") between sections. The E' section, on the final \"Kyrie eleison\", itself has an aa'b structure, contributing to the sense of climax.{{sfn\\|Hiley\\|1995\\|p\\=153}}",
"{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, Cambrai.ogg\\|title\\=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, from Cambrai, Bibl. Mun. 61, fo.155v\\|description\\=As transcribed by \\[\\[David Hiley]]; example of musical repeat structures in Gregorian chant}}\nThe [Gloria](/wiki/Gloria_in_excelsis_Deo \"Gloria in excelsis Deo\") recites the Greater [Doxology](/wiki/Doxology \"Doxology\"), and the [Credo](/wiki/Credo \"Credo\") intones the [Nicene Creed](/wiki/Nicene_Creed \"Nicene Creed\"). Because of the length of these texts, these chants often break into musical subsections corresponding with textual breaks. Because the Credo was the last Ordinary chant to be added to the Mass, there are relatively few Credo melodies in the Gregorian corpus.",
"The [Sanctus](/wiki/Sanctus \"Sanctus\") and the [Agnus Dei](/wiki/Agnus_Dei_%28music%29 \"Agnus Dei (music)\"), like the Kyrie, also contain repeated texts, which their musical structures often exploit.",
"Technically, the [Ite missa est](/wiki/Ite_missa_est \"Ite missa est\") and the [Benedicamus Domino](/wiki/Benedicamus_Domino \"Benedicamus Domino\"), which conclude the Mass, belong to the Ordinary. They have their own Gregorian melodies, but because they are short and simple, and have rarely been the subject of later musical composition, they are often omitted in discussion.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Plainchant notation for the solemn setting of the [Salve Regina](/wiki/Salve_Regina \"Salve Regina\"); a simple setting is used more commonly.](/wiki/File:Salve_Regina.png \"Salve Regina.png\")",
"### Chants of the Office",
"Gregorian chant is sung in the [canonical hours](/wiki/Canonical_hours \"Canonical hours\") of the [monastic](/wiki/Monastic \"Monastic\") Office, primarily in antiphons used to sing the [Psalms](/wiki/Psalms \"Psalms\"), in the Great [Responsories](/wiki/Responsory \"Responsory\") of [Matins](/wiki/Matins \"Matins\"), and the Short Responsories of the Lesser Hours and [Compline](/wiki/Compline \"Compline\"). The psalm antiphons of the Office tend to be short and simple, especially compared to the complex Great Responsories.",
"At the close of the Office, one of four *[Marian antiphons](/wiki/Marian_antiphon \"Marian antiphon\")* is sung. These songs, *Alma Redemptoris Mater* (see top of article), *Ave Regina caelorum*, *Regina caeli laetare*, and *Salve, Regina*, are relatively late chants, dating to the 11th century, and considerably more complex than most Office antiphons. [Willi Apel](/wiki/Willi_Apel \"Willi Apel\") has described these four songs as \"among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages\".{{sfn\\|Apel\\|1990\\|p\\=404}}",
"{{listen\\|type\\=music\\|filename\\=Alma Redemptoris Mater.ogg\\|title\\=Alma Redemptoris Mater\\|description\\=Marian antiphon sung at Compline and Lauds between the First Sunday of Advent and Candlemas\\|format\\=\\[\\[Ogg]]}}",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Franz was born in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin "Milwaukee, Wisconsin"). His childhood ambition was to become a commercial artist, a goal that led him to enroll later at the [University of Wisconsin](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison "University of Wisconsin–Madison"), where he joined the Wisconsin Players Theater, a new student group. Performing in the theater's 1922\-1923 season reignited his ambition to become an artist, although one of a different type, an actor. A year later, he was cast in Chicago productions of the Coffee\-Miller Players. Dropping his surname, Franz next acted with the Provincetown Players in New York's Greenwich Village, a hothouse of theatrical ferment that had first brought the world the dramatic works of writers [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill "Eugene O'Neill"), [Susan Glaspell](/wiki/Susan_Glaspell "Susan Glaspell"), and [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay "Edna St. Vincent Millay"). Franz also appeared with [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") in *[The Emperor Jones](/wiki/The_Emperor_Jones "The Emperor Jones")* and with Walter Huston in *[Desire Under the Elms](/wiki/Desire_Under_the_Elms "Desire Under the Elms")*. He continued to perform until his stage work was interrupted by the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression").
[thumb\|Franz (center) in the trailer for *[The Ten Commandments](/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_%281956_film%29 "The Ten Commandments (1956 film)")*](/wiki/File:The_Ten_Commandments_%281956%29_trailer_13.jpg "The Ten Commandments (1956) trailer 13.jpg")
By then married to his wife Margaret, he tried to eke out a living as chicken farmers in Texas. The young couple soon returned to Wisconsin, where Franz acted in regional theater while teaching art to pay the bills. By 1936, he was a player on the national stage, performing from coast to coast. *Famous Wisconsin Film Stars*, by Kristin Gilpatrick He became a leading Broadway actor for nearly 30 years, in such plays as *First Stop to Heaven*, *[Home of the Brave](/wiki/Home_of_the_Brave_%28play%29 "Home of the Brave (play)")*, *Embezzled Heaven*, and *Conversation at Midnight*. He made his film debut in a bit part, in 1947, in *[Killer at Large](/wiki/Killer_at_Large_%281947_film%29 "Killer at Large (1947 film)")*, but followed that brief appearance the next year with a memorable role in the motion picture *The Scar* (also titled *[Hollow Triumph](/wiki/Hollow_Triumph "Hollow Triumph")*). His fourth movie saw him acting with [John Wayne](/wiki/John_Wayne "John Wayne") in *[Wake of the Red Witch](/wiki/Wake_of_the_Red_Witch "Wake of the Red Witch")*, in 1948\. He portrayed Chief Broken Hand in *[White Feather](/wiki/White_Feather_%281955_film%29 "White Feather (1955 film)")*. He played such intellectuals as Dr. Stern in *[The Thing from Another World](/wiki/The_Thing_from_Another_World "The Thing from Another World")* (1951\), a university professor in *[The Four Skulls of Jonathan Drake](/wiki/The_Four_Skulls_of_Jonathan_Drake "The Four Skulls of Jonathan Drake")* (1959\), and Justice [Louis Brandeis](/wiki/Louis_Brandeis "Louis Brandeis") in *[The Magnificent Yankee](/wiki/The_Magnificent_Yankee_%281950_film%29 "The Magnificent Yankee (1950 film)")* (1950\), a role he reprised in the 1965 television adaptation. He appeared in a 1957 television [adaptation](/wiki/Beyond_This_Place_%281957%29 "Beyond This Place (1957)") of [A. J. Cronin](/wiki/A._J._Cronin "A. J. Cronin")'s novel *[Beyond This Place](/wiki/Beyond_This_Place_%28novel%29 "Beyond This Place (novel)")*, which was directed by [Sidney Lumet](/wiki/Sidney_Lumet "Sidney Lumet").
Franz performed as well in two separate [remakes](/wiki/Remake "Remake") of [Al Jolson](/wiki/Al_Jolson "Al Jolson")'s 1927 cinema classic *[The Jazz Singer](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer "The Jazz Singer")*, each time playing the key role of the aged and ailing synagogue [cantor](/wiki/Cantor "Cantor") upset by his son's decision to pursue a secular show\-business career rather than continue the family tradition and follow in his father's religious footsteps. Those remakes were the [1952 film version](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer_%281952_film%29 "The Jazz Singer (1952 film)") of the story starring [Danny Thomas](/wiki/Danny_Thomas "Danny Thomas") and the [1959 television version](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer_%281959_film%29 "The Jazz Singer (1959 film)") starring [Jerry Lewis](/wiki/Jerry_Lewis "Jerry Lewis").
In 1956, Franz appeared on a first\-season episode of *[Gunsmoke](/wiki/Gunsmoke "Gunsmoke")* titled "Indian Scout", performing in the role of Amos Cartwight, a scout for the United States cavalry who knowingly leads the troopers into an ambush by a [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche "Comanche") war party.{{cite book \|last\=Lentz \|first\=Harris M. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=O85kAAAAMAAJ \|title\=Television Westerns Episode Guide: All United States Series, 1949\-1996 \|date\=1997 \|publisher\=\[\[McFarland \& Company]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-7864\-7386\-1 \|location\=Jefferson, North Carolina}}{{Rp\|page\=156}} That same year he guest\-starred with [Joan Fontaine](/wiki/Joan_Fontaine "Joan Fontaine") in the episode "The De Santre Story" of the [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") [anthology series](/wiki/Anthology_series "Anthology series") *[The Joseph Cotten Show](/wiki/The_Joseph_Cotten_Show "The Joseph Cotten Show")*. Later, In 1958, Franz was cast in the second season of *[Zorro](/wiki/Zorro_%281957_TV_series%29 "Zorro (1957 TV series)")*, playing the role of Señor Gregorio Verdugo. He guest\-starred as Jules Silberg in the 1960 episode "The Test" of [CBS](/wiki/Columbia_Broadcasting_System "Columbia Broadcasting System")'s anthology series *[The DuPont Show with June Allyson](/wiki/The_DuPont_Show_with_June_Allyson "The DuPont Show with June Allyson")*.
In 1961, Franz starred in the episode "The Duke of Texas" of [Western](/wiki/Western_%28genre%29 "Western (genre)") series *[Have Gun \- Will Travel](/wiki/Have_Gun_-_Will_Travel "Have Gun - Will Travel").* Also, in that same year, Franz guest\-starred as Gustave Helmer in the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company "American Broadcasting Company") legal drama *[The Law and Mr. Jones](/wiki/The_Law_and_Mr._Jones "The Law and Mr. Jones")* with [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore "James Whitmore") in the title role and [Jack Mullaney](/wiki/Jack_Mullaney "Jack Mullaney") as a second guest star.{{Citation needed \|date\=April 2021}} About that same time, he portrayed characters on NBC's anthology series *[The Barbara Stanwyck Show](/wiki/The_Barbara_Stanwyck_Show "The Barbara Stanwyck Show")* and on the NBC Western *[Cimarron City](/wiki/Cimarron_City_%28TV_series%29 "Cimarron City (TV series)")*. Always dedicated to the theater, despite his television work, Franz in 1961 performed in the world premiere in Los Angeles of Edna St. Vincent Millay's poetic drama *Conversation at Midnight*, co\-starring with [James Coburn](/wiki/James_Coburn "James Coburn") and [Jack Albertson](/wiki/Jack_Albertson "Jack Albertson").
In 1962 acted in Beauty and the Beast. Two years later, Franz was cast as psychiatric clinic director Dr. Edward Raymer in 30 episodes of the weekly ABC medical drama *[Breaking Point](/wiki/Breaking_Point_%281963_TV_series%29 "Breaking Point (1963 TV series)")* with co\-star [Paul Richards](/wiki/Paul_Richards_%28actor%29 "Paul Richards (actor)").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.oscars.org/mhl/hn/franz\_eduard\_hn.html \|title\=Special Collections Manuscripts \- Margaret Herrick Library \- Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences \|access\-date\=October 14, 2008 \|archive\-date\=June 10, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610235744/http://www.oscars.org/mhl/hn/franz\_eduard\_hn.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Then, in 1964, he reprised his role in *Conversation at Midnight* at [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre")'s [Billy Rose](/wiki/Billy_Rose "Billy Rose") Theatre. Both that stage version of Millay's work and the one done in 1961 were produced by [Worley Thorne](/wiki/Worley_Thorne "Worley Thorne") in association with Susan Davis.
Franz made his final film appearance in a segment of *[Twilight Zone: The Movie](/wiki/Twilight_Zone:The_Movie "The Movie")* (1983\). He died in February, 1983, five months before the film's release.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Franz was born in [Milwaukee, Wisconsin](/wiki/Milwaukee%2C_Wisconsin \"Milwaukee, Wisconsin\"). His childhood ambition was to become a commercial artist, a goal that led him to enroll later at the [University of Wisconsin](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison \"University of Wisconsin–Madison\"), where he joined the Wisconsin Players Theater, a new student group. Performing in the theater's 1922\\-1923 season reignited his ambition to become an artist, although one of a different type, an actor. A year later, he was cast in Chicago productions of the Coffee\\-Miller Players. Dropping his surname, Franz next acted with the Provincetown Players in New York's Greenwich Village, a hothouse of theatrical ferment that had first brought the world the dramatic works of writers [Eugene O'Neill](/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill \"Eugene O'Neill\"), [Susan Glaspell](/wiki/Susan_Glaspell \"Susan Glaspell\"), and [Edna St. Vincent Millay](/wiki/Edna_St._Vincent_Millay \"Edna St. Vincent Millay\"). Franz also appeared with [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson \"Paul Robeson\") in *[The Emperor Jones](/wiki/The_Emperor_Jones \"The Emperor Jones\")* and with Walter Huston in *[Desire Under the Elms](/wiki/Desire_Under_the_Elms \"Desire Under the Elms\")*. He continued to perform until his stage work was interrupted by the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\").",
"[thumb\\|Franz (center) in the trailer for *[The Ten Commandments](/wiki/The_Ten_Commandments_%281956_film%29 \"The Ten Commandments (1956 film)\")*](/wiki/File:The_Ten_Commandments_%281956%29_trailer_13.jpg \"The Ten Commandments (1956) trailer 13.jpg\")\nBy then married to his wife Margaret, he tried to eke out a living as chicken farmers in Texas. The young couple soon returned to Wisconsin, where Franz acted in regional theater while teaching art to pay the bills. By 1936, he was a player on the national stage, performing from coast to coast. *Famous Wisconsin Film Stars*, by Kristin Gilpatrick He became a leading Broadway actor for nearly 30 years, in such plays as *First Stop to Heaven*, *[Home of the Brave](/wiki/Home_of_the_Brave_%28play%29 \"Home of the Brave (play)\")*, *Embezzled Heaven*, and *Conversation at Midnight*. He made his film debut in a bit part, in 1947, in *[Killer at Large](/wiki/Killer_at_Large_%281947_film%29 \"Killer at Large (1947 film)\")*, but followed that brief appearance the next year with a memorable role in the motion picture *The Scar* (also titled *[Hollow Triumph](/wiki/Hollow_Triumph \"Hollow Triumph\")*). His fourth movie saw him acting with [John Wayne](/wiki/John_Wayne \"John Wayne\") in *[Wake of the Red Witch](/wiki/Wake_of_the_Red_Witch \"Wake of the Red Witch\")*, in 1948\\. He portrayed Chief Broken Hand in *[White Feather](/wiki/White_Feather_%281955_film%29 \"White Feather (1955 film)\")*. He played such intellectuals as Dr. Stern in *[The Thing from Another World](/wiki/The_Thing_from_Another_World \"The Thing from Another World\")* (1951\\), a university professor in *[The Four Skulls of Jonathan Drake](/wiki/The_Four_Skulls_of_Jonathan_Drake \"The Four Skulls of Jonathan Drake\")* (1959\\), and Justice [Louis Brandeis](/wiki/Louis_Brandeis \"Louis Brandeis\") in *[The Magnificent Yankee](/wiki/The_Magnificent_Yankee_%281950_film%29 \"The Magnificent Yankee (1950 film)\")* (1950\\), a role he reprised in the 1965 television adaptation. He appeared in a 1957 television [adaptation](/wiki/Beyond_This_Place_%281957%29 \"Beyond This Place (1957)\") of [A. J. Cronin](/wiki/A._J._Cronin \"A. J. Cronin\")'s novel *[Beyond This Place](/wiki/Beyond_This_Place_%28novel%29 \"Beyond This Place (novel)\")*, which was directed by [Sidney Lumet](/wiki/Sidney_Lumet \"Sidney Lumet\").",
"Franz performed as well in two separate [remakes](/wiki/Remake \"Remake\") of [Al Jolson](/wiki/Al_Jolson \"Al Jolson\")'s 1927 cinema classic *[The Jazz Singer](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer \"The Jazz Singer\")*, each time playing the key role of the aged and ailing synagogue [cantor](/wiki/Cantor \"Cantor\") upset by his son's decision to pursue a secular show\\-business career rather than continue the family tradition and follow in his father's religious footsteps. Those remakes were the [1952 film version](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer_%281952_film%29 \"The Jazz Singer (1952 film)\") of the story starring [Danny Thomas](/wiki/Danny_Thomas \"Danny Thomas\") and the [1959 television version](/wiki/The_Jazz_Singer_%281959_film%29 \"The Jazz Singer (1959 film)\") starring [Jerry Lewis](/wiki/Jerry_Lewis \"Jerry Lewis\").",
"In 1956, Franz appeared on a first\\-season episode of *[Gunsmoke](/wiki/Gunsmoke \"Gunsmoke\")* titled \"Indian Scout\", performing in the role of Amos Cartwight, a scout for the United States cavalry who knowingly leads the troopers into an ambush by a [Comanche](/wiki/Comanche \"Comanche\") war party.{{cite book \\|last\\=Lentz \\|first\\=Harris M. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=O85kAAAAMAAJ \\|title\\=Television Westerns Episode Guide: All United States Series, 1949\\-1996 \\|date\\=1997 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[McFarland \\& Company]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7864\\-7386\\-1 \\|location\\=Jefferson, North Carolina}}{{Rp\\|page\\=156}} That same year he guest\\-starred with [Joan Fontaine](/wiki/Joan_Fontaine \"Joan Fontaine\") in the episode \"The De Santre Story\" of the [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") [anthology series](/wiki/Anthology_series \"Anthology series\") *[The Joseph Cotten Show](/wiki/The_Joseph_Cotten_Show \"The Joseph Cotten Show\")*. Later, In 1958, Franz was cast in the second season of *[Zorro](/wiki/Zorro_%281957_TV_series%29 \"Zorro (1957 TV series)\")*, playing the role of Señor Gregorio Verdugo. He guest\\-starred as Jules Silberg in the 1960 episode \"The Test\" of [CBS](/wiki/Columbia_Broadcasting_System \"Columbia Broadcasting System\")'s anthology series *[The DuPont Show with June Allyson](/wiki/The_DuPont_Show_with_June_Allyson \"The DuPont Show with June Allyson\")*.",
"In 1961, Franz starred in the episode \"The Duke of Texas\" of [Western](/wiki/Western_%28genre%29 \"Western (genre)\") series *[Have Gun \\- Will Travel](/wiki/Have_Gun_-_Will_Travel \"Have Gun - Will Travel\").* Also, in that same year, Franz guest\\-starred as Gustave Helmer in the [ABC](/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company \"American Broadcasting Company\") legal drama *[The Law and Mr. Jones](/wiki/The_Law_and_Mr._Jones \"The Law and Mr. Jones\")* with [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore \"James Whitmore\") in the title role and [Jack Mullaney](/wiki/Jack_Mullaney \"Jack Mullaney\") as a second guest star.{{Citation needed \\|date\\=April 2021}} About that same time, he portrayed characters on NBC's anthology series *[The Barbara Stanwyck Show](/wiki/The_Barbara_Stanwyck_Show \"The Barbara Stanwyck Show\")* and on the NBC Western *[Cimarron City](/wiki/Cimarron_City_%28TV_series%29 \"Cimarron City (TV series)\")*. Always dedicated to the theater, despite his television work, Franz in 1961 performed in the world premiere in Los Angeles of Edna St. Vincent Millay's poetic drama *Conversation at Midnight*, co\\-starring with [James Coburn](/wiki/James_Coburn \"James Coburn\") and [Jack Albertson](/wiki/Jack_Albertson \"Jack Albertson\"). \nIn 1962 acted in Beauty and the Beast. Two years later, Franz was cast as psychiatric clinic director Dr. Edward Raymer in 30 episodes of the weekly ABC medical drama *[Breaking Point](/wiki/Breaking_Point_%281963_TV_series%29 \"Breaking Point (1963 TV series)\")* with co\\-star [Paul Richards](/wiki/Paul_Richards_%28actor%29 \"Paul Richards (actor)\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oscars.org/mhl/hn/franz\\_eduard\\_hn.html \\|title\\=Special Collections Manuscripts \\- Margaret Herrick Library \\- Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences \\|access\\-date\\=October 14, 2008 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 10, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610235744/http://www.oscars.org/mhl/hn/franz\\_eduard\\_hn.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Then, in 1964, he reprised his role in *Conversation at Midnight* at [Broadway](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\")'s [Billy Rose](/wiki/Billy_Rose \"Billy Rose\") Theatre. Both that stage version of Millay's work and the one done in 1961 were produced by [Worley Thorne](/wiki/Worley_Thorne \"Worley Thorne\") in association with Susan Davis.",
"Franz made his final film appearance in a segment of *[Twilight Zone: The Movie](/wiki/Twilight_Zone:The_Movie \"The Movie\")* (1983\\). He died in February, 1983, five months before the film's release.",
""
] |
Imperial China era (221 BC – 1841 AD)
-------------------------------------
[thumb\|Map of [Bao'an (Po On) County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County "Bao'an County") in 1866\. It shows that Hong Kong and Shenzhen used to be a part of Bao'an County in the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty")](/wiki/File:Map_of_Xin%27an_County_%28in_Canton%29_in_1866.jpg "Map of Xin'an County (in Canton) in 1866.jpg")
{{Main\|History of Hong Kong under Imperial China}}
{{See also\|Nam Viet\|Bao'an County}}
The territory that now comprises Hong Kong was loosely part of China during the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty "Qin dynasty") (221–206 BC), and the area was part of the ancient kingdom of [Nam Viet](/wiki/Nam_Viet "Nam Viet") (203–111 BC).{{Cite web\|date\=20 July 1998\|title\=Nam Viet {{!}} ancient kingdom, Asia\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nam\-Viet\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-31\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|language\=en}} During the Qin dynasty, the territory was governed by [Panyu County](/wiki/Panyu_County "Panyu County") until the time of the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 "Jin dynasty (265–420)").{{Cite web\|date\=30 July 2020\|title\=Hong Kong Museum of History: Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb\|url\=https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/en\_US/web/mh/about\-us/lei\-cheng\-uk\-han\-tomb.html\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-31\|website\=lcsd.gov.hk\|language\=en\-US}}
Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty") (206 BC – AD 220\). In the 1950s, the [tomb at Lei Cheng Uk](/wiki/Lei_Cheng_Uk_Han_Tomb_Museum "Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum") from the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty "Eastern Han dynasty") (25–220 AD) was excavated and archaeologists began to investigate the possibility that salt production flourished in Hong Kong around 2000 years ago, although conclusive evidence has not been found. [Tai Po Hoi](/wiki/Tai_Po_Hoi "Tai Po Hoi"), the sea of Tai Po, was a major [pearl hunting](/wiki/Pearl_hunting "Pearl hunting") harbour in China from the Han dynasty through to the [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty") (1368–1644\), with activities peaking during the [Southern Han](/wiki/Southern_Han "Southern Han") (917–971\).
During the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 "Jin dynasty (265–420)") until the early [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty"), Hong Kong was governed by [Bao'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County "Bao'an County"). Under the [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty "Tang dynasty"), the [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong "Guangdong") region flourished as an international trading centre. The [Tuen Mun](/wiki/Tuen_Mun "Tuen Mun") region in what is now Hong Kong's [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories "New Territories") served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later as a base for the exploitation of pearls. [Lantau Island](/wiki/Lantau_Island "Lantau Island") was also a salt production centre, where riots by salt smugglers against the government broke out. From the middle of the Tang dynasty until the Ming dynasty, Hong Kong was governed by [Dongguan County](/wiki/Dongguan_County "Dongguan County").
On 10 May 1278, Child [Zhao Bing](/wiki/Zhao_Bing "Zhao Bing"), the last Song dynasty emperor, was enthroned at [Mui Wo](/wiki/Mui_Wo "Mui Wo") on Lantau Island; this event is commemorated by the [Sung Wong Toi](/wiki/Sung_Wong_Toi "Sung Wong Toi") memorial in Kowloon.{{Cite web\|date\=2019\-11\-07\|title\=Last emperor: is Shenzhen the resting place of final Song ruler?\|url\=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post\-magazine/short\-reads/article/3036545/shenzhen\-home\-tomb\-last\-emperor\-chinas\-southern\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-31\|website\=South China Morning Post\|language\=en}}{{Cite web\|title\=Sung Wong Toi {{!}} Hong Kong Tourism Board\|url\=https://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/interactive\-map/sung\-wong\-toi.html\|access\-date\=2020\-07\-31\|website\=Discover Hong Kong\|language\=en}} After his defeat at the [Battle of Yamen](/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen "Battle of Yamen") on 19 March 1279, the child emperor committed suicide by drowning with his officials at Mount Ya (modern [Yamen Town](/wiki/Yamen_%28town%29 "Yamen (town)") in Guangdong).{{Cite journal\|last\=Chan\|first\=Hok\-Lam\|date\=September 1966\|title\=Chinese Refugees in Annam and Champa at the end of the Sung Dynasty\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1017/s0217781100001502\|journal\=Journal of Southeast Asian History\|volume\=7\|issue\=2\|pages\=1–10\|doi\=10\.1017/s0217781100001502\|issn\=0217\-7811}}
During the Mongol period, Hong Kong saw its first population boom as Chinese refugees entered the area. Most of these refugees were Chinese Song dynasty loyalists fleeing the [Mongol conquest of Song China](/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Song_China "Mongol conquest of Song China").
Despite the immigration and sparse development of agriculture, the area was hilly and relatively barren. People had to rely on salt, pearl and fishery trades to produce income. Some clans built [walled villages](/wiki/Walled_villages_of_Hong_Kong "Walled villages of Hong Kong") to protect themselves from the threat of bandits, rival clans and wild animals. The Qing\-dynasty Chinese pirate [Cheung Po Tsai](/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai "Cheung Po Tsai") became a legend in Hong Kong.
In the mid\-17th century, after the [Great Clearance](/wiki/Great_Clearance "Great Clearance") policy which purged most of the region's population, under the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor "Kangxi Emperor") order, many [Hakka people](/wiki/Hakka "Hakka") migrated from inland China to Xin'an County, which included modern Hong Kong.
During the [Ming](/wiki/Ming_dynasty "Ming dynasty") and [Qing](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") dynasties, Hong Kong remained under the governance of Xin'an County (renamed from Bao'an County), before it was colonised by [the British](/wiki/British_government "British government"). As a military outpost and trading port, Hong Kong's territory gained the attention of the world.
Before the British government colonised the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories "New Territories") and [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon "New Kowloon") in 1898, [Punti](/wiki/Punti "Punti"), [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka "Hakka"), [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 "Tanka (ethnic group)") and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo "Hoklo") people had migrated to and stayed in Hong Kong for many years. They are the [indigenous inhabitants](/wiki/Indigenous_inhabitants_of_the_New_Territories_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories (Hong Kong)") of Hong Kong. The Punti and Hoklo lived in the New Territories while the Tanka and Hakka lived both in the New Territories and Hong Kong Island. British reports on Hong Kong described the Tanka and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo_people "Hoklo people") living in Hong Kong "since time unknown".{{cite book \|author\=Great Britain. Colonial Office, Hong Kong. Government Information Services \|title\=Hong Kong \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LCcfAQAAMAAJ\|year\=1970 \|publisher\=Govt. Press \|page\=219 \|quote\=The Hoklo people, like the Tanka, have been in the area since time unknown. They too are boat\-dwellers but are less numerous than the Tanka and are mostly found in eastern waters. In some places, they have lived ashore for several}}{{cite book \|title\=Hong Kong: report for the year ... \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=I\-JHAAAAYAAJ \|year\=1970 \|publisher\=Government Press \|page\=219}} The *[Encyclopaedia Americana](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Americana "Encyclopaedia Americana")* described Hoklo and Tanka as living in Hong Kong "since prehistoric times".{{cite book \|author\=Grolier Incorporated \|title\=The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 14 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lAxZAAAAYAAJ \|year\=1999 \|publisher\=Grolier Incorporated \|isbn\=0\-7172\-0131\-7 \|page\=474 \|quote\=In Hong Kong, the Tanka and Hoklo peoples have dwelt in houseboats since prehistoric times. These houseboaters seldom marry shore dwellers. The Hong Kong government estimated that in December 1962 46459 people were living on houseboats there, although a typhoon had wrecked hundreds of boats a few months earlier.}}{{cite book \|author\=Scholastic Library Publishing \|title\=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 1 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=igzYAAAAMAAJ \|year\=2006 \|publisher\=Scholastic Library Pub. \|isbn\=0\-7172\-0139\-2 \|page\=474}}{{cite book \|title\=The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 14 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DOUZAAAAMAAJ\|year\=1981 \|publisher\=Grolier \|isbn\=0\-7172\-0112\-0 \|page\=474}}
When the [Union Flag](/wiki/Union_Flag "Union Flag") was raised over [Possession Point](/wiki/Possession_Point "Possession Point") on 26 January 1841, the population of Hong Kong island was about 7,450, mostly [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 "Tanka (ethnic group)") fishermen and [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka_people "Hakka people") [charcoal burners](/wiki/Charcoal_maker "Charcoal maker") living in several coastal villages.John Thomson 1837–1921, [Chap on Hong Kong](http://irc.aa.tufs.ac.jp/thomson/vol_1/mother/102.html), Illustrations of China and Its People (London,1873–1874\)Info Gov HK. "[Hong Kong Gov Info](http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp-text/english/history/history_01.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418054929/http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp\-text/english/history/history\_01\.htm \|date\=18 April 2007 }}." *History of Hong Kong.* Retrieved on 16 February 2007\. In the 1850s large numbers of Chinese would emigrate from China to Hong Kong due to the [Taiping Rebellion](/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion "Taiping Rebellion"). Other events such as floods, typhoons and famine in [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China "Mainland China") would also play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place to escape the mayhem.
|
[
"Imperial China era (221 BC – 1841 AD)\n-------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Map of [Bao'an (Po On) County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\") in 1866\\. It shows that Hong Kong and Shenzhen used to be a part of Bao'an County in the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\")](/wiki/File:Map_of_Xin%27an_County_%28in_Canton%29_in_1866.jpg \"Map of Xin'an County (in Canton) in 1866.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|History of Hong Kong under Imperial China}}\n{{See also\\|Nam Viet\\|Bao'an County}}",
"The territory that now comprises Hong Kong was loosely part of China during the [Qin dynasty](/wiki/Qin_dynasty \"Qin dynasty\") (221–206 BC), and the area was part of the ancient kingdom of [Nam Viet](/wiki/Nam_Viet \"Nam Viet\") (203–111 BC).{{Cite web\\|date\\=20 July 1998\\|title\\=Nam Viet {{!}} ancient kingdom, Asia\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nam\\-Viet\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-31\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|language\\=en}} During the Qin dynasty, the territory was governed by [Panyu County](/wiki/Panyu_County \"Panyu County\") until the time of the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (265–420)\").{{Cite web\\|date\\=30 July 2020\\|title\\=Hong Kong Museum of History: Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb\\|url\\=https://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/History/en\\_US/web/mh/about\\-us/lei\\-cheng\\-uk\\-han\\-tomb.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-31\\|website\\=lcsd.gov.hk\\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"Archaeological evidence indicates that the population increased during the [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\") (206 BC – AD 220\\). In the 1950s, the [tomb at Lei Cheng Uk](/wiki/Lei_Cheng_Uk_Han_Tomb_Museum \"Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum\") from the [Eastern Han dynasty](/wiki/Eastern_Han_dynasty \"Eastern Han dynasty\") (25–220 AD) was excavated and archaeologists began to investigate the possibility that salt production flourished in Hong Kong around 2000 years ago, although conclusive evidence has not been found. [Tai Po Hoi](/wiki/Tai_Po_Hoi \"Tai Po Hoi\"), the sea of Tai Po, was a major [pearl hunting](/wiki/Pearl_hunting \"Pearl hunting\") harbour in China from the Han dynasty through to the [Ming dynasty](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") (1368–1644\\), with activities peaking during the [Southern Han](/wiki/Southern_Han \"Southern Han\") (917–971\\).",
"During the [Jin dynasty](/wiki/Jin_dynasty_%28265%E2%80%93420%29 \"Jin dynasty (265–420)\") until the early [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\"), Hong Kong was governed by [Bao'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"). Under the [Tang dynasty](/wiki/Tang_dynasty \"Tang dynasty\"), the [Guangdong](/wiki/Guangdong \"Guangdong\") region flourished as an international trading centre. The [Tuen Mun](/wiki/Tuen_Mun \"Tuen Mun\") region in what is now Hong Kong's [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") served as a port, naval base, salt production centre and later as a base for the exploitation of pearls. [Lantau Island](/wiki/Lantau_Island \"Lantau Island\") was also a salt production centre, where riots by salt smugglers against the government broke out. From the middle of the Tang dynasty until the Ming dynasty, Hong Kong was governed by [Dongguan County](/wiki/Dongguan_County \"Dongguan County\").",
"On 10 May 1278, Child [Zhao Bing](/wiki/Zhao_Bing \"Zhao Bing\"), the last Song dynasty emperor, was enthroned at [Mui Wo](/wiki/Mui_Wo \"Mui Wo\") on Lantau Island; this event is commemorated by the [Sung Wong Toi](/wiki/Sung_Wong_Toi \"Sung Wong Toi\") memorial in Kowloon.{{Cite web\\|date\\=2019\\-11\\-07\\|title\\=Last emperor: is Shenzhen the resting place of final Song ruler?\\|url\\=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post\\-magazine/short\\-reads/article/3036545/shenzhen\\-home\\-tomb\\-last\\-emperor\\-chinas\\-southern\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-31\\|website\\=South China Morning Post\\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Sung Wong Toi {{!}} Hong Kong Tourism Board\\|url\\=https://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/interactive\\-map/sung\\-wong\\-toi.html\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-31\\|website\\=Discover Hong Kong\\|language\\=en}} After his defeat at the [Battle of Yamen](/wiki/Battle_of_Yamen \"Battle of Yamen\") on 19 March 1279, the child emperor committed suicide by drowning with his officials at Mount Ya (modern [Yamen Town](/wiki/Yamen_%28town%29 \"Yamen (town)\") in Guangdong).{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Chan\\|first\\=Hok\\-Lam\\|date\\=September 1966\\|title\\=Chinese Refugees in Annam and Champa at the end of the Sung Dynasty\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1017/s0217781100001502\\|journal\\=Journal of Southeast Asian History\\|volume\\=7\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=1–10\\|doi\\=10\\.1017/s0217781100001502\\|issn\\=0217\\-7811}}",
"During the Mongol period, Hong Kong saw its first population boom as Chinese refugees entered the area. Most of these refugees were Chinese Song dynasty loyalists fleeing the [Mongol conquest of Song China](/wiki/Mongol_conquest_of_Song_China \"Mongol conquest of Song China\").",
"Despite the immigration and sparse development of agriculture, the area was hilly and relatively barren. People had to rely on salt, pearl and fishery trades to produce income. Some clans built [walled villages](/wiki/Walled_villages_of_Hong_Kong \"Walled villages of Hong Kong\") to protect themselves from the threat of bandits, rival clans and wild animals. The Qing\\-dynasty Chinese pirate [Cheung Po Tsai](/wiki/Cheung_Po_Tsai \"Cheung Po Tsai\") became a legend in Hong Kong.",
"In the mid\\-17th century, after the [Great Clearance](/wiki/Great_Clearance \"Great Clearance\") policy which purged most of the region's population, under the [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") order, many [Hakka people](/wiki/Hakka \"Hakka\") migrated from inland China to Xin'an County, which included modern Hong Kong.",
"During the [Ming](/wiki/Ming_dynasty \"Ming dynasty\") and [Qing](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") dynasties, Hong Kong remained under the governance of Xin'an County (renamed from Bao'an County), before it was colonised by [the British](/wiki/British_government \"British government\"). As a military outpost and trading port, Hong Kong's territory gained the attention of the world.",
"Before the British government colonised the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") and [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon \"New Kowloon\") in 1898, [Punti](/wiki/Punti \"Punti\"), [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka \"Hakka\"), [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Tanka (ethnic group)\") and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo \"Hoklo\") people had migrated to and stayed in Hong Kong for many years. They are the [indigenous inhabitants](/wiki/Indigenous_inhabitants_of_the_New_Territories_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories (Hong Kong)\") of Hong Kong. The Punti and Hoklo lived in the New Territories while the Tanka and Hakka lived both in the New Territories and Hong Kong Island. British reports on Hong Kong described the Tanka and [Hoklo](/wiki/Hoklo_people \"Hoklo people\") living in Hong Kong \"since time unknown\".{{cite book \\|author\\=Great Britain. Colonial Office, Hong Kong. Government Information Services \\|title\\=Hong Kong \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LCcfAQAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Govt. Press \\|page\\=219 \\|quote\\=The Hoklo people, like the Tanka, have been in the area since time unknown. They too are boat\\-dwellers but are less numerous than the Tanka and are mostly found in eastern waters. In some places, they have lived ashore for several}}{{cite book \\|title\\=Hong Kong: report for the year ... \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=I\\-JHAAAAYAAJ \\|year\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Government Press \\|page\\=219}} The *[Encyclopaedia Americana](/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Americana \"Encyclopaedia Americana\")* described Hoklo and Tanka as living in Hong Kong \"since prehistoric times\".{{cite book \\|author\\=Grolier Incorporated \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 14 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lAxZAAAAYAAJ \\|year\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Grolier Incorporated \\|isbn\\=0\\-7172\\-0131\\-7 \\|page\\=474 \\|quote\\=In Hong Kong, the Tanka and Hoklo peoples have dwelt in houseboats since prehistoric times. These houseboaters seldom marry shore dwellers. The Hong Kong government estimated that in December 1962 46459 people were living on houseboats there, although a typhoon had wrecked hundreds of boats a few months earlier.}}{{cite book \\|author\\=Scholastic Library Publishing \\|title\\=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 1 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=igzYAAAAMAAJ \\|year\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Scholastic Library Pub. \\|isbn\\=0\\-7172\\-0139\\-2 \\|page\\=474}}{{cite book \\|title\\=The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 14 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DOUZAAAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1981 \\|publisher\\=Grolier \\|isbn\\=0\\-7172\\-0112\\-0 \\|page\\=474}}",
"When the [Union Flag](/wiki/Union_Flag \"Union Flag\") was raised over [Possession Point](/wiki/Possession_Point \"Possession Point\") on 26 January 1841, the population of Hong Kong island was about 7,450, mostly [Tanka](/wiki/Tanka_%28ethnic_group%29 \"Tanka (ethnic group)\") fishermen and [Hakka](/wiki/Hakka_people \"Hakka people\") [charcoal burners](/wiki/Charcoal_maker \"Charcoal maker\") living in several coastal villages.John Thomson 1837–1921, [Chap on Hong Kong](http://irc.aa.tufs.ac.jp/thomson/vol_1/mother/102.html), Illustrations of China and Its People (London,1873–1874\\)Info Gov HK. \"[Hong Kong Gov Info](http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp-text/english/history/history_01.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418054929/http://www.info.gov.hk/police/hkp\\-text/english/history/history\\_01\\.htm \\|date\\=18 April 2007 }}.\" *History of Hong Kong.* Retrieved on 16 February 2007\\. In the 1850s large numbers of Chinese would emigrate from China to Hong Kong due to the [Taiping Rebellion](/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion \"Taiping Rebellion\"). Other events such as floods, typhoons and famine in [mainland China](/wiki/Mainland_China \"Mainland China\") would also play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place to escape the mayhem.",
""
] |
Colonial Hong Kong era (1841–1930s)
-----------------------------------
{{Main\|History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)\|British Hong Kong}}
| \+ Treaties and conventions between Britain and China related to Hong Kong |**Date**
**Treaty**
**Outcome**
**Notes**
| --- |
20 January 1841 | [Convention of Chuenpi](/wiki/Convention_of_Chuenpi "Convention of Chuenpi") | Preliminary cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island "Hong Kong Island") to the United Kingdom | Included [Green Island](/wiki/Green_Island%2C_Hong_Kong "Green Island, Hong Kong") and [Ap Lei Chau](/wiki/Ap_Lei_Chau "Ap Lei Chau").
Before the cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island "Hong Kong Island"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County "Bao'an County") .
29 August 1842 | [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking "Treaty of Nanking") | Cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island "Hong Kong Island"), founded as a crown colony of the United Kingdom |
18 October 1860 | [Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_of_Beijing "Convention of Beijing") | Cession of [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon "Kowloon") | South of [Boundary Street](/wiki/Boundary_Street "Boundary Street"), including [Ngong Shuen Chau](/wiki/Ngong_Shuen_Chau "Ngong Shuen Chau").Before the cession of [Kowloon Peninsula](/wiki/Kowloon_Peninsula "Kowloon Peninsula"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County "Bao'an County"). |
1 July 1898 | [Second Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory "Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory"){{small\|''(\[\[Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory]]'')}} | Lease of the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories "New Territories") | South of the [Shenzhen River](/wiki/Shenzhen_River "Shenzhen River") in [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County "Bao'an County"), including [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon "New Kowloon"), [Lantau](/wiki/Lantau "Lantau") and outlying islands. |
[thumb\|right\|140px\|1888 German map of Hong Kong, [Macau](/wiki/Macau "Macau"), and [Canton (Guangzhou)](/wiki/Guangzhou "Guangzhou")](/wiki/File:Situationsk%C3%A4rtchen_von_Kanton%2C_Makao%2C_Hongkong.jpg "Situationskärtchen von Kanton, Makao, Hongkong.jpg")
[thumb\|140px\|left\|The [Treaty of Peking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking "Treaty of Peking")](/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Peking1887.jpg "Treaty of Peking1887.jpg")
By the early 19th century, the British Empire trade was heavily dependent upon the importation of tea, silk, and porcelain from China.{{Cite journal\|last\=Pritchard\|first\=Earl H.\|date\=1957\|title\=Private Trade between England and China in the Eighteenth Century (1680–1833\)\|url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3596041\|journal\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient\|volume\=1\|issue\=1\|pages\=108–137\|doi\=10\.2307/3596041\|jstor\=3596041\|issn\=0022\-4995}}{{Cite web\|date\=17 April 2015\|title\=opium trade {{!}} History \& Facts\|url\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/opium\-trade\|access\-date\=2020\-08\-01\|website\=Encyclopædia Britannica\|language\=en}} While the British exported to China luxury items such as clocks and watches, there remained an overwhelming imbalance in trade. China developed a strong demand for silver, which was a difficult commodity for the British to come by in large quantities. The counterbalance of trade came with exports to China of opium grown in India. By the late 19th century China grew most of the opium it used.Carl A. Trocki, *Opium, Empire and the global political economy: a study of the Asian opium trade, 1750–1950* (Psychology Press, 1999\) pp 111–113\. A Chinese commissioner, [Lin Zexu](/wiki/Lin_Zexu "Lin Zexu"), voiced to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria "Queen Victoria") the Qing state's opposition to the opium trade. The [First Opium War](/wiki/First_Opium_War "First Opium War") which ensued lasted from 1839 to 1842\. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong on 25 January 1841 and used it as a military staging point. China was defeated and was forced to cede Hong Kong in the [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking "Treaty of Nanking") signed on 29 August 1842\. The island became a [crown colony](/wiki/Crown_colony "Crown colony") of the British Empire.R. Derek Wood, "The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the foreign office, 1842–43\." *Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History* 24\.2 (1996\): 181–196 [online](http://www.midley.co.uk/midley_pdfs/Nanking_Wood1996.pdf)
Christian missionaries founded many schools and churches in Hong Kong. St Stephen's Anglican Church located in West Point was founded by the [Church Mission Society](/wiki/Church_Mission_Society "Church Mission Society") in 1865\. [Ying Wa Girls' School](/wiki/Ying_Wa_Girls%27_School "Ying Wa Girls' School") located in Mid\-levels was founded by the [London Missionary Society](/wiki/London_Missionary_Society "London Missionary Society") in 1900\. The [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese "Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese") was founded by the London Missionary Society in 1887, and [Sun Yat\-sen](/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen "Sun Yat-sen") was one of its first two graduates in 1892\. The college was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the [University of Hong Kong](/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong "University of Hong Kong"), which was established in 1911\.
[thumb\|Victoria Harbour and Hong Kong Island in the 1860s](/wiki/File:City_of_Victoria.jpg "City of Victoria.jpg")
Along with fellow students [Yeung Hok\-ling](/wiki/Yeung_Hok-ling "Yeung Hok-ling"), [Chan Siu\-bak](/wiki/Chan_Siu-bak "Chan Siu-bak") and [Yau Lit](/wiki/Yau_Lit "Yau Lit"), Sun Yat\-sen started to promote the thought of overthrowing the Qing empire while he studied in the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. The four students were known by the Qing as the [Four Bandits](/wiki/Four_Bandits "Four Bandits"). Sun attended To Tsai Church (道濟會堂, founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888\) while he studied in this college. Sun led the [Chinese Revolution of 1911](/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_of_1911 "Chinese Revolution of 1911"), which changed China from an empire to a republic.
In April 1899, the residents of [Kam Tin](/wiki/Kam_Tin "Kam Tin") rebelled against the colonial government. They defended themselves in [Kat Hing Wai](/wiki/Kat_Hing_Wai "Kat Hing Wai"), a walled village. After several unsuccessful attacks by the British troops, the iron gate was blasted open. The gate was then shipped to London for exhibition. Under the demand of the [Tang clan](/wiki/Tang_clan "Tang clan") in 1924, the gate was eventually returned in 1925 by the 16th governor, [Sir Reginald Stubbs](/wiki/Reginald_Edward_Stubbs "Reginald Edward Stubbs").
[The first gas company](/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_China_Gas_Company "Hong Kong and China Gas Company") opened in 1862\. In 1890 came the [first electric company](/wiki/Hongkong_Electric "Hongkong Electric"). For local travel rickshaws gave way to [buses](/wiki/History_of_bus_transport_in_Hong_Kong "History of bus transport in Hong Kong"), [ferries](/wiki/Hongkong_and_Yaumati_Ferry "Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry"), and [trams](/wiki/Peak_Tram "Peak Tram"). [Imperial Airways](/wiki/Imperial_Airways "Imperial Airways") set up a base in 1936\.Wiltshire, Trea. \[First published 1987] (republished \& reduced 2003\). Old Hong Kong – Volume One. Central, Hong Kong: Text Form Asia books Ltd. ISBN Volume One 962\-7283\-59\-2 Every industry went through major transformation and growth. Western\-style education made advances through the efforts of [Frederick Stewart](/wiki/Frederick_Stewart_%28colonial_administrator%29 "Frederick Stewart (colonial administrator)").Bickley, Gillian. \[1997](1997\). The Golden Needle: The Biography of Frederick Stewart (1836–1889\). Hong Kong. {{ISBN\|962\-8027\-08\-5}} This was a crucial step in separating Hong Kong from mainland China during the political turmoil associated with the falling Qing dynasty. The base of the future financial center was formed with the opening of [The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank](/wiki/The_Hongkong_and_Shanghai_Banking_Corporation "The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation") in 1865\.
Lim, Patricia. \[2002] (2002\). Discovering Hong Hong's Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. ISBN Volume One 0\-19\-592723\-0
The [Third Pandemic](/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic "Third plague pandemic") of [Bubonic Plague](/wiki/Bubonic_Plague "Bubonic Plague") attacked Hong Kong in the [1894 Hong Kong plague](/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague "1894 Hong Kong plague"). It provided the pretext for [racial zoning](/wiki/Racial_segregation "Racial segregation") with the creation of [Peak Reservation Ordinance](/wiki/Peak_Reservation_Ordinance "Peak Reservation Ordinance"){{cite book
\| last \= Wordie
\| first \= Jason
\| title \= Streets: Exploring Hong Kong Island
\| publisher \= \[\[Hong Kong University Press]]
\| year \= 2002
\| location \= Hong Kong
\| pages \=74–75
\| isbn \= 962\-209\-563\-1 }} and recognising the importance of the [first hospital](/wiki/Tung_Wah_Hospital "Tung Wah Hospital").
On the outbreak of World War I in 1914, fear of a possible attack on the colony led to an exodus of 60,000 Chinese. However, [Hong Kong during World War I](/wiki/Hong_Kong_during_World_War_I "Hong Kong during World War I") saw no direct military action, and Hong Kong's population continued to boom in the following decades from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925\. Nonetheless, the crisis in mainland China in the 1920s and 1930s left Hong Kong vulnerable to a strategic invasion from [Imperial Japan](/wiki/Imperial_Japan "Imperial Japan").
In 1937, Hong Kong was [struck by a major typhoon](/wiki/1937_Great_Hong_Kong_typhoon "1937 Great Hong Kong typhoon").
|
[
"Colonial Hong Kong era (1841–1930s)\n-----------------------------------",
"{{Main\\|History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)\\|British Hong Kong}}",
"| \\+ Treaties and conventions between Britain and China related to Hong Kong |**Date**",
"**Treaty**",
"**Outcome**",
"**Notes**",
"| --- |",
"20 January 1841 | [Convention of Chuenpi](/wiki/Convention_of_Chuenpi \"Convention of Chuenpi\") | Preliminary cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\") to the United Kingdom | Included [Green Island](/wiki/Green_Island%2C_Hong_Kong \"Green Island, Hong Kong\") and [Ap Lei Chau](/wiki/Ap_Lei_Chau \"Ap Lei Chau\"). \nBefore the cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\") .",
"29 August 1842 | [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking \"Treaty of Nanking\") | Cession of [Hong Kong Island](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Island \"Hong Kong Island\"), founded as a crown colony of the United Kingdom |\n 18 October 1860 | [Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_of_Beijing \"Convention of Beijing\") | Cession of [Kowloon](/wiki/Kowloon \"Kowloon\") | South of [Boundary Street](/wiki/Boundary_Street \"Boundary Street\"), including [Ngong Shuen Chau](/wiki/Ngong_Shuen_Chau \"Ngong Shuen Chau\").Before the cession of [Kowloon Peninsula](/wiki/Kowloon_Peninsula \"Kowloon Peninsula\"), this territory was governed by [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"). |\n 1 July 1898 | [Second Convention of Beijing](/wiki/Convention_for_the_Extension_of_Hong_Kong_Territory \"Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory\"){{small\\|''(\\[\\[Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory]]'')}} | Lease of the [New Territories](/wiki/New_Territories \"New Territories\") | South of the [Shenzhen River](/wiki/Shenzhen_River \"Shenzhen River\") in [Xin'an County](/wiki/Bao%27an_County \"Bao'an County\"), including [New Kowloon](/wiki/New_Kowloon \"New Kowloon\"), [Lantau](/wiki/Lantau \"Lantau\") and outlying islands. |",
"[thumb\\|right\\|140px\\|1888 German map of Hong Kong, [Macau](/wiki/Macau \"Macau\"), and [Canton (Guangzhou)](/wiki/Guangzhou \"Guangzhou\")](/wiki/File:Situationsk%C3%A4rtchen_von_Kanton%2C_Makao%2C_Hongkong.jpg \"Situationskärtchen von Kanton, Makao, Hongkong.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|140px\\|left\\|The [Treaty of Peking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Peking \"Treaty of Peking\")](/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Peking1887.jpg \"Treaty of Peking1887.jpg\")\nBy the early 19th century, the British Empire trade was heavily dependent upon the importation of tea, silk, and porcelain from China.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Pritchard\\|first\\=Earl H.\\|date\\=1957\\|title\\=Private Trade between England and China in the Eighteenth Century (1680–1833\\)\\|url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3596041\\|journal\\=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient\\|volume\\=1\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=108–137\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/3596041\\|jstor\\=3596041\\|issn\\=0022\\-4995}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=17 April 2015\\|title\\=opium trade {{!}} History \\& Facts\\|url\\=https://www.britannica.com/topic/opium\\-trade\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-01\\|website\\=Encyclopædia Britannica\\|language\\=en}} While the British exported to China luxury items such as clocks and watches, there remained an overwhelming imbalance in trade. China developed a strong demand for silver, which was a difficult commodity for the British to come by in large quantities. The counterbalance of trade came with exports to China of opium grown in India. By the late 19th century China grew most of the opium it used.Carl A. Trocki, *Opium, Empire and the global political economy: a study of the Asian opium trade, 1750–1950* (Psychology Press, 1999\\) pp 111–113\\. A Chinese commissioner, [Lin Zexu](/wiki/Lin_Zexu \"Lin Zexu\"), voiced to [Queen Victoria](/wiki/Queen_Victoria \"Queen Victoria\") the Qing state's opposition to the opium trade. The [First Opium War](/wiki/First_Opium_War \"First Opium War\") which ensued lasted from 1839 to 1842\\. Britain occupied the island of Hong Kong on 25 January 1841 and used it as a military staging point. China was defeated and was forced to cede Hong Kong in the [Treaty of Nanking](/wiki/Treaty_of_Nanking \"Treaty of Nanking\") signed on 29 August 1842\\. The island became a [crown colony](/wiki/Crown_colony \"Crown colony\") of the British Empire.R. Derek Wood, \"The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the foreign office, 1842–43\\.\" *Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History* 24\\.2 (1996\\): 181–196 [online](http://www.midley.co.uk/midley_pdfs/Nanking_Wood1996.pdf)",
"Christian missionaries founded many schools and churches in Hong Kong. St Stephen's Anglican Church located in West Point was founded by the [Church Mission Society](/wiki/Church_Mission_Society \"Church Mission Society\") in 1865\\. [Ying Wa Girls' School](/wiki/Ying_Wa_Girls%27_School \"Ying Wa Girls' School\") located in Mid\\-levels was founded by the [London Missionary Society](/wiki/London_Missionary_Society \"London Missionary Society\") in 1900\\. The [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/wiki/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese \"Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese\") was founded by the London Missionary Society in 1887, and [Sun Yat\\-sen](/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen \"Sun Yat-sen\") was one of its first two graduates in 1892\\. The college was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the [University of Hong Kong](/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong \"University of Hong Kong\"), which was established in 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|Victoria Harbour and Hong Kong Island in the 1860s](/wiki/File:City_of_Victoria.jpg \"City of Victoria.jpg\")\nAlong with fellow students [Yeung Hok\\-ling](/wiki/Yeung_Hok-ling \"Yeung Hok-ling\"), [Chan Siu\\-bak](/wiki/Chan_Siu-bak \"Chan Siu-bak\") and [Yau Lit](/wiki/Yau_Lit \"Yau Lit\"), Sun Yat\\-sen started to promote the thought of overthrowing the Qing empire while he studied in the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. The four students were known by the Qing as the [Four Bandits](/wiki/Four_Bandits \"Four Bandits\"). Sun attended To Tsai Church (道濟會堂, founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888\\) while he studied in this college. Sun led the [Chinese Revolution of 1911](/wiki/Chinese_Revolution_of_1911 \"Chinese Revolution of 1911\"), which changed China from an empire to a republic.",
"In April 1899, the residents of [Kam Tin](/wiki/Kam_Tin \"Kam Tin\") rebelled against the colonial government. They defended themselves in [Kat Hing Wai](/wiki/Kat_Hing_Wai \"Kat Hing Wai\"), a walled village. After several unsuccessful attacks by the British troops, the iron gate was blasted open. The gate was then shipped to London for exhibition. Under the demand of the [Tang clan](/wiki/Tang_clan \"Tang clan\") in 1924, the gate was eventually returned in 1925 by the 16th governor, [Sir Reginald Stubbs](/wiki/Reginald_Edward_Stubbs \"Reginald Edward Stubbs\").",
"[The first gas company](/wiki/Hong_Kong_and_China_Gas_Company \"Hong Kong and China Gas Company\") opened in 1862\\. In 1890 came the [first electric company](/wiki/Hongkong_Electric \"Hongkong Electric\"). For local travel rickshaws gave way to [buses](/wiki/History_of_bus_transport_in_Hong_Kong \"History of bus transport in Hong Kong\"), [ferries](/wiki/Hongkong_and_Yaumati_Ferry \"Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry\"), and [trams](/wiki/Peak_Tram \"Peak Tram\"). [Imperial Airways](/wiki/Imperial_Airways \"Imperial Airways\") set up a base in 1936\\.Wiltshire, Trea. \\[First published 1987] (republished \\& reduced 2003\\). Old Hong Kong – Volume One. Central, Hong Kong: Text Form Asia books Ltd. ISBN Volume One 962\\-7283\\-59\\-2 Every industry went through major transformation and growth. Western\\-style education made advances through the efforts of [Frederick Stewart](/wiki/Frederick_Stewart_%28colonial_administrator%29 \"Frederick Stewart (colonial administrator)\").Bickley, Gillian. \\[1997](1997\\). The Golden Needle: The Biography of Frederick Stewart (1836–1889\\). Hong Kong. {{ISBN\\|962\\-8027\\-08\\-5}} This was a crucial step in separating Hong Kong from mainland China during the political turmoil associated with the falling Qing dynasty. The base of the future financial center was formed with the opening of [The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank](/wiki/The_Hongkong_and_Shanghai_Banking_Corporation \"The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation\") in 1865\\.\nLim, Patricia. \\[2002] (2002\\). Discovering Hong Hong's Cultural Heritage. Central, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. ISBN Volume One 0\\-19\\-592723\\-0",
"",
"The [Third Pandemic](/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic \"Third plague pandemic\") of [Bubonic Plague](/wiki/Bubonic_Plague \"Bubonic Plague\") attacked Hong Kong in the [1894 Hong Kong plague](/wiki/1894_Hong_Kong_plague \"1894 Hong Kong plague\"). It provided the pretext for [racial zoning](/wiki/Racial_segregation \"Racial segregation\") with the creation of [Peak Reservation Ordinance](/wiki/Peak_Reservation_Ordinance \"Peak Reservation Ordinance\"){{cite book\n \\| last \\= Wordie\n \\| first \\= Jason\n \\| title \\= Streets: Exploring Hong Kong Island\n \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Hong Kong University Press]]\n \\| year \\= 2002\n \\| location \\= Hong Kong\n \\| pages \\=74–75\n \\| isbn \\= 962\\-209\\-563\\-1 }} and recognising the importance of the [first hospital](/wiki/Tung_Wah_Hospital \"Tung Wah Hospital\").",
"On the outbreak of World War I in 1914, fear of a possible attack on the colony led to an exodus of 60,000 Chinese. However, [Hong Kong during World War I](/wiki/Hong_Kong_during_World_War_I \"Hong Kong during World War I\") saw no direct military action, and Hong Kong's population continued to boom in the following decades from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925\\. Nonetheless, the crisis in mainland China in the 1920s and 1930s left Hong Kong vulnerable to a strategic invasion from [Imperial Japan](/wiki/Imperial_Japan \"Imperial Japan\").",
"In 1937, Hong Kong was [struck by a major typhoon](/wiki/1937_Great_Hong_Kong_typhoon \"1937 Great Hong Kong typhoon\").",
""
] |
National highways
-----------------
National highways are [freeways](/wiki/Freeway "Freeway") with controlled access.{{refn\|group\=nb\|This term "''free''way" means "''free'' of \[\[Traffic Signal\|signals]]", not "''free'' of charge"}}
[thumb\|300px\|National highways of Taiwan](/wiki/File:Autobahnnetz_Taiwan.svg "Autobahnnetz Taiwan.svg")
### History
The first [controlled\-access highway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway "Controlled-access highway"), and a predecessor to the national highways in Taiwan, was the [MacArthur Thruway](/wiki/MacArthur_Thruway "MacArthur Thruway"), built in 1964 between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") and [Taipei](/wiki/Taipei "Taipei").{{cite news \| url\=http://www.newdaai.tv/?view\=detail\&id\=81972 \| title\=Da Ai Headlines for May 2, 2011 \| date\=2011\-05\-02 \| work\=Da Ai World News \| access\-date\=2012\-01\-10}} Construction on the first modern national highway, [National Highway 1](/wiki/National_Highway_1_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 1 (Taiwan)"), began in 1971\. The northern section between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") and [Zhongli](/wiki/Zhongli_District "Zhongli District") was completed in 1974, and the entire freeway was completed in 1978\. It runs from the northern harbor city of [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") to the southern harbor city of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung"), while there was an {{convert\|8\.6\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} branch (No. 1A) connecting to Chiang Kai\-shek International Airport (now [Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport "Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport")).
Construction began on the other freeways in the late 1980s. The northern section of the second north–south freeway ([National Highway 3](/wiki/National_Highway_3_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 3 (Taiwan)")) between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi "Xizhi") and [Hsinchu](/wiki/Hsinchu "Hsinchu") was completed in 1997\. The No. 1A Branch was extended to link No. 3 Freeway at [Yingge, Taipei](/wiki/Yingge%2C_Taipei "Yingge, Taipei"), and renamed as the [National Highway 2](/wiki/National_Highway_2_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 2 (Taiwan)"). Three other short freeways (No. 4, No. 8, and No. 10\) were built to link the two north–south freeways in [Taichung County](/wiki/Taichung_County "Taichung County") (now part of [Taichung City](/wiki/Taichung_City "Taichung City")), [Tainan County](/wiki/Tainan_County "Tainan County") (now part of [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City "Tainan City")), and [Kaohsiung County](/wiki/Kaohsiung_County "Kaohsiung County") (now part of [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City "Kaohsiung City")), respectively. The entire No. 3 Freeway was completed in January 2004\.
To ease the congestion of No. 1 Freeway in the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area "Taipei metropolitan area"), a {{convert\|20\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct "Viaduct") was built in 1997 along the original freeway between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi "Xizhi") and the [Wugu District](/wiki/Wugu_District "Wugu District") of New Taipei to serve as a bypass for traffic not exiting and entering the freeway within Taipei.
The construction of a freeway connecting the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area "Taipei metropolitan area") and [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan "Yilan County, Taiwan") began in 1991 and was completed in June 2006\. It includes a {{convert\|12\.9\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} tunnel ([Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel")), which is the ninth\-longest road [tunnel](/wiki/Tunnel "Tunnel") in the world. An extension from [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan "Yilan County, Taiwan") to [Hualien County](/wiki/Hualien_County "Hualien County") is planned. However, its construction is being delayed by environmental concerns.
On January 2, 2014, the toll system was converted to a distance\-based one. Tolls are no longer collected at toll booths but automatically by [electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 "Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)") (ETC).
### Features
#### Length, exits, and entrances
Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\|Exit advance
Image:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\|Freeway entrance
Image:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\|The pre\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.
Image:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\|The post\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\.
Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.
[thumb\|150px\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say "Exit exclusive lane."](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG "Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG")
There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif")
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif")
Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.
Long rectangular\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.
Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.
#### Speed limit
The speed limit for cars on Taiwan's freeways range from 80 km/h (50 mph) on [Freeway No. 5](/wiki/National_Highway_No._5_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway No. 5 (Taiwan)") (north of [Toucheng, Yilan](/wiki/Toucheng%2C_Yilan "Toucheng, Yilan")) to 110 km/h (68 mph) on [Freeway No. 3](/wiki/National_Highway_No._3_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway No. 3 (Taiwan)") (south of [Tucheng, New Taipei](/wiki/Tucheng_City "Tucheng City")). The speed limit for trucks are usually 10 km/h lower. In non\-traffic jam conditions, a vehicle must travel at least 60 km/h (37 mph).
Speed limits are enforced through [radar activated cameras](/wiki/Traffic_enforcement_camera "Traffic enforcement camera") that take pictures of speed\-violating cars. Because of protests, yellow warning signs are given in advance in Chinese of approaching radar activated cameras.
#### Following distances
As [tailgating](/wiki/Tailgating "Tailgating") poses serious hazards of rear\-ending, Article 6 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation ({{zh\|t\=高速公路及快速公路交通管制規則}}) requires the following minimum following distances when the weather is fine:
| Speed | Minimum distance per large vehicle(大型車) | Minimum distance per small vehicle(小型車) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 60 km/h | 40 m | 30 m |
| 70 km/h | 50 m | 35 m |
| 80 km/h | 60 m | 40 m |
| 90 km/h | 70 m | 45 m |
| 100 km/h | 80 m | 50 m |
| 110 km/h | 90 m | 55 m |
Longer following distance is required in the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel").
#### Traveling through tunnels
In the tunnel portions of freeways, lane change is prohibited when the lane divider consists of two parallel solid lines, used when lane change is considered unsafe should a collision cause a vehicular fire. Headlights must be turned on when traveling through tunnels; this is enforced by special cameras. Unlawful lane change or failure to turn on headlights in a tunnel is subject to an administrative fine of 3000 [new Taiwan dollars](/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar "New Taiwan dollar").
Additional restrictions apply for the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel") on Freeway No. 5, which is the longest tunnel in the entire system.
#### Prohibited traffic
Article 19 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation prohibits uses of and entries onto the freeways by:
1. Pedestrians.
2. Military troops marching or conducting drills.
3. Non\-motorized vehicles
4. Motorcycles (see also [Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways\#Taiwan](/wiki/Restrictions_on_motorcycle_use_on_freeways%23Taiwan "Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways#Taiwan") for more information).
5. Three\-wheel motor vehicles or motorized pedicabs.
6. Farm machineries.
7. Motorized machineries not being motor vehicles.
8. Towed vehicles not disabled on the freeways or [expressways](/wiki/%23Expressways "#Expressways").
#### [Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 "Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)")
Odd\-numbered freeways have tolls, which are automatically collected by [ETC](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection "Electronic toll collection"). The current rate for cars is (NT$1\.2/km up to 200 km) \+ (NT$0\.9/excess km), km being kilometers traveled per day. The first 20 km per day is free and thus deducted from the distance. Freeways may be used directly, but users are advised to apply for an “eTag”, which is free and when equipped gives 10% discounts and allows you to store pre\-paid money for tolls. The eTag can also be set to pay tolls automatically with credit card or a savings account. Users without the eTag pay tolls at convenience stores 3 days after usage and if not, bills will be mailed to car owners.
### Service and Rest Areas
Image:Taiwan road sign Art110\.png\|Service Area Ahead
Image:TW\-Art111\.png\|Exit to Service Area
Image:TW\-Art112\.png\|Rest Area Ahead
Image:TW\-Art113\.png\|Exit to Rest Area
Freeway service and rest areas start appearing south of Taoyuan City on the No. 1 and No. 3 freeways. Most rest areas provide gas stations, gift shops, convenience stores, and food courts. The Qingshui rest area located on the 172\.4 km mileage marker of National Highway No. 3 is so popular that visitors can only park for 45 minutes and are prohibited from barbecuing.
### List of national highways
{{Highway system OSM map
\| highway\_system\_qid \= Q61669822
\| frame\-lat \=
\| frame\-long \=
\| frame\-width \= 200
\| frame\-height \= 250
\| zoom \=
\| length \= yes
\| plain \=
\| text \= Map of national highways
\| frame\-align \= right
}}
There are eight national highways as of 2011\. They are administered by the National Freeway Bureau.
* [No. 1](/wiki/National_Freeway_1 "National Freeway 1") ([Keelung City](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") \- [Qianzhen](/wiki/Cianjhen_District "Cianjhen District"), [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung")): 374\.4 km, completed on October 31, 1978
+ No. 1A (Zhuwei, [Dayuan District](/wiki/Dayuan_District "Dayuan District") \- [Guishan District](/wiki/Guishan_District "Guishan District")): Planned; No. 1A originally ran from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport to the airport interchange; this is now part of National Freeway No. 2
* [No. 2](/wiki/National_Freeway_2 "National Freeway 2") ([Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport "Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport") \- [Yingge](/wiki/Yingge_District "Yingge District"), [New Taipei](/wiki/New_Taipei "New Taipei")): 20\.4 km, completed on August 24, 1997
+ No. 2A ([Dayuan District, Taoyuan](/wiki/Dayuan_District%2C_Taoyuan "Dayuan District, Taoyuan") \- Dayuan District, Taoyuan): Under construction
* [No. 3](/wiki/National_Freeway_3 "National Freeway 3") (Dawulun, [Keelung City](/wiki/Keelung_City "Keelung City") \- [Linbian, Pingtung](/wiki/Linbian%2C_Pingtung "Linbian, Pingtung")): 432\.0 km, completed on January 11, 2004
+ [No. 3A](/wiki/National_Freeway_3A "National Freeway 3A") ([Da'an](/wiki/Da%27an_District%2C_Taipei "Da'an District, Taipei"), [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City "Taipei City") \- [Shenkeng, Taipei](/wiki/Shenkeng%2C_Taipei "Shenkeng, Taipei")): 5\.6 km, completed on March 21, 1996
* [No. 4](/wiki/National_Freeway_4 "National Freeway 4") ([Qingshui, Taichung](/wiki/Qingshui%2C_Taichung "Qingshui, Taichung") \- [Tanzi, Taichung](/wiki/Tanzi%2C_Taichung "Tanzi, Taichung")): 28\.0 km, completed in November 2001
* [No. 5](/wiki/National_Freeway_5 "National Freeway 5") ([Nangang](/wiki/Nangang_District_%28Taipei%29 "Nangang District (Taipei)"), [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City "Taipei City") \- [Su\-ao, Yilan](/wiki/Su-ao%2C_Yilan "Su-ao, Yilan")): 54\.3 km, completed on January 16, 2006
* [No. 6](/wiki/National_Freeway_6 "National Freeway 6") ([Wufeng, Taichung](/wiki/Wufeng%2C_Taichung "Wufeng, Taichung") \- [Puli, Nantou](/wiki/Puli%2C_Nantou "Puli, Nantou")): 37\.6 km, completed on March 21, 2009
* [No. 7](/wiki/National_Freeway_7 "National Freeway 7") (Kaohsiung Port to freeway 10\): Currently under construction
* [No. 8](/wiki/National_Freeway_8 "National Freeway 8") ([Annan](/wiki/Annan_District "Annan District"), [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City "Tainan City") \- [Xinhua, Tainan](/wiki/Xinhua%2C_Tainan "Xinhua, Tainan")): 15\.5 km, completed in February 2000
* [No. 10](/wiki/National_Freeway_10 "National Freeway 10") ([Zuoying](/wiki/Zuoying_District "Zuoying District"), [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City "Kaohsiung City") \- [Cishan, Kaohsiung](/wiki/Cishan_District "Cishan District")): 33\.8 km completed in February 2000
{{Freeways and Expressways in Taiwan}}
|
[
"National highways\n-----------------",
"National highways are [freeways](/wiki/Freeway \"Freeway\") with controlled access.{{refn\\|group\\=nb\\|This term \"''free''way\" means \"''free'' of \\[\\[Traffic Signal\\|signals]]\", not \"''free'' of charge\"}}",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|National highways of Taiwan](/wiki/File:Autobahnnetz_Taiwan.svg \"Autobahnnetz Taiwan.svg\")",
"### History",
"The first [controlled\\-access highway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway \"Controlled-access highway\"), and a predecessor to the national highways in Taiwan, was the [MacArthur Thruway](/wiki/MacArthur_Thruway \"MacArthur Thruway\"), built in 1964 between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") and [Taipei](/wiki/Taipei \"Taipei\").{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.newdaai.tv/?view\\=detail\\&id\\=81972 \\| title\\=Da Ai Headlines for May 2, 2011 \\| date\\=2011\\-05\\-02 \\| work\\=Da Ai World News \\| access\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-10}} Construction on the first modern national highway, [National Highway 1](/wiki/National_Highway_1_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 1 (Taiwan)\"), began in 1971\\. The northern section between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") and [Zhongli](/wiki/Zhongli_District \"Zhongli District\") was completed in 1974, and the entire freeway was completed in 1978\\. It runs from the northern harbor city of [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") to the southern harbor city of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\"), while there was an {{convert\\|8\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} branch (No. 1A) connecting to Chiang Kai\\-shek International Airport (now [Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport \"Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport\")).",
"Construction began on the other freeways in the late 1980s. The northern section of the second north–south freeway ([National Highway 3](/wiki/National_Highway_3_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 3 (Taiwan)\")) between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi \"Xizhi\") and [Hsinchu](/wiki/Hsinchu \"Hsinchu\") was completed in 1997\\. The No. 1A Branch was extended to link No. 3 Freeway at [Yingge, Taipei](/wiki/Yingge%2C_Taipei \"Yingge, Taipei\"), and renamed as the [National Highway 2](/wiki/National_Highway_2_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 2 (Taiwan)\"). Three other short freeways (No. 4, No. 8, and No. 10\\) were built to link the two north–south freeways in [Taichung County](/wiki/Taichung_County \"Taichung County\") (now part of [Taichung City](/wiki/Taichung_City \"Taichung City\")), [Tainan County](/wiki/Tainan_County \"Tainan County\") (now part of [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City \"Tainan City\")), and [Kaohsiung County](/wiki/Kaohsiung_County \"Kaohsiung County\") (now part of [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City \"Kaohsiung City\")), respectively. The entire No. 3 Freeway was completed in January 2004\\.",
"To ease the congestion of No. 1 Freeway in the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area \"Taipei metropolitan area\"), a {{convert\\|20\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct \"Viaduct\") was built in 1997 along the original freeway between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi \"Xizhi\") and the [Wugu District](/wiki/Wugu_District \"Wugu District\") of New Taipei to serve as a bypass for traffic not exiting and entering the freeway within Taipei.",
"The construction of a freeway connecting the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area \"Taipei metropolitan area\") and [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan \"Yilan County, Taiwan\") began in 1991 and was completed in June 2006\\. It includes a {{convert\\|12\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} tunnel ([Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\")), which is the ninth\\-longest road [tunnel](/wiki/Tunnel \"Tunnel\") in the world. An extension from [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan \"Yilan County, Taiwan\") to [Hualien County](/wiki/Hualien_County \"Hualien County\") is planned. However, its construction is being delayed by environmental concerns.",
"On January 2, 2014, the toll system was converted to a distance\\-based one. Tolls are no longer collected at toll booths but automatically by [electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 \"Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)\") (ETC).",
"### Features",
"#### Length, exits, and entrances",
"",
"Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\\|Exit advance\nImage:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\\|Freeway entrance\nImage:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\\|The pre\\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.\nImage:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\\|The post\\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\\.",
"Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say \"Exit exclusive lane.\"](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG \"Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG\")",
"There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.",
"Long rectangular\\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.",
"Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.",
"#### Speed limit",
"The speed limit for cars on Taiwan's freeways range from 80 km/h (50 mph) on [Freeway No. 5](/wiki/National_Highway_No._5_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway No. 5 (Taiwan)\") (north of [Toucheng, Yilan](/wiki/Toucheng%2C_Yilan \"Toucheng, Yilan\")) to 110 km/h (68 mph) on [Freeway No. 3](/wiki/National_Highway_No._3_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway No. 3 (Taiwan)\") (south of [Tucheng, New Taipei](/wiki/Tucheng_City \"Tucheng City\")). The speed limit for trucks are usually 10 km/h lower. In non\\-traffic jam conditions, a vehicle must travel at least 60 km/h (37 mph).",
"Speed limits are enforced through [radar activated cameras](/wiki/Traffic_enforcement_camera \"Traffic enforcement camera\") that take pictures of speed\\-violating cars. Because of protests, yellow warning signs are given in advance in Chinese of approaching radar activated cameras.",
"#### Following distances",
"As [tailgating](/wiki/Tailgating \"Tailgating\") poses serious hazards of rear\\-ending, Article 6 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation ({{zh\\|t\\=高速公路及快速公路交通管制規則}}) requires the following minimum following distances when the weather is fine:",
"| Speed | Minimum distance per large vehicle(大型車) | Minimum distance per small vehicle(小型車) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 60 km/h | 40 m | 30 m |\n| 70 km/h | 50 m | 35 m |\n| 80 km/h | 60 m | 40 m |\n| 90 km/h | 70 m | 45 m |\n| 100 km/h | 80 m | 50 m |\n| 110 km/h | 90 m | 55 m |",
"Longer following distance is required in the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\").",
"#### Traveling through tunnels",
"In the tunnel portions of freeways, lane change is prohibited when the lane divider consists of two parallel solid lines, used when lane change is considered unsafe should a collision cause a vehicular fire. Headlights must be turned on when traveling through tunnels; this is enforced by special cameras. Unlawful lane change or failure to turn on headlights in a tunnel is subject to an administrative fine of 3000 [new Taiwan dollars](/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar \"New Taiwan dollar\").",
"Additional restrictions apply for the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\") on Freeway No. 5, which is the longest tunnel in the entire system.",
"#### Prohibited traffic",
"Article 19 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation prohibits uses of and entries onto the freeways by:\n1. Pedestrians.\n2. Military troops marching or conducting drills.\n3. Non\\-motorized vehicles\n4. Motorcycles (see also [Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways\\#Taiwan](/wiki/Restrictions_on_motorcycle_use_on_freeways%23Taiwan \"Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways#Taiwan\") for more information).\n5. Three\\-wheel motor vehicles or motorized pedicabs.\n6. Farm machineries.\n7. Motorized machineries not being motor vehicles.\n8. Towed vehicles not disabled on the freeways or [expressways](/wiki/%23Expressways \"#Expressways\").",
"#### [Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 \"Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)\")",
"Odd\\-numbered freeways have tolls, which are automatically collected by [ETC](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection \"Electronic toll collection\"). The current rate for cars is (NT$1\\.2/km up to 200 km) \\+ (NT$0\\.9/excess km), km being kilometers traveled per day. The first 20 km per day is free and thus deducted from the distance. Freeways may be used directly, but users are advised to apply for an “eTag”, which is free and when equipped gives 10% discounts and allows you to store pre\\-paid money for tolls. The eTag can also be set to pay tolls automatically with credit card or a savings account. Users without the eTag pay tolls at convenience stores 3 days after usage and if not, bills will be mailed to car owners.",
"### Service and Rest Areas",
"",
"Image:Taiwan road sign Art110\\.png\\|Service Area Ahead\nImage:TW\\-Art111\\.png\\|Exit to Service Area\nImage:TW\\-Art112\\.png\\|Rest Area Ahead\nImage:TW\\-Art113\\.png\\|Exit to Rest Area",
"Freeway service and rest areas start appearing south of Taoyuan City on the No. 1 and No. 3 freeways. Most rest areas provide gas stations, gift shops, convenience stores, and food courts. The Qingshui rest area located on the 172\\.4 km mileage marker of National Highway No. 3 is so popular that visitors can only park for 45 minutes and are prohibited from barbecuing.",
"### List of national highways",
"{{Highway system OSM map\n \\| highway\\_system\\_qid \\= Q61669822\n \\| frame\\-lat \\= \n \\| frame\\-long \\= \n \\| frame\\-width \\= 200\n \\| frame\\-height \\= 250\n \\| zoom \\= \n \\| length \\= yes\n \\| plain \\= \n \\| text \\= Map of national highways\n \\| frame\\-align \\= right\n }}\nThere are eight national highways as of 2011\\. They are administered by the National Freeway Bureau.",
"* [No. 1](/wiki/National_Freeway_1 \"National Freeway 1\") ([Keelung City](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") \\- [Qianzhen](/wiki/Cianjhen_District \"Cianjhen District\"), [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\")): 374\\.4 km, completed on October 31, 1978\n\t+ No. 1A (Zhuwei, [Dayuan District](/wiki/Dayuan_District \"Dayuan District\") \\- [Guishan District](/wiki/Guishan_District \"Guishan District\")): Planned; No. 1A originally ran from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport to the airport interchange; this is now part of National Freeway No. 2\n* [No. 2](/wiki/National_Freeway_2 \"National Freeway 2\") ([Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport \"Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport\") \\- [Yingge](/wiki/Yingge_District \"Yingge District\"), [New Taipei](/wiki/New_Taipei \"New Taipei\")): 20\\.4 km, completed on August 24, 1997\n\t+ No. 2A ([Dayuan District, Taoyuan](/wiki/Dayuan_District%2C_Taoyuan \"Dayuan District, Taoyuan\") \\- Dayuan District, Taoyuan): Under construction\n* [No. 3](/wiki/National_Freeway_3 \"National Freeway 3\") (Dawulun, [Keelung City](/wiki/Keelung_City \"Keelung City\") \\- [Linbian, Pingtung](/wiki/Linbian%2C_Pingtung \"Linbian, Pingtung\")): 432\\.0 km, completed on January 11, 2004\n\t+ [No. 3A](/wiki/National_Freeway_3A \"National Freeway 3A\") ([Da'an](/wiki/Da%27an_District%2C_Taipei \"Da'an District, Taipei\"), [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City \"Taipei City\") \\- [Shenkeng, Taipei](/wiki/Shenkeng%2C_Taipei \"Shenkeng, Taipei\")): 5\\.6 km, completed on March 21, 1996\n* [No. 4](/wiki/National_Freeway_4 \"National Freeway 4\") ([Qingshui, Taichung](/wiki/Qingshui%2C_Taichung \"Qingshui, Taichung\") \\- [Tanzi, Taichung](/wiki/Tanzi%2C_Taichung \"Tanzi, Taichung\")): 28\\.0 km, completed in November 2001\n* [No. 5](/wiki/National_Freeway_5 \"National Freeway 5\") ([Nangang](/wiki/Nangang_District_%28Taipei%29 \"Nangang District (Taipei)\"), [Taipei City](/wiki/Taipei_City \"Taipei City\") \\- [Su\\-ao, Yilan](/wiki/Su-ao%2C_Yilan \"Su-ao, Yilan\")): 54\\.3 km, completed on January 16, 2006\n* [No. 6](/wiki/National_Freeway_6 \"National Freeway 6\") ([Wufeng, Taichung](/wiki/Wufeng%2C_Taichung \"Wufeng, Taichung\") \\- [Puli, Nantou](/wiki/Puli%2C_Nantou \"Puli, Nantou\")): 37\\.6 km, completed on March 21, 2009\n* [No. 7](/wiki/National_Freeway_7 \"National Freeway 7\") (Kaohsiung Port to freeway 10\\): Currently under construction\n* [No. 8](/wiki/National_Freeway_8 \"National Freeway 8\") ([Annan](/wiki/Annan_District \"Annan District\"), [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City \"Tainan City\") \\- [Xinhua, Tainan](/wiki/Xinhua%2C_Tainan \"Xinhua, Tainan\")): 15\\.5 km, completed in February 2000\n* [No. 10](/wiki/National_Freeway_10 \"National Freeway 10\") ([Zuoying](/wiki/Zuoying_District \"Zuoying District\"), [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City \"Kaohsiung City\") \\- [Cishan, Kaohsiung](/wiki/Cishan_District \"Cishan District\")): 33\\.8 km completed in February 2000",
"{{Freeways and Expressways in Taiwan}}",
""
] |
### History
The first [controlled\-access highway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway "Controlled-access highway"), and a predecessor to the national highways in Taiwan, was the [MacArthur Thruway](/wiki/MacArthur_Thruway "MacArthur Thruway"), built in 1964 between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") and [Taipei](/wiki/Taipei "Taipei").{{cite news \| url\=http://www.newdaai.tv/?view\=detail\&id\=81972 \| title\=Da Ai Headlines for May 2, 2011 \| date\=2011\-05\-02 \| work\=Da Ai World News \| access\-date\=2012\-01\-10}} Construction on the first modern national highway, [National Highway 1](/wiki/National_Highway_1_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 1 (Taiwan)"), began in 1971\. The northern section between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") and [Zhongli](/wiki/Zhongli_District "Zhongli District") was completed in 1974, and the entire freeway was completed in 1978\. It runs from the northern harbor city of [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung "Keelung") to the southern harbor city of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung "Kaohsiung"), while there was an {{convert\|8\.6\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} branch (No. 1A) connecting to Chiang Kai\-shek International Airport (now [Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport "Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport")).
Construction began on the other freeways in the late 1980s. The northern section of the second north–south freeway ([National Highway 3](/wiki/National_Highway_3_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 3 (Taiwan)")) between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi "Xizhi") and [Hsinchu](/wiki/Hsinchu "Hsinchu") was completed in 1997\. The No. 1A Branch was extended to link No. 3 Freeway at [Yingge, Taipei](/wiki/Yingge%2C_Taipei "Yingge, Taipei"), and renamed as the [National Highway 2](/wiki/National_Highway_2_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway 2 (Taiwan)"). Three other short freeways (No. 4, No. 8, and No. 10\) were built to link the two north–south freeways in [Taichung County](/wiki/Taichung_County "Taichung County") (now part of [Taichung City](/wiki/Taichung_City "Taichung City")), [Tainan County](/wiki/Tainan_County "Tainan County") (now part of [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City "Tainan City")), and [Kaohsiung County](/wiki/Kaohsiung_County "Kaohsiung County") (now part of [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City "Kaohsiung City")), respectively. The entire No. 3 Freeway was completed in January 2004\.
To ease the congestion of No. 1 Freeway in the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area "Taipei metropolitan area"), a {{convert\|20\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct "Viaduct") was built in 1997 along the original freeway between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi "Xizhi") and the [Wugu District](/wiki/Wugu_District "Wugu District") of New Taipei to serve as a bypass for traffic not exiting and entering the freeway within Taipei.
The construction of a freeway connecting the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area "Taipei metropolitan area") and [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan "Yilan County, Taiwan") began in 1991 and was completed in June 2006\. It includes a {{convert\|12\.9\|km\|mi\|adj\=on}} tunnel ([Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel")), which is the ninth\-longest road [tunnel](/wiki/Tunnel "Tunnel") in the world. An extension from [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan "Yilan County, Taiwan") to [Hualien County](/wiki/Hualien_County "Hualien County") is planned. However, its construction is being delayed by environmental concerns.
On January 2, 2014, the toll system was converted to a distance\-based one. Tolls are no longer collected at toll booths but automatically by [electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 "Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)") (ETC).
|
[
"### History",
"The first [controlled\\-access highway](/wiki/Controlled-access_highway \"Controlled-access highway\"), and a predecessor to the national highways in Taiwan, was the [MacArthur Thruway](/wiki/MacArthur_Thruway \"MacArthur Thruway\"), built in 1964 between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") and [Taipei](/wiki/Taipei \"Taipei\").{{cite news \\| url\\=http://www.newdaai.tv/?view\\=detail\\&id\\=81972 \\| title\\=Da Ai Headlines for May 2, 2011 \\| date\\=2011\\-05\\-02 \\| work\\=Da Ai World News \\| access\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-10}} Construction on the first modern national highway, [National Highway 1](/wiki/National_Highway_1_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 1 (Taiwan)\"), began in 1971\\. The northern section between [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") and [Zhongli](/wiki/Zhongli_District \"Zhongli District\") was completed in 1974, and the entire freeway was completed in 1978\\. It runs from the northern harbor city of [Keelung](/wiki/Keelung \"Keelung\") to the southern harbor city of [Kaohsiung](/wiki/Kaohsiung \"Kaohsiung\"), while there was an {{convert\\|8\\.6\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} branch (No. 1A) connecting to Chiang Kai\\-shek International Airport (now [Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport](/wiki/Taiwan_Taoyuan_International_Airport \"Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport\")).",
"Construction began on the other freeways in the late 1980s. The northern section of the second north–south freeway ([National Highway 3](/wiki/National_Highway_3_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 3 (Taiwan)\")) between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi \"Xizhi\") and [Hsinchu](/wiki/Hsinchu \"Hsinchu\") was completed in 1997\\. The No. 1A Branch was extended to link No. 3 Freeway at [Yingge, Taipei](/wiki/Yingge%2C_Taipei \"Yingge, Taipei\"), and renamed as the [National Highway 2](/wiki/National_Highway_2_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway 2 (Taiwan)\"). Three other short freeways (No. 4, No. 8, and No. 10\\) were built to link the two north–south freeways in [Taichung County](/wiki/Taichung_County \"Taichung County\") (now part of [Taichung City](/wiki/Taichung_City \"Taichung City\")), [Tainan County](/wiki/Tainan_County \"Tainan County\") (now part of [Tainan City](/wiki/Tainan_City \"Tainan City\")), and [Kaohsiung County](/wiki/Kaohsiung_County \"Kaohsiung County\") (now part of [Kaohsiung City](/wiki/Kaohsiung_City \"Kaohsiung City\")), respectively. The entire No. 3 Freeway was completed in January 2004\\.",
"To ease the congestion of No. 1 Freeway in the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area \"Taipei metropolitan area\"), a {{convert\\|20\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} [viaduct](/wiki/Viaduct \"Viaduct\") was built in 1997 along the original freeway between [Xizhi](/wiki/Xizhi \"Xizhi\") and the [Wugu District](/wiki/Wugu_District \"Wugu District\") of New Taipei to serve as a bypass for traffic not exiting and entering the freeway within Taipei.",
"The construction of a freeway connecting the [Taipei metropolitan area](/wiki/Taipei_metropolitan_area \"Taipei metropolitan area\") and [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan \"Yilan County, Taiwan\") began in 1991 and was completed in June 2006\\. It includes a {{convert\\|12\\.9\\|km\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} tunnel ([Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\")), which is the ninth\\-longest road [tunnel](/wiki/Tunnel \"Tunnel\") in the world. An extension from [Yilan County](/wiki/Yilan_County%2C_Taiwan \"Yilan County, Taiwan\") to [Hualien County](/wiki/Hualien_County \"Hualien County\") is planned. However, its construction is being delayed by environmental concerns.",
"On January 2, 2014, the toll system was converted to a distance\\-based one. Tolls are no longer collected at toll booths but automatically by [electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 \"Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)\") (ETC).",
""
] |
### Features
#### Length, exits, and entrances
Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\|Exit advance
Image:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\|Freeway entrance
Image:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\|The pre\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.
Image:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\|The post\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\.
Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.
[thumb\|150px\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say "Exit exclusive lane."](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG "Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG")
There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif")
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif")
Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.
Long rectangular\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.
Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.
#### Speed limit
The speed limit for cars on Taiwan's freeways range from 80 km/h (50 mph) on [Freeway No. 5](/wiki/National_Highway_No._5_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway No. 5 (Taiwan)") (north of [Toucheng, Yilan](/wiki/Toucheng%2C_Yilan "Toucheng, Yilan")) to 110 km/h (68 mph) on [Freeway No. 3](/wiki/National_Highway_No._3_%28Taiwan%29 "National Highway No. 3 (Taiwan)") (south of [Tucheng, New Taipei](/wiki/Tucheng_City "Tucheng City")). The speed limit for trucks are usually 10 km/h lower. In non\-traffic jam conditions, a vehicle must travel at least 60 km/h (37 mph).
Speed limits are enforced through [radar activated cameras](/wiki/Traffic_enforcement_camera "Traffic enforcement camera") that take pictures of speed\-violating cars. Because of protests, yellow warning signs are given in advance in Chinese of approaching radar activated cameras.
#### Following distances
As [tailgating](/wiki/Tailgating "Tailgating") poses serious hazards of rear\-ending, Article 6 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation ({{zh\|t\=高速公路及快速公路交通管制規則}}) requires the following minimum following distances when the weather is fine:
| Speed | Minimum distance per large vehicle(大型車) | Minimum distance per small vehicle(小型車) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 60 km/h | 40 m | 30 m |
| 70 km/h | 50 m | 35 m |
| 80 km/h | 60 m | 40 m |
| 90 km/h | 70 m | 45 m |
| 100 km/h | 80 m | 50 m |
| 110 km/h | 90 m | 55 m |
Longer following distance is required in the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel").
#### Traveling through tunnels
In the tunnel portions of freeways, lane change is prohibited when the lane divider consists of two parallel solid lines, used when lane change is considered unsafe should a collision cause a vehicular fire. Headlights must be turned on when traveling through tunnels; this is enforced by special cameras. Unlawful lane change or failure to turn on headlights in a tunnel is subject to an administrative fine of 3000 [new Taiwan dollars](/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar "New Taiwan dollar").
Additional restrictions apply for the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel "Hsuehshan Tunnel") on Freeway No. 5, which is the longest tunnel in the entire system.
#### Prohibited traffic
Article 19 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation prohibits uses of and entries onto the freeways by:
1. Pedestrians.
2. Military troops marching or conducting drills.
3. Non\-motorized vehicles
4. Motorcycles (see also [Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways\#Taiwan](/wiki/Restrictions_on_motorcycle_use_on_freeways%23Taiwan "Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways#Taiwan") for more information).
5. Three\-wheel motor vehicles or motorized pedicabs.
6. Farm machineries.
7. Motorized machineries not being motor vehicles.
8. Towed vehicles not disabled on the freeways or [expressways](/wiki/%23Expressways "#Expressways").
#### [Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 "Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)")
Odd\-numbered freeways have tolls, which are automatically collected by [ETC](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection "Electronic toll collection"). The current rate for cars is (NT$1\.2/km up to 200 km) \+ (NT$0\.9/excess km), km being kilometers traveled per day. The first 20 km per day is free and thus deducted from the distance. Freeways may be used directly, but users are advised to apply for an “eTag”, which is free and when equipped gives 10% discounts and allows you to store pre\-paid money for tolls. The eTag can also be set to pay tolls automatically with credit card or a savings account. Users without the eTag pay tolls at convenience stores 3 days after usage and if not, bills will be mailed to car owners.
|
[
"### Features",
"#### Length, exits, and entrances",
"",
"Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\\|Exit advance\nImage:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\\|Freeway entrance\nImage:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\\|The pre\\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.\nImage:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\\|The post\\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\\.",
"Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say \"Exit exclusive lane.\"](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG \"Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG\")",
"There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.",
"Long rectangular\\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.",
"Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.",
"#### Speed limit",
"The speed limit for cars on Taiwan's freeways range from 80 km/h (50 mph) on [Freeway No. 5](/wiki/National_Highway_No._5_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway No. 5 (Taiwan)\") (north of [Toucheng, Yilan](/wiki/Toucheng%2C_Yilan \"Toucheng, Yilan\")) to 110 km/h (68 mph) on [Freeway No. 3](/wiki/National_Highway_No._3_%28Taiwan%29 \"National Highway No. 3 (Taiwan)\") (south of [Tucheng, New Taipei](/wiki/Tucheng_City \"Tucheng City\")). The speed limit for trucks are usually 10 km/h lower. In non\\-traffic jam conditions, a vehicle must travel at least 60 km/h (37 mph).",
"Speed limits are enforced through [radar activated cameras](/wiki/Traffic_enforcement_camera \"Traffic enforcement camera\") that take pictures of speed\\-violating cars. Because of protests, yellow warning signs are given in advance in Chinese of approaching radar activated cameras.",
"#### Following distances",
"As [tailgating](/wiki/Tailgating \"Tailgating\") poses serious hazards of rear\\-ending, Article 6 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation ({{zh\\|t\\=高速公路及快速公路交通管制規則}}) requires the following minimum following distances when the weather is fine:",
"| Speed | Minimum distance per large vehicle(大型車) | Minimum distance per small vehicle(小型車) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 60 km/h | 40 m | 30 m |\n| 70 km/h | 50 m | 35 m |\n| 80 km/h | 60 m | 40 m |\n| 90 km/h | 70 m | 45 m |\n| 100 km/h | 80 m | 50 m |\n| 110 km/h | 90 m | 55 m |",
"Longer following distance is required in the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\").",
"#### Traveling through tunnels",
"In the tunnel portions of freeways, lane change is prohibited when the lane divider consists of two parallel solid lines, used when lane change is considered unsafe should a collision cause a vehicular fire. Headlights must be turned on when traveling through tunnels; this is enforced by special cameras. Unlawful lane change or failure to turn on headlights in a tunnel is subject to an administrative fine of 3000 [new Taiwan dollars](/wiki/New_Taiwan_dollar \"New Taiwan dollar\").",
"Additional restrictions apply for the [Hsuehshan Tunnel](/wiki/Hsuehshan_Tunnel \"Hsuehshan Tunnel\") on Freeway No. 5, which is the longest tunnel in the entire system.",
"#### Prohibited traffic",
"Article 19 of the Freeway and Expressway Traffic Control Regulation prohibits uses of and entries onto the freeways by:\n1. Pedestrians.\n2. Military troops marching or conducting drills.\n3. Non\\-motorized vehicles\n4. Motorcycles (see also [Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways\\#Taiwan](/wiki/Restrictions_on_motorcycle_use_on_freeways%23Taiwan \"Restrictions on motorcycle use on freeways#Taiwan\") for more information).\n5. Three\\-wheel motor vehicles or motorized pedicabs.\n6. Farm machineries.\n7. Motorized machineries not being motor vehicles.\n8. Towed vehicles not disabled on the freeways or [expressways](/wiki/%23Expressways \"#Expressways\").",
"#### [Electronic toll collection](/wiki/Electronic_Toll_Collection_%28Taiwan%29 \"Electronic Toll Collection (Taiwan)\")",
"Odd\\-numbered freeways have tolls, which are automatically collected by [ETC](/wiki/Electronic_toll_collection \"Electronic toll collection\"). The current rate for cars is (NT$1\\.2/km up to 200 km) \\+ (NT$0\\.9/excess km), km being kilometers traveled per day. The first 20 km per day is free and thus deducted from the distance. Freeways may be used directly, but users are advised to apply for an “eTag”, which is free and when equipped gives 10% discounts and allows you to store pre\\-paid money for tolls. The eTag can also be set to pay tolls automatically with credit card or a savings account. Users without the eTag pay tolls at convenience stores 3 days after usage and if not, bills will be mailed to car owners.",
""
] |
#### Length, exits, and entrances
Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\|Exit advance
Image:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\|Freeway entrance
Image:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\|The pre\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.
Image:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\|The post\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\.
Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.
[thumb\|150px\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say "Exit exclusive lane."](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG "Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG")
There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif")
[thumb\|150px\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif "Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif")
Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.
Long rectangular\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.
Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.
|
[
"#### Length, exits, and entrances",
"",
"Image:TaiwanFwy3GuansiSinpuExit.jpg\\|Exit advance\nImage:TaiwanFwy3Jct.jpg\\|Freeway entrance\nImage:Taiwan Freeway Exit Sign.gif\\|The pre\\-2006 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is the 27th exit, calculated from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway.\nImage:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.gif\\|The post\\-2005 Taiwan freeway exit sign. The 27 indicates that the exit is located at the 27th kilometer, calculating from the northernmost / westernmost point of the freeway. Provincial expressways also allow it in 2007\\.",
"Every one tenth of a kilometer is marked on the freeway with Arabic numerals to indicate freeway mileage, which indicates the number of kilometers away from the northern end or western end of the freeway. Exit numbers are based on the freeway mileage. With the notable exception of exit\\-only signs, which are only expressed in Chinese (but with a right arrow indicating an exit\\-only lane), exit notification and system route reminder signs in the freeway system are almost identical to their US counterparts.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|A diagram that distinguishes an exit only lane from the regular lanes. The exit only lane has a right\\-turn arrow symbol and Chinese characters that say \"Exit exclusive lane.\"](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_Exit_Only_Road_Diagram.PNG \"Taiwan Freeway Exit Only Road Diagram.PNG\")",
"There are four types of exit notification signs. The first notification sign appears two kilometers before the exit, providing the destination name and an Exit 2 km notice. The second sign appears one kilometer before the exit, providing the destination name and a Right Lane notice. The Right Lane notice warns the exiting driver to start switching to the right lane in preparation to exit and does not necessarily indicate that the right lane is an exit\\-only lane. The third sign appears a few hundred meters before the exit, providing the destination name and a right tilted arrow. The fourth sign is located at the exit and says Exit with a tilted right arrow.",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is two kilometers away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_2km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 2km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"[thumb\\|150px\\|Sign that indicates that the exit is one kilometer away.](/wiki/Image:Taiwan_Freeway_1km_Exit_Sign.gif \"Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.gif\")",
"Exit notification signs were slightly altered in December 2005\\. The green exit mileage label on top of the exit notification sign has been replaced with a yellow exit mileage label accompanied with the Chinese code name of the interchange. The Chinese code name of the interchange does not necessarily reflect the destinations listed on the exit signs and may represent the general location of the freeway interchange.",
"Long rectangular\\-dash dividers usually separate normal lanes. Short rectangular\\-dash dividers usually indicates a lane that is ready to turn into an exit, a merging lane, or a lane reserved for vehicles that have difficulty climbing high grade regions of the freeway.",
"Freeway entrances may have traffic lights to control the flow of vehicles entering the freeway.",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 138
\|1920\= 172
\|1930\= 214
\|1940\= 280
\|1950\= 367
\|1960\= 490
\|1970\= 634
\|1980\= 1077
\|1990\= 1491
\|2000\= 2148
\|2010\= 2681
\|2020\= 2967
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:41\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=Oct 12, 2022}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2010, there were 2,681 people, 1,063 households, and 678 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|2882\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 1,142 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1228\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.1% of the population.{{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2012\-12\-21}}
There were 1,063 households, of which 27\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 2\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\.2% were non\-families. 33\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.33 and the average family size was 2\.97\.
The median age in the city was 47\.6 years. 21\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\.8% were from 25 to 44; 24\.9% were from 45 to 64; and 29% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\.1% male and 52\.9% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [United States 2000 Census](/wiki/United_States_2000_Census "United States 2000 Census"), there were 2,148 people, 686 households, and 509 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|2,259\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 711 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|748\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\.44% White, 0\.09% African American, 0\.47% Native American, 0\.28% Asian, 0\.23% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.23% from other races, and 1\.26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1\.63% of the population.
There were 686 households, out of which 36\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65\.6% were married couples living together, 6\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25\.7% were non\-families. 22\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.67 and the average family size was 3\.14\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 24\.3% under the age of 18, 5\.4% from 18 to 24, 22\.2% from 25 to 44, 18\.7% from 45 to 64, and 29\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 81\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75\.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $49,034, and the median income for a family was $55,921\. Males had a median income of $42,734 versus $25,924 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $18,646\. About 4\.9% of families and 7\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.8% of those under age 18 and 8\.9% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 138\n\\|1920\\= 172\n\\|1930\\= 214\n\\|1940\\= 280\n\\|1950\\= 367\n\\|1960\\= 490\n\\|1970\\= 634\n\\|1980\\= 1077\n\\|1990\\= 1491\n\\|2000\\= 2148\n\\|2010\\= 2681\n\\|2020\\= 2967\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:41\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=Oct 12, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2010, there were 2,681 people, 1,063 households, and 678 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|2882\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 1,142 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1228\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.0% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.0% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.1% of the population.{{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-21}}",
"There were 1,063 households, of which 27\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 2\\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36\\.2% were non\\-families. 33\\.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 24\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.33 and the average family size was 2\\.97\\.",
"The median age in the city was 47\\.6 years. 21\\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 18\\.8% were from 25 to 44; 24\\.9% were from 45 to 64; and 29% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47\\.1% male and 52\\.9% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [United States 2000 Census](/wiki/United_States_2000_Census \"United States 2000 Census\"), there were 2,148 people, 686 households, and 509 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|2,259\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 711 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|748\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 97\\.44% White, 0\\.09% African American, 0\\.47% Native American, 0\\.28% Asian, 0\\.23% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.23% from other races, and 1\\.26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1\\.63% of the population.",
"There were 686 households, out of which 36\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65\\.6% were married couples living together, 6\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25\\.7% were non\\-families. 22\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.67 and the average family size was 3\\.14\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 24\\.3% under the age of 18, 5\\.4% from 18 to 24, 22\\.2% from 25 to 44, 18\\.7% from 45 to 64, and 29\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 81\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75\\.5 males.",
"The median income for a household in the city was $49,034, and the median income for a family was $55,921\\. Males had a median income of $42,734 versus $25,924 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $18,646\\. About 4\\.9% of families and 7\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.8% of those under age 18 and 8\\.9% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Plot
----
His reputation brought into disrepute by Captain Bagshaw, a competitor for the affections of Lady Jane Ponsonby, Bertram Oliphant "Bo" West decides to leave England and join the [French Foreign Legion](/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion "French Foreign Legion"), followed by his faithful manservant Simpson. Originally mistaken for enemy combatants at [Sidi Bel Abbès](/wiki/Sidi_Bel_Abb%C3%A8s "Sidi Bel Abbès"), the pair eventually enlist and are helped in surviving Legion life by Sergeant Nocker, although only after they discover that when he is "on patrol" he is actually enjoying himself at the local cafe with the female owner, Zig\-Zig.
Meanwhile, Lady Jane, having learnt that Bo was really innocent, heads out to the [Sahara](/wiki/Sahara "Sahara") to bring him back to England. Along the way she has several encounters with men who [exploit](/wiki/Sexual_abuse "Sexual abuse") the fact that she is naive and travelling alone. After several such run\-ins, including with the Legion fort's Commandant Burger (who coincidentally had once been her [fencing](/wiki/Fencing "Fencing") instructor, and joined the Legion in self\-imposed shame after he had inadvertently cut her finger during a lesson), she meets Sheikh Abdul Abulbul and ends up becoming a part of his [harem](/wiki/Harem "Harem") and planned 13th wife.
Nocker and Bo are kidnapped by Abulbul after being lured to the home of Corktip, a belly dancer at the Café ZigZig. Simpson follows them to the Oasis El Nooki but is also captured. After entering Abulbul's harem and discovering Lady Jane, Bo and Simpson give themselves up while Nocker escapes (or rather is allowed to by Abulbul) back to Sidi Bel Abbes to warn Commandant Burger of Abulbul's plans to attack Fort Soixante\-Neuf (i.e. [69, the sexual position](/wiki/69_%28sex_position%29 "69 (sex position)")). However, during this time Zig\-Zig has told the Commandant about Nocker's true destination when on patrol, and therefore upon his return his story is not believed. It is only when Nocker mentions Lady Jane that they realise he was telling the truth and the Commandant organises a force to reinforce the fort.
Along the way they discover Bo and Simpson staked to the ground at the now abandoned oasis. The relief column marches on towards the fort but heat, lack of water and a sand castle building competition gone wrong decimates the force to a handful. The remaining members reach the fort to find that they are too late; the attack has already occurred and the garrison wiped out.
After learning that Abulbul's celebration of the successful attack includes marrying Lady Jane, Bo, Burger, Nocker and Simpson rescue her from his tent, leaving Simpson behind dressed as a decoy. When Abulbul discovers the deception, he chases Simpson back to the fort where, through the imaginative use of a [gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_record "Gramophone record") and a German marching song, [gum arabic](/wiki/Gum_arabic "Gum arabic"), coconuts, gunpowder and a cricket bat, the group holds off Abulbul's army until a relief force arrives. However, Commandant Burger ends up as the sole casualty among the protagonists.
Back in England the group reunites for a game of cricket, with Nocker having been promoted to Commandant and Lady Jane having conceived a son by the late Burger. Bo is batting, but when he hits the ball, it explodes. The bowler is then shown to be Abulbul having gained his revenge, to which Bo, with a broken bat and burnt clothes, good\-naturedly responds "Not out!"
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"His reputation brought into disrepute by Captain Bagshaw, a competitor for the affections of Lady Jane Ponsonby, Bertram Oliphant \"Bo\" West decides to leave England and join the [French Foreign Legion](/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion \"French Foreign Legion\"), followed by his faithful manservant Simpson. Originally mistaken for enemy combatants at [Sidi Bel Abbès](/wiki/Sidi_Bel_Abb%C3%A8s \"Sidi Bel Abbès\"), the pair eventually enlist and are helped in surviving Legion life by Sergeant Nocker, although only after they discover that when he is \"on patrol\" he is actually enjoying himself at the local cafe with the female owner, Zig\\-Zig.",
"Meanwhile, Lady Jane, having learnt that Bo was really innocent, heads out to the [Sahara](/wiki/Sahara \"Sahara\") to bring him back to England. Along the way she has several encounters with men who [exploit](/wiki/Sexual_abuse \"Sexual abuse\") the fact that she is naive and travelling alone. After several such run\\-ins, including with the Legion fort's Commandant Burger (who coincidentally had once been her [fencing](/wiki/Fencing \"Fencing\") instructor, and joined the Legion in self\\-imposed shame after he had inadvertently cut her finger during a lesson), she meets Sheikh Abdul Abulbul and ends up becoming a part of his [harem](/wiki/Harem \"Harem\") and planned 13th wife.",
"Nocker and Bo are kidnapped by Abulbul after being lured to the home of Corktip, a belly dancer at the Café ZigZig. Simpson follows them to the Oasis El Nooki but is also captured. After entering Abulbul's harem and discovering Lady Jane, Bo and Simpson give themselves up while Nocker escapes (or rather is allowed to by Abulbul) back to Sidi Bel Abbes to warn Commandant Burger of Abulbul's plans to attack Fort Soixante\\-Neuf (i.e. [69, the sexual position](/wiki/69_%28sex_position%29 \"69 (sex position)\")). However, during this time Zig\\-Zig has told the Commandant about Nocker's true destination when on patrol, and therefore upon his return his story is not believed. It is only when Nocker mentions Lady Jane that they realise he was telling the truth and the Commandant organises a force to reinforce the fort.",
"Along the way they discover Bo and Simpson staked to the ground at the now abandoned oasis. The relief column marches on towards the fort but heat, lack of water and a sand castle building competition gone wrong decimates the force to a handful. The remaining members reach the fort to find that they are too late; the attack has already occurred and the garrison wiped out.",
"After learning that Abulbul's celebration of the successful attack includes marrying Lady Jane, Bo, Burger, Nocker and Simpson rescue her from his tent, leaving Simpson behind dressed as a decoy. When Abulbul discovers the deception, he chases Simpson back to the fort where, through the imaginative use of a [gramophone](/wiki/Gramophone_record \"Gramophone record\") and a German marching song, [gum arabic](/wiki/Gum_arabic \"Gum arabic\"), coconuts, gunpowder and a cricket bat, the group holds off Abulbul's army until a relief force arrives. However, Commandant Burger ends up as the sole casualty among the protagonists.",
"Back in England the group reunites for a game of cricket, with Nocker having been promoted to Commandant and Lady Jane having conceived a son by the late Burger. Bo is batting, but when he hits the ball, it explodes. The bowler is then shown to be Abulbul having gained his revenge, to which Bo, with a broken bat and burnt clothes, good\\-naturedly responds \"Not out!\"",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Romola de Pulszky was born in Hungary as the second daughter of [Emilia Márkus](/wiki/Emilia_M%C3%A1rkus "Emilia Márkus"), the most renowned Hungarian actress of her time, and Károly (Charles) Pulszky (1853\-1899\), a Hungarian politician, member of Parliament and director of the Hungarian National Gallery of Art. His family came from Poland and were of [French Huguenot](/wiki/French_Huguenot "French Huguenot") descent, but had converted to Catholicism.[Ostwald, Peter (1991\) *Nijinsky/ A Leap into Madness*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1VNuCYaauZUC&dq=Emilia+Markus%2C+Hungarian+actress&pg=PA80), p. 80 Her older sister Tereza was called Tessa. Their father went into exile because of a political scandal associated with art purchases for the gallery, first to London and then to Australia. Romola was eight years old when he committed [suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide") at the age of 45 in [Brisbane, Australia](/wiki/Brisbane%2C_Australia "Brisbane, Australia").[Thomas W. Shapcott, "A Canticle for Károly Pulszky"](http://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/shapcott-thomas-w/a-canticle-for-k-roly-pulszky-0058075), from *Selected Poems, 1956\-1988*, Australian Poetry Library She was deeply disturbed by the loss and resented her mother's remarriage a few years later.Ostwald (1991\), "Nijinsky, A Leap", pp. 81\-82
Romola struggled with studies and direction, trying to work at acting but failed. She became engaged to a Hungarian baron at the age of 21, but called it off in 1912 after having seen the [Ballets Russes](/wiki/Ballets_Russes "Ballets Russes"). She decided to shift her focus to the theatrical world of ballet. She was particularly astounded by and attracted to the dancing of [Vaslav Nijinsky](/wiki/Vaslav_Nijinsky "Vaslav Nijinsky"), as were all of his audiences.
She was fixated on wanting to dance for the [Ballets Russes](/wiki/Ballets_Russes "Ballets Russes") and become close to Nijinsky.Ostwald, Peter (1991\) *Nijinsky/ A Leap into Madness*{{page needed\|date\=December 2014}} For months she traveled on tour in Europe with the Ballets Russes, and gained approval from the troupe's director, [Sergei Diaghilev](/wiki/Sergei_Diaghilev "Sergei Diaghilev"), to take ballet lessons from the company's ballet master, [Enrico Cecchetti](/wiki/Enrico_Cecchetti "Enrico Cecchetti"). Not realizing that he was in an intimate relationship with Diaghilev (who was seventeen years older than Nijinsky), she found it difficult to talk to Nijinsky alone, who was protected by a minder. She eventually got close to him while on a ship headed for South America. Diaghilev had decided against touring with the company and remained in Europe. Days before their arrival to [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires "Buenos Aires"), Argentina, Nijinsky proposed to Romola and they married in port on 10 September 1913, shortly after they arrived.[Buckle, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Buckle "Richard Buckle") (1971\), "Nijinsky"
Their marriage had severe effects on Nijinsky's career. Romola became pregnant right away, and Nijinsky missed performances due to his own symptoms of [couvade syndrome](/wiki/Couvade_syndrome "Couvade syndrome"). This was cited as Diaghilev's legal grounds for firing him, which he did via a telegram. He generally did not keep any married dancers in the company.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2022}}
Romola gave birth to [Kyra Nijinsky](/wiki/Kyra_Nijinsky "Kyra Nijinsky") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), Austria on 19 June 1914, ten days before the [assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria](/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria "Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria"). With the outbreak of war, the newlywed couple and their infant daughter were classified as enemy aliens because of Nijinsky's Russian nationality; they were put on house arrest at the home of Romola's mother, Emilia Markus Pulszky. After two years as war prisoners in Hungary, they gained permission to leave for New York with the aid of Diaghilev and international political leaders. They embarked on a tour of North America, followed by a tour to South America.Nijinsky, Romola (1934\), *Nijinsky by Romola Nijinsky*
During Nijinsky's final three\-year engagements with the Ballets Russes, he had struggled to help manage the tours, which caused him a great deal of stress. The family settled in [St Moritz](/wiki/St_Moritz "St Moritz"), Switzerland until the end of the [Great War](/wiki/Great_War "Great War"). Two months after the [armistice at the end of World War I](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_%28Compi%C3%A8gne%29 "Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)"), Nijinsky began to exhibit signs of a severe [psychosis](/wiki/Psychosis "Psychosis"). He was committed to a series of Swiss mental institutions, and was confined for most of his remaining 30 years. He was treated at [Burghölzli](/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli "Burghölzli") and the [Bellevue Sanatorium](/wiki/Bellevue_Sanatorium "Bellevue Sanatorium") in [Kreuzlingen](/wiki/Kreuzlingen "Kreuzlingen"). He was originally diagnosed as [schizophrenic](/wiki/Schizophrenic "Schizophrenic") by [Eugen Bleuler](/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler "Eugen Bleuler") in 1919\. He was treated by a number of psychiatrists with minimal results. In 1920, while he was still undergoing treatment, Romola Nijinsky gave birth to their second daughter, Tamara. After Nijinsky became an invalid and institutionalized, Romola shifted from bisexuality and had only lesbian affairs for the rest of her life.Ostwald (1991\), *Nijinsky A Leap*, p. 87
In 1934 she published what would be her first biography of her husband, *Nijinsky by Romola Nijinsky*. She discovered the diary her husband wrote over a period of six weeks in 1919 before being committed to an asylum in Switzerland. "Nijinsky had long been unreachably psychotic when his wife, Romola, discovered the manuscript in an old trunk, then sanitized and published it to feed the legend of which she had become both guardian and beneficiary."[WILLIAM DERESIEWICZ, "Dancing With Madness: Review of 'The Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky'"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/28/reviews/990228.28deresit.html), *New York Times*, 28 February 1999, accessed 1 December 2014 She published a "bowdlerized" version in 1936\.
In 1936, she heard about a new treatment for [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia "Schizophrenia") and contacted the founder, [Manfred Sakel](/wiki/Manfred_Sakel "Manfred Sakel"), to have her husband treated. In 1938, Nijinsky began to receive regular [insulin shock therapy](/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy "Insulin shock therapy") (IST) over the course of a year, until the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Romola spent most of World War II in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest") with Nijinsky, whose illness was purported to be in partial remission from the IST.Nijinsky, Romola (1952\), *The Last Years of Nijinsky* Out of concern for her husband's safety after the German invasion of Budapest, Romola took her husband to [Sopron](/wiki/Sopron "Sopron"), where they stayed until the end of the war.
Kyra Nijinsky became a dancer, specializing in a couple of roles her father had done as well as a new dance by [Antony Tudor](/wiki/Antony_Tudor "Antony Tudor"). In 1936 she married [Igor Markevitch](/wiki/Igor_Markevitch "Igor Markevitch"), with whom she had a son named for her father, Vaslav Markevitch (20 January 1937 \- 12 January 2024\).[Jack Anderson, "Kyra Nijinsky, 84; Danced in Father's Shadow"](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/15/nyregion/kyra-nijinsky-84-danced-in-father-s-shadow.html), *New York Times*, 15 November 1998, accessed 1 December 2014 They divorced and Markevitch raised their son. Like her younger sister Tamara, she later emigrated to the United States, settling in the [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco "San Francisco") area.
Romola sent her younger daughter Tamara Nijinsky to live with her mother in Budapest for some time. She was too young to have seen her father dance, but became executive director of the Vaslav and Romola Nijinsky Foundation (named after her parents), to preserve and promote her father's art, including paintings and drawings he did late in life. She emigrated to the US and settled in [Phoenix, Arizona](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona "Phoenix, Arizona").[Zan Dubin, "Memories of a Troubled Father"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-11-03-ol-57987-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*, 3 November 1994
Nijinsky died on 8 April 1950 in [London](/wiki/London "London"), [England](/wiki/England "England"). In 1952 Romola published her second biography of Nijinsky, called *The Last Years of Nijinsky*. Romola Nijinsky died in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") on 9 September 1978\.
In 1995, an unexpurgated English edition was published of *The Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky*, edited by [Joan Acocella](/wiki/Joan_Acocella "Joan Acocella"), a professional writer about dance, and in a new translation by Kyril FitzLyon. The *New York Times* review said that this edition showed that his original diary was severely "bowdlerized" by his wife in the versions she published in 1936 and later. His diary reflected the decline of his household into chaos before he was committed to an asylum. He elevated feeling and action in his writing. A *New York Times* review said, "How ironic that in erasing the real ugliness of his insanity, the old version silenced not only Nijinsky's true voice but the magnificently gifted body from which it came. And how fortunate we are to have them both restored." This version inspired new artistic works \- three plays in 1998 alone. (see below)
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Romola de Pulszky was born in Hungary as the second daughter of [Emilia Márkus](/wiki/Emilia_M%C3%A1rkus \"Emilia Márkus\"), the most renowned Hungarian actress of her time, and Károly (Charles) Pulszky (1853\\-1899\\), a Hungarian politician, member of Parliament and director of the Hungarian National Gallery of Art. His family came from Poland and were of [French Huguenot](/wiki/French_Huguenot \"French Huguenot\") descent, but had converted to Catholicism.[Ostwald, Peter (1991\\) *Nijinsky/ A Leap into Madness*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1VNuCYaauZUC&dq=Emilia+Markus%2C+Hungarian+actress&pg=PA80), p. 80 Her older sister Tereza was called Tessa. Their father went into exile because of a political scandal associated with art purchases for the gallery, first to London and then to Australia. Romola was eight years old when he committed [suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\") at the age of 45 in [Brisbane, Australia](/wiki/Brisbane%2C_Australia \"Brisbane, Australia\").[Thomas W. Shapcott, \"A Canticle for Károly Pulszky\"](http://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/shapcott-thomas-w/a-canticle-for-k-roly-pulszky-0058075), from *Selected Poems, 1956\\-1988*, Australian Poetry Library She was deeply disturbed by the loss and resented her mother's remarriage a few years later.Ostwald (1991\\), \"Nijinsky, A Leap\", pp. 81\\-82",
"Romola struggled with studies and direction, trying to work at acting but failed. She became engaged to a Hungarian baron at the age of 21, but called it off in 1912 after having seen the [Ballets Russes](/wiki/Ballets_Russes \"Ballets Russes\"). She decided to shift her focus to the theatrical world of ballet. She was particularly astounded by and attracted to the dancing of [Vaslav Nijinsky](/wiki/Vaslav_Nijinsky \"Vaslav Nijinsky\"), as were all of his audiences.",
"She was fixated on wanting to dance for the [Ballets Russes](/wiki/Ballets_Russes \"Ballets Russes\") and become close to Nijinsky.Ostwald, Peter (1991\\) *Nijinsky/ A Leap into Madness*{{page needed\\|date\\=December 2014}} For months she traveled on tour in Europe with the Ballets Russes, and gained approval from the troupe's director, [Sergei Diaghilev](/wiki/Sergei_Diaghilev \"Sergei Diaghilev\"), to take ballet lessons from the company's ballet master, [Enrico Cecchetti](/wiki/Enrico_Cecchetti \"Enrico Cecchetti\"). Not realizing that he was in an intimate relationship with Diaghilev (who was seventeen years older than Nijinsky), she found it difficult to talk to Nijinsky alone, who was protected by a minder. She eventually got close to him while on a ship headed for South America. Diaghilev had decided against touring with the company and remained in Europe. Days before their arrival to [Buenos Aires](/wiki/Buenos_Aires \"Buenos Aires\"), Argentina, Nijinsky proposed to Romola and they married in port on 10 September 1913, shortly after they arrived.[Buckle, Richard](/wiki/Richard_Buckle \"Richard Buckle\") (1971\\), \"Nijinsky\"",
"Their marriage had severe effects on Nijinsky's career. Romola became pregnant right away, and Nijinsky missed performances due to his own symptoms of [couvade syndrome](/wiki/Couvade_syndrome \"Couvade syndrome\"). This was cited as Diaghilev's legal grounds for firing him, which he did via a telegram. He generally did not keep any married dancers in the company.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}}",
"Romola gave birth to [Kyra Nijinsky](/wiki/Kyra_Nijinsky \"Kyra Nijinsky\") in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), Austria on 19 June 1914, ten days before the [assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria](/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria \"Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria\"). With the outbreak of war, the newlywed couple and their infant daughter were classified as enemy aliens because of Nijinsky's Russian nationality; they were put on house arrest at the home of Romola's mother, Emilia Markus Pulszky. After two years as war prisoners in Hungary, they gained permission to leave for New York with the aid of Diaghilev and international political leaders. They embarked on a tour of North America, followed by a tour to South America.Nijinsky, Romola (1934\\), *Nijinsky by Romola Nijinsky*",
"During Nijinsky's final three\\-year engagements with the Ballets Russes, he had struggled to help manage the tours, which caused him a great deal of stress. The family settled in [St Moritz](/wiki/St_Moritz \"St Moritz\"), Switzerland until the end of the [Great War](/wiki/Great_War \"Great War\"). Two months after the [armistice at the end of World War I](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany_%28Compi%C3%A8gne%29 \"Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)\"), Nijinsky began to exhibit signs of a severe [psychosis](/wiki/Psychosis \"Psychosis\"). He was committed to a series of Swiss mental institutions, and was confined for most of his remaining 30 years. He was treated at [Burghölzli](/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli \"Burghölzli\") and the [Bellevue Sanatorium](/wiki/Bellevue_Sanatorium \"Bellevue Sanatorium\") in [Kreuzlingen](/wiki/Kreuzlingen \"Kreuzlingen\"). He was originally diagnosed as [schizophrenic](/wiki/Schizophrenic \"Schizophrenic\") by [Eugen Bleuler](/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler \"Eugen Bleuler\") in 1919\\. He was treated by a number of psychiatrists with minimal results. In 1920, while he was still undergoing treatment, Romola Nijinsky gave birth to their second daughter, Tamara. After Nijinsky became an invalid and institutionalized, Romola shifted from bisexuality and had only lesbian affairs for the rest of her life.Ostwald (1991\\), *Nijinsky A Leap*, p. 87",
"In 1934 she published what would be her first biography of her husband, *Nijinsky by Romola Nijinsky*. She discovered the diary her husband wrote over a period of six weeks in 1919 before being committed to an asylum in Switzerland. \"Nijinsky had long been unreachably psychotic when his wife, Romola, discovered the manuscript in an old trunk, then sanitized and published it to feed the legend of which she had become both guardian and beneficiary.\"[WILLIAM DERESIEWICZ, \"Dancing With Madness: Review of 'The Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky'\"](https://www.nytimes.com/books/99/02/28/reviews/990228.28deresit.html), *New York Times*, 28 February 1999, accessed 1 December 2014 She published a \"bowdlerized\" version in 1936\\.",
"In 1936, she heard about a new treatment for [schizophrenia](/wiki/Schizophrenia \"Schizophrenia\") and contacted the founder, [Manfred Sakel](/wiki/Manfred_Sakel \"Manfred Sakel\"), to have her husband treated. In 1938, Nijinsky began to receive regular [insulin shock therapy](/wiki/Insulin_shock_therapy \"Insulin shock therapy\") (IST) over the course of a year, until the beginning of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Romola spent most of World War II in [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\") with Nijinsky, whose illness was purported to be in partial remission from the IST.Nijinsky, Romola (1952\\), *The Last Years of Nijinsky* Out of concern for her husband's safety after the German invasion of Budapest, Romola took her husband to [Sopron](/wiki/Sopron \"Sopron\"), where they stayed until the end of the war.",
"Kyra Nijinsky became a dancer, specializing in a couple of roles her father had done as well as a new dance by [Antony Tudor](/wiki/Antony_Tudor \"Antony Tudor\"). In 1936 she married [Igor Markevitch](/wiki/Igor_Markevitch \"Igor Markevitch\"), with whom she had a son named for her father, Vaslav Markevitch (20 January 1937 \\- 12 January 2024\\).[Jack Anderson, \"Kyra Nijinsky, 84; Danced in Father's Shadow\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/15/nyregion/kyra-nijinsky-84-danced-in-father-s-shadow.html), *New York Times*, 15 November 1998, accessed 1 December 2014 They divorced and Markevitch raised their son. Like her younger sister Tamara, she later emigrated to the United States, settling in the [San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco \"San Francisco\") area.",
"Romola sent her younger daughter Tamara Nijinsky to live with her mother in Budapest for some time. She was too young to have seen her father dance, but became executive director of the Vaslav and Romola Nijinsky Foundation (named after her parents), to preserve and promote her father's art, including paintings and drawings he did late in life. She emigrated to the US and settled in [Phoenix, Arizona](/wiki/Phoenix%2C_Arizona \"Phoenix, Arizona\").[Zan Dubin, \"Memories of a Troubled Father\"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-11-03-ol-57987-story.html), *Los Angeles Times*, 3 November 1994",
"Nijinsky died on 8 April 1950 in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"). In 1952 Romola published her second biography of Nijinsky, called *The Last Years of Nijinsky*. Romola Nijinsky died in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") on 9 September 1978\\.",
"In 1995, an unexpurgated English edition was published of *The Diary of Vaslav Nijinsky*, edited by [Joan Acocella](/wiki/Joan_Acocella \"Joan Acocella\"), a professional writer about dance, and in a new translation by Kyril FitzLyon. The *New York Times* review said that this edition showed that his original diary was severely \"bowdlerized\" by his wife in the versions she published in 1936 and later. His diary reflected the decline of his household into chaos before he was committed to an asylum. He elevated feeling and action in his writing. A *New York Times* review said, \"How ironic that in erasing the real ugliness of his insanity, the old version silenced not only Nijinsky's true voice but the magnificently gifted body from which it came. And how fortunate we are to have them both restored.\" This version inspired new artistic works \\- three plays in 1998 alone. (see below)",
""
] |
History
-------
### Early settlement
Olive Township was organized in October, 1842\.{{cite book \| url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ \| title\=The History of Clinton County, Iowa: Containing a History of the County, Its Cities, Towns \&c \| publisher\=Western Historical Company \| year\=1879 \| pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ/page/n514 631]}} The boundaries as then designated have been previously given. Its present territory includes nearly all of fractional Townships 80 and 81 north, Range 2 east. It is bounded north by Grant Township (previously named Berlin Township), west by Spring Rock Township, south by the Wapsie, which is the county line, and east by Orange Township.
Among the early settlers in this township were Hiram Brown, Charles Dutton Sr. and his sons Lorenzo, Charles Jr., Leroy and Jerome Dutton, Lyman Alger, Joseph Alger, E. F. Owen, William Scott, Bennett Warren, Mr. Edgar, D. C. Curtis, Josiah Hill, Abram Hendrickson and others.
The Dutton family came early into the township. Their total possessions were about $60 in cash and a few household effects. They purchased a pair of cattle, and the first season broke about ten acres of prairie and sowed white winter wheat. This crop was harvested and hauled to Davenport, through sloughs and mud\-holes, the load having frequently to be unloaded to get out, and was sold for 30 cents per bushel, one half in store pay, and a part of the balance in cash articles, which meant groceries. The store pay was calico and similar dry goods. In 1849, they hauled pork to Dubuque and sold for $1\.75, three\-fourths store pay and the balance cash.
J. S. Stowrs, Esq., opened a law office in De Witt in 1844, building the first building for such an office erected there, a brick one, and he relates that his first fee was a load of pumpkins which were drawn to him by Mr. Names, and his second fee a load of wood drawn to him by Mr. James Kirtley. Finding it necessary to eke out his income, he resorted to school\-teaching, and, in 1846, he says, he opened the first school in Olive Township. There was no schoolhouse, few school\-books and those of every variety, such as had been brought by the settlers from their various starting\-points. When he arrived at the place, he found the School Director making ready for his coming. The building was an old log\-house and the Director was boring holes in slabs for seats and into the logs to drive pins, upon which a board was laid for the desk. A stone chimney in one end served for heating purposes. Being an attorney and having been Probate Judge in the county, Mr. Stowrs commanded munificent wages, and he was paid $12 per month and boarded around. The children were eager to learn, and, despite these disadvantages, improved the time. He also organized a Sunday school. Rev. Mr. Emerson coming down and giving it a start, but Mr. Stowrs says that the day school was the most successful, the Sunday school interfering with the fishing.
In 1839, there was a trail known as Boone's Trail, over which a man named Boone drove cattle from Missouri to Galena, by way of Maquoketa. His usual crossing\-place on the Wapsie was on Section 5, Township 80 north, Range 2 east. The first ferryman was an old pioneer of the name of John Shook, who had a small flat\-boat which would just take on one team and which was run by a rope. R. I. Jencks succeeded him, whether by purchase or by entry of the landings, is not certainly known. He named the ferry Buena Vista, after that celebrated battle had been fought. He also succeeded in securing a post office here, which was called Buena Vista, which has since been removed to Rothstein's Mill, but still bears the same name. Jencks sold out the ferry franchise to George Atherton in 1849, and a few weeks later he sold out to Dr. Amos Witter, a gentleman who was emigrating to California overland, but when he had reached this point had wearied of his journey. He afterward died in the service as a Brigade Surgeon. Dr. Witter sold out to a man named Edgar, sometime previous to 1854\. J. E. McArthur succeeded him and ran the ferry until 1858, when he sold to James Merritt, and, in the spring of 1859, he sold to Jerome Dutton, who continued to operate it until the spring of 1865, when the land on the Clinton County side was sold to J. W. S. Robinson and James Dumphy, Mr. Dutton still owning the lands on the Scott County side, and the ferry was discontinued. This had been one of the most profitable ferries on the Wapsie for many years, and particularly during the Pike's Peak excitement in 1859, but the erection of the Rothstein Bridge destroyed its value. Lyman Alger also had a ferry in this township for many years and is one of the first settlers of record to whom license was issued to keep a ferry across the Wapsie. The Chicago, Iowa \& Nebraska Railroad also temporarily operated a ferry for the transfer of passengers on the stage\-route until the railroad was completed across the river.
This township is mostly level and has considerable bog or swamp land, but drainage and cultivation is bringing nearly all of it into arable fields. Much of this land was held out of market as mineral lands until 1850 to 1855, as there were considerable deposits of bog\-iron ore, but never found in paying quantities.
There are several good quarries in this township, and, on the farm of William V. Cruson, there was opened this year a limestone quarry which is producing a fine quality of lime.
There are several peat\-beds in the township, and, in 1867, an attempt was made to manufacture peat on the farm of John A. Boyd. The quality of the peat made was excellent but the enterprise was not a financial success.
In 1860, the total vote polled in the township was 140, and before any draft was ordered seventy\-nine men had volunteered into the service, mostly in the Second, Eighth and Twenty\-sixth Infantry, and the First and Seventh Cavalry. This was conceded to be the banner township in the State.
After the close of the war, a Post of the G. A. R. was organized and maintained for a number of years.
A large representation in the present population is of Norwegians, an industrious and thriving people. They have a Lutheran church in the southeastern part of the township and have recently erected a very fine church edifice. They also have a parsonage and sustain a Pastor, who preaches to them in their native tongue.
About one or two miles south from the Norwegian Church, the German Lutherans also have a church edifice and parsonage. Their Pastor, in addition to his ministerial duties, also teaches a German school. The oldest church organization, however, in the township, is a Free\-Will Baptist Church, which used to worship in the old log schoolhouse, mentioned before, and which now worships in the Alger Schoolhouse, and whose spiritual shepherd is Rev, D. C. Curtis.
A post office was established in 1858\. Joseph D. Fegan was deputized to go there and establish the office. No one could suggest a name. Mr. Fegan said ''Is there no creek or anything?" "Yes, Calamus Creek." "Then let it be Calamus." The creek takes its name from the great quantities of "sweet flag" growing in it.
Probably no occurrence ever occasioned greater excitement throughout Olive Township, and, indeed, throughout the whole surrounding country, than that of the murder of Mrs. Esther Alger, the aged wife of Lyman Alger, both of whom were among the earliest settlers in the township as well as in the county. Mr. Alger had accumulated a large property, and was in the habit of loaning money to quite an extent, and frequently had quite considerable sums of money in the house. To obtain a large amount supposed to be in the house at the time of the crime, it is conjectured, was the object of its commission. Mrs. Alger was an aged lady of seventy\-two years, and her husband a year her senior. They lived alone, except a grandson, Judson Curtis. On the evening of September 25, 1872, Mr. Alger had gone to the schoolhouse, a short distance away, to attend a prayer\-meeting. Judson had gone over to his father's barn, about forty rods distant, and the old lady was left alone at home. She was evidently busily engaged in some household duties about the door, having her sun\-bonnet on. While thus engaged, she was shot down and, afterward beaten to death with some blunt instrument, supposedly an ax. Judson heard the shot fired, and, running to the house, found the dead body of his grandmother lying in the path near the door, the house opened, and the trunk where the money was kept rifled. He gave the alarm at the schoolhouse, and the people hurried to the scene to find that one of the most brutal of murders had been committed, almost in broad daylight. Between $1,000 and $1,500 were taken from the trunk.
Although some arrests were made, and diligent efforts put forth to discover the perpetrators of the crime, it is still an unsolved mystery.
### Abandoned towns
[Buena Vista](/wiki/Buena_Vista%2C_Iowa "Buena Vista, Iowa") \- abandoned in 1914
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Early settlement",
"Olive Township was organized in October, 1842\\.{{cite book \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ \\| title\\=The History of Clinton County, Iowa: Containing a History of the County, Its Cities, Towns \\&c \\| publisher\\=Western Historical Company \\| year\\=1879 \\| pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ/page/n514 631]}} The boundaries as then designated have been previously given. Its present territory includes nearly all of fractional Townships 80 and 81 north, Range 2 east. It is bounded north by Grant Township (previously named Berlin Township), west by Spring Rock Township, south by the Wapsie, which is the county line, and east by Orange Township.",
"Among the early settlers in this township were Hiram Brown, Charles Dutton Sr. and his sons Lorenzo, Charles Jr., Leroy and Jerome Dutton, Lyman Alger, Joseph Alger, E. F. Owen, William Scott, Bennett Warren, Mr. Edgar, D. C. Curtis, Josiah Hill, Abram Hendrickson and others.",
"The Dutton family came early into the township. Their total possessions were about $60 in cash and a few household effects. They purchased a pair of cattle, and the first season broke about ten acres of prairie and sowed white winter wheat. This crop was harvested and hauled to Davenport, through sloughs and mud\\-holes, the load having frequently to be unloaded to get out, and was sold for 30 cents per bushel, one half in store pay, and a part of the balance in cash articles, which meant groceries. The store pay was calico and similar dry goods. In 1849, they hauled pork to Dubuque and sold for $1\\.75, three\\-fourths store pay and the balance cash.",
"J. S. Stowrs, Esq., opened a law office in De Witt in 1844, building the first building for such an office erected there, a brick one, and he relates that his first fee was a load of pumpkins which were drawn to him by Mr. Names, and his second fee a load of wood drawn to him by Mr. James Kirtley. Finding it necessary to eke out his income, he resorted to school\\-teaching, and, in 1846, he says, he opened the first school in Olive Township. There was no schoolhouse, few school\\-books and those of every variety, such as had been brought by the settlers from their various starting\\-points. When he arrived at the place, he found the School Director making ready for his coming. The building was an old log\\-house and the Director was boring holes in slabs for seats and into the logs to drive pins, upon which a board was laid for the desk. A stone chimney in one end served for heating purposes. Being an attorney and having been Probate Judge in the county, Mr. Stowrs commanded munificent wages, and he was paid $12 per month and boarded around. The children were eager to learn, and, despite these disadvantages, improved the time. He also organized a Sunday school. Rev. Mr. Emerson coming down and giving it a start, but Mr. Stowrs says that the day school was the most successful, the Sunday school interfering with the fishing.",
"In 1839, there was a trail known as Boone's Trail, over which a man named Boone drove cattle from Missouri to Galena, by way of Maquoketa. His usual crossing\\-place on the Wapsie was on Section 5, Township 80 north, Range 2 east. The first ferryman was an old pioneer of the name of John Shook, who had a small flat\\-boat which would just take on one team and which was run by a rope. R. I. Jencks succeeded him, whether by purchase or by entry of the landings, is not certainly known. He named the ferry Buena Vista, after that celebrated battle had been fought. He also succeeded in securing a post office here, which was called Buena Vista, which has since been removed to Rothstein's Mill, but still bears the same name. Jencks sold out the ferry franchise to George Atherton in 1849, and a few weeks later he sold out to Dr. Amos Witter, a gentleman who was emigrating to California overland, but when he had reached this point had wearied of his journey. He afterward died in the service as a Brigade Surgeon. Dr. Witter sold out to a man named Edgar, sometime previous to 1854\\. J. E. McArthur succeeded him and ran the ferry until 1858, when he sold to James Merritt, and, in the spring of 1859, he sold to Jerome Dutton, who continued to operate it until the spring of 1865, when the land on the Clinton County side was sold to J. W. S. Robinson and James Dumphy, Mr. Dutton still owning the lands on the Scott County side, and the ferry was discontinued. This had been one of the most profitable ferries on the Wapsie for many years, and particularly during the Pike's Peak excitement in 1859, but the erection of the Rothstein Bridge destroyed its value. Lyman Alger also had a ferry in this township for many years and is one of the first settlers of record to whom license was issued to keep a ferry across the Wapsie. The Chicago, Iowa \\& Nebraska Railroad also temporarily operated a ferry for the transfer of passengers on the stage\\-route until the railroad was completed across the river.",
"This township is mostly level and has considerable bog or swamp land, but drainage and cultivation is bringing nearly all of it into arable fields. Much of this land was held out of market as mineral lands until 1850 to 1855, as there were considerable deposits of bog\\-iron ore, but never found in paying quantities.",
"There are several good quarries in this township, and, on the farm of William V. Cruson, there was opened this year a limestone quarry which is producing a fine quality of lime.",
"There are several peat\\-beds in the township, and, in 1867, an attempt was made to manufacture peat on the farm of John A. Boyd. The quality of the peat made was excellent but the enterprise was not a financial success.",
"In 1860, the total vote polled in the township was 140, and before any draft was ordered seventy\\-nine men had volunteered into the service, mostly in the Second, Eighth and Twenty\\-sixth Infantry, and the First and Seventh Cavalry. This was conceded to be the banner township in the State.",
"After the close of the war, a Post of the G. A. R. was organized and maintained for a number of years.",
"A large representation in the present population is of Norwegians, an industrious and thriving people. They have a Lutheran church in the southeastern part of the township and have recently erected a very fine church edifice. They also have a parsonage and sustain a Pastor, who preaches to them in their native tongue.",
"About one or two miles south from the Norwegian Church, the German Lutherans also have a church edifice and parsonage. Their Pastor, in addition to his ministerial duties, also teaches a German school. The oldest church organization, however, in the township, is a Free\\-Will Baptist Church, which used to worship in the old log schoolhouse, mentioned before, and which now worships in the Alger Schoolhouse, and whose spiritual shepherd is Rev, D. C. Curtis.",
"A post office was established in 1858\\. Joseph D. Fegan was deputized to go there and establish the office. No one could suggest a name. Mr. Fegan said ''Is there no creek or anything?\" \"Yes, Calamus Creek.\" \"Then let it be Calamus.\" The creek takes its name from the great quantities of \"sweet flag\" growing in it.",
"Probably no occurrence ever occasioned greater excitement throughout Olive Township, and, indeed, throughout the whole surrounding country, than that of the murder of Mrs. Esther Alger, the aged wife of Lyman Alger, both of whom were among the earliest settlers in the township as well as in the county. Mr. Alger had accumulated a large property, and was in the habit of loaning money to quite an extent, and frequently had quite considerable sums of money in the house. To obtain a large amount supposed to be in the house at the time of the crime, it is conjectured, was the object of its commission. Mrs. Alger was an aged lady of seventy\\-two years, and her husband a year her senior. They lived alone, except a grandson, Judson Curtis. On the evening of September 25, 1872, Mr. Alger had gone to the schoolhouse, a short distance away, to attend a prayer\\-meeting. Judson had gone over to his father's barn, about forty rods distant, and the old lady was left alone at home. She was evidently busily engaged in some household duties about the door, having her sun\\-bonnet on. While thus engaged, she was shot down and, afterward beaten to death with some blunt instrument, supposedly an ax. Judson heard the shot fired, and, running to the house, found the dead body of his grandmother lying in the path near the door, the house opened, and the trunk where the money was kept rifled. He gave the alarm at the schoolhouse, and the people hurried to the scene to find that one of the most brutal of murders had been committed, almost in broad daylight. Between $1,000 and $1,500 were taken from the trunk.",
"Although some arrests were made, and diligent efforts put forth to discover the perpetrators of the crime, it is still an unsolved mystery.",
"### Abandoned towns",
"[Buena Vista](/wiki/Buena_Vista%2C_Iowa \"Buena Vista, Iowa\") \\- abandoned in 1914",
""
] |
### Early settlement
Olive Township was organized in October, 1842\.{{cite book \| url\=https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ \| title\=The History of Clinton County, Iowa: Containing a History of the County, Its Cities, Towns \&c \| publisher\=Western Historical Company \| year\=1879 \| pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/bub\_gb\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ/page/n514 631]}} The boundaries as then designated have been previously given. Its present territory includes nearly all of fractional Townships 80 and 81 north, Range 2 east. It is bounded north by Grant Township (previously named Berlin Township), west by Spring Rock Township, south by the Wapsie, which is the county line, and east by Orange Township.
Among the early settlers in this township were Hiram Brown, Charles Dutton Sr. and his sons Lorenzo, Charles Jr., Leroy and Jerome Dutton, Lyman Alger, Joseph Alger, E. F. Owen, William Scott, Bennett Warren, Mr. Edgar, D. C. Curtis, Josiah Hill, Abram Hendrickson and others.
The Dutton family came early into the township. Their total possessions were about $60 in cash and a few household effects. They purchased a pair of cattle, and the first season broke about ten acres of prairie and sowed white winter wheat. This crop was harvested and hauled to Davenport, through sloughs and mud\-holes, the load having frequently to be unloaded to get out, and was sold for 30 cents per bushel, one half in store pay, and a part of the balance in cash articles, which meant groceries. The store pay was calico and similar dry goods. In 1849, they hauled pork to Dubuque and sold for $1\.75, three\-fourths store pay and the balance cash.
J. S. Stowrs, Esq., opened a law office in De Witt in 1844, building the first building for such an office erected there, a brick one, and he relates that his first fee was a load of pumpkins which were drawn to him by Mr. Names, and his second fee a load of wood drawn to him by Mr. James Kirtley. Finding it necessary to eke out his income, he resorted to school\-teaching, and, in 1846, he says, he opened the first school in Olive Township. There was no schoolhouse, few school\-books and those of every variety, such as had been brought by the settlers from their various starting\-points. When he arrived at the place, he found the School Director making ready for his coming. The building was an old log\-house and the Director was boring holes in slabs for seats and into the logs to drive pins, upon which a board was laid for the desk. A stone chimney in one end served for heating purposes. Being an attorney and having been Probate Judge in the county, Mr. Stowrs commanded munificent wages, and he was paid $12 per month and boarded around. The children were eager to learn, and, despite these disadvantages, improved the time. He also organized a Sunday school. Rev. Mr. Emerson coming down and giving it a start, but Mr. Stowrs says that the day school was the most successful, the Sunday school interfering with the fishing.
In 1839, there was a trail known as Boone's Trail, over which a man named Boone drove cattle from Missouri to Galena, by way of Maquoketa. His usual crossing\-place on the Wapsie was on Section 5, Township 80 north, Range 2 east. The first ferryman was an old pioneer of the name of John Shook, who had a small flat\-boat which would just take on one team and which was run by a rope. R. I. Jencks succeeded him, whether by purchase or by entry of the landings, is not certainly known. He named the ferry Buena Vista, after that celebrated battle had been fought. He also succeeded in securing a post office here, which was called Buena Vista, which has since been removed to Rothstein's Mill, but still bears the same name. Jencks sold out the ferry franchise to George Atherton in 1849, and a few weeks later he sold out to Dr. Amos Witter, a gentleman who was emigrating to California overland, but when he had reached this point had wearied of his journey. He afterward died in the service as a Brigade Surgeon. Dr. Witter sold out to a man named Edgar, sometime previous to 1854\. J. E. McArthur succeeded him and ran the ferry until 1858, when he sold to James Merritt, and, in the spring of 1859, he sold to Jerome Dutton, who continued to operate it until the spring of 1865, when the land on the Clinton County side was sold to J. W. S. Robinson and James Dumphy, Mr. Dutton still owning the lands on the Scott County side, and the ferry was discontinued. This had been one of the most profitable ferries on the Wapsie for many years, and particularly during the Pike's Peak excitement in 1859, but the erection of the Rothstein Bridge destroyed its value. Lyman Alger also had a ferry in this township for many years and is one of the first settlers of record to whom license was issued to keep a ferry across the Wapsie. The Chicago, Iowa \& Nebraska Railroad also temporarily operated a ferry for the transfer of passengers on the stage\-route until the railroad was completed across the river.
This township is mostly level and has considerable bog or swamp land, but drainage and cultivation is bringing nearly all of it into arable fields. Much of this land was held out of market as mineral lands until 1850 to 1855, as there were considerable deposits of bog\-iron ore, but never found in paying quantities.
There are several good quarries in this township, and, on the farm of William V. Cruson, there was opened this year a limestone quarry which is producing a fine quality of lime.
There are several peat\-beds in the township, and, in 1867, an attempt was made to manufacture peat on the farm of John A. Boyd. The quality of the peat made was excellent but the enterprise was not a financial success.
In 1860, the total vote polled in the township was 140, and before any draft was ordered seventy\-nine men had volunteered into the service, mostly in the Second, Eighth and Twenty\-sixth Infantry, and the First and Seventh Cavalry. This was conceded to be the banner township in the State.
After the close of the war, a Post of the G. A. R. was organized and maintained for a number of years.
A large representation in the present population is of Norwegians, an industrious and thriving people. They have a Lutheran church in the southeastern part of the township and have recently erected a very fine church edifice. They also have a parsonage and sustain a Pastor, who preaches to them in their native tongue.
About one or two miles south from the Norwegian Church, the German Lutherans also have a church edifice and parsonage. Their Pastor, in addition to his ministerial duties, also teaches a German school. The oldest church organization, however, in the township, is a Free\-Will Baptist Church, which used to worship in the old log schoolhouse, mentioned before, and which now worships in the Alger Schoolhouse, and whose spiritual shepherd is Rev, D. C. Curtis.
A post office was established in 1858\. Joseph D. Fegan was deputized to go there and establish the office. No one could suggest a name. Mr. Fegan said ''Is there no creek or anything?" "Yes, Calamus Creek." "Then let it be Calamus." The creek takes its name from the great quantities of "sweet flag" growing in it.
Probably no occurrence ever occasioned greater excitement throughout Olive Township, and, indeed, throughout the whole surrounding country, than that of the murder of Mrs. Esther Alger, the aged wife of Lyman Alger, both of whom were among the earliest settlers in the township as well as in the county. Mr. Alger had accumulated a large property, and was in the habit of loaning money to quite an extent, and frequently had quite considerable sums of money in the house. To obtain a large amount supposed to be in the house at the time of the crime, it is conjectured, was the object of its commission. Mrs. Alger was an aged lady of seventy\-two years, and her husband a year her senior. They lived alone, except a grandson, Judson Curtis. On the evening of September 25, 1872, Mr. Alger had gone to the schoolhouse, a short distance away, to attend a prayer\-meeting. Judson had gone over to his father's barn, about forty rods distant, and the old lady was left alone at home. She was evidently busily engaged in some household duties about the door, having her sun\-bonnet on. While thus engaged, she was shot down and, afterward beaten to death with some blunt instrument, supposedly an ax. Judson heard the shot fired, and, running to the house, found the dead body of his grandmother lying in the path near the door, the house opened, and the trunk where the money was kept rifled. He gave the alarm at the schoolhouse, and the people hurried to the scene to find that one of the most brutal of murders had been committed, almost in broad daylight. Between $1,000 and $1,500 were taken from the trunk.
Although some arrests were made, and diligent efforts put forth to discover the perpetrators of the crime, it is still an unsolved mystery.
|
[
"### Early settlement",
"Olive Township was organized in October, 1842\\.{{cite book \\| url\\=https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ \\| title\\=The History of Clinton County, Iowa: Containing a History of the County, Its Cities, Towns \\&c \\| publisher\\=Western Historical Company \\| year\\=1879 \\| pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/bub\\_gb\\_pYQUAAAAYAAJ/page/n514 631]}} The boundaries as then designated have been previously given. Its present territory includes nearly all of fractional Townships 80 and 81 north, Range 2 east. It is bounded north by Grant Township (previously named Berlin Township), west by Spring Rock Township, south by the Wapsie, which is the county line, and east by Orange Township.",
"Among the early settlers in this township were Hiram Brown, Charles Dutton Sr. and his sons Lorenzo, Charles Jr., Leroy and Jerome Dutton, Lyman Alger, Joseph Alger, E. F. Owen, William Scott, Bennett Warren, Mr. Edgar, D. C. Curtis, Josiah Hill, Abram Hendrickson and others.",
"The Dutton family came early into the township. Their total possessions were about $60 in cash and a few household effects. They purchased a pair of cattle, and the first season broke about ten acres of prairie and sowed white winter wheat. This crop was harvested and hauled to Davenport, through sloughs and mud\\-holes, the load having frequently to be unloaded to get out, and was sold for 30 cents per bushel, one half in store pay, and a part of the balance in cash articles, which meant groceries. The store pay was calico and similar dry goods. In 1849, they hauled pork to Dubuque and sold for $1\\.75, three\\-fourths store pay and the balance cash.",
"J. S. Stowrs, Esq., opened a law office in De Witt in 1844, building the first building for such an office erected there, a brick one, and he relates that his first fee was a load of pumpkins which were drawn to him by Mr. Names, and his second fee a load of wood drawn to him by Mr. James Kirtley. Finding it necessary to eke out his income, he resorted to school\\-teaching, and, in 1846, he says, he opened the first school in Olive Township. There was no schoolhouse, few school\\-books and those of every variety, such as had been brought by the settlers from their various starting\\-points. When he arrived at the place, he found the School Director making ready for his coming. The building was an old log\\-house and the Director was boring holes in slabs for seats and into the logs to drive pins, upon which a board was laid for the desk. A stone chimney in one end served for heating purposes. Being an attorney and having been Probate Judge in the county, Mr. Stowrs commanded munificent wages, and he was paid $12 per month and boarded around. The children were eager to learn, and, despite these disadvantages, improved the time. He also organized a Sunday school. Rev. Mr. Emerson coming down and giving it a start, but Mr. Stowrs says that the day school was the most successful, the Sunday school interfering with the fishing.",
"In 1839, there was a trail known as Boone's Trail, over which a man named Boone drove cattle from Missouri to Galena, by way of Maquoketa. His usual crossing\\-place on the Wapsie was on Section 5, Township 80 north, Range 2 east. The first ferryman was an old pioneer of the name of John Shook, who had a small flat\\-boat which would just take on one team and which was run by a rope. R. I. Jencks succeeded him, whether by purchase or by entry of the landings, is not certainly known. He named the ferry Buena Vista, after that celebrated battle had been fought. He also succeeded in securing a post office here, which was called Buena Vista, which has since been removed to Rothstein's Mill, but still bears the same name. Jencks sold out the ferry franchise to George Atherton in 1849, and a few weeks later he sold out to Dr. Amos Witter, a gentleman who was emigrating to California overland, but when he had reached this point had wearied of his journey. He afterward died in the service as a Brigade Surgeon. Dr. Witter sold out to a man named Edgar, sometime previous to 1854\\. J. E. McArthur succeeded him and ran the ferry until 1858, when he sold to James Merritt, and, in the spring of 1859, he sold to Jerome Dutton, who continued to operate it until the spring of 1865, when the land on the Clinton County side was sold to J. W. S. Robinson and James Dumphy, Mr. Dutton still owning the lands on the Scott County side, and the ferry was discontinued. This had been one of the most profitable ferries on the Wapsie for many years, and particularly during the Pike's Peak excitement in 1859, but the erection of the Rothstein Bridge destroyed its value. Lyman Alger also had a ferry in this township for many years and is one of the first settlers of record to whom license was issued to keep a ferry across the Wapsie. The Chicago, Iowa \\& Nebraska Railroad also temporarily operated a ferry for the transfer of passengers on the stage\\-route until the railroad was completed across the river.",
"This township is mostly level and has considerable bog or swamp land, but drainage and cultivation is bringing nearly all of it into arable fields. Much of this land was held out of market as mineral lands until 1850 to 1855, as there were considerable deposits of bog\\-iron ore, but never found in paying quantities.",
"There are several good quarries in this township, and, on the farm of William V. Cruson, there was opened this year a limestone quarry which is producing a fine quality of lime.",
"There are several peat\\-beds in the township, and, in 1867, an attempt was made to manufacture peat on the farm of John A. Boyd. The quality of the peat made was excellent but the enterprise was not a financial success.",
"In 1860, the total vote polled in the township was 140, and before any draft was ordered seventy\\-nine men had volunteered into the service, mostly in the Second, Eighth and Twenty\\-sixth Infantry, and the First and Seventh Cavalry. This was conceded to be the banner township in the State.",
"After the close of the war, a Post of the G. A. R. was organized and maintained for a number of years.",
"A large representation in the present population is of Norwegians, an industrious and thriving people. They have a Lutheran church in the southeastern part of the township and have recently erected a very fine church edifice. They also have a parsonage and sustain a Pastor, who preaches to them in their native tongue.",
"About one or two miles south from the Norwegian Church, the German Lutherans also have a church edifice and parsonage. Their Pastor, in addition to his ministerial duties, also teaches a German school. The oldest church organization, however, in the township, is a Free\\-Will Baptist Church, which used to worship in the old log schoolhouse, mentioned before, and which now worships in the Alger Schoolhouse, and whose spiritual shepherd is Rev, D. C. Curtis.",
"A post office was established in 1858\\. Joseph D. Fegan was deputized to go there and establish the office. No one could suggest a name. Mr. Fegan said ''Is there no creek or anything?\" \"Yes, Calamus Creek.\" \"Then let it be Calamus.\" The creek takes its name from the great quantities of \"sweet flag\" growing in it.",
"Probably no occurrence ever occasioned greater excitement throughout Olive Township, and, indeed, throughout the whole surrounding country, than that of the murder of Mrs. Esther Alger, the aged wife of Lyman Alger, both of whom were among the earliest settlers in the township as well as in the county. Mr. Alger had accumulated a large property, and was in the habit of loaning money to quite an extent, and frequently had quite considerable sums of money in the house. To obtain a large amount supposed to be in the house at the time of the crime, it is conjectured, was the object of its commission. Mrs. Alger was an aged lady of seventy\\-two years, and her husband a year her senior. They lived alone, except a grandson, Judson Curtis. On the evening of September 25, 1872, Mr. Alger had gone to the schoolhouse, a short distance away, to attend a prayer\\-meeting. Judson had gone over to his father's barn, about forty rods distant, and the old lady was left alone at home. She was evidently busily engaged in some household duties about the door, having her sun\\-bonnet on. While thus engaged, she was shot down and, afterward beaten to death with some blunt instrument, supposedly an ax. Judson heard the shot fired, and, running to the house, found the dead body of his grandmother lying in the path near the door, the house opened, and the trunk where the money was kept rifled. He gave the alarm at the schoolhouse, and the people hurried to the scene to find that one of the most brutal of murders had been committed, almost in broad daylight. Between $1,000 and $1,500 were taken from the trunk.",
"Although some arrests were made, and diligent efforts put forth to discover the perpetrators of the crime, it is still an unsolved mystery.",
""
] |
The *Maine* disaster
--------------------
[thumb\|left\|Front page of the *New York World* newspaper displaying a graphic depicting the destruction of the USS *Maine*](/wiki/File:World98.jpg "World98.jpg")
The USS *Maine* was one of several new battleships and other warships built by the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") after 1884 to modernize the fleet. The *Maine* was launched on November 18, 1889, and commissioned on September 17, 1895\. She was part of the [North Atlantic Squadron](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Squadron "North Atlantic Squadron") for nearly all of her career.
On January 25, 1898, the *Maine* was sent from [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), to [Havana](/wiki/Havana "Havana"), Cuba, to protect American citizens and interests during the [Cuban War of Independence](/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence "Cuban War of Independence"). At 9:40 p.m. local time on February 15, an explosion on board *Maine* destroyed and sank the ship. More than {{convert\|5\|ST\|MT}} of powder charges in the ship's ammunitions magazine detonated, instantly destroying about {{convert\|100\|ft\|m}} (or one\-third) of the bow of the ship. The central third of the ship remained somewhat more intact, but was severely damaged and lacked structural integrity. The last third of the ship at the stern remained completely intact. The burning *Maine* rapidly sank. Most of the *Maine*{{'}}s crew (none of them officers) were sleeping or resting in the enlisted quarters in the forward part of the ship. Eight others died later from their injuries. [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States_O-6%29 "Captain (United States O-6)") [Charles Dwight Sigsbee](/wiki/Charles_Dwight_Sigsbee "Charles Dwight Sigsbee") and all but two of the officers survived.Axelrod, p. 67–68\.
Official figures for crew and dead are difficult to determine, and even government sources disagree. The majority of sources say the ship carried 354 crew.Kachur and Sterngass, p. 92\.Nichols, p. 48\.Hunt, p. 8\.Stewart\-Jones, p. 37\.Youngblood, p. 68\.Marley, p. 907\.Navarro and Mejia, p. 250\.Keith, p. 11\.Rice, p. 33\.Gardiner, p. 45\.Paterson, Clifford, and Kagan, p. 12\.Starr\-LeBeau, Kross, and Allison, p. 127\.McCaffrey, p. 4; Mack, Connell, and Lovette, p. 207\. But crew numbers cited by sources include 327,Lauderbaugh, p. 1050\. 328,de la Cova, p. 366\. 350,Hazen, p. 82\.Limburg, p. 1\.Drew and Snow, p. 358\. 355,["The *USS Maine* Mast Memorial." Arlington National Cemetery. No date.](http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/VisitorInformation/MonumentMemorials/USSMaine.aspx) Accessed 2013\-05\-21\.Housenick, p. 190; Staten, p. 88; McNeese and Jensen, p. 12; Peters, p. 276\. 358,Cutler, p. 176\. 374,Johnson, p. 40\.Paine, p. 100\.Crompton, p. 22\. and 375\.["The Destruction of *USS Maine*." Naval History and Heritage Command. Department of the Navy. U.S. Department of Defense. February 6, 1998\.](http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71-1.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818121552/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71\-1\.htm \|date\=August 18, 2007 }} Accessed 2013\-05\-21\.
The number of dead is also difficult to determine. Sources claim 252, 260,Peters, p. 276\."Sad Mission of the Texas." *Washington Post.* November 28, 1899\.Crompton, p. 40, 50; Franklin, p. 8; Murray, p. 116; Morris and Kearns, p. 394\-395; Ochoa and Smith, p. 120; Ferguson, p. 206; Gould, p. 314\. 262,Dunlap, p. 752\. 264, 266,Tucker, p. 1501; LaRosa and Mejia, p. 276; Yzaguirre, p. 31; Lauderbaugh, p. 1049; Hendrickson, p. 111\. and 274 dead.Hughes, Murphy, Flippin, and Duchaine, p. 386\. The number of dead is complicated by the fact that several members of the crew died after the initial explosion. But even these figures vary. Some sources say just 6 later died of their injuries, while others claim 8 did so.McCaffrey, p. 5\.
On March 19, a U.S. Navy board of inquiry led by Captain [William T. Sampson](/wiki/William_T._Sampson "William T. Sampson") concluded that *Maine* was destroyed by the explosion of its ammunition magazines. But the board of inquiry were unable to determine what set off the ammunition. Nonetheless, the press and most members of Congress concluded that the *Maine* had struck a [naval mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine") laid by the Spanish. Resolutions declaring war on [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") were introduced in Congress on March 28 and passed on April 20, initiating the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Spanish–American War").Marley, p. 598\. (Subsequent investigations have suggested that the cause of the explosion was the ignition of [coal dust](/wiki/Coal_dust "Coal dust") in the fuel bunker or a fire in the coal bunker, although some have also concluded that the cause was a mine.)
{{clear}}
### Recovery and interment of bodies at Colon Cemetery
[thumb\|Colon Cemetery (seen here in 1998\), where many of the dead of the *Maine* were buried in 1898](/wiki/File:Cristobal_Colon_1998.jpg "Cristobal Colon 1998.jpg")
The days following the *Maine* disaster were chaotic. Some of the twisted wreckage of the center section and bow jutted high out of the water. At low tide, the decks of the center section of the ship were just under water, while the stern (which angled upward) was slightly out of the water. At high tide, all of the ship except the bow wreckage, the main mast, and the aft\-mast was under water. The site of the disaster was quickly but not immediately secured by the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy "Spanish Navy") and Cuban colonial government."Guard On Wreck." *Washington Post*. February 19, 1898\. Souvenir seekers and the well\-meaning nonetheless often accessed the wreck. Divers, most of them [Cubans](/wiki/Cubans "Cubans"), were employed by the United States to bring bodies to the surface."Divers At Work." *Washington Post*. February 20, 1898\."Operations of the Divers." *Washington Post*. February 21, 1898\. Pieces of the ship lay some distance from the wreck, and some items washed ashore days or even weeks later.
Press reports about the dead were often confused. For example, the *[Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* reported that the body of engineer Darwin Merritt had been found on February 16, but this was incorrect. The newspaper also incorrectly reported that the body of [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 "Lieutenant (navy)") Friend W. Jenkins was recovered on February 16\."258 of Our Sailors Are Lost." *Washington Post*. February 17, 1898\. In fact, Jenkins' body was retrieved from an area near the aft [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") tube on March 24\."Lieut. Jenkins' Body Found." *Washington Post*. March 25, 1898\."Great Havoc Found in Wreck of Maine." *New York Times*. June 16, 1911\. It was sent home to his family in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania")."News From Havana." *Washington Post*. March 26, 1898\. The newspapers often got names wrong, reporting that an Edison or Tennis was among the dead (when no persons with those first or last names were among the crew).
The recovery of bodies was slow. Spanish law required that, in order to avoid the spread of disease, bodies be buried within 24 hours and remain buried for at least five years."Bodies Cannot Be Moved from Havana." *Washington Post*. February 27, 1898\. Three bodies were caught in the wreckage at the surface. But no one noticed them until February 23 (a full week after the explosion), and by then [vultures](/wiki/Vulture "Vulture") had devoured much of the corpses."Plates Driven Upward." *Washington Post.* February 24, 1898\. Although only 19 corpses had been found, the city of Havana held a funeral for the dead. Thousands of people turned out for the [funeral cortege](/wiki/List_of_French_words_and_phrases_used_by_English_speakers%23C "List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#C") and watched as the Spanish military bore the 19 elaborate coffins with great ceremony through the streets to [Colon Cemetery, Havana](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana "Colon Cemetery, Havana"). Another 135 bodies were recovered on February 19\.Many bodies sank at first or were snagged underwater on wreckage. But as the bodies decomposed, gas formed inside them—bringing them to the surface. The *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* reported that this included the limbs of about 10 men."Incidents of the Funeral." *New York Times*. February 19, 1898\. Twenty\-four of them were identifiable. Two of the eight wounded (including Coxswain Alfred J. Holland) died that day as well.
Five more bodies were recovered on February 20, and Ordinary Seaman Frank Fisher died that day of his wounds. Several more bodies were recovered on February 21\. Divers discovered another 20 bodies trapped below the forward hatch of the center section on February 23, but only three were brought to the surface as wreckage prevented the rest from being immediately retrieved. Two more of the wounded died that day as well. Another 12 bodies were recovered from near the engine rooms on February 22, all of them dismembered and badly disfigured."Divers in the Maine." *New York Times*. February 23, 1898\. Work to free the bodies below the forward hatch continued on February 22, and was largely successful the following day. All but one was brought to the surface, and that body was too tightly caught in the wreckage to free. Another body rose of its own accord to the surface, and divers reported seeing several bodies trapped in twisted metal or in places where divers could not reach."Is Slow Work." *Washington Post*. February 26, 1898; "The Day in Havana." *New York Times*. March 1, 1898\.
By March 4, a total of 161 bodies had been buried at Colon."Honoring the Maine's Dead." *New York Times*. March 4, 1898\. The body of one of the *Maine*{{'s}} four Japanese mess attendants and another sailor were pulled from the wreck on March 24, and another six bodies (including that of the muscular Coal Passer John Ziegler) brought to the surface the following day.
Work on the wreck of the *Maine* stopped on April 3, 1898\. All divers and tugs were withdrawn from the site, and the recovery of bodies called off. U.S. naval authorities estimated that 75 or 76 bodies still remained undiscovered below."To Abandon the Maine." *Washington Post*. April 3, 1898\.
### Key West burials
[thumb\|*Maine* dead burial plot in City Cemetery, Key West, Florida](/wiki/File:Key_West_Cemetery_Battleship_Maine.jpg "Key West Cemetery Battleship Maine.jpg")Some bodies in Havana were not recovered until the end of February. For reasons which remain unclear, the U.S. Navy transported these remains to [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida "Key West, Florida"), where they were buried. The first burials, of an unreported number of bodies, were made there on March 1 at City Cemetery. The funeral was organized by Captain [Bowman H. McCalla](/wiki/Bowman_H._McCalla "Bowman H. McCalla") of the {{USS\|Marblehead\|C\-11}}. Small detachments of [Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marines "United States Marines") from nearby vessels and from [Fort Jefferson](/wiki/Fort_Jefferson%2C_Florida "Fort Jefferson, Florida") in the nearby [Dry Tortugas](/wiki/Dry_Tortugas "Dry Tortugas") provided an [honor guard](/wiki/Honor_guard "Honor guard") and guided the [caissons](/wiki/Limbers_and_caissons "Limbers and caissons") on which the coffins were borne. Guns from the ships fired after the funeral ended."Maine Funerals at Key West." *New York Times*. March 2, 1898\. Six more bodies (including two in a single coffin) arrived on March 8, and were buried in City Cemetery as well."Six More Victims Buried." *Washington Post*. March 8, 1898\. Another two unidentified bodies were brought to Key West by the cruiser *Olivette* on March 17, and buried on March 18\."Two More Maine Victims." *Washington Post*. March 17, 1898; "Two Maine Victims Buried." *Washington Post*. March 18, 1898\.
The arrival of bodies at multiple times at Key West has led to confusion over how many bodies from the *Maine* are buried there. The *New York Times* did not report the number of dead at Key West, but said only two had been identified."Removal of the Maine Dead." *New York Times*. November 30, 1899\. In 1912, the [Army Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 "Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)") reported that there were just 19 bodies at Key West.["Report of the Quartermaster General," pp. 510–511\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IikSAAAAYAAJ&dq=Burials%20of%20USS%20Maine%20sailors&pg=PA510) Accessed 2013\-05\-20\. But other published sources vary quite widely. The [National Geographic Society](/wiki/National_Geographic_Society "National Geographic Society") reported 22 bodies in 2012\.Miller and Propert, p. 231\. A number of sources cite 24 bodies. In May 1898, the *Washington Post* reported 24 bodies buried at Key West. It said two were identified, an African American and a Japanese mess attendant.It did not name these two individuals. See: "Graves of Maine Dead." *Washington Post*. May 11, 1898\. In 1997, the *[Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press "Associated Press")* also that 24 bodies were buried at Key West, of whom seven were identified.["Navy Opts to Forget USS Maine Memorial in Key West." Associated Press. July 5, 1997\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-7JNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wvwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5112%2C1973350) Accessed 2013\-05\-17\. In 2009, the *Key News* newspaper also reported 24 bodies at Key West, including that of Coal Passer John Ziegler.[Miles, Mandy. "Family Finds Maine Victim Buried in Key West." *Key News*. September 27, 2009\.](http://keysnews.com/node/17237) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529205339/http://keysnews.com/node/17237 \|date\=May 29, 2015 }} Accessed 2013\-05\-20\. A wide range of other sources have also cited 24 bodies at Key West.["Key West Remembers the USS Maine." *Deseret News*. February 16, 1998](http://www.deseretnews.com/article/613380/Key-West-remembers-the-USS-Maine.html?pg=all), accessed 2013\-05\-20; McIver, Stuart. "Florida's 'Splendid Little War'." *Ft. Lauderdale Sun\-Sentinel*. February 15, 1998; McIver, *Touched By the Sun*, p. 146; "Maine Remembered." *New Orleans Times\-Picayune*. February 16, 1998; "Maine Remembered." *Ft. Lauderdale Sun\-Sentinel*. February 16, 1998; "The 'Maine' Remembered." *Durham Herald\-Sun*. February 16, 1998; "Monday Briefly." *Chattanooga Free Press*. February 16, 1998; Chesney, Alan. "'Maine' Still Remembered." *Calgary Herald*. February 16, 1998\. Some sources say 25 bodies are buried there, others 26,"Arlington National Cemetery Remembers Victims Aboard the USS Maine." CNN. February 15, 1998\. and several others 27\."Forget Snow, But 'Remember the Maine'." *Boston Herald*. February 1, 1998; Campbell, Cynthia V. "Plan a Patriotic Jaunt to Massachusetts." *Baton Rouge Advocate*. February 8, 1998; Bellido, Susana. "Key West Gears Up for Weekend Maine Tribute." *Miami Herald*. February 14, 1998; Bellido, Susana. "100 Years Later, They Remember." *Miami Herald*. February 16, 1998; Carlson, p. 207\.
|
[
"The *Maine* disaster\n--------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Front page of the *New York World* newspaper displaying a graphic depicting the destruction of the USS *Maine*](/wiki/File:World98.jpg \"World98.jpg\")\nThe USS *Maine* was one of several new battleships and other warships built by the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") after 1884 to modernize the fleet. The *Maine* was launched on November 18, 1889, and commissioned on September 17, 1895\\. She was part of the [North Atlantic Squadron](/wiki/North_Atlantic_Squadron \"North Atlantic Squadron\") for nearly all of her career.",
"On January 25, 1898, the *Maine* was sent from [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), to [Havana](/wiki/Havana \"Havana\"), Cuba, to protect American citizens and interests during the [Cuban War of Independence](/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence \"Cuban War of Independence\"). At 9:40 p.m. local time on February 15, an explosion on board *Maine* destroyed and sank the ship. More than {{convert\\|5\\|ST\\|MT}} of powder charges in the ship's ammunitions magazine detonated, instantly destroying about {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m}} (or one\\-third) of the bow of the ship. The central third of the ship remained somewhat more intact, but was severely damaged and lacked structural integrity. The last third of the ship at the stern remained completely intact. The burning *Maine* rapidly sank. Most of the *Maine*{{'}}s crew (none of them officers) were sleeping or resting in the enlisted quarters in the forward part of the ship. Eight others died later from their injuries. [Captain](/wiki/Captain_%28United_States_O-6%29 \"Captain (United States O-6)\") [Charles Dwight Sigsbee](/wiki/Charles_Dwight_Sigsbee \"Charles Dwight Sigsbee\") and all but two of the officers survived.Axelrod, p. 67–68\\.",
"Official figures for crew and dead are difficult to determine, and even government sources disagree. The majority of sources say the ship carried 354 crew.Kachur and Sterngass, p. 92\\.Nichols, p. 48\\.Hunt, p. 8\\.Stewart\\-Jones, p. 37\\.Youngblood, p. 68\\.Marley, p. 907\\.Navarro and Mejia, p. 250\\.Keith, p. 11\\.Rice, p. 33\\.Gardiner, p. 45\\.Paterson, Clifford, and Kagan, p. 12\\.Starr\\-LeBeau, Kross, and Allison, p. 127\\.McCaffrey, p. 4; Mack, Connell, and Lovette, p. 207\\. But crew numbers cited by sources include 327,Lauderbaugh, p. 1050\\. 328,de la Cova, p. 366\\. 350,Hazen, p. 82\\.Limburg, p. 1\\.Drew and Snow, p. 358\\. 355,[\"The *USS Maine* Mast Memorial.\" Arlington National Cemetery. No date.](http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/VisitorInformation/MonumentMemorials/USSMaine.aspx) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-21\\.Housenick, p. 190; Staten, p. 88; McNeese and Jensen, p. 12; Peters, p. 276\\. 358,Cutler, p. 176\\. 374,Johnson, p. 40\\.Paine, p. 100\\.Crompton, p. 22\\. and 375\\.[\"The Destruction of *USS Maine*.\" Naval History and Heritage Command. Department of the Navy. U.S. Department of Defense. February 6, 1998\\.](http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71-1.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070818121552/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq71\\-1\\.htm \\|date\\=August 18, 2007 }} Accessed 2013\\-05\\-21\\.",
"The number of dead is also difficult to determine. Sources claim 252, 260,Peters, p. 276\\.\"Sad Mission of the Texas.\" *Washington Post.* November 28, 1899\\.Crompton, p. 40, 50; Franklin, p. 8; Murray, p. 116; Morris and Kearns, p. 394\\-395; Ochoa and Smith, p. 120; Ferguson, p. 206; Gould, p. 314\\. 262,Dunlap, p. 752\\. 264, 266,Tucker, p. 1501; LaRosa and Mejia, p. 276; Yzaguirre, p. 31; Lauderbaugh, p. 1049; Hendrickson, p. 111\\. and 274 dead.Hughes, Murphy, Flippin, and Duchaine, p. 386\\. The number of dead is complicated by the fact that several members of the crew died after the initial explosion. But even these figures vary. Some sources say just 6 later died of their injuries, while others claim 8 did so.McCaffrey, p. 5\\.",
"On March 19, a U.S. Navy board of inquiry led by Captain [William T. Sampson](/wiki/William_T._Sampson \"William T. Sampson\") concluded that *Maine* was destroyed by the explosion of its ammunition magazines. But the board of inquiry were unable to determine what set off the ammunition. Nonetheless, the press and most members of Congress concluded that the *Maine* had struck a [naval mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\") laid by the Spanish. Resolutions declaring war on [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") were introduced in Congress on March 28 and passed on April 20, initiating the [Spanish–American War](/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Spanish–American War\").Marley, p. 598\\. (Subsequent investigations have suggested that the cause of the explosion was the ignition of [coal dust](/wiki/Coal_dust \"Coal dust\") in the fuel bunker or a fire in the coal bunker, although some have also concluded that the cause was a mine.)\n{{clear}}",
"### Recovery and interment of bodies at Colon Cemetery",
"[thumb\\|Colon Cemetery (seen here in 1998\\), where many of the dead of the *Maine* were buried in 1898](/wiki/File:Cristobal_Colon_1998.jpg \"Cristobal Colon 1998.jpg\")\nThe days following the *Maine* disaster were chaotic. Some of the twisted wreckage of the center section and bow jutted high out of the water. At low tide, the decks of the center section of the ship were just under water, while the stern (which angled upward) was slightly out of the water. At high tide, all of the ship except the bow wreckage, the main mast, and the aft\\-mast was under water. The site of the disaster was quickly but not immediately secured by the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy \"Spanish Navy\") and Cuban colonial government.\"Guard On Wreck.\" *Washington Post*. February 19, 1898\\. Souvenir seekers and the well\\-meaning nonetheless often accessed the wreck. Divers, most of them [Cubans](/wiki/Cubans \"Cubans\"), were employed by the United States to bring bodies to the surface.\"Divers At Work.\" *Washington Post*. February 20, 1898\\.\"Operations of the Divers.\" *Washington Post*. February 21, 1898\\. Pieces of the ship lay some distance from the wreck, and some items washed ashore days or even weeks later.",
"Press reports about the dead were often confused. For example, the *[Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* reported that the body of engineer Darwin Merritt had been found on February 16, but this was incorrect. The newspaper also incorrectly reported that the body of [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 \"Lieutenant (navy)\") Friend W. Jenkins was recovered on February 16\\.\"258 of Our Sailors Are Lost.\" *Washington Post*. February 17, 1898\\. In fact, Jenkins' body was retrieved from an area near the aft [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") tube on March 24\\.\"Lieut. Jenkins' Body Found.\" *Washington Post*. March 25, 1898\\.\"Great Havoc Found in Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times*. June 16, 1911\\. It was sent home to his family in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\").\"News From Havana.\" *Washington Post*. March 26, 1898\\. The newspapers often got names wrong, reporting that an Edison or Tennis was among the dead (when no persons with those first or last names were among the crew).",
"The recovery of bodies was slow. Spanish law required that, in order to avoid the spread of disease, bodies be buried within 24 hours and remain buried for at least five years.\"Bodies Cannot Be Moved from Havana.\" *Washington Post*. February 27, 1898\\. Three bodies were caught in the wreckage at the surface. But no one noticed them until February 23 (a full week after the explosion), and by then [vultures](/wiki/Vulture \"Vulture\") had devoured much of the corpses.\"Plates Driven Upward.\" *Washington Post.* February 24, 1898\\. Although only 19 corpses had been found, the city of Havana held a funeral for the dead. Thousands of people turned out for the [funeral cortege](/wiki/List_of_French_words_and_phrases_used_by_English_speakers%23C \"List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#C\") and watched as the Spanish military bore the 19 elaborate coffins with great ceremony through the streets to [Colon Cemetery, Havana](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana \"Colon Cemetery, Havana\"). Another 135 bodies were recovered on February 19\\.Many bodies sank at first or were snagged underwater on wreckage. But as the bodies decomposed, gas formed inside them—bringing them to the surface. The *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* reported that this included the limbs of about 10 men.\"Incidents of the Funeral.\" *New York Times*. February 19, 1898\\. Twenty\\-four of them were identifiable. Two of the eight wounded (including Coxswain Alfred J. Holland) died that day as well.",
"Five more bodies were recovered on February 20, and Ordinary Seaman Frank Fisher died that day of his wounds. Several more bodies were recovered on February 21\\. Divers discovered another 20 bodies trapped below the forward hatch of the center section on February 23, but only three were brought to the surface as wreckage prevented the rest from being immediately retrieved. Two more of the wounded died that day as well. Another 12 bodies were recovered from near the engine rooms on February 22, all of them dismembered and badly disfigured.\"Divers in the Maine.\" *New York Times*. February 23, 1898\\. Work to free the bodies below the forward hatch continued on February 22, and was largely successful the following day. All but one was brought to the surface, and that body was too tightly caught in the wreckage to free. Another body rose of its own accord to the surface, and divers reported seeing several bodies trapped in twisted metal or in places where divers could not reach.\"Is Slow Work.\" *Washington Post*. February 26, 1898; \"The Day in Havana.\" *New York Times*. March 1, 1898\\.",
"By March 4, a total of 161 bodies had been buried at Colon.\"Honoring the Maine's Dead.\" *New York Times*. March 4, 1898\\. The body of one of the *Maine*{{'s}} four Japanese mess attendants and another sailor were pulled from the wreck on March 24, and another six bodies (including that of the muscular Coal Passer John Ziegler) brought to the surface the following day.",
"Work on the wreck of the *Maine* stopped on April 3, 1898\\. All divers and tugs were withdrawn from the site, and the recovery of bodies called off. U.S. naval authorities estimated that 75 or 76 bodies still remained undiscovered below.\"To Abandon the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. April 3, 1898\\.",
"### Key West burials",
"[thumb\\|*Maine* dead burial plot in City Cemetery, Key West, Florida](/wiki/File:Key_West_Cemetery_Battleship_Maine.jpg \"Key West Cemetery Battleship Maine.jpg\")Some bodies in Havana were not recovered until the end of February. For reasons which remain unclear, the U.S. Navy transported these remains to [Key West, Florida](/wiki/Key_West%2C_Florida \"Key West, Florida\"), where they were buried. The first burials, of an unreported number of bodies, were made there on March 1 at City Cemetery. The funeral was organized by Captain [Bowman H. McCalla](/wiki/Bowman_H._McCalla \"Bowman H. McCalla\") of the {{USS\\|Marblehead\\|C\\-11}}. Small detachments of [Marines](/wiki/United_States_Marines \"United States Marines\") from nearby vessels and from [Fort Jefferson](/wiki/Fort_Jefferson%2C_Florida \"Fort Jefferson, Florida\") in the nearby [Dry Tortugas](/wiki/Dry_Tortugas \"Dry Tortugas\") provided an [honor guard](/wiki/Honor_guard \"Honor guard\") and guided the [caissons](/wiki/Limbers_and_caissons \"Limbers and caissons\") on which the coffins were borne. Guns from the ships fired after the funeral ended.\"Maine Funerals at Key West.\" *New York Times*. March 2, 1898\\. Six more bodies (including two in a single coffin) arrived on March 8, and were buried in City Cemetery as well.\"Six More Victims Buried.\" *Washington Post*. March 8, 1898\\. Another two unidentified bodies were brought to Key West by the cruiser *Olivette* on March 17, and buried on March 18\\.\"Two More Maine Victims.\" *Washington Post*. March 17, 1898; \"Two Maine Victims Buried.\" *Washington Post*. March 18, 1898\\.",
"The arrival of bodies at multiple times at Key West has led to confusion over how many bodies from the *Maine* are buried there. The *New York Times* did not report the number of dead at Key West, but said only two had been identified.\"Removal of the Maine Dead.\" *New York Times*. November 30, 1899\\. In 1912, the [Army Quartermaster Corps](/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_%28United_States_Army%29 \"Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)\") reported that there were just 19 bodies at Key West.[\"Report of the Quartermaster General,\" pp. 510–511\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=IikSAAAAYAAJ&dq=Burials%20of%20USS%20Maine%20sailors&pg=PA510) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-20\\. But other published sources vary quite widely. The [National Geographic Society](/wiki/National_Geographic_Society \"National Geographic Society\") reported 22 bodies in 2012\\.Miller and Propert, p. 231\\. A number of sources cite 24 bodies. In May 1898, the *Washington Post* reported 24 bodies buried at Key West. It said two were identified, an African American and a Japanese mess attendant.It did not name these two individuals. See: \"Graves of Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post*. May 11, 1898\\. In 1997, the *[Associated Press](/wiki/Associated_Press \"Associated Press\")* also that 24 bodies were buried at Key West, of whom seven were identified.[\"Navy Opts to Forget USS Maine Memorial in Key West.\" Associated Press. July 5, 1997\\.](https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-7JNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wvwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=5112%2C1973350) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-17\\. In 2009, the *Key News* newspaper also reported 24 bodies at Key West, including that of Coal Passer John Ziegler.[Miles, Mandy. \"Family Finds Maine Victim Buried in Key West.\" *Key News*. September 27, 2009\\.](http://keysnews.com/node/17237) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529205339/http://keysnews.com/node/17237 \\|date\\=May 29, 2015 }} Accessed 2013\\-05\\-20\\. A wide range of other sources have also cited 24 bodies at Key West.[\"Key West Remembers the USS Maine.\" *Deseret News*. February 16, 1998](http://www.deseretnews.com/article/613380/Key-West-remembers-the-USS-Maine.html?pg=all), accessed 2013\\-05\\-20; McIver, Stuart. \"Florida's 'Splendid Little War'.\" *Ft. Lauderdale Sun\\-Sentinel*. February 15, 1998; McIver, *Touched By the Sun*, p. 146; \"Maine Remembered.\" *New Orleans Times\\-Picayune*. February 16, 1998; \"Maine Remembered.\" *Ft. Lauderdale Sun\\-Sentinel*. February 16, 1998; \"The 'Maine' Remembered.\" *Durham Herald\\-Sun*. February 16, 1998; \"Monday Briefly.\" *Chattanooga Free Press*. February 16, 1998; Chesney, Alan. \"'Maine' Still Remembered.\" *Calgary Herald*. February 16, 1998\\. Some sources say 25 bodies are buried there, others 26,\"Arlington National Cemetery Remembers Victims Aboard the USS Maine.\" CNN. February 15, 1998\\. and several others 27\\.\"Forget Snow, But 'Remember the Maine'.\" *Boston Herald*. February 1, 1998; Campbell, Cynthia V. \"Plan a Patriotic Jaunt to Massachusetts.\" *Baton Rouge Advocate*. February 8, 1998; Bellido, Susana. \"Key West Gears Up for Weekend Maine Tribute.\" *Miami Herald*. February 14, 1998; Bellido, Susana. \"100 Years Later, They Remember.\" *Miami Herald*. February 16, 1998; Carlson, p. 207\\.",
""
] |
### Recovery and interment of bodies at Colon Cemetery
[thumb\|Colon Cemetery (seen here in 1998\), where many of the dead of the *Maine* were buried in 1898](/wiki/File:Cristobal_Colon_1998.jpg "Cristobal Colon 1998.jpg")
The days following the *Maine* disaster were chaotic. Some of the twisted wreckage of the center section and bow jutted high out of the water. At low tide, the decks of the center section of the ship were just under water, while the stern (which angled upward) was slightly out of the water. At high tide, all of the ship except the bow wreckage, the main mast, and the aft\-mast was under water. The site of the disaster was quickly but not immediately secured by the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy "Spanish Navy") and Cuban colonial government."Guard On Wreck." *Washington Post*. February 19, 1898\. Souvenir seekers and the well\-meaning nonetheless often accessed the wreck. Divers, most of them [Cubans](/wiki/Cubans "Cubans"), were employed by the United States to bring bodies to the surface."Divers At Work." *Washington Post*. February 20, 1898\."Operations of the Divers." *Washington Post*. February 21, 1898\. Pieces of the ship lay some distance from the wreck, and some items washed ashore days or even weeks later.
Press reports about the dead were often confused. For example, the *[Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post "The Washington Post")* reported that the body of engineer Darwin Merritt had been found on February 16, but this was incorrect. The newspaper also incorrectly reported that the body of [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 "Lieutenant (navy)") Friend W. Jenkins was recovered on February 16\."258 of Our Sailors Are Lost." *Washington Post*. February 17, 1898\. In fact, Jenkins' body was retrieved from an area near the aft [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") tube on March 24\."Lieut. Jenkins' Body Found." *Washington Post*. March 25, 1898\."Great Havoc Found in Wreck of Maine." *New York Times*. June 16, 1911\. It was sent home to his family in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh "Pittsburgh"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania")."News From Havana." *Washington Post*. March 26, 1898\. The newspapers often got names wrong, reporting that an Edison or Tennis was among the dead (when no persons with those first or last names were among the crew).
The recovery of bodies was slow. Spanish law required that, in order to avoid the spread of disease, bodies be buried within 24 hours and remain buried for at least five years."Bodies Cannot Be Moved from Havana." *Washington Post*. February 27, 1898\. Three bodies were caught in the wreckage at the surface. But no one noticed them until February 23 (a full week after the explosion), and by then [vultures](/wiki/Vulture "Vulture") had devoured much of the corpses."Plates Driven Upward." *Washington Post.* February 24, 1898\. Although only 19 corpses had been found, the city of Havana held a funeral for the dead. Thousands of people turned out for the [funeral cortege](/wiki/List_of_French_words_and_phrases_used_by_English_speakers%23C "List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#C") and watched as the Spanish military bore the 19 elaborate coffins with great ceremony through the streets to [Colon Cemetery, Havana](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana "Colon Cemetery, Havana"). Another 135 bodies were recovered on February 19\.Many bodies sank at first or were snagged underwater on wreckage. But as the bodies decomposed, gas formed inside them—bringing them to the surface. The *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")* reported that this included the limbs of about 10 men."Incidents of the Funeral." *New York Times*. February 19, 1898\. Twenty\-four of them were identifiable. Two of the eight wounded (including Coxswain Alfred J. Holland) died that day as well.
Five more bodies were recovered on February 20, and Ordinary Seaman Frank Fisher died that day of his wounds. Several more bodies were recovered on February 21\. Divers discovered another 20 bodies trapped below the forward hatch of the center section on February 23, but only three were brought to the surface as wreckage prevented the rest from being immediately retrieved. Two more of the wounded died that day as well. Another 12 bodies were recovered from near the engine rooms on February 22, all of them dismembered and badly disfigured."Divers in the Maine." *New York Times*. February 23, 1898\. Work to free the bodies below the forward hatch continued on February 22, and was largely successful the following day. All but one was brought to the surface, and that body was too tightly caught in the wreckage to free. Another body rose of its own accord to the surface, and divers reported seeing several bodies trapped in twisted metal or in places where divers could not reach."Is Slow Work." *Washington Post*. February 26, 1898; "The Day in Havana." *New York Times*. March 1, 1898\.
By March 4, a total of 161 bodies had been buried at Colon."Honoring the Maine's Dead." *New York Times*. March 4, 1898\. The body of one of the *Maine*{{'s}} four Japanese mess attendants and another sailor were pulled from the wreck on March 24, and another six bodies (including that of the muscular Coal Passer John Ziegler) brought to the surface the following day.
Work on the wreck of the *Maine* stopped on April 3, 1898\. All divers and tugs were withdrawn from the site, and the recovery of bodies called off. U.S. naval authorities estimated that 75 or 76 bodies still remained undiscovered below."To Abandon the Maine." *Washington Post*. April 3, 1898\.
|
[
"### Recovery and interment of bodies at Colon Cemetery",
"[thumb\\|Colon Cemetery (seen here in 1998\\), where many of the dead of the *Maine* were buried in 1898](/wiki/File:Cristobal_Colon_1998.jpg \"Cristobal Colon 1998.jpg\")\nThe days following the *Maine* disaster were chaotic. Some of the twisted wreckage of the center section and bow jutted high out of the water. At low tide, the decks of the center section of the ship were just under water, while the stern (which angled upward) was slightly out of the water. At high tide, all of the ship except the bow wreckage, the main mast, and the aft\\-mast was under water. The site of the disaster was quickly but not immediately secured by the [Spanish Navy](/wiki/Spanish_Navy \"Spanish Navy\") and Cuban colonial government.\"Guard On Wreck.\" *Washington Post*. February 19, 1898\\. Souvenir seekers and the well\\-meaning nonetheless often accessed the wreck. Divers, most of them [Cubans](/wiki/Cubans \"Cubans\"), were employed by the United States to bring bodies to the surface.\"Divers At Work.\" *Washington Post*. February 20, 1898\\.\"Operations of the Divers.\" *Washington Post*. February 21, 1898\\. Pieces of the ship lay some distance from the wreck, and some items washed ashore days or even weeks later.",
"Press reports about the dead were often confused. For example, the *[Washington Post](/wiki/The_Washington_Post \"The Washington Post\")* reported that the body of engineer Darwin Merritt had been found on February 16, but this was incorrect. The newspaper also incorrectly reported that the body of [Lieutenant](/wiki/Lieutenant_%28navy%29 \"Lieutenant (navy)\") Friend W. Jenkins was recovered on February 16\\.\"258 of Our Sailors Are Lost.\" *Washington Post*. February 17, 1898\\. In fact, Jenkins' body was retrieved from an area near the aft [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") tube on March 24\\.\"Lieut. Jenkins' Body Found.\" *Washington Post*. March 25, 1898\\.\"Great Havoc Found in Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times*. June 16, 1911\\. It was sent home to his family in [Pittsburgh](/wiki/Pittsburgh \"Pittsburgh\"), [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\").\"News From Havana.\" *Washington Post*. March 26, 1898\\. The newspapers often got names wrong, reporting that an Edison or Tennis was among the dead (when no persons with those first or last names were among the crew).",
"The recovery of bodies was slow. Spanish law required that, in order to avoid the spread of disease, bodies be buried within 24 hours and remain buried for at least five years.\"Bodies Cannot Be Moved from Havana.\" *Washington Post*. February 27, 1898\\. Three bodies were caught in the wreckage at the surface. But no one noticed them until February 23 (a full week after the explosion), and by then [vultures](/wiki/Vulture \"Vulture\") had devoured much of the corpses.\"Plates Driven Upward.\" *Washington Post.* February 24, 1898\\. Although only 19 corpses had been found, the city of Havana held a funeral for the dead. Thousands of people turned out for the [funeral cortege](/wiki/List_of_French_words_and_phrases_used_by_English_speakers%23C \"List of French words and phrases used by English speakers#C\") and watched as the Spanish military bore the 19 elaborate coffins with great ceremony through the streets to [Colon Cemetery, Havana](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana \"Colon Cemetery, Havana\"). Another 135 bodies were recovered on February 19\\.Many bodies sank at first or were snagged underwater on wreckage. But as the bodies decomposed, gas formed inside them—bringing them to the surface. The *[New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")* reported that this included the limbs of about 10 men.\"Incidents of the Funeral.\" *New York Times*. February 19, 1898\\. Twenty\\-four of them were identifiable. Two of the eight wounded (including Coxswain Alfred J. Holland) died that day as well.",
"Five more bodies were recovered on February 20, and Ordinary Seaman Frank Fisher died that day of his wounds. Several more bodies were recovered on February 21\\. Divers discovered another 20 bodies trapped below the forward hatch of the center section on February 23, but only three were brought to the surface as wreckage prevented the rest from being immediately retrieved. Two more of the wounded died that day as well. Another 12 bodies were recovered from near the engine rooms on February 22, all of them dismembered and badly disfigured.\"Divers in the Maine.\" *New York Times*. February 23, 1898\\. Work to free the bodies below the forward hatch continued on February 22, and was largely successful the following day. All but one was brought to the surface, and that body was too tightly caught in the wreckage to free. Another body rose of its own accord to the surface, and divers reported seeing several bodies trapped in twisted metal or in places where divers could not reach.\"Is Slow Work.\" *Washington Post*. February 26, 1898; \"The Day in Havana.\" *New York Times*. March 1, 1898\\.",
"By March 4, a total of 161 bodies had been buried at Colon.\"Honoring the Maine's Dead.\" *New York Times*. March 4, 1898\\. The body of one of the *Maine*{{'s}} four Japanese mess attendants and another sailor were pulled from the wreck on March 24, and another six bodies (including that of the muscular Coal Passer John Ziegler) brought to the surface the following day.",
"Work on the wreck of the *Maine* stopped on April 3, 1898\\. All divers and tugs were withdrawn from the site, and the recovery of bodies called off. U.S. naval authorities estimated that 75 or 76 bodies still remained undiscovered below.\"To Abandon the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. April 3, 1898\\.",
""
] |
1899 reburials at Arlington National Cemetery
---------------------------------------------
[thumb\|left\|Dead of the *Maine* lying in state in City Hall in Havana, Cuba, about February 17, 1898](/wiki/File:Lying_in_state_of_USS_Maine_dead_-_Havana_Cuba_-_1898-02-17.jpg "Lying in state of USS Maine dead - Havana Cuba - 1898-02-17.jpg")
The press reported that there were 147 graves at Colon Cemetery,"At Main Victims' Graves." *Washington Post*. February 7, 1899\. although since there were believed to be 166 bodies"The Dead of the Maine." *Washington Post*. November 15, 1899\. it was also assumed that some coffins contained more than one body. In October 1899, [Representative](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") [Charles A. Boutelle](/wiki/Charles_A._Boutelle "Charles A. Boutelle") sponsored successful legislation that appropriated $10,000 to have the U.S. Navy repatriate the bodies buried at Colon Cemetery. Boutelle wanted them reinterred at Arlington National Cemetery near the field where the dead of the [Siege of Santiago](/wiki/Siege_of_Santiago "Siege of Santiago") were buried."Will Be Buried At Arlington." *Washington Post*. October 22, 1899\. With the Spanish–American War over, Spanish law no longer barred disinterment in Cuba. By mid\-November, as plans for the disinterment proceeded, the *Washington Post* reported that reburial at Arlington was not yet official.
On November 27, President [William McKinley](/wiki/William_McKinley "William McKinley") ordered the {{USS\|Texas\|1892\|6}} to proceed to Havana and bring the dead home."To Bring Maine Victims Home." *New York Times*. November 29, 1899; "Battle\-Ship Texas Leaves for Havana." *Washington Post*. November 29, 1899\. The *Texas* would return to [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads "Hampton Roads"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), where they would be transferred to a special train of the [Chesapeake and Ohio Railway](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Ohio_Railway "Chesapeake and Ohio Railway") (the C\&O) for their trip to [Rosslyn, Virginia](/wiki/Rosslyn%2C_Virginia "Rosslyn, Virginia"). At Rosslyn, caissons and an honor guard would bring the bodies the short distance to the cemetery, where the coffins would be placed under tents prior to burial. McKinley also made Arlington National Cemetery the official resting place for the dead. The *Texas* was anticipated to arrive back in the United States on December 15\."Taking Up the Dead of the Maine." *Washington Post*. December 9, 1899\. But the ship didn't even depart until December 13,"Battle\-Ship Texas Mission." *Washington Post*. December 14, 1899\. and arrived in Havana on December 17\."Bringing Home Maine Dead." *Washington Post*. December 18, 1899\.
Disinterment of the dead at Colon Cemetery by U.S. naval personnel began on December 17, 1899\. There was little ceremony as the wood coffins were brought to the surface."Maine Dead Are Disinterred." *New York Times*. December 19, 1899\. Each grave held from one to 20 caskets. Each body had been packed in [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 "Lime (material)") (believed to encourage rapid decomposition of flesh). In some cases, the lime had hardened into a solid cake, requiring the workers to break the body free (which distressed some of the workers). The remains were transferred to tin\-lined wood coffins, where they were placed on a bed of lime and [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal "Charcoal"), with more of each substance packed around them before the coffin was sealed."The Texas At Havana." *New York Times*. December 18, 1899\.
Errors in the original body and coffins counts quickly became apparent. Father [John P. Chidwick](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_for_the_Military_Services%23Spanish%E2%80%93American_War "Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services#Spanish–American War"),{{cite web\|title\=Hero of the Maine: Father John Chidwick \|first\=Donald R.\|last\=McClarey \|publisher\=CatholicStand \|date\=October 3, 2016 \|url\=http://www.catholicstand.com/hero\-of\-the\-Maine/ \|access\-date\=2016\-12\-03}} the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") [chaplain](/wiki/Military_chaplain "Military chaplain") aboard the *Maine* at the time of its destruction, had overseen the original interments in February and March 1898\."Removal of Maine's Dead." *New York Times*. December 22, 1899\. He now also oversaw the disinterment. Chidwick's records showed that there should have been 154 coffins, but only 151 were recovered."Their Last Trip Over." *Washington Post*. December 26, 1899\. Additionally, Chidwick's list of the dead showed two unidentified bodies were unaccounted for. Several reasons for the discrepancies were offered: Clerical errors, errors made by the overburdened Chidwick, and more than one body in the same casket. Chidwick, Colon Cemetery officials, and Cuban authorities were convinced, however, that no bodies had been lost. Disinterment also revealed a new problem: At the time of burial, identified remains had a number painted on the exterior of the coffin that corresponded with a name on Chidwick's list of dead. But by the time of disinterment, the numbers on many of these coffins were unreadable."Maine Dead at Rest Today." *New York Times*. December 28, 1899\. Identified remains thus became unidentified. Another problem was the way the dead were buried. As bodies were buried at Colon Cemetery, the row and grave number was supposed to be noted for each casket. Unfortunately, the cemetery superintendent only noted which row each identified body was in—not the actual grave number. This, too, made it sometimes impossible to determine in which grave identified remains laid. Some casket numbers were readable, however. Those bodies which still could be identified had their names painted on the exterior of the new coffin. The old coffins were burned.
[thumb\|Presidential dais and coffins of the *Maine* dead at Arlington National Cemetery on December 28, 1899](/wiki/File:Burial_of_USS_Maine_dead_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_presidential_dais_-_1899-12-28.jpg "Burial of USS Maine dead at Arlington National Cemetery - presidential dais - 1899-12-28.jpg")
Disinterment ended at 10:00 p.m. local time. The 151 coffins were taken to Machina Wharf and held under guard overnight.[Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy "Assistant Secretary of the Navy") [Charles Herbert Allen](/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen "Charles Herbert Allen") said on December 25, 1898, that there were 166 coffins. Allen clearly meant to say 166 bodies. The *New York Times* reported in the same article that there were 151 bodies, when the newspaper meant to say 151 coffins. See: "Maine Dead at Rest Today." *New York Times*. December 28, 1899\. Early the next morning, the coffins were placed about two small [steamships](/wiki/Steamship "Steamship"), which took the dead at 6:00 a.m. to the *Texas*. The coffins were arranged on the *Texas*{{'s}} afterdeck in groups and covered in canvas. Many American flags and wreaths [evergreens](/wiki/Evergreen "Evergreen") and artificial flowers were placed on the canvas coverings, and the coffins guarded by U.S. Marines day and night until the ship reached Hampton Roads.
The *Texas* arrived at Hampton Roads at 11:00 a.m. local time on December 25, 1899\. The 151 coffins were offloaded by U.S. Navy personnel and transferred to funeral barges. Bluejackets accompanied each funeral barge until it reached the railroad pier. The bluejackets transferred the coffins from the barges to the waiting train while a Marine honor guard stood watch. A unit of six bluejackets and six Marines provided an honor guard aboard the train. Jeremiah Shea, fireman who was aboard the *Maine* on its fateful night, was one of the six sailors. Accompanying the sailors and marines were Father Chidwick and a lieutenant from the *Texas*. The funeral train consisted of four [baggage cars](/wiki/Passenger_car_%28rail%29%23Baggage_car "Passenger car (rail)#Baggage car") and a [vestibule car](/wiki/Observation_car "Observation car") with the seats removed. Transferral of the dead from the *Texas* to the wharf took much longer than anticipated, although only an hour was needed to load the funeral train. Due to the delays, the train did not depart Hampton Roads until 10:00 p.m. local time on December 26\. Expected to arrive at 8:00 a.m. on December 27, it did not do so until 11:00 a.m. Captain Sigsbee did not take the funeral train to Washington, but rather rode a [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat "Steamboat") up the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River "Potomac River") to reach the city faster."Maine Funeral Train." *Washington Post*. December 27, 1899\.
The funeral train reached [Rosslyn, Virginia](/wiki/Rosslyn%2C_Virginia "Rosslyn, Virginia"), on December 27\. The remains were transferred to wagons, and taken to Arlington National Cemetery. The funeral cortege include a cavalry unit from [Fort Myer](/wiki/Fort_Myer "Fort Myer"), a unit of 25 marines from the [Washington Navy Yard](/wiki/Washington_Navy_Yard "Washington Navy Yard"), and a unit of bluejackets (U.S. Navy sailors) from the USS *Texas*."The Maine Dead Interred." *New York Times*. December 29, 1899\. The coffins were carried through the [Sheridan Gate](/wiki/Sheridan_Gate "Sheridan Gate")"Arrangements for Reinterment." *New York Times*. December 16, 1899\. placed under tents and an honor guard of Marines protected them overnight.
[thumb\|left\|Galax leaf wreaths decorate the coffins containing the dead of the *Maine* on December 28, 1899](/wiki/File:Burial_of_USS_Maine_dead_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_1899-12-28.jpg "Burial of USS Maine dead at Arlington National Cemetery - 1899-12-28.jpg")
A grassy knoll at Arlington National Cemetery adjacent to the burial field containing the dead of the Santiago campaign was chosen by [Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy "Assistant Secretary of the Navy") [Charles Herbert Allen](/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen "Charles Herbert Allen") for the reinterment."New Graves for Maine Dead." *New York Times*. December 12, 1899\. The remains of 166 deadHistorian Steve Vogel claims only 162 remains were buried in December 1898\. See: Vogel, p. 64\. Historian James Peters claims that 194 *Maine* crew were buried at Colon Cemetery and reinterred in December 1899\. See: Peters, p. 277\. were contained in the 151 caskets (as only partial remains were found in many cases)."Honors for the Maine Dead." *New York Times*. December 26, 1899\. Either 10, 22 or 30 families (sources differ) asked that the remains of their loved ones be returned for private burial. But few remains were identifiable (among them the remains of Frederick C. Holzer). It is unclear just how many of the remains were identifiable, as some sources say only 10 and others say 24\."Ten of the Dead Claimed." *Washington Post*. December 24, 1899\. Although these families were initially promised that they could take their dead home and bury them privately, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War "United States Department of War") reluctantly decided not to do so. All identifiable remains received a headstone with a name on it, while all other remains were marked "Unknown". (Some sources claim that 191 bodies or portions of bodies were recovered, and 73 of these were identifiable. By this calculation, 166 were buried at Arlington National Cemetery on December 28, 1899, and 25 remained at Key West.)
A wreath of [galax](/wiki/Galax "Galax") leaves was provided for each casket, which was also draped with an American flag. Each coffin was placed next to an open grave."Maine's Dead at Rest." *Washington Post*. December 29, 1899\. Once the funeral cortege departed, two [companies](/wiki/Company_%28military_unit%29%23United_States "Company (military unit)#United States") of bluejackets and a [battalion](/wiki/Battalion%23United_States_Marine_Corps "Battalion#United States Marine Corps") of U.S. Marines acted as honor guards for the dead. They were joined by the [United States Marine Corps Band](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Band "United States Marine Corps Band"). Captain Sigsbee was in command of the three honor guards. A small dais draped in red, white, and blue was provided for the speakers and officiators. President McKinley, his [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States "Cabinet of the United States"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral_%28United_States%29 "Admiral (United States)") [George Dewey](/wiki/George_Dewey "George Dewey"), [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant general (United States)") [Nelson A. Miles](/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles "Nelson A. Miles"), [Lieutenant Commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant commander (United States)") [Richard Wainwright](/wiki/Richard_Wainwright_%28Spanish%E2%80%93American_War_naval_officer%29 "Richard Wainwright (Spanish–American War naval officer)") (former Executive Officer of the *Maine*), Lieutenant Frederic C. Bowers (former Passed Assistant Engineer aboard the *Maine*), and Coal Passer Jeremiah Shea attended the ceremony.
The funeral was largely the same as that used for burying the Santiago campaign's dead. [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism "Protestantism") funeral rites were read first by Chaplain H.H. Clarke, followed by Catholic rites said by Father Chidwick. The sailors fired a [21\-gun salute](/wiki/21-gun_salute "21-gun salute"), the Marine Corps Band played a funeral [dirge](/wiki/Dirge "Dirge"), [taps](/wiki/Taps_%28bugle_call%29 "Taps (bugle call)") were played by a [bugler](/wiki/Bugler "Bugler"), and the reinterment ceremony ended. More than 25,000 people watched the burial.Vogel, p. 64\. Crowds of mourners passed by the coffins during the rest of the day, laying flowers and tributes. It was not until early evening that the coffins were placed in the graves and buried.
The War Department had promised the family of Frederick C. Holzer (one of the crewmen who died days after the explosion) that they could have Holzer's body. His body turned over to his family and reburied in his home town on [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis "Indianapolis"), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana "Indiana"). Sources vary as to whether his body was never buried at Arlington,"Holzer's Body Sent to New York." *Washington Post*. December 29, 1899\. or was disinterred at some later date and turned over to the family.
|
[
"1899 reburials at Arlington National Cemetery\n---------------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Dead of the *Maine* lying in state in City Hall in Havana, Cuba, about February 17, 1898](/wiki/File:Lying_in_state_of_USS_Maine_dead_-_Havana_Cuba_-_1898-02-17.jpg \"Lying in state of USS Maine dead - Havana Cuba - 1898-02-17.jpg\")\nThe press reported that there were 147 graves at Colon Cemetery,\"At Main Victims' Graves.\" *Washington Post*. February 7, 1899\\. although since there were believed to be 166 bodies\"The Dead of the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. November 15, 1899\\. it was also assumed that some coffins contained more than one body. In October 1899, [Representative](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") [Charles A. Boutelle](/wiki/Charles_A._Boutelle \"Charles A. Boutelle\") sponsored successful legislation that appropriated $10,000 to have the U.S. Navy repatriate the bodies buried at Colon Cemetery. Boutelle wanted them reinterred at Arlington National Cemetery near the field where the dead of the [Siege of Santiago](/wiki/Siege_of_Santiago \"Siege of Santiago\") were buried.\"Will Be Buried At Arlington.\" *Washington Post*. October 22, 1899\\. With the Spanish–American War over, Spanish law no longer barred disinterment in Cuba. By mid\\-November, as plans for the disinterment proceeded, the *Washington Post* reported that reburial at Arlington was not yet official.",
"On November 27, President [William McKinley](/wiki/William_McKinley \"William McKinley\") ordered the {{USS\\|Texas\\|1892\\|6}} to proceed to Havana and bring the dead home.\"To Bring Maine Victims Home.\" *New York Times*. November 29, 1899; \"Battle\\-Ship Texas Leaves for Havana.\" *Washington Post*. November 29, 1899\\. The *Texas* would return to [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads \"Hampton Roads\"), [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), where they would be transferred to a special train of the [Chesapeake and Ohio Railway](/wiki/Chesapeake_and_Ohio_Railway \"Chesapeake and Ohio Railway\") (the C\\&O) for their trip to [Rosslyn, Virginia](/wiki/Rosslyn%2C_Virginia \"Rosslyn, Virginia\"). At Rosslyn, caissons and an honor guard would bring the bodies the short distance to the cemetery, where the coffins would be placed under tents prior to burial. McKinley also made Arlington National Cemetery the official resting place for the dead. The *Texas* was anticipated to arrive back in the United States on December 15\\.\"Taking Up the Dead of the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. December 9, 1899\\. But the ship didn't even depart until December 13,\"Battle\\-Ship Texas Mission.\" *Washington Post*. December 14, 1899\\. and arrived in Havana on December 17\\.\"Bringing Home Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post*. December 18, 1899\\.",
"Disinterment of the dead at Colon Cemetery by U.S. naval personnel began on December 17, 1899\\. There was little ceremony as the wood coffins were brought to the surface.\"Maine Dead Are Disinterred.\" *New York Times*. December 19, 1899\\. Each grave held from one to 20 caskets. Each body had been packed in [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28material%29 \"Lime (material)\") (believed to encourage rapid decomposition of flesh). In some cases, the lime had hardened into a solid cake, requiring the workers to break the body free (which distressed some of the workers). The remains were transferred to tin\\-lined wood coffins, where they were placed on a bed of lime and [charcoal](/wiki/Charcoal \"Charcoal\"), with more of each substance packed around them before the coffin was sealed.\"The Texas At Havana.\" *New York Times*. December 18, 1899\\.",
"Errors in the original body and coffins counts quickly became apparent. Father [John P. Chidwick](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_for_the_Military_Services%23Spanish%E2%80%93American_War \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services#Spanish–American War\"),{{cite web\\|title\\=Hero of the Maine: Father John Chidwick \\|first\\=Donald R.\\|last\\=McClarey \\|publisher\\=CatholicStand \\|date\\=October 3, 2016 \\|url\\=http://www.catholicstand.com/hero\\-of\\-the\\-Maine/ \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-12\\-03}} the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") [chaplain](/wiki/Military_chaplain \"Military chaplain\") aboard the *Maine* at the time of its destruction, had overseen the original interments in February and March 1898\\.\"Removal of Maine's Dead.\" *New York Times*. December 22, 1899\\. He now also oversaw the disinterment. Chidwick's records showed that there should have been 154 coffins, but only 151 were recovered.\"Their Last Trip Over.\" *Washington Post*. December 26, 1899\\. Additionally, Chidwick's list of the dead showed two unidentified bodies were unaccounted for. Several reasons for the discrepancies were offered: Clerical errors, errors made by the overburdened Chidwick, and more than one body in the same casket. Chidwick, Colon Cemetery officials, and Cuban authorities were convinced, however, that no bodies had been lost. Disinterment also revealed a new problem: At the time of burial, identified remains had a number painted on the exterior of the coffin that corresponded with a name on Chidwick's list of dead. But by the time of disinterment, the numbers on many of these coffins were unreadable.\"Maine Dead at Rest Today.\" *New York Times*. December 28, 1899\\. Identified remains thus became unidentified. Another problem was the way the dead were buried. As bodies were buried at Colon Cemetery, the row and grave number was supposed to be noted for each casket. Unfortunately, the cemetery superintendent only noted which row each identified body was in—not the actual grave number. This, too, made it sometimes impossible to determine in which grave identified remains laid. Some casket numbers were readable, however. Those bodies which still could be identified had their names painted on the exterior of the new coffin. The old coffins were burned.",
"[thumb\\|Presidential dais and coffins of the *Maine* dead at Arlington National Cemetery on December 28, 1899](/wiki/File:Burial_of_USS_Maine_dead_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_presidential_dais_-_1899-12-28.jpg \"Burial of USS Maine dead at Arlington National Cemetery - presidential dais - 1899-12-28.jpg\")\nDisinterment ended at 10:00 p.m. local time. The 151 coffins were taken to Machina Wharf and held under guard overnight.[Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Assistant Secretary of the Navy\") [Charles Herbert Allen](/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen \"Charles Herbert Allen\") said on December 25, 1898, that there were 166 coffins. Allen clearly meant to say 166 bodies. The *New York Times* reported in the same article that there were 151 bodies, when the newspaper meant to say 151 coffins. See: \"Maine Dead at Rest Today.\" *New York Times*. December 28, 1899\\. Early the next morning, the coffins were placed about two small [steamships](/wiki/Steamship \"Steamship\"), which took the dead at 6:00 a.m. to the *Texas*. The coffins were arranged on the *Texas*{{'s}} afterdeck in groups and covered in canvas. Many American flags and wreaths [evergreens](/wiki/Evergreen \"Evergreen\") and artificial flowers were placed on the canvas coverings, and the coffins guarded by U.S. Marines day and night until the ship reached Hampton Roads.",
"The *Texas* arrived at Hampton Roads at 11:00 a.m. local time on December 25, 1899\\. The 151 coffins were offloaded by U.S. Navy personnel and transferred to funeral barges. Bluejackets accompanied each funeral barge until it reached the railroad pier. The bluejackets transferred the coffins from the barges to the waiting train while a Marine honor guard stood watch. A unit of six bluejackets and six Marines provided an honor guard aboard the train. Jeremiah Shea, fireman who was aboard the *Maine* on its fateful night, was one of the six sailors. Accompanying the sailors and marines were Father Chidwick and a lieutenant from the *Texas*. The funeral train consisted of four [baggage cars](/wiki/Passenger_car_%28rail%29%23Baggage_car \"Passenger car (rail)#Baggage car\") and a [vestibule car](/wiki/Observation_car \"Observation car\") with the seats removed. Transferral of the dead from the *Texas* to the wharf took much longer than anticipated, although only an hour was needed to load the funeral train. Due to the delays, the train did not depart Hampton Roads until 10:00 p.m. local time on December 26\\. Expected to arrive at 8:00 a.m. on December 27, it did not do so until 11:00 a.m. Captain Sigsbee did not take the funeral train to Washington, but rather rode a [steamboat](/wiki/Steamboat \"Steamboat\") up the [Potomac River](/wiki/Potomac_River \"Potomac River\") to reach the city faster.\"Maine Funeral Train.\" *Washington Post*. December 27, 1899\\.",
"The funeral train reached [Rosslyn, Virginia](/wiki/Rosslyn%2C_Virginia \"Rosslyn, Virginia\"), on December 27\\. The remains were transferred to wagons, and taken to Arlington National Cemetery. The funeral cortege include a cavalry unit from [Fort Myer](/wiki/Fort_Myer \"Fort Myer\"), a unit of 25 marines from the [Washington Navy Yard](/wiki/Washington_Navy_Yard \"Washington Navy Yard\"), and a unit of bluejackets (U.S. Navy sailors) from the USS *Texas*.\"The Maine Dead Interred.\" *New York Times*. December 29, 1899\\. The coffins were carried through the [Sheridan Gate](/wiki/Sheridan_Gate \"Sheridan Gate\")\"Arrangements for Reinterment.\" *New York Times*. December 16, 1899\\. placed under tents and an honor guard of Marines protected them overnight.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Galax leaf wreaths decorate the coffins containing the dead of the *Maine* on December 28, 1899](/wiki/File:Burial_of_USS_Maine_dead_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_1899-12-28.jpg \"Burial of USS Maine dead at Arlington National Cemetery - 1899-12-28.jpg\")\nA grassy knoll at Arlington National Cemetery adjacent to the burial field containing the dead of the Santiago campaign was chosen by [Assistant Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"Assistant Secretary of the Navy\") [Charles Herbert Allen](/wiki/Charles_Herbert_Allen \"Charles Herbert Allen\") for the reinterment.\"New Graves for Maine Dead.\" *New York Times*. December 12, 1899\\. The remains of 166 deadHistorian Steve Vogel claims only 162 remains were buried in December 1898\\. See: Vogel, p. 64\\. Historian James Peters claims that 194 *Maine* crew were buried at Colon Cemetery and reinterred in December 1899\\. See: Peters, p. 277\\. were contained in the 151 caskets (as only partial remains were found in many cases).\"Honors for the Maine Dead.\" *New York Times*. December 26, 1899\\. Either 10, 22 or 30 families (sources differ) asked that the remains of their loved ones be returned for private burial. But few remains were identifiable (among them the remains of Frederick C. Holzer). It is unclear just how many of the remains were identifiable, as some sources say only 10 and others say 24\\.\"Ten of the Dead Claimed.\" *Washington Post*. December 24, 1899\\. Although these families were initially promised that they could take their dead home and bury them privately, the [War Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War \"United States Department of War\") reluctantly decided not to do so. All identifiable remains received a headstone with a name on it, while all other remains were marked \"Unknown\". (Some sources claim that 191 bodies or portions of bodies were recovered, and 73 of these were identifiable. By this calculation, 166 were buried at Arlington National Cemetery on December 28, 1899, and 25 remained at Key West.)",
"A wreath of [galax](/wiki/Galax \"Galax\") leaves was provided for each casket, which was also draped with an American flag. Each coffin was placed next to an open grave.\"Maine's Dead at Rest.\" *Washington Post*. December 29, 1899\\. Once the funeral cortege departed, two [companies](/wiki/Company_%28military_unit%29%23United_States \"Company (military unit)#United States\") of bluejackets and a [battalion](/wiki/Battalion%23United_States_Marine_Corps \"Battalion#United States Marine Corps\") of U.S. Marines acted as honor guards for the dead. They were joined by the [United States Marine Corps Band](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Band \"United States Marine Corps Band\"). Captain Sigsbee was in command of the three honor guards. A small dais draped in red, white, and blue was provided for the speakers and officiators. President McKinley, his [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States \"Cabinet of the United States\"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Admiral (United States)\") [George Dewey](/wiki/George_Dewey \"George Dewey\"), [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant general (United States)\") [Nelson A. Miles](/wiki/Nelson_A._Miles \"Nelson A. Miles\"), [Lieutenant Commander](/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant commander (United States)\") [Richard Wainwright](/wiki/Richard_Wainwright_%28Spanish%E2%80%93American_War_naval_officer%29 \"Richard Wainwright (Spanish–American War naval officer)\") (former Executive Officer of the *Maine*), Lieutenant Frederic C. Bowers (former Passed Assistant Engineer aboard the *Maine*), and Coal Passer Jeremiah Shea attended the ceremony.",
"The funeral was largely the same as that used for burying the Santiago campaign's dead. [Protestant](/wiki/Protestantism \"Protestantism\") funeral rites were read first by Chaplain H.H. Clarke, followed by Catholic rites said by Father Chidwick. The sailors fired a [21\\-gun salute](/wiki/21-gun_salute \"21-gun salute\"), the Marine Corps Band played a funeral [dirge](/wiki/Dirge \"Dirge\"), [taps](/wiki/Taps_%28bugle_call%29 \"Taps (bugle call)\") were played by a [bugler](/wiki/Bugler \"Bugler\"), and the reinterment ceremony ended. More than 25,000 people watched the burial.Vogel, p. 64\\. Crowds of mourners passed by the coffins during the rest of the day, laying flowers and tributes. It was not until early evening that the coffins were placed in the graves and buried.",
"The War Department had promised the family of Frederick C. Holzer (one of the crewmen who died days after the explosion) that they could have Holzer's body. His body turned over to his family and reburied in his home town on [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis \"Indianapolis\"), [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana \"Indiana\"). Sources vary as to whether his body was never buried at Arlington,\"Holzer's Body Sent to New York.\" *Washington Post*. December 29, 1899\\. or was disinterred at some later date and turned over to the family.",
""
] |
1912 reburials at Arlington National Cemetery
---------------------------------------------
The *Maine* lay at the bottom of Havana Harbor for many years. The wreck was a hazard to ships, occupied valuable anchorage space, and a dangerous [shoal](/wiki/Shoal "Shoal") was building up around it. Additionally, some politicians in Cuba and Spain were suggesting that the reason the United States did not remove the wreck is that it would reveal the "struck by a mine" theory to be incorrect.[Magoon, p. 70\-71](https://books.google.com/books?id=LGQ3AQAAIAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+shoal+Havana&pg=RA7-PA70), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Wreck of the Battle\-Ship Maine." *Washington Post.* October 23, 1900\.
### Attempts to raise the *Maine*
[thumb\|Wreckage of the USS *Maine* in Havana Harbor in 1910\. Note the main mast standing nearly upright.](/wiki/File:Photograph_of_the_wreckage_of_the_USS_MAINE_-_NARA_-_301647.jpg "Photograph of the wreckage of the USS MAINE - NARA - 301647.jpg")
Lieutenant General [Leonard Wood](/wiki/Leonard_Wood "Leonard Wood"), Military Governor of Cuba, asked for the wreck of the *Maine* to be removed in October 1900\."Wants Wreck of Maine removed." *New York Times*. October 23, 1900\. [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy "United States Secretary of the Navy") [John Davis Long](/wiki/John_Davis_Long "John Davis Long") approved the plan."To Remove Wreck of Maine." *New York Times*. October 25, 1900\. A call for proposals was made on November 19,"Asks Bids for Removing Maine Wreck." *New York Times*. November 20, 1900\. and five bids were received."Maine Wreck to be Removed." *New York Times*. December 16, 1900\. Chamberlain \& Co., of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois"), agreed to remove the wreck using balloons, hydraulic jacks, and compressed air for nothing in return for 97 percent of the profits on all sales of relics from the wreck (the government would receive the remainder)."Bids for Raising the Maine." *Washington Post*. February 2, 1901; "Will Remove Wreck of the Maine for Nothing." *New York Times*. February 2, 1901\. After an on\-site inspection, Chamberlain claimed the ship was in one piece."To Raise the Maine." *New York Times*. April 27, 1901\. But by April, when the time period for work to begin expired, no construction bond had been posted and no work was done. Chamberlain \& Co. defaulted on their contract in July."Main Still at Harbor Bottom." *Washington Post*. July 2, 1901; "No Work Yet on Sunken Maine." *New York Times*. July 2, 1901; "Must Begin Work on the Maine at Once." *New York Times*. July 10, 1901\.
A second effort by the United States to raise the *Maine* was proposed in 1902\. General Wood reiterated the call for removal of the *Maine* in March 1902\."Plan to Raise the Maine." *Washington Post*. March 27, 1902\. Senator [William E. Mason](/wiki/William_E._Mason_%28American_politician%29 "William E. Mason (American politician)") proposed legislation in May 1902 to raise the ship to determine the true reason for its destruction."A Bill to Raise the Maine." *New York Times*. May 14, 1902\. Mason's bill provided just $50,000 for the project, but that amount proved far too low. Senator [Henry Cabot Lodge](/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge "Henry Cabot Lodge") introduced a bill the same month providing $1 million to raise the *Maine* and repatriate any remains found to the United States."Bill to Remove the Maine." *New York Times*. May 23, 1902\. But no action was taken on either bill, even though there were published reports in November 1902 that the Cuban guard on the ship had been removed and relic hunters had stripped all the copper from the wreck.Stanhope, Dorothy. "Relic Hunters Strip Old Maine." *New York Times*. November 30, 1902\.
Spain, too, wanted the wreck removed, and proposed in March 1903 that their government raise the *Maine*,"Spain Wants Maine Floated." *Washington Post*. March 11, 1903\. but Cuba declined to give permission."Remove of Maine Wreck." *Washington Post*. March 18, 1903\. Instead, Cuba—desiring to maintain good relations with the U.S. as well as Spain—itself said it would remove the wreck."The Wreck of the Main." *New York Times*. March 19, 1903; "Maine Wreck to Be Removed." *Washington Post*. March 24, 1903; "Wreck of the Maine." *Washington Post*. April 19, 1903\. Few American firms bid on the work, as the use of [dynamite](/wiki/Dynamite "Dynamite") on the wreck was prohibited."Removal of the Maine Wreck." *New York Times*. June 2, 1903\. After an initial round of bids were rejected,"Bid for Raising Maine Rejected." *Washington Post*. June 5, 1903\. a contract was signed in June 1904 with both Joseph de Wyckoff (an American industrialist) and the firm R.H.F. Sewell of [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana "New Orleans, Louisiana")."Maine's Hulk to Be Raised." *Washington Post*. June 13, 1904\. Sewell intended to put the wreck on display in New Orleans. See: "The Maine to Be Raised." *New York Times*. December 23, 1903\. Salvage firm operator George Richardson of Chicago, Illinois, was originally offered the contract. But although Richardson verbally agreed to do the job, the contract was never signed and the contract offered to the de Wyckoff and Sewell. See: "Time Called on Maine Wreck." *New York Times*. March 6, 1904; "Not to Raise the Maine." *New York Times*. March 26, 1904\. Because the Cuban government was worried that a mine would be found to be the cause of the wreck, its contract with the salvage firms required the wreck to be towed out to sea and sunk."Opposes Raising the Maine." *New York Times*. July 17, 1904\. The Sewell firm asked the U.S. government if it retained any legal interest in the wreck."Right to Maine Wreck." *Washington Post*. July 14, 1904\. Not only did de Wyckoff protest the Sewell firm's involvement, but the United States informed all concerned in July 1904 that it retained ownership of the *Maine* and would vigorously prosecute anyone interfering with the wreck."Maine Wreck Dispute." *Washington Post*. July 16, 1904; "Right to Raise the Maine." *Washington Post*. July 19, 1904; "We Will Not Permit Maine Wreck's Removal." *New York Times*. July 19, 1904\. The Cuban effort was quietly canceled.
### New momentum for a *Maine* memorial
After the failed Cuban attempt to raise the *Maine*, an important suggestion was made regarding a potential memorial. The Boston Seaman's Friend Society, an association of merchant mariners and their supporters, proposed retrieving the ship's main mast and erecting it as a memorial in Arlington National Cemetery.["Razees, Or Notes on Naval Matters." *The Sea Breeze.* October 1904, p. 15\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=dfcsAAAAYAAJ&dq=Maine+Arlington+cemetery&pg=PR125) Accessed 2013\-05\-24\.
In 1908, on the tenth anniversary of the disaster, Representative [Charles August Sulzer](/wiki/Charles_August_Sulzer "Charles August Sulzer") introduced legislation requesting the raising of the USS *Maine* and the burial of any dead which remained aboard her."Anniversary of the Maine." *Washington Post.* February 16, 1908\. [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy "United States Secretary of the Navy") [Victor H. Metcalf](/wiki/Victor_H._Metcalf "Victor H. Metcalf") proposed amending the bill to ensure that the Cuban government was involved in the process and approved of it."For Raising the Maine." *Washington Post.* March 27, 1908\. No action was taken on the bill during the first session of the [60th Congress](/wiki/60th_United_States_Congress "60th United States Congress").
In January 1909, [Charles E. Magoon](/wiki/Charles_E._Magoon "Charles E. Magoon"), Governor of Cuba, again asked for the removal of the wreck of the *Maine.*The United States had withdrawn from Cuba in 1901, but the United States Congress enacted the [Platt Amendment](/wiki/Platt_Amendment "Platt Amendment") which required the United States to intervene in Cuban internal affairs under certain circumstances. After a dispute 1906 election led to a nascent civil war, the United States [invaded Cuba with 5,600 troops](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Cuba_%281906%E2%80%931909%29 "United States occupation of Cuba (1906–1909)"). Magoon was installed as Governor of Cuba to restore order. The American occupation ended on January 28, 1909\. See: "Magoon Says Raise Wreck of Maine." *New York Times.* January 25, 1909\. The day after Magoon's request, a group of *Maine* survivors and their families formed the Maine Memorial Association (also known as the Maine Memorial Society). The association's goals were to annual observe the anniversary of the ship's destruction by holding ceremonies at the *Maine* Memorial in Arlington National Cemetery and Havana, and to press for the establishment of a more formal, larger memorial at Arlington. The association elected now\-Admiral Charles D. Sigsbee as its president."To Remember Heroes." *Washington Post.* January 26, 1909; "Monument to the Maine." *New York Times.* February 14, 1910\.
### Passage of *Maine* memorial legislation
Representative Sulzer renewed pressure to pass the *Maine* salvage bill on February 16, 1909\."Sulzer Pleads for Bill." *Washington Post.* February 17, 1909\. Three days later, the [House Appropriations Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations "United States House Committee on Appropriations") approved an omnibus appropriations bill that authorized the President to call for proposals and provide an estimate for the salvage operation to Congress."Sundry Civil Bill." *Washington Post.* February 20, 1909\. But the [60th Congress](/wiki/60th_United_States_Congress "60th United States Congress") came to an end without passage of the legislation.
In the second session of the [61st Congress](/wiki/61st_United_States_Congress "61st United States Congress"), Representative [George A. Loud](/wiki/George_A._Loud "George A. Loud") submitted legislation again calling for the raising of the wreck of the *Maine*. This legislation won widespread support. President [William Howard Taft](/wiki/William_Howard_Taft "William Howard Taft") endorsed the bill on January 11, providing major support for the effort."Raising the Maine." *Washington Post.* January 12, 1910\. At the *Maine* memorial services on February 15 in Arlington National Cemetery, Admiral Sigsbee called for repatriation of all bodies and the construction of a larger memorial."Maine Dead Honored." *Washington Post.* February 16, 1910\. At a meeting a few days later, the [United Spanish War Veterans](/wiki/United_Spanish_War_Veterans "United Spanish War Veterans") (an association for veterans of the Spanish–American War) passed a resolution demanding the raising of the wreck of the *Maine* and bring any remains found home for burial at Arlington National Cemetery."Want Maine Raised." *Washington Post.* February 21, 1910\. Sigsbee then called on February 26 for all veterans groups to unite behind a plan to salvage the wreck, repatriate all remains, and establish a memorial."Asks Aid for Memorial." *Washington Post.* February 26, 1910\.
On February 28, a subcommittee of the [House Naval Affairs Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services "United States House Committee on Armed Services") favorably reported the Loud bill. The amended legislation called for a contractor to salvage the *Maine* and for all bodies found to be buried at Arlington National Cemetery."May Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* March 1, 1910; "Favors Raising of Maine." *Washington Post.* March 1, 1910\. The full House of Representatives passed the legislation on March 23, after having amended it to require the Army Corps of Engineers to do the work and for construction of a new memorial featuring the *Maine*{{'s}} mast at Arlington."To Raise Battleship Maine." *Washington Post.* March 24, 1910\. Anticipating passage of the bill, the Maine Memorial Association began raising money to help built the memorial."For a Maine Monument." *New York Times.* April 24, 1910\. This fund\-raising effort collapsed in November 1910 due to internal divisions within the association, and Sigsbee resigned as president. See: "Sigsbee Is Hopeful." *Washington Post.* November 7, 1910\. The Maine Monument Association merged with the United Spanish War Veterans in early 1911\. See: "Societies to Combine." *Washington Post.* January 23, 1911; "Veterans Yet May Aid." *Washington Post.* February 26, 1911\. The Senate concurred in the legislation on May 4\."Maine to Be Raised." *Washington Post.* May 5, 1910; "The Main to Be Raised." *New York Times.* May 5, 1910\.
On May 9, 1910, President Taft signs into law the bill titled "Raising of battleship Maine" (Public Law 61\-169\) which required the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers "United States Army Corps of Engineers") to raise and remove the wreck of the *Maine* from Havana Harbor. The law appropriated $100,000 for this task. The legislation further required that any bodies found be transported to Arlington National Cemetery and interred there. The mast of the *Maine* was to be retained and taken to Arlington, where the [United States Secretary of War](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War "United States Secretary of War") was required to erect the mast on top of a suitable monument at or near the place where the dead of the *Maine* were laid to rest.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 5](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+1910&pg=PR5), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Task to Raise Maine." *Washington Post.* May 11, 1910\.
### Preparing to raise the *Maine*
[thumb\|left\|Col. William M. Black (depicted here about 1916\) led the effort to raise the *Maine*](/wiki/File:USACE_William_Murray_Black.jpg "USACE William Murray Black.jpg")
The Army Corps of Engineers began working on plans to raise the *Maine* in late July 1910\."Raising The Maine A Duty." *Washington Post.* July 28, 1910\. A "special board of engineers" was appointed from Corps ranks to work on the problem and oversee the project."Board to Raise the Maine." *Washington Post.* July 30, 1910\. [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 "Colonel (United States)") [William M. Black](/wiki/William_Murray_Black "William Murray Black"), Lieutenant Colonel H. H. Patrick, and Captain Harley B. Ferguson."To Survey the Maine." *New York Times.* August 30, 1910\. The [President of Cuba](/wiki/President_of_Cuba "President of Cuba"), [José Miguel Gómez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_G%C3%B3mez "José Miguel Gómez"), promised the full cooperation of his government."Wants the Maine Raised." *New York Times.* June 2, 1910\.
The Corps immediately alerted Congress in May 1910 that the job could not be done for the $100,000 appropriated."May Not Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* May 14, 1910\. On June 17, Congress appropriated $200,000 more, and authorized the Corps to sign contracts for whatever services it needed (without regard to cost)."To Raise Wreck of Maine." *New York Times.* June 18, 1910\. In August, the Special Engineering Board decided not to bring the *Maine* back to the United States but to sink her at sea."Plan to Sink Maine Wreck." *New York Times.* August 28, 1910\. The wreck would be surveyed before any work began. [Caissons](/wiki/Caisson_%28engineering%29 "Caisson (engineering)") would then be constructed around the wreck to form a [cofferdam](/wiki/Cofferdam "Cofferdam"), the water pumped out, and any bodies removed.
The Special Board made its first visit to the wreck of the *Maine* on September 10, 1910, measuring the site and taking [soundings](/wiki/Depth_sounding "Depth sounding")."Prepare to Raise Maine." *New York Times.* September 11, 1910\. Preliminary borings and additional soundings were made the following week, giving the Special Board enough information to make more formal plans for salvaging the wreck."Begin to Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* September 17, 1910\. The *Maine* was found to be lying in {{convert\|25\|ft\|m}} of water, and the Corps of Engineers believed that 75 bodies lay within the wreck of the *Maine*.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 7\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&q=bodies&pg=PR15) Accessed 2013\-05\-17\. (Contemporary accounts claim that only 68 bodies were missing.) The first human remains aboard the *Maine* were found near the rear cabins on September 22, 1910, while measurements and soundings were taken. Cuban divers examining the wreck discovered the bones, but did not disturb them."Bodies Found in the Maine." *Washington Post.* September 22, 1910\.
It was immediately clear that the 1898 explosion had done far more damage to the *Maine* than previously assumed, and that the ship might not be capable of refloating at all. The caisson plan, however, was nevertheless considered risky. The Special Board sought the approval of President Taft for the caisson plan and the decision to sink the wreck at sea. The work included contracting for local labor wherever possible, but using U.S. Navy ships and [derricks](/wiki/Derrick "Derrick"). Taft gave his approval on October 13\. Taft invited Cuba and Spain to name a representative to be on\-site during the salvage operation at all times."Taft Approves Plan for Raising Maine." *New York Times.* October 14, 1910\."Army to Raise Maine." *Washington Post.* October 14, 1910\. The Spanish agreed to observer status. With the plan approved, the [Lackawanna Steel Company](/wiki/Lackawanna_Steel_Company "Lackawanna Steel Company") began manufacturing the interlocking [steel piles](/wiki/Deep_foundation "Deep foundation") to create the caisson walls."Steel Piles for Raising the Maine." *New York Times.* October 19, 1910\.
### Retrieval of bodies
Piles for the caissons began to be driven on December 6, 1910, and the last was in place on March 31, 1911\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 12](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR32), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Last Rites Over the Maine." *New York Times.* February 16, 1911\. Twenty caissons were constructed,"Cautious Work on Maine." *New York Times.* June 7, 1911\. with pilings driven {{convert\|72\|ft\|m}} through water, mud and clay. More than {{convert\|75000\|cuft\|m3}} of water was then pumped out of the cofferdam."Raising the Maine in Moving Pictures." *New York Times.* November 9, 1911\.
[thumb\|left\|Looking forward from the stern of the *Maine* in late 1911\. Note the caissons in place around the wreck, creating the cofferdam.](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_wreckage_cph.3b21936.jpg "USS Maine wreckage cph.3b21936.jpg")
The first human remains (some ribs and small wrist bones), found outside the hull, were brought to the surface on January 3, 1911, by Cuban divers working on the *Maine.*"Maine Hulk Gives Up Dead." *Washington Post.* January 4, 1911; "Inside Explosion In Maine." *New York Times.* January 9, 1911\. The top of the starboard turret was detected some {{convert\|100\|ft\|m}} from the wreck in late February after piles being driven into the mud and clay of Havana Harbor struck the object. The turret top was raised on March 12,"Maine Turret Top Raised." *Washington Post.* March 13, 1911\. and a human foot was found adhered to the turret by fire."Bones on Maine Turret." *Washington Post.* March 15, 1911\. The ship's starboard anchor (one of six she carried) was raised on March 15\."Anchor of the Maine Found." *Washington Post.* March 16, 1911\.
With the caissons finished at the end of March, they were filled with clay, mud, and rock. Wood platforms were constructed on top of the caissons to support the cranes and derricks to be used to handle the wreck. Once the caissons were filled, water would begin to be drained from inside the cofferdam. Since construction of such a large, deep cofferdam had not been attempted before, the Corps said it would suspend draining from time to time to assess the performance of the caissons and ensure the cofferdam was still secure. The search for bodies, the Army said, would take precedence over anything else aboard the wreck. Filling the cofferdam again ("rewatering") would not occur until probably the end of December 1911\."Hull of the Maine Soon to Be Exposed." *New York Times.* April 10, 1911\.
[Scaffolding](/wiki/Scaffolding "Scaffolding") was erected over the stern to facilitate the removal of the [mizzenmast](/wiki/Mast_%28sailing%29 "Mast (sailing)") (or aft mast) and deck fittings. These items were stored in a hut constructed on one of the cofferdams or aboard the [collier](/wiki/Collier_%28ship%29 "Collier (ship)") {{USS\|Leonidas\|AD\-7}}. On May 27, 1911, *Leonidas* transported the mizzenmast back to the United States."Maine's Mast a Monument." *New York Times.* May 27, 1911\.
Thirty additional partial remains were found aboard the wreck on May 3\. Consisting mostly of skulls (often partially crushed) and rib bones, the remains were placed in a single coffin."30 of Maine Dead Found." *Washington Post.* May 4, 1911\.
By May 31, water within the cofferdam was down by {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}}, revealing most of the starboard [quarterdeck](/wiki/Quarterdeck "Quarterdeck"). Some bending of the steel piles used in one of the caissons was seen on May 31\."Soon to See the Maine." *New York Times.* June 1, 1911\. Draining was suspended until June 15 to determine the caisson's stability. Once it was determined the caisson was not in danger of rupture, water was drained another {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}}. The Corps said on June 7 it would be three to four weeks before draining was complete.
In early June, the *Maine*{{'s}} {{convert\|10\|ST\|LT}} fore\-mast was retrieved from the wreck, and shipped aboard the [Ward Line](/wiki/Ward_Line "Ward Line") commercial passenger ship SS *Bayamo* to New York City."Ship Maine's Mast North." *Washington Post.* June 14, 1911\. The {{convert\|50\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} mast was broken off near the deck by the explosion, and badly bent and twisted. Heavily rusted and covered in coral on its lower part, the mast was quite brittle after its stay in saltwater."Electrolysis Fused Steel on Maine." *New York Times.* June 19, 1911,. It was initially stored at the U.S. Army's [east coast](/wiki/East_coast_of_the_United_States "East coast of the United States") regional headquarters,"Maine Yields Relics." *Washington Post.* June 19, 1911\. but transferred to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard "Brooklyn Navy Yard")."Sea Burial for the Maine." *New York Times.* February 1, 1912\.
By June 15, the water level in the caisson was down {{convert\|7\|ft\|m}}. It was now apparent that the bow of the ship had been completely destroyed by the 1898 blast, and most of the central third of the ship was ruined as well. Although the stern listed seven [degrees](/wiki/Degree_%28angle%29 "Degree (angle)") to port, the central third of the ship only listed four degrees to port. Engineers realized that the hull had broken amidship."No Light Yet On Maine Explosion." *New York Times.* June 17, 1911\. The Corps of Engineers began to radically revise its plans for refloating the ship, and there was concern that the ship might need to be removed in pieces. With less need to protect the ship from further damage, Corps officials said they would lower the water level down to {{convert\|18\|to\|20\|ft\|m}} over the next three to four days. This would completely reveal the central section of the ship, while leaving the bow under water.
{{Wide image\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS Maine \- Havana Harbor Cuba \- 1912\.jpg\|1200px\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS ''Maine''. The view toward the left and rear is across the bow (the remains of which lie beneath the water), toward the center third of the ship. The nearly\-intact stern is just visible beyond the wrecked center section.\|400px\|right\|alt\=shipwrekc in a cofferdam}}
With no remains found since May 3, the Corps of Engineers began to fear on June 16 that no more bodies would be found."Maine Is A Shell." *Washington Post.* June 17, 1911\. In part this was due to the condition of the ship. Army engineers told the press that sides of the bow appeared to have blown outward, with the upper deck detaching from the ship."Maine's Bow Blown Away." *New York Times.* July 7, 1911\. This caused wreckage to be strewn laterally over Havana Harbor, leaving a large debris field. The explosion was so powerful that the ship's {{convert\|100\|ST\|LT}} forward gun turret landed {{convert\|100\|ft\|m}} away,"Maine Wrecked From Outside." *New York Times.* July 19, 1911\. and the vessel's port and transverse armored bulkheads were buried {{convert\|30\|ft\|m}} into the mud of the harbor floor."Many Maine Shells Bared." *New York Times.* November 25, 1911\. Some armor was never found. The bow's upper deck rose into the air, turned upside\-down, and landed on the central third of the *Maine*."Building Bulkhead to Float the Maine." *New York Times.* November 3, 1911\. The bow detached from the ship at frame 14,"Outside Explosion, Says Maine Verdict." *New York Times.* December 9, 1911\. and the bow's keel detached from the ship at frame 18\. What remained of the bow landed at the bottom of Havana Harbor at a 45\-degree angle to the rest of the ship, pointing to starboard. The bow keel was bent upward in the middle by about {{convert\|30\|ft\|m}}. The inner shell of the ship's double\-bottomed hull was thrown upward, and came to rest on top of what remained of the bow. Investigators could not determine if it was forced into that position by an exterior explosion or if it was pulled upward as the bow detached. The forward portion of what remained of the keel rested on the inner shell, with the rear portion buried deep in the mud. Again, investigators could not determine if the explosion bent the keel and forced it into this position or if the suction created by the outward\-expanding hull pulled it there. As the bow settled, it listed almost onto its starboard side. The central third of the ship was devastated by the explosion and collapse of the bow's upper deck onto it, and was partially detached from the stern."Human Bones Found in Wreck of Maine." *New York Times.* June 20, 1911\. The stern, however, was in remarkably good shape and seemingly undisturbed by the blast. Even the aft turret guns were still in place. Nonetheless, Corps officials said they were seriously considering breaking up the wreck rather than raising it. A model of the wreck was made by a naval constructor.This model was later displayed in the office of the Secretary of the Navy and in the White House. It was intended for permanent display either in the Naval Museum at the Washington Navy Yard or at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History "National Museum of American History"). See: "Exhibit Maine Wreck Model." *Washington Post.* December 24, 1911\.
Four days later, on June 20, more human remains were found on the upper deck between the aft turret and the engine room. These included two forearms and a foot in a boot."Find Bones on Maine." *Washington Post.* June 20, 1911\. All the remains were heavily charred. Additionally, workers were recovering a very large number of relics such as [bayonets](/wiki/Bayonet "Bayonet"), [binoculars](/wiki/Binoculars "Binoculars"), books, clothing, dishes, and papers (some of them in watertight boxes, and still dry). The water level was now down {{convert\|14\|ft\|m}}, and dropping.
A nearly two\-week delay in recovering additional remains occurred in late June and early July as workers struggled to remove mud from the interior of the stern."Maine Caisson Is Secure." *New York Times.* July 6, 1911\. By July 19, water levels inside the cofferdam were down {{convert\|18\|ft\|m}} (with just {{convert\|4\|ft\|m}} of water left to pump out), but it was clear by then that most of the bow wreckage lay buried in {{convert\|37\|ft\|m}} of mud. The Corps advised that it would take several months to erect all the cranes and derricks needed to remove the heaviest wreckage.
Additional remains were soon uncovered. On July 19, a skull, some jawbone fragments, and several vertebrae were discovered in mud on the main deck. Corps workers believed this represented the remains about three people."More Bones From Maine." *Washington Post.* July 20, 1911\. As the last {{convert\|4\|ft\|m}} of water was pumped out and the suction dredges began removing the soft mud around the bow, the remains of four more individuals were found near the [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower "Conning tower"). These remains were heavily scorched."Search for Bodies in the Maine Wreck." *New York Times.* July 21, 1911\."Will Dissect Maine." *Washington Post.* July 21, 1911\. These discoveries gave the Army hope that more remains might be found. Efforts to remove the mud were redoubled, although Corps engineers said it would take three to four months to clear all the mud and complete a thorough search for the wreck.
The ship's bell was found in the mud, split in half by the explosion, on July 22, 1911\.["Work on Exposing the Old U.S.S. Maine in Havana, Cuba." *American Marine Engineer.* August 1911, p. 23\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=nfRYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+%22ship%27s+bell%22&pg=RA19-PA23) Accessed 2013\-05\-21\. The vessel's memorial [silver service](/wiki/Silver_service "Silver service"), given to the ship in 1891 by the people of Maine, was also retrieved during salvage."Fortune in Silver From Warships Out of Commission." *New York Times.* December 29, 1912\.
[thumb\|left\|Caissons form a cofferdam around the wreck of the *Maine* in late summer 1912](/wiki/File:Caissons_around_wreck_of_USS_Maine_-_circa_mid_1912.jpg "Caissons around wreck of USS Maine - circa mid 1912.jpg")
More remains were found the day after the ship's bell was rediscovered. These represented six or seven crewmen, and were found among the wreckage of the central portion of the ship near the conning tower. The bones were found in a confused mass, scorched by fire, and many were incomplete or fractured. Some were skulls which had portions missing, and many were small fragments. Workers reported that additional remains were wedged tightly in twisted masses of steel, and could not be easily removed without the use of [acetylene torches](/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting%23Acetylene "Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Acetylene")."Maine Yields Up Dead." *Washington Post.* July 23, 1911\. The remains of another three to four men were found on the central superstructure on July 24\. Again, some showed the action of fire."Maine Gives Up Victims." *Washington Post.* July 25, 1911\.
The salvage operation began running out of money in late July. On July 26, the Corps asked Congress for another $250,000, to bring the total expenditures on the wreck to $900,000\. That same day, a nearly intact human skeleton was found on the starboard berth deck in the central section."Cost of Raising the Maine." *New York Times.* July 27, 1911; "14 Dead From the Maine." *Washington Post.* July 27, 1911\. Two more nearly intact bodies were found on July 29 on the berth deck near the [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer "Warrant officer")' quarters."Honor For Maine's Dead." *Washington Post.* July 30, 1911\. Congress appropriated the $250,000 on July 31\."Money to Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* August 1, 1911\.
On August 2, a nearly intact skeleton was found in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom "Wardroom") of the *Maine*. On the basis of clothing, height, and personal effects, the skeleton was identified as that of Assistant Engineer Darwin R. Merritt. His body was placed aboard the battleship {{USS\|North Carolina\|ACR\-12}}, and taken to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The ship arrived on August 12, and Merritt's body turned over to his relatives. His family buried him in a cemetery in [Red Oak, Iowa](/wiki/Red_Oak%2C_Iowa "Red Oak, Iowa")."Body of Merritt Arrives." *Washington Post.* August 13, 1911; "Find Ring of Maine Victim." *New York Times.* September 9, 1911\."Battleship for Maine Dead." *New York Times.* August 20, 1911\. Two more bodies, neither of them identifiable, were also found near the warrant officers' quarters, bringing the total number of dead found to 21\."Maine Victim Identified." *Washington Post.* August 3, 1911\. Additional bones were found embedded in the wreckage on August 3\."Tearing the Maine Apart." *Washington Post.* August 4, 1911\. By August 14, more remains had been found, bringing the total number of full and partial bodies found to 25\. Some skulls still lay wrapped in the wreckage too tightly to retrieve."Maine A Sorry Sight." *Washington Post.* August 15, 1911\.
Work to remove the main mast from the wreck began on September 2, 1911\. The mast was removed in preparation for the severing of the stern of the ship (which the Corps of Engineers believed might be refloated) from the wrecked central and bow sections."Work on the Maine." *Washington Post.* September 3, 1911\. This work quickly revealed even more remains. Four more bodies were found near the [petty officers](/wiki/Petty_officer "Petty officer")' quarters on September 26,"Find More Maine Victims." *Washington Post.* September 27, 1911\. and six more bodies were located in the engine room on September 28\."10 More Maine Dead Found." *Washington Post.* September 29, 1911\. The [boilers](/wiki/Boiler "Boiler") were found intact, although the 1898 explosion had driven one through the rear bulkhead to rest against the aft boilers. This led workers to believe that more bodies might be found in the engine room."Maine Boilers Intact." *New York Times.* October 11, 1911\. But no more bodies were found there. The last set of remains to be retrieved from the USS *Maine* was a single skeleton, found in the wreckage of the bow on October 16, 1911\."Maine Yields Another Body." *Washington Post.* October 17, 1911\.
[thumb\|View from the USS *Osceola* as the *Maine* is towed to its ocean grave on March 16, 1912](/wiki/File:Wreck_of_USS_Maine_being_towed_out_of_Havana_Harbor_-_1913-03-16.jpg "Wreck of USS Maine being towed out of Havana Harbor - 1913-03-16.jpg")
The Army Corps of Engineers said its investigation of the wreck of the *Maine* would cease at the end of November 1911\. The stern section of the ship proved watertight, and a wooden bulkhead was built across the section to allow it to float. Refloating the wreck, sinking it at sea, and removing the caissons would take another $250,000, the Corps said on November 8\. By mid\-December the funds had not been appropriated, and working on the *Maine* was scheduled to halt."Ask More Funds of House." *New York Times.* December 14, 1911\. When debate on the funds opened on December 16, Representative [James R. Mann](/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_%28Illinois%29 "James Robert Mann (Illinois)") and Representative [Thomas U. Sisson](/wiki/Thomas_U._Sisson "Thomas U. Sisson") nearly came to blows when Sisson proposed that parts of the wreck be sold at auction to reduce the costs of the salvage operation. Both Sisson and Representative [Robert B. Macon](/wiki/Robert_B._Macon "Robert B. Macon") had also proposed exhibiting the wreck for a fee, but Representative [John J. Fitzgerald](/wiki/John_J._Fitzgerald "John J. Fitzgerald") (chair of the House Appropriations Committee) said there would be public riots anywhere it appeared. While members of the House disagreed over whether to sell parts of the *Maine*, they were united in allowing the Secretary of the Navy to donate relics and portions of the hull to any municipality or patriotic organization which asked for them. Additionally, the House voted to give the city of Havana a portion of the wreck for the construction of a memorial."Clash Over Plan to Sell the Maine." *New York Times.* December 17, 1911\. This version of the legislation passed. On January 13, the Secretary of the Navy established a two\-person panel consisting of Lieutenant Colonel [Edward Burr](/wiki/Edward_Burr "Edward Burr") (Army Corps of Engineers) and [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29%23Naval_rank "Commander (United States)#Naval rank") [Richard H. Leigh](/wiki/Richard_H._Leigh "Richard H. Leigh") (U.S. Navy) to determine which cities and groups should get relics from the wreck."To Distribute Maine Relics." *New York Times.* January 14, 1912\.
Sinking of the *Maine* occurred on March 16, 1912\. About a third of the vessel was wreckage, which was cut into {{convert\|0\.5\|ST\|LT}} pieces and then dumped at sea about {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}} from the coast of Cuba."Soon to Float Maine." *Washington Post.* February 4, 1912\. The aft, portside turret was given to the people of Havana for use as a memorial. But the forward, starboardside turret was buried too deeply in the mud for removal. To free the stern from the mud, diggers were forced to go {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}} below the keel. [Seacocks](/wiki/Seacock "Seacock") were emplaced in the keel of the ship, and jets pumped water below the keel to help loosen the mud's hold on the vessel. Once the stern was free, water was slowly allowed into the cofferdam. When the stern's deck was level with the cofferdam, two of the caissons were removed to give the *Maine* access to the harbor."Main's Deck Visible." *New York Times.* February 13, 1912\. After three attempts to free the *Maine* from the mud, the ship began floating on February 15\."Maine Floating To\-Morrow." *New York Times.* February 14, 1912\. The {{USS\|Osceola\|AT\-47}}, an armed [tugboat](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat"), towed the *Maine* out of the cofferdam and into the harbor."Burial of the Maine Takes Place To\-Day." *New York Times.* March 16, 1912\.
More than 80,000 Cubans watched as the *Osceola* towed the USS *Maine* out of Havana harbor. Cannon at the [La Cabaña](/wiki/La_Caba%C3%B1a "La Cabaña") fortress fired every 30 minutes from 10:00 a.m. until 2:15 pm, after which "minute guns""Minute guns" are very small cannon, often with a barrel length of about {{convert\|1\|ft\|m}} or so, which were used to announce the quarter\-hour and hour in the era before clocks became widespread. sounded every 60 seconds until the procession passed. Behind the *Maine* followed the battleship USS *North Carolina* with the remains of the dead aboard her. Following the *North Carolina* were the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{USS\|Birmingham\|CL\-2}}, three [gunboats](/wiki/Gunboat "Gunboat") of the Cuban Navy, and a number of private vessels. The main guns of the *North Carolina* fired when the {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}}, {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}}, and {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} marks were reached. About {{convert\|4\|mi\|km}} out to sea, naval personnel opened the seacocks at about 5:10 P.M. local time. The USS *Maine* sank at 5:30 p.m. as a bugler aboard the *North Carolina* sounded taps. The guns of the *North Carolina* and the *Birmingham* fired once, and the ceremony ended"The Maine Sinks to Ocean Grave." *New York Times.* March 17, 1912\.In 2000, a team of Cuban marine scientists and oceanographers from the [University of South Florida](/wiki/University_of_South_Florida "University of South Florida") College of Marine Science – working with Advanced Digital Communications, a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") firm – discovered the wreck of the USS *Maine* in about {{convert\|3770\|ft\|m}} of water roughly {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} northeast of Havana Harbor. According to the researchers, during the sinking ceremony and the time it took the wreck to founder, currents pushed the *Maine* east until it rested at its present location. See: Søreide, p. 96; Brecher, Elinor J. "Scientists Stumble Upon Sunken Maine." *Miami Herald.* December 10, 2000\.
[thumb\|center\|750px\|The battleship USS *North Carolina* (center) and the cruiser USS *Birmingham* (far right) escort the wreck of the *Maine* (far left, in distance) to its final resting place](/wiki/File:USS_North_Carolina_and_USS_Birmingham_escort_USS_Maine_to_burial_at_sea_-_1913-03-16.jpg "USS North Carolina and USS Birmingham escort USS Maine to burial at sea - 1913-03-16.jpg")
After the *Maine* was sunk at sea, the cofferdam was removed. Under an agreement with the Cuban authorities, the Corps dredged the entire area in and around the shipwreck to a depth of {{convert\|37\.5\|ft\|m}} to ensure that no material remained in the mud or clay which might present a danger to navigation. A great deal of material was brought up and sunk at sea. Some items, such as the ship's forward gun, were too heavy to raise. Dynamite was used to destroy these items so that they did not project above the seabed. Operations at the site were completed on December 2, 1912\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 8, 35\-36](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Bow of Maine Blown Up." *New York Times.* September 14, 1912\.
### Repatriating the bodies
Preparations for receiving the bodies of the USS *Maine* began in June 1911\. Captain James D. Tilford and [undertaker](/wiki/Funeral_director "Funeral director") Oliver B. Jenkins of Washington, D.C., took charge of the remains in Havana."Maine Caissons Safe." *Washington Post.* June 15, 1911\. They were assisted by the *Maine*{{'s}} former chaplain, Father John Chidwick. Their plan was to place each set of remains in a coffin, which would be kept under guard at the La Cabaña fortress. The assumption of many involved in the operation was that the USS *Leonidas* would take the remains to the United States (just as it did other relics from the ship). Tilford and Jenkins ordered 25 coffins from the United States, believing that most of the 75 missing bodies had been blown far out into the harbor by the explosion and would not be recovered. (Their assumption was based, in part, on Father Chidwick's testimony that he saw bodies blown as high as {{convert\|60\|ft\|m}} into the air by the explosion.)
President Gomez ordered all flags in the city to fly at half\-mast and the minute guns at La Cabaña and [Morro Castle](/wiki/Morro_Castle_%28Havana%29 "Morro Castle (Havana)") to fire every 30 seconds every day that dead were brought to the surface."Cuba to Honor Maine Dead." *New York Times.* July 8, 1911\.
[thumb\|left\|The USS *North Carolina*, which carried the dead of the *Maine* home to the United States in 1899](/wiki/File:USSNorthCarolinaACR12.jpg "USSNorthCarolinaACR12.jpg")
In August 1911, President Taft learned that the collier *Leonidas* might be carrying the *Maine* dead home to the United States. Believing that this would dishonor the dead, Taft ordered the U.S. Navy to send a battleship to Cuba provide transport instead."Battleship to Carry Bones." *Washington Post.* August 20, 1911\. Taft also directed the Corps of Engineers to assign an officer to oversee the bodies while in transport. Major [George LeRoy Irwin](/wiki/George_LeRoy_Irwin "George LeRoy Irwin") was assigned this duty on August 28\."Honors to Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* August 29, 1911\.
On January 7, 1912, the War Department announced tentative plans for bringing the *Maine*{{'s}} dead to the United States. It said that the battleships USS *North Carolina* and the {{USS\|Washington\|ACR\-11}} would bear the bodies, escorted by the cruisers [USS Birmingham (CL\-2\)](/wiki/USS_Birmingham_%28CL-2%29 "USS Birmingham (CL-2)") and {{USS\|Salem\|CL\-3}} and the salvage ship {{USS\|Chesapeake\|ID\-3395}}."Fleet for Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* January 8, 1912\. When it became clear by mid February that no further human remains were likely to be found, the War Department scaled back its plans so that the bodies would be borne by the USS *North Carolina*, with an escort by the USS *Birmingham*. The *North Carolina* would bear the dead to Hampton Roads, at which point the bodies would be placed aboard the *Birmingham* and taken to the Washington Navy Yard."To Honor Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* February 17, 1912\.
President Gomez personally oversaw the honors given to the dead of the *Maine* before the bodies left Havana. There were 34 coffins,"Maine's Dead Here." *Washington Post.* March 21, 1912\. all but one of which contained the remains of two individuals."Maine Dead Await Burial." *Washington Post.* March 22, 1912\."Maine Dead Receive the Nation's Homage." *New York Times.* March 24, 1912\. The coffins were moved from La Cabaña to city hall (the Palacio de los Capitanes Generales) the evening of March 14, where the bodies [lay in state](/wiki/Lying_in_state "Lying in state") overnight."Honors to Maine's Dead." *Washington Post.* February 28, 1912\. Public viewing of the remains began at 2:00 p.m. local time on March 15, and ended at 10:00 a.m. on March 16\."Taft to Laud Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* March 15, 1912\. More than 30,000 paid their respects to the dead. Throughout the day on March 16, cannon at La Cabaña and Morro Castle fired every half hour.
After the public viewing ended, Cuban Army artillerymen loaded the coffins aboard caissons. Commander [Charles F. Hughes](/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Hughes "Charles Frederick Hughes") of the *Birmingham* led a contingent of 300 marines and bluejackets and the *North Carolina*{{'s}} band escorted the dead to Machina Wharf. Accompanying the funeral cortege were [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28United_States%29 "Brigadier general (United States)") [William Herbert Bixby](/wiki/William_Herbert_Bixby "William Herbert Bixby"), Army Corps [Chief of Engineers](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers_Chiefs_of_Engineers "List of United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers"); Julio de Cárdenas, Mayor of Havana; [Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso](/wiki/Alfredo_Zayas_y_Alfonso "Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso"), Vice President of Cuba; and members of the Cuban Cabinet. Six U.S. Navy sailors loaded the first coffins a funeral barge, while Cuban military personnel moved the remainder. The barges took the remains to the *North Carolina*. As the *North Carolina* passed out of the harbor, soldiers of the Cuban Army lined the walls of La Cabaña and Morro Castle and stood at attention while a military band played a funeral dirge. Hand\-painted [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain "Porcelain") funeral wreaths, a gift of the Cuban government, were placed on the coffins.
### Burying the last of the *Maine* dead
[thumb\|Coverage of the burial of the last *Maine* dead from *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly "Harper's Weekly")* in 1912](/wiki/File:Maines_Last_Muster_-_Harpers_Weekly_-_1912-03-30.jpg "Maines Last Muster - Harpers Weekly - 1912-03-30.jpg")
The USS *North Carolina* arrived at Hampton Roads at about 4:30 P.M. local time on March 19, 1912\. Transferral of the dead took until 7:30 p.m. The crews of six other U.S. Navy warships anchored at Hampton Roads stood at attention on their decks, and the ships flew their flags at half\-mast. Two battalions of bluejackets from the *North Carolina* joined the *Birmingham* as an honor guard."Maine's Dead Here Today." *Washington Post.* March 20, 1912\.
The *Birmingham* arrived at the Washington Navy Yard at 10:45 a.m. on March 20\. At noon, the coffins were removed from ship and taken to the [State, War, and Navy Building](/wiki/Eisenhower_Executive_Office_Building "Eisenhower Executive Office Building"), one block east of the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"). A 200\-man cavalry unit from Fort Myer carried the coffins aboard caissons. An honor guard consisting of the Third Battalion of the [Third Field Artillery](/wiki/3rd_Field_Artillery_Regiment_%28United_States%29 "3rd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)"); a battalion of bluejackets from the *North Carolina*; a battalion of bluejackets from the *Birmingham*; a battalion of Marines from [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"); 200 Army engineers from [Fort Washington, Maryland](/wiki/Fort_Washington_Park "Fort Washington Park"); a battalion of Marines from Fort Washington; a battalion of bluejackets from the Washington Navy Yard; a battalion of bluejackets from [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland "Baltimore, Maryland"); and 50 members of the [District of Columbia Naval National Guard](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_National_Guard "District of Columbia National Guard") accompanied the dead. The naval band from the {{USS\|Mayflower\|PY\-1}} accompanied the honor guard, playing funeral dirges."Nation Honors Dead of Maine." *Washington Post.* March 24, 1912\. Tents were erected on the south side of the State, War, and Navy Building, and the caissons bearing the flag\-draped coffins lined up beneath the tents at about 2:00 P.M.
A brief memorial service was held at 2:30 p.m. Congress adjourned for the ceremony, and the entire [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States "Cabinet of the United States") was present. President Taft was the main speaker. On the dais to his right was [Antonio Martin\-Rivero](/wiki/Antonio_Martin-Rivero "Antonio Martin-Rivero"), [Cuban ambassador to the United States](/wiki/List_of_Cuban_ambassadors_to_the_United_States "List of Cuban ambassadors to the United States"). To Taft's left were [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral_%28United_States%29 "Rear admiral (United States)") Sigsbee and now\-Rear Admiral Wainwright. [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy "United States Naval Academy") Chaplain G. Livingston Bayard provided the [invocation](/wiki/Invocation "Invocation"). Father Chidwick gave a lengthy oration, followed by a short speech by President Taft. The [Right Reverend](/wiki/Right_Reverend "Right Reverend") W.F. Anderson gave the [benediction](/wiki/Benediction "Benediction").
The funeral cortege then departed for Arlington National Cemetery for a graveside funeral service. President Taft had ordered full military honors for the dead."U.S. to Mourn Dead." *Washington Post.* March 19, 1912\. The funeral was held near the anchor which constituted the *Maine* Memorial, and a tent was set up for President Taft and other dignitaries. The Marine Corps Band played funeral dirges, and Chaplain Bayard read the Episcopal funeral service over the dead. Maurice Simmons, Commander of the United Spanish War Veterans, gave a brief speech. Eight United Spanish War Veterans served as honorary pall bearers for the dead. Three Spanish–American War veterans then laid a white rose, a sprig of evergreen, and a small American flag on the coffins. The Fort Myer cavalry unit delivered a 21\-gun salute, followed by a taps played by a bugler. The ceremony ended with a 21\-gun salute from cannon at nearby Fort Myer.
Estimates of the number of dead in the burial field around the monument include 229,Atkinson, p. 229\. 230, and 232\."Curtain Rung Down on Tragedy That Swept 260 Men to Death on the Ill\-Fated Maine." *Washington Post.* March 24, 1912\.
|
[
"1912 reburials at Arlington National Cemetery\n---------------------------------------------",
"The *Maine* lay at the bottom of Havana Harbor for many years. The wreck was a hazard to ships, occupied valuable anchorage space, and a dangerous [shoal](/wiki/Shoal \"Shoal\") was building up around it. Additionally, some politicians in Cuba and Spain were suggesting that the reason the United States did not remove the wreck is that it would reveal the \"struck by a mine\" theory to be incorrect.[Magoon, p. 70\\-71](https://books.google.com/books?id=LGQ3AQAAIAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+shoal+Havana&pg=RA7-PA70), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Wreck of the Battle\\-Ship Maine.\" *Washington Post.* October 23, 1900\\.",
"### Attempts to raise the *Maine*",
"[thumb\\|Wreckage of the USS *Maine* in Havana Harbor in 1910\\. Note the main mast standing nearly upright.](/wiki/File:Photograph_of_the_wreckage_of_the_USS_MAINE_-_NARA_-_301647.jpg \"Photograph of the wreckage of the USS MAINE - NARA - 301647.jpg\")\nLieutenant General [Leonard Wood](/wiki/Leonard_Wood \"Leonard Wood\"), Military Governor of Cuba, asked for the wreck of the *Maine* to be removed in October 1900\\.\"Wants Wreck of Maine removed.\" *New York Times*. October 23, 1900\\. [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"United States Secretary of the Navy\") [John Davis Long](/wiki/John_Davis_Long \"John Davis Long\") approved the plan.\"To Remove Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times*. October 25, 1900\\. A call for proposals was made on November 19,\"Asks Bids for Removing Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times*. November 20, 1900\\. and five bids were received.\"Maine Wreck to be Removed.\" *New York Times*. December 16, 1900\\. Chamberlain \\& Co., of [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\"), agreed to remove the wreck using balloons, hydraulic jacks, and compressed air for nothing in return for 97 percent of the profits on all sales of relics from the wreck (the government would receive the remainder).\"Bids for Raising the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. February 2, 1901; \"Will Remove Wreck of the Maine for Nothing.\" *New York Times*. February 2, 1901\\. After an on\\-site inspection, Chamberlain claimed the ship was in one piece.\"To Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times*. April 27, 1901\\. But by April, when the time period for work to begin expired, no construction bond had been posted and no work was done. Chamberlain \\& Co. defaulted on their contract in July.\"Main Still at Harbor Bottom.\" *Washington Post*. July 2, 1901; \"No Work Yet on Sunken Maine.\" *New York Times*. July 2, 1901; \"Must Begin Work on the Maine at Once.\" *New York Times*. July 10, 1901\\.",
"A second effort by the United States to raise the *Maine* was proposed in 1902\\. General Wood reiterated the call for removal of the *Maine* in March 1902\\.\"Plan to Raise the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. March 27, 1902\\. Senator [William E. Mason](/wiki/William_E._Mason_%28American_politician%29 \"William E. Mason (American politician)\") proposed legislation in May 1902 to raise the ship to determine the true reason for its destruction.\"A Bill to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times*. May 14, 1902\\. Mason's bill provided just $50,000 for the project, but that amount proved far too low. Senator [Henry Cabot Lodge](/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge \"Henry Cabot Lodge\") introduced a bill the same month providing $1 million to raise the *Maine* and repatriate any remains found to the United States.\"Bill to Remove the Maine.\" *New York Times*. May 23, 1902\\. But no action was taken on either bill, even though there were published reports in November 1902 that the Cuban guard on the ship had been removed and relic hunters had stripped all the copper from the wreck.Stanhope, Dorothy. \"Relic Hunters Strip Old Maine.\" *New York Times*. November 30, 1902\\.",
"Spain, too, wanted the wreck removed, and proposed in March 1903 that their government raise the *Maine*,\"Spain Wants Maine Floated.\" *Washington Post*. March 11, 1903\\. but Cuba declined to give permission.\"Remove of Maine Wreck.\" *Washington Post*. March 18, 1903\\. Instead, Cuba—desiring to maintain good relations with the U.S. as well as Spain—itself said it would remove the wreck.\"The Wreck of the Main.\" *New York Times*. March 19, 1903; \"Maine Wreck to Be Removed.\" *Washington Post*. March 24, 1903; \"Wreck of the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. April 19, 1903\\. Few American firms bid on the work, as the use of [dynamite](/wiki/Dynamite \"Dynamite\") on the wreck was prohibited.\"Removal of the Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times*. June 2, 1903\\. After an initial round of bids were rejected,\"Bid for Raising Maine Rejected.\" *Washington Post*. June 5, 1903\\. a contract was signed in June 1904 with both Joseph de Wyckoff (an American industrialist) and the firm R.H.F. Sewell of [New Orleans, Louisiana](/wiki/New_Orleans%2C_Louisiana \"New Orleans, Louisiana\").\"Maine's Hulk to Be Raised.\" *Washington Post*. June 13, 1904\\. Sewell intended to put the wreck on display in New Orleans. See: \"The Maine to Be Raised.\" *New York Times*. December 23, 1903\\. Salvage firm operator George Richardson of Chicago, Illinois, was originally offered the contract. But although Richardson verbally agreed to do the job, the contract was never signed and the contract offered to the de Wyckoff and Sewell. See: \"Time Called on Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times*. March 6, 1904; \"Not to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times*. March 26, 1904\\. Because the Cuban government was worried that a mine would be found to be the cause of the wreck, its contract with the salvage firms required the wreck to be towed out to sea and sunk.\"Opposes Raising the Maine.\" *New York Times*. July 17, 1904\\. The Sewell firm asked the U.S. government if it retained any legal interest in the wreck.\"Right to Maine Wreck.\" *Washington Post*. July 14, 1904\\. Not only did de Wyckoff protest the Sewell firm's involvement, but the United States informed all concerned in July 1904 that it retained ownership of the *Maine* and would vigorously prosecute anyone interfering with the wreck.\"Maine Wreck Dispute.\" *Washington Post*. July 16, 1904; \"Right to Raise the Maine.\" *Washington Post*. July 19, 1904; \"We Will Not Permit Maine Wreck's Removal.\" *New York Times*. July 19, 1904\\. The Cuban effort was quietly canceled.",
"### New momentum for a *Maine* memorial",
"After the failed Cuban attempt to raise the *Maine*, an important suggestion was made regarding a potential memorial. The Boston Seaman's Friend Society, an association of merchant mariners and their supporters, proposed retrieving the ship's main mast and erecting it as a memorial in Arlington National Cemetery.[\"Razees, Or Notes on Naval Matters.\" *The Sea Breeze.* October 1904, p. 15\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=dfcsAAAAYAAJ&dq=Maine+Arlington+cemetery&pg=PR125) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-24\\.",
"In 1908, on the tenth anniversary of the disaster, Representative [Charles August Sulzer](/wiki/Charles_August_Sulzer \"Charles August Sulzer\") introduced legislation requesting the raising of the USS *Maine* and the burial of any dead which remained aboard her.\"Anniversary of the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* February 16, 1908\\. [Secretary of the Navy](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy \"United States Secretary of the Navy\") [Victor H. Metcalf](/wiki/Victor_H._Metcalf \"Victor H. Metcalf\") proposed amending the bill to ensure that the Cuban government was involved in the process and approved of it.\"For Raising the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* March 27, 1908\\. No action was taken on the bill during the first session of the [60th Congress](/wiki/60th_United_States_Congress \"60th United States Congress\").",
"In January 1909, [Charles E. Magoon](/wiki/Charles_E._Magoon \"Charles E. Magoon\"), Governor of Cuba, again asked for the removal of the wreck of the *Maine.*The United States had withdrawn from Cuba in 1901, but the United States Congress enacted the [Platt Amendment](/wiki/Platt_Amendment \"Platt Amendment\") which required the United States to intervene in Cuban internal affairs under certain circumstances. After a dispute 1906 election led to a nascent civil war, the United States [invaded Cuba with 5,600 troops](/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Cuba_%281906%E2%80%931909%29 \"United States occupation of Cuba (1906–1909)\"). Magoon was installed as Governor of Cuba to restore order. The American occupation ended on January 28, 1909\\. See: \"Magoon Says Raise Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times.* January 25, 1909\\. The day after Magoon's request, a group of *Maine* survivors and their families formed the Maine Memorial Association (also known as the Maine Memorial Society). The association's goals were to annual observe the anniversary of the ship's destruction by holding ceremonies at the *Maine* Memorial in Arlington National Cemetery and Havana, and to press for the establishment of a more formal, larger memorial at Arlington. The association elected now\\-Admiral Charles D. Sigsbee as its president.\"To Remember Heroes.\" *Washington Post.* January 26, 1909; \"Monument to the Maine.\" *New York Times.* February 14, 1910\\.",
"### Passage of *Maine* memorial legislation",
"Representative Sulzer renewed pressure to pass the *Maine* salvage bill on February 16, 1909\\.\"Sulzer Pleads for Bill.\" *Washington Post.* February 17, 1909\\. Three days later, the [House Appropriations Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Appropriations \"United States House Committee on Appropriations\") approved an omnibus appropriations bill that authorized the President to call for proposals and provide an estimate for the salvage operation to Congress.\"Sundry Civil Bill.\" *Washington Post.* February 20, 1909\\. But the [60th Congress](/wiki/60th_United_States_Congress \"60th United States Congress\") came to an end without passage of the legislation.",
"In the second session of the [61st Congress](/wiki/61st_United_States_Congress \"61st United States Congress\"), Representative [George A. Loud](/wiki/George_A._Loud \"George A. Loud\") submitted legislation again calling for the raising of the wreck of the *Maine*. This legislation won widespread support. President [William Howard Taft](/wiki/William_Howard_Taft \"William Howard Taft\") endorsed the bill on January 11, providing major support for the effort.\"Raising the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* January 12, 1910\\. At the *Maine* memorial services on February 15 in Arlington National Cemetery, Admiral Sigsbee called for repatriation of all bodies and the construction of a larger memorial.\"Maine Dead Honored.\" *Washington Post.* February 16, 1910\\. At a meeting a few days later, the [United Spanish War Veterans](/wiki/United_Spanish_War_Veterans \"United Spanish War Veterans\") (an association for veterans of the Spanish–American War) passed a resolution demanding the raising of the wreck of the *Maine* and bring any remains found home for burial at Arlington National Cemetery.\"Want Maine Raised.\" *Washington Post.* February 21, 1910\\. Sigsbee then called on February 26 for all veterans groups to unite behind a plan to salvage the wreck, repatriate all remains, and establish a memorial.\"Asks Aid for Memorial.\" *Washington Post.* February 26, 1910\\.",
"On February 28, a subcommittee of the [House Naval Affairs Committee](/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Armed_Services \"United States House Committee on Armed Services\") favorably reported the Loud bill. The amended legislation called for a contractor to salvage the *Maine* and for all bodies found to be buried at Arlington National Cemetery.\"May Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* March 1, 1910; \"Favors Raising of Maine.\" *Washington Post.* March 1, 1910\\. The full House of Representatives passed the legislation on March 23, after having amended it to require the Army Corps of Engineers to do the work and for construction of a new memorial featuring the *Maine*{{'s}} mast at Arlington.\"To Raise Battleship Maine.\" *Washington Post.* March 24, 1910\\. Anticipating passage of the bill, the Maine Memorial Association began raising money to help built the memorial.\"For a Maine Monument.\" *New York Times.* April 24, 1910\\. This fund\\-raising effort collapsed in November 1910 due to internal divisions within the association, and Sigsbee resigned as president. See: \"Sigsbee Is Hopeful.\" *Washington Post.* November 7, 1910\\. The Maine Monument Association merged with the United Spanish War Veterans in early 1911\\. See: \"Societies to Combine.\" *Washington Post.* January 23, 1911; \"Veterans Yet May Aid.\" *Washington Post.* February 26, 1911\\. The Senate concurred in the legislation on May 4\\.\"Maine to Be Raised.\" *Washington Post.* May 5, 1910; \"The Main to Be Raised.\" *New York Times.* May 5, 1910\\.",
"On May 9, 1910, President Taft signs into law the bill titled \"Raising of battleship Maine\" (Public Law 61\\-169\\) which required the [United States Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers \"United States Army Corps of Engineers\") to raise and remove the wreck of the *Maine* from Havana Harbor. The law appropriated $100,000 for this task. The legislation further required that any bodies found be transported to Arlington National Cemetery and interred there. The mast of the *Maine* was to be retained and taken to Arlington, where the [United States Secretary of War](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_War \"United States Secretary of War\") was required to erect the mast on top of a suitable monument at or near the place where the dead of the *Maine* were laid to rest.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 5](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+1910&pg=PR5), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Task to Raise Maine.\" *Washington Post.* May 11, 1910\\.",
"### Preparing to raise the *Maine*",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Col. William M. Black (depicted here about 1916\\) led the effort to raise the *Maine*](/wiki/File:USACE_William_Murray_Black.jpg \"USACE William Murray Black.jpg\")\nThe Army Corps of Engineers began working on plans to raise the *Maine* in late July 1910\\.\"Raising The Maine A Duty.\" *Washington Post.* July 28, 1910\\. A \"special board of engineers\" was appointed from Corps ranks to work on the problem and oversee the project.\"Board to Raise the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 30, 1910\\. [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Colonel (United States)\") [William M. Black](/wiki/William_Murray_Black \"William Murray Black\"), Lieutenant Colonel H. H. Patrick, and Captain Harley B. Ferguson.\"To Survey the Maine.\" *New York Times.* August 30, 1910\\. The [President of Cuba](/wiki/President_of_Cuba \"President of Cuba\"), [José Miguel Gómez](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Miguel_G%C3%B3mez \"José Miguel Gómez\"), promised the full cooperation of his government.\"Wants the Maine Raised.\" *New York Times.* June 2, 1910\\.",
"The Corps immediately alerted Congress in May 1910 that the job could not be done for the $100,000 appropriated.\"May Not Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* May 14, 1910\\. On June 17, Congress appropriated $200,000 more, and authorized the Corps to sign contracts for whatever services it needed (without regard to cost).\"To Raise Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 18, 1910\\. In August, the Special Engineering Board decided not to bring the *Maine* back to the United States but to sink her at sea.\"Plan to Sink Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times.* August 28, 1910\\. The wreck would be surveyed before any work began. [Caissons](/wiki/Caisson_%28engineering%29 \"Caisson (engineering)\") would then be constructed around the wreck to form a [cofferdam](/wiki/Cofferdam \"Cofferdam\"), the water pumped out, and any bodies removed.",
"The Special Board made its first visit to the wreck of the *Maine* on September 10, 1910, measuring the site and taking [soundings](/wiki/Depth_sounding \"Depth sounding\").\"Prepare to Raise Maine.\" *New York Times.* September 11, 1910\\. Preliminary borings and additional soundings were made the following week, giving the Special Board enough information to make more formal plans for salvaging the wreck.\"Begin to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* September 17, 1910\\. The *Maine* was found to be lying in {{convert\\|25\\|ft\\|m}} of water, and the Corps of Engineers believed that 75 bodies lay within the wreck of the *Maine*.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 7\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&q=bodies&pg=PR15) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-17\\. (Contemporary accounts claim that only 68 bodies were missing.) The first human remains aboard the *Maine* were found near the rear cabins on September 22, 1910, while measurements and soundings were taken. Cuban divers examining the wreck discovered the bones, but did not disturb them.\"Bodies Found in the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* September 22, 1910\\.",
"It was immediately clear that the 1898 explosion had done far more damage to the *Maine* than previously assumed, and that the ship might not be capable of refloating at all. The caisson plan, however, was nevertheless considered risky. The Special Board sought the approval of President Taft for the caisson plan and the decision to sink the wreck at sea. The work included contracting for local labor wherever possible, but using U.S. Navy ships and [derricks](/wiki/Derrick \"Derrick\"). Taft gave his approval on October 13\\. Taft invited Cuba and Spain to name a representative to be on\\-site during the salvage operation at all times.\"Taft Approves Plan for Raising Maine.\" *New York Times.* October 14, 1910\\.\"Army to Raise Maine.\" *Washington Post.* October 14, 1910\\. The Spanish agreed to observer status. With the plan approved, the [Lackawanna Steel Company](/wiki/Lackawanna_Steel_Company \"Lackawanna Steel Company\") began manufacturing the interlocking [steel piles](/wiki/Deep_foundation \"Deep foundation\") to create the caisson walls.\"Steel Piles for Raising the Maine.\" *New York Times.* October 19, 1910\\.",
"### Retrieval of bodies",
"Piles for the caissons began to be driven on December 6, 1910, and the last was in place on March 31, 1911\\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 12](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR32), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Last Rites Over the Maine.\" *New York Times.* February 16, 1911\\. Twenty caissons were constructed,\"Cautious Work on Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 7, 1911\\. with pilings driven {{convert\\|72\\|ft\\|m}} through water, mud and clay. More than {{convert\\|75000\\|cuft\\|m3}} of water was then pumped out of the cofferdam.\"Raising the Maine in Moving Pictures.\" *New York Times.* November 9, 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Looking forward from the stern of the *Maine* in late 1911\\. Note the caissons in place around the wreck, creating the cofferdam.](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_wreckage_cph.3b21936.jpg \"USS Maine wreckage cph.3b21936.jpg\")\nThe first human remains (some ribs and small wrist bones), found outside the hull, were brought to the surface on January 3, 1911, by Cuban divers working on the *Maine.*\"Maine Hulk Gives Up Dead.\" *Washington Post.* January 4, 1911; \"Inside Explosion In Maine.\" *New York Times.* January 9, 1911\\. The top of the starboard turret was detected some {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m}} from the wreck in late February after piles being driven into the mud and clay of Havana Harbor struck the object. The turret top was raised on March 12,\"Maine Turret Top Raised.\" *Washington Post.* March 13, 1911\\. and a human foot was found adhered to the turret by fire.\"Bones on Maine Turret.\" *Washington Post.* March 15, 1911\\. The ship's starboard anchor (one of six she carried) was raised on March 15\\.\"Anchor of the Maine Found.\" *Washington Post.* March 16, 1911\\.",
"With the caissons finished at the end of March, they were filled with clay, mud, and rock. Wood platforms were constructed on top of the caissons to support the cranes and derricks to be used to handle the wreck. Once the caissons were filled, water would begin to be drained from inside the cofferdam. Since construction of such a large, deep cofferdam had not been attempted before, the Corps said it would suspend draining from time to time to assess the performance of the caissons and ensure the cofferdam was still secure. The search for bodies, the Army said, would take precedence over anything else aboard the wreck. Filling the cofferdam again (\"rewatering\") would not occur until probably the end of December 1911\\.\"Hull of the Maine Soon to Be Exposed.\" *New York Times.* April 10, 1911\\.",
"[Scaffolding](/wiki/Scaffolding \"Scaffolding\") was erected over the stern to facilitate the removal of the [mizzenmast](/wiki/Mast_%28sailing%29 \"Mast (sailing)\") (or aft mast) and deck fittings. These items were stored in a hut constructed on one of the cofferdams or aboard the [collier](/wiki/Collier_%28ship%29 \"Collier (ship)\") {{USS\\|Leonidas\\|AD\\-7}}. On May 27, 1911, *Leonidas* transported the mizzenmast back to the United States.\"Maine's Mast a Monument.\" *New York Times.* May 27, 1911\\.",
"Thirty additional partial remains were found aboard the wreck on May 3\\. Consisting mostly of skulls (often partially crushed) and rib bones, the remains were placed in a single coffin.\"30 of Maine Dead Found.\" *Washington Post.* May 4, 1911\\.",
"By May 31, water within the cofferdam was down by {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}}, revealing most of the starboard [quarterdeck](/wiki/Quarterdeck \"Quarterdeck\"). Some bending of the steel piles used in one of the caissons was seen on May 31\\.\"Soon to See the Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 1, 1911\\. Draining was suspended until June 15 to determine the caisson's stability. Once it was determined the caisson was not in danger of rupture, water was drained another {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}}. The Corps said on June 7 it would be three to four weeks before draining was complete.",
"In early June, the *Maine*{{'s}} {{convert\\|10\\|ST\\|LT}} fore\\-mast was retrieved from the wreck, and shipped aboard the [Ward Line](/wiki/Ward_Line \"Ward Line\") commercial passenger ship SS *Bayamo* to New York City.\"Ship Maine's Mast North.\" *Washington Post.* June 14, 1911\\. The {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} mast was broken off near the deck by the explosion, and badly bent and twisted. Heavily rusted and covered in coral on its lower part, the mast was quite brittle after its stay in saltwater.\"Electrolysis Fused Steel on Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 19, 1911,. It was initially stored at the U.S. Army's [east coast](/wiki/East_coast_of_the_United_States \"East coast of the United States\") regional headquarters,\"Maine Yields Relics.\" *Washington Post.* June 19, 1911\\. but transferred to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard \"Brooklyn Navy Yard\").\"Sea Burial for the Maine.\" *New York Times.* February 1, 1912\\.",
"By June 15, the water level in the caisson was down {{convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m}}. It was now apparent that the bow of the ship had been completely destroyed by the 1898 blast, and most of the central third of the ship was ruined as well. Although the stern listed seven [degrees](/wiki/Degree_%28angle%29 \"Degree (angle)\") to port, the central third of the ship only listed four degrees to port. Engineers realized that the hull had broken amidship.\"No Light Yet On Maine Explosion.\" *New York Times.* June 17, 1911\\. The Corps of Engineers began to radically revise its plans for refloating the ship, and there was concern that the ship might need to be removed in pieces. With less need to protect the ship from further damage, Corps officials said they would lower the water level down to {{convert\\|18\\|to\\|20\\|ft\\|m}} over the next three to four days. This would completely reveal the central section of the ship, while leaving the bow under water.",
"{{Wide image\\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS Maine \\- Havana Harbor Cuba \\- 1912\\.jpg\\|1200px\\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS ''Maine''. The view toward the left and rear is across the bow (the remains of which lie beneath the water), toward the center third of the ship. The nearly\\-intact stern is just visible beyond the wrecked center section.\\|400px\\|right\\|alt\\=shipwrekc in a cofferdam}}\nWith no remains found since May 3, the Corps of Engineers began to fear on June 16 that no more bodies would be found.\"Maine Is A Shell.\" *Washington Post.* June 17, 1911\\. In part this was due to the condition of the ship. Army engineers told the press that sides of the bow appeared to have blown outward, with the upper deck detaching from the ship.\"Maine's Bow Blown Away.\" *New York Times.* July 7, 1911\\. This caused wreckage to be strewn laterally over Havana Harbor, leaving a large debris field. The explosion was so powerful that the ship's {{convert\\|100\\|ST\\|LT}} forward gun turret landed {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m}} away,\"Maine Wrecked From Outside.\" *New York Times.* July 19, 1911\\. and the vessel's port and transverse armored bulkheads were buried {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} into the mud of the harbor floor.\"Many Maine Shells Bared.\" *New York Times.* November 25, 1911\\. Some armor was never found. The bow's upper deck rose into the air, turned upside\\-down, and landed on the central third of the *Maine*.\"Building Bulkhead to Float the Maine.\" *New York Times.* November 3, 1911\\. The bow detached from the ship at frame 14,\"Outside Explosion, Says Maine Verdict.\" *New York Times.* December 9, 1911\\. and the bow's keel detached from the ship at frame 18\\. What remained of the bow landed at the bottom of Havana Harbor at a 45\\-degree angle to the rest of the ship, pointing to starboard. The bow keel was bent upward in the middle by about {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}}. The inner shell of the ship's double\\-bottomed hull was thrown upward, and came to rest on top of what remained of the bow. Investigators could not determine if it was forced into that position by an exterior explosion or if it was pulled upward as the bow detached. The forward portion of what remained of the keel rested on the inner shell, with the rear portion buried deep in the mud. Again, investigators could not determine if the explosion bent the keel and forced it into this position or if the suction created by the outward\\-expanding hull pulled it there. As the bow settled, it listed almost onto its starboard side. The central third of the ship was devastated by the explosion and collapse of the bow's upper deck onto it, and was partially detached from the stern.\"Human Bones Found in Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 20, 1911\\. The stern, however, was in remarkably good shape and seemingly undisturbed by the blast. Even the aft turret guns were still in place. Nonetheless, Corps officials said they were seriously considering breaking up the wreck rather than raising it. A model of the wreck was made by a naval constructor.This model was later displayed in the office of the Secretary of the Navy and in the White House. It was intended for permanent display either in the Naval Museum at the Washington Navy Yard or at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History \"National Museum of American History\"). See: \"Exhibit Maine Wreck Model.\" *Washington Post.* December 24, 1911\\.",
"Four days later, on June 20, more human remains were found on the upper deck between the aft turret and the engine room. These included two forearms and a foot in a boot.\"Find Bones on Maine.\" *Washington Post.* June 20, 1911\\. All the remains were heavily charred. Additionally, workers were recovering a very large number of relics such as [bayonets](/wiki/Bayonet \"Bayonet\"), [binoculars](/wiki/Binoculars \"Binoculars\"), books, clothing, dishes, and papers (some of them in watertight boxes, and still dry). The water level was now down {{convert\\|14\\|ft\\|m}}, and dropping.",
"A nearly two\\-week delay in recovering additional remains occurred in late June and early July as workers struggled to remove mud from the interior of the stern.\"Maine Caisson Is Secure.\" *New York Times.* July 6, 1911\\. By July 19, water levels inside the cofferdam were down {{convert\\|18\\|ft\\|m}} (with just {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m}} of water left to pump out), but it was clear by then that most of the bow wreckage lay buried in {{convert\\|37\\|ft\\|m}} of mud. The Corps advised that it would take several months to erect all the cranes and derricks needed to remove the heaviest wreckage.",
"Additional remains were soon uncovered. On July 19, a skull, some jawbone fragments, and several vertebrae were discovered in mud on the main deck. Corps workers believed this represented the remains about three people.\"More Bones From Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 20, 1911\\. As the last {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m}} of water was pumped out and the suction dredges began removing the soft mud around the bow, the remains of four more individuals were found near the [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower \"Conning tower\"). These remains were heavily scorched.\"Search for Bodies in the Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times.* July 21, 1911\\.\"Will Dissect Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 21, 1911\\. These discoveries gave the Army hope that more remains might be found. Efforts to remove the mud were redoubled, although Corps engineers said it would take three to four months to clear all the mud and complete a thorough search for the wreck.",
"The ship's bell was found in the mud, split in half by the explosion, on July 22, 1911\\.[\"Work on Exposing the Old U.S.S. Maine in Havana, Cuba.\" *American Marine Engineer.* August 1911, p. 23\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=nfRYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+%22ship%27s+bell%22&pg=RA19-PA23) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-21\\. The vessel's memorial [silver service](/wiki/Silver_service \"Silver service\"), given to the ship in 1891 by the people of Maine, was also retrieved during salvage.\"Fortune in Silver From Warships Out of Commission.\" *New York Times.* December 29, 1912\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Caissons form a cofferdam around the wreck of the *Maine* in late summer 1912](/wiki/File:Caissons_around_wreck_of_USS_Maine_-_circa_mid_1912.jpg \"Caissons around wreck of USS Maine - circa mid 1912.jpg\")\nMore remains were found the day after the ship's bell was rediscovered. These represented six or seven crewmen, and were found among the wreckage of the central portion of the ship near the conning tower. The bones were found in a confused mass, scorched by fire, and many were incomplete or fractured. Some were skulls which had portions missing, and many were small fragments. Workers reported that additional remains were wedged tightly in twisted masses of steel, and could not be easily removed without the use of [acetylene torches](/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting%23Acetylene \"Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Acetylene\").\"Maine Yields Up Dead.\" *Washington Post.* July 23, 1911\\. The remains of another three to four men were found on the central superstructure on July 24\\. Again, some showed the action of fire.\"Maine Gives Up Victims.\" *Washington Post.* July 25, 1911\\.",
"The salvage operation began running out of money in late July. On July 26, the Corps asked Congress for another $250,000, to bring the total expenditures on the wreck to $900,000\\. That same day, a nearly intact human skeleton was found on the starboard berth deck in the central section.\"Cost of Raising the Maine.\" *New York Times.* July 27, 1911; \"14 Dead From the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 27, 1911\\. Two more nearly intact bodies were found on July 29 on the berth deck near the [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer \"Warrant officer\")' quarters.\"Honor For Maine's Dead.\" *Washington Post.* July 30, 1911\\. Congress appropriated the $250,000 on July 31\\.\"Money to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* August 1, 1911\\.",
"On August 2, a nearly intact skeleton was found in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom \"Wardroom\") of the *Maine*. On the basis of clothing, height, and personal effects, the skeleton was identified as that of Assistant Engineer Darwin R. Merritt. His body was placed aboard the battleship {{USS\\|North Carolina\\|ACR\\-12}}, and taken to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The ship arrived on August 12, and Merritt's body turned over to his relatives. His family buried him in a cemetery in [Red Oak, Iowa](/wiki/Red_Oak%2C_Iowa \"Red Oak, Iowa\").\"Body of Merritt Arrives.\" *Washington Post.* August 13, 1911; \"Find Ring of Maine Victim.\" *New York Times.* September 9, 1911\\.\"Battleship for Maine Dead.\" *New York Times.* August 20, 1911\\. Two more bodies, neither of them identifiable, were also found near the warrant officers' quarters, bringing the total number of dead found to 21\\.\"Maine Victim Identified.\" *Washington Post.* August 3, 1911\\. Additional bones were found embedded in the wreckage on August 3\\.\"Tearing the Maine Apart.\" *Washington Post.* August 4, 1911\\. By August 14, more remains had been found, bringing the total number of full and partial bodies found to 25\\. Some skulls still lay wrapped in the wreckage too tightly to retrieve.\"Maine A Sorry Sight.\" *Washington Post.* August 15, 1911\\.",
"Work to remove the main mast from the wreck began on September 2, 1911\\. The mast was removed in preparation for the severing of the stern of the ship (which the Corps of Engineers believed might be refloated) from the wrecked central and bow sections.\"Work on the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* September 3, 1911\\. This work quickly revealed even more remains. Four more bodies were found near the [petty officers](/wiki/Petty_officer \"Petty officer\")' quarters on September 26,\"Find More Maine Victims.\" *Washington Post.* September 27, 1911\\. and six more bodies were located in the engine room on September 28\\.\"10 More Maine Dead Found.\" *Washington Post.* September 29, 1911\\. The [boilers](/wiki/Boiler \"Boiler\") were found intact, although the 1898 explosion had driven one through the rear bulkhead to rest against the aft boilers. This led workers to believe that more bodies might be found in the engine room.\"Maine Boilers Intact.\" *New York Times.* October 11, 1911\\. But no more bodies were found there. The last set of remains to be retrieved from the USS *Maine* was a single skeleton, found in the wreckage of the bow on October 16, 1911\\.\"Maine Yields Another Body.\" *Washington Post.* October 17, 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|View from the USS *Osceola* as the *Maine* is towed to its ocean grave on March 16, 1912](/wiki/File:Wreck_of_USS_Maine_being_towed_out_of_Havana_Harbor_-_1913-03-16.jpg \"Wreck of USS Maine being towed out of Havana Harbor - 1913-03-16.jpg\")\nThe Army Corps of Engineers said its investigation of the wreck of the *Maine* would cease at the end of November 1911\\. The stern section of the ship proved watertight, and a wooden bulkhead was built across the section to allow it to float. Refloating the wreck, sinking it at sea, and removing the caissons would take another $250,000, the Corps said on November 8\\. By mid\\-December the funds had not been appropriated, and working on the *Maine* was scheduled to halt.\"Ask More Funds of House.\" *New York Times.* December 14, 1911\\. When debate on the funds opened on December 16, Representative [James R. Mann](/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_%28Illinois%29 \"James Robert Mann (Illinois)\") and Representative [Thomas U. Sisson](/wiki/Thomas_U._Sisson \"Thomas U. Sisson\") nearly came to blows when Sisson proposed that parts of the wreck be sold at auction to reduce the costs of the salvage operation. Both Sisson and Representative [Robert B. Macon](/wiki/Robert_B._Macon \"Robert B. Macon\") had also proposed exhibiting the wreck for a fee, but Representative [John J. Fitzgerald](/wiki/John_J._Fitzgerald \"John J. Fitzgerald\") (chair of the House Appropriations Committee) said there would be public riots anywhere it appeared. While members of the House disagreed over whether to sell parts of the *Maine*, they were united in allowing the Secretary of the Navy to donate relics and portions of the hull to any municipality or patriotic organization which asked for them. Additionally, the House voted to give the city of Havana a portion of the wreck for the construction of a memorial.\"Clash Over Plan to Sell the Maine.\" *New York Times.* December 17, 1911\\. This version of the legislation passed. On January 13, the Secretary of the Navy established a two\\-person panel consisting of Lieutenant Colonel [Edward Burr](/wiki/Edward_Burr \"Edward Burr\") (Army Corps of Engineers) and [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29%23Naval_rank \"Commander (United States)#Naval rank\") [Richard H. Leigh](/wiki/Richard_H._Leigh \"Richard H. Leigh\") (U.S. Navy) to determine which cities and groups should get relics from the wreck.\"To Distribute Maine Relics.\" *New York Times.* January 14, 1912\\.",
"Sinking of the *Maine* occurred on March 16, 1912\\. About a third of the vessel was wreckage, which was cut into {{convert\\|0\\.5\\|ST\\|LT}} pieces and then dumped at sea about {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} from the coast of Cuba.\"Soon to Float Maine.\" *Washington Post.* February 4, 1912\\. The aft, portside turret was given to the people of Havana for use as a memorial. But the forward, starboardside turret was buried too deeply in the mud for removal. To free the stern from the mud, diggers were forced to go {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}} below the keel. [Seacocks](/wiki/Seacock \"Seacock\") were emplaced in the keel of the ship, and jets pumped water below the keel to help loosen the mud's hold on the vessel. Once the stern was free, water was slowly allowed into the cofferdam. When the stern's deck was level with the cofferdam, two of the caissons were removed to give the *Maine* access to the harbor.\"Main's Deck Visible.\" *New York Times.* February 13, 1912\\. After three attempts to free the *Maine* from the mud, the ship began floating on February 15\\.\"Maine Floating To\\-Morrow.\" *New York Times.* February 14, 1912\\. The {{USS\\|Osceola\\|AT\\-47}}, an armed [tugboat](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\"), towed the *Maine* out of the cofferdam and into the harbor.\"Burial of the Maine Takes Place To\\-Day.\" *New York Times.* March 16, 1912\\.",
"More than 80,000 Cubans watched as the *Osceola* towed the USS *Maine* out of Havana harbor. Cannon at the [La Cabaña](/wiki/La_Caba%C3%B1a \"La Cabaña\") fortress fired every 30 minutes from 10:00 a.m. until 2:15 pm, after which \"minute guns\"\"Minute guns\" are very small cannon, often with a barrel length of about {{convert\\|1\\|ft\\|m}} or so, which were used to announce the quarter\\-hour and hour in the era before clocks became widespread. sounded every 60 seconds until the procession passed. Behind the *Maine* followed the battleship USS *North Carolina* with the remains of the dead aboard her. Following the *North Carolina* were the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{USS\\|Birmingham\\|CL\\-2}}, three [gunboats](/wiki/Gunboat \"Gunboat\") of the Cuban Navy, and a number of private vessels. The main guns of the *North Carolina* fired when the {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}}, {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}}, and {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} marks were reached. About {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}} out to sea, naval personnel opened the seacocks at about 5:10 P.M. local time. The USS *Maine* sank at 5:30 p.m. as a bugler aboard the *North Carolina* sounded taps. The guns of the *North Carolina* and the *Birmingham* fired once, and the ceremony ended\"The Maine Sinks to Ocean Grave.\" *New York Times.* March 17, 1912\\.In 2000, a team of Cuban marine scientists and oceanographers from the [University of South Florida](/wiki/University_of_South_Florida \"University of South Florida\") College of Marine Science – working with Advanced Digital Communications, a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") firm – discovered the wreck of the USS *Maine* in about {{convert\\|3770\\|ft\\|m}} of water roughly {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} northeast of Havana Harbor. According to the researchers, during the sinking ceremony and the time it took the wreck to founder, currents pushed the *Maine* east until it rested at its present location. See: Søreide, p. 96; Brecher, Elinor J. \"Scientists Stumble Upon Sunken Maine.\" *Miami Herald.* December 10, 2000\\.",
"[thumb\\|center\\|750px\\|The battleship USS *North Carolina* (center) and the cruiser USS *Birmingham* (far right) escort the wreck of the *Maine* (far left, in distance) to its final resting place](/wiki/File:USS_North_Carolina_and_USS_Birmingham_escort_USS_Maine_to_burial_at_sea_-_1913-03-16.jpg \"USS North Carolina and USS Birmingham escort USS Maine to burial at sea - 1913-03-16.jpg\")\nAfter the *Maine* was sunk at sea, the cofferdam was removed. Under an agreement with the Cuban authorities, the Corps dredged the entire area in and around the shipwreck to a depth of {{convert\\|37\\.5\\|ft\\|m}} to ensure that no material remained in the mud or clay which might present a danger to navigation. A great deal of material was brought up and sunk at sea. Some items, such as the ship's forward gun, were too heavy to raise. Dynamite was used to destroy these items so that they did not project above the seabed. Operations at the site were completed on December 2, 1912\\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 8, 35\\-36](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Bow of Maine Blown Up.\" *New York Times.* September 14, 1912\\.",
"### Repatriating the bodies",
"Preparations for receiving the bodies of the USS *Maine* began in June 1911\\. Captain James D. Tilford and [undertaker](/wiki/Funeral_director \"Funeral director\") Oliver B. Jenkins of Washington, D.C., took charge of the remains in Havana.\"Maine Caissons Safe.\" *Washington Post.* June 15, 1911\\. They were assisted by the *Maine*{{'s}} former chaplain, Father John Chidwick. Their plan was to place each set of remains in a coffin, which would be kept under guard at the La Cabaña fortress. The assumption of many involved in the operation was that the USS *Leonidas* would take the remains to the United States (just as it did other relics from the ship). Tilford and Jenkins ordered 25 coffins from the United States, believing that most of the 75 missing bodies had been blown far out into the harbor by the explosion and would not be recovered. (Their assumption was based, in part, on Father Chidwick's testimony that he saw bodies blown as high as {{convert\\|60\\|ft\\|m}} into the air by the explosion.)",
"President Gomez ordered all flags in the city to fly at half\\-mast and the minute guns at La Cabaña and [Morro Castle](/wiki/Morro_Castle_%28Havana%29 \"Morro Castle (Havana)\") to fire every 30 seconds every day that dead were brought to the surface.\"Cuba to Honor Maine Dead.\" *New York Times.* July 8, 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The USS *North Carolina*, which carried the dead of the *Maine* home to the United States in 1899](/wiki/File:USSNorthCarolinaACR12.jpg \"USSNorthCarolinaACR12.jpg\")\nIn August 1911, President Taft learned that the collier *Leonidas* might be carrying the *Maine* dead home to the United States. Believing that this would dishonor the dead, Taft ordered the U.S. Navy to send a battleship to Cuba provide transport instead.\"Battleship to Carry Bones.\" *Washington Post.* August 20, 1911\\. Taft also directed the Corps of Engineers to assign an officer to oversee the bodies while in transport. Major [George LeRoy Irwin](/wiki/George_LeRoy_Irwin \"George LeRoy Irwin\") was assigned this duty on August 28\\.\"Honors to Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* August 29, 1911\\.",
"On January 7, 1912, the War Department announced tentative plans for bringing the *Maine*{{'s}} dead to the United States. It said that the battleships USS *North Carolina* and the {{USS\\|Washington\\|ACR\\-11}} would bear the bodies, escorted by the cruisers [USS Birmingham (CL\\-2\\)](/wiki/USS_Birmingham_%28CL-2%29 \"USS Birmingham (CL-2)\") and {{USS\\|Salem\\|CL\\-3}} and the salvage ship {{USS\\|Chesapeake\\|ID\\-3395}}.\"Fleet for Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* January 8, 1912\\. When it became clear by mid February that no further human remains were likely to be found, the War Department scaled back its plans so that the bodies would be borne by the USS *North Carolina*, with an escort by the USS *Birmingham*. The *North Carolina* would bear the dead to Hampton Roads, at which point the bodies would be placed aboard the *Birmingham* and taken to the Washington Navy Yard.\"To Honor Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* February 17, 1912\\.",
"President Gomez personally oversaw the honors given to the dead of the *Maine* before the bodies left Havana. There were 34 coffins,\"Maine's Dead Here.\" *Washington Post.* March 21, 1912\\. all but one of which contained the remains of two individuals.\"Maine Dead Await Burial.\" *Washington Post.* March 22, 1912\\.\"Maine Dead Receive the Nation's Homage.\" *New York Times.* March 24, 1912\\. The coffins were moved from La Cabaña to city hall (the Palacio de los Capitanes Generales) the evening of March 14, where the bodies [lay in state](/wiki/Lying_in_state \"Lying in state\") overnight.\"Honors to Maine's Dead.\" *Washington Post.* February 28, 1912\\. Public viewing of the remains began at 2:00 p.m. local time on March 15, and ended at 10:00 a.m. on March 16\\.\"Taft to Laud Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* March 15, 1912\\. More than 30,000 paid their respects to the dead. Throughout the day on March 16, cannon at La Cabaña and Morro Castle fired every half hour.",
"After the public viewing ended, Cuban Army artillerymen loaded the coffins aboard caissons. Commander [Charles F. Hughes](/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Hughes \"Charles Frederick Hughes\") of the *Birmingham* led a contingent of 300 marines and bluejackets and the *North Carolina*{{'s}} band escorted the dead to Machina Wharf. Accompanying the funeral cortege were [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_general_%28United_States%29 \"Brigadier general (United States)\") [William Herbert Bixby](/wiki/William_Herbert_Bixby \"William Herbert Bixby\"), Army Corps [Chief of Engineers](/wiki/List_of_United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers_Chiefs_of_Engineers \"List of United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers\"); Julio de Cárdenas, Mayor of Havana; [Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso](/wiki/Alfredo_Zayas_y_Alfonso \"Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso\"), Vice President of Cuba; and members of the Cuban Cabinet. Six U.S. Navy sailors loaded the first coffins a funeral barge, while Cuban military personnel moved the remainder. The barges took the remains to the *North Carolina*. As the *North Carolina* passed out of the harbor, soldiers of the Cuban Army lined the walls of La Cabaña and Morro Castle and stood at attention while a military band played a funeral dirge. Hand\\-painted [porcelain](/wiki/Porcelain \"Porcelain\") funeral wreaths, a gift of the Cuban government, were placed on the coffins.",
"### Burying the last of the *Maine* dead",
"[thumb\\|Coverage of the burial of the last *Maine* dead from *[Harper's Weekly](/wiki/Harper%27s_Weekly \"Harper's Weekly\")* in 1912](/wiki/File:Maines_Last_Muster_-_Harpers_Weekly_-_1912-03-30.jpg \"Maines Last Muster - Harpers Weekly - 1912-03-30.jpg\")\nThe USS *North Carolina* arrived at Hampton Roads at about 4:30 P.M. local time on March 19, 1912\\. Transferral of the dead took until 7:30 p.m. The crews of six other U.S. Navy warships anchored at Hampton Roads stood at attention on their decks, and the ships flew their flags at half\\-mast. Two battalions of bluejackets from the *North Carolina* joined the *Birmingham* as an honor guard.\"Maine's Dead Here Today.\" *Washington Post.* March 20, 1912\\.",
"The *Birmingham* arrived at the Washington Navy Yard at 10:45 a.m. on March 20\\. At noon, the coffins were removed from ship and taken to the [State, War, and Navy Building](/wiki/Eisenhower_Executive_Office_Building \"Eisenhower Executive Office Building\"), one block east of the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"). A 200\\-man cavalry unit from Fort Myer carried the coffins aboard caissons. An honor guard consisting of the Third Battalion of the [Third Field Artillery](/wiki/3rd_Field_Artillery_Regiment_%28United_States%29 \"3rd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)\"); a battalion of bluejackets from the *North Carolina*; a battalion of bluejackets from the *Birmingham*; a battalion of Marines from [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"); 200 Army engineers from [Fort Washington, Maryland](/wiki/Fort_Washington_Park \"Fort Washington Park\"); a battalion of Marines from Fort Washington; a battalion of bluejackets from the Washington Navy Yard; a battalion of bluejackets from [Baltimore, Maryland](/wiki/Baltimore%2C_Maryland \"Baltimore, Maryland\"); and 50 members of the [District of Columbia Naval National Guard](/wiki/District_of_Columbia_National_Guard \"District of Columbia National Guard\") accompanied the dead. The naval band from the {{USS\\|Mayflower\\|PY\\-1}} accompanied the honor guard, playing funeral dirges.\"Nation Honors Dead of Maine.\" *Washington Post.* March 24, 1912\\. Tents were erected on the south side of the State, War, and Navy Building, and the caissons bearing the flag\\-draped coffins lined up beneath the tents at about 2:00 P.M.",
"A brief memorial service was held at 2:30 p.m. Congress adjourned for the ceremony, and the entire [Cabinet](/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States \"Cabinet of the United States\") was present. President Taft was the main speaker. On the dais to his right was [Antonio Martin\\-Rivero](/wiki/Antonio_Martin-Rivero \"Antonio Martin-Rivero\"), [Cuban ambassador to the United States](/wiki/List_of_Cuban_ambassadors_to_the_United_States \"List of Cuban ambassadors to the United States\"). To Taft's left were [Rear Admiral](/wiki/Rear_admiral_%28United_States%29 \"Rear admiral (United States)\") Sigsbee and now\\-Rear Admiral Wainwright. [United States Naval Academy](/wiki/United_States_Naval_Academy \"United States Naval Academy\") Chaplain G. Livingston Bayard provided the [invocation](/wiki/Invocation \"Invocation\"). Father Chidwick gave a lengthy oration, followed by a short speech by President Taft. The [Right Reverend](/wiki/Right_Reverend \"Right Reverend\") W.F. Anderson gave the [benediction](/wiki/Benediction \"Benediction\").",
"The funeral cortege then departed for Arlington National Cemetery for a graveside funeral service. President Taft had ordered full military honors for the dead.\"U.S. to Mourn Dead.\" *Washington Post.* March 19, 1912\\. The funeral was held near the anchor which constituted the *Maine* Memorial, and a tent was set up for President Taft and other dignitaries. The Marine Corps Band played funeral dirges, and Chaplain Bayard read the Episcopal funeral service over the dead. Maurice Simmons, Commander of the United Spanish War Veterans, gave a brief speech. Eight United Spanish War Veterans served as honorary pall bearers for the dead. Three Spanish–American War veterans then laid a white rose, a sprig of evergreen, and a small American flag on the coffins. The Fort Myer cavalry unit delivered a 21\\-gun salute, followed by a taps played by a bugler. The ceremony ended with a 21\\-gun salute from cannon at nearby Fort Myer.",
"Estimates of the number of dead in the burial field around the monument include 229,Atkinson, p. 229\\. 230, and 232\\.\"Curtain Rung Down on Tragedy That Swept 260 Men to Death on the Ill\\-Fated Maine.\" *Washington Post.* March 24, 1912\\.",
""
] |
### Retrieval of bodies
Piles for the caissons began to be driven on December 6, 1910, and the last was in place on March 31, 1911\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 12](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR32), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Last Rites Over the Maine." *New York Times.* February 16, 1911\. Twenty caissons were constructed,"Cautious Work on Maine." *New York Times.* June 7, 1911\. with pilings driven {{convert\|72\|ft\|m}} through water, mud and clay. More than {{convert\|75000\|cuft\|m3}} of water was then pumped out of the cofferdam."Raising the Maine in Moving Pictures." *New York Times.* November 9, 1911\.
[thumb\|left\|Looking forward from the stern of the *Maine* in late 1911\. Note the caissons in place around the wreck, creating the cofferdam.](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_wreckage_cph.3b21936.jpg "USS Maine wreckage cph.3b21936.jpg")
The first human remains (some ribs and small wrist bones), found outside the hull, were brought to the surface on January 3, 1911, by Cuban divers working on the *Maine.*"Maine Hulk Gives Up Dead." *Washington Post.* January 4, 1911; "Inside Explosion In Maine." *New York Times.* January 9, 1911\. The top of the starboard turret was detected some {{convert\|100\|ft\|m}} from the wreck in late February after piles being driven into the mud and clay of Havana Harbor struck the object. The turret top was raised on March 12,"Maine Turret Top Raised." *Washington Post.* March 13, 1911\. and a human foot was found adhered to the turret by fire."Bones on Maine Turret." *Washington Post.* March 15, 1911\. The ship's starboard anchor (one of six she carried) was raised on March 15\."Anchor of the Maine Found." *Washington Post.* March 16, 1911\.
With the caissons finished at the end of March, they were filled with clay, mud, and rock. Wood platforms were constructed on top of the caissons to support the cranes and derricks to be used to handle the wreck. Once the caissons were filled, water would begin to be drained from inside the cofferdam. Since construction of such a large, deep cofferdam had not been attempted before, the Corps said it would suspend draining from time to time to assess the performance of the caissons and ensure the cofferdam was still secure. The search for bodies, the Army said, would take precedence over anything else aboard the wreck. Filling the cofferdam again ("rewatering") would not occur until probably the end of December 1911\."Hull of the Maine Soon to Be Exposed." *New York Times.* April 10, 1911\.
[Scaffolding](/wiki/Scaffolding "Scaffolding") was erected over the stern to facilitate the removal of the [mizzenmast](/wiki/Mast_%28sailing%29 "Mast (sailing)") (or aft mast) and deck fittings. These items were stored in a hut constructed on one of the cofferdams or aboard the [collier](/wiki/Collier_%28ship%29 "Collier (ship)") {{USS\|Leonidas\|AD\-7}}. On May 27, 1911, *Leonidas* transported the mizzenmast back to the United States."Maine's Mast a Monument." *New York Times.* May 27, 1911\.
Thirty additional partial remains were found aboard the wreck on May 3\. Consisting mostly of skulls (often partially crushed) and rib bones, the remains were placed in a single coffin."30 of Maine Dead Found." *Washington Post.* May 4, 1911\.
By May 31, water within the cofferdam was down by {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}}, revealing most of the starboard [quarterdeck](/wiki/Quarterdeck "Quarterdeck"). Some bending of the steel piles used in one of the caissons was seen on May 31\."Soon to See the Maine." *New York Times.* June 1, 1911\. Draining was suspended until June 15 to determine the caisson's stability. Once it was determined the caisson was not in danger of rupture, water was drained another {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}}. The Corps said on June 7 it would be three to four weeks before draining was complete.
In early June, the *Maine*{{'s}} {{convert\|10\|ST\|LT}} fore\-mast was retrieved from the wreck, and shipped aboard the [Ward Line](/wiki/Ward_Line "Ward Line") commercial passenger ship SS *Bayamo* to New York City."Ship Maine's Mast North." *Washington Post.* June 14, 1911\. The {{convert\|50\|ft\|m\|adj\=on}} mast was broken off near the deck by the explosion, and badly bent and twisted. Heavily rusted and covered in coral on its lower part, the mast was quite brittle after its stay in saltwater."Electrolysis Fused Steel on Maine." *New York Times.* June 19, 1911,. It was initially stored at the U.S. Army's [east coast](/wiki/East_coast_of_the_United_States "East coast of the United States") regional headquarters,"Maine Yields Relics." *Washington Post.* June 19, 1911\. but transferred to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard "Brooklyn Navy Yard")."Sea Burial for the Maine." *New York Times.* February 1, 1912\.
By June 15, the water level in the caisson was down {{convert\|7\|ft\|m}}. It was now apparent that the bow of the ship had been completely destroyed by the 1898 blast, and most of the central third of the ship was ruined as well. Although the stern listed seven [degrees](/wiki/Degree_%28angle%29 "Degree (angle)") to port, the central third of the ship only listed four degrees to port. Engineers realized that the hull had broken amidship."No Light Yet On Maine Explosion." *New York Times.* June 17, 1911\. The Corps of Engineers began to radically revise its plans for refloating the ship, and there was concern that the ship might need to be removed in pieces. With less need to protect the ship from further damage, Corps officials said they would lower the water level down to {{convert\|18\|to\|20\|ft\|m}} over the next three to four days. This would completely reveal the central section of the ship, while leaving the bow under water.
{{Wide image\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS Maine \- Havana Harbor Cuba \- 1912\.jpg\|1200px\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS ''Maine''. The view toward the left and rear is across the bow (the remains of which lie beneath the water), toward the center third of the ship. The nearly\-intact stern is just visible beyond the wrecked center section.\|400px\|right\|alt\=shipwrekc in a cofferdam}}
With no remains found since May 3, the Corps of Engineers began to fear on June 16 that no more bodies would be found."Maine Is A Shell." *Washington Post.* June 17, 1911\. In part this was due to the condition of the ship. Army engineers told the press that sides of the bow appeared to have blown outward, with the upper deck detaching from the ship."Maine's Bow Blown Away." *New York Times.* July 7, 1911\. This caused wreckage to be strewn laterally over Havana Harbor, leaving a large debris field. The explosion was so powerful that the ship's {{convert\|100\|ST\|LT}} forward gun turret landed {{convert\|100\|ft\|m}} away,"Maine Wrecked From Outside." *New York Times.* July 19, 1911\. and the vessel's port and transverse armored bulkheads were buried {{convert\|30\|ft\|m}} into the mud of the harbor floor."Many Maine Shells Bared." *New York Times.* November 25, 1911\. Some armor was never found. The bow's upper deck rose into the air, turned upside\-down, and landed on the central third of the *Maine*."Building Bulkhead to Float the Maine." *New York Times.* November 3, 1911\. The bow detached from the ship at frame 14,"Outside Explosion, Says Maine Verdict." *New York Times.* December 9, 1911\. and the bow's keel detached from the ship at frame 18\. What remained of the bow landed at the bottom of Havana Harbor at a 45\-degree angle to the rest of the ship, pointing to starboard. The bow keel was bent upward in the middle by about {{convert\|30\|ft\|m}}. The inner shell of the ship's double\-bottomed hull was thrown upward, and came to rest on top of what remained of the bow. Investigators could not determine if it was forced into that position by an exterior explosion or if it was pulled upward as the bow detached. The forward portion of what remained of the keel rested on the inner shell, with the rear portion buried deep in the mud. Again, investigators could not determine if the explosion bent the keel and forced it into this position or if the suction created by the outward\-expanding hull pulled it there. As the bow settled, it listed almost onto its starboard side. The central third of the ship was devastated by the explosion and collapse of the bow's upper deck onto it, and was partially detached from the stern."Human Bones Found in Wreck of Maine." *New York Times.* June 20, 1911\. The stern, however, was in remarkably good shape and seemingly undisturbed by the blast. Even the aft turret guns were still in place. Nonetheless, Corps officials said they were seriously considering breaking up the wreck rather than raising it. A model of the wreck was made by a naval constructor.This model was later displayed in the office of the Secretary of the Navy and in the White House. It was intended for permanent display either in the Naval Museum at the Washington Navy Yard or at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History "National Museum of American History"). See: "Exhibit Maine Wreck Model." *Washington Post.* December 24, 1911\.
Four days later, on June 20, more human remains were found on the upper deck between the aft turret and the engine room. These included two forearms and a foot in a boot."Find Bones on Maine." *Washington Post.* June 20, 1911\. All the remains were heavily charred. Additionally, workers were recovering a very large number of relics such as [bayonets](/wiki/Bayonet "Bayonet"), [binoculars](/wiki/Binoculars "Binoculars"), books, clothing, dishes, and papers (some of them in watertight boxes, and still dry). The water level was now down {{convert\|14\|ft\|m}}, and dropping.
A nearly two\-week delay in recovering additional remains occurred in late June and early July as workers struggled to remove mud from the interior of the stern."Maine Caisson Is Secure." *New York Times.* July 6, 1911\. By July 19, water levels inside the cofferdam were down {{convert\|18\|ft\|m}} (with just {{convert\|4\|ft\|m}} of water left to pump out), but it was clear by then that most of the bow wreckage lay buried in {{convert\|37\|ft\|m}} of mud. The Corps advised that it would take several months to erect all the cranes and derricks needed to remove the heaviest wreckage.
Additional remains were soon uncovered. On July 19, a skull, some jawbone fragments, and several vertebrae were discovered in mud on the main deck. Corps workers believed this represented the remains about three people."More Bones From Maine." *Washington Post.* July 20, 1911\. As the last {{convert\|4\|ft\|m}} of water was pumped out and the suction dredges began removing the soft mud around the bow, the remains of four more individuals were found near the [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower "Conning tower"). These remains were heavily scorched."Search for Bodies in the Maine Wreck." *New York Times.* July 21, 1911\."Will Dissect Maine." *Washington Post.* July 21, 1911\. These discoveries gave the Army hope that more remains might be found. Efforts to remove the mud were redoubled, although Corps engineers said it would take three to four months to clear all the mud and complete a thorough search for the wreck.
The ship's bell was found in the mud, split in half by the explosion, on July 22, 1911\.["Work on Exposing the Old U.S.S. Maine in Havana, Cuba." *American Marine Engineer.* August 1911, p. 23\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=nfRYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+%22ship%27s+bell%22&pg=RA19-PA23) Accessed 2013\-05\-21\. The vessel's memorial [silver service](/wiki/Silver_service "Silver service"), given to the ship in 1891 by the people of Maine, was also retrieved during salvage."Fortune in Silver From Warships Out of Commission." *New York Times.* December 29, 1912\.
[thumb\|left\|Caissons form a cofferdam around the wreck of the *Maine* in late summer 1912](/wiki/File:Caissons_around_wreck_of_USS_Maine_-_circa_mid_1912.jpg "Caissons around wreck of USS Maine - circa mid 1912.jpg")
More remains were found the day after the ship's bell was rediscovered. These represented six or seven crewmen, and were found among the wreckage of the central portion of the ship near the conning tower. The bones were found in a confused mass, scorched by fire, and many were incomplete or fractured. Some were skulls which had portions missing, and many were small fragments. Workers reported that additional remains were wedged tightly in twisted masses of steel, and could not be easily removed without the use of [acetylene torches](/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting%23Acetylene "Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Acetylene")."Maine Yields Up Dead." *Washington Post.* July 23, 1911\. The remains of another three to four men were found on the central superstructure on July 24\. Again, some showed the action of fire."Maine Gives Up Victims." *Washington Post.* July 25, 1911\.
The salvage operation began running out of money in late July. On July 26, the Corps asked Congress for another $250,000, to bring the total expenditures on the wreck to $900,000\. That same day, a nearly intact human skeleton was found on the starboard berth deck in the central section."Cost of Raising the Maine." *New York Times.* July 27, 1911; "14 Dead From the Maine." *Washington Post.* July 27, 1911\. Two more nearly intact bodies were found on July 29 on the berth deck near the [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer "Warrant officer")' quarters."Honor For Maine's Dead." *Washington Post.* July 30, 1911\. Congress appropriated the $250,000 on July 31\."Money to Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* August 1, 1911\.
On August 2, a nearly intact skeleton was found in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom "Wardroom") of the *Maine*. On the basis of clothing, height, and personal effects, the skeleton was identified as that of Assistant Engineer Darwin R. Merritt. His body was placed aboard the battleship {{USS\|North Carolina\|ACR\-12}}, and taken to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The ship arrived on August 12, and Merritt's body turned over to his relatives. His family buried him in a cemetery in [Red Oak, Iowa](/wiki/Red_Oak%2C_Iowa "Red Oak, Iowa")."Body of Merritt Arrives." *Washington Post.* August 13, 1911; "Find Ring of Maine Victim." *New York Times.* September 9, 1911\."Battleship for Maine Dead." *New York Times.* August 20, 1911\. Two more bodies, neither of them identifiable, were also found near the warrant officers' quarters, bringing the total number of dead found to 21\."Maine Victim Identified." *Washington Post.* August 3, 1911\. Additional bones were found embedded in the wreckage on August 3\."Tearing the Maine Apart." *Washington Post.* August 4, 1911\. By August 14, more remains had been found, bringing the total number of full and partial bodies found to 25\. Some skulls still lay wrapped in the wreckage too tightly to retrieve."Maine A Sorry Sight." *Washington Post.* August 15, 1911\.
Work to remove the main mast from the wreck began on September 2, 1911\. The mast was removed in preparation for the severing of the stern of the ship (which the Corps of Engineers believed might be refloated) from the wrecked central and bow sections."Work on the Maine." *Washington Post.* September 3, 1911\. This work quickly revealed even more remains. Four more bodies were found near the [petty officers](/wiki/Petty_officer "Petty officer")' quarters on September 26,"Find More Maine Victims." *Washington Post.* September 27, 1911\. and six more bodies were located in the engine room on September 28\."10 More Maine Dead Found." *Washington Post.* September 29, 1911\. The [boilers](/wiki/Boiler "Boiler") were found intact, although the 1898 explosion had driven one through the rear bulkhead to rest against the aft boilers. This led workers to believe that more bodies might be found in the engine room."Maine Boilers Intact." *New York Times.* October 11, 1911\. But no more bodies were found there. The last set of remains to be retrieved from the USS *Maine* was a single skeleton, found in the wreckage of the bow on October 16, 1911\."Maine Yields Another Body." *Washington Post.* October 17, 1911\.
[thumb\|View from the USS *Osceola* as the *Maine* is towed to its ocean grave on March 16, 1912](/wiki/File:Wreck_of_USS_Maine_being_towed_out_of_Havana_Harbor_-_1913-03-16.jpg "Wreck of USS Maine being towed out of Havana Harbor - 1913-03-16.jpg")
The Army Corps of Engineers said its investigation of the wreck of the *Maine* would cease at the end of November 1911\. The stern section of the ship proved watertight, and a wooden bulkhead was built across the section to allow it to float. Refloating the wreck, sinking it at sea, and removing the caissons would take another $250,000, the Corps said on November 8\. By mid\-December the funds had not been appropriated, and working on the *Maine* was scheduled to halt."Ask More Funds of House." *New York Times.* December 14, 1911\. When debate on the funds opened on December 16, Representative [James R. Mann](/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_%28Illinois%29 "James Robert Mann (Illinois)") and Representative [Thomas U. Sisson](/wiki/Thomas_U._Sisson "Thomas U. Sisson") nearly came to blows when Sisson proposed that parts of the wreck be sold at auction to reduce the costs of the salvage operation. Both Sisson and Representative [Robert B. Macon](/wiki/Robert_B._Macon "Robert B. Macon") had also proposed exhibiting the wreck for a fee, but Representative [John J. Fitzgerald](/wiki/John_J._Fitzgerald "John J. Fitzgerald") (chair of the House Appropriations Committee) said there would be public riots anywhere it appeared. While members of the House disagreed over whether to sell parts of the *Maine*, they were united in allowing the Secretary of the Navy to donate relics and portions of the hull to any municipality or patriotic organization which asked for them. Additionally, the House voted to give the city of Havana a portion of the wreck for the construction of a memorial."Clash Over Plan to Sell the Maine." *New York Times.* December 17, 1911\. This version of the legislation passed. On January 13, the Secretary of the Navy established a two\-person panel consisting of Lieutenant Colonel [Edward Burr](/wiki/Edward_Burr "Edward Burr") (Army Corps of Engineers) and [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29%23Naval_rank "Commander (United States)#Naval rank") [Richard H. Leigh](/wiki/Richard_H._Leigh "Richard H. Leigh") (U.S. Navy) to determine which cities and groups should get relics from the wreck."To Distribute Maine Relics." *New York Times.* January 14, 1912\.
Sinking of the *Maine* occurred on March 16, 1912\. About a third of the vessel was wreckage, which was cut into {{convert\|0\.5\|ST\|LT}} pieces and then dumped at sea about {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}} from the coast of Cuba."Soon to Float Maine." *Washington Post.* February 4, 1912\. The aft, portside turret was given to the people of Havana for use as a memorial. But the forward, starboardside turret was buried too deeply in the mud for removal. To free the stern from the mud, diggers were forced to go {{convert\|5\|ft\|m}} below the keel. [Seacocks](/wiki/Seacock "Seacock") were emplaced in the keel of the ship, and jets pumped water below the keel to help loosen the mud's hold on the vessel. Once the stern was free, water was slowly allowed into the cofferdam. When the stern's deck was level with the cofferdam, two of the caissons were removed to give the *Maine* access to the harbor."Main's Deck Visible." *New York Times.* February 13, 1912\. After three attempts to free the *Maine* from the mud, the ship began floating on February 15\."Maine Floating To\-Morrow." *New York Times.* February 14, 1912\. The {{USS\|Osceola\|AT\-47}}, an armed [tugboat](/wiki/Tugboat "Tugboat"), towed the *Maine* out of the cofferdam and into the harbor."Burial of the Maine Takes Place To\-Day." *New York Times.* March 16, 1912\.
More than 80,000 Cubans watched as the *Osceola* towed the USS *Maine* out of Havana harbor. Cannon at the [La Cabaña](/wiki/La_Caba%C3%B1a "La Cabaña") fortress fired every 30 minutes from 10:00 a.m. until 2:15 pm, after which "minute guns""Minute guns" are very small cannon, often with a barrel length of about {{convert\|1\|ft\|m}} or so, which were used to announce the quarter\-hour and hour in the era before clocks became widespread. sounded every 60 seconds until the procession passed. Behind the *Maine* followed the battleship USS *North Carolina* with the remains of the dead aboard her. Following the *North Carolina* were the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser "Cruiser") {{USS\|Birmingham\|CL\-2}}, three [gunboats](/wiki/Gunboat "Gunboat") of the Cuban Navy, and a number of private vessels. The main guns of the *North Carolina* fired when the {{convert\|1\|mi\|km}}, {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}}, and {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} marks were reached. About {{convert\|4\|mi\|km}} out to sea, naval personnel opened the seacocks at about 5:10 P.M. local time. The USS *Maine* sank at 5:30 p.m. as a bugler aboard the *North Carolina* sounded taps. The guns of the *North Carolina* and the *Birmingham* fired once, and the ceremony ended"The Maine Sinks to Ocean Grave." *New York Times.* March 17, 1912\.In 2000, a team of Cuban marine scientists and oceanographers from the [University of South Florida](/wiki/University_of_South_Florida "University of South Florida") College of Marine Science – working with Advanced Digital Communications, a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") firm – discovered the wreck of the USS *Maine* in about {{convert\|3770\|ft\|m}} of water roughly {{convert\|3\|mi\|km}} northeast of Havana Harbor. According to the researchers, during the sinking ceremony and the time it took the wreck to founder, currents pushed the *Maine* east until it rested at its present location. See: Søreide, p. 96; Brecher, Elinor J. "Scientists Stumble Upon Sunken Maine." *Miami Herald.* December 10, 2000\.
[thumb\|center\|750px\|The battleship USS *North Carolina* (center) and the cruiser USS *Birmingham* (far right) escort the wreck of the *Maine* (far left, in distance) to its final resting place](/wiki/File:USS_North_Carolina_and_USS_Birmingham_escort_USS_Maine_to_burial_at_sea_-_1913-03-16.jpg "USS North Carolina and USS Birmingham escort USS Maine to burial at sea - 1913-03-16.jpg")
After the *Maine* was sunk at sea, the cofferdam was removed. Under an agreement with the Cuban authorities, the Corps dredged the entire area in and around the shipwreck to a depth of {{convert\|37\.5\|ft\|m}} to ensure that no material remained in the mud or clay which might present a danger to navigation. A great deal of material was brought up and sunk at sea. Some items, such as the ship's forward gun, were too heavy to raise. Dynamite was used to destroy these items so that they did not project above the seabed. Operations at the site were completed on December 2, 1912\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 8, 35\-36](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6), accessed 2013\-05\-17; "Bow of Maine Blown Up." *New York Times.* September 14, 1912\.
|
[
"### Retrieval of bodies",
"Piles for the caissons began to be driven on December 6, 1910, and the last was in place on March 31, 1911\\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 12](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR32), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Last Rites Over the Maine.\" *New York Times.* February 16, 1911\\. Twenty caissons were constructed,\"Cautious Work on Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 7, 1911\\. with pilings driven {{convert\\|72\\|ft\\|m}} through water, mud and clay. More than {{convert\\|75000\\|cuft\\|m3}} of water was then pumped out of the cofferdam.\"Raising the Maine in Moving Pictures.\" *New York Times.* November 9, 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Looking forward from the stern of the *Maine* in late 1911\\. Note the caissons in place around the wreck, creating the cofferdam.](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_wreckage_cph.3b21936.jpg \"USS Maine wreckage cph.3b21936.jpg\")\nThe first human remains (some ribs and small wrist bones), found outside the hull, were brought to the surface on January 3, 1911, by Cuban divers working on the *Maine.*\"Maine Hulk Gives Up Dead.\" *Washington Post.* January 4, 1911; \"Inside Explosion In Maine.\" *New York Times.* January 9, 1911\\. The top of the starboard turret was detected some {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m}} from the wreck in late February after piles being driven into the mud and clay of Havana Harbor struck the object. The turret top was raised on March 12,\"Maine Turret Top Raised.\" *Washington Post.* March 13, 1911\\. and a human foot was found adhered to the turret by fire.\"Bones on Maine Turret.\" *Washington Post.* March 15, 1911\\. The ship's starboard anchor (one of six she carried) was raised on March 15\\.\"Anchor of the Maine Found.\" *Washington Post.* March 16, 1911\\.",
"With the caissons finished at the end of March, they were filled with clay, mud, and rock. Wood platforms were constructed on top of the caissons to support the cranes and derricks to be used to handle the wreck. Once the caissons were filled, water would begin to be drained from inside the cofferdam. Since construction of such a large, deep cofferdam had not been attempted before, the Corps said it would suspend draining from time to time to assess the performance of the caissons and ensure the cofferdam was still secure. The search for bodies, the Army said, would take precedence over anything else aboard the wreck. Filling the cofferdam again (\"rewatering\") would not occur until probably the end of December 1911\\.\"Hull of the Maine Soon to Be Exposed.\" *New York Times.* April 10, 1911\\.",
"[Scaffolding](/wiki/Scaffolding \"Scaffolding\") was erected over the stern to facilitate the removal of the [mizzenmast](/wiki/Mast_%28sailing%29 \"Mast (sailing)\") (or aft mast) and deck fittings. These items were stored in a hut constructed on one of the cofferdams or aboard the [collier](/wiki/Collier_%28ship%29 \"Collier (ship)\") {{USS\\|Leonidas\\|AD\\-7}}. On May 27, 1911, *Leonidas* transported the mizzenmast back to the United States.\"Maine's Mast a Monument.\" *New York Times.* May 27, 1911\\.",
"Thirty additional partial remains were found aboard the wreck on May 3\\. Consisting mostly of skulls (often partially crushed) and rib bones, the remains were placed in a single coffin.\"30 of Maine Dead Found.\" *Washington Post.* May 4, 1911\\.",
"By May 31, water within the cofferdam was down by {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}}, revealing most of the starboard [quarterdeck](/wiki/Quarterdeck \"Quarterdeck\"). Some bending of the steel piles used in one of the caissons was seen on May 31\\.\"Soon to See the Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 1, 1911\\. Draining was suspended until June 15 to determine the caisson's stability. Once it was determined the caisson was not in danger of rupture, water was drained another {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}}. The Corps said on June 7 it would be three to four weeks before draining was complete.",
"In early June, the *Maine*{{'s}} {{convert\\|10\\|ST\\|LT}} fore\\-mast was retrieved from the wreck, and shipped aboard the [Ward Line](/wiki/Ward_Line \"Ward Line\") commercial passenger ship SS *Bayamo* to New York City.\"Ship Maine's Mast North.\" *Washington Post.* June 14, 1911\\. The {{convert\\|50\\|ft\\|m\\|adj\\=on}} mast was broken off near the deck by the explosion, and badly bent and twisted. Heavily rusted and covered in coral on its lower part, the mast was quite brittle after its stay in saltwater.\"Electrolysis Fused Steel on Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 19, 1911,. It was initially stored at the U.S. Army's [east coast](/wiki/East_coast_of_the_United_States \"East coast of the United States\") regional headquarters,\"Maine Yields Relics.\" *Washington Post.* June 19, 1911\\. but transferred to the [Brooklyn Navy Yard](/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard \"Brooklyn Navy Yard\").\"Sea Burial for the Maine.\" *New York Times.* February 1, 1912\\.",
"By June 15, the water level in the caisson was down {{convert\\|7\\|ft\\|m}}. It was now apparent that the bow of the ship had been completely destroyed by the 1898 blast, and most of the central third of the ship was ruined as well. Although the stern listed seven [degrees](/wiki/Degree_%28angle%29 \"Degree (angle)\") to port, the central third of the ship only listed four degrees to port. Engineers realized that the hull had broken amidship.\"No Light Yet On Maine Explosion.\" *New York Times.* June 17, 1911\\. The Corps of Engineers began to radically revise its plans for refloating the ship, and there was concern that the ship might need to be removed in pieces. With less need to protect the ship from further damage, Corps officials said they would lower the water level down to {{convert\\|18\\|to\\|20\\|ft\\|m}} over the next three to four days. This would completely reveal the central section of the ship, while leaving the bow under water.",
"{{Wide image\\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS Maine \\- Havana Harbor Cuba \\- 1912\\.jpg\\|1200px\\|Panoramic view of the wreck of the USS ''Maine''. The view toward the left and rear is across the bow (the remains of which lie beneath the water), toward the center third of the ship. The nearly\\-intact stern is just visible beyond the wrecked center section.\\|400px\\|right\\|alt\\=shipwrekc in a cofferdam}}\nWith no remains found since May 3, the Corps of Engineers began to fear on June 16 that no more bodies would be found.\"Maine Is A Shell.\" *Washington Post.* June 17, 1911\\. In part this was due to the condition of the ship. Army engineers told the press that sides of the bow appeared to have blown outward, with the upper deck detaching from the ship.\"Maine's Bow Blown Away.\" *New York Times.* July 7, 1911\\. This caused wreckage to be strewn laterally over Havana Harbor, leaving a large debris field. The explosion was so powerful that the ship's {{convert\\|100\\|ST\\|LT}} forward gun turret landed {{convert\\|100\\|ft\\|m}} away,\"Maine Wrecked From Outside.\" *New York Times.* July 19, 1911\\. and the vessel's port and transverse armored bulkheads were buried {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}} into the mud of the harbor floor.\"Many Maine Shells Bared.\" *New York Times.* November 25, 1911\\. Some armor was never found. The bow's upper deck rose into the air, turned upside\\-down, and landed on the central third of the *Maine*.\"Building Bulkhead to Float the Maine.\" *New York Times.* November 3, 1911\\. The bow detached from the ship at frame 14,\"Outside Explosion, Says Maine Verdict.\" *New York Times.* December 9, 1911\\. and the bow's keel detached from the ship at frame 18\\. What remained of the bow landed at the bottom of Havana Harbor at a 45\\-degree angle to the rest of the ship, pointing to starboard. The bow keel was bent upward in the middle by about {{convert\\|30\\|ft\\|m}}. The inner shell of the ship's double\\-bottomed hull was thrown upward, and came to rest on top of what remained of the bow. Investigators could not determine if it was forced into that position by an exterior explosion or if it was pulled upward as the bow detached. The forward portion of what remained of the keel rested on the inner shell, with the rear portion buried deep in the mud. Again, investigators could not determine if the explosion bent the keel and forced it into this position or if the suction created by the outward\\-expanding hull pulled it there. As the bow settled, it listed almost onto its starboard side. The central third of the ship was devastated by the explosion and collapse of the bow's upper deck onto it, and was partially detached from the stern.\"Human Bones Found in Wreck of Maine.\" *New York Times.* June 20, 1911\\. The stern, however, was in remarkably good shape and seemingly undisturbed by the blast. Even the aft turret guns were still in place. Nonetheless, Corps officials said they were seriously considering breaking up the wreck rather than raising it. A model of the wreck was made by a naval constructor.This model was later displayed in the office of the Secretary of the Navy and in the White House. It was intended for permanent display either in the Naval Museum at the Washington Navy Yard or at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History \"National Museum of American History\"). See: \"Exhibit Maine Wreck Model.\" *Washington Post.* December 24, 1911\\.",
"Four days later, on June 20, more human remains were found on the upper deck between the aft turret and the engine room. These included two forearms and a foot in a boot.\"Find Bones on Maine.\" *Washington Post.* June 20, 1911\\. All the remains were heavily charred. Additionally, workers were recovering a very large number of relics such as [bayonets](/wiki/Bayonet \"Bayonet\"), [binoculars](/wiki/Binoculars \"Binoculars\"), books, clothing, dishes, and papers (some of them in watertight boxes, and still dry). The water level was now down {{convert\\|14\\|ft\\|m}}, and dropping.",
"A nearly two\\-week delay in recovering additional remains occurred in late June and early July as workers struggled to remove mud from the interior of the stern.\"Maine Caisson Is Secure.\" *New York Times.* July 6, 1911\\. By July 19, water levels inside the cofferdam were down {{convert\\|18\\|ft\\|m}} (with just {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m}} of water left to pump out), but it was clear by then that most of the bow wreckage lay buried in {{convert\\|37\\|ft\\|m}} of mud. The Corps advised that it would take several months to erect all the cranes and derricks needed to remove the heaviest wreckage.",
"Additional remains were soon uncovered. On July 19, a skull, some jawbone fragments, and several vertebrae were discovered in mud on the main deck. Corps workers believed this represented the remains about three people.\"More Bones From Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 20, 1911\\. As the last {{convert\\|4\\|ft\\|m}} of water was pumped out and the suction dredges began removing the soft mud around the bow, the remains of four more individuals were found near the [conning tower](/wiki/Conning_tower \"Conning tower\"). These remains were heavily scorched.\"Search for Bodies in the Maine Wreck.\" *New York Times.* July 21, 1911\\.\"Will Dissect Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 21, 1911\\. These discoveries gave the Army hope that more remains might be found. Efforts to remove the mud were redoubled, although Corps engineers said it would take three to four months to clear all the mud and complete a thorough search for the wreck.",
"The ship's bell was found in the mud, split in half by the explosion, on July 22, 1911\\.[\"Work on Exposing the Old U.S.S. Maine in Havana, Cuba.\" *American Marine Engineer.* August 1911, p. 23\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=nfRYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS+Maine%22+%22ship%27s+bell%22&pg=RA19-PA23) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-21\\. The vessel's memorial [silver service](/wiki/Silver_service \"Silver service\"), given to the ship in 1891 by the people of Maine, was also retrieved during salvage.\"Fortune in Silver From Warships Out of Commission.\" *New York Times.* December 29, 1912\\.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Caissons form a cofferdam around the wreck of the *Maine* in late summer 1912](/wiki/File:Caissons_around_wreck_of_USS_Maine_-_circa_mid_1912.jpg \"Caissons around wreck of USS Maine - circa mid 1912.jpg\")\nMore remains were found the day after the ship's bell was rediscovered. These represented six or seven crewmen, and were found among the wreckage of the central portion of the ship near the conning tower. The bones were found in a confused mass, scorched by fire, and many were incomplete or fractured. Some were skulls which had portions missing, and many were small fragments. Workers reported that additional remains were wedged tightly in twisted masses of steel, and could not be easily removed without the use of [acetylene torches](/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting%23Acetylene \"Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Acetylene\").\"Maine Yields Up Dead.\" *Washington Post.* July 23, 1911\\. The remains of another three to four men were found on the central superstructure on July 24\\. Again, some showed the action of fire.\"Maine Gives Up Victims.\" *Washington Post.* July 25, 1911\\.",
"The salvage operation began running out of money in late July. On July 26, the Corps asked Congress for another $250,000, to bring the total expenditures on the wreck to $900,000\\. That same day, a nearly intact human skeleton was found on the starboard berth deck in the central section.\"Cost of Raising the Maine.\" *New York Times.* July 27, 1911; \"14 Dead From the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* July 27, 1911\\. Two more nearly intact bodies were found on July 29 on the berth deck near the [warrant officers](/wiki/Warrant_officer \"Warrant officer\")' quarters.\"Honor For Maine's Dead.\" *Washington Post.* July 30, 1911\\. Congress appropriated the $250,000 on July 31\\.\"Money to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* August 1, 1911\\.",
"On August 2, a nearly intact skeleton was found in the [wardroom](/wiki/Wardroom \"Wardroom\") of the *Maine*. On the basis of clothing, height, and personal effects, the skeleton was identified as that of Assistant Engineer Darwin R. Merritt. His body was placed aboard the battleship {{USS\\|North Carolina\\|ACR\\-12}}, and taken to the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The ship arrived on August 12, and Merritt's body turned over to his relatives. His family buried him in a cemetery in [Red Oak, Iowa](/wiki/Red_Oak%2C_Iowa \"Red Oak, Iowa\").\"Body of Merritt Arrives.\" *Washington Post.* August 13, 1911; \"Find Ring of Maine Victim.\" *New York Times.* September 9, 1911\\.\"Battleship for Maine Dead.\" *New York Times.* August 20, 1911\\. Two more bodies, neither of them identifiable, were also found near the warrant officers' quarters, bringing the total number of dead found to 21\\.\"Maine Victim Identified.\" *Washington Post.* August 3, 1911\\. Additional bones were found embedded in the wreckage on August 3\\.\"Tearing the Maine Apart.\" *Washington Post.* August 4, 1911\\. By August 14, more remains had been found, bringing the total number of full and partial bodies found to 25\\. Some skulls still lay wrapped in the wreckage too tightly to retrieve.\"Maine A Sorry Sight.\" *Washington Post.* August 15, 1911\\.",
"Work to remove the main mast from the wreck began on September 2, 1911\\. The mast was removed in preparation for the severing of the stern of the ship (which the Corps of Engineers believed might be refloated) from the wrecked central and bow sections.\"Work on the Maine.\" *Washington Post.* September 3, 1911\\. This work quickly revealed even more remains. Four more bodies were found near the [petty officers](/wiki/Petty_officer \"Petty officer\")' quarters on September 26,\"Find More Maine Victims.\" *Washington Post.* September 27, 1911\\. and six more bodies were located in the engine room on September 28\\.\"10 More Maine Dead Found.\" *Washington Post.* September 29, 1911\\. The [boilers](/wiki/Boiler \"Boiler\") were found intact, although the 1898 explosion had driven one through the rear bulkhead to rest against the aft boilers. This led workers to believe that more bodies might be found in the engine room.\"Maine Boilers Intact.\" *New York Times.* October 11, 1911\\. But no more bodies were found there. The last set of remains to be retrieved from the USS *Maine* was a single skeleton, found in the wreckage of the bow on October 16, 1911\\.\"Maine Yields Another Body.\" *Washington Post.* October 17, 1911\\.",
"[thumb\\|View from the USS *Osceola* as the *Maine* is towed to its ocean grave on March 16, 1912](/wiki/File:Wreck_of_USS_Maine_being_towed_out_of_Havana_Harbor_-_1913-03-16.jpg \"Wreck of USS Maine being towed out of Havana Harbor - 1913-03-16.jpg\")\nThe Army Corps of Engineers said its investigation of the wreck of the *Maine* would cease at the end of November 1911\\. The stern section of the ship proved watertight, and a wooden bulkhead was built across the section to allow it to float. Refloating the wreck, sinking it at sea, and removing the caissons would take another $250,000, the Corps said on November 8\\. By mid\\-December the funds had not been appropriated, and working on the *Maine* was scheduled to halt.\"Ask More Funds of House.\" *New York Times.* December 14, 1911\\. When debate on the funds opened on December 16, Representative [James R. Mann](/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_%28Illinois%29 \"James Robert Mann (Illinois)\") and Representative [Thomas U. Sisson](/wiki/Thomas_U._Sisson \"Thomas U. Sisson\") nearly came to blows when Sisson proposed that parts of the wreck be sold at auction to reduce the costs of the salvage operation. Both Sisson and Representative [Robert B. Macon](/wiki/Robert_B._Macon \"Robert B. Macon\") had also proposed exhibiting the wreck for a fee, but Representative [John J. Fitzgerald](/wiki/John_J._Fitzgerald \"John J. Fitzgerald\") (chair of the House Appropriations Committee) said there would be public riots anywhere it appeared. While members of the House disagreed over whether to sell parts of the *Maine*, they were united in allowing the Secretary of the Navy to donate relics and portions of the hull to any municipality or patriotic organization which asked for them. Additionally, the House voted to give the city of Havana a portion of the wreck for the construction of a memorial.\"Clash Over Plan to Sell the Maine.\" *New York Times.* December 17, 1911\\. This version of the legislation passed. On January 13, the Secretary of the Navy established a two\\-person panel consisting of Lieutenant Colonel [Edward Burr](/wiki/Edward_Burr \"Edward Burr\") (Army Corps of Engineers) and [Commander](/wiki/Commander_%28United_States%29%23Naval_rank \"Commander (United States)#Naval rank\") [Richard H. Leigh](/wiki/Richard_H._Leigh \"Richard H. Leigh\") (U.S. Navy) to determine which cities and groups should get relics from the wreck.\"To Distribute Maine Relics.\" *New York Times.* January 14, 1912\\.",
"Sinking of the *Maine* occurred on March 16, 1912\\. About a third of the vessel was wreckage, which was cut into {{convert\\|0\\.5\\|ST\\|LT}} pieces and then dumped at sea about {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}} from the coast of Cuba.\"Soon to Float Maine.\" *Washington Post.* February 4, 1912\\. The aft, portside turret was given to the people of Havana for use as a memorial. But the forward, starboardside turret was buried too deeply in the mud for removal. To free the stern from the mud, diggers were forced to go {{convert\\|5\\|ft\\|m}} below the keel. [Seacocks](/wiki/Seacock \"Seacock\") were emplaced in the keel of the ship, and jets pumped water below the keel to help loosen the mud's hold on the vessel. Once the stern was free, water was slowly allowed into the cofferdam. When the stern's deck was level with the cofferdam, two of the caissons were removed to give the *Maine* access to the harbor.\"Main's Deck Visible.\" *New York Times.* February 13, 1912\\. After three attempts to free the *Maine* from the mud, the ship began floating on February 15\\.\"Maine Floating To\\-Morrow.\" *New York Times.* February 14, 1912\\. The {{USS\\|Osceola\\|AT\\-47}}, an armed [tugboat](/wiki/Tugboat \"Tugboat\"), towed the *Maine* out of the cofferdam and into the harbor.\"Burial of the Maine Takes Place To\\-Day.\" *New York Times.* March 16, 1912\\.",
"More than 80,000 Cubans watched as the *Osceola* towed the USS *Maine* out of Havana harbor. Cannon at the [La Cabaña](/wiki/La_Caba%C3%B1a \"La Cabaña\") fortress fired every 30 minutes from 10:00 a.m. until 2:15 pm, after which \"minute guns\"\"Minute guns\" are very small cannon, often with a barrel length of about {{convert\\|1\\|ft\\|m}} or so, which were used to announce the quarter\\-hour and hour in the era before clocks became widespread. sounded every 60 seconds until the procession passed. Behind the *Maine* followed the battleship USS *North Carolina* with the remains of the dead aboard her. Following the *North Carolina* were the [cruiser](/wiki/Cruiser \"Cruiser\") {{USS\\|Birmingham\\|CL\\-2}}, three [gunboats](/wiki/Gunboat \"Gunboat\") of the Cuban Navy, and a number of private vessels. The main guns of the *North Carolina* fired when the {{convert\\|1\\|mi\\|km}}, {{convert\\|2\\|mi\\|km}}, and {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} marks were reached. About {{convert\\|4\\|mi\\|km}} out to sea, naval personnel opened the seacocks at about 5:10 P.M. local time. The USS *Maine* sank at 5:30 p.m. as a bugler aboard the *North Carolina* sounded taps. The guns of the *North Carolina* and the *Birmingham* fired once, and the ceremony ended\"The Maine Sinks to Ocean Grave.\" *New York Times.* March 17, 1912\\.In 2000, a team of Cuban marine scientists and oceanographers from the [University of South Florida](/wiki/University_of_South_Florida \"University of South Florida\") College of Marine Science – working with Advanced Digital Communications, a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") firm – discovered the wreck of the USS *Maine* in about {{convert\\|3770\\|ft\\|m}} of water roughly {{convert\\|3\\|mi\\|km}} northeast of Havana Harbor. According to the researchers, during the sinking ceremony and the time it took the wreck to founder, currents pushed the *Maine* east until it rested at its present location. See: Søreide, p. 96; Brecher, Elinor J. \"Scientists Stumble Upon Sunken Maine.\" *Miami Herald.* December 10, 2000\\.",
"[thumb\\|center\\|750px\\|The battleship USS *North Carolina* (center) and the cruiser USS *Birmingham* (far right) escort the wreck of the *Maine* (far left, in distance) to its final resting place](/wiki/File:USS_North_Carolina_and_USS_Birmingham_escort_USS_Maine_to_burial_at_sea_-_1913-03-16.jpg \"USS North Carolina and USS Birmingham escort USS Maine to burial at sea - 1913-03-16.jpg\")\nAfter the *Maine* was sunk at sea, the cofferdam was removed. Under an agreement with the Cuban authorities, the Corps dredged the entire area in and around the shipwreck to a depth of {{convert\\|37\\.5\\|ft\\|m}} to ensure that no material remained in the mud or clay which might present a danger to navigation. A great deal of material was brought up and sunk at sea. Some items, such as the ship's forward gun, were too heavy to raise. Dynamite was used to destroy these items so that they did not project above the seabed. Operations at the site were completed on December 2, 1912\\.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 8, 35\\-36](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6), accessed 2013\\-05\\-17; \"Bow of Maine Blown Up.\" *New York Times.* September 14, 1912\\.",
""
] |
Constructing the *Maine* Mast Memorial
--------------------------------------
[thumb\|upright\|The completed Memorial](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_Mast.jpg "USS Maine Mast.jpg")
As work proceeded on salvaging the wreck of the USS *Maine*, work on the memorial at Arlington National Cemetery also began. Initially, this work was halted in August 1911 by a lack of funds. The U.S. Army said that the bodies and the *Maine*{{'s}} mast would be stored at Arlington if no funds were appropriated."To Postpone Work on Maine." *Washington Post.* August 30, 1911\.
The *Maine*{{'s}} main mast was brought to the United States by the {{USS\|Leonidas\|AD\-7\|6}} in March 1912\.{{cite news\|title\=Bringing Maine's Mast, Naval Collier Leonidas is on the way here\|url\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1912\-02\-08/ed\-1/seq\-2/\|work\=Evening Star (Washington, D.C.)\|date\=8 February 1912\|page\=2}}{{cite news\|title\=Collier on Way to Annapolis with the Maine Relics\|url\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026749/1912\-02\-01/ed\-1/seq\-17/\|work\=The Washington Times\|date\=1 February 1912\|page\=17}} The *Maine*{{'s}} foremast was also located, and the {{USS\|Sterling\|1898\|6}} carried it to the U.S. Naval Academy in August.{{cite news\|title\=Maine's Mast at Annapolis\|newspaper\=The Washington Post\|date\=August 8, 1912\|postscript\=none}}; {{cite news\|title\=Maine Foremast at Annapolis\|url\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1912\-08\-08/ed\-1/seq\-4/\|work\=The Evening Star\|date\=August 8, 1912\|page\=4\|access\-date\=April 23, 2015}}
[thumb\|left\|Four preliminary designs for the *Maine* Mast Memorial which were rejected by the Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/File:Four_rejected_designs_for_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Commission_of_Fine_Arts_1915.jpg "Four rejected designs for USS Maine Mast Memorial - Commission of Fine Arts 1915.jpg")
Work on the memorial began again in early 1912\. Just two years earlier, Congress had established the [United States Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/United_States_Commission_of_Fine_Arts "United States Commission of Fine Arts") (CFA), and gave the body the power to advise regarding the siting of monuments and memorials. Given the reputation of the CFA's members (which included some of the most highly regarded architects, painters, landscape architects, sculptors, and other artists of the day) and the strong political support the commission had (particularly from President Taft and the U.S. Senate), the commission's advice was rarely rejected. The CFA reviewed preliminary designs submitted by the War Department, and gave its views on how the memorial should be treated. But no decision was made.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1912*, p. 24\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\-05\-26\. Privately, the CFA voiced its opinion that the designs submitted were very poor. The commission advised the War Department to select a designer rather than hold a competition. The CFA recommended promising local architect [Nathan C. Wyeth](/wiki/Nathan_C._Wyeth "Nathan C. Wyeth"), who designed the [Russell Senate Office Building](/wiki/Russell_Senate_Office_Building "Russell Senate Office Building") in 1903 and the [West Wing](/wiki/West_Wing "West Wing") of the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House") in 1909, including the now\-iconic [Oval Office](/wiki/Oval_Office "Oval Office"). The Secretary of War agreed, and Wyeth was hired to submit a design.[*USS Maine Memorial, Arlington National Cemetery.* HABS VA,7\-ARL,11D\- (Sheet 1 of 14\). Historic American Buildings Survey. HABS VA\-1348\-D. 2000\.](https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/va1847.sheet.00001a/) Accessed 2013\-05\-26\.
In January 1913, the Corps of Engineers reported that enough funds were left over from salvage of the *Maine* to permit construction of the Arlington National Cemetery Memorial."Clears Maine Debris." *Washington Post.* January 13, 1913\. The following month, shortly before the commemoration ceremonies at the *Maine* Memorial at Arlington, President Taft announced his preference for the establishment of the memorial in the field of the *Maine* dead rather than another location in the cemetery."To Honor Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* February 9, 1913\. Secretary of War [Lindley Miller Garrison](/wiki/Lindley_Miller_Garrison "Lindley Miller Garrison") then placed the design project on hold to allow the CFA to consider placement of the memorial in relation to three other projects also approved for construction: The [Arlington Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Bridge "Arlington Memorial Bridge") (which included a new drive to a new ceremonial gateway to the cemetery), [Arlington Memorial Amphitheater](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Amphitheater "Arlington Memorial Amphitheater"), and a receiving vault and chapel."Warships Depart." *New York Times.* June 1, 1913\.The Arlington Memorial Bridge Commission and the Memorial Amphitheater were both approved by Congress on March 4, 1913\. Unlike the bridge and amphitheater, the chapel at Arlington National Cemetery was never built. After discussions about the proposed location for the memorial, Wyeth submitted three designs to the CFA. In executive session, the commission made a recommendation to the Secretary of War.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1913*, p. 19\-20\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\-05\-26\. Acting Quartermaster General [Henry Granville Sharpe](/wiki/Henry_Granville_Sharpe "Henry Granville Sharpe") recommended that Secretary of War Garrison accept Wyeth's design, and he did by June 30, 1913\.["Report of the Chief of the Quartermaster Corps to the Secretary of War, 1913", p. 11\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=FrlLAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%20memorial&pg=PA11) Accessed 2013\-05\-26\.
The cost of the memorial was set at $55,613\.
In June 1913, the Washington Navy Yard transferred the *Maine*{{'s}} mast to Arlington National Cemetery."Mast of Battleship Maine Will Soon Mark Graves of Sailors Who Died in Habana." *Washington Post.* June 29, 1913\. As the design process proceeded from preliminary to final designs, Wyeth consults extensively with the CFA. In the fall of 1913, the commission approved the placement of a small bronze memorial plaque on the mast itself.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1914*, p. 32\-33\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\-05\-26\.
Construction on the *Maine* Mast Memorial began in late November 1913\. Wyeth's design featured as a base a mausoleum which vaguely looked like a battleship gun turret. The mast of the *Maine* pierced the top of this structure, and was set into the floor below. The design called for an exterior made of tan granite, and an interior lined with white marble. The names of those who died aboard the *Maine* were to be inscribed on the exterior of the mausoleum. The granite for the structure came from [Troy, New Hampshire](/wiki/Troy%2C_New_Hampshire "Troy, New Hampshire"), and the marble from [Danby, Vermont](/wiki/Danby%2C_Vermont "Danby, Vermont"). Eight months were originally allotted for construction, largely due to the need to chisel the 8,000 letters into the exterior. The Washington, D.C., firm of Norcross Bros. won the $44,637 contract to construct the memorial. This created some controversy, as Norcross was not the lowest bidder. However, Quartermaster General Sharpe recommended Norcross because the company could obtain the stone best suited for the memorial. A month's delay occurred as the contract was contested."Work on Maine Memorial." *Washington Post.* November 23, 1913\.
In December 1913, the Army Corps of Engineers reported that it had $104,364 in *Maine* salvage funds left over."Cost $792,989 to Raise the Maine." *New York Times.* December 18, 1913\. This included $11,000 to start work on the memorial.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 6\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6) Accessed 2013\-05\-17\.
Initial work on the memorial proceeded quickly. Memorial services of the *Maine* dead were held at the unfinished memorial on February 15, 1914\."Flags and Flowers for Graves of Maine Heroes." *Washington Post.* February 15, 1914\. For the first time, a joint ceremony sponsored by the [Grand Army of the Republic](/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic "Grand Army of the Republic"), [Army and Navy Union](/wiki/Army_and_Navy_Union_of_the_United_States_of_America "Army and Navy Union of the United States of America"), and United Spanish War Veterans was held to pay tribute to the *Maine*."Honor to Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* February 15, 1914\. The United Spanish War Veterans women's auxiliary laid a wreath on the memorial's anchor, and Cuban ambassador [Carlos Manuel de Céspedes](/wiki/Carlos_Manuel_de_C%C3%A9spedes "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes") laid a wreath at the unfinished memorial.
Problems in obtaining stone and cost overruns greatly delayed construction of the memorial. By August 1914, the cost of the structure had risen to $60,000\."Honor Maine Victims." *Washington Post.* August 9, 1914\. Most of the stone for the exterior and interior did not arrive until mid September, and the stonecutters needed six more weeks to ensure the stone was ready for placement."Stone for Maine Memorial." *Washington Post.* September 13, 1914\. By mid October, the mast had been set and most of the exterior was in place."Edifice Near Graves." *Washington Post.* October 18, 1914\. Even so, the memorial's completion was not expected until November 1, 1915\.
The contractor worked swiftly to try to complete the memorial faster. On January 30, Army officials said the *Maine* Mast Memorial would probably be dedicated on Memorial Day."Services for Maine Dead." *Washington Post.* January 31, 1915\. On February 15, President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson") and [Mario García Menocal](/wiki/Mario_Garc%C3%ADa_Menocal "Mario García Menocal"), President of Cuba, both placed large floral wreaths at the unfinished memorial."Maine Memorial Services." *Washington Post.* February 15, 1915\. Charles H. Tompkins, Inc., of Washington, D.C., did the grading at the site.["Street Improvements." *The American Contractor.* February 20, 1915, p. 36\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=JSdYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Maine%20memorial%22%20Arlington%20repair&pg=RA7-PA36) Accessed 2013\-05\-27\.
### Dedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial
[thumb\|Dedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial by President Woodrow Wilson on Memorial Day in 1915](/wiki/File:Dedication_of_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_1915-02-15.jpg "Dedication of USS Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery - 1915-02-15.jpg")
Dedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial occurred on May 30, 1915, as part of larger Memorial Day ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery. At noon, President Wilson led a march of dignitaries and veterans from the White House to the [Civil War Unknowns Monument](/wiki/Civil_War_Unknowns_Monument "Civil War Unknowns Monument"), where he laid a wreath. Wilson and the dignitaries then proceeded to the [Old Amphitheater](/wiki/Old_Amphitheater "Old Amphitheater"), where he and others delivered speeches."Honors For Hero Dead." *Washington Post.* May 16, 1915\.
At 3:00 p.m., a regiment of U.S. Marines escorted President Wilson to the *Maine* Mast Memorial."Honor Heroes Today." *Washington Post.* May 31, 1915\."Wilson at Arlington." *Washington Post.* June 1, 1915\."Cheered At Arlington." *New York Times.* June 1, 1915\. The ceremony began with an invocation by Father Chidwick. Secretary of the Navy [Josephus Daniels](/wiki/Josephus_Daniels "Josephus Daniels") spoke first, followed by Charles Cramer, Commander of United Spanish War Veterans, and H. Oden Lake, National Commander of the Army and Navy Union.
Following the speeches, the American flag was raised to the top of the mast by Frank Arthur Daniels (age 11\) and [Jonathon Worth Daniels](/wiki/Jonathan_W._Daniels "Jonathan W. Daniels") (age 13\), sons of Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. The Daniels boys were nephews of [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29%23United_States "Ensign (rank)#United States") [Worth Bagley](/wiki/Worth_Bagley "Worth Bagley"), the first and only American naval officer to die in the Spanish–American War. The Daniels boys also raised [signal flags](/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags "International maritime signal flags") which spelled out "Maine 1915". A 21\-gun salute from cannon at Fort Myer occurred as the flags were raised. After the flag and signals were up, 50 marines in [dress whites](/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Navy "Uniforms of the United States Navy") climbed into the rigging supporting the mast. The flag\-raising was followed by speeches by [John McElroy](/wiki/John_McElroy_%28author%29 "John McElroy (author)"), Commander of the Department of the Potomac chapter of the Grand Army of the Republic; Major Robert Lee Longstreet, son of [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") [Lieutenant General](/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army%23Lieutenant_general "General officers in the Confederate States Army#Lieutenant general") [James Longstreet](/wiki/James_Longstreet "James Longstreet") of the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army "Confederate States Army"); and Dr. [Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada](/wiki/Carlos_Manuel_de_C%C3%A9spedes_y_Quesada "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada"), Cuban ambassador to the United States. Taps were played to end the ceremony. Marines fired a 21\-gun salute to President Wilson as the ceremonies ended.
After the official dedication ended, several veterans groups held a joint ceremony at the new *Maine* Mast Memorial. Rear Admiral [George Washington Baird](/wiki/George_Washington_Baird "George Washington Baird") (ret.) spoke about the history of the battleship, the USS *Maine*, and the ship's salvaging. [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State "United States Secretary of State") [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan "William Jennings Bryan") spoke afterward.
On August 14, 1915, Secretary of War Garrison said that the [Antiquities Act](/wiki/Antiquities_Act "Antiquities Act") of 1906 encompassed the *Maine* Mast Memorial. This required the federal government to care for the monument in perpetuity."To Care For Monuments." *Washington Post.* August 15, 1915\.
|
[
"Constructing the *Maine* Mast Memorial\n--------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|The completed Memorial](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_Mast.jpg \"USS Maine Mast.jpg\")\nAs work proceeded on salvaging the wreck of the USS *Maine*, work on the memorial at Arlington National Cemetery also began. Initially, this work was halted in August 1911 by a lack of funds. The U.S. Army said that the bodies and the *Maine*{{'s}} mast would be stored at Arlington if no funds were appropriated.\"To Postpone Work on Maine.\" *Washington Post.* August 30, 1911\\.",
"The *Maine*{{'s}} main mast was brought to the United States by the {{USS\\|Leonidas\\|AD\\-7\\|6}} in March 1912\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Bringing Maine's Mast, Naval Collier Leonidas is on the way here\\|url\\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1912\\-02\\-08/ed\\-1/seq\\-2/\\|work\\=Evening Star (Washington, D.C.)\\|date\\=8 February 1912\\|page\\=2}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Collier on Way to Annapolis with the Maine Relics\\|url\\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026749/1912\\-02\\-01/ed\\-1/seq\\-17/\\|work\\=The Washington Times\\|date\\=1 February 1912\\|page\\=17}} The *Maine*{{'s}} foremast was also located, and the {{USS\\|Sterling\\|1898\\|6}} carried it to the U.S. Naval Academy in August.{{cite news\\|title\\=Maine's Mast at Annapolis\\|newspaper\\=The Washington Post\\|date\\=August 8, 1912\\|postscript\\=none}}; {{cite news\\|title\\=Maine Foremast at Annapolis\\|url\\=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1912\\-08\\-08/ed\\-1/seq\\-4/\\|work\\=The Evening Star\\|date\\=August 8, 1912\\|page\\=4\\|access\\-date\\=April 23, 2015}}",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Four preliminary designs for the *Maine* Mast Memorial which were rejected by the Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/File:Four_rejected_designs_for_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Commission_of_Fine_Arts_1915.jpg \"Four rejected designs for USS Maine Mast Memorial - Commission of Fine Arts 1915.jpg\")\nWork on the memorial began again in early 1912\\. Just two years earlier, Congress had established the [United States Commission of Fine Arts](/wiki/United_States_Commission_of_Fine_Arts \"United States Commission of Fine Arts\") (CFA), and gave the body the power to advise regarding the siting of monuments and memorials. Given the reputation of the CFA's members (which included some of the most highly regarded architects, painters, landscape architects, sculptors, and other artists of the day) and the strong political support the commission had (particularly from President Taft and the U.S. Senate), the commission's advice was rarely rejected. The CFA reviewed preliminary designs submitted by the War Department, and gave its views on how the memorial should be treated. But no decision was made.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1912*, p. 24\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-26\\. Privately, the CFA voiced its opinion that the designs submitted were very poor. The commission advised the War Department to select a designer rather than hold a competition. The CFA recommended promising local architect [Nathan C. Wyeth](/wiki/Nathan_C._Wyeth \"Nathan C. Wyeth\"), who designed the [Russell Senate Office Building](/wiki/Russell_Senate_Office_Building \"Russell Senate Office Building\") in 1903 and the [West Wing](/wiki/West_Wing \"West Wing\") of the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\") in 1909, including the now\\-iconic [Oval Office](/wiki/Oval_Office \"Oval Office\"). The Secretary of War agreed, and Wyeth was hired to submit a design.[*USS Maine Memorial, Arlington National Cemetery.* HABS VA,7\\-ARL,11D\\- (Sheet 1 of 14\\). Historic American Buildings Survey. HABS VA\\-1348\\-D. 2000\\.](https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/va1847.sheet.00001a/) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-26\\.",
"In January 1913, the Corps of Engineers reported that enough funds were left over from salvage of the *Maine* to permit construction of the Arlington National Cemetery Memorial.\"Clears Maine Debris.\" *Washington Post.* January 13, 1913\\. The following month, shortly before the commemoration ceremonies at the *Maine* Memorial at Arlington, President Taft announced his preference for the establishment of the memorial in the field of the *Maine* dead rather than another location in the cemetery.\"To Honor Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* February 9, 1913\\. Secretary of War [Lindley Miller Garrison](/wiki/Lindley_Miller_Garrison \"Lindley Miller Garrison\") then placed the design project on hold to allow the CFA to consider placement of the memorial in relation to three other projects also approved for construction: The [Arlington Memorial Bridge](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Bridge \"Arlington Memorial Bridge\") (which included a new drive to a new ceremonial gateway to the cemetery), [Arlington Memorial Amphitheater](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Amphitheater \"Arlington Memorial Amphitheater\"), and a receiving vault and chapel.\"Warships Depart.\" *New York Times.* June 1, 1913\\.The Arlington Memorial Bridge Commission and the Memorial Amphitheater were both approved by Congress on March 4, 1913\\. Unlike the bridge and amphitheater, the chapel at Arlington National Cemetery was never built. After discussions about the proposed location for the memorial, Wyeth submitted three designs to the CFA. In executive session, the commission made a recommendation to the Secretary of War.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1913*, p. 19\\-20\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-26\\. Acting Quartermaster General [Henry Granville Sharpe](/wiki/Henry_Granville_Sharpe \"Henry Granville Sharpe\") recommended that Secretary of War Garrison accept Wyeth's design, and he did by June 30, 1913\\.[\"Report of the Chief of the Quartermaster Corps to the Secretary of War, 1913\", p. 11\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=FrlLAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%20memorial&pg=PA11) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-26\\.",
"The cost of the memorial was set at $55,613\\.",
"In June 1913, the Washington Navy Yard transferred the *Maine*{{'s}} mast to Arlington National Cemetery.\"Mast of Battleship Maine Will Soon Mark Graves of Sailors Who Died in Habana.\" *Washington Post.* June 29, 1913\\. As the design process proceeded from preliminary to final designs, Wyeth consults extensively with the CFA. In the fall of 1913, the commission approved the placement of a small bronze memorial plaque on the mast itself.[Commission of Fine Arts, *Report of the Commission of Fine Arts for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1914*, p. 32\\-33\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9gYxAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Commission+of+Fine+Arts%22) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-26\\.",
"Construction on the *Maine* Mast Memorial began in late November 1913\\. Wyeth's design featured as a base a mausoleum which vaguely looked like a battleship gun turret. The mast of the *Maine* pierced the top of this structure, and was set into the floor below. The design called for an exterior made of tan granite, and an interior lined with white marble. The names of those who died aboard the *Maine* were to be inscribed on the exterior of the mausoleum. The granite for the structure came from [Troy, New Hampshire](/wiki/Troy%2C_New_Hampshire \"Troy, New Hampshire\"), and the marble from [Danby, Vermont](/wiki/Danby%2C_Vermont \"Danby, Vermont\"). Eight months were originally allotted for construction, largely due to the need to chisel the 8,000 letters into the exterior. The Washington, D.C., firm of Norcross Bros. won the $44,637 contract to construct the memorial. This created some controversy, as Norcross was not the lowest bidder. However, Quartermaster General Sharpe recommended Norcross because the company could obtain the stone best suited for the memorial. A month's delay occurred as the contract was contested.\"Work on Maine Memorial.\" *Washington Post.* November 23, 1913\\.",
"In December 1913, the Army Corps of Engineers reported that it had $104,364 in *Maine* salvage funds left over.\"Cost $792,989 to Raise the Maine.\" *New York Times.* December 18, 1913\\. This included $11,000 to start work on the memorial.[Special Board of Engineer Officers, p. 6\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=lGFCAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22USS%20Maine%22%201910&pg=PR6) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-17\\.",
"Initial work on the memorial proceeded quickly. Memorial services of the *Maine* dead were held at the unfinished memorial on February 15, 1914\\.\"Flags and Flowers for Graves of Maine Heroes.\" *Washington Post.* February 15, 1914\\. For the first time, a joint ceremony sponsored by the [Grand Army of the Republic](/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic \"Grand Army of the Republic\"), [Army and Navy Union](/wiki/Army_and_Navy_Union_of_the_United_States_of_America \"Army and Navy Union of the United States of America\"), and United Spanish War Veterans was held to pay tribute to the *Maine*.\"Honor to Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* February 15, 1914\\. The United Spanish War Veterans women's auxiliary laid a wreath on the memorial's anchor, and Cuban ambassador [Carlos Manuel de Céspedes](/wiki/Carlos_Manuel_de_C%C3%A9spedes \"Carlos Manuel de Céspedes\") laid a wreath at the unfinished memorial.",
"Problems in obtaining stone and cost overruns greatly delayed construction of the memorial. By August 1914, the cost of the structure had risen to $60,000\\.\"Honor Maine Victims.\" *Washington Post.* August 9, 1914\\. Most of the stone for the exterior and interior did not arrive until mid September, and the stonecutters needed six more weeks to ensure the stone was ready for placement.\"Stone for Maine Memorial.\" *Washington Post.* September 13, 1914\\. By mid October, the mast had been set and most of the exterior was in place.\"Edifice Near Graves.\" *Washington Post.* October 18, 1914\\. Even so, the memorial's completion was not expected until November 1, 1915\\.",
"The contractor worked swiftly to try to complete the memorial faster. On January 30, Army officials said the *Maine* Mast Memorial would probably be dedicated on Memorial Day.\"Services for Maine Dead.\" *Washington Post.* January 31, 1915\\. On February 15, President [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\") and [Mario García Menocal](/wiki/Mario_Garc%C3%ADa_Menocal \"Mario García Menocal\"), President of Cuba, both placed large floral wreaths at the unfinished memorial.\"Maine Memorial Services.\" *Washington Post.* February 15, 1915\\. Charles H. Tompkins, Inc., of Washington, D.C., did the grading at the site.[\"Street Improvements.\" *The American Contractor.* February 20, 1915, p. 36\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=JSdYAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Maine%20memorial%22%20Arlington%20repair&pg=RA7-PA36) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-27\\.",
"### Dedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial",
"[thumb\\|Dedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial by President Woodrow Wilson on Memorial Day in 1915](/wiki/File:Dedication_of_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_1915-02-15.jpg \"Dedication of USS Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery - 1915-02-15.jpg\")\nDedication of the *Maine* Mast Memorial occurred on May 30, 1915, as part of larger Memorial Day ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery. At noon, President Wilson led a march of dignitaries and veterans from the White House to the [Civil War Unknowns Monument](/wiki/Civil_War_Unknowns_Monument \"Civil War Unknowns Monument\"), where he laid a wreath. Wilson and the dignitaries then proceeded to the [Old Amphitheater](/wiki/Old_Amphitheater \"Old Amphitheater\"), where he and others delivered speeches.\"Honors For Hero Dead.\" *Washington Post.* May 16, 1915\\.",
"At 3:00 p.m., a regiment of U.S. Marines escorted President Wilson to the *Maine* Mast Memorial.\"Honor Heroes Today.\" *Washington Post.* May 31, 1915\\.\"Wilson at Arlington.\" *Washington Post.* June 1, 1915\\.\"Cheered At Arlington.\" *New York Times.* June 1, 1915\\. The ceremony began with an invocation by Father Chidwick. Secretary of the Navy [Josephus Daniels](/wiki/Josephus_Daniels \"Josephus Daniels\") spoke first, followed by Charles Cramer, Commander of United Spanish War Veterans, and H. Oden Lake, National Commander of the Army and Navy Union.",
"Following the speeches, the American flag was raised to the top of the mast by Frank Arthur Daniels (age 11\\) and [Jonathon Worth Daniels](/wiki/Jonathan_W._Daniels \"Jonathan W. Daniels\") (age 13\\), sons of Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. The Daniels boys were nephews of [Ensign](/wiki/Ensign_%28rank%29%23United_States \"Ensign (rank)#United States\") [Worth Bagley](/wiki/Worth_Bagley \"Worth Bagley\"), the first and only American naval officer to die in the Spanish–American War. The Daniels boys also raised [signal flags](/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags \"International maritime signal flags\") which spelled out \"Maine 1915\". A 21\\-gun salute from cannon at Fort Myer occurred as the flags were raised. After the flag and signals were up, 50 marines in [dress whites](/wiki/Uniforms_of_the_United_States_Navy \"Uniforms of the United States Navy\") climbed into the rigging supporting the mast. The flag\\-raising was followed by speeches by [John McElroy](/wiki/John_McElroy_%28author%29 \"John McElroy (author)\"), Commander of the Department of the Potomac chapter of the Grand Army of the Republic; Major Robert Lee Longstreet, son of [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") [Lieutenant General](/wiki/General_officers_in_the_Confederate_States_Army%23Lieutenant_general \"General officers in the Confederate States Army#Lieutenant general\") [James Longstreet](/wiki/James_Longstreet \"James Longstreet\") of the [Confederate States Army](/wiki/Confederate_States_Army \"Confederate States Army\"); and Dr. [Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada](/wiki/Carlos_Manuel_de_C%C3%A9spedes_y_Quesada \"Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada\"), Cuban ambassador to the United States. Taps were played to end the ceremony. Marines fired a 21\\-gun salute to President Wilson as the ceremonies ended.",
"After the official dedication ended, several veterans groups held a joint ceremony at the new *Maine* Mast Memorial. Rear Admiral [George Washington Baird](/wiki/George_Washington_Baird \"George Washington Baird\") (ret.) spoke about the history of the battleship, the USS *Maine*, and the ship's salvaging. [Secretary of State](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State \"United States Secretary of State\") [William Jennings Bryan](/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan \"William Jennings Bryan\") spoke afterward.",
"On August 14, 1915, Secretary of War Garrison said that the [Antiquities Act](/wiki/Antiquities_Act \"Antiquities Act\") of 1906 encompassed the *Maine* Mast Memorial. This required the federal government to care for the monument in perpetuity.\"To Care For Monuments.\" *Washington Post.* August 15, 1915\\.",
""
] |
About the memorial
------------------
[thumb\|Bell of the USS *Maine*, broken in half by the 1898 explosion, attached to the door of the memorial at Arlington National Cemetery](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_bell_on_entrance_door_-_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_2013-03-15.jpg "USS Maine bell on entrance door - USS Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery - 2013-03-15.jpg")
The *Maine* Mast Memorial is located on Sigsbee Drive in Arlington National Cemetery.Holt. p. 337\. The monument is due west of [Arlington Memorial Amphitheater](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Amphitheater "Arlington Memorial Amphitheater").Lemos, et al., p. 250\-251\.
The memorial consists of the main mast of the USS *Maine* set upright into the center of a circular, stylized mausoleum shaped to look like a battleship gun turret. The structure is {{convert\|90\|ft\|m}} in diameter and {{convert\|15\|ft\|m}} high. The mast pierces the roof the memorial, and is sunk into the floor inside. The mausoleum is constructed of [reinforced concrete](/wiki/Reinforced_concrete "Reinforced concrete"), sheathed in tan granite on the outside and white marble on the interior. The names and ranks of those who died aboard the *Maine* are carved into the exterior of the mausoleum, organized into 23 panels. There are eleven slit windows with bronze grills in the structure. The interior roof is a shallow dome, and the interior floor is lined with mosaic tile. The single entry to the mausoleum has two doors. The inner door is made of wood, and half the ship's bell (retrieved from the ocean floor in 1911\) is attached to the outer side of this door."Ashes of Lord Lothian Rest in Arlington." *New York Times.* December 17, 1940\. The outer door is a bronze gate decorated with metal rope and anchors. Ceremonial stone funeral urns stand on either side of the entryway. Above the door is carved the following: "Erected in memory of the officers and men who lost their lives in the destruction of the U.S.S. Maine, Habana, Cuba, February 15, 1898".
A road encircles the memorial. On the east side of the memorial is a concrete pad on which the anchor manufactured in 1900 sits.At least two of the *Maine*{{'s}} anchors are accounted for. One anchor was given to the United Spanish War Veterans, who melted it down and made insignia for its members. See: Piehler, p. 90\-91\. The other anchor is in City Park in [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania "Reading, Pennsylvania"). Representative [John H. Rothermel](/wiki/John_Hoover_Rothermel "John Hoover Rothermel") used political connections to obtain the anchor from the Washington Navy Yard, which had possession of it. The anchor was dedicated on August 1, 1914, by then\-Assistant Secretary of the Navy [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt "Franklin D. Roosevelt") in front of a crowd of about 13,000 people. See: Blow, p. 447; [Cuyler, Greta. "Group Recalls Dedication of Anchor from U.S. Warship in Reading's City Park." *Reading Eagle.* August 11, 2008](http://readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id=101544) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402144124/http://readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id\=101544 \|date\=April 2, 2012 }}, accessed 2013\-05\-22\. Two bronze Spanish mortars, cast in the 1700s and captured by Admiral Dewey during the Spanish–American War at Cavite Arsenal in the Philippines, flank the anchor. Originally, these mortars were placed atop brick piers with concrete caps. But when the anchor and mortars were incorporated into the new memorial, two granite [balustrades](/wiki/Balustrade "Balustrade") were added along the roadway near the mortars.
A bronze shield was affixed to the mast by the Havana chapter of the [Daughters of the American Revolution](/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution "Daughters of the American Revolution") while it was still in Havana. This shield was retained when the mast was erected in 1915\.
The memorial's 100th anniversary was celebrated on May 30, 2015\. Dave Kammen, Director of Events and Ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery, presided over a wreath\-laying ceremony at the memorial. A U.S. Navy honor guard assisted in observing the event, at which "[Taps](/wiki/Taps_%28bugle_call%29 "Taps (bugle call)")" was played.
### Changes to the memorial
In 1962, a [terrace](/wiki/Terrace_%28building%29 "Terrace (building)") was constructed for the anchor and mortars. The terrace is paved with [bluestone](/wiki/Bluestone%23United_States_and_Canada "Bluestone#United States and Canada") flagstones, and bluestone also replaced the concrete pad on which the anchor rested.
Minor repairs were made to the memorial in 1917 and 1995\.["Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1917", p. 1825](https://books.google.com/books?id=6ylJAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Maine%20memorial%22%20Arlington%20repair&pg=PA1825), accessed 2013\-05\-27; National Capital Planning Commission, p. 121\. The memorial underwent a $500,000 partial restoration in 2010\.Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, p. 189\.
In 2013, the USS *Maine* Mast Memorial began undergoing a complete restoration. The two\-phase project began in September 2012 and is anticipated to be complete by Memorial Day in 2014\. The first phase of the project will document the memorial's construction history, physical characteristics, and areas in need of renovation. Conservation recommendations will be part of this phase. The second phase of the project will involve conserving, restoring, and renovating the mast, the mast rigging, the terrace, and the approaches to the memorial. The goal of the second phase will be to restore to the memorial as much as possible to its original condition. This includes restoring damage, replacing lost pieces or parts, and eliminating alterations.[Bohan, Melissa. "Restoration Ongoing for Mast of the Maine; Upcoming for JFK Flame." Public Affairs Office. Arlington National Cemetery. January 28, 2013\.](http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/News/NewsItem.aspx?ID=6613c314-0b46-44f9-86c5-2c8156ebe886) Accessed 2013\-06\-25\.
|
[
"About the memorial\n------------------",
"[thumb\\|Bell of the USS *Maine*, broken in half by the 1898 explosion, attached to the door of the memorial at Arlington National Cemetery](/wiki/File:USS_Maine_bell_on_entrance_door_-_USS_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_-_2013-03-15.jpg \"USS Maine bell on entrance door - USS Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery - 2013-03-15.jpg\")\nThe *Maine* Mast Memorial is located on Sigsbee Drive in Arlington National Cemetery.Holt. p. 337\\. The monument is due west of [Arlington Memorial Amphitheater](/wiki/Arlington_Memorial_Amphitheater \"Arlington Memorial Amphitheater\").Lemos, et al., p. 250\\-251\\.",
"The memorial consists of the main mast of the USS *Maine* set upright into the center of a circular, stylized mausoleum shaped to look like a battleship gun turret. The structure is {{convert\\|90\\|ft\\|m}} in diameter and {{convert\\|15\\|ft\\|m}} high. The mast pierces the roof the memorial, and is sunk into the floor inside. The mausoleum is constructed of [reinforced concrete](/wiki/Reinforced_concrete \"Reinforced concrete\"), sheathed in tan granite on the outside and white marble on the interior. The names and ranks of those who died aboard the *Maine* are carved into the exterior of the mausoleum, organized into 23 panels. There are eleven slit windows with bronze grills in the structure. The interior roof is a shallow dome, and the interior floor is lined with mosaic tile. The single entry to the mausoleum has two doors. The inner door is made of wood, and half the ship's bell (retrieved from the ocean floor in 1911\\) is attached to the outer side of this door.\"Ashes of Lord Lothian Rest in Arlington.\" *New York Times.* December 17, 1940\\. The outer door is a bronze gate decorated with metal rope and anchors. Ceremonial stone funeral urns stand on either side of the entryway. Above the door is carved the following: \"Erected in memory of the officers and men who lost their lives in the destruction of the U.S.S. Maine, Habana, Cuba, February 15, 1898\".",
"A road encircles the memorial. On the east side of the memorial is a concrete pad on which the anchor manufactured in 1900 sits.At least two of the *Maine*{{'s}} anchors are accounted for. One anchor was given to the United Spanish War Veterans, who melted it down and made insignia for its members. See: Piehler, p. 90\\-91\\. The other anchor is in City Park in [Reading, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Reading%2C_Pennsylvania \"Reading, Pennsylvania\"). Representative [John H. Rothermel](/wiki/John_Hoover_Rothermel \"John Hoover Rothermel\") used political connections to obtain the anchor from the Washington Navy Yard, which had possession of it. The anchor was dedicated on August 1, 1914, by then\\-Assistant Secretary of the Navy [Franklin D. Roosevelt](/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt \"Franklin D. Roosevelt\") in front of a crowd of about 13,000 people. See: Blow, p. 447; [Cuyler, Greta. \"Group Recalls Dedication of Anchor from U.S. Warship in Reading's City Park.\" *Reading Eagle.* August 11, 2008](http://readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id=101544) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402144124/http://readingeagle.com/article.aspx?id\\=101544 \\|date\\=April 2, 2012 }}, accessed 2013\\-05\\-22\\. Two bronze Spanish mortars, cast in the 1700s and captured by Admiral Dewey during the Spanish–American War at Cavite Arsenal in the Philippines, flank the anchor. Originally, these mortars were placed atop brick piers with concrete caps. But when the anchor and mortars were incorporated into the new memorial, two granite [balustrades](/wiki/Balustrade \"Balustrade\") were added along the roadway near the mortars.",
"A bronze shield was affixed to the mast by the Havana chapter of the [Daughters of the American Revolution](/wiki/Daughters_of_the_American_Revolution \"Daughters of the American Revolution\") while it was still in Havana. This shield was retained when the mast was erected in 1915\\.",
"The memorial's 100th anniversary was celebrated on May 30, 2015\\. Dave Kammen, Director of Events and Ceremonies at Arlington National Cemetery, presided over a wreath\\-laying ceremony at the memorial. A U.S. Navy honor guard assisted in observing the event, at which \"[Taps](/wiki/Taps_%28bugle_call%29 \"Taps (bugle call)\")\" was played.",
"### Changes to the memorial",
"In 1962, a [terrace](/wiki/Terrace_%28building%29 \"Terrace (building)\") was constructed for the anchor and mortars. The terrace is paved with [bluestone](/wiki/Bluestone%23United_States_and_Canada \"Bluestone#United States and Canada\") flagstones, and bluestone also replaced the concrete pad on which the anchor rested.",
"Minor repairs were made to the memorial in 1917 and 1995\\.[\"Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1917\", p. 1825](https://books.google.com/books?id=6ylJAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Maine%20memorial%22%20Arlington%20repair&pg=PA1825), accessed 2013\\-05\\-27; National Capital Planning Commission, p. 121\\. The memorial underwent a $500,000 partial restoration in 2010\\.Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, p. 189\\.",
"In 2013, the USS *Maine* Mast Memorial began undergoing a complete restoration. The two\\-phase project began in September 2012 and is anticipated to be complete by Memorial Day in 2014\\. The first phase of the project will document the memorial's construction history, physical characteristics, and areas in need of renovation. Conservation recommendations will be part of this phase. The second phase of the project will involve conserving, restoring, and renovating the mast, the mast rigging, the terrace, and the approaches to the memorial. The goal of the second phase will be to restore to the memorial as much as possible to its original condition. This includes restoring damage, replacing lost pieces or parts, and eliminating alterations.[Bohan, Melissa. \"Restoration Ongoing for Mast of the Maine; Upcoming for JFK Flame.\" Public Affairs Office. Arlington National Cemetery. January 28, 2013\\.](http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/News/NewsItem.aspx?ID=6613c314-0b46-44f9-86c5-2c8156ebe886) Accessed 2013\\-06\\-25\\.",
""
] |
Temporary entombments at the *Maine* Mast Memorial
--------------------------------------------------
[thumb\|100th anniversary of the USS Maine Mast Memorial dedication in 2015](/wiki/File:100th_Anniversary_of_the_USS_Maine_Memorial_Dedication.webm "100th Anniversary of the USS Maine Memorial Dedication.webm")
Constructed as a mausoleum, the *Maine* Mast Memorial has served as the resting place for several individuals.
[thumb\|Burial of Ignacy Jan Paderewski at the *Maine* Mast Memorial in 1941](/wiki/File:Burial_of_Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski_-_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_US_-_1941.jpg "Burial of Ignacy Jan Paderewski - Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery US - 1941.jpg")
### Lord Lothian
Beginning in 1939, [Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian](/wiki/Philip_Kerr%2C_11th_Marquess_of_Lothian "Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian") was [British ambassador to the United States](/wiki/List_of_Ambassadors_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_United_States "List of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the United States"). Lord Lothian died unexpectedly in December 1940\. His remains were cremated, but with the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic "Battle of the Atlantic") making sea travel risky and air travel limited to only items of the highest importance, the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") agreed that Lord Lothian's ashes should remain in the United States until such time as they might be safely conveyed across the Atlantic. His ashes were interred in the *Maine* Mast Memorial on December 15, 1940, after a funeral at the [Washington National Cathedral](/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral "Washington National Cathedral").Hinton, Harold B. "Ashes of Lothian Going to Arlington." *New York Times.* December 14, 1940\.
Lord Lothian's ashes were returned to the United Kingdom aboard an American naval vessel in December 1945\.Olson, p. 272\.
### Ignacy Jan Paderewski
In 1940, the internationally known pianist and composer [Ignacy Jan Paderewski](/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski "Ignacy Jan Paderewski") was named head of the [Polish National Council](/wiki/Polish_National_Council "Polish National Council"), a Polish [parliament](/wiki/Sejm "Sejm") in exile in [London](/wiki/London "London"). He traveled extensively in the United States, building public support for the Polish people (who were under [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") rule). Paderewski fell ill on June 27, 1941, while on a speaking tour in America. The 80\-year\-old diplomat was diagnosed with [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia "Pneumonia"), and died in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City") on June 29\. His body was temporarily interred in the *Maine* Mast Memorial on July 5, 1941, with the stipulation of the Polish National Council that it would be returned only to a free Poland."Paderewski Rests With Heroes of U.S." *United Press International.* July 6, 1941\. President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") dedicated a plaque on the interior of the memorial in May 1963, honoring Paderewski's memory.[Kozinn, Allan. "Paderewski to Go Home, 51 Years After His Death." *New York Times.* June 25, 1992\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/25/arts/paderewski-to-go-home-51-years-after-his-death.html) Accessed 2013\-05\-22\.
Paderewski's remains were taken back to Poland in July 1992, 51 years after his death and two years after the [collapse of the Polish communist dictatorship](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281945%E2%80%9389%29%23Facing_the_inevitable "History of Poland (1945–89)#Facing the inevitable").
### Manuel Quezon
[Manuel Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_Quezon "Manuel Quezon") was elected [President of the Philippines](/wiki/President_of_the_Philippines "President of the Philippines") for a second term on November 11, 1941\. Just 27 days later, the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan") invaded the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") in what became known as the [Philippines Campaign](/wiki/Philippines_campaign_%281941%E2%80%931942%29 "Philippines campaign (1941–1942)"). On March 27, 1942, Quezon and his government fled the Philippines as the final American and Filipino defensive lines neared collapse."Quezon Joins MacArthur in Australia With Staff." *Associated Press.* March 27, 1942\. He traveled to the United States on May 9, 1942, and established a [government in exile](/wiki/Government_in_exile "Government in exile") there.Davies, Lawrence E. "Quezon Arrives at San Francisco." *New York Times.* May 9, 1942\. Quezon was extremely ill with [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis "Tuberculosis"), however, and he died at a ["cure cottage"](/wiki/Cure_Cottages_of_Saranac_Lake "Cure Cottages of Saranac Lake") in [Saranac Lake, New York](/wiki/Saranac_Lake%2C_New_York "Saranac Lake, New York"), on August 1, 1944\. His body was placed in the *Maine* Mast Memorial until it could be returned to a liberated Philippines.Gurney and Wise, p. 78; Goettel, p. 207; Pabico, p. 112\.
Quezon's body was flown back to the Philippines on June 29, 1946\."Quezon's Body Starts for Manila Tuesday." *New York Times.* June 29, 1946\.
### Münir Ertegün
[Munir Ertegun](/wiki/Munir_Ertegun "Munir Ertegun"), Turkish ambassador to the United States, died in Washington on November 11, 1944\. On November 15, his body was accompanied by a military guard of honor from the Turkish Embassy to Arlington National Cemetery, where it was temporarily interred in the Maine Mast Memorial. In April, 1946, Ertegun’s body was returned to Turkey aboard the USS Missouri. “Washington Evening Star” 15 November 1944, page 3\.
|
[
"Temporary entombments at the *Maine* Mast Memorial\n--------------------------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|100th anniversary of the USS Maine Mast Memorial dedication in 2015](/wiki/File:100th_Anniversary_of_the_USS_Maine_Memorial_Dedication.webm \"100th Anniversary of the USS Maine Memorial Dedication.webm\")\nConstructed as a mausoleum, the *Maine* Mast Memorial has served as the resting place for several individuals.",
"[thumb\\|Burial of Ignacy Jan Paderewski at the *Maine* Mast Memorial in 1941](/wiki/File:Burial_of_Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski_-_Maine_Mast_Memorial_-_Arlington_National_Cemetery_US_-_1941.jpg \"Burial of Ignacy Jan Paderewski - Maine Mast Memorial - Arlington National Cemetery US - 1941.jpg\")",
"### Lord Lothian",
"Beginning in 1939, [Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian](/wiki/Philip_Kerr%2C_11th_Marquess_of_Lothian \"Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian\") was [British ambassador to the United States](/wiki/List_of_Ambassadors_of_the_United_Kingdom_to_the_United_States \"List of Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the United States\"). Lord Lothian died unexpectedly in December 1940\\. His remains were cremated, but with the [Battle of the Atlantic](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic \"Battle of the Atlantic\") making sea travel risky and air travel limited to only items of the highest importance, the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") agreed that Lord Lothian's ashes should remain in the United States until such time as they might be safely conveyed across the Atlantic. His ashes were interred in the *Maine* Mast Memorial on December 15, 1940, after a funeral at the [Washington National Cathedral](/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral \"Washington National Cathedral\").Hinton, Harold B. \"Ashes of Lothian Going to Arlington.\" *New York Times.* December 14, 1940\\.",
"Lord Lothian's ashes were returned to the United Kingdom aboard an American naval vessel in December 1945\\.Olson, p. 272\\.",
"### Ignacy Jan Paderewski",
"In 1940, the internationally known pianist and composer [Ignacy Jan Paderewski](/wiki/Ignacy_Jan_Paderewski \"Ignacy Jan Paderewski\") was named head of the [Polish National Council](/wiki/Polish_National_Council \"Polish National Council\"), a Polish [parliament](/wiki/Sejm \"Sejm\") in exile in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). He traveled extensively in the United States, building public support for the Polish people (who were under [Nazi German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") rule). Paderewski fell ill on June 27, 1941, while on a speaking tour in America. The 80\\-year\\-old diplomat was diagnosed with [pneumonia](/wiki/Pneumonia \"Pneumonia\"), and died in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\") on June 29\\. His body was temporarily interred in the *Maine* Mast Memorial on July 5, 1941, with the stipulation of the Polish National Council that it would be returned only to a free Poland.\"Paderewski Rests With Heroes of U.S.\" *United Press International.* July 6, 1941\\. President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") dedicated a plaque on the interior of the memorial in May 1963, honoring Paderewski's memory.[Kozinn, Allan. \"Paderewski to Go Home, 51 Years After His Death.\" *New York Times.* June 25, 1992\\.](https://www.nytimes.com/1992/06/25/arts/paderewski-to-go-home-51-years-after-his-death.html) Accessed 2013\\-05\\-22\\.",
"Paderewski's remains were taken back to Poland in July 1992, 51 years after his death and two years after the [collapse of the Polish communist dictatorship](/wiki/History_of_Poland_%281945%E2%80%9389%29%23Facing_the_inevitable \"History of Poland (1945–89)#Facing the inevitable\").",
"### Manuel Quezon",
"[Manuel Quezon](/wiki/Manuel_Quezon \"Manuel Quezon\") was elected [President of the Philippines](/wiki/President_of_the_Philippines \"President of the Philippines\") for a second term on November 11, 1941\\. Just 27 days later, the [Empire of Japan](/wiki/Empire_of_Japan \"Empire of Japan\") invaded the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") in what became known as the [Philippines Campaign](/wiki/Philippines_campaign_%281941%E2%80%931942%29 \"Philippines campaign (1941–1942)\"). On March 27, 1942, Quezon and his government fled the Philippines as the final American and Filipino defensive lines neared collapse.\"Quezon Joins MacArthur in Australia With Staff.\" *Associated Press.* March 27, 1942\\. He traveled to the United States on May 9, 1942, and established a [government in exile](/wiki/Government_in_exile \"Government in exile\") there.Davies, Lawrence E. \"Quezon Arrives at San Francisco.\" *New York Times.* May 9, 1942\\. Quezon was extremely ill with [tuberculosis](/wiki/Tuberculosis \"Tuberculosis\"), however, and he died at a [\"cure cottage\"](/wiki/Cure_Cottages_of_Saranac_Lake \"Cure Cottages of Saranac Lake\") in [Saranac Lake, New York](/wiki/Saranac_Lake%2C_New_York \"Saranac Lake, New York\"), on August 1, 1944\\. His body was placed in the *Maine* Mast Memorial until it could be returned to a liberated Philippines.Gurney and Wise, p. 78; Goettel, p. 207; Pabico, p. 112\\.",
"Quezon's body was flown back to the Philippines on June 29, 1946\\.\"Quezon's Body Starts for Manila Tuesday.\" *New York Times.* June 29, 1946\\.",
"### Münir Ertegün",
"[Munir Ertegun](/wiki/Munir_Ertegun \"Munir Ertegun\"), Turkish ambassador to the United States, died in Washington on November 11, 1944\\. On November 15, his body was accompanied by a military guard of honor from the Turkish Embassy to Arlington National Cemetery, where it was temporarily interred in the Maine Mast Memorial. In April, 1946, Ertegun’s body was returned to Turkey aboard the USS Missouri. “Washington Evening Star” 15 November 1944, page 3\\.",
""
] |
Novel in the first person, in the form of autobiography
-------------------------------------------------------
David Copperfield is the pivotal character of the novel *David Copperfield* by Charles Dickens. He is first introduced in the novel when he is born on a Friday in March in the early 19th century. The pet of his mother Clara Copperfield and faithful housekeeper Peggotty, David lives an idyllic life for the first few years, even though he is fatherless{{mdash}}his father, David Copperfield Sr., died 6 months before his son's birth.
David's happy childhood is eventually marred by the arrival of his tyrannical stepfather, [Edward Murdstone](/wiki/Edward_Murdstone "Edward Murdstone"), and David suffers both physical and mental abuse from his new guardian. His mother is strongly discouraged from giving David any form of affection, and he is forbidden to consort with Peggotty or other children.
After a particularly brutal beating, David is sent off to Salem House school for biting Murdstone. He is met on the road by Mr Mell, one of the teachers, who accompanies him to the school. Young David is forced to wear a sign on his back that warns other students and teachers he is a biter. He befriends an older boy, the arrogant but charming [James Steerforth](/wiki/James_Steerforth "James Steerforth"), and the humorous Tommy Traddles. David reveals personal information about Mr Mell to Steerforth, who gets the young teacher fired.
When he learns that his mother is pregnant, David is very happy, and is able to see his mother and his (unnamed) baby brother during the holidays. Jane Murdstone is furious when she sees David holding the baby one day, and commands him never to touch Murdstone's child. Clara and Peggotty are still forbidden to treat David kindly (as the Murdstones view this to be weakness) but are able to sneak occasional happy moments together.
Another term at Salem House begins and David settles into his role as a student as best he can, despite the unorganized teaching and frequent lashings. On his ninth birthday the headmaster's wife informs David that his mother and half\-brother have died, and David returns home for the funeral. Mr Murdstone and Jane, unwilling to care for the hated orphan, decide to send David to work in the family bottling factory.
Life at the factory is miserable, but David is befriended by the penniless [Wilkins Micawber](/wiki/Wilkins_Micawber "Wilkins Micawber"), a humorous character based on Dickens' father [John Dickens](/wiki/John_Dickens "John Dickens"). He lives with the Micawbers in poverty, and attempts to save money for his escape. After an unhappy year at the factory (which he refuses to describe in any detail) David runs away in hopes of finding his great\-aunt [Betsey Trotwood](/wiki/Betsey_Trotwood "Betsey Trotwood") in [Dover](/wiki/Dover "Dover"). His reception is frosty, but not unkind, and Miss Trotwood prevents Mr Murdstone from taking David back to the factory.
Aunt Betsey quickly adopts David and sends him to Dr Strong's private school in [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury "Canterbury"). There, David resides in the house of Mr. Wickfield; and his daughter [Agnes](/wiki/Agnes_Wickfield "Agnes Wickfield") becomes David's friend and confidante. David also makes acquaintance of cunning and treacherous [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28character%29 "Uriah Heep (character)"), a clerk of Mr Wickfield.
The rest of the novel deals with David's struggles through life and his involvement in other plotlines, including his friendship and consequent disillusionment with unworthy and self\-serving Steerforth, his assistance to the destroyed Peggotty family; his concern for the Wickfield, Micawber, and Strong families as they are all being cheated and abused by Uriah Heep, and the beginning and development of his writing career.
David falls in a passionate but highly impractical love with innocent, inexperienced, and foolish [Dora Spenlow](/wiki/Dora_Spenlow "Dora Spenlow"), daughter of his present boss. After a humorously sentimental courtship, marred by the sudden death of Mr Spenlow, David marries Dora, whom he loves.
David realizes he has different expectations from his wife of their roles in the marriage; he treats his wife with love, but is frustrated about how their household is run. After suffering a miscarriage over a year into their marriage, Dora falls ill and dies, leaving David single and heartbroken. He travels throughout Europe, and stays in Switzerland for three years.
During that time he publishes a story about his own life with the help of old school\-friend Traddles, and realizes that he loves Agnes, praying she loves him too. Upon his return to England, after a vain struggle to hide his feelings, he realizes that she does love him. He proposes to her, and the duo quickly get married. They later move into a house in [London](/wiki/London "London"), along with their young children, which include at least three girls (Little Agnes, Dora, and Betsey Trotwood Copperfield) and at least two boys. They live a wealthy lifestyle on David's successful writing career. David and Agnes prove to be a perfect match, and in this marriage David ultimately finds true happiness.
|
[
"Novel in the first person, in the form of autobiography\n-------------------------------------------------------",
"David Copperfield is the pivotal character of the novel *David Copperfield* by Charles Dickens. He is first introduced in the novel when he is born on a Friday in March in the early 19th century. The pet of his mother Clara Copperfield and faithful housekeeper Peggotty, David lives an idyllic life for the first few years, even though he is fatherless{{mdash}}his father, David Copperfield Sr., died 6 months before his son's birth.",
"David's happy childhood is eventually marred by the arrival of his tyrannical stepfather, [Edward Murdstone](/wiki/Edward_Murdstone \"Edward Murdstone\"), and David suffers both physical and mental abuse from his new guardian. His mother is strongly discouraged from giving David any form of affection, and he is forbidden to consort with Peggotty or other children.",
"After a particularly brutal beating, David is sent off to Salem House school for biting Murdstone. He is met on the road by Mr Mell, one of the teachers, who accompanies him to the school. Young David is forced to wear a sign on his back that warns other students and teachers he is a biter. He befriends an older boy, the arrogant but charming [James Steerforth](/wiki/James_Steerforth \"James Steerforth\"), and the humorous Tommy Traddles. David reveals personal information about Mr Mell to Steerforth, who gets the young teacher fired.",
"When he learns that his mother is pregnant, David is very happy, and is able to see his mother and his (unnamed) baby brother during the holidays. Jane Murdstone is furious when she sees David holding the baby one day, and commands him never to touch Murdstone's child. Clara and Peggotty are still forbidden to treat David kindly (as the Murdstones view this to be weakness) but are able to sneak occasional happy moments together.",
"Another term at Salem House begins and David settles into his role as a student as best he can, despite the unorganized teaching and frequent lashings. On his ninth birthday the headmaster's wife informs David that his mother and half\\-brother have died, and David returns home for the funeral. Mr Murdstone and Jane, unwilling to care for the hated orphan, decide to send David to work in the family bottling factory.",
"Life at the factory is miserable, but David is befriended by the penniless [Wilkins Micawber](/wiki/Wilkins_Micawber \"Wilkins Micawber\"), a humorous character based on Dickens' father [John Dickens](/wiki/John_Dickens \"John Dickens\"). He lives with the Micawbers in poverty, and attempts to save money for his escape. After an unhappy year at the factory (which he refuses to describe in any detail) David runs away in hopes of finding his great\\-aunt [Betsey Trotwood](/wiki/Betsey_Trotwood \"Betsey Trotwood\") in [Dover](/wiki/Dover \"Dover\"). His reception is frosty, but not unkind, and Miss Trotwood prevents Mr Murdstone from taking David back to the factory.",
"Aunt Betsey quickly adopts David and sends him to Dr Strong's private school in [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury \"Canterbury\"). There, David resides in the house of Mr. Wickfield; and his daughter [Agnes](/wiki/Agnes_Wickfield \"Agnes Wickfield\") becomes David's friend and confidante. David also makes acquaintance of cunning and treacherous [Uriah Heep](/wiki/Uriah_Heep_%28character%29 \"Uriah Heep (character)\"), a clerk of Mr Wickfield.",
"The rest of the novel deals with David's struggles through life and his involvement in other plotlines, including his friendship and consequent disillusionment with unworthy and self\\-serving Steerforth, his assistance to the destroyed Peggotty family; his concern for the Wickfield, Micawber, and Strong families as they are all being cheated and abused by Uriah Heep, and the beginning and development of his writing career.",
"David falls in a passionate but highly impractical love with innocent, inexperienced, and foolish [Dora Spenlow](/wiki/Dora_Spenlow \"Dora Spenlow\"), daughter of his present boss. After a humorously sentimental courtship, marred by the sudden death of Mr Spenlow, David marries Dora, whom he loves.",
"David realizes he has different expectations from his wife of their roles in the marriage; he treats his wife with love, but is frustrated about how their household is run. After suffering a miscarriage over a year into their marriage, Dora falls ill and dies, leaving David single and heartbroken. He travels throughout Europe, and stays in Switzerland for three years.",
"During that time he publishes a story about his own life with the help of old school\\-friend Traddles, and realizes that he loves Agnes, praying she loves him too. Upon his return to England, after a vain struggle to hide his feelings, he realizes that she does love him. He proposes to her, and the duo quickly get married. They later move into a house in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), along with their young children, which include at least three girls (Little Agnes, Dora, and Betsey Trotwood Copperfield) and at least two boys. They live a wealthy lifestyle on David's successful writing career. David and Agnes prove to be a perfect match, and in this marriage David ultimately finds true happiness.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
*Iris aphylla* subsp. *hungarica* is very similar in form to *Iris aphylla* but it is slightly shorter than *[Iris germanica](/wiki/Iris_germanica "Iris germanica")* (a commonly cultivated garden iris), but which it is very closely related.{{cite web \|title\=Iris steppe or iris (Iris aphylla ssp. Hungarica) \|url\=http://dev.adworks.ro/natura/specii/172/Iris\-sau\-stanjenel\-de\-stepa.html \|publisher\=dev.adworks.ro \|access\-date\=22 August 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021415/http://dev.adworks.ro/natura/specii/172/Iris\-sau\-stanjenel\-de\-stepa.html \|archive\-date\=18 October 2014 \|url\-status\=dead }}
It has short, tuberous rhizome,{{cite web \|first\=Daniel \|last\=Baby \|title\=Iris aphylla subsp. Hungarica (Waldst Et Kit) Hegi \|date\=31 January 2010 \|url\=http://botany.cz/cs/iris\-aphylla\-hungarica/ \|publisher\=botany.cz \|access\-date\=2 September 2015}} that is 18–22 mm in diameter.{{cite web \|last1\=Marinescu \|first1\=Violeta Maria \|last2\=Alexiu \|first2\=Valeriu \|title\=Iris Aphylla L. Ssp. Hungarica Critically Endangered Taxon In Europa \|url\=http://www.upit.ro/uploads/revistastiinte/CTNS%20vol%202%20issue%203/Paper%2016\.pdf \|publisher\=upit.ro \|access\-date\=22 August 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040237/http://www.upit.ro/uploads/revistastiinte/CTNS%20vol%202%20issue%203/Paper%2016\.pdf \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|url\-status\=dead }}
It has basal leaves (rising from the rhizome), that are curved,{{cite web \|title\=Plant profile \|url\=http://www.terra.hu/haznov/htm/Iris.aphylla.hungarica.html \|publisher\=terra.hu \|access\-date\=2 September 2015}} acuminate (pointed) and 1–3 cm wide. They are slightly smaller than *Iris aphylla*,{{cite web \|title\=Iris aphylla ssp. hungarica \|url\=http://www.rareplants.es/shop/product.asp?strParents\=60\&CAT\_ID\=170\&P\_ID\=5813 \|publisher\=rareplants.es \|access\-date\=3 September 2015}} and shorter than the flowering stem. They have 5–6 ribs, and curve outwards.
It has a slender stem, that can grow up to between {{convert\|10\|\-\|30\|cm\|0\|abbr\=on}} tall,
The stem has green, (scarious) membranous, [spathes](/wiki/Bract%23Spathe "Bract#Spathe") (leaves of the flower bud), which have a reddish edge.
The stems hold 1–5 terminal (top of stem) flowers, blooming between March to May or between May and June. It can often the second bloom time between August and September.
The flower bud leans slightly before flowering in *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica* as compared to *Iris aphylla*, in which the stem is straight.
The large flowers, come in shades of purple, or dark purple, or violet\-blue.
Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [sepals](/wiki/Sepals "Sepals") (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [tepals](/wiki/Tepals "Tepals")), known as the 'standards'.{{cite book \|first\=Claire \|last\=Austin \|title\=Irises; A Garden Encyclopedia \|year\=2005 \|publisher\=Timber Press \|isbn\=978\-0881927306 }}{{rp\|17}} The falls are ovate and elongated, and 2–3 cm wide. In the centre of the petal, white beards with orange tops. The standards are elongated an ovoid, and 3 cm wide.
After the iris has flowered, it produces a capsule, that is triangular, capsule, which is 4–5 mm long and 3 mm wide. The capsule contains elongated ovoid seeds.
### Genetics
In 2010, a [cytotype](/wiki/Cytotype "Cytotype") study was carried out on *Iris aphylla*, using [karyotype](/wiki/Karyotype "Karyotype") and [AFLP](/wiki/Amplified_fragment_length_polymorphism "Amplified fragment length polymorphism") data analysis. It concluded that *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica* was a separate species to *Iris aphylla*.{{cite journal \|last1\=Wróblewska \|first1\=Ada \|last2\=Brzosko \|first2\=Emilia \|last3\=Chudzińska \|first3\=Ewa \|last4\=Bordács \|first4\=Sándor \|last5\=Prokopiv \|first5\=Andriy Ivanovych \|date\=2010 \|title\=Cytotype distribution and colonization history of the steppe plant Iris aphylla \|journal\=Annales Botanici Fennici \|volume\=47 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=23–33 \|doi\=10\.5735/085\.047\.0103 \|s2cid\=84202760 }}
In 2014, a study was carried out on the foliage and rhizomes of the iris, it found several constituents and [terpenoids](/wiki/Terpenoid "Terpenoid") (organic compounds), including [phenylacetaldehyde](/wiki/Phenylacetaldehyde "Phenylacetaldehyde"), [eugenol](/wiki/Eugenol "Eugenol"), and [lauric acid](/wiki/Lauric_acid "Lauric acid").{{cite journal \|last1\=Kovalev \|first1\=V. N. \|last2\=Mikhailenko \|first2\=O. A. \|last3\=Vinogradov \|first3\=B. A. \|date\=March 2014 \|title\=Aromatic Compounds and Terpenoids of Iris hungarica \|journal\=Chemistry of Natural Compounds \|volume\=50 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=161–162 \|doi\=10\.1007/s10600\-014\-0900\-5 \|bibcode\=2014CNatC..50\..161K \|s2cid\=40976682 }}
As most irises are [diploid](/wiki/Diploid "Diploid"), having two sets of [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosomes "Chromosomes"), this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.{{rp\|18}}
It has been counted twice, 2n\=48 (as *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica*) in 1983, by Murín A. \& Májovský J., Karyological study of Slovakian flora IV. – Acta Fac. Rerum Nat. Univ. Comen., Bot. 30: 1–16\.{{cite web \|title\=8 chromosome counts in Iris aphylla L. \|url\=http://ccdb.tau.ac.il/Angiosperms/Iridaceae/Iris/Iris%20aphylla%20L./ \|publisher\=ccdb.tau.ac.il \|access\-date\=3 September 2015 \|archive\-date\=26 May 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526020852/http://ccdb.tau.ac.il/Angiosperms/Iridaceae/Iris/Iris\+aphylla\+L./ \|url\-status\=dead }}
Also 2n\=44 (as *Iris hungarica* Waldst. \& Kit.) in 1990 by Zakharjeva, O. I., Numeri Chromosomatum Magnoliophytorum Florae URSS, Aceraceae—Menyanthaceae. Nauka, Leninopoli.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"*Iris aphylla* subsp. *hungarica* is very similar in form to *Iris aphylla* but it is slightly shorter than *[Iris germanica](/wiki/Iris_germanica \"Iris germanica\")* (a commonly cultivated garden iris), but which it is very closely related.{{cite web \\|title\\=Iris steppe or iris (Iris aphylla ssp. Hungarica) \\|url\\=http://dev.adworks.ro/natura/specii/172/Iris\\-sau\\-stanjenel\\-de\\-stepa.html \\|publisher\\=dev.adworks.ro \\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018021415/http://dev.adworks.ro/natura/specii/172/Iris\\-sau\\-stanjenel\\-de\\-stepa.html \\|archive\\-date\\=18 October 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"It has short, tuberous rhizome,{{cite web \\|first\\=Daniel \\|last\\=Baby \\|title\\=Iris aphylla subsp. Hungarica (Waldst Et Kit) Hegi \\|date\\=31 January 2010 \\|url\\=http://botany.cz/cs/iris\\-aphylla\\-hungarica/ \\|publisher\\=botany.cz \\|access\\-date\\=2 September 2015}} that is 18–22 mm in diameter.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Marinescu \\|first1\\=Violeta Maria \\|last2\\=Alexiu \\|first2\\=Valeriu \\|title\\=Iris Aphylla L. Ssp. Hungarica Critically Endangered Taxon In Europa \\|url\\=http://www.upit.ro/uploads/revistastiinte/CTNS%20vol%202%20issue%203/Paper%2016\\.pdf \\|publisher\\=upit.ro \\|access\\-date\\=22 August 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040237/http://www.upit.ro/uploads/revistastiinte/CTNS%20vol%202%20issue%203/Paper%2016\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"It has basal leaves (rising from the rhizome), that are curved,{{cite web \\|title\\=Plant profile \\|url\\=http://www.terra.hu/haznov/htm/Iris.aphylla.hungarica.html \\|publisher\\=terra.hu \\|access\\-date\\=2 September 2015}} acuminate (pointed) and 1–3 cm wide. They are slightly smaller than *Iris aphylla*,{{cite web \\|title\\=Iris aphylla ssp. hungarica \\|url\\=http://www.rareplants.es/shop/product.asp?strParents\\=60\\&CAT\\_ID\\=170\\&P\\_ID\\=5813 \\|publisher\\=rareplants.es \\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2015}} and shorter than the flowering stem. They have 5–6 ribs, and curve outwards.",
"It has a slender stem, that can grow up to between {{convert\\|10\\|\\-\\|30\\|cm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} tall,",
"The stem has green, (scarious) membranous, [spathes](/wiki/Bract%23Spathe \"Bract#Spathe\") (leaves of the flower bud), which have a reddish edge.",
"The stems hold 1–5 terminal (top of stem) flowers, blooming between March to May or between May and June. It can often the second bloom time between August and September.",
"The flower bud leans slightly before flowering in *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica* as compared to *Iris aphylla*, in which the stem is straight.",
"The large flowers, come in shades of purple, or dark purple, or violet\\-blue.",
"Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large [sepals](/wiki/Sepals \"Sepals\") (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or [tepals](/wiki/Tepals \"Tepals\")), known as the 'standards'.{{cite book \\|first\\=Claire \\|last\\=Austin \\|title\\=Irises; A Garden Encyclopedia \\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=Timber Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0881927306 }}{{rp\\|17}} The falls are ovate and elongated, and 2–3 cm wide. In the centre of the petal, white beards with orange tops. The standards are elongated an ovoid, and 3 cm wide.",
"After the iris has flowered, it produces a capsule, that is triangular, capsule, which is 4–5 mm long and 3 mm wide. The capsule contains elongated ovoid seeds.",
"### Genetics",
"In 2010, a [cytotype](/wiki/Cytotype \"Cytotype\") study was carried out on *Iris aphylla*, using [karyotype](/wiki/Karyotype \"Karyotype\") and [AFLP](/wiki/Amplified_fragment_length_polymorphism \"Amplified fragment length polymorphism\") data analysis. It concluded that *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica* was a separate species to *Iris aphylla*.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Wróblewska \\|first1\\=Ada \\|last2\\=Brzosko \\|first2\\=Emilia \\|last3\\=Chudzińska \\|first3\\=Ewa \\|last4\\=Bordács \\|first4\\=Sándor \\|last5\\=Prokopiv \\|first5\\=Andriy Ivanovych \\|date\\=2010 \\|title\\=Cytotype distribution and colonization history of the steppe plant Iris aphylla \\|journal\\=Annales Botanici Fennici \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=23–33 \\|doi\\=10\\.5735/085\\.047\\.0103 \\|s2cid\\=84202760 }}",
"In 2014, a study was carried out on the foliage and rhizomes of the iris, it found several constituents and [terpenoids](/wiki/Terpenoid \"Terpenoid\") (organic compounds), including [phenylacetaldehyde](/wiki/Phenylacetaldehyde \"Phenylacetaldehyde\"), [eugenol](/wiki/Eugenol \"Eugenol\"), and [lauric acid](/wiki/Lauric_acid \"Lauric acid\").{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kovalev \\|first1\\=V. N. \\|last2\\=Mikhailenko \\|first2\\=O. A. \\|last3\\=Vinogradov \\|first3\\=B. A. \\|date\\=March 2014 \\|title\\=Aromatic Compounds and Terpenoids of Iris hungarica \\|journal\\=Chemistry of Natural Compounds \\|volume\\=50 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=161–162 \\|doi\\=10\\.1007/s10600\\-014\\-0900\\-5 \\|bibcode\\=2014CNatC..50\\..161K \\|s2cid\\=40976682 }}",
"As most irises are [diploid](/wiki/Diploid \"Diploid\"), having two sets of [chromosomes](/wiki/Chromosomes \"Chromosomes\"), this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.{{rp\\|18}}\nIt has been counted twice, 2n\\=48 (as *Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica*) in 1983, by Murín A. \\& Májovský J., Karyological study of Slovakian flora IV. – Acta Fac. Rerum Nat. Univ. Comen., Bot. 30: 1–16\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=8 chromosome counts in Iris aphylla L. \\|url\\=http://ccdb.tau.ac.il/Angiosperms/Iridaceae/Iris/Iris%20aphylla%20L./ \\|publisher\\=ccdb.tau.ac.il \\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 May 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526020852/http://ccdb.tau.ac.il/Angiosperms/Iridaceae/Iris/Iris\\+aphylla\\+L./ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\nAlso 2n\\=44 (as *Iris hungarica* Waldst. \\& Kit.) in 1990 by Zakharjeva, O. I., Numeri Chromosomatum Magnoliophytorum Florae URSS, Aceraceae—Menyanthaceae. Nauka, Leninopoli.",
""
] |
Geography
---------
[thumb\|left\|Satellite view of Las Cruces](/wiki/File:LasCruces_NewMexico_ISS011-E-8410.jpg "LasCruces NewMexico ISS011-E-8410.jpg")
The approximate elevation of Las Cruces is {{convert\|3908\|ft\|m\|0}} above sea level.
According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the city has a total area of {{convert\|198\.5\|sqkm\|order\=flip}}, of which {{convert\|198\.1\|sqkm\|order\=flip}} is land and {{convert\|0\.4\|sqkm\|order\=flip\|1}}, or 0\.18%, is water.
Las Cruces is the center of the Organ Caldera; the [Doña Ana Mountains](/wiki/Do%C3%B1a_Ana_Mountains "Doña Ana Mountains") to the north and the [Organ Mountains](/wiki/Organ_Mountains "Organ Mountains") to the east are its margins.{{cite web
\|url \= http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/tour/federal/monuments/gila\_cliff\_dwellings/home.html
\|author\=Shari A. Kelley
\|title \= Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
\|publisher \= New Mexico Bureau of Geology \& Mineral Resources
\|date\=24 October 2019
\|access\-date \= April 29, 2010 }} citing from {{Cite book \|quotation\=The Late Eocene—Oligocene peak of Cenozoic volcanism in southwestern New Mexico \|editor\=Mack, G.H. \|editor2\=Giles, K.A. \|title\=The Geology of New Mexico, a Geologic History \|pages\=271–294 \|publisher\=New Mexico Geological Society Special Publication \|year\=2004 \|author\=Chapin, C.E. \|author2\=McIntosh, W.C. \|author3\=Chamberlin, R.M.}} Its major eruption was 32 [Ma](/wiki/Megaannum%23SI_prefix_multipliers "Megaannum#SI prefix multipliers").{{cite journal
\|last\= Seager \|first\= W.R. \|year\= 1981 \|title\= Geology of Oregon Mountains and southern San Andreas Mountains, New Mexico \|journal\= Memoir of the New Mexico Bureau of Mineral Resources \|volume\= 36 \|pages\= 1–97 }}
Doña Ana County lies within the [Chihuahuan Desert](/wiki/Chihuahuan_Desert "Chihuahuan Desert") ecoregion, and the vegetation surrounding the built portions of the city are typical of this setting; it includes creosote bush (*[Larrea tridentata](/wiki/Larrea_tridentata "Larrea tridentata")*), soaptree (*[Yucca elata](/wiki/Yucca_elata "Yucca elata")*), tarbush (*[Flourensia cernua](/wiki/Flourensia_cernua "Flourensia cernua")*), broom dalea (*[Psorothamnus](/wiki/Psorothamnus "Psorothamnus") scoparius*), and various desert grasses such as tobosa (*[Hilaria mutica](/wiki/Hilaria_mutica "Hilaria mutica")* or *Pleuraphis mutica*) and black grama (*[Bouteloua eriopoda](/wiki/Bouteloua_eriopoda "Bouteloua eriopoda")*).
The [Rio Grande](/wiki/Rio_Grande "Rio Grande") bisects the Mesilla Valley and passes west of Las Cruces proper, supplying irrigation water for the intensive agriculture surrounding the city.{{cite web\|title\=Elephant Butte Irrigation District\|url\=http://www.ebid\-nm.org/wris2008/index.asp\|access\-date\=22 December 2013\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911052259/http://www.ebid\-nm.org/wris2008/index.asp\|archive\-date\=11 September 2013}} However, since the institution of water rights, the Rio Grande fills its banks only when water is released from upstream dams, which before 2020 usually occurred at least from March to September.{{cite web \| last\=Minardi \| first\=Di \| title\=A river used to run through it: how New Mexico handles a dwindling Rio Grande \| website\=the Guardian \| date\=2021\-01\-12 \| url\=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/12/rio\-grande\-new\-mexico\-river\-water \| access\-date\=2021\-01\-12}} [Drought](/wiki/Drought "Drought") conditions,{{cite news\| title\=New Mexico is the driest of the dry \|url\=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la\-me\-parched\-20130806\-dto,0,5922502\.htmlstory\#axzz2oFc0nGAC\| access\-date\=22 December 2013\| newspaper\=Los Angeles Times\| date\=Aug 6, 2013}} exacerbated by climate change, mean that the Rio Grande experiences increasingly short or small flows.
[thumb\|left\|View of the [San Andres Mountains](/wiki/San_Andres_Mountains "San Andres Mountains")](/wiki/File:San_Andres_Mountains_east_Las_Cruces_%28cropped%29.jpg "San Andres Mountains east Las Cruces (cropped).jpg")
Prior to farming and ranching, desert shrub vegetation extended into the valley from the adjacent deserts, including extensive stands of tornillo (*[Prosopis pubescens](/wiki/Prosopis_pubescens "Prosopis pubescens")*) and catclaw acacia (*[Acacia greggii](/wiki/Acacia_greggii "Acacia greggii")*). Desert grasslands extend in large part between the edges of Las Cruces and the lower slopes of the nearby Organ and Robledo Mountains, where grasses and assorted shrubs and cacti dominate large areas of this mostly rangeland as well as the occasional large\-lot subdivision housing.
The desert and desert grassland uplands surrounding both sides of the Mesilla Valley are often dissected with [arroyos](/wiki/Arroyo_%28watercourse%29 "Arroyo (watercourse)"), dry streams that often carry water following heavy thunderstorms. These arroyos often contain scattered small trees, and they serve as wildlife corridors between Las Cruces' urban areas and adjacent deserts or mountains.
### Cityscape
[right\|thumb\|[Wells Fargo Tower](/wiki/Wells_Fargo_Tower_%28Las_Cruces%29 "Wells Fargo Tower (Las Cruces)") is the tallest building in downtown Las Cruces](/wiki/File:LasCrucesNM_WellsFargoTower.jpg "LasCrucesNM WellsFargoTower.jpg")
Unlike many cities its size, Las Cruces lacks a true central business district. This is because in the 1960s an urban\-renewal project tore down a large part of the original downtown. Many chain stores and national restaurants are located in the rapidly developing east side. Las Cruces' shopping mall and a variety of retail stores and restaurants are located in this area.
However, the historic downtown of the city is the area around Main Street, a six\-block stretch of which was closed off in 1973 to form a pedestrianized shopping area. The downtown mall has an extensive farmers market each Wednesday and Saturday morning, where a variety of foods and cultural items can be purchased from numerous small stands that are set up by local farmers, artists and craftspeople.{{Cite web\| title \= Farmers' and Crafts Market of Las Cruces {{!}} FCMLC\| url \= http://www.fcmlc.org\| website \= www.fcmlc.org\| access\-date \= 2015\-10\-28}} This area also contains museums, businesses, restaurants, churches, art galleries and theaters, which add a great deal to the changing character of Las Cruces' historic downtown.
In August 2005, a [master plan](/wiki/Comprehensive_planning "Comprehensive planning") was adopted, the centerpiece of which was the restoration of narrow lanes of two\-way traffic on this model portion of Main Street. Main Street was reopened to vehicular traffic in 2012\.
In February 2013, Las Cruces Mayor [Ken Miyagishima](/wiki/Ken_Miyagishima "Ken Miyagishima") announced during his "State of the City" address that a {{convert\|700\|acre\|adj\=on}} park in the area behind the Las Cruces Dam was under construction, in cooperation with the [Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers "United States Army Corps of Engineers"). The area features trails through restored wetlands and serves as a major refuge for [migratory birds](/wiki/Migratory_bird "Migratory bird") and a key recreational area for the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://krwg.org/post/full\-text\-las\-cruces\-state\-city\-address\|title\=Full Text: Las Cruces State Of The City Address\|first\=KRWG News And\|last\=Partners\|date\=13 February 2013 }}
### Climate
[thumb\|left\|Jardín de Mesquite](/wiki/File:Jardin_de_Mesquite_Las_Cruces_New_Mexico.jpg "Jardin de Mesquite Las Cruces New Mexico.jpg")
Las Cruces has a [cool desert climate](/wiki/Cool_desert_climate "Cool desert climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification") *BWk*). Winters alternate between colder and windier weather following trough and frontal passages, and warmer, sunnier periods; light freezes occur 69 nights on average. Spring months can be windy, particularly in the afternoons, sometimes causing periods of blowing dust and short\-lived dust storms. Summers begin with the hottest weather of the year, with some extended periods of over {{convert\|100\|°F\|°C\|1}} temperatures not uncommon, while the latter half of the summer sees increased humidity and frequent afternoon thunderstorms, with slightly lower daytime temperatures. Autumns feature decreasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation.
Precipitation is very light from October to June, with only occasional winter storm systems bringing any precipitation to the Las Cruces area. Most winter moisture is in the form of rain, though some light snowfalls happen most winters, usually enough to accumulate and stay on the ground for a few hours. Summer precipitation is often from heavy thunderstorms, especially from the late summer [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon "Monsoon") weather pattern.
[thumb\|right\|[Las Cruces Veterans Memorial Park](/wiki/Las_Cruces_Veterans_Memorial_Park "Las Cruces Veterans Memorial Park")](/wiki/File:Veterans_Memorial_Park_Las_Cruces_New_Mexico.jpg "Veterans Memorial Park Las Cruces New Mexico.jpg")
Since records began in 1892, the lowest temperature recorded at New Mexico State University has been {{convert\|−10\|°F\|°C\|1}} on January 11, 1962 – though only ten nights have ever fallen to or below {{convert\|0\|°F\|°C\|1}} – and the highest {{convert\|110\|°F\|°C\|1}} on June 28, 1994\. The lowest maximum on record is {{convert\|16\|°F\|°C\|1}} on January 28, 1948, and the highest minimum {{convert\|83\|°F\|°C\|1}} on June 8, 2024\. The wettest calendar year has been 1941 with {{convert\|19\.60\|in\|mm\|1}}, although 1905 with {{convert\|17\.09\|in\|mm\|1}} is the only other year to exceed {{convert\|15\|in\|mm}}. The only months to exceed {{convert\|6\|in\|mm}} have been September 1941 with {{convert\|7\.53\|in\|mm\|1}} and August 1935 with {{convert\|7\.41\|in\|mm\|1}}. The wettest single day has been August 30, 1935 with {{convert\|6\.49\|in\|mm\|1}} and the driest calendar year 1970 with {{convert\|3\.44\|in\|mm\|1}}.
{{Weather box
\|location \= Las Cruces, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1892–present
\|single line \= Y
\|Jan record high F \= 78
\|Feb record high F \= 86
\|Mar record high F \= 90
\|Apr record high F \= 96
\|May record high F \= 104
\|Jun record high F \= 110
\|Jul record high F \= 109
\|Aug record high F \= 109
\|Sep record high F \= 103
\|Oct record high F \= 95
\|Nov record high F \= 87
\|Dec record high F \= 78
\|year record high F \= 110
\|Jan avg record high F \= 70\.2
\|Feb avg record high F \= 76\.1
\|Mar avg record high F \= 83\.7
\|Apr avg record high F \= 89\.1
\|May avg record high F \= 97\.1
\|Jun avg record high F \= 103\.8
\|Jul avg record high F \= 103\.5
\|Aug avg record high F \= 100\.1
\|Sep avg record high F \= 96\.9
\|Oct avg record high F \= 90\.7
\|Nov avg record high F \= 79\.6
\|Dec avg record high F \= 71\.1
\|year avg record high F \= 105\.0
\|Jan high F \= 58\.9
\|Feb high F \= 64\.1
\|Mar high F \= 71\.3
\|Apr high F \= 78\.5
\|May high F \= 87\.1
\|Jun high F \= 96\.2
\|Jul high F \= 95\.6
\|Aug high F \= 93\.6
\|Sep high F \= 88\.4
\|Oct high F \= 79\.6
\|Nov high F \= 67\.9
\|Dec high F \= 58\.1
\|year high F \= 78\.3
\|Jan mean F \= 44\.2
\|Feb mean F \= 48\.8
\|Mar mean F \= 55\.2
\|Apr mean F \= 62\.1
\|May mean F \= 70\.6
\|Jun mean F \= 80\.0
\|Jul mean F \= 82\.4
\|Aug mean F \= 80\.6
\|Sep mean F \= 74\.8
\|Oct mean F \= 64\.0
\|Nov mean F \= 52\.2
\|Dec mean F \= 43\.9
\|year mean F \= 63\.2
\|Jan low F \= 29\.6
\|Feb low F \= 33\.5
\|Mar low F \= 39\.2
\|Apr low F \= 45\.7
\|May low F \= 54\.2
\|Jun low F \= 63\.7
\|Jul low F \= 69\.1
\|Aug low F \= 67\.7
\|Sep low F \= 61\.1
\|Oct low F \= 48\.3
\|Nov low F \= 36\.6
\|Dec low F \= 29\.7
\|year low F \= 48\.2
\|Jan avg record low F \= 20\.8
\|Feb avg record low F \= 23\.3
\|Mar avg record low F \= 29\.0
\|Apr avg record low F \= 35\.9
\|May avg record low F \= 43\.7
\|Jun avg record low F \= 55\.5
\|Jul avg record low F \= 63\.5
\|Aug avg record low F \= 62\.7
\|Sep avg record low F \= 51\.8
\|Oct avg record low F \= 36\.3
\|Nov avg record low F \= 25\.3
\|Dec avg record low F \= 19\.9
\|year avg record low F \= 17\.7
\|Jan record low F \= \-10
\|Feb record low F \= \-5
\|Mar record low F \= 8
\|Apr record low F \= 20
\|May record low F \= 27
\|Jun record low F \= 35
\|Jul record low F \= 42
\|Aug record low F \= 44
\|Sep record low F \= 30
\|Oct record low F \= 20
\|Nov record low F \= \-4
\|Dec record low F \= \-1
\|year record low F \= \-10
\|precipitation colour \= green
\|Jan precipitation inch \= 0\.48
\|Feb precipitation inch \= 0\.36
\|Mar precipitation inch \= 0\.26
\|Apr precipitation inch \= 0\.22
\|May precipitation inch \= 0\.38
\|Jun precipitation inch \= 0\.65
\|Jul precipitation inch \= 1\.77
\|Aug precipitation inch \= 1\.73
\|Sep precipitation inch \= 1\.41
\|Oct precipitation inch \= 0\.82
\|Nov precipitation inch \= 0\.42
\|Dec precipitation inch \= 0\.64
\|year precipitation inch \=
\|Jan snow inch \= 0\.4
\|Feb snow inch \= 0\.1
\|Mar snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Apr snow inch \= 0\.0
\|May snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Jun snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Oct snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Nov snow inch \= 0\.1
\|Dec snow inch \= 0\.4
\|year snow inch \= 1\.0
\|unit precipitation days \= 0\.01 in
\|Jan precipitation days \= 3\.3
\|Feb precipitation days \= 2\.5
\|Mar precipitation days \= 2\.0
\|Apr precipitation days \= 1\.6
\|May precipitation days \= 2\.1
\|Jun precipitation days \= 3\.2
\|Jul precipitation days \= 8\.9
\|Aug precipitation days \= 8\.4
\|Sep precipitation days \= 5\.2
\|Oct precipitation days \= 4\.0
\|Nov precipitation days \= 2\.6
\|Dec precipitation days \= 3\.3
\|year precipitation days \=
\|unit snow days \= 0\.1 in
\|Jan snow days \= 0\.3
\|Feb snow days \= 0\.1
\|Mar snow days \= 0\.0
\|Apr snow days \= 0\.0
\|May snow days \= 0\.0
\|Jun snow days \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow days \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow days \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow days \= 0\.0
\|Oct snow days \= 0\.0
\|Nov snow days \= 0\.1
\|Dec snow days \= 0\.3
\|year snow days \=
\|source 1 \= NOAA
{{cite web
\|url \= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\=normals\-monthly\-1991\-2020\&stations\=USC00298535\&format\=pdf\&dataTypes\=MLY\-TMAX\-NORMAL,MLY\-TMIN\-NORMAL,MLY\-TAVG\-NORMAL,MLY\-PRCP\-NORMAL,MLY\-SNOW\-NORMAL
\|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
\|title \= U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: State Univ, NM
\|access\-date \= August 26, 2023
}}
\|source 2 \= National Weather Service
{{cite web
\|url \= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\=epz
\|publisher \= National Weather Service
\|title \= NOAA Online Weather Data – NWS El Paso
\|access\-date \= August 26, 2023
}}
}}
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Satellite view of Las Cruces](/wiki/File:LasCruces_NewMexico_ISS011-E-8410.jpg \"LasCruces NewMexico ISS011-E-8410.jpg\")\nThe approximate elevation of Las Cruces is {{convert\\|3908\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} above sea level.",
"According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of {{convert\\|198\\.5\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip}}, of which {{convert\\|198\\.1\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip}} is land and {{convert\\|0\\.4\\|sqkm\\|order\\=flip\\|1}}, or 0\\.18%, is water.",
"Las Cruces is the center of the Organ Caldera; the [Doña Ana Mountains](/wiki/Do%C3%B1a_Ana_Mountains \"Doña Ana Mountains\") to the north and the [Organ Mountains](/wiki/Organ_Mountains \"Organ Mountains\") to the east are its margins.{{cite web\n \\|url \\= http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/tour/federal/monuments/gila\\_cliff\\_dwellings/home.html\n\\|author\\=Shari A. Kelley\n \\|title \\= Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument\n \\|publisher \\= New Mexico Bureau of Geology \\& Mineral Resources\n\\|date\\=24 October 2019\n \\|access\\-date \\= April 29, 2010 }} citing from {{Cite book \\|quotation\\=The Late Eocene—Oligocene peak of Cenozoic volcanism in southwestern New Mexico \\|editor\\=Mack, G.H. \\|editor2\\=Giles, K.A. \\|title\\=The Geology of New Mexico, a Geologic History \\|pages\\=271–294 \\|publisher\\=New Mexico Geological Society Special Publication \\|year\\=2004 \\|author\\=Chapin, C.E. \\|author2\\=McIntosh, W.C. \\|author3\\=Chamberlin, R.M.}} Its major eruption was 32 [Ma](/wiki/Megaannum%23SI_prefix_multipliers \"Megaannum#SI prefix multipliers\").{{cite journal\n \\|last\\= Seager \\|first\\= W.R. \\|year\\= 1981 \\|title\\= Geology of Oregon Mountains and southern San Andreas Mountains, New Mexico \\|journal\\= Memoir of the New Mexico Bureau of Mineral Resources \\|volume\\= 36 \\|pages\\= 1–97 }}",
"Doña Ana County lies within the [Chihuahuan Desert](/wiki/Chihuahuan_Desert \"Chihuahuan Desert\") ecoregion, and the vegetation surrounding the built portions of the city are typical of this setting; it includes creosote bush (*[Larrea tridentata](/wiki/Larrea_tridentata \"Larrea tridentata\")*), soaptree (*[Yucca elata](/wiki/Yucca_elata \"Yucca elata\")*), tarbush (*[Flourensia cernua](/wiki/Flourensia_cernua \"Flourensia cernua\")*), broom dalea (*[Psorothamnus](/wiki/Psorothamnus \"Psorothamnus\") scoparius*), and various desert grasses such as tobosa (*[Hilaria mutica](/wiki/Hilaria_mutica \"Hilaria mutica\")* or *Pleuraphis mutica*) and black grama (*[Bouteloua eriopoda](/wiki/Bouteloua_eriopoda \"Bouteloua eriopoda\")*).",
"The [Rio Grande](/wiki/Rio_Grande \"Rio Grande\") bisects the Mesilla Valley and passes west of Las Cruces proper, supplying irrigation water for the intensive agriculture surrounding the city.{{cite web\\|title\\=Elephant Butte Irrigation District\\|url\\=http://www.ebid\\-nm.org/wris2008/index.asp\\|access\\-date\\=22 December 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911052259/http://www.ebid\\-nm.org/wris2008/index.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=11 September 2013}} However, since the institution of water rights, the Rio Grande fills its banks only when water is released from upstream dams, which before 2020 usually occurred at least from March to September.{{cite web \\| last\\=Minardi \\| first\\=Di \\| title\\=A river used to run through it: how New Mexico handles a dwindling Rio Grande \\| website\\=the Guardian \\| date\\=2021\\-01\\-12 \\| url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/12/rio\\-grande\\-new\\-mexico\\-river\\-water \\| access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-12}} [Drought](/wiki/Drought \"Drought\") conditions,{{cite news\\| title\\=New Mexico is the driest of the dry \\|url\\=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la\\-me\\-parched\\-20130806\\-dto,0,5922502\\.htmlstory\\#axzz2oFc0nGAC\\| access\\-date\\=22 December 2013\\| newspaper\\=Los Angeles Times\\| date\\=Aug 6, 2013}} exacerbated by climate change, mean that the Rio Grande experiences increasingly short or small flows.\n[thumb\\|left\\|View of the [San Andres Mountains](/wiki/San_Andres_Mountains \"San Andres Mountains\")](/wiki/File:San_Andres_Mountains_east_Las_Cruces_%28cropped%29.jpg \"San Andres Mountains east Las Cruces (cropped).jpg\")\nPrior to farming and ranching, desert shrub vegetation extended into the valley from the adjacent deserts, including extensive stands of tornillo (*[Prosopis pubescens](/wiki/Prosopis_pubescens \"Prosopis pubescens\")*) and catclaw acacia (*[Acacia greggii](/wiki/Acacia_greggii \"Acacia greggii\")*). Desert grasslands extend in large part between the edges of Las Cruces and the lower slopes of the nearby Organ and Robledo Mountains, where grasses and assorted shrubs and cacti dominate large areas of this mostly rangeland as well as the occasional large\\-lot subdivision housing.",
"The desert and desert grassland uplands surrounding both sides of the Mesilla Valley are often dissected with [arroyos](/wiki/Arroyo_%28watercourse%29 \"Arroyo (watercourse)\"), dry streams that often carry water following heavy thunderstorms. These arroyos often contain scattered small trees, and they serve as wildlife corridors between Las Cruces' urban areas and adjacent deserts or mountains.",
"### Cityscape",
"[right\\|thumb\\|[Wells Fargo Tower](/wiki/Wells_Fargo_Tower_%28Las_Cruces%29 \"Wells Fargo Tower (Las Cruces)\") is the tallest building in downtown Las Cruces](/wiki/File:LasCrucesNM_WellsFargoTower.jpg \"LasCrucesNM WellsFargoTower.jpg\")",
"Unlike many cities its size, Las Cruces lacks a true central business district. This is because in the 1960s an urban\\-renewal project tore down a large part of the original downtown. Many chain stores and national restaurants are located in the rapidly developing east side. Las Cruces' shopping mall and a variety of retail stores and restaurants are located in this area.",
"However, the historic downtown of the city is the area around Main Street, a six\\-block stretch of which was closed off in 1973 to form a pedestrianized shopping area. The downtown mall has an extensive farmers market each Wednesday and Saturday morning, where a variety of foods and cultural items can be purchased from numerous small stands that are set up by local farmers, artists and craftspeople.{{Cite web\\| title \\= Farmers' and Crafts Market of Las Cruces {{!}} FCMLC\\| url \\= http://www.fcmlc.org\\| website \\= www.fcmlc.org\\| access\\-date \\= 2015\\-10\\-28}} This area also contains museums, businesses, restaurants, churches, art galleries and theaters, which add a great deal to the changing character of Las Cruces' historic downtown.",
"In August 2005, a [master plan](/wiki/Comprehensive_planning \"Comprehensive planning\") was adopted, the centerpiece of which was the restoration of narrow lanes of two\\-way traffic on this model portion of Main Street. Main Street was reopened to vehicular traffic in 2012\\.",
"In February 2013, Las Cruces Mayor [Ken Miyagishima](/wiki/Ken_Miyagishima \"Ken Miyagishima\") announced during his \"State of the City\" address that a {{convert\\|700\\|acre\\|adj\\=on}} park in the area behind the Las Cruces Dam was under construction, in cooperation with the [Army Corps of Engineers](/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers \"United States Army Corps of Engineers\"). The area features trails through restored wetlands and serves as a major refuge for [migratory birds](/wiki/Migratory_bird \"Migratory bird\") and a key recreational area for the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://krwg.org/post/full\\-text\\-las\\-cruces\\-state\\-city\\-address\\|title\\=Full Text: Las Cruces State Of The City Address\\|first\\=KRWG News And\\|last\\=Partners\\|date\\=13 February 2013 }}",
"### Climate",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Jardín de Mesquite](/wiki/File:Jardin_de_Mesquite_Las_Cruces_New_Mexico.jpg \"Jardin de Mesquite Las Cruces New Mexico.jpg\")\nLas Cruces has a [cool desert climate](/wiki/Cool_desert_climate \"Cool desert climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\") *BWk*). Winters alternate between colder and windier weather following trough and frontal passages, and warmer, sunnier periods; light freezes occur 69 nights on average. Spring months can be windy, particularly in the afternoons, sometimes causing periods of blowing dust and short\\-lived dust storms. Summers begin with the hottest weather of the year, with some extended periods of over {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} temperatures not uncommon, while the latter half of the summer sees increased humidity and frequent afternoon thunderstorms, with slightly lower daytime temperatures. Autumns feature decreasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation.",
"Precipitation is very light from October to June, with only occasional winter storm systems bringing any precipitation to the Las Cruces area. Most winter moisture is in the form of rain, though some light snowfalls happen most winters, usually enough to accumulate and stay on the ground for a few hours. Summer precipitation is often from heavy thunderstorms, especially from the late summer [monsoon](/wiki/Monsoon \"Monsoon\") weather pattern.\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Las Cruces Veterans Memorial Park](/wiki/Las_Cruces_Veterans_Memorial_Park \"Las Cruces Veterans Memorial Park\")](/wiki/File:Veterans_Memorial_Park_Las_Cruces_New_Mexico.jpg \"Veterans Memorial Park Las Cruces New Mexico.jpg\")\nSince records began in 1892, the lowest temperature recorded at New Mexico State University has been {{convert\\|−10\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} on January 11, 1962 – though only ten nights have ever fallen to or below {{convert\\|0\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} – and the highest {{convert\\|110\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} on June 28, 1994\\. The lowest maximum on record is {{convert\\|16\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} on January 28, 1948, and the highest minimum {{convert\\|83\\|°F\\|°C\\|1}} on June 8, 2024\\. The wettest calendar year has been 1941 with {{convert\\|19\\.60\\|in\\|mm\\|1}}, although 1905 with {{convert\\|17\\.09\\|in\\|mm\\|1}} is the only other year to exceed {{convert\\|15\\|in\\|mm}}. The only months to exceed {{convert\\|6\\|in\\|mm}} have been September 1941 with {{convert\\|7\\.53\\|in\\|mm\\|1}} and August 1935 with {{convert\\|7\\.41\\|in\\|mm\\|1}}. The wettest single day has been August 30, 1935 with {{convert\\|6\\.49\\|in\\|mm\\|1}} and the driest calendar year 1970 with {{convert\\|3\\.44\\|in\\|mm\\|1}}.",
"{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= Las Cruces, New Mexico, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1892–present\n\\|single line \\= Y\n\\|Jan record high F \\= 78\n\\|Feb record high F \\= 86\n\\|Mar record high F \\= 90\n\\|Apr record high F \\= 96\n\\|May record high F \\= 104\n\\|Jun record high F \\= 110\n\\|Jul record high F \\= 109\n\\|Aug record high F \\= 109\n\\|Sep record high F \\= 103\n\\|Oct record high F \\= 95\n\\|Nov record high F \\= 87\n\\|Dec record high F \\= 78\n\\|year record high F \\= 110\n\\|Jan avg record high F \\= 70\\.2\n\\|Feb avg record high F \\= 76\\.1\n\\|Mar avg record high F \\= 83\\.7\n\\|Apr avg record high F \\= 89\\.1\n\\|May avg record high F \\= 97\\.1\n\\|Jun avg record high F \\= 103\\.8\n\\|Jul avg record high F \\= 103\\.5\n\\|Aug avg record high F \\= 100\\.1\n\\|Sep avg record high F \\= 96\\.9\n\\|Oct avg record high F \\= 90\\.7\n\\|Nov avg record high F \\= 79\\.6\n\\|Dec avg record high F \\= 71\\.1\n\\|year avg record high F \\= 105\\.0\n\\|Jan high F \\= 58\\.9\n\\|Feb high F \\= 64\\.1\n\\|Mar high F \\= 71\\.3\n\\|Apr high F \\= 78\\.5\n\\|May high F \\= 87\\.1\n\\|Jun high F \\= 96\\.2\n\\|Jul high F \\= 95\\.6\n\\|Aug high F \\= 93\\.6\n\\|Sep high F \\= 88\\.4\n\\|Oct high F \\= 79\\.6\n\\|Nov high F \\= 67\\.9\n\\|Dec high F \\= 58\\.1\n\\|year high F \\= 78\\.3\n\\|Jan mean F \\= 44\\.2\n\\|Feb mean F \\= 48\\.8\n\\|Mar mean F \\= 55\\.2\n\\|Apr mean F \\= 62\\.1\n\\|May mean F \\= 70\\.6\n\\|Jun mean F \\= 80\\.0\n\\|Jul mean F \\= 82\\.4\n\\|Aug mean F \\= 80\\.6\n\\|Sep mean F \\= 74\\.8\n\\|Oct mean F \\= 64\\.0\n\\|Nov mean F \\= 52\\.2\n\\|Dec mean F \\= 43\\.9\n\\|year mean F \\= 63\\.2\n\\|Jan low F \\= 29\\.6\n\\|Feb low F \\= 33\\.5\n\\|Mar low F \\= 39\\.2\n\\|Apr low F \\= 45\\.7\n\\|May low F \\= 54\\.2\n\\|Jun low F \\= 63\\.7\n\\|Jul low F \\= 69\\.1\n\\|Aug low F \\= 67\\.7\n\\|Sep low F \\= 61\\.1\n\\|Oct low F \\= 48\\.3\n\\|Nov low F \\= 36\\.6\n\\|Dec low F \\= 29\\.7\n\\|year low F \\= 48\\.2\n\\|Jan avg record low F \\= 20\\.8\n\\|Feb avg record low F \\= 23\\.3\n\\|Mar avg record low F \\= 29\\.0\n\\|Apr avg record low F \\= 35\\.9\n\\|May avg record low F \\= 43\\.7\n\\|Jun avg record low F \\= 55\\.5\n\\|Jul avg record low F \\= 63\\.5\n\\|Aug avg record low F \\= 62\\.7\n\\|Sep avg record low F \\= 51\\.8\n\\|Oct avg record low F \\= 36\\.3\n\\|Nov avg record low F \\= 25\\.3\n\\|Dec avg record low F \\= 19\\.9\n\\|year avg record low F \\= 17\\.7\n\\|Jan record low F \\= \\-10\n\\|Feb record low F \\= \\-5\n\\|Mar record low F \\= 8\n\\|Apr record low F \\= 20\n\\|May record low F \\= 27\n\\|Jun record low F \\= 35\n\\|Jul record low F \\= 42\n\\|Aug record low F \\= 44\n\\|Sep record low F \\= 30\n\\|Oct record low F \\= 20\n\\|Nov record low F \\= \\-4\n\\|Dec record low F \\= \\-1\n\\|year record low F \\= \\-10\n\\|precipitation colour \\= green\n\\|Jan precipitation inch \\= 0\\.48\n\\|Feb precipitation inch \\= 0\\.36\n\\|Mar precipitation inch \\= 0\\.26\n\\|Apr precipitation inch \\= 0\\.22\n\\|May precipitation inch \\= 0\\.38\n\\|Jun precipitation inch \\= 0\\.65\n\\|Jul precipitation inch \\= 1\\.77\n\\|Aug precipitation inch \\= 1\\.73\n\\|Sep precipitation inch \\= 1\\.41\n\\|Oct precipitation inch \\= 0\\.82\n\\|Nov precipitation inch \\= 0\\.42\n\\|Dec precipitation inch \\= 0\\.64\n\\|year precipitation inch \\= \n\\|Jan snow inch \\= 0\\.4\n\\|Feb snow inch \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Mar snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Apr snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|May snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jun snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Oct snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Nov snow inch \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Dec snow inch \\= 0\\.4\n\\|year snow inch \\= 1\\.0\n\\|unit precipitation days \\= 0\\.01 in\n\\|Jan precipitation days \\= 3\\.3\n\\|Feb precipitation days \\= 2\\.5\n\\|Mar precipitation days \\= 2\\.0\n\\|Apr precipitation days \\= 1\\.6\n\\|May precipitation days \\= 2\\.1\n\\|Jun precipitation days \\= 3\\.2\n\\|Jul precipitation days \\= 8\\.9\n\\|Aug precipitation days \\= 8\\.4\n\\|Sep precipitation days \\= 5\\.2\n\\|Oct precipitation days \\= 4\\.0\n\\|Nov precipitation days \\= 2\\.6\n\\|Dec precipitation days \\= 3\\.3\n\\|year precipitation days \\= \n\\|unit snow days \\= 0\\.1 in\n\\|Jan snow days \\= 0\\.3\n\\|Feb snow days \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Mar snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Apr snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|May snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jun snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Oct snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Nov snow days \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Dec snow days \\= 0\\.3\n\\|year snow days \\=",
"\\|source 1 \\= NOAA\n{{cite web\n\\|url \\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\\=normals\\-monthly\\-1991\\-2020\\&stations\\=USC00298535\\&format\\=pdf\\&dataTypes\\=MLY\\-TMAX\\-NORMAL,MLY\\-TMIN\\-NORMAL,MLY\\-TAVG\\-NORMAL,MLY\\-PRCP\\-NORMAL,MLY\\-SNOW\\-NORMAL\n\\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\\|title \\= U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: State Univ, NM\n\\|access\\-date \\= August 26, 2023\n}}",
"\\|source 2 \\= National Weather Service\n{{cite web\n\\|url \\= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\\=epz\n\\|publisher \\= National Weather Service\n\\|title \\= NOAA Online Weather Data – NWS El Paso\n\\|access\\-date \\= August 26, 2023\n}}",
"}}",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### Marshall Islands
*Tuscana* arrived at [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia "Hampton Roads, Virginia") on 6 April 1944 and operated out of that port, conducting drills and shakedown in [Chesapeake Bay](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay "Chesapeake Bay"). On 26 April, she set her course via the [Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal "Panama Canal") for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii"). She entered Pearl Harbor on 23 May, provisioned, took on passengers, and got underway for the [Marshalls](/wiki/Marshall_Islands "Marshall Islands") on 26 May.
She arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein") on 5 June; got underway on 27 June, steaming with barge *[YC\-1008](/wiki/YC-1008 "YC-1008")* in tow; and arrived at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok "Eniwetok") on 29 June. On 20 July, while attempting to transfer a passenger to {{USS\|Vega\|AK\-17\|3}} during a rain squall, *Tuscana*{{'}}s Buoy Boat No. 1 became stranded on a reef. When pounding seas forced the boat's crew to abandon her, a boat from destroyer {{USS\|Downes\|DD\-375\|3}} came to the rescue and saved all hands. On 27 July, *Tuscana* departed Eniwetok, with other net cargo ships and an escort, and set her course for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas "Marianas").
### Mariana Islands
*Tuscana* anchored at Garapan on 1 August, detached men and cargo for the operation of harbor and waterfront facilities, and on 7 August began net operations. Throughout the remainder of the month, *Tuscana*{{'}}s crew labored to assemble and launch anti\-torpedo nets which were towed into place and installed by the smaller [net laying ships](/wiki/Net_laying_ship "Net laying ship") (ANs). On this, her first net laying assignment, *Tuscana* provided nets to protect [Mutcho Point](/wiki/Mutcho_Point "Mutcho Point") and [Garapan](/wiki/Garapan "Garapan") harbor from submarine attack. After completing this vital task, *Tuscana* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") on 11 September and began loading stores, buoys, and net materials.
### Ulithi
On 19 September, she got underway with a slow convoy of eight ships and three escorts bound for the Marshalls. After a few days at Eniwetok, she continued on toward the [Carolines](/wiki/Caroline_Islands "Caroline Islands") and arrived at [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi "Ulithi") on 9 October. Here, conferences on net laying took place on board the ship. Then, on 15 October, *Tuscana*{{'}}s crew began net assembly. On 26 October, she began delivering nets to smaller net laying ships which towed them into place and installed them to protect the lagoon anchorage. On 28 October, *Tuscana* assembled the last net of this operation. The same day, {{USS\|Viburnum\|AN\-57\|3}}, a member of the task unit working with *Tuscana*, struck a [Japanese](/wiki/Japan "Japan") mine which caused severe damage to the net layer and underscored the ever\-present hazards of warfare in the Pacific.
*Tuscana* embarked passengers on 11 November and, on the following day, got underway and steamed via Eniwetok to the Hawaiian Islands. Throughout most of December, she remained at Pearl Harbor undergoing repairs. Then, on 27 December, she set her course again for the Marshalls and spent a week at Eniwetok before proceeding on to the western Carolines. Shortly after midday on 20 January 1945, she passed through [Mugai Channel](/wiki/Mugai_Channel "Mugai Channel") and anchored at Ulithi. Although hampered at first by rough seas. *Tuscana* supplied moorings and assembled 1,260 yards of anti\-torpedo net for [Towachi Channel](/wiki/Towachi_Channel "Towachi Channel") and an additional 6,390 yards for use elsewhere in the approaches to Ulithi. On 12 February 1945, her assignment completed, she departed Ulithi.
### Okinawa
In March, she underwent drydocking at Pearl Harbor; then took on cargo and passengers. She returned to Ulithi on 4 April 1945, and, on 12 April, departed that port steaming in convoy for [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island "Okinawa Island"). She anchored off the [Hagushi](/wiki/Hagushi "Hagushi") landing beaches on 18 April. Near dusk each evening, the general alarm sounded, a regular reminder of the danger of Japanese air raiders. On 2 May, sailors on board *Tuscana* saw the flash of firing off the ship's starboard quarter and later observed the glow of an explosion which they thought marked the fiery end of a Japanese suicide boat. On 6 May, *Tuscana* began to assemble nets and moorings to screen the anchorage.
Early in the day on 28 May, as *Tuscana* lay anchored in [Buckner Bay](/wiki/Buckner_Bay "Buckner Bay"), a swarm of [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze "Kamikaze") attacked. For *Tuscana*, the action began at 07:25, when a Japanese airplane crashed into a merchant ship only 800 yards off her starboard bow. For over 30 minutes, *Tuscana* fought off the airborne raiders. At 07:35, a suicide plane crashed into {{USS\|Sandoval\|APA\-194\|3}}. Soon thereafter, *Tuscana* opened fire on her first enemy plane; and, moments later, another came in toward her port bow. *Tuscana*{{'}}s guns opened on the attacker and kept it under fire until it disappeared in the low overcast. At 07:44, she engaged a third aircraft and splashed it 600 yards off the port bow. She then turned her attention to the rescue of two survivors from *Sandoval*. At 07:55, yet another Japanese plane came in range, and *Tuscana* splashed this raider some three miles away. During the fight, *Tuscana* lost her starboard mainmast boom, which was toppled and damaged beyond operational use, and her topping lift was carried away by friendly fire. At 0758, *Tuscana*{{'}}s guns opened on the last of the attackers and ceased fire five minutes later, just as a kamikaze crashed merchant ship SS *Josiah Snelling*. At 09:00, the all clear was sounded, and *Tuscana* emerged from her encounter with the enemy without personnel loss and with the knowledge of having assisted in the splashing of two enemy planes.
During an early afternoon alert on 3 June 1945, *Tuscana*{{'}}s gunners splashed a Japanese aircraft only 500 yards off her starboard quarter. On 6 June, she got underway and proceeded via [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan "Saipan") and the Hawaiian Islands to the California coast. On 6 July, she anchored in [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay "San Francisco Bay") to begin a prolonged period of overhaul. While the ship underwent extensive repairs, members of her crew attended schools in damage control, fire fighting, and radar. During this interlude, hostilities ended in the Pacific.
### Post\-war activities
Late in August, *Tuscana* completed dock trials and tests; then provisioned and got underway on 7 September. Steaming via Pearl Harbor, she arrived at Okinawa on 14 October and began discharging her cargo. Later in the month, as she was proceeding to Japan, she sighted and destroyed a floating mine. The ship anchored at [Sasebo](/wiki/Sasebo%2C_Nagasaki "Sasebo, Nagasaki") on 25 October. She returned to Okinawa in November; then continued on to Hawaii; and reached Pearl Harbor on 10 December. She discharged passengers and cargo there; and, on 14 December, she set her course for [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama "Balboa, Panama"). Steaming via the Panama Canal, she arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") on 11 January 1946\.
### Decommissioning and sale
The net cargo ship was decommissioned on 28 January 1946 and returned to the War Shipping Administration the next day. Her name was struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register") on 25 February 1946\. Laid up under the name *William R. Cox*, the ship remained in custody of the Maritime Administration until she was sold in the late 1960s to Horton Industries, Inc., and scrapped in 1967\.
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### Marshall Islands",
"*Tuscana* arrived at [Hampton Roads, Virginia](/wiki/Hampton_Roads%2C_Virginia \"Hampton Roads, Virginia\") on 6 April 1944 and operated out of that port, conducting drills and shakedown in [Chesapeake Bay](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay \"Chesapeake Bay\"). On 26 April, she set her course via the [Canal Zone](/wiki/Panama_Canal \"Panama Canal\") for [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\"). She entered Pearl Harbor on 23 May, provisioned, took on passengers, and got underway for the [Marshalls](/wiki/Marshall_Islands \"Marshall Islands\") on 26 May.",
"She arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") on 5 June; got underway on 27 June, steaming with barge *[YC\\-1008](/wiki/YC-1008 \"YC-1008\")* in tow; and arrived at [Eniwetok](/wiki/Eniwetok \"Eniwetok\") on 29 June. On 20 July, while attempting to transfer a passenger to {{USS\\|Vega\\|AK\\-17\\|3}} during a rain squall, *Tuscana*{{'}}s Buoy Boat No. 1 became stranded on a reef. When pounding seas forced the boat's crew to abandon her, a boat from destroyer {{USS\\|Downes\\|DD\\-375\\|3}} came to the rescue and saved all hands. On 27 July, *Tuscana* departed Eniwetok, with other net cargo ships and an escort, and set her course for the [Marianas](/wiki/Marianas \"Marianas\").",
"### Mariana Islands",
"*Tuscana* anchored at Garapan on 1 August, detached men and cargo for the operation of harbor and waterfront facilities, and on 7 August began net operations. Throughout the remainder of the month, *Tuscana*{{'}}s crew labored to assemble and launch anti\\-torpedo nets which were towed into place and installed by the smaller [net laying ships](/wiki/Net_laying_ship \"Net laying ship\") (ANs). On this, her first net laying assignment, *Tuscana* provided nets to protect [Mutcho Point](/wiki/Mutcho_Point \"Mutcho Point\") and [Garapan](/wiki/Garapan \"Garapan\") harbor from submarine attack. After completing this vital task, *Tuscana* arrived at [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") on 11 September and began loading stores, buoys, and net materials.",
"### Ulithi",
"On 19 September, she got underway with a slow convoy of eight ships and three escorts bound for the Marshalls. After a few days at Eniwetok, she continued on toward the [Carolines](/wiki/Caroline_Islands \"Caroline Islands\") and arrived at [Ulithi](/wiki/Ulithi \"Ulithi\") on 9 October. Here, conferences on net laying took place on board the ship. Then, on 15 October, *Tuscana*{{'}}s crew began net assembly. On 26 October, she began delivering nets to smaller net laying ships which towed them into place and installed them to protect the lagoon anchorage. On 28 October, *Tuscana* assembled the last net of this operation. The same day, {{USS\\|Viburnum\\|AN\\-57\\|3}}, a member of the task unit working with *Tuscana*, struck a [Japanese](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\") mine which caused severe damage to the net layer and underscored the ever\\-present hazards of warfare in the Pacific.",
"*Tuscana* embarked passengers on 11 November and, on the following day, got underway and steamed via Eniwetok to the Hawaiian Islands. Throughout most of December, she remained at Pearl Harbor undergoing repairs. Then, on 27 December, she set her course again for the Marshalls and spent a week at Eniwetok before proceeding on to the western Carolines. Shortly after midday on 20 January 1945, she passed through [Mugai Channel](/wiki/Mugai_Channel \"Mugai Channel\") and anchored at Ulithi. Although hampered at first by rough seas. *Tuscana* supplied moorings and assembled 1,260 yards of anti\\-torpedo net for [Towachi Channel](/wiki/Towachi_Channel \"Towachi Channel\") and an additional 6,390 yards for use elsewhere in the approaches to Ulithi. On 12 February 1945, her assignment completed, she departed Ulithi.",
"### Okinawa",
"In March, she underwent drydocking at Pearl Harbor; then took on cargo and passengers. She returned to Ulithi on 4 April 1945, and, on 12 April, departed that port steaming in convoy for [Okinawa](/wiki/Okinawa_Island \"Okinawa Island\"). She anchored off the [Hagushi](/wiki/Hagushi \"Hagushi\") landing beaches on 18 April. Near dusk each evening, the general alarm sounded, a regular reminder of the danger of Japanese air raiders. On 2 May, sailors on board *Tuscana* saw the flash of firing off the ship's starboard quarter and later observed the glow of an explosion which they thought marked the fiery end of a Japanese suicide boat. On 6 May, *Tuscana* began to assemble nets and moorings to screen the anchorage.",
"Early in the day on 28 May, as *Tuscana* lay anchored in [Buckner Bay](/wiki/Buckner_Bay \"Buckner Bay\"), a swarm of [kamikazes](/wiki/Kamikaze \"Kamikaze\") attacked. For *Tuscana*, the action began at 07:25, when a Japanese airplane crashed into a merchant ship only 800 yards off her starboard bow. For over 30 minutes, *Tuscana* fought off the airborne raiders. At 07:35, a suicide plane crashed into {{USS\\|Sandoval\\|APA\\-194\\|3}}. Soon thereafter, *Tuscana* opened fire on her first enemy plane; and, moments later, another came in toward her port bow. *Tuscana*{{'}}s guns opened on the attacker and kept it under fire until it disappeared in the low overcast. At 07:44, she engaged a third aircraft and splashed it 600 yards off the port bow. She then turned her attention to the rescue of two survivors from *Sandoval*. At 07:55, yet another Japanese plane came in range, and *Tuscana* splashed this raider some three miles away. During the fight, *Tuscana* lost her starboard mainmast boom, which was toppled and damaged beyond operational use, and her topping lift was carried away by friendly fire. At 0758, *Tuscana*{{'}}s guns opened on the last of the attackers and ceased fire five minutes later, just as a kamikaze crashed merchant ship SS *Josiah Snelling*. At 09:00, the all clear was sounded, and *Tuscana* emerged from her encounter with the enemy without personnel loss and with the knowledge of having assisted in the splashing of two enemy planes.",
"During an early afternoon alert on 3 June 1945, *Tuscana*{{'}}s gunners splashed a Japanese aircraft only 500 yards off her starboard quarter. On 6 June, she got underway and proceeded via [Saipan](/wiki/Saipan \"Saipan\") and the Hawaiian Islands to the California coast. On 6 July, she anchored in [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\") to begin a prolonged period of overhaul. While the ship underwent extensive repairs, members of her crew attended schools in damage control, fire fighting, and radar. During this interlude, hostilities ended in the Pacific.",
"### Post\\-war activities",
"Late in August, *Tuscana* completed dock trials and tests; then provisioned and got underway on 7 September. Steaming via Pearl Harbor, she arrived at Okinawa on 14 October and began discharging her cargo. Later in the month, as she was proceeding to Japan, she sighted and destroyed a floating mine. The ship anchored at [Sasebo](/wiki/Sasebo%2C_Nagasaki \"Sasebo, Nagasaki\") on 25 October. She returned to Okinawa in November; then continued on to Hawaii; and reached Pearl Harbor on 10 December. She discharged passengers and cargo there; and, on 14 December, she set her course for [Balboa](/wiki/Balboa%2C_Panama \"Balboa, Panama\"). Steaming via the Panama Canal, she arrived at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") on 11 January 1946\\.",
"### Decommissioning and sale",
"The net cargo ship was decommissioned on 28 January 1946 and returned to the War Shipping Administration the next day. Her name was struck from the [Navy List](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\") on 25 February 1946\\. Laid up under the name *William R. Cox*, the ship remained in custody of the Maritime Administration until she was sold in the late 1960s to Horton Industries, Inc., and scrapped in 1967\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
In 1929, it was announced that [Morristown, New Jersey](/wiki/Morristown%2C_New_Jersey "Morristown, New Jersey") would get an airport. The airport would sit on 280 acres of land on the Columbia Meadowlands. The airport opened in the early 1930s, but due to the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), the activity at the field was relatively slow. In 1933, the [Federal Government](/wiki/Federal_Government "Federal Government") provided funds for a better airport. Midway through construction, the airport ran out of money.
Morristown Municipal Airport's initial purpose was to serve as the eastern hub for the [Zeppelin](/wiki/Zeppelin "Zeppelin"), but due to the [Hindenburg Disaster](/wiki/Hindenburg_Disaster "Hindenburg Disaster") in 1936, those plans were later scrapped.{{cite web \|last1\=Holden \|first1\=Henry \|title\=A History of Morristown Municipal Airport \|url\=https://www.mypaperonline.com/a\-history\-of\-morristown\-municipal\-airport.html \|access\-date\=29 April 2022}}
During [World War Two](/wiki/World_War_Two "World War Two"), Morristown served as a primary training center for the army. The Army became such an economic advantage to the airport that the airport made enough money to purchase and install hangars by the end of the War.
In 1947, the new hangars brought companies to the airport and the city of Morristown. The airport also created a significant population growth.
In 1969, Judge [Joseph Stamler](/wiki/Joseph_Stamler "Joseph Stamler") of [New Jersey Superior Court](/wiki/New_Jersey_Superior_Court "New Jersey Superior Court") issued a 1969 opinion in a case regarding noise from [business jets](/wiki/Business_jet "Business jet") operating at the airport, brought by residents and governments of surrounding municipalities, in which he set a curfew limiting takeoffs and landings during overnight hours. The judge said, "the giants of industry will see the wisdom of slowing the cross\-country speed of their important executives, and will take a close, concerned look at the little people of this country" who were dealing with the impact of noise and ticket prices.Saxon, Wolfgang. ["Joseph Howard Stamler, 86, Influential New Jersey Judge"](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/23/nyregion/joseph-howard-stamler-86-influential-new-jersey-judge.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, October 23, 1998\. Accessed January 24, 2018\.["Stamler Sums Up Career"](https://www.nytimes.com/1973/04/29/archives/stamler-sums-up-career-cae-involved-housing.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, April 29, 1973\. Accessed January 24, 2018\.
Like most of the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") at the time, the 1960\-70s became the [Jet Age](/wiki/Jet_Age "Jet Age") at Morristown. For Morristown, this meant the expansion of the airport to accommodate [jet aircraft](/wiki/Jet_aircraft "Jet aircraft"). Morristown's airport expansion meant a significant extension to its main runway from 4000ft to 5998ft, a new, state\-of\-the\-art [control tower](/wiki/Control_tower "Control tower"), and an [instrument landing system](/wiki/Instrument_landing_system "Instrument landing system") (ILS). The airport became known as "the VIP stop." Commercial air traffic became a goal for the airport but was never reached.
In 2002, several hundred planes were based at the airport, making it one of the busiest [General Aviation](/wiki/General_Aviation "General Aviation") airports in the United States.
During his presidency, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump "Donald Trump") flew into the airport on an Air Force [Boeing C\-32](/wiki/Boeing_C-32 "Boeing C-32") operating as [Air Force One](/wiki/Air_Force_One "Air Force One") during his weekend visits and summer vacations at his home in [Bedminster, New Jersey](/wiki/Bedminster%2C_New_Jersey "Bedminster, New Jersey"), which is about 24 miles southwest of the airport.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nj.com/politics/index.ssf/2017/06/trump\_lands\_in\_bedminster\_for\_july\_4\_weekend.html\|title\=Trump lands in Bedminster for weekend in Jersey\|publisher\=}}{{cite web\|url\=https://morristowngreen.com/2017/05/03/morristown\-airport\-police\-preparing\-for\-president\-trump\-this\-weekend/\|title\=Morristown airport, police preparing for President Trump this weekend \- Morristown Green\|first\=Kevin\|last\=Coughlin\|website\=morristowngreen.com}}\*
### Statistics
In the year ending July 31, 2022, the airport had 110,939 aircraft operations, an average of 304 per day: 88% [general aviation](/wiki/General_aviation "General aviation"), 12% [air taxi](/wiki/Air_taxi "Air taxi"), \<1% military and \<1% airline. At that time, there were 119 aircraft based at this airport: 48 single\-engine, 12 multi\-engine, 57 jet and 2 [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In 1929, it was announced that [Morristown, New Jersey](/wiki/Morristown%2C_New_Jersey \"Morristown, New Jersey\") would get an airport. The airport would sit on 280 acres of land on the Columbia Meadowlands. The airport opened in the early 1930s, but due to the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), the activity at the field was relatively slow. In 1933, the [Federal Government](/wiki/Federal_Government \"Federal Government\") provided funds for a better airport. Midway through construction, the airport ran out of money.",
"Morristown Municipal Airport's initial purpose was to serve as the eastern hub for the [Zeppelin](/wiki/Zeppelin \"Zeppelin\"), but due to the [Hindenburg Disaster](/wiki/Hindenburg_Disaster \"Hindenburg Disaster\") in 1936, those plans were later scrapped.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Holden \\|first1\\=Henry \\|title\\=A History of Morristown Municipal Airport \\|url\\=https://www.mypaperonline.com/a\\-history\\-of\\-morristown\\-municipal\\-airport.html \\|access\\-date\\=29 April 2022}}",
"During [World War Two](/wiki/World_War_Two \"World War Two\"), Morristown served as a primary training center for the army. The Army became such an economic advantage to the airport that the airport made enough money to purchase and install hangars by the end of the War.",
"In 1947, the new hangars brought companies to the airport and the city of Morristown. The airport also created a significant population growth.",
"In 1969, Judge [Joseph Stamler](/wiki/Joseph_Stamler \"Joseph Stamler\") of [New Jersey Superior Court](/wiki/New_Jersey_Superior_Court \"New Jersey Superior Court\") issued a 1969 opinion in a case regarding noise from [business jets](/wiki/Business_jet \"Business jet\") operating at the airport, brought by residents and governments of surrounding municipalities, in which he set a curfew limiting takeoffs and landings during overnight hours. The judge said, \"the giants of industry will see the wisdom of slowing the cross\\-country speed of their important executives, and will take a close, concerned look at the little people of this country\" who were dealing with the impact of noise and ticket prices.Saxon, Wolfgang. [\"Joseph Howard Stamler, 86, Influential New Jersey Judge\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/23/nyregion/joseph-howard-stamler-86-influential-new-jersey-judge.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, October 23, 1998\\. Accessed January 24, 2018\\.[\"Stamler Sums Up Career\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1973/04/29/archives/stamler-sums-up-career-cae-involved-housing.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, April 29, 1973\\. Accessed January 24, 2018\\.",
"Like most of the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") at the time, the 1960\\-70s became the [Jet Age](/wiki/Jet_Age \"Jet Age\") at Morristown. For Morristown, this meant the expansion of the airport to accommodate [jet aircraft](/wiki/Jet_aircraft \"Jet aircraft\"). Morristown's airport expansion meant a significant extension to its main runway from 4000ft to 5998ft, a new, state\\-of\\-the\\-art [control tower](/wiki/Control_tower \"Control tower\"), and an [instrument landing system](/wiki/Instrument_landing_system \"Instrument landing system\") (ILS). The airport became known as \"the VIP stop.\" Commercial air traffic became a goal for the airport but was never reached.",
"In 2002, several hundred planes were based at the airport, making it one of the busiest [General Aviation](/wiki/General_Aviation \"General Aviation\") airports in the United States.",
"During his presidency, [Donald Trump](/wiki/Donald_Trump \"Donald Trump\") flew into the airport on an Air Force [Boeing C\\-32](/wiki/Boeing_C-32 \"Boeing C-32\") operating as [Air Force One](/wiki/Air_Force_One \"Air Force One\") during his weekend visits and summer vacations at his home in [Bedminster, New Jersey](/wiki/Bedminster%2C_New_Jersey \"Bedminster, New Jersey\"), which is about 24 miles southwest of the airport.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nj.com/politics/index.ssf/2017/06/trump\\_lands\\_in\\_bedminster\\_for\\_july\\_4\\_weekend.html\\|title\\=Trump lands in Bedminster for weekend in Jersey\\|publisher\\=}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://morristowngreen.com/2017/05/03/morristown\\-airport\\-police\\-preparing\\-for\\-president\\-trump\\-this\\-weekend/\\|title\\=Morristown airport, police preparing for President Trump this weekend \\- Morristown Green\\|first\\=Kevin\\|last\\=Coughlin\\|website\\=morristowngreen.com}}\\*",
"### Statistics",
"In the year ending July 31, 2022, the airport had 110,939 aircraft operations, an average of 304 per day: 88% [general aviation](/wiki/General_aviation \"General aviation\"), 12% [air taxi](/wiki/Air_taxi \"Air taxi\"), \\<1% military and \\<1% airline. At that time, there were 119 aircraft based at this airport: 48 single\\-engine, 12 multi\\-engine, 57 jet and 2 [helicopter](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\").",
""
] |
Genres
------
[thumb\|320x320px\|Arno Breker, *The Great Torchbearer* (1939\). The sculpture stood, together with the sculpture *The Wehrmacht*, in the courtyard of the New Reich Chancellery in Berlin until 1945, and is now owned by the Breker Museum. It was intended to represent the spirit of Nazi Germany.](/wiki/File:ArnoBrekerDiePartei.jpg "ArnoBrekerDiePartei.jpg")
Belief in a Germanic spirit—defined as mystical, rural, moral, bearing ancient wisdom, noble in the face of a tragic destiny—existed long before the rise of the Nazis; [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") celebrated such ideas in his work.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|pp\=23–24}} Beginning before World War I the well\-known German architect and painter [Paul Schultze\-Naumburg](/wiki/Paul_Schultze-Naumburg "Paul Schultze-Naumburg")'s influential writings, which invoked racial theories in condemning modern art and architecture, supplied much of the basis for Adolf Hitler's belief that classical Greece and the Middle Ages were the true sources of Aryan art.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|pp\=29–32}}
Among the well\-known artists endorsed by the Nazis were the sculptors [Josef Thorak](/wiki/Josef_Thorak "Josef Thorak") and [Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker "Arno Breker"), and painters [Werner Peiner](/wiki/Werner_Peiner "Werner Peiner"), [Arthur Kampf](/wiki/Arthur_Kampf "Arthur Kampf"), [Adolf Wissel](/wiki/Adolf_Wissel "Adolf Wissel") and [Conrad Hommel](/wiki/Conrad_Hommel "Conrad Hommel"). In July 1937, four years after it came to power, the Nazi party put on two art exhibitions in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"). The Great German Art Exhibition was designed to show works that Hitler approved of, depicting statuesque blonde nudes along with idealized soldiers and landscapes. The second exhibition, just down the road, showed the other side of [German art](/wiki/German_art "German art"): modern, abstract, non\-representational—or as the Nazis saw it, "degenerate".
According to Klaus Fischer, "Nazi art, in short, was colossal, impersonal, and stereotypical. People were shorn of all individuality and became mere emblems expressive of assumed eternal truths. In looking at Nazi architecture, art, or painting one quickly gains the feeling that the faces, shapes, and colors all serve a propagandistic purpose; they are all the same stylized statements of Nazi virtues—power, strength, solidity, Nordic beauty."Fischer 1997, p.368
### Painting
[thumb\|A Nazi St George killing the dragon (flyleaf of a book about heraldry)\|left](/wiki/File:Closs_St_Georg_mit_Hakenkreuz.jpg "Closs St Georg mit Hakenkreuz.jpg")
[thumb\|Water\-lilies by the Nazi painter [Ludwig Dettmann](/wiki/Ludwig_Dettmann "Ludwig Dettmann") (listed in the [God\-gifted list](/wiki/Gottbegnadeten_list "Gottbegnadeten list"))\|left](/wiki/File:1897_Dettmann_Bei_den_Wasserrosen_im_Moor_anagoria.JPG "1897 Dettmann Bei den Wasserrosen im Moor anagoria.JPG")
Art of Nazi Germany was characterized by a style of [Romantic realism](/wiki/Romantic_realism "Romantic realism") based on [classical models](/wiki/Greek_art "Greek art"). While banning modern styles as [degenerate](/wiki/Degenerate_art "Degenerate art"), the Nazis promoted paintings that were narrowly traditional in manner and that exalted the "[blood and soil](/wiki/Blood_and_soil "Blood and soil")" values of [racial purity](/wiki/Racial_purity "Racial purity"), [militarism](/wiki/Militarism "Militarism"), and [obedience](/wiki/Obedience_%28human_behavior%29%23Cultural_attitudes "Obedience (human behavior)#Cultural attitudes"). Other popular themes for Nazi art were the [Volk](/wiki/Volk_%28German_word%29%23Nazi_era "Volk (German word)#Nazi era") at work in the fields, a return to the simple virtues of [Heimat](/wiki/Heimat "Heimat") (love of homeland), the manly virtues of the National Socialist struggle, and the lauding of the female activities of child bearing and raising symbolized by the phrase *[Kinder, Küche, Kirche](/wiki/Kinder%2C_K%C3%BCche%2C_Kirche "Kinder, Küche, Kirche")* ("children, kitchen, church").
In general, painting—once purged of "degenerate art"—was based on traditional [genre painting](/wiki/Genre_painting "Genre painting").{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=110}} Titles were purposeful: "Fruitful Land", "Liberated Land", "Standing Guard", "Through Wind and Weather", "Blessing of Earth", and the like.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=110}} Hitler's favorite painter was [Adolf Ziegler](/wiki/Adolf_Ziegler "Adolf Ziegler") and Hitler owned a number of his works. [Landscape painting](/wiki/Landscape_painting "Landscape painting") featured prominently in the Great German Art exhibition.Frederic Spotts, *Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics*, p. 176 {{ISBN\|1\-58567\-345\-5}} While drawing on [German Romanticism](/wiki/German_Romanticism "German Romanticism") traditions, it was to be firmly based on real landscape, Germans' [Lebensraum](/wiki/Lebensraum "Lebensraum"), without religious moods.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=130}} Peasants were also popular images, reflecting a simple life in harmony with nature.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=132}} This art showed no sign of the mechanization of farm work.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=133}} The farmer labored by hand, with effort and struggle.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=134}} Not a single painting in the first exhibition showed urban or industrialized life, and only two in the exhibition in 1938\.[Richard Grunberger](/wiki/Richard_Grunberger "Richard Grunberger"), *The 12\-Year Reich*, p. 427, {{ISBN\|0\-03\-076435\-1}}
Nazi theory explicitly rejected "materialism", and therefore, despite the realistic treatment of images, "realism" was a seldom used term.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=138}} A painter was to create an ideal picture, for eternity.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=138}} The images of men, and still more of women, were heavily stereotyped,{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=150}} with physical perfection required for the nude paintings.[Susan Sontag](/wiki/Susan_Sontag "Susan Sontag")",[Fascinating Fascism](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1975/feb/06/fascinating-fascism/?page=3)" This may have been the cause of there being very few anti\-Semitic paintings; while such works as *Um Haus and Hof*, depicting a Jewish speculator dispossessing an elderly peasant couple exist, they are few, perhaps because the art was supposed to be on a higher plane.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=172}} Explicitly political paintings were more common but still very rare. Heroic imagery, on the other hand, was common enough to be commented on by a critic: "The heroic element stands out. The worker, the farmer, the soldier are the themes .... Heroic subjects dominate over sentimental ones".*[The Greater German Art Exhibitions](http://thecensureofdemocracy.150m.com/art5.htm)* {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131032526/http://thecensureofdemocracy.150m.com/art5\.htm \|date\=January 31, 2010 }}
With the advent of war, [war paintings](/wiki/Military_art "Military art") became far more common.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=157}} The images were romanticized, depicting heroic sacrifice and victory.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=162}} Still, landscapes predominated, and among the painters exempted from war service, all were noted for landscapes or other pacific subjects.Frederic Spotts, *Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics*, pp. 176\-178\. {{ISBN\|1\-58567\-345\-5}} Even Hitler and Goebbels found the new paintings disappointing, although Goebbels tried to put a good face on it with the observation that they had cleared the field, and that these desperate times drew many talents into political life rather than cultural.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=119}} In a speech at the *Great German Art Exhibition* in Munich Hitler said in 1939:
{{Blockquote\|The first goal of our new German creation of art \[...] has surely been achieved. Analogous to the recovering of architectural art which began here in Munich, here also started the purification in the sphere of painting and sculpture, that maybe had been even more devastated. The whole swindle of a decadent or pathological trend\-art has been swept away. A decent common level has been reached. And this means a lot. Only out of this can the truly creative genius arise."Max Domarus, ''Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945\. Kommentiert von einem Zeitzeugen.'' Wiesbaden, 1973, p. 1218, {{ISBN\|3\-927068\-00\-4}}. Original Text: "... das erste Ziel unseres neuen deutschen Kunstschaffens \[...] ohne Zweifel schon heute erreicht \[sei]. So wie von dieser Stadt München die baukünstlerische Gesundung ihren Ausgang nahm, hat hier auch vor drei Jahren die Reinigung eingesetzt auf dem vielleicht noch mehr verwüsteten Gebiet der Plastik und der Malerei. Der ganze Schwindelbetrieb einer dekadenten oder krankhaften, verlogenen Modekunst ist hinweggefegt. Ein anständiges allgemeines Niveau wurde erreicht. Und dieses ist sehr viel. Denn aus ihm erst können sich die wahrhaft schöpferischen Genies erheben." (07/14/1939\)}}
By 1938, nearly 16,000 works by German and non\-German artists had been seized from German galleries and either sold abroad or destroyed.Pauley 1997, p. 106
### Sculpture
[thumb\|250px\|[Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker "Arno Breker") sculpting a bust of [Albert Speer](/wiki/Albert_Speer "Albert Speer"), the Reich armaments minister](/wiki/Image:Arno_Breker%2C_Albert_Speer_%281940%29.jpg "Arno Breker, Albert Speer (1940).jpg")
The monumental possibilities of sculpture offered greater material expression of the theories of [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism "Nazism"). The *Great German Art Exhibition* promoted the genre of sculpture at the expense of painting.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=177}} As such, the nude male was the most common representation of the ideal Aryan; the artistic skill of [Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker "Arno Breker") elevated him to become the favourite sculptor of Adolf Hitler.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=178}}[Caroline Fetscher, "Why Mention Arno Breker Today?", *The Atlantic Times*, August 2006\.](http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=602) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211083704/http://www.atlantic\-times.com/archive\_detail.php?recordID\=602 \|date\=2012\-02\-11 }} [Josef Thorak](/wiki/Josef_Thorak "Josef Thorak") was another official sculptor whose monumental style suited the image Nazi Germany wished to communicate to the world.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821298,00\.html \|title\=Art: Bigger Than Life \|work\=time.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131085209/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821298,00\.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-01\-31 }} Nude females were also common, though they tended to be less monumental.{{sfn\|Adam\|1992\|p\=188}} In both cases, the physical form of the ideal Nazi man and woman showed no imperfections.
### Music
{{Main article\|Music in Nazi Germany}}
Music was expected to be [tonal](/wiki/Tonality "Tonality") and free of [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") influence; [films](/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema "Nazism and cinema") and plays were [censored](/wiki/Censorship "Censorship"). "Musical fare alternated between light music in the form of folk songs or popular hits (*Schlager*) and such acceptable classical music as [Bach](/wiki/Bach "Bach"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven"), and [Italian Opera](/wiki/Italian_Opera "Italian Opera")."Fischer 1997, p. 371\.
Germany's urban centers in the 1920s and '30s were buzzing with [jazz clubs](/wiki/Jazz_club "Jazz club"), [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret "Cabaret") houses and [avant\-garde music](/wiki/Avant-garde_music "Avant-garde music"). In contrast, the Nazi regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical [German music](/wiki/German_music "German music"). Highly favored was music which alluded to a mythic, heroic German past such as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach"), [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven") and [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"). [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner "Anton Bruckner") was highly favored, as his music was regarded as an expression of the [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist") of the German [volk](/wiki/Volk "Volk").Eyerman \& Jamison 1998\. The music of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg") (and [atonal music](/wiki/Atonal_music "Atonal music") along with it), [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler "Gustav Mahler"), [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn") and many others was banned because the composers were Jewish or of Jewish origin.Levi 1994\. [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith "Paul Hindemith") fled to Switzerland in 1938,{{cite book\|last\=Steinberg\|first\=Michael\|title\=The Concerto : A Listener's Guide\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=019802634X\|page\=205\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=t8oXNX2tY8AC\&pg\=PA205\|access\-date\=2013\-03\-23}} rather than fit his music into Nazi ideology. Some operas of [Georg Friedrich Händel](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel "Georg Friedrich Händel") were either banned outright for themes sympathetic to Jews and Judaism or had new librettos written for them. German composers who had their music performed more often during the Nazi period were [Max Reger](/wiki/Max_Reger "Max Reger") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner "Hans Pfitzner"). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss "Richard Strauss") continued to be the most performed contemporary German composer, as he had been prior to the Nazi regime. However, even Strauss had his opera *[The Silent Woman](/wiki/Die_Schweigsame_Frau "Die Schweigsame Frau")* banned in 1935 due to his Jewish librettist [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig "Stefan Zweig").Levi 1994, p. 217\.
Music by non\-German composers was tolerated if it was classically inspired, [tonal](/wiki/Tonality "Tonality"), and not by a composer of Jewish origin or having ties to ideologies hostile to the Nazi regime. The Nazis recognized [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") for having German origin and fabricated a genealogy that purported that [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") was German. The Nazi [Governor\-General of occupied Poland](/wiki/Hans_Frank "Hans Frank") even had a "Chopin Museum" built in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"). Music of the Russian [Peter Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Tchaikovsky "Peter Tchaikovsky") could be performed in Nazi Germany even after [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa"). Operas by [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini "Gioacchino Rossini"), [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi "Giuseppe Verdi") and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini "Giacomo Puccini") got frequent play. The most\-performed modern non\-German composers prior to the outbreak of war were [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy"), [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel "Maurice Ravel"), [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius "Jean Sibelius") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"). After the outbreak of war, the music of German allies became more often performed, including the Hungarian [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k "Béla Bartók"), the Italian [Ottorino Respighi](/wiki/Ottorino_Respighi "Ottorino Respighi") and the Finn [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius "Jean Sibelius"). Composers of enemy nations (such as Debussy, Ravel and Stravinsky) were largely banned and almost never performed – although there were some exceptions.
There has been controversy over the use of certain composers' music by the Nazi regime, and whether that implicates the composer as implicitly Nazi. Composers such as Richard Strauss,Potter 1992\. who served as the first director of the Propaganda Ministry's music division, and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff "Carl Orff") have been subject to extreme criticism and heated defense.Kater 1999; Kater 2000\. Jews were quickly prohibited from performing or conducting classical music in Germany. Such conductors as [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer "Otto Klemperer"), [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter "Bruno Walter"), [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter "Ignatz Waghalter"), [Josef Krips](/wiki/Josef_Krips "Josef Krips"), and [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling "Kurt Sanderling") fled Germany. Upon the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, the conductor [Karel Ančerl](/wiki/Karel_An%C4%8Derl "Karel Ančerl") was blacklisted as a Jew and was sent in turn to [Theresienstadt](/wiki/Theresienstadt "Theresienstadt") and [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz").
#### Musicologists of Nazi Germany
As the Nazi regime accrued power in 1933, musicologists were directed to rewrite the history of German music in order to accommodate Nazi mythology and ideology. [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner "Hans Pfitzner") were now seen as composers who conceptualized a united order (*Volksgemeinschaft*) where music was an index of the German community. In a time of disintegration, Wagner and Pfitzner wanted to revitalize the country through music. In a book written about Hans Pfitzner and Wagner, published in Regensburg in 1939 followed not only the birth of contemporary musical parties, but also of political parties in Germany. The Wagner\-Pfitzner stance contrasted ideas of other notable artists, such as [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg") and [Theodor W. Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno "Theodor W. Adorno"), who wanted music to be autonomous from politics, Nazi control and application. Although Wagner and Pfitzner predated Nazism, their sentiments and thoughts, Wagner's *[Gesamtkunstwerk](/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk "Gesamtkunstwerk")*, were appropriated by Hitler and his propagandists—notably [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels"). According to Michael Meyer, "The very emphasis on rootedness and on tradition music underscored Nazi understanding of itself in a dialectic terms: old gods were mobilized against the false values of the immediate past to offer legitimacy to the epiphany of Adolf Hitler and the music representation of his realm."{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2012}}
Composers, librettists, educators, critics, and especially musicologists, through their public statements, intellectual writings, and journals contributed to the justification of a totalitarian blueprint to be implanted through nazification. All music was then composed for the occasions of Nazi pageantries, rallies, and conventions. Composers dedicated so called 'consecration fanfares,' inaugurations fanfares and flag songs to the Fuhrer. When the Fuhrer assumed power the Nazi revolution was immediately expressed in musicological journalism. Certain progressive journalism pertaining to modern music was purged. Journals that had been sympathetic to the ‘German viewpoint,’ entrenched in Wagnerian ideals, like the *Zeitschrift für Musik* and *Die Musik*, showed confidence in the new regime and affirmed the process of intertwining government policies with music. Joseph Goebbels used the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter "Völkischer Beobachter")*, a journal that was disseminated to the general public in addition to elites and party officials, as an organ of Reich Culture. By the end of the 1930s the *Mitteilungen der Reichsmusikkammer* became another prominent journal that reflected the music policy, organizational and personnel changes in musical institutions.
In the early years of Nazi rule, the musicologists and musicians redirected the orientation of music, defining what was "German Music" and what was not. Nazi ideology was applied to the evaluation of musicians for hero status; musicians defined in the new German musical era were given titles of prophets, while their accomplishments and deeds were seen as direct accomplishments of the Nazi regime. The contribution of German musicologists led to the justification of Nazi power and a new German music culture in whole. The musicologists defined the greater German values that musicians would have to identify with, because their duty was to integrate music and Nazism in way that made them look inseparable. Nazi myth making and ideology was forced upon the new musical path of Germany rather than truly embedded in the rhetoric of German music.
### Graphic design
[thumb\|309x309px\|Nazi poster from 1936\|left](/wiki/File:ICH_GAB_MEINE_STIMME_DEM_FUHRER%21.jpg "ICH GAB MEINE STIMME DEM FUHRER!.jpg")
The poster became an important medium for propaganda during this period. Combining text and bold graphics, [posters](/wiki/Posters "Posters") were extensively deployed both in Germany and in the areas occupied. Their [typography](/wiki/Typography "Typography") reflected the Nazis' official ideology. The use of [Fraktur](/wiki/Fraktur_%28script%29 "Fraktur (script)") was common in Germany until 1941, when [Martin Bormann](/wiki/Martin_Bormann "Martin Bormann") denounced the typeface as "Judenlettern" and decreed that only [Roman type](/wiki/Roman_type "Roman type") should be used.[Newton, Gerald, 2003, "*Deutsche Schrift*: The Demise and Rise of German Black Letter", *German Life and Letters*, 56:2 (abstract).](http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/tools/citex?clienttype=1&subtype=1&mode=1&version=1&id=118830484&redirect=/journal/118830484/abstract/){{dead link\|date\=February 2019\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot\=medic}} Modern [sans\-serif](/wiki/Sans-serif "Sans-serif") typefaces were condemned as [cultural Bolshevism](/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism "Cultural Bolshevism"), although [Futura](/wiki/Futura_%28typeface%29 "Futura (typeface)") continued to be used owing to its practicality.Hollis 2001, pp. 66\-67 Imagery frequently drew on [heroic realism](/wiki/Heroic_realism "Heroic realism").eye magazine, "[Designing heroes](http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature.php?id=62&fid=270)" Nazi youth and the SS were depicted monumentally, with lighting posed to produce grandeur.
Graphic design also played a part in Nazi Germany through the use of the [swastika](/wiki/Swastika "Swastika").{{cite web\|url\=http://life.time.com/world\-war\-ii/nazi\-propaganda\-and\-the\-myth\-of\-aryan\-invincibility/\#1 \|title\=Nazi Propaganda and the Myth of 'Aryan' Invincibility \| Color Photos \| LIFE.com \|access\-date\=2014\-10\-29 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103024627/http://life.time.com/world\-war\-ii/nazi\-propaganda\-and\-the\-myth\-of\-aryan\-invincibility/ \|archive\-date\=2014\-11\-03 }} The swastika was in existence long before Hitler came into power—serving purposes that were much more benign than the ones it \[the swastika] is associated with today.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.typotheque.com/articles/the\_swastika\_constructing\_the\_symbol\|title\=Typotheque: The Swastika: Constructing The Symbol by Steven Heller\|website\=www.typotheque.com\|date\=29 November 2004 }} Because of the stark, graphic lines used to create a swastika, it was a symbol that was very easy to remember.
### Literature
The Reich Chamber of Literature *Reichsschriftstumskammer*Mosse 1966, p. 135
Literature was under the jurisdiction of Goebbels's Ministry of Propaganda and Popular Enlightenment. According to Grunberger, "At the beginning of the war this department supervised no less than 2,500 publishing houses, 23,000 bookshops, 3,000 authors, 50 national literary prizes, 20,000 new books issued annually, and a total of 1 million titles constituting the available book market."Grunberger 1971, p. 361 Germany was Europe's biggest producer of books—in terms both of total annual production and the number of individual new titles appearing each year.Barbian 2010, p. 7 In 1937, at 650 million RM, the average sales value of the books produced took third place in the statistics on goods, after coal and wheat.Barbian 2010, p.8 The first Nazi literature commission set itself the goal of eradicating the literature of the 'System Period', as Weimar was contemptuously called, and of propagating volkisch\-nationalist literature in the Nazis state.Barbian 2010, pp. 27\-28 Literature was recognized early on as an essential political tool in Nazi Germany, as virtually 100 percent of the German population was literate.Pauley 1997, p. 101 "The most widely\-read\-or displayed\-book of the period was Hitler's *Mein Kampf*, a collection (according to [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger "Lion Feuchtwanger")) of 164,000 offences against German grammar and syntax; by 1940, it was, with 6 million copies sold, the solitary front\-runner in the German best\-seller list, some 5 million copies ahead of [Rainer Maria Rilke](/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke "Rainer Maria Rilke") and others."
Richard Grunberger says, "In 1936 literary criticism as hitherto understood was abolished; henceforth reviews followed a pattern: a synopsis of content studded with quotations, marginal comments on style, a calculation of the degree of concurrence with Nazi doctrine and a conclusion indicating approval or otherwise."Grunberger 1971, p. 357
The Nazis permitted much foreign literature to be read, in part because they believed that the writings of authors such as [John Steinbeck](/wiki/John_Steinbeck "John Steinbeck") and [Erskine Caldwell](/wiki/Erskine_Caldwell "Erskine Caldwell") substantiated the Nazis' condemnation of Western society as corrupt.Grunberger 1971, p. 358 However, when the United States entered the war, all foreign authors were strictly censored. Themes in Nazi literature were defined as a range of "permissible literary expression" largely limited to four subjects: German war glorification, [Nazism and race](/wiki/Nazism_and_race "Nazism and race"), [blood and soil](/wiki/Blood_and_soil "Blood and soil"), and the [Nazi movement](/wiki/Nazi_movement "Nazi movement")."Fischer 1997, pp. 368 Popular Nazi Germany authors included [Agnes Miegel](/wiki/Agnes_Miegel "Agnes Miegel"), [Rudolf Binding](/wiki/Rudolf_Binding "Rudolf Binding"), Werner Bumelburg and [Börries von Münchhausen](/wiki/B%C3%B6rries_von_M%C3%BCnchhausen "Börries von Münchhausen").{{cite news\|url\=https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi\-germany/literature\-in\-nazi\-germany/\|title\=Literature in Nazi Germany\|first\=C.N.\|last\=Trueman\|publisher\=historylearningsite.co.uk\|date\=9 March 2015\|accessdate\=7 May 2024}}
#### *Fronterlebnis* (War as a Spiritual Experience)
This was one of the most popular themes during the interwar period. Writers celebrated the "heroics of front\-line soldiers in \[World War I], ... the thrill of combat and the sacredness of death when it is in the service of the fatherland." Popular writers in this genre included [Ernst Jünger](/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger "Ernst Jünger") and Werner Beumelburg [(de)](/wiki/Werner_Beumelburg "Werner Beumelburg"), an ex\-officer.Fischer 1997, pp. 368–369 Prominent books include [Ernst Junger](/wiki/Ernst_Junger "Ernst Junger")'s *Storm of Steel* (1920\), *Struggle as Inner Experience* (1922\), *Storms* (1933\), *Fire and Blood* (1925\), *The Adventurous Heart* (1929\), and *Total Mobilization* (1931\).
#### *Blut und Boden* (Blood and Soil)
Novels in this theme often featured an instinctive and soil\-bound peasant community that warded off alien outsiders who sought to destroy their way of life.
The most popular novel of this kind was [Hermann Lons](/wiki/Hermann_Lons "Hermann Lons")'s *[Wehrwolf](/wiki/Der_Wehrwolf "Der Wehrwolf")* published in 1910\.
#### Historical ethnicity
Klaus Fischer says Nazi literature emphasized "Historic Ethnicity—that is, how a group of people defines itself in a process of historical growth. Writers tried to highlight prominent episodes in the history of the German people; they stressed the German mission for Europe, analyzed the immutable racial essence of Nordic man, and warned against subversive or un\-German forces—the Jews, Communists, or Western liberals." Prominent writers included: [Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer](/wiki/Erwin_Guido_Kolbenheyer "Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer") (*Die Bauhutte: Elemente einer Metaphysik der Gerenwart*; The building hut: Elements of a contemporary metaphysics, 1925\), [Alfred Rosenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg "Alfred Rosenberg") (*Der Mythus des 20\.Jahrhunderts*; The myth of the twentieth century, 1930\), [Josef Weinheber](/wiki/Josef_Weinheber "Josef Weinheber"), [Hans Grimm](/wiki/Hans_Grimm "Hans Grimm") (*Volk ohne Raum*; People [without living space](/wiki/Lebensraum "Lebensraum"), 1926\), and [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels") (*Michael*, 1929\).
### Architecture
{{main\|Nazi architecture}}
Hitler favored hugeness, especially in architecture, as a means of impressing the masses.Pauley 1997, p.106 "A once mediocre artist and aspiring architect, Hitler also pronounced upon the ‘decadence’ of modern art and pushed his planners to create monumental buildings in older [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture "Neoclassical architecture") or [art deco](/wiki/Art_deco "Art deco") styles."Sivers, Desnoyers and Stow 2012, p.1008[thumb\|Poster for *The Eternal Jew* exhibition, 1937\|left](/wiki/File:Plakat_der_ewige_Jude%2C_1937.jpg "Plakat der ewige Jude, 1937.jpg")
### Theatre and cinema
{{main\|Nazism and cinema}}
"The Reich Film Chamber (*Reichsfilmkammer*) controlled the lively German film industry, while a Film Credit Bank (also under Goebbels' control) centralized the financial aspects of film production."Mosse 1966, p. 139 Approximately 1,363 feature pictures were made during Nazi rule (208 of these were banned after World War II for containing Nazi Propaganda).Hull 1969, p. 8 Every film made in Nazi Germany (including features, shorts, newsreels, and documentaries) had to be passed by Joseph Goebbels himself before they could be shown in public.Hull 1969, p. 10
Mass culture was less stringently regulated than high culture, possibly because the authorities feared the consequences of too heavy\-handed interference in popular entertainment.Laqueur 1996, p. 73 Thus, until the outbreak of the war, most Hollywood films could be screened, including *[It Happened One Night](/wiki/It_Happened_One_Night "It Happened One Night")*, *[San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco_%281936_film%29 "San Francisco (1936 film)")*, and *[Gone with the Wind](/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_%28film%29 "Gone with the Wind (film)")*. While performance of atonal music was banned, the prohibition of jazz was less strictly enforced. [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman") and [Django Reinhardt](/wiki/Django_Reinhardt "Django Reinhardt") were popular, and leading English and American jazz bands continued to perform in major cities until the war; thereafter, dance bands officially played "[swing](/wiki/Swing_music "Swing music")" rather than the banned jazz.Laqueur 1996, pp. 73–75
A film premiered in Berlin on November 28, 1940, which was clearly a tool used to promote Nazi Ideology. The release of the film *[Der ewige Jude](/wiki/The_Eternal_Jew_%281940_film%29 "The Eternal Jew (1940 film)")* (The Eternal Jew) was only two months prior to the announcement made by German officials of the establishment of the ghetto in [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA "Łódź"). The film was portrayed in the Nazi press as a documentary to emphasize the cinema as truth, when in reality it was nothing more than propaganda to raise hatred against the Jewish community in its viewers.{{sfn\|Hansen\|2009\|pp\=80, 81}}
The filmmaker, [Fritz Hippler](/wiki/Fritz_Hippler "Fritz Hippler"), used numerous visual techniques to portray Jews as a filthy, degenerate, and disease\-infested population. Purporting to provide the viewer with an in\-depth look at the Jewish lifestyle, the film showed staged scenes of Łódź (soon to be ghetto) with the presence of flies and rats, to suggest a dangerous\-to\-life area of Europe, which, in turn, only perpetuated underlying superstition and fear to the viewer. To add to this staged and exaggerated scene of filth was a warning released by officials of The [Reich](/wiki/Reich "Reich"): an advisory that Łódź is an area of widespread infectious disease. The film director utilized racist cinema to bolster the illusion that Jews were parasites and corruptors of German culture.{{sfn\|Hansen\|2009\|pp\=80, 83}}
Hippler made use of [voice\-overs](/wiki/Voice-over "Voice-over") to cite hate speeches or fictitious statistics of the Jewish population. He also borrowed numerous scenes from other films, and presented them out of context from the original: for example, a scene of a Jewish businessman in the United States hiding money was accompanied with a bogus claim that Jewish men get taxed more than non\-Jews in the United States, which was used to insinuate that Jews withhold money from the government. Through the repetitive use of side angles of Jewish people, who were filmed (without knowledge) while looking over their shoulder at the camera, *Der ewige Jude* created a visual suggesting a shifty and conspiring nature of Jews. Yet another propaganda technique was superposition. Hippler superimposed the [Star of David](/wiki/Star_of_David "Star of David") onto the tops of world capitals, insinuating an illusion of Jewish world domination.{{sfn\|Hansen\|2009\|pp\=84–86}}
*Der ewige Jude* is notorious for its anti\-Semitism and its use of cinema in the fabrication of propaganda, to satisfy Hitler and to embrace the Germanic ideology that would fuel a nation in support of an obsessive leader.{{sfn\|Hansen\|2009}}
"On the lighter side, a Jewish actor named [Leo Reuss](/wiki/Lionel_Royce "Lionel Royce") fled Germany to Vienna, where he dyed his hair and beard and became a specialist in 'Aryan' roles, which were greatly praised by the Nazis. Having had his fun, Reuss revealed he was a Jew, signed a contract with MGM, and departed for the United States".Hull 1969, p. 127
[thumb\|200px\|[Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower "Dwight D. Eisenhower") (right) inspects stolen artwork in a salt mine in [Merkers](/wiki/Merkers "Merkers"), accompanied by [Omar Bradley](/wiki/Omar_Bradley "Omar Bradley") (left) and [George S. Patton](/wiki/George_S._Patton "George S. Patton") (center)\|left](/wiki/File:Eisenhower%2C_Bradley_and_Patton_inspect_looted_art_HD-SN-99-02758.JPEG "Eisenhower, Bradley and Patton inspect looted art HD-SN-99-02758.JPEG")
|
[
"Genres\n------",
"[thumb\\|320x320px\\|Arno Breker, *The Great Torchbearer* (1939\\). The sculpture stood, together with the sculpture *The Wehrmacht*, in the courtyard of the New Reich Chancellery in Berlin until 1945, and is now owned by the Breker Museum. It was intended to represent the spirit of Nazi Germany.](/wiki/File:ArnoBrekerDiePartei.jpg \"ArnoBrekerDiePartei.jpg\")\nBelief in a Germanic spirit—defined as mystical, rural, moral, bearing ancient wisdom, noble in the face of a tragic destiny—existed long before the rise of the Nazis; [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") celebrated such ideas in his work.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|pp\\=23–24}} Beginning before World War I the well\\-known German architect and painter [Paul Schultze\\-Naumburg](/wiki/Paul_Schultze-Naumburg \"Paul Schultze-Naumburg\")'s influential writings, which invoked racial theories in condemning modern art and architecture, supplied much of the basis for Adolf Hitler's belief that classical Greece and the Middle Ages were the true sources of Aryan art.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|pp\\=29–32}}",
"Among the well\\-known artists endorsed by the Nazis were the sculptors [Josef Thorak](/wiki/Josef_Thorak \"Josef Thorak\") and [Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker \"Arno Breker\"), and painters [Werner Peiner](/wiki/Werner_Peiner \"Werner Peiner\"), [Arthur Kampf](/wiki/Arthur_Kampf \"Arthur Kampf\"), [Adolf Wissel](/wiki/Adolf_Wissel \"Adolf Wissel\") and [Conrad Hommel](/wiki/Conrad_Hommel \"Conrad Hommel\"). In July 1937, four years after it came to power, the Nazi party put on two art exhibitions in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"). The Great German Art Exhibition was designed to show works that Hitler approved of, depicting statuesque blonde nudes along with idealized soldiers and landscapes. The second exhibition, just down the road, showed the other side of [German art](/wiki/German_art \"German art\"): modern, abstract, non\\-representational—or as the Nazis saw it, \"degenerate\".",
"According to Klaus Fischer, \"Nazi art, in short, was colossal, impersonal, and stereotypical. People were shorn of all individuality and became mere emblems expressive of assumed eternal truths. In looking at Nazi architecture, art, or painting one quickly gains the feeling that the faces, shapes, and colors all serve a propagandistic purpose; they are all the same stylized statements of Nazi virtues—power, strength, solidity, Nordic beauty.\"Fischer 1997, p.368",
"### Painting",
"[thumb\\|A Nazi St George killing the dragon (flyleaf of a book about heraldry)\\|left](/wiki/File:Closs_St_Georg_mit_Hakenkreuz.jpg \"Closs St Georg mit Hakenkreuz.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Water\\-lilies by the Nazi painter [Ludwig Dettmann](/wiki/Ludwig_Dettmann \"Ludwig Dettmann\") (listed in the [God\\-gifted list](/wiki/Gottbegnadeten_list \"Gottbegnadeten list\"))\\|left](/wiki/File:1897_Dettmann_Bei_den_Wasserrosen_im_Moor_anagoria.JPG \"1897 Dettmann Bei den Wasserrosen im Moor anagoria.JPG\")",
"Art of Nazi Germany was characterized by a style of [Romantic realism](/wiki/Romantic_realism \"Romantic realism\") based on [classical models](/wiki/Greek_art \"Greek art\"). While banning modern styles as [degenerate](/wiki/Degenerate_art \"Degenerate art\"), the Nazis promoted paintings that were narrowly traditional in manner and that exalted the \"[blood and soil](/wiki/Blood_and_soil \"Blood and soil\")\" values of [racial purity](/wiki/Racial_purity \"Racial purity\"), [militarism](/wiki/Militarism \"Militarism\"), and [obedience](/wiki/Obedience_%28human_behavior%29%23Cultural_attitudes \"Obedience (human behavior)#Cultural attitudes\"). Other popular themes for Nazi art were the [Volk](/wiki/Volk_%28German_word%29%23Nazi_era \"Volk (German word)#Nazi era\") at work in the fields, a return to the simple virtues of [Heimat](/wiki/Heimat \"Heimat\") (love of homeland), the manly virtues of the National Socialist struggle, and the lauding of the female activities of child bearing and raising symbolized by the phrase *[Kinder, Küche, Kirche](/wiki/Kinder%2C_K%C3%BCche%2C_Kirche \"Kinder, Küche, Kirche\")* (\"children, kitchen, church\").",
"In general, painting—once purged of \"degenerate art\"—was based on traditional [genre painting](/wiki/Genre_painting \"Genre painting\").{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=110}} Titles were purposeful: \"Fruitful Land\", \"Liberated Land\", \"Standing Guard\", \"Through Wind and Weather\", \"Blessing of Earth\", and the like.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=110}} Hitler's favorite painter was [Adolf Ziegler](/wiki/Adolf_Ziegler \"Adolf Ziegler\") and Hitler owned a number of his works. [Landscape painting](/wiki/Landscape_painting \"Landscape painting\") featured prominently in the Great German Art exhibition.Frederic Spotts, *Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics*, p. 176 {{ISBN\\|1\\-58567\\-345\\-5}} While drawing on [German Romanticism](/wiki/German_Romanticism \"German Romanticism\") traditions, it was to be firmly based on real landscape, Germans' [Lebensraum](/wiki/Lebensraum \"Lebensraum\"), without religious moods.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=130}} Peasants were also popular images, reflecting a simple life in harmony with nature.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=132}} This art showed no sign of the mechanization of farm work.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=133}} The farmer labored by hand, with effort and struggle.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=134}} Not a single painting in the first exhibition showed urban or industrialized life, and only two in the exhibition in 1938\\.[Richard Grunberger](/wiki/Richard_Grunberger \"Richard Grunberger\"), *The 12\\-Year Reich*, p. 427, {{ISBN\\|0\\-03\\-076435\\-1}}",
"Nazi theory explicitly rejected \"materialism\", and therefore, despite the realistic treatment of images, \"realism\" was a seldom used term.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=138}} A painter was to create an ideal picture, for eternity.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=138}} The images of men, and still more of women, were heavily stereotyped,{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=150}} with physical perfection required for the nude paintings.[Susan Sontag](/wiki/Susan_Sontag \"Susan Sontag\")\",[Fascinating Fascism](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1975/feb/06/fascinating-fascism/?page=3)\" This may have been the cause of there being very few anti\\-Semitic paintings; while such works as *Um Haus and Hof*, depicting a Jewish speculator dispossessing an elderly peasant couple exist, they are few, perhaps because the art was supposed to be on a higher plane.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=172}} Explicitly political paintings were more common but still very rare. Heroic imagery, on the other hand, was common enough to be commented on by a critic: \"The heroic element stands out. The worker, the farmer, the soldier are the themes .... Heroic subjects dominate over sentimental ones\".*[The Greater German Art Exhibitions](http://thecensureofdemocracy.150m.com/art5.htm)* {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131032526/http://thecensureofdemocracy.150m.com/art5\\.htm \\|date\\=January 31, 2010 }}",
"With the advent of war, [war paintings](/wiki/Military_art \"Military art\") became far more common.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=157}} The images were romanticized, depicting heroic sacrifice and victory.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=162}} Still, landscapes predominated, and among the painters exempted from war service, all were noted for landscapes or other pacific subjects.Frederic Spotts, *Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics*, pp. 176\\-178\\. {{ISBN\\|1\\-58567\\-345\\-5}} Even Hitler and Goebbels found the new paintings disappointing, although Goebbels tried to put a good face on it with the observation that they had cleared the field, and that these desperate times drew many talents into political life rather than cultural.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=119}} In a speech at the *Great German Art Exhibition* in Munich Hitler said in 1939:",
"{{Blockquote\\|The first goal of our new German creation of art \\[...] has surely been achieved. Analogous to the recovering of architectural art which began here in Munich, here also started the purification in the sphere of painting and sculpture, that maybe had been even more devastated. The whole swindle of a decadent or pathological trend\\-art has been swept away. A decent common level has been reached. And this means a lot. Only out of this can the truly creative genius arise.\"Max Domarus, ''Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945\\. Kommentiert von einem Zeitzeugen.'' Wiesbaden, 1973, p. 1218, {{ISBN\\|3\\-927068\\-00\\-4}}. Original Text: \"... das erste Ziel unseres neuen deutschen Kunstschaffens \\[...] ohne Zweifel schon heute erreicht \\[sei]. So wie von dieser Stadt München die baukünstlerische Gesundung ihren Ausgang nahm, hat hier auch vor drei Jahren die Reinigung eingesetzt auf dem vielleicht noch mehr verwüsteten Gebiet der Plastik und der Malerei. Der ganze Schwindelbetrieb einer dekadenten oder krankhaften, verlogenen Modekunst ist hinweggefegt. Ein anständiges allgemeines Niveau wurde erreicht. Und dieses ist sehr viel. Denn aus ihm erst können sich die wahrhaft schöpferischen Genies erheben.\" (07/14/1939\\)}}",
"By 1938, nearly 16,000 works by German and non\\-German artists had been seized from German galleries and either sold abroad or destroyed.Pauley 1997, p. 106",
"### Sculpture",
"[thumb\\|250px\\|[Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker \"Arno Breker\") sculpting a bust of [Albert Speer](/wiki/Albert_Speer \"Albert Speer\"), the Reich armaments minister](/wiki/Image:Arno_Breker%2C_Albert_Speer_%281940%29.jpg \"Arno Breker, Albert Speer (1940).jpg\")",
"The monumental possibilities of sculpture offered greater material expression of the theories of [Nazism](/wiki/Nazism \"Nazism\"). The *Great German Art Exhibition* promoted the genre of sculpture at the expense of painting.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=177}} As such, the nude male was the most common representation of the ideal Aryan; the artistic skill of [Arno Breker](/wiki/Arno_Breker \"Arno Breker\") elevated him to become the favourite sculptor of Adolf Hitler.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=178}}[Caroline Fetscher, \"Why Mention Arno Breker Today?\", *The Atlantic Times*, August 2006\\.](http://www.atlantic-times.com/archive_detail.php?recordID=602) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211083704/http://www.atlantic\\-times.com/archive\\_detail.php?recordID\\=602 \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-11 }} [Josef Thorak](/wiki/Josef_Thorak \"Josef Thorak\") was another official sculptor whose monumental style suited the image Nazi Germany wished to communicate to the world.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821298,00\\.html \\|title\\=Art: Bigger Than Life \\|work\\=time.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110131085209/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,821298,00\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-01\\-31 }} Nude females were also common, though they tended to be less monumental.{{sfn\\|Adam\\|1992\\|p\\=188}} In both cases, the physical form of the ideal Nazi man and woman showed no imperfections.",
"### Music",
"{{Main article\\|Music in Nazi Germany}}\nMusic was expected to be [tonal](/wiki/Tonality \"Tonality\") and free of [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") influence; [films](/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema \"Nazism and cinema\") and plays were [censored](/wiki/Censorship \"Censorship\"). \"Musical fare alternated between light music in the form of folk songs or popular hits (*Schlager*) and such acceptable classical music as [Bach](/wiki/Bach \"Bach\"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\"), and [Italian Opera](/wiki/Italian_Opera \"Italian Opera\").\"Fischer 1997, p. 371\\.",
"Germany's urban centers in the 1920s and '30s were buzzing with [jazz clubs](/wiki/Jazz_club \"Jazz club\"), [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret \"Cabaret\") houses and [avant\\-garde music](/wiki/Avant-garde_music \"Avant-garde music\"). In contrast, the Nazi regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical [German music](/wiki/German_music \"German music\"). Highly favored was music which alluded to a mythic, heroic German past such as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\"), [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") and [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"). [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner \"Anton Bruckner\") was highly favored, as his music was regarded as an expression of the [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist \"Zeitgeist\") of the German [volk](/wiki/Volk \"Volk\").Eyerman \\& Jamison 1998\\. The music of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") (and [atonal music](/wiki/Atonal_music \"Atonal music\") along with it), [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler \"Gustav Mahler\"), [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\") and many others was banned because the composers were Jewish or of Jewish origin.Levi 1994\\. [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\") fled to Switzerland in 1938,{{cite book\\|last\\=Steinberg\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=The Concerto : A Listener's Guide\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=019802634X\\|page\\=205\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=t8oXNX2tY8AC\\&pg\\=PA205\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-23}} rather than fit his music into Nazi ideology. Some operas of [Georg Friedrich Händel](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel \"Georg Friedrich Händel\") were either banned outright for themes sympathetic to Jews and Judaism or had new librettos written for them. German composers who had their music performed more often during the Nazi period were [Max Reger](/wiki/Max_Reger \"Max Reger\") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner \"Hans Pfitzner\"). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss \"Richard Strauss\") continued to be the most performed contemporary German composer, as he had been prior to the Nazi regime. However, even Strauss had his opera *[The Silent Woman](/wiki/Die_Schweigsame_Frau \"Die Schweigsame Frau\")* banned in 1935 due to his Jewish librettist [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig \"Stefan Zweig\").Levi 1994, p. 217\\.",
"Music by non\\-German composers was tolerated if it was classically inspired, [tonal](/wiki/Tonality \"Tonality\"), and not by a composer of Jewish origin or having ties to ideologies hostile to the Nazi regime. The Nazis recognized [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") for having German origin and fabricated a genealogy that purported that [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") was German. The Nazi [Governor\\-General of occupied Poland](/wiki/Hans_Frank \"Hans Frank\") even had a \"Chopin Museum\" built in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"). Music of the Russian [Peter Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Tchaikovsky \"Peter Tchaikovsky\") could be performed in Nazi Germany even after [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa \"Operation Barbarossa\"). Operas by [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini \"Gioacchino Rossini\"), [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\") and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\") got frequent play. The most\\-performed modern non\\-German composers prior to the outbreak of war were [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"), [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"). After the outbreak of war, the music of German allies became more often performed, including the Hungarian [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k \"Béla Bartók\"), the Italian [Ottorino Respighi](/wiki/Ottorino_Respighi \"Ottorino Respighi\") and the Finn [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\"). Composers of enemy nations (such as Debussy, Ravel and Stravinsky) were largely banned and almost never performed – although there were some exceptions.",
"There has been controversy over the use of certain composers' music by the Nazi regime, and whether that implicates the composer as implicitly Nazi. Composers such as Richard Strauss,Potter 1992\\. who served as the first director of the Propaganda Ministry's music division, and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff \"Carl Orff\") have been subject to extreme criticism and heated defense.Kater 1999; Kater 2000\\. Jews were quickly prohibited from performing or conducting classical music in Germany. Such conductors as [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer \"Otto Klemperer\"), [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter \"Bruno Walter\"), [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter \"Ignatz Waghalter\"), [Josef Krips](/wiki/Josef_Krips \"Josef Krips\"), and [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling \"Kurt Sanderling\") fled Germany. Upon the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, the conductor [Karel Ančerl](/wiki/Karel_An%C4%8Derl \"Karel Ančerl\") was blacklisted as a Jew and was sent in turn to [Theresienstadt](/wiki/Theresienstadt \"Theresienstadt\") and [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\").",
"#### Musicologists of Nazi Germany",
"As the Nazi regime accrued power in 1933, musicologists were directed to rewrite the history of German music in order to accommodate Nazi mythology and ideology. [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner \"Hans Pfitzner\") were now seen as composers who conceptualized a united order (*Volksgemeinschaft*) where music was an index of the German community. In a time of disintegration, Wagner and Pfitzner wanted to revitalize the country through music. In a book written about Hans Pfitzner and Wagner, published in Regensburg in 1939 followed not only the birth of contemporary musical parties, but also of political parties in Germany. The Wagner\\-Pfitzner stance contrasted ideas of other notable artists, such as [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") and [Theodor W. Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno \"Theodor W. Adorno\"), who wanted music to be autonomous from politics, Nazi control and application. Although Wagner and Pfitzner predated Nazism, their sentiments and thoughts, Wagner's *[Gesamtkunstwerk](/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk \"Gesamtkunstwerk\")*, were appropriated by Hitler and his propagandists—notably [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\"). According to Michael Meyer, \"The very emphasis on rootedness and on tradition music underscored Nazi understanding of itself in a dialectic terms: old gods were mobilized against the false values of the immediate past to offer legitimacy to the epiphany of Adolf Hitler and the music representation of his realm.\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2012}}",
"Composers, librettists, educators, critics, and especially musicologists, through their public statements, intellectual writings, and journals contributed to the justification of a totalitarian blueprint to be implanted through nazification. All music was then composed for the occasions of Nazi pageantries, rallies, and conventions. Composers dedicated so called 'consecration fanfares,' inaugurations fanfares and flag songs to the Fuhrer. When the Fuhrer assumed power the Nazi revolution was immediately expressed in musicological journalism. Certain progressive journalism pertaining to modern music was purged. Journals that had been sympathetic to the ‘German viewpoint,’ entrenched in Wagnerian ideals, like the *Zeitschrift für Musik* and *Die Musik*, showed confidence in the new regime and affirmed the process of intertwining government policies with music. Joseph Goebbels used the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter \"Völkischer Beobachter\")*, a journal that was disseminated to the general public in addition to elites and party officials, as an organ of Reich Culture. By the end of the 1930s the *Mitteilungen der Reichsmusikkammer* became another prominent journal that reflected the music policy, organizational and personnel changes in musical institutions.",
"In the early years of Nazi rule, the musicologists and musicians redirected the orientation of music, defining what was \"German Music\" and what was not. Nazi ideology was applied to the evaluation of musicians for hero status; musicians defined in the new German musical era were given titles of prophets, while their accomplishments and deeds were seen as direct accomplishments of the Nazi regime. The contribution of German musicologists led to the justification of Nazi power and a new German music culture in whole. The musicologists defined the greater German values that musicians would have to identify with, because their duty was to integrate music and Nazism in way that made them look inseparable. Nazi myth making and ideology was forced upon the new musical path of Germany rather than truly embedded in the rhetoric of German music.",
"### Graphic design",
"[thumb\\|309x309px\\|Nazi poster from 1936\\|left](/wiki/File:ICH_GAB_MEINE_STIMME_DEM_FUHRER%21.jpg \"ICH GAB MEINE STIMME DEM FUHRER!.jpg\")",
"The poster became an important medium for propaganda during this period. Combining text and bold graphics, [posters](/wiki/Posters \"Posters\") were extensively deployed both in Germany and in the areas occupied. Their [typography](/wiki/Typography \"Typography\") reflected the Nazis' official ideology. The use of [Fraktur](/wiki/Fraktur_%28script%29 \"Fraktur (script)\") was common in Germany until 1941, when [Martin Bormann](/wiki/Martin_Bormann \"Martin Bormann\") denounced the typeface as \"Judenlettern\" and decreed that only [Roman type](/wiki/Roman_type \"Roman type\") should be used.[Newton, Gerald, 2003, \"*Deutsche Schrift*: The Demise and Rise of German Black Letter\", *German Life and Letters*, 56:2 (abstract).](http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/tools/citex?clienttype=1&subtype=1&mode=1&version=1&id=118830484&redirect=/journal/118830484/abstract/){{dead link\\|date\\=February 2019\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\\=medic}} Modern [sans\\-serif](/wiki/Sans-serif \"Sans-serif\") typefaces were condemned as [cultural Bolshevism](/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism \"Cultural Bolshevism\"), although [Futura](/wiki/Futura_%28typeface%29 \"Futura (typeface)\") continued to be used owing to its practicality.Hollis 2001, pp. 66\\-67 Imagery frequently drew on [heroic realism](/wiki/Heroic_realism \"Heroic realism\").eye magazine, \"[Designing heroes](http://www.eyemagazine.com/feature.php?id=62&fid=270)\" Nazi youth and the SS were depicted monumentally, with lighting posed to produce grandeur.\nGraphic design also played a part in Nazi Germany through the use of the [swastika](/wiki/Swastika \"Swastika\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://life.time.com/world\\-war\\-ii/nazi\\-propaganda\\-and\\-the\\-myth\\-of\\-aryan\\-invincibility/\\#1 \\|title\\=Nazi Propaganda and the Myth of 'Aryan' Invincibility \\| Color Photos \\| LIFE.com \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103024627/http://life.time.com/world\\-war\\-ii/nazi\\-propaganda\\-and\\-the\\-myth\\-of\\-aryan\\-invincibility/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-11\\-03 }} The swastika was in existence long before Hitler came into power—serving purposes that were much more benign than the ones it \\[the swastika] is associated with today.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.typotheque.com/articles/the\\_swastika\\_constructing\\_the\\_symbol\\|title\\=Typotheque: The Swastika: Constructing The Symbol by Steven Heller\\|website\\=www.typotheque.com\\|date\\=29 November 2004 }} Because of the stark, graphic lines used to create a swastika, it was a symbol that was very easy to remember.",
"### Literature",
"The Reich Chamber of Literature *Reichsschriftstumskammer*Mosse 1966, p. 135\nLiterature was under the jurisdiction of Goebbels's Ministry of Propaganda and Popular Enlightenment. According to Grunberger, \"At the beginning of the war this department supervised no less than 2,500 publishing houses, 23,000 bookshops, 3,000 authors, 50 national literary prizes, 20,000 new books issued annually, and a total of 1 million titles constituting the available book market.\"Grunberger 1971, p. 361 Germany was Europe's biggest producer of books—in terms both of total annual production and the number of individual new titles appearing each year.Barbian 2010, p. 7 In 1937, at 650 million RM, the average sales value of the books produced took third place in the statistics on goods, after coal and wheat.Barbian 2010, p.8 The first Nazi literature commission set itself the goal of eradicating the literature of the 'System Period', as Weimar was contemptuously called, and of propagating volkisch\\-nationalist literature in the Nazis state.Barbian 2010, pp. 27\\-28 Literature was recognized early on as an essential political tool in Nazi Germany, as virtually 100 percent of the German population was literate.Pauley 1997, p. 101 \"The most widely\\-read\\-or displayed\\-book of the period was Hitler's *Mein Kampf*, a collection (according to [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger \"Lion Feuchtwanger\")) of 164,000 offences against German grammar and syntax; by 1940, it was, with 6 million copies sold, the solitary front\\-runner in the German best\\-seller list, some 5 million copies ahead of [Rainer Maria Rilke](/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke \"Rainer Maria Rilke\") and others.\"",
"Richard Grunberger says, \"In 1936 literary criticism as hitherto understood was abolished; henceforth reviews followed a pattern: a synopsis of content studded with quotations, marginal comments on style, a calculation of the degree of concurrence with Nazi doctrine and a conclusion indicating approval or otherwise.\"Grunberger 1971, p. 357",
"The Nazis permitted much foreign literature to be read, in part because they believed that the writings of authors such as [John Steinbeck](/wiki/John_Steinbeck \"John Steinbeck\") and [Erskine Caldwell](/wiki/Erskine_Caldwell \"Erskine Caldwell\") substantiated the Nazis' condemnation of Western society as corrupt.Grunberger 1971, p. 358 However, when the United States entered the war, all foreign authors were strictly censored. Themes in Nazi literature were defined as a range of \"permissible literary expression\" largely limited to four subjects: German war glorification, [Nazism and race](/wiki/Nazism_and_race \"Nazism and race\"), [blood and soil](/wiki/Blood_and_soil \"Blood and soil\"), and the [Nazi movement](/wiki/Nazi_movement \"Nazi movement\").\"Fischer 1997, pp. 368 Popular Nazi Germany authors included [Agnes Miegel](/wiki/Agnes_Miegel \"Agnes Miegel\"), [Rudolf Binding](/wiki/Rudolf_Binding \"Rudolf Binding\"), Werner Bumelburg and [Börries von Münchhausen](/wiki/B%C3%B6rries_von_M%C3%BCnchhausen \"Börries von Münchhausen\").{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi\\-germany/literature\\-in\\-nazi\\-germany/\\|title\\=Literature in Nazi Germany\\|first\\=C.N.\\|last\\=Trueman\\|publisher\\=historylearningsite.co.uk\\|date\\=9 March 2015\\|accessdate\\=7 May 2024}}",
"#### *Fronterlebnis* (War as a Spiritual Experience)",
"This was one of the most popular themes during the interwar period. Writers celebrated the \"heroics of front\\-line soldiers in \\[World War I], ... the thrill of combat and the sacredness of death when it is in the service of the fatherland.\" Popular writers in this genre included [Ernst Jünger](/wiki/Ernst_J%C3%BCnger \"Ernst Jünger\") and Werner Beumelburg [(de)](/wiki/Werner_Beumelburg \"Werner Beumelburg\"), an ex\\-officer.Fischer 1997, pp. 368–369 Prominent books include [Ernst Junger](/wiki/Ernst_Junger \"Ernst Junger\")'s *Storm of Steel* (1920\\), *Struggle as Inner Experience* (1922\\), *Storms* (1933\\), *Fire and Blood* (1925\\), *The Adventurous Heart* (1929\\), and *Total Mobilization* (1931\\).",
"#### *Blut und Boden* (Blood and Soil)",
"Novels in this theme often featured an instinctive and soil\\-bound peasant community that warded off alien outsiders who sought to destroy their way of life. \nThe most popular novel of this kind was [Hermann Lons](/wiki/Hermann_Lons \"Hermann Lons\")'s *[Wehrwolf](/wiki/Der_Wehrwolf \"Der Wehrwolf\")* published in 1910\\.",
"#### Historical ethnicity",
"Klaus Fischer says Nazi literature emphasized \"Historic Ethnicity—that is, how a group of people defines itself in a process of historical growth. Writers tried to highlight prominent episodes in the history of the German people; they stressed the German mission for Europe, analyzed the immutable racial essence of Nordic man, and warned against subversive or un\\-German forces—the Jews, Communists, or Western liberals.\" Prominent writers included: [Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer](/wiki/Erwin_Guido_Kolbenheyer \"Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer\") (*Die Bauhutte: Elemente einer Metaphysik der Gerenwart*; The building hut: Elements of a contemporary metaphysics, 1925\\), [Alfred Rosenberg](/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg \"Alfred Rosenberg\") (*Der Mythus des 20\\.Jahrhunderts*; The myth of the twentieth century, 1930\\), [Josef Weinheber](/wiki/Josef_Weinheber \"Josef Weinheber\"), [Hans Grimm](/wiki/Hans_Grimm \"Hans Grimm\") (*Volk ohne Raum*; People [without living space](/wiki/Lebensraum \"Lebensraum\"), 1926\\), and [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\") (*Michael*, 1929\\).",
"### Architecture",
"{{main\\|Nazi architecture}}\nHitler favored hugeness, especially in architecture, as a means of impressing the masses.Pauley 1997, p.106 \"A once mediocre artist and aspiring architect, Hitler also pronounced upon the ‘decadence’ of modern art and pushed his planners to create monumental buildings in older [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture \"Neoclassical architecture\") or [art deco](/wiki/Art_deco \"Art deco\") styles.\"Sivers, Desnoyers and Stow 2012, p.1008[thumb\\|Poster for *The Eternal Jew* exhibition, 1937\\|left](/wiki/File:Plakat_der_ewige_Jude%2C_1937.jpg \"Plakat der ewige Jude, 1937.jpg\")",
"### Theatre and cinema",
"{{main\\|Nazism and cinema}}\n\"The Reich Film Chamber (*Reichsfilmkammer*) controlled the lively German film industry, while a Film Credit Bank (also under Goebbels' control) centralized the financial aspects of film production.\"Mosse 1966, p. 139 Approximately 1,363 feature pictures were made during Nazi rule (208 of these were banned after World War II for containing Nazi Propaganda).Hull 1969, p. 8 Every film made in Nazi Germany (including features, shorts, newsreels, and documentaries) had to be passed by Joseph Goebbels himself before they could be shown in public.Hull 1969, p. 10",
"Mass culture was less stringently regulated than high culture, possibly because the authorities feared the consequences of too heavy\\-handed interference in popular entertainment.Laqueur 1996, p. 73 Thus, until the outbreak of the war, most Hollywood films could be screened, including *[It Happened One Night](/wiki/It_Happened_One_Night \"It Happened One Night\")*, *[San Francisco](/wiki/San_Francisco_%281936_film%29 \"San Francisco (1936 film)\")*, and *[Gone with the Wind](/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_%28film%29 \"Gone with the Wind (film)\")*. While performance of atonal music was banned, the prohibition of jazz was less strictly enforced. [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman \"Benny Goodman\") and [Django Reinhardt](/wiki/Django_Reinhardt \"Django Reinhardt\") were popular, and leading English and American jazz bands continued to perform in major cities until the war; thereafter, dance bands officially played \"[swing](/wiki/Swing_music \"Swing music\")\" rather than the banned jazz.Laqueur 1996, pp. 73–75",
"A film premiered in Berlin on November 28, 1940, which was clearly a tool used to promote Nazi Ideology. The release of the film *[Der ewige Jude](/wiki/The_Eternal_Jew_%281940_film%29 \"The Eternal Jew (1940 film)\")* (The Eternal Jew) was only two months prior to the announcement made by German officials of the establishment of the ghetto in [Łódź](/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA \"Łódź\"). The film was portrayed in the Nazi press as a documentary to emphasize the cinema as truth, when in reality it was nothing more than propaganda to raise hatred against the Jewish community in its viewers.{{sfn\\|Hansen\\|2009\\|pp\\=80, 81}}",
"The filmmaker, [Fritz Hippler](/wiki/Fritz_Hippler \"Fritz Hippler\"), used numerous visual techniques to portray Jews as a filthy, degenerate, and disease\\-infested population. Purporting to provide the viewer with an in\\-depth look at the Jewish lifestyle, the film showed staged scenes of Łódź (soon to be ghetto) with the presence of flies and rats, to suggest a dangerous\\-to\\-life area of Europe, which, in turn, only perpetuated underlying superstition and fear to the viewer. To add to this staged and exaggerated scene of filth was a warning released by officials of The [Reich](/wiki/Reich \"Reich\"): an advisory that Łódź is an area of widespread infectious disease. The film director utilized racist cinema to bolster the illusion that Jews were parasites and corruptors of German culture.{{sfn\\|Hansen\\|2009\\|pp\\=80, 83}}",
"Hippler made use of [voice\\-overs](/wiki/Voice-over \"Voice-over\") to cite hate speeches or fictitious statistics of the Jewish population. He also borrowed numerous scenes from other films, and presented them out of context from the original: for example, a scene of a Jewish businessman in the United States hiding money was accompanied with a bogus claim that Jewish men get taxed more than non\\-Jews in the United States, which was used to insinuate that Jews withhold money from the government. Through the repetitive use of side angles of Jewish people, who were filmed (without knowledge) while looking over their shoulder at the camera, *Der ewige Jude* created a visual suggesting a shifty and conspiring nature of Jews. Yet another propaganda technique was superposition. Hippler superimposed the [Star of David](/wiki/Star_of_David \"Star of David\") onto the tops of world capitals, insinuating an illusion of Jewish world domination.{{sfn\\|Hansen\\|2009\\|pp\\=84–86}}\n \n*Der ewige Jude* is notorious for its anti\\-Semitism and its use of cinema in the fabrication of propaganda, to satisfy Hitler and to embrace the Germanic ideology that would fuel a nation in support of an obsessive leader.{{sfn\\|Hansen\\|2009}}\n\"On the lighter side, a Jewish actor named [Leo Reuss](/wiki/Lionel_Royce \"Lionel Royce\") fled Germany to Vienna, where he dyed his hair and beard and became a specialist in 'Aryan' roles, which were greatly praised by the Nazis. Having had his fun, Reuss revealed he was a Jew, signed a contract with MGM, and departed for the United States\".Hull 1969, p. 127",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|[Dwight D. Eisenhower](/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower \"Dwight D. Eisenhower\") (right) inspects stolen artwork in a salt mine in [Merkers](/wiki/Merkers \"Merkers\"), accompanied by [Omar Bradley](/wiki/Omar_Bradley \"Omar Bradley\") (left) and [George S. Patton](/wiki/George_S._Patton \"George S. Patton\") (center)\\|left](/wiki/File:Eisenhower%2C_Bradley_and_Patton_inspect_looted_art_HD-SN-99-02758.JPEG \"Eisenhower, Bradley and Patton inspect looted art HD-SN-99-02758.JPEG\")",
""
] |
### Music
{{Main article\|Music in Nazi Germany}}
Music was expected to be [tonal](/wiki/Tonality "Tonality") and free of [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") influence; [films](/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema "Nazism and cinema") and plays were [censored](/wiki/Censorship "Censorship"). "Musical fare alternated between light music in the form of folk songs or popular hits (*Schlager*) and such acceptable classical music as [Bach](/wiki/Bach "Bach"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven"), and [Italian Opera](/wiki/Italian_Opera "Italian Opera")."Fischer 1997, p. 371\.
Germany's urban centers in the 1920s and '30s were buzzing with [jazz clubs](/wiki/Jazz_club "Jazz club"), [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret "Cabaret") houses and [avant\-garde music](/wiki/Avant-garde_music "Avant-garde music"). In contrast, the Nazi regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical [German music](/wiki/German_music "German music"). Highly favored was music which alluded to a mythic, heroic German past such as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach"), [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven "Ludwig van Beethoven") and [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"). [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner "Anton Bruckner") was highly favored, as his music was regarded as an expression of the [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist "Zeitgeist") of the German [volk](/wiki/Volk "Volk").Eyerman \& Jamison 1998\. The music of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg") (and [atonal music](/wiki/Atonal_music "Atonal music") along with it), [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler "Gustav Mahler"), [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn") and many others was banned because the composers were Jewish or of Jewish origin.Levi 1994\. [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith "Paul Hindemith") fled to Switzerland in 1938,{{cite book\|last\=Steinberg\|first\=Michael\|title\=The Concerto : A Listener's Guide\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|isbn\=019802634X\|page\=205\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=t8oXNX2tY8AC\&pg\=PA205\|access\-date\=2013\-03\-23}} rather than fit his music into Nazi ideology. Some operas of [Georg Friedrich Händel](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel "Georg Friedrich Händel") were either banned outright for themes sympathetic to Jews and Judaism or had new librettos written for them. German composers who had their music performed more often during the Nazi period were [Max Reger](/wiki/Max_Reger "Max Reger") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner "Hans Pfitzner"). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss "Richard Strauss") continued to be the most performed contemporary German composer, as he had been prior to the Nazi regime. However, even Strauss had his opera *[The Silent Woman](/wiki/Die_Schweigsame_Frau "Die Schweigsame Frau")* banned in 1935 due to his Jewish librettist [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig "Stefan Zweig").Levi 1994, p. 217\.
Music by non\-German composers was tolerated if it was classically inspired, [tonal](/wiki/Tonality "Tonality"), and not by a composer of Jewish origin or having ties to ideologies hostile to the Nazi regime. The Nazis recognized [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt") for having German origin and fabricated a genealogy that purported that [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") was German. The Nazi [Governor\-General of occupied Poland](/wiki/Hans_Frank "Hans Frank") even had a "Chopin Museum" built in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"). Music of the Russian [Peter Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Tchaikovsky "Peter Tchaikovsky") could be performed in Nazi Germany even after [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa"). Operas by [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini "Gioacchino Rossini"), [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi "Giuseppe Verdi") and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini "Giacomo Puccini") got frequent play. The most\-performed modern non\-German composers prior to the outbreak of war were [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy"), [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel "Maurice Ravel"), [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius "Jean Sibelius") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky "Igor Stravinsky"). After the outbreak of war, the music of German allies became more often performed, including the Hungarian [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k "Béla Bartók"), the Italian [Ottorino Respighi](/wiki/Ottorino_Respighi "Ottorino Respighi") and the Finn [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius "Jean Sibelius"). Composers of enemy nations (such as Debussy, Ravel and Stravinsky) were largely banned and almost never performed – although there were some exceptions.
There has been controversy over the use of certain composers' music by the Nazi regime, and whether that implicates the composer as implicitly Nazi. Composers such as Richard Strauss,Potter 1992\. who served as the first director of the Propaganda Ministry's music division, and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff "Carl Orff") have been subject to extreme criticism and heated defense.Kater 1999; Kater 2000\. Jews were quickly prohibited from performing or conducting classical music in Germany. Such conductors as [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer "Otto Klemperer"), [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter "Bruno Walter"), [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter "Ignatz Waghalter"), [Josef Krips](/wiki/Josef_Krips "Josef Krips"), and [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling "Kurt Sanderling") fled Germany. Upon the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, the conductor [Karel Ančerl](/wiki/Karel_An%C4%8Derl "Karel Ančerl") was blacklisted as a Jew and was sent in turn to [Theresienstadt](/wiki/Theresienstadt "Theresienstadt") and [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz").
#### Musicologists of Nazi Germany
As the Nazi regime accrued power in 1933, musicologists were directed to rewrite the history of German music in order to accommodate Nazi mythology and ideology. [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner "Hans Pfitzner") were now seen as composers who conceptualized a united order (*Volksgemeinschaft*) where music was an index of the German community. In a time of disintegration, Wagner and Pfitzner wanted to revitalize the country through music. In a book written about Hans Pfitzner and Wagner, published in Regensburg in 1939 followed not only the birth of contemporary musical parties, but also of political parties in Germany. The Wagner\-Pfitzner stance contrasted ideas of other notable artists, such as [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg") and [Theodor W. Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno "Theodor W. Adorno"), who wanted music to be autonomous from politics, Nazi control and application. Although Wagner and Pfitzner predated Nazism, their sentiments and thoughts, Wagner's *[Gesamtkunstwerk](/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk "Gesamtkunstwerk")*, were appropriated by Hitler and his propagandists—notably [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels "Joseph Goebbels"). According to Michael Meyer, "The very emphasis on rootedness and on tradition music underscored Nazi understanding of itself in a dialectic terms: old gods were mobilized against the false values of the immediate past to offer legitimacy to the epiphany of Adolf Hitler and the music representation of his realm."{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2012}}
Composers, librettists, educators, critics, and especially musicologists, through their public statements, intellectual writings, and journals contributed to the justification of a totalitarian blueprint to be implanted through nazification. All music was then composed for the occasions of Nazi pageantries, rallies, and conventions. Composers dedicated so called 'consecration fanfares,' inaugurations fanfares and flag songs to the Fuhrer. When the Fuhrer assumed power the Nazi revolution was immediately expressed in musicological journalism. Certain progressive journalism pertaining to modern music was purged. Journals that had been sympathetic to the ‘German viewpoint,’ entrenched in Wagnerian ideals, like the *Zeitschrift für Musik* and *Die Musik*, showed confidence in the new regime and affirmed the process of intertwining government policies with music. Joseph Goebbels used the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter "Völkischer Beobachter")*, a journal that was disseminated to the general public in addition to elites and party officials, as an organ of Reich Culture. By the end of the 1930s the *Mitteilungen der Reichsmusikkammer* became another prominent journal that reflected the music policy, organizational and personnel changes in musical institutions.
In the early years of Nazi rule, the musicologists and musicians redirected the orientation of music, defining what was "German Music" and what was not. Nazi ideology was applied to the evaluation of musicians for hero status; musicians defined in the new German musical era were given titles of prophets, while their accomplishments and deeds were seen as direct accomplishments of the Nazi regime. The contribution of German musicologists led to the justification of Nazi power and a new German music culture in whole. The musicologists defined the greater German values that musicians would have to identify with, because their duty was to integrate music and Nazism in way that made them look inseparable. Nazi myth making and ideology was forced upon the new musical path of Germany rather than truly embedded in the rhetoric of German music.
|
[
"### Music",
"{{Main article\\|Music in Nazi Germany}}\nMusic was expected to be [tonal](/wiki/Tonality \"Tonality\") and free of [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") influence; [films](/wiki/Nazism_and_cinema \"Nazism and cinema\") and plays were [censored](/wiki/Censorship \"Censorship\"). \"Musical fare alternated between light music in the form of folk songs or popular hits (*Schlager*) and such acceptable classical music as [Bach](/wiki/Bach \"Bach\"), [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\"), and [Italian Opera](/wiki/Italian_Opera \"Italian Opera\").\"Fischer 1997, p. 371\\.",
"Germany's urban centers in the 1920s and '30s were buzzing with [jazz clubs](/wiki/Jazz_club \"Jazz club\"), [cabaret](/wiki/Cabaret \"Cabaret\") houses and [avant\\-garde music](/wiki/Avant-garde_music \"Avant-garde music\"). In contrast, the Nazi regime made concentrated efforts to shun modern music (which was considered degenerate and Jewish in nature) and instead embraced classical [German music](/wiki/German_music \"German music\"). Highly favored was music which alluded to a mythic, heroic German past such as [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\"), [Ludwig van Beethoven](/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven \"Ludwig van Beethoven\") and [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"). [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner \"Anton Bruckner\") was highly favored, as his music was regarded as an expression of the [zeitgeist](/wiki/Zeitgeist \"Zeitgeist\") of the German [volk](/wiki/Volk \"Volk\").Eyerman \\& Jamison 1998\\. The music of [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") (and [atonal music](/wiki/Atonal_music \"Atonal music\") along with it), [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler \"Gustav Mahler\"), [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\") and many others was banned because the composers were Jewish or of Jewish origin.Levi 1994\\. [Paul Hindemith](/wiki/Paul_Hindemith \"Paul Hindemith\") fled to Switzerland in 1938,{{cite book\\|last\\=Steinberg\\|first\\=Michael\\|title\\=The Concerto : A Listener's Guide\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\\=019802634X\\|page\\=205\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=t8oXNX2tY8AC\\&pg\\=PA205\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-23}} rather than fit his music into Nazi ideology. Some operas of [Georg Friedrich Händel](/wiki/Georg_Friedrich_H%C3%A4ndel \"Georg Friedrich Händel\") were either banned outright for themes sympathetic to Jews and Judaism or had new librettos written for them. German composers who had their music performed more often during the Nazi period were [Max Reger](/wiki/Max_Reger \"Max Reger\") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner \"Hans Pfitzner\"). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss \"Richard Strauss\") continued to be the most performed contemporary German composer, as he had been prior to the Nazi regime. However, even Strauss had his opera *[The Silent Woman](/wiki/Die_Schweigsame_Frau \"Die Schweigsame Frau\")* banned in 1935 due to his Jewish librettist [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig \"Stefan Zweig\").Levi 1994, p. 217\\.",
"Music by non\\-German composers was tolerated if it was classically inspired, [tonal](/wiki/Tonality \"Tonality\"), and not by a composer of Jewish origin or having ties to ideologies hostile to the Nazi regime. The Nazis recognized [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\") for having German origin and fabricated a genealogy that purported that [Frédéric Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") was German. The Nazi [Governor\\-General of occupied Poland](/wiki/Hans_Frank \"Hans Frank\") even had a \"Chopin Museum\" built in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"). Music of the Russian [Peter Tchaikovsky](/wiki/Peter_Tchaikovsky \"Peter Tchaikovsky\") could be performed in Nazi Germany even after [Operation Barbarossa](/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa \"Operation Barbarossa\"). Operas by [Gioacchino Rossini](/wiki/Gioacchino_Rossini \"Gioacchino Rossini\"), [Giuseppe Verdi](/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi \"Giuseppe Verdi\") and [Giacomo Puccini](/wiki/Giacomo_Puccini \"Giacomo Puccini\") got frequent play. The most\\-performed modern non\\-German composers prior to the outbreak of war were [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"), [Maurice Ravel](/wiki/Maurice_Ravel \"Maurice Ravel\"), [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\") and [Igor Stravinsky](/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky \"Igor Stravinsky\"). After the outbreak of war, the music of German allies became more often performed, including the Hungarian [Béla Bartók](/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k \"Béla Bartók\"), the Italian [Ottorino Respighi](/wiki/Ottorino_Respighi \"Ottorino Respighi\") and the Finn [Jean Sibelius](/wiki/Jean_Sibelius \"Jean Sibelius\"). Composers of enemy nations (such as Debussy, Ravel and Stravinsky) were largely banned and almost never performed – although there were some exceptions.",
"There has been controversy over the use of certain composers' music by the Nazi regime, and whether that implicates the composer as implicitly Nazi. Composers such as Richard Strauss,Potter 1992\\. who served as the first director of the Propaganda Ministry's music division, and [Carl Orff](/wiki/Carl_Orff \"Carl Orff\") have been subject to extreme criticism and heated defense.Kater 1999; Kater 2000\\. Jews were quickly prohibited from performing or conducting classical music in Germany. Such conductors as [Otto Klemperer](/wiki/Otto_Klemperer \"Otto Klemperer\"), [Bruno Walter](/wiki/Bruno_Walter \"Bruno Walter\"), [Ignatz Waghalter](/wiki/Ignatz_Waghalter \"Ignatz Waghalter\"), [Josef Krips](/wiki/Josef_Krips \"Josef Krips\"), and [Kurt Sanderling](/wiki/Kurt_Sanderling \"Kurt Sanderling\") fled Germany. Upon the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, the conductor [Karel Ančerl](/wiki/Karel_An%C4%8Derl \"Karel Ančerl\") was blacklisted as a Jew and was sent in turn to [Theresienstadt](/wiki/Theresienstadt \"Theresienstadt\") and [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\").",
"#### Musicologists of Nazi Germany",
"As the Nazi regime accrued power in 1933, musicologists were directed to rewrite the history of German music in order to accommodate Nazi mythology and ideology. [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") and [Hans Pfitzner](/wiki/Hans_Pfitzner \"Hans Pfitzner\") were now seen as composers who conceptualized a united order (*Volksgemeinschaft*) where music was an index of the German community. In a time of disintegration, Wagner and Pfitzner wanted to revitalize the country through music. In a book written about Hans Pfitzner and Wagner, published in Regensburg in 1939 followed not only the birth of contemporary musical parties, but also of political parties in Germany. The Wagner\\-Pfitzner stance contrasted ideas of other notable artists, such as [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\") and [Theodor W. Adorno](/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno \"Theodor W. Adorno\"), who wanted music to be autonomous from politics, Nazi control and application. Although Wagner and Pfitzner predated Nazism, their sentiments and thoughts, Wagner's *[Gesamtkunstwerk](/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk \"Gesamtkunstwerk\")*, were appropriated by Hitler and his propagandists—notably [Joseph Goebbels](/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels \"Joseph Goebbels\"). According to Michael Meyer, \"The very emphasis on rootedness and on tradition music underscored Nazi understanding of itself in a dialectic terms: old gods were mobilized against the false values of the immediate past to offer legitimacy to the epiphany of Adolf Hitler and the music representation of his realm.\"{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2012}}",
"Composers, librettists, educators, critics, and especially musicologists, through their public statements, intellectual writings, and journals contributed to the justification of a totalitarian blueprint to be implanted through nazification. All music was then composed for the occasions of Nazi pageantries, rallies, and conventions. Composers dedicated so called 'consecration fanfares,' inaugurations fanfares and flag songs to the Fuhrer. When the Fuhrer assumed power the Nazi revolution was immediately expressed in musicological journalism. Certain progressive journalism pertaining to modern music was purged. Journals that had been sympathetic to the ‘German viewpoint,’ entrenched in Wagnerian ideals, like the *Zeitschrift für Musik* and *Die Musik*, showed confidence in the new regime and affirmed the process of intertwining government policies with music. Joseph Goebbels used the *[Völkischer Beobachter](/wiki/V%C3%B6lkischer_Beobachter \"Völkischer Beobachter\")*, a journal that was disseminated to the general public in addition to elites and party officials, as an organ of Reich Culture. By the end of the 1930s the *Mitteilungen der Reichsmusikkammer* became another prominent journal that reflected the music policy, organizational and personnel changes in musical institutions.",
"In the early years of Nazi rule, the musicologists and musicians redirected the orientation of music, defining what was \"German Music\" and what was not. Nazi ideology was applied to the evaluation of musicians for hero status; musicians defined in the new German musical era were given titles of prophets, while their accomplishments and deeds were seen as direct accomplishments of the Nazi regime. The contribution of German musicologists led to the justification of Nazi power and a new German music culture in whole. The musicologists defined the greater German values that musicians would have to identify with, because their duty was to integrate music and Nazism in way that made them look inseparable. Nazi myth making and ideology was forced upon the new musical path of Germany rather than truly embedded in the rhetoric of German music.",
""
] |
History
-------
The Robert S. Peabody Institute has served as a major center for fieldwork, research, and publication since its founding in 1901\. Peabody, an 1857 graduate of Phillips Academy, established the Museum as the repository for his collection of approximately 38,000 artifacts and as a place where students could become acquainted with the discipline of archaeology.Concise History of the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and its Collection by Malinda S. Blustain Throughout its history, the institute has been known by several names, including the Department of Archaeology, the Robert S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology, the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology, and, most recently, the Robert S. Peabody Institute for Archaeology.
As the museum's first director, his son Charles initiated the strong emphasis on research with excavations in 1901 at the Dorr Mound, Mississippi, [Jacob's Cavern](/wiki/Jacobs_Cavern "Jacobs Cavern"), Missouri in 1903 and Bushy Cavern, Maryland in 1904, among others. His excavations used an early form of the grid system and produced some of the first well\-documented evidence of man in association with extinct fauna. His 1904 report on [Jacob's Cavern](/wiki/Jacobs_Cavern "Jacobs Cavern") inaugurated the museum's long history of research and publication.
[Warren K. Moorehead](/wiki/Warren_K._Moorehead "Warren K. Moorehead"), appointed curator in 1901 and second director in 1924, conducted fieldwork throughout North America. He undertook extensive regional surveys and excavations in the Arkansas River Valley, Northwest Georgia, and coastal Maine from 1907 to 1938\. Work at [Etowah](/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds "Etowah Indian Mounds"), Hopewell, the [Cahokia Mounds](/wiki/Cahokia_Mounds "Cahokia Mounds"), and [“Red Paint”](/wiki/Red_Paint_People "Red Paint People") sites in Maine added about 200,000 objects and provided some of the most valuable early collections. Moorehead was appointed by Theodore Roosevelt to the [Board of Indian Commissioners](/wiki/Board_of_Indian_Commissioners "Board of Indian Commissioners") in 1909\. He investigated claims of fraud at the [Annishinabe](/wiki/Annishinabe "Annishinabe") Reservation at [White Earth](/wiki/White_Earth_Indian_Reservation "White Earth Indian Reservation") Minnesota, exposing illegal seizure of reservation land by lumber and land companies. The museum curates photographs documenting the work and gifts from Annishinabe people whose land was eventually returned.
Between 1915 and 1929 [A. V. Kidder](/wiki/A._V._Kidder "A. V. Kidder") excavated sites in the Pecos Valley, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the American southwest. Kidder is known as the “father of archaeology” for his demonstration of the value of stratigraphic excavation in the Americas.Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas. Archaeology, 5th Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA. 2010\.{{by whom\|date\=November 2010}} With [Carl Guthe](/wiki/Carl_E._Guthe "Carl E. Guthe") and [Anna O. Shepard](/wiki/Anna_O._Shepard "Anna O. Shepard"), Kidder's analysis resulted in the first full chronology of southwestern archaeology. Inspired by questions raised at Pecos, Carl Guthe and [Elsie Clews Parsons](/wiki/Elsie_Clews_Parsons "Elsie Clews Parsons") conducted ethnographic studies at [Jemez](/wiki/Jemez_Pueblo%2C_New_Mexico "Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico") and [San Ildefonso](/wiki/San_Ildefonso_Pueblo%2C_New_Mexico "San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico") Pueblos in the first use of analogy with the present as a tool in archaeological interpretation. The excavations at Pecos and related sites recovered more than 25,000 artifacts. [Earnest Hooton](/wiki/Earnest_Hooton "Earnest Hooton") at [Harvard's Peabody Museum](/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology "Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology") studied the more than 2,000 sets of human remains from Pecos in the first physical anthropological study of population groups through time. In 1927 Kidder held the first [Pecos conference](/wiki/Pecos_conference "Pecos conference"), sponsored by Peabody, initiating regional archaeological conferences.
The third director, Douglas S. Byers, and curator Fred Johnson were national leaders in research and publication from 1938 through 1968\. The Robert S. Peabody “Foundation for Archaeological Research” updated and revised cataloging, artifact storage systems, exhibits, and publications. Fieldwork was focused on identifying the New England stratigraphic sequence. Johnson pioneered interdisciplinary paleoecological analysis for archaeological interpretation, applying it first to the [Boylston Street Fish Weir](/wiki/Boylston_Street_Fishweir "Boylston Street Fishweir") in 1939\. Excavation of Paleoindian occupations at the Bull Brook and Debert sites during the 1950s and 60s employed Pleistocene geology as an analytical tool. Extensive work was also undertaken in the Yukon and Mexico. These excavations, plus several significant private collections, added another 200,000 objects.
The RSPM hosted the initial meeting of the [Society for American Archaeology](/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology "Society for American Archaeology") in 1935 and inaugurated the Massachusetts Archaeological Society five years later. During the 1950s Fred Johnson chaired the [American Anthropological Association](/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association "American Anthropological Association") committee linking the needs of archaeologists with the expertise of [Willard F. Libby](/wiki/Willard_F._Libby "Willard F. Libby") to develop [Carbon 14 dating](/wiki/Carbon_14_dating "Carbon 14 dating") for archaeological sites. The Peabody hosted the 1954 Conference on Radiocarbon Dating and the 1956 International Conference on Radiocarbon Dating with representatives from seven European countries, Canada, and the United States.
In 1968, [Richard “Scotty” MacNeish](/wiki/Richard_MacNeish "Richard MacNeish") was appointed Director. His major excavations in Mexico, Peru, and Belize investigated the origins of agriculture. MacNeish's discoveries of early corn and the pre\-ceramic sequence in Mexico provided crucial insight into plant and animal domestication and the beginnings of sedentary life in the New World. This work is considered one of the most important interdisciplinary studies in 20th\-century American archaeology. His contributions to archaeology were acknowledged through more than a dozen medals and honors, including his election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1974\. The Museum curates the type collections published in the Tehuacan volumes and the personal papers, field notes, maps, photographs, and publications constituting the MacNeish library and archives.
The museum was dormant after MacNeish's 1983 departure until the arrival of James W. Bradley in 1990\. Bradley renamed the institution the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and revived the museum's research and educational functions, achieved broad use of the museum's resources within Phillips Academy, inaugurated highly successful expeditionary learning programs, and reactivated the Research Associate program. Innovative work directed toward [NAGPRA](/wiki/NAGPRA "NAGPRA") compliance resulted in a national model for partnerships with tribes. Bradley's emphasis on collection management, acquisition of significant private collections, and building relations with native communities, avocational archaeologists, educators, and professional museum and archaeology constituencies, rebuilt the museum's national significance.
In November 2017, the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology was renamed the Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology to more accurately reflect the institution's mission and to avoid confusion with other similarly named institutions.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Robert S. Peabody Institute has served as a major center for fieldwork, research, and publication since its founding in 1901\\. Peabody, an 1857 graduate of Phillips Academy, established the Museum as the repository for his collection of approximately 38,000 artifacts and as a place where students could become acquainted with the discipline of archaeology.Concise History of the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and its Collection by Malinda S. Blustain Throughout its history, the institute has been known by several names, including the Department of Archaeology, the Robert S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology, the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology, and, most recently, the Robert S. Peabody Institute for Archaeology.",
"As the museum's first director, his son Charles initiated the strong emphasis on research with excavations in 1901 at the Dorr Mound, Mississippi, [Jacob's Cavern](/wiki/Jacobs_Cavern \"Jacobs Cavern\"), Missouri in 1903 and Bushy Cavern, Maryland in 1904, among others. His excavations used an early form of the grid system and produced some of the first well\\-documented evidence of man in association with extinct fauna. His 1904 report on [Jacob's Cavern](/wiki/Jacobs_Cavern \"Jacobs Cavern\") inaugurated the museum's long history of research and publication.",
"[Warren K. Moorehead](/wiki/Warren_K._Moorehead \"Warren K. Moorehead\"), appointed curator in 1901 and second director in 1924, conducted fieldwork throughout North America. He undertook extensive regional surveys and excavations in the Arkansas River Valley, Northwest Georgia, and coastal Maine from 1907 to 1938\\. Work at [Etowah](/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds \"Etowah Indian Mounds\"), Hopewell, the [Cahokia Mounds](/wiki/Cahokia_Mounds \"Cahokia Mounds\"), and [“Red Paint”](/wiki/Red_Paint_People \"Red Paint People\") sites in Maine added about 200,000 objects and provided some of the most valuable early collections. Moorehead was appointed by Theodore Roosevelt to the [Board of Indian Commissioners](/wiki/Board_of_Indian_Commissioners \"Board of Indian Commissioners\") in 1909\\. He investigated claims of fraud at the [Annishinabe](/wiki/Annishinabe \"Annishinabe\") Reservation at [White Earth](/wiki/White_Earth_Indian_Reservation \"White Earth Indian Reservation\") Minnesota, exposing illegal seizure of reservation land by lumber and land companies. The museum curates photographs documenting the work and gifts from Annishinabe people whose land was eventually returned.",
"Between 1915 and 1929 [A. V. Kidder](/wiki/A._V._Kidder \"A. V. Kidder\") excavated sites in the Pecos Valley, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the American southwest. Kidder is known as the “father of archaeology” for his demonstration of the value of stratigraphic excavation in the Americas.Robert L. Kelly and David Hurst Thomas. Archaeology, 5th Edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA. 2010\\.{{by whom\\|date\\=November 2010}} With [Carl Guthe](/wiki/Carl_E._Guthe \"Carl E. Guthe\") and [Anna O. Shepard](/wiki/Anna_O._Shepard \"Anna O. Shepard\"), Kidder's analysis resulted in the first full chronology of southwestern archaeology. Inspired by questions raised at Pecos, Carl Guthe and [Elsie Clews Parsons](/wiki/Elsie_Clews_Parsons \"Elsie Clews Parsons\") conducted ethnographic studies at [Jemez](/wiki/Jemez_Pueblo%2C_New_Mexico \"Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico\") and [San Ildefonso](/wiki/San_Ildefonso_Pueblo%2C_New_Mexico \"San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico\") Pueblos in the first use of analogy with the present as a tool in archaeological interpretation. The excavations at Pecos and related sites recovered more than 25,000 artifacts. [Earnest Hooton](/wiki/Earnest_Hooton \"Earnest Hooton\") at [Harvard's Peabody Museum](/wiki/Peabody_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Ethnology \"Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology\") studied the more than 2,000 sets of human remains from Pecos in the first physical anthropological study of population groups through time. In 1927 Kidder held the first [Pecos conference](/wiki/Pecos_conference \"Pecos conference\"), sponsored by Peabody, initiating regional archaeological conferences.",
"The third director, Douglas S. Byers, and curator Fred Johnson were national leaders in research and publication from 1938 through 1968\\. The Robert S. Peabody “Foundation for Archaeological Research” updated and revised cataloging, artifact storage systems, exhibits, and publications. Fieldwork was focused on identifying the New England stratigraphic sequence. Johnson pioneered interdisciplinary paleoecological analysis for archaeological interpretation, applying it first to the [Boylston Street Fish Weir](/wiki/Boylston_Street_Fishweir \"Boylston Street Fishweir\") in 1939\\. Excavation of Paleoindian occupations at the Bull Brook and Debert sites during the 1950s and 60s employed Pleistocene geology as an analytical tool. Extensive work was also undertaken in the Yukon and Mexico. These excavations, plus several significant private collections, added another 200,000 objects.",
"The RSPM hosted the initial meeting of the [Society for American Archaeology](/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology \"Society for American Archaeology\") in 1935 and inaugurated the Massachusetts Archaeological Society five years later. During the 1950s Fred Johnson chaired the [American Anthropological Association](/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association \"American Anthropological Association\") committee linking the needs of archaeologists with the expertise of [Willard F. Libby](/wiki/Willard_F._Libby \"Willard F. Libby\") to develop [Carbon 14 dating](/wiki/Carbon_14_dating \"Carbon 14 dating\") for archaeological sites. The Peabody hosted the 1954 Conference on Radiocarbon Dating and the 1956 International Conference on Radiocarbon Dating with representatives from seven European countries, Canada, and the United States.",
"In 1968, [Richard “Scotty” MacNeish](/wiki/Richard_MacNeish \"Richard MacNeish\") was appointed Director. His major excavations in Mexico, Peru, and Belize investigated the origins of agriculture. MacNeish's discoveries of early corn and the pre\\-ceramic sequence in Mexico provided crucial insight into plant and animal domestication and the beginnings of sedentary life in the New World. This work is considered one of the most important interdisciplinary studies in 20th\\-century American archaeology. His contributions to archaeology were acknowledged through more than a dozen medals and honors, including his election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1974\\. The Museum curates the type collections published in the Tehuacan volumes and the personal papers, field notes, maps, photographs, and publications constituting the MacNeish library and archives.",
"The museum was dormant after MacNeish's 1983 departure until the arrival of James W. Bradley in 1990\\. Bradley renamed the institution the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and revived the museum's research and educational functions, achieved broad use of the museum's resources within Phillips Academy, inaugurated highly successful expeditionary learning programs, and reactivated the Research Associate program. Innovative work directed toward [NAGPRA](/wiki/NAGPRA \"NAGPRA\") compliance resulted in a national model for partnerships with tribes. Bradley's emphasis on collection management, acquisition of significant private collections, and building relations with native communities, avocational archaeologists, educators, and professional museum and archaeology constituencies, rebuilt the museum's national significance.",
"In November 2017, the Robert S. Peabody Museum of Archaeology was renamed the Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology to more accurately reflect the institution's mission and to avoid confusion with other similarly named institutions.",
""
] |
Life and career
---------------
Frederic Alan Schepisi was born in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"), the son of Loretto Ellen (née Hare) and Frederic Thomas Schepisi, who was a fruit dealer and car salesman of Italian descent.["Fred Schepisi Biography (1939– )"](http://www.filmreference.com/film/9/Fred-Schepisi.html). FilmReference.com. Retrieved 16 September 2011\. He began his career in advertising and directed both commercials and documentaries before making his first feature film, *[The Devil's Playground](/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Playground_%281976_film%29 "The Devil's Playground (1976 film)")*, in 1976\.
Schepisi won the [Australian Film Institute Award for Best Direction](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Award_for_Best_Direction "Australian Film Institute Award for Best Direction") and the [Australian Film Institute Award for Best Screenplay](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Award_for_Best_Screenplay "Australian Film Institute Award for Best Screenplay") for both *The Devil's Playground* and *[Evil Angels](/wiki/Evil_Angels_%28film%29 "Evil Angels (film)")* (released as *A Cry in the Dark* outside of Australia and New Zealand).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094924/releaseinfo\#akas\|title\=A Cry in the Dark (1988\) \- Release dates \|publisher\= IMDb.com\|access\-date\=14 June 2012}}
In 1991, Schepisi's film *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House_%28film%29 "The Russia House (film)")* was nominated for the [Golden Bear](/wiki/Golden_Bear "Golden Bear") at the [41st Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/41st_Berlin_International_Film_Festival "41st Berlin International Film Festival").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1991/02\_programm\_1991/02\_Programm\_1991\.html \|title\=Berlinale: 1991 Programme \|access\-date\=26 March 2011 \|work\=berlinale.de}}
In 2005, Schepisi directed and co\-produced the [HBO](/wiki/HBO "HBO") [miniseries](/wiki/Miniseries "Miniseries") *[Empire Falls](/wiki/Empire_Falls_%28miniseries%29 "Empire Falls (miniseries)")*, for which he was nominated for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Directing_for_a_Miniseries%2C_Movie_or_Dramatic_Special "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special") and the [Directors Guild of America Award](/wiki/Directors_Guild_of_America_Awards_2005 "Directors Guild of America Awards 2005") for Best Director of a TV Film.
In 2007, he was the Chairman of the Jury at the [29th Moscow International Film Festival](/wiki/29th_Moscow_International_Film_Festival "29th Moscow International Film Festival").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year\=2007 \|title\=29th Moscow International Film Festival (2007\) \|access\-date\=22 April 2013 \|work\=MIFF \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421051129/http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year\=2007 \|archive\-date\=21 April 2013 \|df\=dmy }}
In April 2008, it was announced that [Film Finance Corporation Australia](/wiki/Film_Finance_Corporation_Australia "Film Finance Corporation Australia") was providing funding for Schepisi's film *The Last Man*, about the final days of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"). It was scheduled to begin filming in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland "Queensland"), with [Guy Pearce](/wiki/Guy_Pearce "Guy Pearce") and [David Wenham](/wiki/David_Wenham "David Wenham") in leading roles, towards the end of the year.Ziffer, Daniel (3 April 2008\). ["Fred Schepisi's new local venture"](http://www.theage.com.au/news/film/fred-schepisis-new-local-venture/2008/04/03/1206851111212.html). *TheAge*.com.au. Retrieved 5 June 2014\.
In 2011, Schepisi directed *[The Eye of the Storm](/wiki/The_Eye_of_the_Storm_%282011_film%29 "The Eye of the Storm (2011 film)")*. Filmed in Melbourne, Sydney and Far North Queensland, and based on the novel by [Patrick White](/wiki/Patrick_White "Patrick White"), *The Eye of the Storm* stars [Charlotte Rampling](/wiki/Charlotte_Rampling "Charlotte Rampling"), [Judy Davis](/wiki/Judy_Davis "Judy Davis") and [Geoffrey Rush](/wiki/Geoffrey_Rush "Geoffrey Rush"). The story is about "children finally understanding themselves through the context of family".["About Fred Schepisi"](http://fredschepisi.com/bio/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606220933/http://fredschepisi.com/bio/ \|date\=6 June 2014 }}. *fredschepisi.com*. Retrieved 5 June 2014\.
In 2012, he directed *[Words and Pictures](/wiki/Words_and_Pictures_%28film%29 "Words and Pictures (film)")* starring [Juliette Binoche](/wiki/Juliette_Binoche "Juliette Binoche") and [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen "Clive Owen"). Schepisi has also directed a number of music videos, including for the 2008 song "[Breathe](/wiki/Breathe_%28Kaz_James_song%29 "Breathe (Kaz James song)")" by [Kaz James](/wiki/Kaz_James "Kaz James") featuring [Stu Stone](/wiki/Stu_Stone "Stu Stone").["MTV Confidential"](http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,,23585840-5016461,00.html) *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 "The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)")*, 23 April 2008\. Retrieved 30 April 2009\.
Asked about the "gypsy\-like existence" of a filmmaker, Schepisi has said: "It's the hardest thing. I think we're today's circus people. It's very hard on your family. \[His wife] [Mary](/wiki/Mary_Schepisi "Mary Schepisi") travels with me and when everyone was younger and it was possible, I liked them to travel with me and be with me. Fortunately, Mary's an artist; she paints, and often finds inspiration from our locations."Dow, Steve (10 October 2006\). ["Action Men: Australian directors on film"](http://www.stevedow.com.au/Default.aspx?id=264). SteveDow.com. Retrieved 16 September 2011\. Schepisi has seven adult children and one grandchild.
|
[
"Life and career\n---------------",
"Frederic Alan Schepisi was born in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"), the son of Loretto Ellen (née Hare) and Frederic Thomas Schepisi, who was a fruit dealer and car salesman of Italian descent.[\"Fred Schepisi Biography (1939– )\"](http://www.filmreference.com/film/9/Fred-Schepisi.html). FilmReference.com. Retrieved 16 September 2011\\. He began his career in advertising and directed both commercials and documentaries before making his first feature film, *[The Devil's Playground](/wiki/The_Devil%27s_Playground_%281976_film%29 \"The Devil's Playground (1976 film)\")*, in 1976\\.",
"Schepisi won the [Australian Film Institute Award for Best Direction](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Award_for_Best_Direction \"Australian Film Institute Award for Best Direction\") and the [Australian Film Institute Award for Best Screenplay](/wiki/Australian_Film_Institute_Award_for_Best_Screenplay \"Australian Film Institute Award for Best Screenplay\") for both *The Devil's Playground* and *[Evil Angels](/wiki/Evil_Angels_%28film%29 \"Evil Angels (film)\")* (released as *A Cry in the Dark* outside of Australia and New Zealand).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0094924/releaseinfo\\#akas\\|title\\=A Cry in the Dark (1988\\) \\- Release dates \\|publisher\\= IMDb.com\\|access\\-date\\=14 June 2012}}",
"In 1991, Schepisi's film *[The Russia House](/wiki/The_Russia_House_%28film%29 \"The Russia House (film)\")* was nominated for the [Golden Bear](/wiki/Golden_Bear \"Golden Bear\") at the [41st Berlin International Film Festival](/wiki/41st_Berlin_International_Film_Festival \"41st Berlin International Film Festival\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1991/02\\_programm\\_1991/02\\_Programm\\_1991\\.html \\|title\\=Berlinale: 1991 Programme \\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2011 \\|work\\=berlinale.de}}",
"In 2005, Schepisi directed and co\\-produced the [HBO](/wiki/HBO \"HBO\") [miniseries](/wiki/Miniseries \"Miniseries\") *[Empire Falls](/wiki/Empire_Falls_%28miniseries%29 \"Empire Falls (miniseries)\")*, for which he was nominated for the [Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Directing_for_a_Miniseries%2C_Movie_or_Dramatic_Special \"Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or Dramatic Special\") and the [Directors Guild of America Award](/wiki/Directors_Guild_of_America_Awards_2005 \"Directors Guild of America Awards 2005\") for Best Director of a TV Film.",
"In 2007, he was the Chairman of the Jury at the [29th Moscow International Film Festival](/wiki/29th_Moscow_International_Film_Festival \"29th Moscow International Film Festival\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year\\=2007 \\|title\\=29th Moscow International Film Festival (2007\\) \\|access\\-date\\=22 April 2013 \\|work\\=MIFF \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130421051129/http://www.moscowfilmfestival.ru/miff34/eng/archives/?year\\=2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 April 2013 \\|df\\=dmy }}",
"In April 2008, it was announced that [Film Finance Corporation Australia](/wiki/Film_Finance_Corporation_Australia \"Film Finance Corporation Australia\") was providing funding for Schepisi's film *The Last Man*, about the final days of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"). It was scheduled to begin filming in [Queensland](/wiki/Queensland \"Queensland\"), with [Guy Pearce](/wiki/Guy_Pearce \"Guy Pearce\") and [David Wenham](/wiki/David_Wenham \"David Wenham\") in leading roles, towards the end of the year.Ziffer, Daniel (3 April 2008\\). [\"Fred Schepisi's new local venture\"](http://www.theage.com.au/news/film/fred-schepisis-new-local-venture/2008/04/03/1206851111212.html). *TheAge*.com.au. Retrieved 5 June 2014\\.",
"In 2011, Schepisi directed *[The Eye of the Storm](/wiki/The_Eye_of_the_Storm_%282011_film%29 \"The Eye of the Storm (2011 film)\")*. Filmed in Melbourne, Sydney and Far North Queensland, and based on the novel by [Patrick White](/wiki/Patrick_White \"Patrick White\"), *The Eye of the Storm* stars [Charlotte Rampling](/wiki/Charlotte_Rampling \"Charlotte Rampling\"), [Judy Davis](/wiki/Judy_Davis \"Judy Davis\") and [Geoffrey Rush](/wiki/Geoffrey_Rush \"Geoffrey Rush\"). The story is about \"children finally understanding themselves through the context of family\".[\"About Fred Schepisi\"](http://fredschepisi.com/bio/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606220933/http://fredschepisi.com/bio/ \\|date\\=6 June 2014 }}. *fredschepisi.com*. Retrieved 5 June 2014\\.",
"In 2012, he directed *[Words and Pictures](/wiki/Words_and_Pictures_%28film%29 \"Words and Pictures (film)\")* starring [Juliette Binoche](/wiki/Juliette_Binoche \"Juliette Binoche\") and [Clive Owen](/wiki/Clive_Owen \"Clive Owen\"). Schepisi has also directed a number of music videos, including for the 2008 song \"[Breathe](/wiki/Breathe_%28Kaz_James_song%29 \"Breathe (Kaz James song)\")\" by [Kaz James](/wiki/Kaz_James \"Kaz James\") featuring [Stu Stone](/wiki/Stu_Stone \"Stu Stone\").[\"MTV Confidential\"](http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/story/0,,23585840-5016461,00.html) *[The Daily Telegraph](/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph_%28Sydney%29 \"The Daily Telegraph (Sydney)\")*, 23 April 2008\\. Retrieved 30 April 2009\\.",
"Asked about the \"gypsy\\-like existence\" of a filmmaker, Schepisi has said: \"It's the hardest thing. I think we're today's circus people. It's very hard on your family. \\[His wife] [Mary](/wiki/Mary_Schepisi \"Mary Schepisi\") travels with me and when everyone was younger and it was possible, I liked them to travel with me and be with me. Fortunately, Mary's an artist; she paints, and often finds inspiration from our locations.\"Dow, Steve (10 October 2006\\). [\"Action Men: Australian directors on film\"](http://www.stevedow.com.au/Default.aspx?id=264). SteveDow.com. Retrieved 16 September 2011\\. Schepisi has seven adult children and one grandchild.",
""
] |
Facts
-----
The accused was charged with sexual assault. Two weeks before the incident, the complainant and the accused had dated for the first time. Park testified that at her apartment they became intimate; fondled one another's private parts and talked of sex and birth control; she masturbated him to ejaculation. She maintains that they only kissed and talked of birth control. She stated she was a [born again Christian](/wiki/Born_again_Christian "Born again Christian") and did not believe in premarital sex and thus claimed there was no consensual sexual activity.
On the day of the incident, the accused called the complainant early in the morning; she agreed that he could come over. He arrived shortly thereafter and she greeted him at the door with a kiss on the cheek, wearing only her bathrobe. She claimed that, a few minutes later, he drew her to him and pushed her onto the bed. He was strong and while she resisted actively he could not be stopped. At that point, feeling his weight on her, she flashbacked to a previous traumatic experience. She went into "shock". His pulling his penis out of her and ejaculating on her stomach was the next thing she remembered. The accused had a very different story. He testified that she actively participated and when things got "hot", he prematurely ejaculated on her stomach. He denied that intercourse took place.
A medical report from the examination of the complainant indicated redness on the inner labia, consistent with consensual or non\-consensual intercourse.
At trial, the accused's defence was that either (1\) that she consented to the sexual activity or, (2\) alternatively, that he had an honest but mistaken belief that she was consenting. The trial judge refused to put the mistaken belief defence to the jury, finding there was no "air of reality" to it, and concluding that the issue was simply one of "consent or no consent".
The accused was convicted. On appeal, the majority of the Court of Appeal set aside the conviction ordering a new trial, and that the trial judge erred by not putting the mistaken\-belief defence to the jury.
Held The conviction restored.
|
[
"Facts\n-----",
"The accused was charged with sexual assault. Two weeks before the incident, the complainant and the accused had dated for the first time. Park testified that at her apartment they became intimate; fondled one another's private parts and talked of sex and birth control; she masturbated him to ejaculation. She maintains that they only kissed and talked of birth control. She stated she was a [born again Christian](/wiki/Born_again_Christian \"Born again Christian\") and did not believe in premarital sex and thus claimed there was no consensual sexual activity.",
"On the day of the incident, the accused called the complainant early in the morning; she agreed that he could come over. He arrived shortly thereafter and she greeted him at the door with a kiss on the cheek, wearing only her bathrobe. She claimed that, a few minutes later, he drew her to him and pushed her onto the bed. He was strong and while she resisted actively he could not be stopped. At that point, feeling his weight on her, she flashbacked to a previous traumatic experience. She went into \"shock\". His pulling his penis out of her and ejaculating on her stomach was the next thing she remembered. The accused had a very different story. He testified that she actively participated and when things got \"hot\", he prematurely ejaculated on her stomach. He denied that intercourse took place.",
"A medical report from the examination of the complainant indicated redness on the inner labia, consistent with consensual or non\\-consensual intercourse.",
"At trial, the accused's defence was that either (1\\) that she consented to the sexual activity or, (2\\) alternatively, that he had an honest but mistaken belief that she was consenting. The trial judge refused to put the mistaken belief defence to the jury, finding there was no \"air of reality\" to it, and concluding that the issue was simply one of \"consent or no consent\".",
"The accused was convicted. On appeal, the majority of the Court of Appeal set aside the conviction ordering a new trial, and that the trial judge erred by not putting the mistaken\\-belief defence to the jury.",
"Held The conviction restored."
] |
Proof of the proposition
------------------------
The following proof is based on the proof of Proposition in Ch. 6, § 5 of {{harv\|May\|1999}}. We write \\sim\_B for a homotopy over *B*.
We first note that it is enough to show that ƒ admits a left homotopy inverse over *B*. Indeed, if g f \\sim\_{B} \\operatorname{id} with *g* over *B*, then *g* is in particular a homotopy equivalence. Thus, *g* also admits a left homotopy inverse *h* over *B* and then formally we have h \\sim f; that is, f g \\sim\_{B} \\operatorname{id}.
Now, since ƒ is a homotopy equivalence, it has a homotopy inverse *g*. Since fg \\sim \\operatorname{id}, we have: pg \= qfg \\sim q. Since *p* is a fibration, the homotopy pg \\sim q lifts to a homotopy from *g* to, say, *g'* that satisfies pg' \= q. Thus, we can assume *g* is over *B*. Then it suffices to show *g*ƒ, which is now over *B*, has a left homotopy inverse over *B* since that would imply that ƒ has such a left inverse.
Therefore, the proof reduces to the situation where ƒ: *D* → *D* is over *B* via *p* and f \\sim \\operatorname{id}\_D. Let h\_t be a homotopy from ƒ to \\operatorname{id}\_D. Then, since p h\_0 \= p and since *p* is a fibration, the homotopy ph\_t lifts to a homotopy k\_t: \\operatorname{id}\_D \\sim k\_1; explicitly, we have p h\_t \= p k\_t. Note also k\_1 is over *B*.
We show k\_1 is a left homotopy inverse of ƒ over *B*. Let J: k\_1 f \\sim h\_1 \= \\operatorname{id}\_D be the homotopy given as the composition of homotopies k\_1 f \\sim f \= h\_0 \\sim \\operatorname{id}\_D. Then we can find a homotopy *K* from the homotopy *pJ* to the constant homotopy p k\_1 \= p h\_1. Since *p* is a fibration, we can lift *K* to, say, *L*. We can finish by going around the edge corresponding to *J*:
k\_1 f \= J\_0 \= L\_{0, 0} \\sim\_B L\_{0, 1} \\sim\_B L\_{1, 1} \\sim\_B L\_{1, 0} \= J\_1 \= \\operatorname{id}.
|
[
"Proof of the proposition\n------------------------",
"The following proof is based on the proof of Proposition in Ch. 6, § 5 of {{harv\\|May\\|1999}}. We write \\\\sim\\_B for a homotopy over *B*.",
"We first note that it is enough to show that ƒ admits a left homotopy inverse over *B*. Indeed, if g f \\\\sim\\_{B} \\\\operatorname{id} with *g* over *B*, then *g* is in particular a homotopy equivalence. Thus, *g* also admits a left homotopy inverse *h* over *B* and then formally we have h \\\\sim f; that is, f g \\\\sim\\_{B} \\\\operatorname{id}.",
"Now, since ƒ is a homotopy equivalence, it has a homotopy inverse *g*. Since fg \\\\sim \\\\operatorname{id}, we have: pg \\= qfg \\\\sim q. Since *p* is a fibration, the homotopy pg \\\\sim q lifts to a homotopy from *g* to, say, *g'* that satisfies pg' \\= q. Thus, we can assume *g* is over *B*. Then it suffices to show *g*ƒ, which is now over *B*, has a left homotopy inverse over *B* since that would imply that ƒ has such a left inverse.",
"Therefore, the proof reduces to the situation where ƒ: *D* → *D* is over *B* via *p* and f \\\\sim \\\\operatorname{id}\\_D. Let h\\_t be a homotopy from ƒ to \\\\operatorname{id}\\_D. Then, since p h\\_0 \\= p and since *p* is a fibration, the homotopy ph\\_t lifts to a homotopy k\\_t: \\\\operatorname{id}\\_D \\\\sim k\\_1; explicitly, we have p h\\_t \\= p k\\_t. Note also k\\_1 is over *B*.",
"We show k\\_1 is a left homotopy inverse of ƒ over *B*. Let J: k\\_1 f \\\\sim h\\_1 \\= \\\\operatorname{id}\\_D be the homotopy given as the composition of homotopies k\\_1 f \\\\sim f \\= h\\_0 \\\\sim \\\\operatorname{id}\\_D. Then we can find a homotopy *K* from the homotopy *pJ* to the constant homotopy p k\\_1 \\= p h\\_1. Since *p* is a fibration, we can lift *K* to, say, *L*. We can finish by going around the edge corresponding to *J*:\nk\\_1 f \\= J\\_0 \\= L\\_{0, 0} \\\\sim\\_B L\\_{0, 1} \\\\sim\\_B L\\_{1, 1} \\\\sim\\_B L\\_{1, 0} \\= J\\_1 \\= \\\\operatorname{id}.",
""
] |
History
-------
The station signed on in 1987 as KPIG (without the \-FM suffix).{{cite web\|url\=https://fccdata.org/?facid\=\&call\=KPIG\-FM\&ccode\=1\&city\=\&state\=\&country\=US\&zip\=\&arn\=\&party\=\&party\_type\=LICEN\&latd\=\&lond\=⟨\=en\|title\=Query the REC California FM Station database for KPIG\-FM\|publisher\=REC Networks\|access\-date\=7 July 2019}} The suffix would be added in 2005\.
KPIG is among the first radio stations in the world to webcast their program, going [online](/wiki/Online_radio "Online radio") on August 2, 1995 during Cousin Al's show.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2009}} Frequently song requests are submitted via [e\-mail](/wiki/E-mail "E-mail") from listeners around the globe. Indirect references to KPIG appear in the songs "I'm Coming Home" by [Robert Earl Keen](/wiki/Robert_Earl_Keen "Robert Earl Keen") and "Beer Run" (which references the Robert Keen song and KPIG DJ "Sleepy John") by [Todd Snider](/wiki/Todd_Snider "Todd Snider"), both of whom are frequently featured on the air and perform at KPIG's events.
In 2001, the station was bought by [Mapleton Communications](/wiki/Mapleton_Communications "Mapleton Communications").
In March 2010, KPIG placed its audio stream behind a [paywall](/wiki/Paywall "Paywall").{{cite news \|url\=https://audio4cast.com/2010/03/17/kpig\-asks\-listeners\-to\-pay\-for\-streams/ \|title\=KPIG Asks Listeners To Pay For Streams \|work\=Audio4cast.com \|last\=Lane \|first\=Jennifer \|date\=March 17, 2010 \|access\-date\=June 11, 2017}} On October 1, 2012, KPIG launched an ad\-free "KPIG Online Radio" app in the Apple App Store.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.kpig.com/article\_42\.htm \|title\=Pig News: The Free KPIG iPhone/Android App \|work\=KPIG.com \|date\=January 1, 2013 \|access\-date\=June 11, 2017}} A monthly subscription purchased through the official website is required for streaming.
In 2015, Mapleton sold repeater KPYG to Dimes Media. Mapleton continued operating it after the sale closed.
On July 1, 2019, Mapleton announced its intent to sell its remaining 37 radio stations to [Stephens Media Group](/wiki/Stephens_Media_Group_%28broadcasting%29 "Stephens Media Group (broadcasting)").["Stephens Media Group Acquires 37 Stations From Mapleton Communications"](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/178504/stephens-media-group-acquires-37-stations-from-mapleton-communications/) from Radio Insight (July 1, 2019\) Stephens began operating the station that same day. The sale was consummated on September 30, 2019\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rbr.com/stephens\-completes\-its\-mapleton\-deal/\|title\=Stephens completes its Mapleton deal\|date\=9 October 2019\|publisher\=Streamline Publishing\|access\-date\=19 October 2019}} The station has continued its longtime format after the closure of the acquisition, although the fate of KPYG is still being determined.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The station signed on in 1987 as KPIG (without the \\-FM suffix).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://fccdata.org/?facid\\=\\&call\\=KPIG\\-FM\\&ccode\\=1\\&city\\=\\&state\\=\\&country\\=US\\&zip\\=\\&arn\\=\\&party\\=\\&party\\_type\\=LICEN\\&latd\\=\\&lond\\=⟨\\=en\\|title\\=Query the REC California FM Station database for KPIG\\-FM\\|publisher\\=REC Networks\\|access\\-date\\=7 July 2019}} The suffix would be added in 2005\\.",
"KPIG is among the first radio stations in the world to webcast their program, going [online](/wiki/Online_radio \"Online radio\") on August 2, 1995 during Cousin Al's show.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2009}} Frequently song requests are submitted via [e\\-mail](/wiki/E-mail \"E-mail\") from listeners around the globe. Indirect references to KPIG appear in the songs \"I'm Coming Home\" by [Robert Earl Keen](/wiki/Robert_Earl_Keen \"Robert Earl Keen\") and \"Beer Run\" (which references the Robert Keen song and KPIG DJ \"Sleepy John\") by [Todd Snider](/wiki/Todd_Snider \"Todd Snider\"), both of whom are frequently featured on the air and perform at KPIG's events.",
"In 2001, the station was bought by [Mapleton Communications](/wiki/Mapleton_Communications \"Mapleton Communications\").",
"In March 2010, KPIG placed its audio stream behind a [paywall](/wiki/Paywall \"Paywall\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://audio4cast.com/2010/03/17/kpig\\-asks\\-listeners\\-to\\-pay\\-for\\-streams/ \\|title\\=KPIG Asks Listeners To Pay For Streams \\|work\\=Audio4cast.com \\|last\\=Lane \\|first\\=Jennifer \\|date\\=March 17, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2017}} On October 1, 2012, KPIG launched an ad\\-free \"KPIG Online Radio\" app in the Apple App Store.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.kpig.com/article\\_42\\.htm \\|title\\=Pig News: The Free KPIG iPhone/Android App \\|work\\=KPIG.com \\|date\\=January 1, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=June 11, 2017}} A monthly subscription purchased through the official website is required for streaming.",
"In 2015, Mapleton sold repeater KPYG to Dimes Media. Mapleton continued operating it after the sale closed.",
"On July 1, 2019, Mapleton announced its intent to sell its remaining 37 radio stations to [Stephens Media Group](/wiki/Stephens_Media_Group_%28broadcasting%29 \"Stephens Media Group (broadcasting)\").[\"Stephens Media Group Acquires 37 Stations From Mapleton Communications\"](https://radioinsight.com/headlines/178504/stephens-media-group-acquires-37-stations-from-mapleton-communications/) from Radio Insight (July 1, 2019\\) Stephens began operating the station that same day. The sale was consummated on September 30, 2019\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rbr.com/stephens\\-completes\\-its\\-mapleton\\-deal/\\|title\\=Stephens completes its Mapleton deal\\|date\\=9 October 2019\\|publisher\\=Streamline Publishing\\|access\\-date\\=19 October 2019}} The station has continued its longtime format after the closure of the acquisition, although the fate of KPYG is still being determined.",
""
] |
Phonology
---------
### Consonants
Frafra has a system of 17 phonemes (or 19, counting /ɣ/, an allophone of /g/, and /ɾ/, an allophone of /d/):
| | | [Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant "Labial consonant") | [Alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant "Alveolar consonant") | [Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant "Velar consonant") | [Glottal](/wiki/Glottal_consonant "Glottal consonant") |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant "Nasal consonant") | | {{IPA link\|m}} | {{IPA link\|n}} | {{IPA link\|ŋ}} | |
| [Plosive](/wiki/Plosive "Plosive") | {{small\|\[\[Fortis and lenis\|fortis]]}} | {{IPA link\|p}} | {{IPA link\|t}} | {{IPA link\|k}} | {{IPA link\|ʔ}} |
| {{small\|\[\[Fortis and lenis\|lenis]]}} | {{IPA link\|b}} | {{IPA link\|d}} | {{IPA link\|ɡ}} |
| [Tap](/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants "Tap and flap consonants") | | | ({{IPA link\|ɾ}}) | | |
| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative "Fricative") | {{small\|fortis}} | {{IPA link\|f}} | {{IPA link\|s}} | | {{IPA link\|h}} |
| {{small\|lenis}} | {{IPA link\|v}} | {{IPA link\|z}} | ({{IPA link\|ɣ}}){{efn\|Allophone of /g/ between lax vowels and is rarely represented in writing.}} |
| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant "Approximant") | | {{IPA link\|w}} | {{IPA link\|j}} | | |
The sound /ŋ/ appears in front of some words starting with /w/, leading them to change into the /j/ sound. /h/ only appears in loanwords, exclamations, and as an allophone of /f/. An example of both of these sound changes are *weefo* and *yeho* (both meaning *"horse"*). The only consonants Frafra words may end in are the two nasals /m/ and /n/.
#### Glottal stop
Glottal stops appear at the initial vowel of a word, but are not transcribed. Word\-medially, vowel nasalization continues over the glottal stop. In rapid speech, the glottal stop is usually dropped, similar to how vowel hiatus gets dropped in Spanish.
Word medial glottal stops must be marked in writing.
#### Allophones
##### Allophones of /r/
\[d] and \[ɾ] are two phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. \[d] occurs at the beginning of words, and \[ɾ] is its counterpart everywhere else.
##### Allophones of /g/
\[ɣ] is an allophone of /g/ that occurs after certain vowels. It is mostly written "g." Usage of the letter "ɣ" is quite rare.
##### Allophones of /j/
\[ɲ] is an allophone of /j/ that occurs before a nasal vowel. It is always written as "y."
#### Sandhi
This section will describe all the morpho\-phonological [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi "Sandhi") processes that affect Frafra.
##### Nasals
Nasal consonants undergo assimilation, coalescence, and elision.
###### Assimilation at Point of Articulation
Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of the occlusive the proceed.
* /m/ goes before /p/ and /b/
* /n/ goes before /t/ and /d/
* /ŋ/ goes before /k/
###### Coalescence
When a nasal is followed by /g/, the two consonants amalgamate.
* /n/ \+ /g/ \= /ŋ/
This rule does not apply to compound words (e.g. *tẽŋgãnnɛ "sacred land"*) or loanwards (e.g. *maŋgo* "mango")
###### Elision
Nasals disappear when they go before /f/
* /m/ \+ /f/ \= /f/
* /n/ \+ /f/ \= /f/
##### Stops
Two voiced stops become their unvoiced form. Remember that \[ɾ] is the word\-medial allophone of /d/
* /g/ \+ /g/ \= /k/
* /r/ \+ /r/ \= /t/
#### Sonorants
##### Vibrant assimilation
Vibrant consonants, also called taps, assimilate to a preceding lateral or nasal.
* /l/ \+ /r/ \= /ll/
* /n/ \+ /r/ \= /nn/
* /m/ \+ /r/ \= either /nn/ or /mn/
##### Lateral assimilation
* /n/ \+ /l/ \= /nn/
* /m/ \+ /l/ \= /nn/
##### Combination of these processes
**C** designates any consonant, and **N** designates any nasal.
* Cm \+ r \= Cn
* Cl \+ r \= Cl
### Vowels
Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels.
| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") | | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel "Central vowel") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel "Back vowel") | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{small\|lax}} | {{small\|tense}} | {{small\|lax}} | {{small\|tense}} |
| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel "Close vowel") | {{IPA link\|ɪ}} | {{IPA link\|i}}, {{IPA link\|ĩ}} | | {{IPA link\|ʊ}} | {{IPA link\|u}}, {{IPA link\|ũ}} |
| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel "Mid vowel") | {{IPA link\|ɛ}}, {{IPA link\|ɛ̃}} | {{IPA link\|e\|e}} | | {{IPA link\|ɒ\|ɔ}}, {{IPA link\|ɔ̃}} | {{IPA link\|o\|o}} |
| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") | | | {{IPA link\|a\|a}}, {{IPA link\|ã}} | | |
| [Diphthongs](/wiki/Diphthong "Diphthong") | | | | | |
All Frafra vowels have a long form.
#### Vowel harmony
Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages "Mande languages"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony "Vowel harmony"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in "\-a" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.
##### Where all vowels must be in harmony
In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence "Vowel sequence").
##### Mid vowels
The lax vowel \-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.
##### Close vowels
When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.
For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb "Locative adverb") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition "Postposition") "\-ʋm" becomes "\-um" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
* pʋʋrɛ (*"belly"*) \> pʋʋr**ʋm** ("*inside the belly*")
* nifo ("eye") \> nif**um** ("*inside the eye*")
However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect "ʋm". Therefore *poore* ("back") becomes *poor**ʋm*** ("behind")*.*
The particle "nɩ," which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect "Imperfective aspect"), becomes "ni" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
|
[
"Phonology\n---------",
"### Consonants",
"Frafra has a system of 17 phonemes (or 19, counting /ɣ/, an allophone of /g/, and /ɾ/, an allophone of /d/):",
"| | | [Labial](/wiki/Labial_consonant \"Labial consonant\") | [Alveolar](/wiki/Alveolar_consonant \"Alveolar consonant\") | [Velar](/wiki/Velar_consonant \"Velar consonant\") | [Glottal](/wiki/Glottal_consonant \"Glottal consonant\") |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [Nasal](/wiki/Nasal_consonant \"Nasal consonant\") | | {{IPA link\\|m}} | {{IPA link\\|n}} | {{IPA link\\|ŋ}} | |\n| [Plosive](/wiki/Plosive \"Plosive\") | {{small\\|\\[\\[Fortis and lenis\\|fortis]]}} | {{IPA link\\|p}} | {{IPA link\\|t}} | {{IPA link\\|k}} | {{IPA link\\|ʔ}} |\n| {{small\\|\\[\\[Fortis and lenis\\|lenis]]}} | {{IPA link\\|b}} | {{IPA link\\|d}} | {{IPA link\\|ɡ}} |\n| [Tap](/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants \"Tap and flap consonants\") | | | ({{IPA link\\|ɾ}}) | | |\n| [Fricative](/wiki/Fricative \"Fricative\") | {{small\\|fortis}} | {{IPA link\\|f}} | {{IPA link\\|s}} | | {{IPA link\\|h}} |\n| {{small\\|lenis}} | {{IPA link\\|v}} | {{IPA link\\|z}} | ({{IPA link\\|ɣ}}){{efn\\|Allophone of /g/ between lax vowels and is rarely represented in writing.}} |\n| [Approximant](/wiki/Approximant \"Approximant\") | | {{IPA link\\|w}} | {{IPA link\\|j}} | | |",
"The sound /ŋ/ appears in front of some words starting with /w/, leading them to change into the /j/ sound. /h/ only appears in loanwords, exclamations, and as an allophone of /f/. An example of both of these sound changes are *weefo* and *yeho* (both meaning *\"horse\"*). The only consonants Frafra words may end in are the two nasals /m/ and /n/.",
"#### Glottal stop",
"Glottal stops appear at the initial vowel of a word, but are not transcribed. Word\\-medially, vowel nasalization continues over the glottal stop. In rapid speech, the glottal stop is usually dropped, similar to how vowel hiatus gets dropped in Spanish.",
"Word medial glottal stops must be marked in writing.",
"#### Allophones",
"##### Allophones of /r/",
"\\[d] and \\[ɾ] are two phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. \\[d] occurs at the beginning of words, and \\[ɾ] is its counterpart everywhere else.",
"##### Allophones of /g/",
"\\[ɣ] is an allophone of /g/ that occurs after certain vowels. It is mostly written \"g.\" Usage of the letter \"ɣ\" is quite rare.",
"##### Allophones of /j/",
"\\[ɲ] is an allophone of /j/ that occurs before a nasal vowel. It is always written as \"y.\"",
"#### Sandhi",
"This section will describe all the morpho\\-phonological [sandhi](/wiki/Sandhi \"Sandhi\") processes that affect Frafra.",
"##### Nasals",
"Nasal consonants undergo assimilation, coalescence, and elision.",
"###### Assimilation at Point of Articulation",
"Nasals assimilate to the point of articulation of the occlusive the proceed.",
"* /m/ goes before /p/ and /b/\n* /n/ goes before /t/ and /d/\n* /ŋ/ goes before /k/",
"###### Coalescence",
"When a nasal is followed by /g/, the two consonants amalgamate.",
"* /n/ \\+ /g/ \\= /ŋ/",
"This rule does not apply to compound words (e.g. *tẽŋgãnnɛ \"sacred land\"*) or loanwards (e.g. *maŋgo* \"mango\")",
"###### Elision",
"Nasals disappear when they go before /f/",
"* /m/ \\+ /f/ \\= /f/\n* /n/ \\+ /f/ \\= /f/",
"##### Stops",
"Two voiced stops become their unvoiced form. Remember that \\[ɾ] is the word\\-medial allophone of /d/",
"* /g/ \\+ /g/ \\= /k/\n* /r/ \\+ /r/ \\= /t/",
"#### Sonorants",
"##### Vibrant assimilation",
"Vibrant consonants, also called taps, assimilate to a preceding lateral or nasal.",
"* /l/ \\+ /r/ \\= /ll/\n* /n/ \\+ /r/ \\= /nn/\n* /m/ \\+ /r/ \\= either /nn/ or /mn/",
"##### Lateral assimilation",
"* /n/ \\+ /l/ \\= /nn/\n* /m/ \\+ /l/ \\= /nn/",
"##### Combination of these processes",
"**C** designates any consonant, and **N** designates any nasal.",
"* Cm \\+ r \\= Cn\n* Cl \\+ r \\= Cl",
"### Vowels",
"Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels.",
"| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel \"Front vowel\") | | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel \"Central vowel\") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel \"Back vowel\") | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{small\\|lax}} | {{small\\|tense}} | {{small\\|lax}} | {{small\\|tense}} |\n| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel \"Close vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|ɪ}} | {{IPA link\\|i}}, {{IPA link\\|ĩ}} | | {{IPA link\\|ʊ}} | {{IPA link\\|u}}, {{IPA link\\|ũ}} |\n| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel \"Mid vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|ɛ}}, {{IPA link\\|ɛ̃}} | {{IPA link\\|e\\|e}} | | {{IPA link\\|ɒ\\|ɔ}}, {{IPA link\\|ɔ̃}} | {{IPA link\\|o\\|o}} |\n| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel \"Open vowel\") | | | {{IPA link\\|a\\|a}}, {{IPA link\\|ã}} | | |\n| [Diphthongs](/wiki/Diphthong \"Diphthong\") | | | | | |",
"All Frafra vowels have a long form.",
"#### Vowel harmony",
"Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages \"Mande languages\"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony \"Vowel harmony\"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in \"\\-a\" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.",
"##### Where all vowels must be in harmony",
"In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence \"Vowel sequence\").",
"##### Mid vowels",
"The lax vowel \\-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.",
"##### Close vowels",
"When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.",
"For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb \"Locative adverb\") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition \"Postposition\") \"\\-ʋm\" becomes \"\\-um\" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
"* pʋʋrɛ (*\"belly\"*) \\> pʋʋr**ʋm** (\"*inside the belly*\")\n* nifo (\"eye\") \\> nif**um** (\"*inside the eye*\")",
"However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect \"ʋm\". Therefore *poore* (\"back\") becomes *poor**ʋm*** (\"behind\")*.*",
"The particle \"nɩ,\" which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect \"Imperfective aspect\"), becomes \"ni\" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
""
] |
### Vowels
Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels.
| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel "Front vowel") | | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel "Central vowel") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel "Back vowel") | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| {{small\|lax}} | {{small\|tense}} | {{small\|lax}} | {{small\|tense}} |
| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel "Close vowel") | {{IPA link\|ɪ}} | {{IPA link\|i}}, {{IPA link\|ĩ}} | | {{IPA link\|ʊ}} | {{IPA link\|u}}, {{IPA link\|ũ}} |
| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel "Mid vowel") | {{IPA link\|ɛ}}, {{IPA link\|ɛ̃}} | {{IPA link\|e\|e}} | | {{IPA link\|ɒ\|ɔ}}, {{IPA link\|ɔ̃}} | {{IPA link\|o\|o}} |
| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel "Open vowel") | | | {{IPA link\|a\|a}}, {{IPA link\|ã}} | | |
| [Diphthongs](/wiki/Diphthong "Diphthong") | | | | | |
All Frafra vowels have a long form.
#### Vowel harmony
Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages "Mande languages"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony "Vowel harmony"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in "\-a" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.
##### Where all vowels must be in harmony
In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence "Vowel sequence").
##### Mid vowels
The lax vowel \-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.
##### Close vowels
When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.
For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb "Locative adverb") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition "Postposition") "\-ʋm" becomes "\-um" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
* pʋʋrɛ (*"belly"*) \> pʋʋr**ʋm** ("*inside the belly*")
* nifo ("eye") \> nif**um** ("*inside the eye*")
However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect "ʋm". Therefore *poore* ("back") becomes *poor**ʋm*** ("behind")*.*
The particle "nɩ," which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect "Imperfective aspect"), becomes "ni" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
|
[
"### Vowels",
"Frafra has 9 oral vowels and 5 nasal vowels.",
"| | [Front](/wiki/Front_vowel \"Front vowel\") | | [Central](/wiki/Central_vowel \"Central vowel\") | [Back](/wiki/Back_vowel \"Back vowel\") | |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| {{small\\|lax}} | {{small\\|tense}} | {{small\\|lax}} | {{small\\|tense}} |\n| [Close](/wiki/Close_vowel \"Close vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|ɪ}} | {{IPA link\\|i}}, {{IPA link\\|ĩ}} | | {{IPA link\\|ʊ}} | {{IPA link\\|u}}, {{IPA link\\|ũ}} |\n| [Mid](/wiki/Mid_vowel \"Mid vowel\") | {{IPA link\\|ɛ}}, {{IPA link\\|ɛ̃}} | {{IPA link\\|e\\|e}} | | {{IPA link\\|ɒ\\|ɔ}}, {{IPA link\\|ɔ̃}} | {{IPA link\\|o\\|o}} |\n| [Open](/wiki/Open_vowel \"Open vowel\") | | | {{IPA link\\|a\\|a}}, {{IPA link\\|ã}} | | |\n| [Diphthongs](/wiki/Diphthong \"Diphthong\") | | | | | |",
"All Frafra vowels have a long form.",
"#### Vowel harmony",
"Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages \"Mande languages\"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony \"Vowel harmony\"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in \"\\-a\" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.",
"##### Where all vowels must be in harmony",
"In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence \"Vowel sequence\").",
"##### Mid vowels",
"The lax vowel \\-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.",
"##### Close vowels",
"When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.",
"For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb \"Locative adverb\") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition \"Postposition\") \"\\-ʋm\" becomes \"\\-um\" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
"* pʋʋrɛ (*\"belly\"*) \\> pʋʋr**ʋm** (\"*inside the belly*\")\n* nifo (\"eye\") \\> nif**um** (\"*inside the eye*\")",
"However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect \"ʋm\". Therefore *poore* (\"back\") becomes *poor**ʋm*** (\"behind\")*.*",
"The particle \"nɩ,\" which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect \"Imperfective aspect\"), becomes \"ni\" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
""
] |
#### Vowel harmony
Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages "Mande languages"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony "Vowel harmony"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in "\-a" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.
##### Where all vowels must be in harmony
In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence "Vowel sequence").
##### Mid vowels
The lax vowel \-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.
##### Close vowels
When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.
For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb "Locative adverb") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition "Postposition") "\-ʋm" becomes "\-um" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
* pʋʋrɛ (*"belly"*) \> pʋʋr**ʋm** ("*inside the belly*")
* nifo ("eye") \> nif**um** ("*inside the eye*")
However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect "ʋm". Therefore *poore* ("back") becomes *poor**ʋm*** ("behind")*.*
The particle "nɩ," which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect "Imperfective aspect"), becomes "ni" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.
|
[
"#### Vowel harmony",
"Like many [Mande languages](/wiki/Mande_languages \"Mande languages\"), Frafra features [vowel harmony](/wiki/Vowel_harmony \"Vowel harmony\"). When suffixes are added to word roots, the vowel in the root selects whether the suffix will use the tense or lax form. The exception is suffixes ending in \"\\-a\" because /a/ is neutral in Frafra, meaning that it is only one form. Prefixes do not exist in Frafra.",
"##### Where all vowels must be in harmony",
"In disyllabic words, both vowels are always in harmony. The same applies in [vowel sequences](/wiki/Vowel_sequence \"Vowel sequence\").",
"##### Mid vowels",
"The lax vowel \\-a in noun and verb endings will change the tense vowels /e/ and /o/ to lax vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/.",
"##### Close vowels",
"When a suffix's vowel is close, and stem's vowel is close and tense, it causes the suffix's vowel to become tense.",
"For example, the [locative](/wiki/Locative_adverb \"Locative adverb\") [postposition](/wiki/Postposition \"Postposition\") \"\\-ʋm\" becomes \"\\-um\" after the vowels /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
"* pʋʋrɛ (*\"belly\"*) \\> pʋʋr**ʋm** (\"*inside the belly*\")\n* nifo (\"eye\") \\> nif**um** (\"*inside the eye*\")",
"However, tense vowels that are not close do not affect \"ʋm\". Therefore *poore* (\"back\") becomes *poor**ʋm*** (\"behind\")*.*",
"The particle \"nɩ,\" which goes after a verbs to mark the [incomplete aspect](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect \"Imperfective aspect\"), becomes \"ni\" after /i/, /ĩ/, /u/, and /ũ/.",
""
] |
Syntax
------
### Word Order
The word order in Gurenɛ is strictly SVO.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| N wan kule beere.
\| 1SG FUT go.home tomorrow
\| „I will go home tomorrow.“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Dɔgeta lá wan lu ma.
\| doctor DEF FUT inject 1SG
\| „The doctor will inject me.“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| À bo ma ligeri lá.
\| 3SG give 1SG money DEF
\| „S/he gave me the money.“}}
### Verb Phrase
The verb phrase (VP) consists of pre\- and postverbal particles surrounding the verb. Preverbal particles encode [aspect](/wiki/Grammatical_aspect "Grammatical aspect"), [tense](/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood "Tense–aspect–mood"), [negation](/wiki/Negation "Negation"), and [mood](/wiki/Grammatical_mood "Grammatical mood"), such as [imperative](/wiki/Imperative_mood "Imperative mood") and [conditional](/wiki/Conditional_mood "Conditional mood"). Postverbal particles also encode aspect and tense, but in addition to that they can also encode [focus](/wiki/Focus_%28linguistics%29 "Focus (linguistics)"). The order of particles within the VP is strictly organized as shown below. Moreover, the maximal amount of pre\- and postverbal particles is also strictly defined. There can be at maximum five preverbal and two postverbal particles within one clause in Gurenɛ.
Time \> Tense \> Conditional \> Aspectual \> Future \> Negation \> Emphatic \> Epistemic \> Purpose \> Verb \> Tense \> Focus/Affirmative/Completive/Directional
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Nɛreba lá zaamtext1 nyaa2 kɔ'ɔm3 sirum4 ta5 iŋɛ ba'asum1 gaŋɛ mɛ2.
\| people DEF yesterday then just surely in.order do certainly more AFF
\| „The people yesterday certainly did more than what was just expected.“}}
#### Particles
There are a lot of particles in Gurenɛ, such that the total number is not fully clear. The following table provides an overview of the most common particles.
| \+ | Aspect | Gurenɛ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| now, after this | nyaa |
| in a determined way | wa |
| intention | ta |
| an action/event still lasts | naŋ |
| only | kɔ'ɔm |
| even | pugum |
| again | le |
| already | pìlum |
| just | kɔ'ɔm |
| rather | tugum |
| necessairly | yɛrum |
| instead | yi |
| ever | tabelɛ |
| as usual | ya'am |
| habitual | ná |
| **Tense** | |
| past | daa |
| two days ago | daarɛ |
| three days ago | datata |
| years ago | yuum |
| the next day | dagi |
| **Imperative** | |
| must | ta |
| need | wa |
| **Conditional** | |
| if | san |
#### Verb
The verb in Gurenɛ consists of an obligatory [stem](/wiki/Word_stem "Word stem") or [root](/wiki/Root_%28linguistics%29 "Root (linguistics)"), that can take one or more [morphemes](/wiki/Morpheme "Morpheme"). Verbs appear either in the [perfective](/wiki/Perfective_aspect "Perfective aspect") or [imperfective](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect "Imperfective aspect") form, depending on its aspect. The perfective expresses actions in the present, whereas the imperfective denotes actions in the past or progressive.
| \+ | **Root/Stem/Infinitive** | | Perfective \-ri | Imperfective \-ra |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | (single) closed event | open event |
| **Gurenɛ** | **Gloss** | **follows Object/Adverb** | **follows Pronominal** |
| nyu | drink | nyuuri | nyuura |
| da' | buy | da'ari | da'ara |
| lebe | return | leberi | lebera |
| dikɛ | take | dikɛri | dikɛra |
| pagesɛ | imitate | pagesɛri | pagesɛra |
| pa'alɛ | teach | pa'ali | pa'ala |
| di | eat | diti | dita |
| darɛ | disturb | dati | data |
| parɛ | be a lot | pati | pata |
| kiŋɛ | go | kini | kina |
| siŋɛ | walk | sini | sina |
| sigum | come down | sigeni | sigena |
### Question Formation
There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.
#### Ex situ
In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n tum?
\| who FOC work.PFV
\| „Who worked?“{{Cite web \|title\=The VP\-periphery in Mabia languages {{!}} Gurene \|url\=http://mabia\-vp.com/tiki\-index.php?page\=Gurene \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-17 \|website\=The VP\-periphery in Mabia languages \|language\=en}} }}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n tun\-i?
\| who FOC work\-IPFV
\| „Who is working?“}}
#### In situ
In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause\-final question marker *\-ì*.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Fʊ nyɛ ʔí\-ì?
\| 2SG see 3SG\-Q
\| „Did you see him?“{{Cite book \|last\=Kropp\-Dakubu \|first\=M.E. \|title\=Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. \|publisher\=L\`Harmattan \|year\=2009 \|location\=Paris}} }}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí.
\| 2SG FOC see 3SG
\| „You saw him.“
}}
#### Embedded
Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the [complementizer](/wiki/Complementizer "Complementizer") *tí*.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup\|
\| Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ.
\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo
\| „I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Má m sokè ʔì lá\-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ\-ɛ\`.
\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP\-Q whom SUBR 3SG see\-Q
\| „I asked him whom he saw.“}}
#### Multiple Questions
Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or [agent](/wiki/Agent_%28grammar%29 "Agent (grammar)") of the clause.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n da (\*là) beni?
\| who FOC buy.PFV FOC what
\| „Who bought what?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| \*Beni ti ani da?
\| what FOC who buy.PFV
\| „\*What bought who?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Napari \*(n) da yire.
\| Napari FOC buy.PFV house
\| „Napari bought a house..“}}
#### Long distance extraction
Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause\-initial position.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya \*(là).
\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC
\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ\-ri/\-\*ra ya \*(là)?
\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter\-IPFV COMPL FOC
\| „What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ?
\| what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter
\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}
|
[
"Syntax\n------",
"### Word Order",
"The word order in Gurenɛ is strictly SVO.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| N wan kule beere.\n\\| 1SG FUT go.home tomorrow\n\\| „I will go home tomorrow.“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Dɔgeta lá wan lu ma.\n\\| doctor DEF FUT inject 1SG\n\\| „The doctor will inject me.“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| À bo ma ligeri lá.\n\\| 3SG give 1SG money DEF\n\\| „S/he gave me the money.“}}",
"### Verb Phrase",
"The verb phrase (VP) consists of pre\\- and postverbal particles surrounding the verb. Preverbal particles encode [aspect](/wiki/Grammatical_aspect \"Grammatical aspect\"), [tense](/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood \"Tense–aspect–mood\"), [negation](/wiki/Negation \"Negation\"), and [mood](/wiki/Grammatical_mood \"Grammatical mood\"), such as [imperative](/wiki/Imperative_mood \"Imperative mood\") and [conditional](/wiki/Conditional_mood \"Conditional mood\"). Postverbal particles also encode aspect and tense, but in addition to that they can also encode [focus](/wiki/Focus_%28linguistics%29 \"Focus (linguistics)\"). The order of particles within the VP is strictly organized as shown below. Moreover, the maximal amount of pre\\- and postverbal particles is also strictly defined. There can be at maximum five preverbal and two postverbal particles within one clause in Gurenɛ.",
"Time \\> Tense \\> Conditional \\> Aspectual \\> Future \\> Negation \\> Emphatic \\> Epistemic \\> Purpose \\> Verb \\> Tense \\> Focus/Affirmative/Completive/Directional",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Nɛreba lá zaamtext1 nyaa2 kɔ'ɔm3 sirum4 ta5 iŋɛ ba'asum1 gaŋɛ mɛ2.\n\\| people DEF yesterday then just surely in.order do certainly more AFF\n\\| „The people yesterday certainly did more than what was just expected.“}}",
"#### Particles",
"There are a lot of particles in Gurenɛ, such that the total number is not fully clear. The following table provides an overview of the most common particles.",
"| \\+ | Aspect | Gurenɛ |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| now, after this | nyaa |\n| in a determined way | wa |\n| intention | ta |\n| an action/event still lasts | naŋ |\n| only | kɔ'ɔm |\n| even | pugum |\n| again | le |\n| already | pìlum |\n| just | kɔ'ɔm |\n| rather | tugum |\n| necessairly | yɛrum |\n| instead | yi |\n| ever | tabelɛ |\n| as usual | ya'am |\n| habitual | ná |\n| **Tense** | |\n| past | daa |\n| two days ago | daarɛ |\n| three days ago | datata |\n| years ago | yuum |\n| the next day | dagi |\n| **Imperative** | |\n| must | ta |\n| need | wa |\n| **Conditional** | |\n| if | san |",
"",
"#### Verb",
"The verb in Gurenɛ consists of an obligatory [stem](/wiki/Word_stem \"Word stem\") or [root](/wiki/Root_%28linguistics%29 \"Root (linguistics)\"), that can take one or more [morphemes](/wiki/Morpheme \"Morpheme\"). Verbs appear either in the [perfective](/wiki/Perfective_aspect \"Perfective aspect\") or [imperfective](/wiki/Imperfective_aspect \"Imperfective aspect\") form, depending on its aspect. The perfective expresses actions in the present, whereas the imperfective denotes actions in the past or progressive.",
"| \\+ | **Root/Stem/Infinitive** | | Perfective \\-ri | Imperfective \\-ra |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| | | (single) closed event | open event |\n| **Gurenɛ** | **Gloss** | **follows Object/Adverb** | **follows Pronominal** |\n| nyu | drink | nyuuri | nyuura |\n| da' | buy | da'ari | da'ara |\n| lebe | return | leberi | lebera |\n| dikɛ | take | dikɛri | dikɛra |\n| pagesɛ | imitate | pagesɛri | pagesɛra |\n| pa'alɛ | teach | pa'ali | pa'ala |\n| di | eat | diti | dita |\n| darɛ | disturb | dati | data |\n| parɛ | be a lot | pati | pata |\n| kiŋɛ | go | kini | kina |\n| siŋɛ | walk | sini | sina |\n| sigum | come down | sigeni | sigena |",
"",
"### Question Formation",
"There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.",
"#### Ex situ",
"In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n tum?\n\\| who FOC work.PFV\n\\| „Who worked?“{{Cite web \\|title\\=The VP\\-periphery in Mabia languages {{!}} Gurene \\|url\\=http://mabia\\-vp.com/tiki\\-index.php?page\\=Gurene \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-17 \\|website\\=The VP\\-periphery in Mabia languages \\|language\\=en}} }}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n tun\\-i?\n\\| who FOC work\\-IPFV\n\\| „Who is working?“}}",
"#### In situ",
"In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause\\-final question marker *\\-ì*.\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Fʊ nyɛ ʔí\\-ì?\n\\| 2SG see 3SG\\-Q\n\\| „Did you see him?“{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kropp\\-Dakubu \\|first\\=M.E. \\|title\\=Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. \\|publisher\\=L\\`Harmattan \\|year\\=2009 \\|location\\=Paris}} }}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí.\n\\| 2SG FOC see 3SG \n\\| „You saw him.“\n}}",
"#### Embedded",
"Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the [complementizer](/wiki/Complementizer \"Complementizer\") *tí*.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup\\|\n\\| Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ.\n\\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo\n\\| „I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Má m sokè ʔì lá\\-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ\\-ɛ\\`.\n\\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP\\-Q whom SUBR 3SG see\\-Q\n\\| „I asked him whom he saw.“}}",
"#### Multiple Questions",
"Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or [agent](/wiki/Agent_%28grammar%29 \"Agent (grammar)\") of the clause.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n da (\\*là) beni?\n\\| who FOC buy.PFV FOC what\n\\| „Who bought what?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| \\*Beni ti ani da?\n\\| what FOC who buy.PFV \n\\| „\\*What bought who?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Napari \\*(n) da yire. \n\\| Napari FOC buy.PFV house \n\\| „Napari bought a house..“}}",
"#### Long distance extraction",
"Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause\\-initial position.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya \\*(là).\n\\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ\\-ri/\\-\\*ra ya \\*(là)?\n\\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter\\-IPFV COMPL FOC\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ?\n\\| what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}",
""
] |
### Question Formation
There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.
#### Ex situ
In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n tum?
\| who FOC work.PFV
\| „Who worked?“{{Cite web \|title\=The VP\-periphery in Mabia languages {{!}} Gurene \|url\=http://mabia\-vp.com/tiki\-index.php?page\=Gurene \|access\-date\=2022\-11\-17 \|website\=The VP\-periphery in Mabia languages \|language\=en}} }}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n tun\-i?
\| who FOC work\-IPFV
\| „Who is working?“}}
#### In situ
In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause\-final question marker *\-ì*.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Fʊ nyɛ ʔí\-ì?
\| 2SG see 3SG\-Q
\| „Did you see him?“{{Cite book \|last\=Kropp\-Dakubu \|first\=M.E. \|title\=Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. \|publisher\=L\`Harmattan \|year\=2009 \|location\=Paris}} }}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí.
\| 2SG FOC see 3SG
\| „You saw him.“
}}
#### Embedded
Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the [complementizer](/wiki/Complementizer "Complementizer") *tí*.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup\|
\| Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ.
\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo
\| „I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Má m sokè ʔì lá\-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ\-ɛ\`.
\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP\-Q whom SUBR 3SG see\-Q
\| „I asked him whom he saw.“}}
#### Multiple Questions
Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or [agent](/wiki/Agent_%28grammar%29 "Agent (grammar)") of the clause.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Ani n da (\*là) beni?
\| who FOC buy.PFV FOC what
\| „Who bought what?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| \*Beni ti ani da?
\| what FOC who buy.PFV
\| „\*What bought who?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Napari \*(n) da yire.
\| Napari FOC buy.PFV house
\| „Napari bought a house..“}}
#### Long distance extraction
Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause\-initial position.
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya \*(là).
\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC
\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ\-ri/\-\*ra ya \*(là)?
\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter\-IPFV COMPL FOC
\| „What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“}}
{{interlinear\|indent\=2\|lang \= nup
\| Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ?
\| what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter
\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}
|
[
"### Question Formation",
"There are several ways of forming a question in Gurenɛ, but importantly the strict word order SVO is always to obey.",
"#### Ex situ",
"In subject questions the question word occurs as the first element of the clause and can either function as the subject or as the agent of the clause.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n tum?\n\\| who FOC work.PFV\n\\| „Who worked?“{{Cite web \\|title\\=The VP\\-periphery in Mabia languages {{!}} Gurene \\|url\\=http://mabia\\-vp.com/tiki\\-index.php?page\\=Gurene \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-11\\-17 \\|website\\=The VP\\-periphery in Mabia languages \\|language\\=en}} }}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n tun\\-i?\n\\| who FOC work\\-IPFV\n\\| „Who is working?“}}",
"#### In situ",
"In general, questions are formed by raising intonation of the final tone. Questions without an explicit question word have a clause\\-final question marker *\\-ì*.\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Fʊ nyɛ ʔí\\-ì?\n\\| 2SG see 3SG\\-Q\n\\| „Did you see him?“{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kropp\\-Dakubu \\|first\\=M.E. \\|title\\=Parlons farefari (gurenè): langue et culture de Bolgatanga (Ghana) et ses environs. \\|publisher\\=L\\`Harmattan \\|year\\=2009 \\|location\\=Paris}} }}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Fʊ n nyɛ ʔí.\n\\| 2SG FOC see 3SG \n\\| „You saw him.“\n}}",
"#### Embedded",
"Questions can be embedded and are then preceded by the [complementizer](/wiki/Complementizer \"Complementizer\") *tí*.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup\\|\n\\| Má m sokè ʔì tí 3SG nyɛ Ádʊŋɔ.\n\\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG SUBR 3SG see Adongo\n\\| „I asked him whether he had seen Adongo.“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Má m sokè ʔì lá\\-à ánɪ tì à nyɛ\\-ɛ\\`.\n\\| 1SG FOC ask 3SG TOP\\-Q whom SUBR 3SG see\\-Q\n\\| „I asked him whom he saw.“}}",
"#### Multiple Questions",
"Question can also be formed by more than one question word. In these cases one question word occurs ex situ and the other(s) in situ. Again, a question word can only appear ex situ, if it replaces the subject or [agent](/wiki/Agent_%28grammar%29 \"Agent (grammar)\") of the clause.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Ani n da (\\*là) beni?\n\\| who FOC buy.PFV FOC what\n\\| „Who bought what?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| \\*Beni ti ani da?\n\\| what FOC who buy.PFV \n\\| „\\*What bought who?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Napari \\*(n) da yire. \n\\| Napari FOC buy.PFV house \n\\| „Napari bought a house..“}}",
"#### Long distance extraction",
"Question words in Gurenɛ can also cross clause boundaries, such that they originated in the embedded clause and have been fronted to the clause\\-initial position.",
"{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama soke ti John kõregɛ ya \\*(là).\n\\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter COMPL FOC\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama spoke ti John kõregɛ\\-ri/\\-\\*ra ya \\*(là)?\n\\| what FOC Ama ask SUBR John slaughter\\-IPFV COMPL FOC\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John is slaughtering?“}}\n{{interlinear\\|indent\\=2\\|lang \\= nup \n\\| Beni ti Ama bɔta ti John kõregɛ?\n\\| what FOC Ama want SUBR John slaughter\n\\| „What did Ama ask that John slaughtered?“}}",
""
] |
Exploration
-----------
[thumb\|Historical marker at the site of the Pawnee village visited by Pike in what is now Nebraska](/wiki/File:Guide_Rock%2C_Nebraska_Pike_marker.JPG "Guide Rock, Nebraska Pike marker.JPG")
On June 24, 1806, General [James Wilkinson](/wiki/James_Wilkinson "James Wilkinson"), commander of the Western Department, ordered Lieutenant [Zebulon Pike](/wiki/Zebulon_Pike "Zebulon Pike"), then age 27, to lead an expedition to the western and southern areas of the Louisiana Purchase to map the terrain, contact the Native American peoples, and to find the headwaters of the Red River.Hart; Hulbert, p. 57 Pike left [Fort Bellefontaine](/wiki/Fort_Bellefontaine "Fort Bellefontaine") near [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri "St. Louis, Missouri") on July 15 with a detachment of 20 soldiers and 50 [Osage](/wiki/Osage_Nation "Osage Nation") hostages, freed for return to their people. The expedition followed the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River "Missouri River") and the [Osage River](/wiki/Osage_River "Osage River") to the [Osage Nation](/wiki/Osage_Nation "Osage Nation") village at the present\-day border of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas "Kansas") and [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri "Missouri"). On August 15, Pike returned the hostages and parlayed with the natives.Hart; Hulbert, pp. 86–88
Striking northwest, the group made for the [Pawnee](/wiki/Pawnee_people "Pawnee people") territory on the [Republican River](/wiki/Republican_River "Republican River") in southern [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"). Pike spent several weeks at the [Pawnee village](/wiki/Pike-Pawnee_Village_Site "Pike-Pawnee Village Site") on September 29, Pike met with the Pawnee tribal council. He announced the new claim of protectorship by the United States government over the territory.Hart; Hulbert, pp. 114–115 He persuaded the Pawnee chief to remove a Spanish flag from their village and to fly the American flag instead. He left them with the understanding, "... That for the fear the spaniards might return there in force again but with an ejection that it should never be hoisted during their stay".
The expeditionary force turned south and struck out across the prairie for the [Arkansas River](/wiki/Arkansas_River "Arkansas River"). After reaching it on October 14, the party split in two. One group was led by Lieutenant James Biddle Wilkinson, son of the General.Terrell, John U. (1968\). *Zebulon Pike: The Life and Times of an Adventurer*, Weybright and Talley. p. 75 They traveled downstream along the length of the Arkansas to its mouth and back up the Mississippi, safely returning to St. Louis.
Pike led the other, larger group upstream, to the west, toward the headwaters of the Arkansas. Upon traversing the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains "Great Plains"), Pike wrote, "This vast plains of the western hemisphere may become in time as celebrated as the sandy deserts of Africa; for I saw in my route, in various places, tracts of many leagues where the wind had thrown up the sand in all the fanciful form of the ocean's rolling wave, and on which not a speck of vegetable matter existed."Hollon, p. 111 When [Stephen Long](/wiki/Stephen_Harriman_Long "Stephen Harriman Long") led an [expedition to the area in 1820](/wiki/Stephen_H._Long%27s_Expedition_of_1820 "Stephen H. Long's Expedition of 1820"), he labeled the area on his map as the "[Great American Desert](/wiki/Great_American_Desert "Great American Desert")."
### Pike in Colorado
[thumb\|300px\|Photograph of a portion of a Colorado wayside marker located where the Medano Pass Primitive Road (CR 599\) joins Rt 69, just south of Westcliffe: "1806–07 Lt. Zebulon Pike Southwestern Expedition", showing a map of routes taken by Pike's group](/wiki/File:Map_of_1806-07_Pike_Expedition_in_Colorado.jpg "Map of 1806-07 Pike Expedition in Colorado.jpg")
On November 15, Pike recorded the first sight of the distant mountain [Tava](/wiki/Pikes_Peak "Pikes Peak") which he called "Grand Peak".Hart; Hulbert, p. 138 It has since been called Pikes Peak in his honor. Pike tried to climb the peak, hoping to get a view of the surrounding area to record on maps, the {{convert\|14,000\|ft\|adj\=on}} summit. Pike's group ascended a lesser summit nearby—likely [Mount Rosa](/wiki/Mount_Rosa_%28Colorado%29 "Mount Rosa (Colorado)").{{Cite web\|title\=America's Mountain is Pikes Peak\|url\=https://www.zebulonpike.org/americas\-mountain\-is\-pikes\-peak/\|access\-date\=December 16, 2022\|website\=zebulonpike.org\|date\=24 August 2021 }} With winter threatening, Pike pressed onward up the Arkansas, and on December 7 the party reached [Royal Gorge](/wiki/Royal_Gorge "Royal Gorge"), a spectacular canyon on the Arkansas at the base of the Rocky Mountains.
Pike next intended to travel to the headwaters of the Red River and head downstream to the Mississippi and relative safety in the lowlands. But, the company had gotten confused in its bearings, and they made several blundering steps trying to find the river. They were not equipped for a mountain expedition, nor for hard winter weather. Heading north, the party found the South Fork of the [Platte River](/wiki/Platte_River "Platte River") and, following it upstream, came to what they thought were the headwaters of the Red. Turning back downstream, they returned to the point at which they had left the Arkansas originally. They had executed a large loop, taking weeks of precious travel time.
Hungry, cold, and exhausted, the party headed south over the mountains. Several men were left behind as they dropped from fatigue, but Pike doggedly pressed on. By January 30, he and the ten men still with him came to the [Rio Grande](/wiki/Rio_Grande "Rio Grande") at a point near [Alamosa](/wiki/Alamosa%2C_Colorado "Alamosa, Colorado") in present\-day southern Colorado and then part of the Spanish empire. Pike mistook the Rio Grande for the Red River he had been seeking. Here, he [built a fort](/wiki/Pike%27s_Stockade "Pike's Stockade") and attempted to collect the rest of his men, who were strewn across miles of mountains behind him.
|
[
"Exploration\n-----------",
"[thumb\\|Historical marker at the site of the Pawnee village visited by Pike in what is now Nebraska](/wiki/File:Guide_Rock%2C_Nebraska_Pike_marker.JPG \"Guide Rock, Nebraska Pike marker.JPG\")",
"On June 24, 1806, General [James Wilkinson](/wiki/James_Wilkinson \"James Wilkinson\"), commander of the Western Department, ordered Lieutenant [Zebulon Pike](/wiki/Zebulon_Pike \"Zebulon Pike\"), then age 27, to lead an expedition to the western and southern areas of the Louisiana Purchase to map the terrain, contact the Native American peoples, and to find the headwaters of the Red River.Hart; Hulbert, p. 57 Pike left [Fort Bellefontaine](/wiki/Fort_Bellefontaine \"Fort Bellefontaine\") near [St. Louis, Missouri](/wiki/St._Louis%2C_Missouri \"St. Louis, Missouri\") on July 15 with a detachment of 20 soldiers and 50 [Osage](/wiki/Osage_Nation \"Osage Nation\") hostages, freed for return to their people. The expedition followed the [Missouri River](/wiki/Missouri_River \"Missouri River\") and the [Osage River](/wiki/Osage_River \"Osage River\") to the [Osage Nation](/wiki/Osage_Nation \"Osage Nation\") village at the present\\-day border of [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas \"Kansas\") and [Missouri](/wiki/Missouri \"Missouri\"). On August 15, Pike returned the hostages and parlayed with the natives.Hart; Hulbert, pp. 86–88",
"Striking northwest, the group made for the [Pawnee](/wiki/Pawnee_people \"Pawnee people\") territory on the [Republican River](/wiki/Republican_River \"Republican River\") in southern [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska \"Nebraska\"). Pike spent several weeks at the [Pawnee village](/wiki/Pike-Pawnee_Village_Site \"Pike-Pawnee Village Site\") on September 29, Pike met with the Pawnee tribal council. He announced the new claim of protectorship by the United States government over the territory.Hart; Hulbert, pp. 114–115 He persuaded the Pawnee chief to remove a Spanish flag from their village and to fly the American flag instead. He left them with the understanding, \"... That for the fear the spaniards might return there in force again but with an ejection that it should never be hoisted during their stay\".",
"The expeditionary force turned south and struck out across the prairie for the [Arkansas River](/wiki/Arkansas_River \"Arkansas River\"). After reaching it on October 14, the party split in two. One group was led by Lieutenant James Biddle Wilkinson, son of the General.Terrell, John U. (1968\\). *Zebulon Pike: The Life and Times of an Adventurer*, Weybright and Talley. p. 75 They traveled downstream along the length of the Arkansas to its mouth and back up the Mississippi, safely returning to St. Louis.",
"Pike led the other, larger group upstream, to the west, toward the headwaters of the Arkansas. Upon traversing the [Great Plains](/wiki/Great_Plains \"Great Plains\"), Pike wrote, \"This vast plains of the western hemisphere may become in time as celebrated as the sandy deserts of Africa; for I saw in my route, in various places, tracts of many leagues where the wind had thrown up the sand in all the fanciful form of the ocean's rolling wave, and on which not a speck of vegetable matter existed.\"Hollon, p. 111 When [Stephen Long](/wiki/Stephen_Harriman_Long \"Stephen Harriman Long\") led an [expedition to the area in 1820](/wiki/Stephen_H._Long%27s_Expedition_of_1820 \"Stephen H. Long's Expedition of 1820\"), he labeled the area on his map as the \"[Great American Desert](/wiki/Great_American_Desert \"Great American Desert\").\"",
"### Pike in Colorado",
"[thumb\\|300px\\|Photograph of a portion of a Colorado wayside marker located where the Medano Pass Primitive Road (CR 599\\) joins Rt 69, just south of Westcliffe: \"1806–07 Lt. Zebulon Pike Southwestern Expedition\", showing a map of routes taken by Pike's group](/wiki/File:Map_of_1806-07_Pike_Expedition_in_Colorado.jpg \"Map of 1806-07 Pike Expedition in Colorado.jpg\")",
"On November 15, Pike recorded the first sight of the distant mountain [Tava](/wiki/Pikes_Peak \"Pikes Peak\") which he called \"Grand Peak\".Hart; Hulbert, p. 138 It has since been called Pikes Peak in his honor. Pike tried to climb the peak, hoping to get a view of the surrounding area to record on maps, the {{convert\\|14,000\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} summit. Pike's group ascended a lesser summit nearby—likely [Mount Rosa](/wiki/Mount_Rosa_%28Colorado%29 \"Mount Rosa (Colorado)\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=America's Mountain is Pikes Peak\\|url\\=https://www.zebulonpike.org/americas\\-mountain\\-is\\-pikes\\-peak/\\|access\\-date\\=December 16, 2022\\|website\\=zebulonpike.org\\|date\\=24 August 2021 }} With winter threatening, Pike pressed onward up the Arkansas, and on December 7 the party reached [Royal Gorge](/wiki/Royal_Gorge \"Royal Gorge\"), a spectacular canyon on the Arkansas at the base of the Rocky Mountains.",
"Pike next intended to travel to the headwaters of the Red River and head downstream to the Mississippi and relative safety in the lowlands. But, the company had gotten confused in its bearings, and they made several blundering steps trying to find the river. They were not equipped for a mountain expedition, nor for hard winter weather. Heading north, the party found the South Fork of the [Platte River](/wiki/Platte_River \"Platte River\") and, following it upstream, came to what they thought were the headwaters of the Red. Turning back downstream, they returned to the point at which they had left the Arkansas originally. They had executed a large loop, taking weeks of precious travel time.",
"Hungry, cold, and exhausted, the party headed south over the mountains. Several men were left behind as they dropped from fatigue, but Pike doggedly pressed on. By January 30, he and the ten men still with him came to the [Rio Grande](/wiki/Rio_Grande \"Rio Grande\") at a point near [Alamosa](/wiki/Alamosa%2C_Colorado \"Alamosa, Colorado\") in present\\-day southern Colorado and then part of the Spanish empire. Pike mistook the Rio Grande for the Red River he had been seeking. Here, he [built a fort](/wiki/Pike%27s_Stockade \"Pike's Stockade\") and attempted to collect the rest of his men, who were strewn across miles of mountains behind him.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Erasmus University
[340px\|thumb\|Historical building of RSM in Kralingen\-Crooswijk](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Historical.jpg "Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Historical.jpg")
[340px\|thumb\|Campus of the university with the buildings of RSM](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Campus_spring.jpg "Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Campus spring.jpg")
The roots of RSM stretch back to the founding of Erasmus University as the Dutch School of Higher Commercial Education in 1913\. Originally a business\-oriented institution, the Dutch School of Higher Commercial Education was a private initiative established with the support of the Rotterdam business community.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rsm.nl/about\-rsm/facts\-figures/school\-history/ \|title\=School History\|publisher\=RSM \|access\-date\=27 September 2018}}
In 1966 Erasmus University (then the Netherlands Institute for Economic Science), commissioned an investigation into the feasibility of founding a Graduate School of Management dedicated to the subject of business administration. The result, inaugurated in 1969, was the ‘Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde/Graduate School of Management’, a joint initiative of the schools of economics, law and social sciences of Erasmus University, and the schools of civil, mechanical and maritime engineering and general sciences at the [Delft University of Technology](/wiki/Delft_University_of_Technology "Delft University of Technology").
### Graduate School of Management
[340px\|thumb\|Main building RSM](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Campus_summer.jpg "Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Campus summer.jpg")
Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University first opened its doors in 1970 in the suburb of [Kralingen](/wiki/Kralingen "Kralingen"), Rotterdam. The first 30 students began classes in the two\-year ‘post\-kandidaats’ programme (equivalent to a master's). The school became the first in the Netherlands to offer the degree “Doctorandus in de Bedrijfskunde” post\-kandidaats, for students with a university qualification in a non\-business discipline.
In 1972 the school moved to new premises in Delft and was once again remodelled, this time as the Interuniversities Institute for Business Administration (‘Interuniversitair Instituut Bedrijfskunde’ or IIB). It had only one division, the ‘Interuniversitaire Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde/Graduate School of Management Delft’. In November that year the first 29 students graduated with the new academic degree ‘Doctorandus in de Bedrijfskunde’ (Drs.), and the Alumni Association VIB, the ‘Vereniging van afgestudeerden van de Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde’ was formally established.
### Internationalisation
In 1975 the curriculum was revised and, from 1977 onwards, the focus turned towards the internationalisation of the school. The first exchange programme was established in 1980 with the French [Institut Supérieur des Affaires](/wiki/HEC_Paris "HEC Paris"), visited by IIB\-students Hans van der Laan and [Rino Schreuder](/wiki/Rino_H._C._Schreuder "Rino H. C. Schreuder"). The second exchange programme was established with the [Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania "Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania") in 1986\. The number of English\-language modules with an international focus expanded. In 1984 the four\-year ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched. The first European CEMS master's degree was conferred in 1991, a result of RSM's membership in the renowned CEMS network.
In 1986 the Graduate School of Management Delft moved back to the premises of Erasmus University, and was renamed the Faculty of Business Administration. The doctoral programme was established in the same year. In 1993 the ERASM research school was founded, bringing together researchers from the Faculty of Business Administration and the School of Economics. It is known today as the Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM).
In 2000 the BSc International Business Administration programme (IBA) was established, an English\-language bachelor (undergraduate) programme which aims to provide a truly international learning experience with a large proportion of students from outside the Netherlands.
### Foundation for Business Administration (Stichting Bedrijfskunde)
In 1966 a consensus on the lack of suitable training and higher educational facilities for managers in the Netherlands spurred Dutch\-based multinationals including Royal Dutch Shell, Unilever and Philips to establish the Foundation for Business Administration (Stichting Bedrijfskunde), which was attached to the Netherlands University of Economics at Rotterdam.George Frederick Evans\-Vaughan. *Management Education in the Netherlands: : A Short Study Carried Out in February 1966\.* Administrative Staff College, 1966\. p. 166 This started out as an institute for postgraduate management education, and later became Rotterdam School of Management (RSM).
The founders of RSM each donated two million guilders and included:
* [Royal Dutch Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell "Royal Dutch Shell")
* [Algemene Kunstzijde Unie](/wiki/Algemene_Kunstzijde_Unie "Algemene Kunstzijde Unie")
* Koninklijke Zout/Ketjen ([Akzo Nobel](/wiki/Akzo_Nobel "Akzo Nobel"))
* Amsterdam\-Rotterdam Bank
* Algemene Bank Nederland ([ABN AMRO](/wiki/ABN_AMRO "ABN AMRO"))
* [Unilever](/wiki/Unilever "Unilever")
* [Philips](/wiki/Philips "Philips") Gloeilampen fabriek
* [Koninklijke Hoogovens en Staalfabrieken](/wiki/Koninklijke_Hoogovens "Koninklijke Hoogovens") ([Tata Steel Europe](/wiki/Tata_Steel_Europe "Tata Steel Europe"))
### Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University
In 1985 Rotterdam School of Management launched its International Full\-time MBA programme, initially offered in both Dutch and English.
In 1986 the ‘post\-kandidaats’ IMSEC exchange programme was absorbed into the MBA, and a new IMScEC ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched.
In 2003 RSM joined four schools located in three continents to create the "Global Executive OneMBA".
In 2004 Rotterdam School of Management merged with Erasmus University's Faculty of Business Administration and the Erasmus Research Institute of Management to become Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University (RSM).
In 2006 the MSc General Management programme was established, a new master's degree for non\-business graduates, now called the MScBA Master in Management.
In 2011 the school appointed [Professor Steef van de Velde](http://www.rsm.nl/people/steef-van-de-velde/) as dean, who was re\-appointed for a second term in 2015\.
In 2015 RSM opened an office in Chengdu, China. The RSM China office offers services to prospective students, partners, and alumni as well as maintains relationships with research universities and business schools.
In 2019 the school appointed [Professor Ansgar Richter](https://www.rsm.nl/people/ansgar-richter/) as dean. As of 2022, Professor Werner Brouwer has been serving as interim dean. A new dean is expected to be appointed in Fall 2024\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Erasmus University",
"[340px\\|thumb\\|Historical building of RSM in Kralingen\\-Crooswijk](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Historical.jpg \"Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Historical.jpg\")\n[340px\\|thumb\\|Campus of the university with the buildings of RSM](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Campus_spring.jpg \"Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Campus spring.jpg\")\nThe roots of RSM stretch back to the founding of Erasmus University as the Dutch School of Higher Commercial Education in 1913\\. Originally a business\\-oriented institution, the Dutch School of Higher Commercial Education was a private initiative established with the support of the Rotterdam business community.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rsm.nl/about\\-rsm/facts\\-figures/school\\-history/ \\|title\\=School History\\|publisher\\=RSM \\|access\\-date\\=27 September 2018}}",
"In 1966 Erasmus University (then the Netherlands Institute for Economic Science), commissioned an investigation into the feasibility of founding a Graduate School of Management dedicated to the subject of business administration. The result, inaugurated in 1969, was the ‘Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde/Graduate School of Management’, a joint initiative of the schools of economics, law and social sciences of Erasmus University, and the schools of civil, mechanical and maritime engineering and general sciences at the [Delft University of Technology](/wiki/Delft_University_of_Technology \"Delft University of Technology\").",
"### Graduate School of Management",
"[340px\\|thumb\\|Main building RSM](/wiki/File:Rotterdam_School_of_Management_Erasmus_University_Campus_summer.jpg \"Rotterdam School of Management Erasmus University Campus summer.jpg\")\nRotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University first opened its doors in 1970 in the suburb of [Kralingen](/wiki/Kralingen \"Kralingen\"), Rotterdam. The first 30 students began classes in the two\\-year ‘post\\-kandidaats’ programme (equivalent to a master's). The school became the first in the Netherlands to offer the degree “Doctorandus in de Bedrijfskunde” post\\-kandidaats, for students with a university qualification in a non\\-business discipline.",
"In 1972 the school moved to new premises in Delft and was once again remodelled, this time as the Interuniversities Institute for Business Administration (‘Interuniversitair Instituut Bedrijfskunde’ or IIB). It had only one division, the ‘Interuniversitaire Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde/Graduate School of Management Delft’. In November that year the first 29 students graduated with the new academic degree ‘Doctorandus in de Bedrijfskunde’ (Drs.), and the Alumni Association VIB, the ‘Vereniging van afgestudeerden van de Interfaculteit Bedrijfskunde’ was formally established.",
"### Internationalisation",
"In 1975 the curriculum was revised and, from 1977 onwards, the focus turned towards the internationalisation of the school. The first exchange programme was established in 1980 with the French [Institut Supérieur des Affaires](/wiki/HEC_Paris \"HEC Paris\"), visited by IIB\\-students Hans van der Laan and [Rino Schreuder](/wiki/Rino_H._C._Schreuder \"Rino H. C. Schreuder\"). The second exchange programme was established with the [Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania](/wiki/Wharton_School_of_the_University_of_Pennsylvania \"Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania\") in 1986\\. The number of English\\-language modules with an international focus expanded. In 1984 the four\\-year ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched. The first European CEMS master's degree was conferred in 1991, a result of RSM's membership in the renowned CEMS network.",
"In 1986 the Graduate School of Management Delft moved back to the premises of Erasmus University, and was renamed the Faculty of Business Administration. The doctoral programme was established in the same year. In 1993 the ERASM research school was founded, bringing together researchers from the Faculty of Business Administration and the School of Economics. It is known today as the Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM).",
"In 2000 the BSc International Business Administration programme (IBA) was established, an English\\-language bachelor (undergraduate) programme which aims to provide a truly international learning experience with a large proportion of students from outside the Netherlands.",
"### Foundation for Business Administration (Stichting Bedrijfskunde)",
"In 1966 a consensus on the lack of suitable training and higher educational facilities for managers in the Netherlands spurred Dutch\\-based multinationals including Royal Dutch Shell, Unilever and Philips to establish the Foundation for Business Administration (Stichting Bedrijfskunde), which was attached to the Netherlands University of Economics at Rotterdam.George Frederick Evans\\-Vaughan. *Management Education in the Netherlands: : A Short Study Carried Out in February 1966\\.* Administrative Staff College, 1966\\. p. 166 This started out as an institute for postgraduate management education, and later became Rotterdam School of Management (RSM).",
"The founders of RSM each donated two million guilders and included:\n* [Royal Dutch Shell](/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell \"Royal Dutch Shell\")\n* [Algemene Kunstzijde Unie](/wiki/Algemene_Kunstzijde_Unie \"Algemene Kunstzijde Unie\")\n* Koninklijke Zout/Ketjen ([Akzo Nobel](/wiki/Akzo_Nobel \"Akzo Nobel\"))\n* Amsterdam\\-Rotterdam Bank\n* Algemene Bank Nederland ([ABN AMRO](/wiki/ABN_AMRO \"ABN AMRO\"))\n* [Unilever](/wiki/Unilever \"Unilever\")\n* [Philips](/wiki/Philips \"Philips\") Gloeilampen fabriek\n* [Koninklijke Hoogovens en Staalfabrieken](/wiki/Koninklijke_Hoogovens \"Koninklijke Hoogovens\") ([Tata Steel Europe](/wiki/Tata_Steel_Europe \"Tata Steel Europe\"))",
"### Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University",
"In 1985 Rotterdam School of Management launched its International Full\\-time MBA programme, initially offered in both Dutch and English. \nIn 1986 the ‘post\\-kandidaats’ IMSEC exchange programme was absorbed into the MBA, and a new IMScEC ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched.",
"In 2003 RSM joined four schools located in three continents to create the \"Global Executive OneMBA\".",
"In 2004 Rotterdam School of Management merged with Erasmus University's Faculty of Business Administration and the Erasmus Research Institute of Management to become Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University (RSM).",
"In 2006 the MSc General Management programme was established, a new master's degree for non\\-business graduates, now called the MScBA Master in Management.",
"In 2011 the school appointed [Professor Steef van de Velde](http://www.rsm.nl/people/steef-van-de-velde/) as dean, who was re\\-appointed for a second term in 2015\\.",
"In 2015 RSM opened an office in Chengdu, China. The RSM China office offers services to prospective students, partners, and alumni as well as maintains relationships with research universities and business schools.",
"In 2019 the school appointed [Professor Ansgar Richter](https://www.rsm.nl/people/ansgar-richter/) as dean. As of 2022, Professor Werner Brouwer has been serving as interim dean. A new dean is expected to be appointed in Fall 2024\\.",
""
] |
### Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University
In 1985 Rotterdam School of Management launched its International Full\-time MBA programme, initially offered in both Dutch and English.
In 1986 the ‘post\-kandidaats’ IMSEC exchange programme was absorbed into the MBA, and a new IMScEC ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched.
In 2003 RSM joined four schools located in three continents to create the "Global Executive OneMBA".
In 2004 Rotterdam School of Management merged with Erasmus University's Faculty of Business Administration and the Erasmus Research Institute of Management to become Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University (RSM).
In 2006 the MSc General Management programme was established, a new master's degree for non\-business graduates, now called the MScBA Master in Management.
In 2011 the school appointed [Professor Steef van de Velde](http://www.rsm.nl/people/steef-van-de-velde/) as dean, who was re\-appointed for a second term in 2015\.
In 2015 RSM opened an office in Chengdu, China. The RSM China office offers services to prospective students, partners, and alumni as well as maintains relationships with research universities and business schools.
In 2019 the school appointed [Professor Ansgar Richter](https://www.rsm.nl/people/ansgar-richter/) as dean. As of 2022, Professor Werner Brouwer has been serving as interim dean. A new dean is expected to be appointed in Fall 2024\.
|
[
"### Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University",
"In 1985 Rotterdam School of Management launched its International Full\\-time MBA programme, initially offered in both Dutch and English. \nIn 1986 the ‘post\\-kandidaats’ IMSEC exchange programme was absorbed into the MBA, and a new IMScEC ‘doctorandus’ programme was launched.",
"In 2003 RSM joined four schools located in three continents to create the \"Global Executive OneMBA\".",
"In 2004 Rotterdam School of Management merged with Erasmus University's Faculty of Business Administration and the Erasmus Research Institute of Management to become Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University (RSM).",
"In 2006 the MSc General Management programme was established, a new master's degree for non\\-business graduates, now called the MScBA Master in Management.",
"In 2011 the school appointed [Professor Steef van de Velde](http://www.rsm.nl/people/steef-van-de-velde/) as dean, who was re\\-appointed for a second term in 2015\\.",
"In 2015 RSM opened an office in Chengdu, China. The RSM China office offers services to prospective students, partners, and alumni as well as maintains relationships with research universities and business schools.",
"In 2019 the school appointed [Professor Ansgar Richter](https://www.rsm.nl/people/ansgar-richter/) as dean. As of 2022, Professor Werner Brouwer has been serving as interim dean. A new dean is expected to be appointed in Fall 2024\\.",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### Pre\-World War II
Upon commissioning, *I\-18* was attached to the [Yokosuka Naval District](/wiki/Yokosuka_Naval_District "Yokosuka Naval District"), assigned to Submarine Division 2 in Submarine Squadron 1 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 "6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)") In the autumn of 1941, she underwent conversion into a [mother ship](/wiki/Mother_ship "Mother ship") for a [Type A](/wiki/Type_A_K%C5%8D-hy%C5%8Dteki-class_submarine "Type A Kō-hyōteki-class submarine") [midget submarine](/wiki/Midget_submarine "Midget submarine").{{cite web \|url\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\-22\.htm \|title\=IJN Submarine I\-22: Tabular Record of Movement \|first1\=Bob \|last1\=Hackett \|first2\=Sander \|last2\=Kingsepp \|work\=combinedfleet.com \|year\=2015\|access\-date\=17 August 2020}}{{cite web \|url\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\-24\.htm \|title\=IJN Submarine I\-24: Tabular Record of Movement \|first1\=Bob \|last1\=Hackett \|first2\=Sander \|last2\=Kingsepp \|work\=combinedfleet.com \|year\=2017\|access\-date\=18 August 2020}} The submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-16\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-20\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-22\|\|2}}, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-24\|\|2}} also underwent the conversion. By 15 November 1941, *I\-18* was a part of Submarine Division 3 — which also included {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-19\|\|2}} and *I\-20* — in Submarine Squadron 1 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 "6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)").
At the Kure Navy Club in [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima "Kure, Hiroshima"), Japan, on 17 November 1941, the commander of Submarine Division 3 briefed the [commanding officers](/wiki/Commanding_officer "Commanding officer") of the five converted submarines on the upcoming [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor "Attack on Pearl Harbor") and on the role of their submarines in it. He had been designated the commander of the Special Attack Unit, made up of all five submarines, each of which was to launch a Type A midget submarine off [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor "Pearl Harbor") so that the midget submarines could participate in the attack. *I\-22* was to serve as flagship of the Special Attack unit.
On 18 November 1941, the five submarines moved from Kure to the [Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground](/wiki/Kamegakubi_Naval_Proving_Ground "Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground"), where each embarked a Type A midget submarine. At 02:15 on 19 November 1941, the five submarines got underway from Kamegakubi bound for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands"), taking a direct route that took them south of [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll "Midway Atoll"). While at sea, they received the message "Climb [Mount Niitaka](/wiki/Yu_Shan "Yu Shan") 1208" ({{lang\-ja\|Niitakayama nobore 1208}}) from the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet "Combined Fleet") on 2 December 1941, indicating that war with the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") would commence on 8 December 1941 [Japan time](/wiki/Japan_Standard_Time "Japan Standard Time"), which was on 7 December 1941 on the other side of the [International Date Line](/wiki/International_Date_Line "International Date Line") in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii "Hawaii").
### World War II
#### Pearl Harbor
At 02:15 on 7 December 1941, *I\-18* launched her midget submarine, *No. 17*, south of [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu "Oahu") about {{convert\|13\|nmi}} from the entrance to Pearl Harbor. *No. 17* was [depth charged](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge") and sunk with the loss of its two\-man crew outside the harbor in [Keehi Lagoon](/wiki/Keehi_Lagoon "Keehi Lagoon"). Its wreck was discovered resting in {{convert\|75\|ft\|m\|0}} of water on 13 June 1960, and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship "Submarine rescue ship") {{USS\|Current\|ARS\-22}} refloated it on 6 July 1960, finding no human remains inside. At the request of the [Government of Japan](/wiki/Government_of_Japan "Government of Japan"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") returned the wreck to Japan, where it is displayed at the [Naval Academy Etajima](/wiki/Naval_Academy_Etajima "Naval Academy Etajima") in [Etajima](/wiki/Etajima%2C_Hiroshima "Etajima, Hiroshima").
*I\-18* and the other four "mother" submarines proceeded to the planned recovery area for their midget submarines west of [Lanai](/wiki/Lanai "Lanai"), where they spent the night of 7–8 December 1941\. None of the midget submarines returned. Early on 9 December 1941, *I\-18*, *I\-20*, and *I\-24* received orders to leave the recovery area. *I\-18* departed the Hawaiian Islands on 12 December 1941 and arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein") on 22 December 1941\.
#### First war patrol
On 4 January 1942, *I\-18*, *I\-22*, and *I\-24* departed Kwajalein to begin their first war patrol, assigned patrol areas off the Hawaiian Islands, with the commander of Submarine Division 2 embarked on *I\-18*. *I\-18* sighted U.S. Navy [Task Force 11](/wiki/Task_Force_11 "Task Force 11"), including the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") {{USS\|Lexington\|CV\-2}}, steaming {{convert\|550\|nmi}} west of Hawaii on 9 January 1942, and on 10 January, while {{convert\|130\|nmi}} northeast of [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island "Johnston Island"), she sighted two [SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless "Douglas SBD Dauntless") [dive bombers](/wiki/Dive_bomber "Dive bomber") from *Lexington* flying west, allowing her to calculate *Lexington*′s approximate position and report it.
On 18 January 1942, *I\-18*, *I\-22*, and *I\-24* received orders to depart their patrol areas, the orders calling for *I\-18* and *I\-24* to make for the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands "Northwestern Hawaiian Islands") and bombard Midway Atoll. On 24 January 1942, *I\-18* conducted a [periscope](/wiki/Periscope "Periscope") reconnaissance of Midway, and on 25 January 1942, the two submarines surfaced in darkness off Midway to begin their bombardment. *I\-24* opened fire with her {{convert\|140\|mm\|in\|adj\=on\|sp\=us\|1}} deck gun, and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery "Coastal artillery") promptly returned fire, forcing *I\-24* to submerge after firing only six rounds. *I\-18* also submerged without ever having opened fire on the [atoll](/wiki/Atoll "Atoll").
After the bombardment attempt, *I\-18* and *I\-24* as well as *I\-22* set course for Japan. Unknown to them, the U.S. submarine {{USS\|Gudgeon\|SS\-211}} had received [Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_%28cryptography%29 "Ultra (cryptography)") intelligence information alerting her to their activities and routes. She did not sight any of them, but while searching for them she encountered and sank the submarine {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-73\|\|2}}, which was following the same route, {{convert\|240\|nmi}} west of Midway on 27 January 1942\. *I\-18* arrived at [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka "Yokosuka") along with *I\-22*, *I\-24*, and the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-4\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-5\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-6\|\|2}}, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-7\|\|2}} on 2 February 1942\.
#### February–April 1942
After her port call at Yokosuka, *I\-18* moved to [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima "Kure, Hiroshima"), then departed Kure on 18 March 1942\. She remained in Japan into April 1942\.
During *I\-18*′s stay in Japan, the [German naval staff](/wiki/Kriegsmarine "Kriegsmarine") in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") formally requested on 27 March 1942 that Japan begin attacks on [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") [convoys](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"). On 8 April 1942, the Japanese formally agreed to meet this request by dispatching submarines to operate off the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"), and that day they withdrew Submarine Division 1 of Submarine Squadron 8 from its base at Kwajalein to Japan. By 16 April 1942 they had created the "A" detachment within Submarine Squadron 8, consisting of *I\-18* and the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-10\|\|2}}, *I\-16*, *I\-20*, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-30\|\|2}}, as well as midget submarines and the [auxiliary cruisers](/wiki/Auxiliary_cruiser "Auxiliary cruiser") {{ship\|\|Aikoku Maru\|1940\|2}} and {{ship\|\|Hōkoku Maru\|\|2}}, which were to operate as supply ships for the submarines. That morning, the commander of the 6th Fleet, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral "Vice Admiral") [Teruhisa Komatsu](/wiki/Teruhisa_Komatsu "Teruhisa Komatsu"), the commander of Submarine Squadron 8, their staffs, and the midget submarine crews paid a courtesy call on the commander\-in\-chief of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet "Combined Fleet"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral "Admiral") [Isoroku Yamamoto](/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto "Isoroku Yamamoto"), aboard his flagship, the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") {{ship\|Japanese battleship\|Yamato\|\|2}}, at [Hashirajima anchorage](/wiki/Hashira_Island "Hashira Island"). After the visit with Yamamoto, the detachment got underway at 11:00, bound for [Penang](/wiki/Penang_Island "Penang Island") in Japanese\-occupied [British Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya "British Malaya").
During the detachment's voyage, 16 [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") [B\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell "North American B-25 Mitchell") [bombers](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber") launched by the aircraft carrier {{USS\|Hornet\|CV\-8}} struck targets on [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu "Honshu") in the [Doolittle Raid](/wiki/Doolittle_Raid "Doolittle Raid") on 18 April 1942\. The detachment received orders from the 6th Fleet that day to divert from its voyage and head northeast, passing north of the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands"), to intercept the U.S. Navy [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") that had launched the strike. The detachment failed to find the U.S. ships and soon resumed its voyage.
*I\-30* and *Aikoku Maru* called at Penang from 20 April to 22 April 1942 before heading into the Indian Ocean to conduct an advance reconnaissance of the "A" Detachment's planned operating area.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\-30\.htm \|title\=IJN Submarine I\-30: Tabular Record of Movement \|first1\=Bob \|last1\=Hackett \|first2\=Sander \|last2\=Kingsepp \|work\=combinedfleet.com \|year\=2012\|access\-date\=18 August 2020}} The rest of the "A" Detachment reached Penang on 27 April 1942, where the [seaplane carrier](/wiki/Seaplane_carrier "Seaplane carrier") {{ship\|Japanese seaplane carrier\|Nisshin\|\|2}} — which had undergone modifications allowing her to carry Type A midget submarines — rendezvoused with it. *I\-16*, *I\-18*, and *I\-20* each embarked a midget submarine at Penang.
#### Indian Ocean operation
*I\-18* and the other "A" detachment units got underway from Penang on 30 April 1942, headed westward into the Indian Ocean with *I\-10* serving as the detachment's flagship. The submarines [refueled at sea](/wiki/Underway_replenishment "Underway replenishment") from *Aikoku Maru* and *Hōkoku Maru* on 5, 10, and 15 May 1942\. *I\-18* suffered a mishap on 17 May when her [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard "Port and starboard") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") flooded in heavy seas and four of its [cylinders](/wiki/Cylinder_%28engine%29 "Cylinder (engine)") seized, damage which prevented her from reaching the launch area for the midget submarines on schedule.
*I\-10*′s [Yokosuka E14Y](/wiki/Yokosuka_E14Y "Yokosuka E14Y")1 (Allied reporting name "Glen") floatplane began reconnaissance flights over ports in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") by reconnoitering [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban") on 20 May 1942, followed by flights over [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape "East London, Eastern Cape"), [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth "Port Elizabeth"), and [Simon's Town](/wiki/Simon%27s_Town "Simon's Town") over the next week. On the night of 29 May, the plane flew over [Diego\-Suarez](/wiki/Diego-Suarez "Diego-Suarez"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"), sighting the battleship {{HMS\|Ramillies\|07\|6}} among the ships [anchored](/wiki/Anchor "Anchor") there. The "A" detachment commander selected Diego\-Suarez as the target for a midget submarine attack, scheduled for 30 May 1942\. *I\-16* and *I\-20* launched their midget submarines {{convert\|10\|nmi}} off Diego\-Suarez on 30 May, but *I\-18*′s midget suffered engine failure and she could not launch it.
After the midget submarine attack, the "A" detachment began anti\-shipping operations. *I\-18* sank the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway "Norway") 2,158\-[gross register ton](/wiki/Gross_register_ton "Gross register ton") [merchant ship](/wiki/Merchant_ship "Merchant ship") *Wilford* in the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel "Mozambique Channel") at {{coord\|20\|20\|S\|036\|47\|E\|name\=''Wilford''}} on 8 June 1942, then jettisoned her midget submarine on 9 June. On 1 July 1942, she heavily damaged the Dutch 1,805\-ton merchant ship *De Weert*, and *De Weert* sank on 3 July at {{coord\|25\|12\|S\|035\|56\|E\|name\=''De Weert''}}.
On 2 July 1942, *I\-18* attacked the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") 7,406\-ton armed merchant ship *Phemius*. Her [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") detonated prematurely, and *Phemius* opened fire on *I\-18*′s periscope. *I\-18* escaped undamaged. She was in the Indian Ocean south of [St. Lucia Bay](/wiki/St._Lucia_Bay "St. Lucia Bay"), South Africa, on 6 July 1942 when she torpedoed the 7,341\-ton [British India Steam Navigation Company](/wiki/British_India_Steam_Navigation_Company "British India Steam Navigation Company") [steamer](/wiki/Steamship "Steamship") {{SS\|Mundra\|\|2}}, which was carrying a large number of survivors of other ships. She then attacked *Mundra* with gunfire, sinking her at {{coord\|28\|45\|S\|032\|20\|E\|name\=SS ''Mundra''}}. One hundred fifty\-five men survived *Mundra*′s sinking, which prompted a large number of [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") and [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force "South African Air Force") [sorties](/wiki/Sortie "Sortie") to find *I\-18*, but *I\-18* went undetected.
*I\-18* conducted a reconnaissance of [Rodrigues](/wiki/Rodrigues "Rodrigues") on 20 July and of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia "Diego Garcia") on 31 July 1942, then proceeded to Penang. As she neared Penang on 2 August 1942, she detected an unidentified enemy — probably [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") — submarine stalking her, but she arrived at Penang safely later that day. She later set course for Japan, arriving at Yokosuka on 23 August 1942 to undergo an overhaul.
#### Guadalcanal campaign
By mid\-November 1942, the Japanese had decided to organize a system of submarine supply runs to [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal "Guadalcanal") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 "Solomon Islands (archipelago)"), where Japanese forces had been fighting in the [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign "Guadalcanal campaign") since August 1942\. With her overhaul complete, *I\-18* got underway from Kure on 17 December 1942 and, after a stop at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon "Chuuk Lagoon"), proceeded to [Shortland Island](/wiki/Shortland_Island "Shortland Island") in the [Shortland Islands](/wiki/Shortland_Islands "Shortland Islands") to begin her supply runs. Early on the morning of 3 January 1943, the submarine {{USS\|Grayback\|SS\-208}} sighted *I\-18* on the surface in the [Solomon Sea](/wiki/Solomon_Sea "Solomon Sea") southwest of [Rendova](/wiki/Rendova "Rendova") at {{coord\|08\|49\|S\|157\|09\|E}} and launched a torpedo attack. *Grayback*′s torpedoes detonated, and *Grayback*′s commanding officer believed she had sunk {{nowrap\|''I\-18''}}, but the torpedoes apparently exploded prematurely, because *I\-18* submerged and escaped unscathed.
*I\-18* made three supply runs to Guadalcanal, in each case dropping her cargo off at [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance "Cape Esperance") on the island's northwest coast. She delivered 15 tons of cargo in supply drums on 5 January 1943 and 25 tons in supply drums on 11 January 1943\. On 22 January 1943, she departed Truk on her last supply run, delivering 18 tons of cargo in a supply container at Cape Esperance on 26 January 1943\.
On 28 January 1943, *I\-18* was attached to Submarine Force "A". She deployed to waters north of [Rennell Island](/wiki/Rennell_Island "Rennell Island") and south of Guadalcanal, where she formed a patrol line with the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-11\|\|2}} — which served as the force's flagship — *I\-16*, *I\-17*, *I\-20*, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-25\|\|2}}, *I\-26*, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-32\|\|2}}, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-176\|\|2}}, targeting any Allied naval forces attempting to interfere with [Operation Ke](/wiki/Operation_Ke "Operation Ke"), the Japanese evacuation of their forces on Guadalcanal. On 2 February 1943, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") {{convert\|100\|nmi}} southeast of [San Cristobal](/wiki/Makira "Makira"), but they failed to find the task force.
The Japanese completed Operation Ke on 8 February 1943\. That day, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy force {{convert\|150\|nmi}} south\-southeast of Rennell Island. Two of the submarines, including *I\-18*, found and engaged the American force before losing contact with it. Later that day, the commander of Submarine Force A ordered all its submarines except for *I\-11* and *I\-17* to proceed to Truk.
#### Loss
On 11 February 1943, *I\-18* reported sighting an American task force in the [Coral Sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea "Coral Sea") {{convert\|200\|nmi}} south of San Cristobal. An [OS2U Kingfisher](/wiki/OS2U_Kingfisher "OS2U Kingfisher") floatplane of [Cruiser Scouting Squadron 9 (VCS\-9\)](/wiki/VCS-9 "VCS-9") from the [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser "Light cruiser") {{USS\|Helena\|CL\-50}} sighted her about {{convert\|9\|nmi}} from the task force, dropped a smoke marker to indicate her location, and summoned the destroyer {{USS\|Fletcher\|DD\-445}}. *Fletcher* gained [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar") contact on *I\-18* directly ahead at a range of {{convert\|2,900\|yd\|m\|sigfig\=2}} and dropped depth charges at 15:27\. At 15:39, she saw a large bubble of oil and air reach the surface, and she heard a heavy explosion at 15:43\. She dropped three more depth charges in the center of the oil slick. After 15:46, she saw [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 "Cork (material)"), wood, and other wreckage rise to the surface in what had become a very large oil slick. It marked the end of *I\-18*, sunk with the loss of all 102 men on board at {{coord\|14\|15\|S\|161\|53\|E\|name\=''I\-18''}}.
The Japanese declared *I\-18* missing on the day she was sunk. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 April 1943\.
After World War II, the U.S. [Joint Army\-Navy Assessment Committee](/wiki/Joint_Army-Navy_Assessment_Committee "Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee") identified the submarine *Fletcher* sank on 11 February 1943 as {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|Ro\-102\|\|2}}. However, *Ro\-102* conducted patrols from [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") after 11 February and reported to Rabaul until 9 May 1943\.
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### Pre\\-World War II",
"Upon commissioning, *I\\-18* was attached to the [Yokosuka Naval District](/wiki/Yokosuka_Naval_District \"Yokosuka Naval District\"), assigned to Submarine Division 2 in Submarine Squadron 1 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\") In the autumn of 1941, she underwent conversion into a [mother ship](/wiki/Mother_ship \"Mother ship\") for a [Type A](/wiki/Type_A_K%C5%8D-hy%C5%8Dteki-class_submarine \"Type A Kō-hyōteki-class submarine\") [midget submarine](/wiki/Midget_submarine \"Midget submarine\").{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\\-22\\.htm \\|title\\=IJN Submarine I\\-22: Tabular Record of Movement \\|first1\\=Bob \\|last1\\=Hackett \\|first2\\=Sander \\|last2\\=Kingsepp \\|work\\=combinedfleet.com \\|year\\=2015\\|access\\-date\\=17 August 2020}}{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\\-24\\.htm \\|title\\=IJN Submarine I\\-24: Tabular Record of Movement \\|first1\\=Bob \\|last1\\=Hackett \\|first2\\=Sander \\|last2\\=Kingsepp \\|work\\=combinedfleet.com \\|year\\=2017\\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2020}} The submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-16\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-20\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-22\\|\\|2}}, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-24\\|\\|2}} also underwent the conversion. By 15 November 1941, *I\\-18* was a part of Submarine Division 3 — which also included {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-19\\|\\|2}} and *I\\-20* — in Submarine Squadron 1 in the [6th Fleet](/wiki/6th_Fleet_%28Imperial_Japanese_Navy%29 \"6th Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)\").",
"At the Kure Navy Club in [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima \"Kure, Hiroshima\"), Japan, on 17 November 1941, the commander of Submarine Division 3 briefed the [commanding officers](/wiki/Commanding_officer \"Commanding officer\") of the five converted submarines on the upcoming [attack on Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor \"Attack on Pearl Harbor\") and on the role of their submarines in it. He had been designated the commander of the Special Attack Unit, made up of all five submarines, each of which was to launch a Type A midget submarine off [Pearl Harbor](/wiki/Pearl_Harbor \"Pearl Harbor\") so that the midget submarines could participate in the attack. *I\\-22* was to serve as flagship of the Special Attack unit.",
"On 18 November 1941, the five submarines moved from Kure to the [Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground](/wiki/Kamegakubi_Naval_Proving_Ground \"Kamegakubi Naval Proving Ground\"), where each embarked a Type A midget submarine. At 02:15 on 19 November 1941, the five submarines got underway from Kamegakubi bound for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands \"Hawaiian Islands\"), taking a direct route that took them south of [Midway Atoll](/wiki/Midway_Atoll \"Midway Atoll\"). While at sea, they received the message \"Climb [Mount Niitaka](/wiki/Yu_Shan \"Yu Shan\") 1208\" ({{lang\\-ja\\|Niitakayama nobore 1208}}) from the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet \"Combined Fleet\") on 2 December 1941, indicating that war with the [Allies](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") would commence on 8 December 1941 [Japan time](/wiki/Japan_Standard_Time \"Japan Standard Time\"), which was on 7 December 1941 on the other side of the [International Date Line](/wiki/International_Date_Line \"International Date Line\") in [Hawaii](/wiki/Hawaii \"Hawaii\").",
"### World War II",
"#### Pearl Harbor",
"At 02:15 on 7 December 1941, *I\\-18* launched her midget submarine, *No. 17*, south of [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu \"Oahu\") about {{convert\\|13\\|nmi}} from the entrance to Pearl Harbor. *No. 17* was [depth charged](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") and sunk with the loss of its two\\-man crew outside the harbor in [Keehi Lagoon](/wiki/Keehi_Lagoon \"Keehi Lagoon\"). Its wreck was discovered resting in {{convert\\|75\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} of water on 13 June 1960, and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship \"Submarine rescue ship\") {{USS\\|Current\\|ARS\\-22}} refloated it on 6 July 1960, finding no human remains inside. At the request of the [Government of Japan](/wiki/Government_of_Japan \"Government of Japan\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") returned the wreck to Japan, where it is displayed at the [Naval Academy Etajima](/wiki/Naval_Academy_Etajima \"Naval Academy Etajima\") in [Etajima](/wiki/Etajima%2C_Hiroshima \"Etajima, Hiroshima\").",
"*I\\-18* and the other four \"mother\" submarines proceeded to the planned recovery area for their midget submarines west of [Lanai](/wiki/Lanai \"Lanai\"), where they spent the night of 7–8 December 1941\\. None of the midget submarines returned. Early on 9 December 1941, *I\\-18*, *I\\-20*, and *I\\-24* received orders to leave the recovery area. *I\\-18* departed the Hawaiian Islands on 12 December 1941 and arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") on 22 December 1941\\.",
"#### First war patrol",
"On 4 January 1942, *I\\-18*, *I\\-22*, and *I\\-24* departed Kwajalein to begin their first war patrol, assigned patrol areas off the Hawaiian Islands, with the commander of Submarine Division 2 embarked on *I\\-18*. *I\\-18* sighted U.S. Navy [Task Force 11](/wiki/Task_Force_11 \"Task Force 11\"), including the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") {{USS\\|Lexington\\|CV\\-2}}, steaming {{convert\\|550\\|nmi}} west of Hawaii on 9 January 1942, and on 10 January, while {{convert\\|130\\|nmi}} northeast of [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island \"Johnston Island\"), she sighted two [SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless \"Douglas SBD Dauntless\") [dive bombers](/wiki/Dive_bomber \"Dive bomber\") from *Lexington* flying west, allowing her to calculate *Lexington*′s approximate position and report it.",
"On 18 January 1942, *I\\-18*, *I\\-22*, and *I\\-24* received orders to depart their patrol areas, the orders calling for *I\\-18* and *I\\-24* to make for the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands \"Northwestern Hawaiian Islands\") and bombard Midway Atoll. On 24 January 1942, *I\\-18* conducted a [periscope](/wiki/Periscope \"Periscope\") reconnaissance of Midway, and on 25 January 1942, the two submarines surfaced in darkness off Midway to begin their bombardment. *I\\-24* opened fire with her {{convert\\|140\\|mm\\|in\\|adj\\=on\\|sp\\=us\\|1}} deck gun, and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery \"Coastal artillery\") promptly returned fire, forcing *I\\-24* to submerge after firing only six rounds. *I\\-18* also submerged without ever having opened fire on the [atoll](/wiki/Atoll \"Atoll\").",
"After the bombardment attempt, *I\\-18* and *I\\-24* as well as *I\\-22* set course for Japan. Unknown to them, the U.S. submarine {{USS\\|Gudgeon\\|SS\\-211}} had received [Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_%28cryptography%29 \"Ultra (cryptography)\") intelligence information alerting her to their activities and routes. She did not sight any of them, but while searching for them she encountered and sank the submarine {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-73\\|\\|2}}, which was following the same route, {{convert\\|240\\|nmi}} west of Midway on 27 January 1942\\. *I\\-18* arrived at [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka \"Yokosuka\") along with *I\\-22*, *I\\-24*, and the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-4\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-5\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-6\\|\\|2}}, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-7\\|\\|2}} on 2 February 1942\\.",
"#### February–April 1942",
"After her port call at Yokosuka, *I\\-18* moved to [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima \"Kure, Hiroshima\"), then departed Kure on 18 March 1942\\. She remained in Japan into April 1942\\.",
"During *I\\-18*′s stay in Japan, the [German naval staff](/wiki/Kriegsmarine \"Kriegsmarine\") in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") formally requested on 27 March 1942 that Japan begin attacks on [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") [convoys](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"). On 8 April 1942, the Japanese formally agreed to meet this request by dispatching submarines to operate off the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"), and that day they withdrew Submarine Division 1 of Submarine Squadron 8 from its base at Kwajalein to Japan. By 16 April 1942 they had created the \"A\" detachment within Submarine Squadron 8, consisting of *I\\-18* and the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-10\\|\\|2}}, *I\\-16*, *I\\-20*, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-30\\|\\|2}}, as well as midget submarines and the [auxiliary cruisers](/wiki/Auxiliary_cruiser \"Auxiliary cruiser\") {{ship\\|\\|Aikoku Maru\\|1940\\|2}} and {{ship\\|\\|Hōkoku Maru\\|\\|2}}, which were to operate as supply ships for the submarines. That morning, the commander of the 6th Fleet, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral \"Vice Admiral\") [Teruhisa Komatsu](/wiki/Teruhisa_Komatsu \"Teruhisa Komatsu\"), the commander of Submarine Squadron 8, their staffs, and the midget submarine crews paid a courtesy call on the commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet \"Combined Fleet\"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral \"Admiral\") [Isoroku Yamamoto](/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto \"Isoroku Yamamoto\"), aboard his flagship, the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") {{ship\\|Japanese battleship\\|Yamato\\|\\|2}}, at [Hashirajima anchorage](/wiki/Hashira_Island \"Hashira Island\"). After the visit with Yamamoto, the detachment got underway at 11:00, bound for [Penang](/wiki/Penang_Island \"Penang Island\") in Japanese\\-occupied [British Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya \"British Malaya\").",
"During the detachment's voyage, 16 [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") [B\\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell \"North American B-25 Mitchell\") [bombers](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\") launched by the aircraft carrier {{USS\\|Hornet\\|CV\\-8}} struck targets on [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\") in the [Doolittle Raid](/wiki/Doolittle_Raid \"Doolittle Raid\") on 18 April 1942\\. The detachment received orders from the 6th Fleet that day to divert from its voyage and head northeast, passing north of the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), to intercept the U.S. Navy [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") that had launched the strike. The detachment failed to find the U.S. ships and soon resumed its voyage.",
"*I\\-30* and *Aikoku Maru* called at Penang from 20 April to 22 April 1942 before heading into the Indian Ocean to conduct an advance reconnaissance of the \"A\" Detachment's planned operating area.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\\-30\\.htm \\|title\\=IJN Submarine I\\-30: Tabular Record of Movement \\|first1\\=Bob \\|last1\\=Hackett \\|first2\\=Sander \\|last2\\=Kingsepp \\|work\\=combinedfleet.com \\|year\\=2012\\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2020}} The rest of the \"A\" Detachment reached Penang on 27 April 1942, where the [seaplane carrier](/wiki/Seaplane_carrier \"Seaplane carrier\") {{ship\\|Japanese seaplane carrier\\|Nisshin\\|\\|2}} — which had undergone modifications allowing her to carry Type A midget submarines — rendezvoused with it. *I\\-16*, *I\\-18*, and *I\\-20* each embarked a midget submarine at Penang.",
"#### Indian Ocean operation",
"*I\\-18* and the other \"A\" detachment units got underway from Penang on 30 April 1942, headed westward into the Indian Ocean with *I\\-10* serving as the detachment's flagship. The submarines [refueled at sea](/wiki/Underway_replenishment \"Underway replenishment\") from *Aikoku Maru* and *Hōkoku Maru* on 5, 10, and 15 May 1942\\. *I\\-18* suffered a mishap on 17 May when her [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") flooded in heavy seas and four of its [cylinders](/wiki/Cylinder_%28engine%29 \"Cylinder (engine)\") seized, damage which prevented her from reaching the launch area for the midget submarines on schedule.",
"*I\\-10*′s [Yokosuka E14Y](/wiki/Yokosuka_E14Y \"Yokosuka E14Y\")1 (Allied reporting name \"Glen\") floatplane began reconnaissance flights over ports in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") by reconnoitering [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\") on 20 May 1942, followed by flights over [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape \"East London, Eastern Cape\"), [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth \"Port Elizabeth\"), and [Simon's Town](/wiki/Simon%27s_Town \"Simon's Town\") over the next week. On the night of 29 May, the plane flew over [Diego\\-Suarez](/wiki/Diego-Suarez \"Diego-Suarez\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"), sighting the battleship {{HMS\\|Ramillies\\|07\\|6}} among the ships [anchored](/wiki/Anchor \"Anchor\") there. The \"A\" detachment commander selected Diego\\-Suarez as the target for a midget submarine attack, scheduled for 30 May 1942\\. *I\\-16* and *I\\-20* launched their midget submarines {{convert\\|10\\|nmi}} off Diego\\-Suarez on 30 May, but *I\\-18*′s midget suffered engine failure and she could not launch it.",
"After the midget submarine attack, the \"A\" detachment began anti\\-shipping operations. *I\\-18* sank the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") 2,158\\-[gross register ton](/wiki/Gross_register_ton \"Gross register ton\") [merchant ship](/wiki/Merchant_ship \"Merchant ship\") *Wilford* in the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel \"Mozambique Channel\") at {{coord\\|20\\|20\\|S\\|036\\|47\\|E\\|name\\=''Wilford''}} on 8 June 1942, then jettisoned her midget submarine on 9 June. On 1 July 1942, she heavily damaged the Dutch 1,805\\-ton merchant ship *De Weert*, and *De Weert* sank on 3 July at {{coord\\|25\\|12\\|S\\|035\\|56\\|E\\|name\\=''De Weert''}}.",
"On 2 July 1942, *I\\-18* attacked the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") 7,406\\-ton armed merchant ship *Phemius*. Her [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") detonated prematurely, and *Phemius* opened fire on *I\\-18*′s periscope. *I\\-18* escaped undamaged. She was in the Indian Ocean south of [St. Lucia Bay](/wiki/St._Lucia_Bay \"St. Lucia Bay\"), South Africa, on 6 July 1942 when she torpedoed the 7,341\\-ton [British India Steam Navigation Company](/wiki/British_India_Steam_Navigation_Company \"British India Steam Navigation Company\") [steamer](/wiki/Steamship \"Steamship\") {{SS\\|Mundra\\|\\|2}}, which was carrying a large number of survivors of other ships. She then attacked *Mundra* with gunfire, sinking her at {{coord\\|28\\|45\\|S\\|032\\|20\\|E\\|name\\=SS ''Mundra''}}. One hundred fifty\\-five men survived *Mundra*′s sinking, which prompted a large number of [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") and [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force \"South African Air Force\") [sorties](/wiki/Sortie \"Sortie\") to find *I\\-18*, but *I\\-18* went undetected.",
"*I\\-18* conducted a reconnaissance of [Rodrigues](/wiki/Rodrigues \"Rodrigues\") on 20 July and of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia \"Diego Garcia\") on 31 July 1942, then proceeded to Penang. As she neared Penang on 2 August 1942, she detected an unidentified enemy — probably [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") — submarine stalking her, but she arrived at Penang safely later that day. She later set course for Japan, arriving at Yokosuka on 23 August 1942 to undergo an overhaul.",
"#### Guadalcanal campaign",
"By mid\\-November 1942, the Japanese had decided to organize a system of submarine supply runs to [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 \"Solomon Islands (archipelago)\"), where Japanese forces had been fighting in the [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign \"Guadalcanal campaign\") since August 1942\\. With her overhaul complete, *I\\-18* got underway from Kure on 17 December 1942 and, after a stop at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon \"Chuuk Lagoon\"), proceeded to [Shortland Island](/wiki/Shortland_Island \"Shortland Island\") in the [Shortland Islands](/wiki/Shortland_Islands \"Shortland Islands\") to begin her supply runs. Early on the morning of 3 January 1943, the submarine {{USS\\|Grayback\\|SS\\-208}} sighted *I\\-18* on the surface in the [Solomon Sea](/wiki/Solomon_Sea \"Solomon Sea\") southwest of [Rendova](/wiki/Rendova \"Rendova\") at {{coord\\|08\\|49\\|S\\|157\\|09\\|E}} and launched a torpedo attack. *Grayback*′s torpedoes detonated, and *Grayback*′s commanding officer believed she had sunk {{nowrap\\|''I\\-18''}}, but the torpedoes apparently exploded prematurely, because *I\\-18* submerged and escaped unscathed.",
"*I\\-18* made three supply runs to Guadalcanal, in each case dropping her cargo off at [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance \"Cape Esperance\") on the island's northwest coast. She delivered 15 tons of cargo in supply drums on 5 January 1943 and 25 tons in supply drums on 11 January 1943\\. On 22 January 1943, she departed Truk on her last supply run, delivering 18 tons of cargo in a supply container at Cape Esperance on 26 January 1943\\.",
"On 28 January 1943, *I\\-18* was attached to Submarine Force \"A\". She deployed to waters north of [Rennell Island](/wiki/Rennell_Island \"Rennell Island\") and south of Guadalcanal, where she formed a patrol line with the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-11\\|\\|2}} — which served as the force's flagship — *I\\-16*, *I\\-17*, *I\\-20*, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-25\\|\\|2}}, *I\\-26*, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-32\\|\\|2}}, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-176\\|\\|2}}, targeting any Allied naval forces attempting to interfere with [Operation Ke](/wiki/Operation_Ke \"Operation Ke\"), the Japanese evacuation of their forces on Guadalcanal. On 2 February 1943, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") {{convert\\|100\\|nmi}} southeast of [San Cristobal](/wiki/Makira \"Makira\"), but they failed to find the task force.",
"The Japanese completed Operation Ke on 8 February 1943\\. That day, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy force {{convert\\|150\\|nmi}} south\\-southeast of Rennell Island. Two of the submarines, including *I\\-18*, found and engaged the American force before losing contact with it. Later that day, the commander of Submarine Force A ordered all its submarines except for *I\\-11* and *I\\-17* to proceed to Truk.",
"#### Loss",
"On 11 February 1943, *I\\-18* reported sighting an American task force in the [Coral Sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea \"Coral Sea\") {{convert\\|200\\|nmi}} south of San Cristobal. An [OS2U Kingfisher](/wiki/OS2U_Kingfisher \"OS2U Kingfisher\") floatplane of [Cruiser Scouting Squadron 9 (VCS\\-9\\)](/wiki/VCS-9 \"VCS-9\") from the [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser \"Light cruiser\") {{USS\\|Helena\\|CL\\-50}} sighted her about {{convert\\|9\\|nmi}} from the task force, dropped a smoke marker to indicate her location, and summoned the destroyer {{USS\\|Fletcher\\|DD\\-445}}. *Fletcher* gained [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\") contact on *I\\-18* directly ahead at a range of {{convert\\|2,900\\|yd\\|m\\|sigfig\\=2}} and dropped depth charges at 15:27\\. At 15:39, she saw a large bubble of oil and air reach the surface, and she heard a heavy explosion at 15:43\\. She dropped three more depth charges in the center of the oil slick. After 15:46, she saw [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 \"Cork (material)\"), wood, and other wreckage rise to the surface in what had become a very large oil slick. It marked the end of *I\\-18*, sunk with the loss of all 102 men on board at {{coord\\|14\\|15\\|S\\|161\\|53\\|E\\|name\\=''I\\-18''}}.",
"The Japanese declared *I\\-18* missing on the day she was sunk. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 April 1943\\.",
"After World War II, the U.S. [Joint Army\\-Navy Assessment Committee](/wiki/Joint_Army-Navy_Assessment_Committee \"Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee\") identified the submarine *Fletcher* sank on 11 February 1943 as {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|Ro\\-102\\|\\|2}}. However, *Ro\\-102* conducted patrols from [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") after 11 February and reported to Rabaul until 9 May 1943\\.",
""
] |
### World War II
#### Pearl Harbor
At 02:15 on 7 December 1941, *I\-18* launched her midget submarine, *No. 17*, south of [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu "Oahu") about {{convert\|13\|nmi}} from the entrance to Pearl Harbor. *No. 17* was [depth charged](/wiki/Depth_charge "Depth charge") and sunk with the loss of its two\-man crew outside the harbor in [Keehi Lagoon](/wiki/Keehi_Lagoon "Keehi Lagoon"). Its wreck was discovered resting in {{convert\|75\|ft\|m\|0}} of water on 13 June 1960, and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship "Submarine rescue ship") {{USS\|Current\|ARS\-22}} refloated it on 6 July 1960, finding no human remains inside. At the request of the [Government of Japan](/wiki/Government_of_Japan "Government of Japan"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") returned the wreck to Japan, where it is displayed at the [Naval Academy Etajima](/wiki/Naval_Academy_Etajima "Naval Academy Etajima") in [Etajima](/wiki/Etajima%2C_Hiroshima "Etajima, Hiroshima").
*I\-18* and the other four "mother" submarines proceeded to the planned recovery area for their midget submarines west of [Lanai](/wiki/Lanai "Lanai"), where they spent the night of 7–8 December 1941\. None of the midget submarines returned. Early on 9 December 1941, *I\-18*, *I\-20*, and *I\-24* received orders to leave the recovery area. *I\-18* departed the Hawaiian Islands on 12 December 1941 and arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein "Kwajalein") on 22 December 1941\.
#### First war patrol
On 4 January 1942, *I\-18*, *I\-22*, and *I\-24* departed Kwajalein to begin their first war patrol, assigned patrol areas off the Hawaiian Islands, with the commander of Submarine Division 2 embarked on *I\-18*. *I\-18* sighted U.S. Navy [Task Force 11](/wiki/Task_Force_11 "Task Force 11"), including the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier "Aircraft carrier") {{USS\|Lexington\|CV\-2}}, steaming {{convert\|550\|nmi}} west of Hawaii on 9 January 1942, and on 10 January, while {{convert\|130\|nmi}} northeast of [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island "Johnston Island"), she sighted two [SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless "Douglas SBD Dauntless") [dive bombers](/wiki/Dive_bomber "Dive bomber") from *Lexington* flying west, allowing her to calculate *Lexington*′s approximate position and report it.
On 18 January 1942, *I\-18*, *I\-22*, and *I\-24* received orders to depart their patrol areas, the orders calling for *I\-18* and *I\-24* to make for the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands "Northwestern Hawaiian Islands") and bombard Midway Atoll. On 24 January 1942, *I\-18* conducted a [periscope](/wiki/Periscope "Periscope") reconnaissance of Midway, and on 25 January 1942, the two submarines surfaced in darkness off Midway to begin their bombardment. *I\-24* opened fire with her {{convert\|140\|mm\|in\|adj\=on\|sp\=us\|1}} deck gun, and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps "United States Marine Corps") [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery "Coastal artillery") promptly returned fire, forcing *I\-24* to submerge after firing only six rounds. *I\-18* also submerged without ever having opened fire on the [atoll](/wiki/Atoll "Atoll").
After the bombardment attempt, *I\-18* and *I\-24* as well as *I\-22* set course for Japan. Unknown to them, the U.S. submarine {{USS\|Gudgeon\|SS\-211}} had received [Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_%28cryptography%29 "Ultra (cryptography)") intelligence information alerting her to their activities and routes. She did not sight any of them, but while searching for them she encountered and sank the submarine {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-73\|\|2}}, which was following the same route, {{convert\|240\|nmi}} west of Midway on 27 January 1942\. *I\-18* arrived at [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka "Yokosuka") along with *I\-22*, *I\-24*, and the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-4\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-5\|\|2}}, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-6\|\|2}}, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-7\|\|2}} on 2 February 1942\.
#### February–April 1942
After her port call at Yokosuka, *I\-18* moved to [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima "Kure, Hiroshima"), then departed Kure on 18 March 1942\. She remained in Japan into April 1942\.
During *I\-18*′s stay in Japan, the [German naval staff](/wiki/Kriegsmarine "Kriegsmarine") in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") formally requested on 27 March 1942 that Japan begin attacks on [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") [convoys](/wiki/Convoy "Convoy") in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean "Indian Ocean"). On 8 April 1942, the Japanese formally agreed to meet this request by dispatching submarines to operate off the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa"), and that day they withdrew Submarine Division 1 of Submarine Squadron 8 from its base at Kwajalein to Japan. By 16 April 1942 they had created the "A" detachment within Submarine Squadron 8, consisting of *I\-18* and the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-10\|\|2}}, *I\-16*, *I\-20*, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-30\|\|2}}, as well as midget submarines and the [auxiliary cruisers](/wiki/Auxiliary_cruiser "Auxiliary cruiser") {{ship\|\|Aikoku Maru\|1940\|2}} and {{ship\|\|Hōkoku Maru\|\|2}}, which were to operate as supply ships for the submarines. That morning, the commander of the 6th Fleet, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral "Vice Admiral") [Teruhisa Komatsu](/wiki/Teruhisa_Komatsu "Teruhisa Komatsu"), the commander of Submarine Squadron 8, their staffs, and the midget submarine crews paid a courtesy call on the commander\-in\-chief of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet "Combined Fleet"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral "Admiral") [Isoroku Yamamoto](/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto "Isoroku Yamamoto"), aboard his flagship, the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship "Battleship") {{ship\|Japanese battleship\|Yamato\|\|2}}, at [Hashirajima anchorage](/wiki/Hashira_Island "Hashira Island"). After the visit with Yamamoto, the detachment got underway at 11:00, bound for [Penang](/wiki/Penang_Island "Penang Island") in Japanese\-occupied [British Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya "British Malaya").
During the detachment's voyage, 16 [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces "United States Army Air Forces") [B\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell "North American B-25 Mitchell") [bombers](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber") launched by the aircraft carrier {{USS\|Hornet\|CV\-8}} struck targets on [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu "Honshu") in the [Doolittle Raid](/wiki/Doolittle_Raid "Doolittle Raid") on 18 April 1942\. The detachment received orders from the 6th Fleet that day to divert from its voyage and head northeast, passing north of the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands "Bonin Islands"), to intercept the U.S. Navy [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") that had launched the strike. The detachment failed to find the U.S. ships and soon resumed its voyage.
*I\-30* and *Aikoku Maru* called at Penang from 20 April to 22 April 1942 before heading into the Indian Ocean to conduct an advance reconnaissance of the "A" Detachment's planned operating area.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\-30\.htm \|title\=IJN Submarine I\-30: Tabular Record of Movement \|first1\=Bob \|last1\=Hackett \|first2\=Sander \|last2\=Kingsepp \|work\=combinedfleet.com \|year\=2012\|access\-date\=18 August 2020}} The rest of the "A" Detachment reached Penang on 27 April 1942, where the [seaplane carrier](/wiki/Seaplane_carrier "Seaplane carrier") {{ship\|Japanese seaplane carrier\|Nisshin\|\|2}} — which had undergone modifications allowing her to carry Type A midget submarines — rendezvoused with it. *I\-16*, *I\-18*, and *I\-20* each embarked a midget submarine at Penang.
#### Indian Ocean operation
*I\-18* and the other "A" detachment units got underway from Penang on 30 April 1942, headed westward into the Indian Ocean with *I\-10* serving as the detachment's flagship. The submarines [refueled at sea](/wiki/Underway_replenishment "Underway replenishment") from *Aikoku Maru* and *Hōkoku Maru* on 5, 10, and 15 May 1942\. *I\-18* suffered a mishap on 17 May when her [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard "Port and starboard") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") flooded in heavy seas and four of its [cylinders](/wiki/Cylinder_%28engine%29 "Cylinder (engine)") seized, damage which prevented her from reaching the launch area for the midget submarines on schedule.
*I\-10*′s [Yokosuka E14Y](/wiki/Yokosuka_E14Y "Yokosuka E14Y")1 (Allied reporting name "Glen") floatplane began reconnaissance flights over ports in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") by reconnoitering [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban") on 20 May 1942, followed by flights over [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape "East London, Eastern Cape"), [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth "Port Elizabeth"), and [Simon's Town](/wiki/Simon%27s_Town "Simon's Town") over the next week. On the night of 29 May, the plane flew over [Diego\-Suarez](/wiki/Diego-Suarez "Diego-Suarez"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar "Madagascar"), sighting the battleship {{HMS\|Ramillies\|07\|6}} among the ships [anchored](/wiki/Anchor "Anchor") there. The "A" detachment commander selected Diego\-Suarez as the target for a midget submarine attack, scheduled for 30 May 1942\. *I\-16* and *I\-20* launched their midget submarines {{convert\|10\|nmi}} off Diego\-Suarez on 30 May, but *I\-18*′s midget suffered engine failure and she could not launch it.
After the midget submarine attack, the "A" detachment began anti\-shipping operations. *I\-18* sank the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway "Norway") 2,158\-[gross register ton](/wiki/Gross_register_ton "Gross register ton") [merchant ship](/wiki/Merchant_ship "Merchant ship") *Wilford* in the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel "Mozambique Channel") at {{coord\|20\|20\|S\|036\|47\|E\|name\=''Wilford''}} on 8 June 1942, then jettisoned her midget submarine on 9 June. On 1 July 1942, she heavily damaged the Dutch 1,805\-ton merchant ship *De Weert*, and *De Weert* sank on 3 July at {{coord\|25\|12\|S\|035\|56\|E\|name\=''De Weert''}}.
On 2 July 1942, *I\-18* attacked the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") 7,406\-ton armed merchant ship *Phemius*. Her [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") detonated prematurely, and *Phemius* opened fire on *I\-18*′s periscope. *I\-18* escaped undamaged. She was in the Indian Ocean south of [St. Lucia Bay](/wiki/St._Lucia_Bay "St. Lucia Bay"), South Africa, on 6 July 1942 when she torpedoed the 7,341\-ton [British India Steam Navigation Company](/wiki/British_India_Steam_Navigation_Company "British India Steam Navigation Company") [steamer](/wiki/Steamship "Steamship") {{SS\|Mundra\|\|2}}, which was carrying a large number of survivors of other ships. She then attacked *Mundra* with gunfire, sinking her at {{coord\|28\|45\|S\|032\|20\|E\|name\=SS ''Mundra''}}. One hundred fifty\-five men survived *Mundra*′s sinking, which prompted a large number of [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force") and [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force "South African Air Force") [sorties](/wiki/Sortie "Sortie") to find *I\-18*, but *I\-18* went undetected.
*I\-18* conducted a reconnaissance of [Rodrigues](/wiki/Rodrigues "Rodrigues") on 20 July and of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia "Diego Garcia") on 31 July 1942, then proceeded to Penang. As she neared Penang on 2 August 1942, she detected an unidentified enemy — probably [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") — submarine stalking her, but she arrived at Penang safely later that day. She later set course for Japan, arriving at Yokosuka on 23 August 1942 to undergo an overhaul.
#### Guadalcanal campaign
By mid\-November 1942, the Japanese had decided to organize a system of submarine supply runs to [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal "Guadalcanal") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 "Solomon Islands (archipelago)"), where Japanese forces had been fighting in the [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign "Guadalcanal campaign") since August 1942\. With her overhaul complete, *I\-18* got underway from Kure on 17 December 1942 and, after a stop at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon "Chuuk Lagoon"), proceeded to [Shortland Island](/wiki/Shortland_Island "Shortland Island") in the [Shortland Islands](/wiki/Shortland_Islands "Shortland Islands") to begin her supply runs. Early on the morning of 3 January 1943, the submarine {{USS\|Grayback\|SS\-208}} sighted *I\-18* on the surface in the [Solomon Sea](/wiki/Solomon_Sea "Solomon Sea") southwest of [Rendova](/wiki/Rendova "Rendova") at {{coord\|08\|49\|S\|157\|09\|E}} and launched a torpedo attack. *Grayback*′s torpedoes detonated, and *Grayback*′s commanding officer believed she had sunk {{nowrap\|''I\-18''}}, but the torpedoes apparently exploded prematurely, because *I\-18* submerged and escaped unscathed.
*I\-18* made three supply runs to Guadalcanal, in each case dropping her cargo off at [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance "Cape Esperance") on the island's northwest coast. She delivered 15 tons of cargo in supply drums on 5 January 1943 and 25 tons in supply drums on 11 January 1943\. On 22 January 1943, she departed Truk on her last supply run, delivering 18 tons of cargo in a supply container at Cape Esperance on 26 January 1943\.
On 28 January 1943, *I\-18* was attached to Submarine Force "A". She deployed to waters north of [Rennell Island](/wiki/Rennell_Island "Rennell Island") and south of Guadalcanal, where she formed a patrol line with the submarines {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-11\|\|2}} — which served as the force's flagship — *I\-16*, *I\-17*, *I\-20*, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-25\|\|2}}, *I\-26*, {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-32\|\|2}}, and {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|I\-176\|\|2}}, targeting any Allied naval forces attempting to interfere with [Operation Ke](/wiki/Operation_Ke "Operation Ke"), the Japanese evacuation of their forces on Guadalcanal. On 2 February 1943, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier [task force](/wiki/Task_force "Task force") {{convert\|100\|nmi}} southeast of [San Cristobal](/wiki/Makira "Makira"), but they failed to find the task force.
The Japanese completed Operation Ke on 8 February 1943\. That day, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy force {{convert\|150\|nmi}} south\-southeast of Rennell Island. Two of the submarines, including *I\-18*, found and engaged the American force before losing contact with it. Later that day, the commander of Submarine Force A ordered all its submarines except for *I\-11* and *I\-17* to proceed to Truk.
#### Loss
On 11 February 1943, *I\-18* reported sighting an American task force in the [Coral Sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea "Coral Sea") {{convert\|200\|nmi}} south of San Cristobal. An [OS2U Kingfisher](/wiki/OS2U_Kingfisher "OS2U Kingfisher") floatplane of [Cruiser Scouting Squadron 9 (VCS\-9\)](/wiki/VCS-9 "VCS-9") from the [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser "Light cruiser") {{USS\|Helena\|CL\-50}} sighted her about {{convert\|9\|nmi}} from the task force, dropped a smoke marker to indicate her location, and summoned the destroyer {{USS\|Fletcher\|DD\-445}}. *Fletcher* gained [sonar](/wiki/Sonar "Sonar") contact on *I\-18* directly ahead at a range of {{convert\|2,900\|yd\|m\|sigfig\=2}} and dropped depth charges at 15:27\. At 15:39, she saw a large bubble of oil and air reach the surface, and she heard a heavy explosion at 15:43\. She dropped three more depth charges in the center of the oil slick. After 15:46, she saw [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 "Cork (material)"), wood, and other wreckage rise to the surface in what had become a very large oil slick. It marked the end of *I\-18*, sunk with the loss of all 102 men on board at {{coord\|14\|15\|S\|161\|53\|E\|name\=''I\-18''}}.
The Japanese declared *I\-18* missing on the day she was sunk. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 April 1943\.
After World War II, the U.S. [Joint Army\-Navy Assessment Committee](/wiki/Joint_Army-Navy_Assessment_Committee "Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee") identified the submarine *Fletcher* sank on 11 February 1943 as {{ship\|Japanese submarine\|Ro\-102\|\|2}}. However, *Ro\-102* conducted patrols from [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul "Rabaul") after 11 February and reported to Rabaul until 9 May 1943\.
|
[
"### World War II",
"#### Pearl Harbor",
"At 02:15 on 7 December 1941, *I\\-18* launched her midget submarine, *No. 17*, south of [Oahu](/wiki/Oahu \"Oahu\") about {{convert\\|13\\|nmi}} from the entrance to Pearl Harbor. *No. 17* was [depth charged](/wiki/Depth_charge \"Depth charge\") and sunk with the loss of its two\\-man crew outside the harbor in [Keehi Lagoon](/wiki/Keehi_Lagoon \"Keehi Lagoon\"). Its wreck was discovered resting in {{convert\\|75\\|ft\\|m\\|0}} of water on 13 June 1960, and the [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") [submarine rescue ship](/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship \"Submarine rescue ship\") {{USS\\|Current\\|ARS\\-22}} refloated it on 6 July 1960, finding no human remains inside. At the request of the [Government of Japan](/wiki/Government_of_Japan \"Government of Japan\"), the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") returned the wreck to Japan, where it is displayed at the [Naval Academy Etajima](/wiki/Naval_Academy_Etajima \"Naval Academy Etajima\") in [Etajima](/wiki/Etajima%2C_Hiroshima \"Etajima, Hiroshima\").",
"*I\\-18* and the other four \"mother\" submarines proceeded to the planned recovery area for their midget submarines west of [Lanai](/wiki/Lanai \"Lanai\"), where they spent the night of 7–8 December 1941\\. None of the midget submarines returned. Early on 9 December 1941, *I\\-18*, *I\\-20*, and *I\\-24* received orders to leave the recovery area. *I\\-18* departed the Hawaiian Islands on 12 December 1941 and arrived at [Kwajalein](/wiki/Kwajalein \"Kwajalein\") on 22 December 1941\\.",
"#### First war patrol",
"On 4 January 1942, *I\\-18*, *I\\-22*, and *I\\-24* departed Kwajalein to begin their first war patrol, assigned patrol areas off the Hawaiian Islands, with the commander of Submarine Division 2 embarked on *I\\-18*. *I\\-18* sighted U.S. Navy [Task Force 11](/wiki/Task_Force_11 \"Task Force 11\"), including the [aircraft carrier](/wiki/Aircraft_carrier \"Aircraft carrier\") {{USS\\|Lexington\\|CV\\-2}}, steaming {{convert\\|550\\|nmi}} west of Hawaii on 9 January 1942, and on 10 January, while {{convert\\|130\\|nmi}} northeast of [Johnston Island](/wiki/Johnston_Island \"Johnston Island\"), she sighted two [SBD Dauntless](/wiki/Douglas_SBD_Dauntless \"Douglas SBD Dauntless\") [dive bombers](/wiki/Dive_bomber \"Dive bomber\") from *Lexington* flying west, allowing her to calculate *Lexington*′s approximate position and report it.",
"On 18 January 1942, *I\\-18*, *I\\-22*, and *I\\-24* received orders to depart their patrol areas, the orders calling for *I\\-18* and *I\\-24* to make for the [Northwestern Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands \"Northwestern Hawaiian Islands\") and bombard Midway Atoll. On 24 January 1942, *I\\-18* conducted a [periscope](/wiki/Periscope \"Periscope\") reconnaissance of Midway, and on 25 January 1942, the two submarines surfaced in darkness off Midway to begin their bombardment. *I\\-24* opened fire with her {{convert\\|140\\|mm\\|in\\|adj\\=on\\|sp\\=us\\|1}} deck gun, and [United States Marine Corps](/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps \"United States Marine Corps\") [coastal artillery](/wiki/Coastal_artillery \"Coastal artillery\") promptly returned fire, forcing *I\\-24* to submerge after firing only six rounds. *I\\-18* also submerged without ever having opened fire on the [atoll](/wiki/Atoll \"Atoll\").",
"After the bombardment attempt, *I\\-18* and *I\\-24* as well as *I\\-22* set course for Japan. Unknown to them, the U.S. submarine {{USS\\|Gudgeon\\|SS\\-211}} had received [Ultra](/wiki/Ultra_%28cryptography%29 \"Ultra (cryptography)\") intelligence information alerting her to their activities and routes. She did not sight any of them, but while searching for them she encountered and sank the submarine {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-73\\|\\|2}}, which was following the same route, {{convert\\|240\\|nmi}} west of Midway on 27 January 1942\\. *I\\-18* arrived at [Yokosuka](/wiki/Yokosuka \"Yokosuka\") along with *I\\-22*, *I\\-24*, and the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-4\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-5\\|\\|2}}, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-6\\|\\|2}}, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-7\\|\\|2}} on 2 February 1942\\.",
"#### February–April 1942",
"After her port call at Yokosuka, *I\\-18* moved to [Kure](/wiki/Kure%2C_Hiroshima \"Kure, Hiroshima\"), then departed Kure on 18 March 1942\\. She remained in Japan into April 1942\\.",
"During *I\\-18*′s stay in Japan, the [German naval staff](/wiki/Kriegsmarine \"Kriegsmarine\") in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") formally requested on 27 March 1942 that Japan begin attacks on [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") [convoys](/wiki/Convoy \"Convoy\") in the [Indian Ocean](/wiki/Indian_Ocean \"Indian Ocean\"). On 8 April 1942, the Japanese formally agreed to meet this request by dispatching submarines to operate off the coast of [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\"), and that day they withdrew Submarine Division 1 of Submarine Squadron 8 from its base at Kwajalein to Japan. By 16 April 1942 they had created the \"A\" detachment within Submarine Squadron 8, consisting of *I\\-18* and the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-10\\|\\|2}}, *I\\-16*, *I\\-20*, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-30\\|\\|2}}, as well as midget submarines and the [auxiliary cruisers](/wiki/Auxiliary_cruiser \"Auxiliary cruiser\") {{ship\\|\\|Aikoku Maru\\|1940\\|2}} and {{ship\\|\\|Hōkoku Maru\\|\\|2}}, which were to operate as supply ships for the submarines. That morning, the commander of the 6th Fleet, [Vice Admiral](/wiki/Vice_Admiral \"Vice Admiral\") [Teruhisa Komatsu](/wiki/Teruhisa_Komatsu \"Teruhisa Komatsu\"), the commander of Submarine Squadron 8, their staffs, and the midget submarine crews paid a courtesy call on the commander\\-in\\-chief of the [Combined Fleet](/wiki/Combined_Fleet \"Combined Fleet\"), [Admiral](/wiki/Admiral \"Admiral\") [Isoroku Yamamoto](/wiki/Isoroku_Yamamoto \"Isoroku Yamamoto\"), aboard his flagship, the [battleship](/wiki/Battleship \"Battleship\") {{ship\\|Japanese battleship\\|Yamato\\|\\|2}}, at [Hashirajima anchorage](/wiki/Hashira_Island \"Hashira Island\"). After the visit with Yamamoto, the detachment got underway at 11:00, bound for [Penang](/wiki/Penang_Island \"Penang Island\") in Japanese\\-occupied [British Malaya](/wiki/British_Malaya \"British Malaya\").",
"During the detachment's voyage, 16 [United States Army Air Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Forces \"United States Army Air Forces\") [B\\-25 Mitchell](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell \"North American B-25 Mitchell\") [bombers](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\") launched by the aircraft carrier {{USS\\|Hornet\\|CV\\-8}} struck targets on [Honshu](/wiki/Honshu \"Honshu\") in the [Doolittle Raid](/wiki/Doolittle_Raid \"Doolittle Raid\") on 18 April 1942\\. The detachment received orders from the 6th Fleet that day to divert from its voyage and head northeast, passing north of the [Bonin Islands](/wiki/Bonin_Islands \"Bonin Islands\"), to intercept the U.S. Navy [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") that had launched the strike. The detachment failed to find the U.S. ships and soon resumed its voyage.",
"*I\\-30* and *Aikoku Maru* called at Penang from 20 April to 22 April 1942 before heading into the Indian Ocean to conduct an advance reconnaissance of the \"A\" Detachment's planned operating area.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I\\-30\\.htm \\|title\\=IJN Submarine I\\-30: Tabular Record of Movement \\|first1\\=Bob \\|last1\\=Hackett \\|first2\\=Sander \\|last2\\=Kingsepp \\|work\\=combinedfleet.com \\|year\\=2012\\|access\\-date\\=18 August 2020}} The rest of the \"A\" Detachment reached Penang on 27 April 1942, where the [seaplane carrier](/wiki/Seaplane_carrier \"Seaplane carrier\") {{ship\\|Japanese seaplane carrier\\|Nisshin\\|\\|2}} — which had undergone modifications allowing her to carry Type A midget submarines — rendezvoused with it. *I\\-16*, *I\\-18*, and *I\\-20* each embarked a midget submarine at Penang.",
"#### Indian Ocean operation",
"*I\\-18* and the other \"A\" detachment units got underway from Penang on 30 April 1942, headed westward into the Indian Ocean with *I\\-10* serving as the detachment's flagship. The submarines [refueled at sea](/wiki/Underway_replenishment \"Underway replenishment\") from *Aikoku Maru* and *Hōkoku Maru* on 5, 10, and 15 May 1942\\. *I\\-18* suffered a mishap on 17 May when her [port](/wiki/Port_and_starboard \"Port and starboard\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") flooded in heavy seas and four of its [cylinders](/wiki/Cylinder_%28engine%29 \"Cylinder (engine)\") seized, damage which prevented her from reaching the launch area for the midget submarines on schedule.",
"*I\\-10*′s [Yokosuka E14Y](/wiki/Yokosuka_E14Y \"Yokosuka E14Y\")1 (Allied reporting name \"Glen\") floatplane began reconnaissance flights over ports in [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") by reconnoitering [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\") on 20 May 1942, followed by flights over [East London](/wiki/East_London%2C_Eastern_Cape \"East London, Eastern Cape\"), [Port Elizabeth](/wiki/Port_Elizabeth \"Port Elizabeth\"), and [Simon's Town](/wiki/Simon%27s_Town \"Simon's Town\") over the next week. On the night of 29 May, the plane flew over [Diego\\-Suarez](/wiki/Diego-Suarez \"Diego-Suarez\"), [Madagascar](/wiki/Madagascar \"Madagascar\"), sighting the battleship {{HMS\\|Ramillies\\|07\\|6}} among the ships [anchored](/wiki/Anchor \"Anchor\") there. The \"A\" detachment commander selected Diego\\-Suarez as the target for a midget submarine attack, scheduled for 30 May 1942\\. *I\\-16* and *I\\-20* launched their midget submarines {{convert\\|10\\|nmi}} off Diego\\-Suarez on 30 May, but *I\\-18*′s midget suffered engine failure and she could not launch it.",
"After the midget submarine attack, the \"A\" detachment began anti\\-shipping operations. *I\\-18* sank the [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") 2,158\\-[gross register ton](/wiki/Gross_register_ton \"Gross register ton\") [merchant ship](/wiki/Merchant_ship \"Merchant ship\") *Wilford* in the [Mozambique Channel](/wiki/Mozambique_Channel \"Mozambique Channel\") at {{coord\\|20\\|20\\|S\\|036\\|47\\|E\\|name\\=''Wilford''}} on 8 June 1942, then jettisoned her midget submarine on 9 June. On 1 July 1942, she heavily damaged the Dutch 1,805\\-ton merchant ship *De Weert*, and *De Weert* sank on 3 July at {{coord\\|25\\|12\\|S\\|035\\|56\\|E\\|name\\=''De Weert''}}.",
"On 2 July 1942, *I\\-18* attacked the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") 7,406\\-ton armed merchant ship *Phemius*. Her [torpedoes](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") detonated prematurely, and *Phemius* opened fire on *I\\-18*′s periscope. *I\\-18* escaped undamaged. She was in the Indian Ocean south of [St. Lucia Bay](/wiki/St._Lucia_Bay \"St. Lucia Bay\"), South Africa, on 6 July 1942 when she torpedoed the 7,341\\-ton [British India Steam Navigation Company](/wiki/British_India_Steam_Navigation_Company \"British India Steam Navigation Company\") [steamer](/wiki/Steamship \"Steamship\") {{SS\\|Mundra\\|\\|2}}, which was carrying a large number of survivors of other ships. She then attacked *Mundra* with gunfire, sinking her at {{coord\\|28\\|45\\|S\\|032\\|20\\|E\\|name\\=SS ''Mundra''}}. One hundred fifty\\-five men survived *Mundra*′s sinking, which prompted a large number of [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\") and [South African Air Force](/wiki/South_African_Air_Force \"South African Air Force\") [sorties](/wiki/Sortie \"Sortie\") to find *I\\-18*, but *I\\-18* went undetected.",
"*I\\-18* conducted a reconnaissance of [Rodrigues](/wiki/Rodrigues \"Rodrigues\") on 20 July and of [Diego Garcia](/wiki/Diego_Garcia \"Diego Garcia\") on 31 July 1942, then proceeded to Penang. As she neared Penang on 2 August 1942, she detected an unidentified enemy — probably [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") — submarine stalking her, but she arrived at Penang safely later that day. She later set course for Japan, arriving at Yokosuka on 23 August 1942 to undergo an overhaul.",
"#### Guadalcanal campaign",
"By mid\\-November 1942, the Japanese had decided to organize a system of submarine supply runs to [Guadalcanal](/wiki/Guadalcanal \"Guadalcanal\") in the [Solomon Islands](/wiki/Solomon_Islands_%28archipelago%29 \"Solomon Islands (archipelago)\"), where Japanese forces had been fighting in the [Guadalcanal campaign](/wiki/Guadalcanal_campaign \"Guadalcanal campaign\") since August 1942\\. With her overhaul complete, *I\\-18* got underway from Kure on 17 December 1942 and, after a stop at [Truk](/wiki/Chuuk_Lagoon \"Chuuk Lagoon\"), proceeded to [Shortland Island](/wiki/Shortland_Island \"Shortland Island\") in the [Shortland Islands](/wiki/Shortland_Islands \"Shortland Islands\") to begin her supply runs. Early on the morning of 3 January 1943, the submarine {{USS\\|Grayback\\|SS\\-208}} sighted *I\\-18* on the surface in the [Solomon Sea](/wiki/Solomon_Sea \"Solomon Sea\") southwest of [Rendova](/wiki/Rendova \"Rendova\") at {{coord\\|08\\|49\\|S\\|157\\|09\\|E}} and launched a torpedo attack. *Grayback*′s torpedoes detonated, and *Grayback*′s commanding officer believed she had sunk {{nowrap\\|''I\\-18''}}, but the torpedoes apparently exploded prematurely, because *I\\-18* submerged and escaped unscathed.",
"*I\\-18* made three supply runs to Guadalcanal, in each case dropping her cargo off at [Cape Esperance](/wiki/Cape_Esperance \"Cape Esperance\") on the island's northwest coast. She delivered 15 tons of cargo in supply drums on 5 January 1943 and 25 tons in supply drums on 11 January 1943\\. On 22 January 1943, she departed Truk on her last supply run, delivering 18 tons of cargo in a supply container at Cape Esperance on 26 January 1943\\.",
"On 28 January 1943, *I\\-18* was attached to Submarine Force \"A\". She deployed to waters north of [Rennell Island](/wiki/Rennell_Island \"Rennell Island\") and south of Guadalcanal, where she formed a patrol line with the submarines {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-11\\|\\|2}} — which served as the force's flagship — *I\\-16*, *I\\-17*, *I\\-20*, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-25\\|\\|2}}, *I\\-26*, {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-32\\|\\|2}}, and {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|I\\-176\\|\\|2}}, targeting any Allied naval forces attempting to interfere with [Operation Ke](/wiki/Operation_Ke \"Operation Ke\"), the Japanese evacuation of their forces on Guadalcanal. On 2 February 1943, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier [task force](/wiki/Task_force \"Task force\") {{convert\\|100\\|nmi}} southeast of [San Cristobal](/wiki/Makira \"Makira\"), but they failed to find the task force.",
"The Japanese completed Operation Ke on 8 February 1943\\. That day, Submarine Force A received orders to intercept a U.S. Navy force {{convert\\|150\\|nmi}} south\\-southeast of Rennell Island. Two of the submarines, including *I\\-18*, found and engaged the American force before losing contact with it. Later that day, the commander of Submarine Force A ordered all its submarines except for *I\\-11* and *I\\-17* to proceed to Truk.",
"#### Loss",
"On 11 February 1943, *I\\-18* reported sighting an American task force in the [Coral Sea](/wiki/Coral_Sea \"Coral Sea\") {{convert\\|200\\|nmi}} south of San Cristobal. An [OS2U Kingfisher](/wiki/OS2U_Kingfisher \"OS2U Kingfisher\") floatplane of [Cruiser Scouting Squadron 9 (VCS\\-9\\)](/wiki/VCS-9 \"VCS-9\") from the [light cruiser](/wiki/Light_cruiser \"Light cruiser\") {{USS\\|Helena\\|CL\\-50}} sighted her about {{convert\\|9\\|nmi}} from the task force, dropped a smoke marker to indicate her location, and summoned the destroyer {{USS\\|Fletcher\\|DD\\-445}}. *Fletcher* gained [sonar](/wiki/Sonar \"Sonar\") contact on *I\\-18* directly ahead at a range of {{convert\\|2,900\\|yd\\|m\\|sigfig\\=2}} and dropped depth charges at 15:27\\. At 15:39, she saw a large bubble of oil and air reach the surface, and she heard a heavy explosion at 15:43\\. She dropped three more depth charges in the center of the oil slick. After 15:46, she saw [cork](/wiki/Cork_%28material%29 \"Cork (material)\"), wood, and other wreckage rise to the surface in what had become a very large oil slick. It marked the end of *I\\-18*, sunk with the loss of all 102 men on board at {{coord\\|14\\|15\\|S\\|161\\|53\\|E\\|name\\=''I\\-18''}}.",
"The Japanese declared *I\\-18* missing on the day she was sunk. She was struck from the Navy list on 1 April 1943\\.",
"After World War II, the U.S. [Joint Army\\-Navy Assessment Committee](/wiki/Joint_Army-Navy_Assessment_Committee \"Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee\") identified the submarine *Fletcher* sank on 11 February 1943 as {{ship\\|Japanese submarine\\|Ro\\-102\\|\\|2}}. However, *Ro\\-102* conducted patrols from [Rabaul](/wiki/Rabaul \"Rabaul\") after 11 February and reported to Rabaul until 9 May 1943\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
A [Douglas DC\-2](/wiki/Douglas_DC-2%23Notable_appearances_in_media "Douglas DC-2#Notable appearances in media"), from a tiny South American airline, is piloted by Captain Bill Lonagan and co\-pilot Joe Brooks, bound for Boca Grande. The passengers are: Jud Ellis, a man of privilege escorting his new fiancée Louise Melhorn; repentant political assassin Vasquel, being transported back to the proper authorities by [bounty hunter](/wiki/Bounty_hunter "Bounty hunter") Crimp; mobster Pete Bostwick, accompanying the son of his boss, Tommy; elderly Professor Spangler, accompanied on a research trip by his wife of 42 years; and prostitute Rena, on her way to work a South American casino.
To Louise's disgust, a local tries to sell Tommy a shrunken head at the airport. During the flight, Vasquel, a self\-proclaimed student of people, recounts his precise knowledge of cannibals and how they shrink the heads to the Spanglers. He also taunts Crimp, who reads aloud a newspaper article detailing the murder of Tommy's father before Bostwick stops him and tries to distract the boy.
The aircraft enters a rough storm and is dangerously jostled about, resulting in Crimp losing his revolver. A portable oxygen tank is loosened from its mooring and crashes through one of the fuselage doors. Flight attendant Maria Alvarez plummets to her death while trying to keep Tommy away from the open door. After a fire breaks out in the cockpit, the crew is forced to make an emergency landing at a clearing in the remote jungle.
Tensions soon mount, exacerbated by both their plight and clashing personalities. After first trying to attract Ellis, Rena finds herself drawn to the world weary Lonagan. They form a connection, understanding each other's lot in life; he was a highly regarded pilot on major airlines until turning to drink after his wife died, while she is a post\-war [displaced person](/wiki/Displaced_person "Displaced person") unable to get a passport, taken advantage of by men who pushed her into her profession. The group works to repair the plane while Professor Spangler keeps a journal of their situation.
Crimp tries to take charge of the group, but Vasquel stops him, revealing he has Crimp's revolver – which he gives to Captain Lonagan as the legal authority of the stranded group. Late one night, Crimp renders Bostwick temporarily unconscious, steals the revolver, then flees into the jungle.
Ellis is consistently self\-serving, to the disappointment of Louise, who finds herself mutually attracted to the brave and upright co\-pilot Brooks. When Ellis gets drunk one night and tries to force himself upon Louise, Brooks stops him. Louise soon finds herself attracted to Brooks and suspects the same of Rena. Jealous of Rena, Louise confronts her and the two women, assigned clothes washing duties by Lonagan, have "... a knock\-down and drag\-out fight" in a nearby stream.
{{cite web \|last1\=Sylvester \|first1\=Robert \|title\=Dream Street \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/455956011/ \|work\=New York Daily News \|access\-date\=10 April 2022}}
After a fortnight of effort, the aircraft is nearly repaired. Tommy wanders into the jungle but is found by Bostwick and Rena, who discover Crimp's headless body. Rena and Tommy return to camp, but local headhunters kill Bostwick with a poison dart.
Everyone quickly boards the plane, but when Lonagan and Brooks start the engines, they discover an oil leak in one engine. Lonagan patches it, but informs the others that it will not hold long. With only one good engine, the aircraft can carry only five people – Tommy plus four adults – over the mountains.
Everyone but Ellis quickly volunteers to be amongst the four who must stay behind and face the headhunters. With gun in hand, Vasquel takes charge, saying he will stay and will choose the other three via logic. The Spanglers, the most elderly, convince Vasquel they should stay. Vasquel selects Ellis as well, then has to kill him when Ellis grabs for the gun. The aircraft manages to take off.
As the headhunters close in, Vasquel saves the Spanglers from torture by shooting them with the last two bullets, then prays as he awaits a horrible death.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"A [Douglas DC\\-2](/wiki/Douglas_DC-2%23Notable_appearances_in_media \"Douglas DC-2#Notable appearances in media\"), from a tiny South American airline, is piloted by Captain Bill Lonagan and co\\-pilot Joe Brooks, bound for Boca Grande. The passengers are: Jud Ellis, a man of privilege escorting his new fiancée Louise Melhorn; repentant political assassin Vasquel, being transported back to the proper authorities by [bounty hunter](/wiki/Bounty_hunter \"Bounty hunter\") Crimp; mobster Pete Bostwick, accompanying the son of his boss, Tommy; elderly Professor Spangler, accompanied on a research trip by his wife of 42 years; and prostitute Rena, on her way to work a South American casino.",
"To Louise's disgust, a local tries to sell Tommy a shrunken head at the airport. During the flight, Vasquel, a self\\-proclaimed student of people, recounts his precise knowledge of cannibals and how they shrink the heads to the Spanglers. He also taunts Crimp, who reads aloud a newspaper article detailing the murder of Tommy's father before Bostwick stops him and tries to distract the boy.",
"The aircraft enters a rough storm and is dangerously jostled about, resulting in Crimp losing his revolver. A portable oxygen tank is loosened from its mooring and crashes through one of the fuselage doors. Flight attendant Maria Alvarez plummets to her death while trying to keep Tommy away from the open door. After a fire breaks out in the cockpit, the crew is forced to make an emergency landing at a clearing in the remote jungle.",
"Tensions soon mount, exacerbated by both their plight and clashing personalities. After first trying to attract Ellis, Rena finds herself drawn to the world weary Lonagan. They form a connection, understanding each other's lot in life; he was a highly regarded pilot on major airlines until turning to drink after his wife died, while she is a post\\-war [displaced person](/wiki/Displaced_person \"Displaced person\") unable to get a passport, taken advantage of by men who pushed her into her profession. The group works to repair the plane while Professor Spangler keeps a journal of their situation.",
"Crimp tries to take charge of the group, but Vasquel stops him, revealing he has Crimp's revolver – which he gives to Captain Lonagan as the legal authority of the stranded group. Late one night, Crimp renders Bostwick temporarily unconscious, steals the revolver, then flees into the jungle.",
"Ellis is consistently self\\-serving, to the disappointment of Louise, who finds herself mutually attracted to the brave and upright co\\-pilot Brooks. When Ellis gets drunk one night and tries to force himself upon Louise, Brooks stops him. Louise soon finds herself attracted to Brooks and suspects the same of Rena. Jealous of Rena, Louise confronts her and the two women, assigned clothes washing duties by Lonagan, have \"... a knock\\-down and drag\\-out fight\" in a nearby stream.\n{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sylvester \\|first1\\=Robert \\|title\\=Dream Street \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/455956011/ \\|work\\=New York Daily News \\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2022}}",
"After a fortnight of effort, the aircraft is nearly repaired. Tommy wanders into the jungle but is found by Bostwick and Rena, who discover Crimp's headless body. Rena and Tommy return to camp, but local headhunters kill Bostwick with a poison dart.",
"Everyone quickly boards the plane, but when Lonagan and Brooks start the engines, they discover an oil leak in one engine. Lonagan patches it, but informs the others that it will not hold long. With only one good engine, the aircraft can carry only five people – Tommy plus four adults – over the mountains.",
"Everyone but Ellis quickly volunteers to be amongst the four who must stay behind and face the headhunters. With gun in hand, Vasquel takes charge, saying he will stay and will choose the other three via logic. The Spanglers, the most elderly, convince Vasquel they should stay. Vasquel selects Ellis as well, then has to kill him when Ellis grabs for the gun. The aircraft manages to take off.",
"As the headhunters close in, Vasquel saves the Spanglers from torture by shooting them with the last two bullets, then prays as he awaits a horrible death.",
""
] |
Napoleonic Wars
---------------
When Masefield (or Mansfield) recommissioned *Atalante* on 10 January 1803, two days after paying her off, he apparently did not want for crew. His success on anti\-smuggling patrol had apparently resulted in his previous crew earning prize money the equivalent of their pay for the six\-month period. Masefield had captured eight smuggling vessels and seized 1,000 ankers of spirits, in addition to bale goods.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, pp.76\-7\.
On 14 March 1803, *Atalante* sailed from Plymouth to retrieve the sloop {{HMS\|Galgo\|1801\|2}} from Mount's Bay, where she had taken refuge, having been dismasted in a gale. *Atalante* returned the next day with *Galgo*.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, p.244\. That same day *Atalante* and *Nemesis* sailed under sealed orders to Cawsand Bay where they received further orders that sent them to Bristol to impress seamen.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, pp.247\-8\. On 13 May 1803, {{HMS\|Nemesis\|1780\|2}} and *Atalante* returned to Plymouth from a cruise that had them monitoring French naval movements off [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France "Brest, France").*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, p.417\. On 16 June 1803, a French brig, prize to *Atalante* came into Plymouth.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 10, p.82\.
On 7 June 1803, *Atlante* captured the merchant ship *Ocean*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=15786\|page\=304\|date\=5 March 1805}} Then one month later, on 8 July 1803, *Atalante* captured the French ship *Prudent*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=15708\|page\=704\|date\=9 June 1804}} Then on 24 September 1803, *Atalante* captured four French merchant vessels. These were the *Jeune Adelphie*, *Marie Elizabeth*, *Betzée*, and *Fortunée*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=15705\|page\=664\|date\=26 May 1804}}
On 9 October 1803, *Atalante* pursued two [ketches](/wiki/Ketches "Ketches") and a brig at Saint Gildas Point. The quarry ran ashore near the mouth of the Pennerf river. Mansfield then sent in his boats on a cutting out expedition. One boat captured one of the ketches but couldn't bring her off; while they were so engaged they endured fire from soldiers on board the other ketch and troops with two field guns on the beach. The boarding party then abandoned their vessel and went to the assistance of the party that had boarded the brig. That party had killed six of the 10 or 12 soldiers on the brig, thrown two over board, and driven the rest and the crew below decks. The boarding party was unable to get the brig off the shore so they abandoned her without setting her on fire in consideration of the men below decks. *Atalante* lost one man killed and two wounded in the operation. The next day, Masefield was pleased to see that the brig was on a ridge of rocks and "apparently bilged".{{London Gazette\|issue\=15650\|pages\=1673–1674\|date\=29 November 1803}}
That same day, i.e., 9 October, there came into Plymouth a large lugger with brandy, wine, and Castile soup that *Atalante{{'}}*s boats had cut out near Brest. The three timber vessels they cut out at the same time turn out more valuable than had initially been expected because their cargo turned out to be timber of different scantlings for
[first and second rates](/wiki/First_rate "First rate"). The timber vessels had been sailing to 1'Orient, where several ships were building.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 10, p.347\.
On 24 March 1804, *Atalante* captured the French [chasse maree](/wiki/Chasse_maree "Chasse maree") *Volante*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=15742\|page\=1245\|date\=2 October 1804}} *Volante* from Nantes, arrived at Plymouth in early April.*Lloyd's List*, no.4441,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/04\-03\-1804\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/04-03-1804.jpg) \- accessed 20 June 2014\.
In July 1805, *Atalante* captured the *Belissaire* and the *Napoleon*, carrying brandy and rosin, and sent them into Plymouth.*Lloyd's List*, no.4237,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1805/07\-26\-1805\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1805/07-26-1805.jpg) \- accessed 20 June 2014\.
On 20 May 1806, *Atalante* captured the *Fortuna Waggona*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=16059\|page\=1117\|date\=25 August 1807}} *Atalante* was also in sight when {{HMS\|Iris\|1783\|2}} captured the French ketch *Amis de Juste*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=16060\|page\=1133\|date\=29 August 1807}} That same month *Atalante* captured the *Noord Termans*, Wagener, master, as she was sailing from St. Martin's to Bremen. *Atalante* sent her into Plymouth.*Lloyd's List*, no.4057,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1806/05\-30\-1806\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1806/05-30-1806.jpg) \- accessed 20 June 2014\.
*Atalante* was assigned to the squadron under [Sir Samuel Hood](/wiki/Sir_Samuel_Hood%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Samuel Hood, 1st Baronet") on 25 September 1806\. On 19 October 1806, {{HMS\|Indefatigable\|1784\|2}}, {{HMS\|Hazard\|1802\|2}} and *Atalante* captured the chasse marees *Achille*, *Jenny* and *Marianne*.{{London Gazette\|issue\=16058\|page\=1104\|date\=22 August 1807}}
In 1807, Lieutenant John Bowker took over command in an acting capacity.{{sfnp\|Winfield\|2008\|p\=286}} When he took command, Bowker requested that *Atalante* be surveyed. He noted that when the wind blew fresh, water would enter at a rate of 20 inches per hour. He was refused. Later, Sir Samuel Hood testified in Parliament that Commander Keats had assured him that *Atalante* was seaworthy.{{sfnp\|Grocott\|1997\|pp\=232\-3}} Bowker's time in command was short\-lived.
|
[
"Napoleonic Wars\n---------------",
"When Masefield (or Mansfield) recommissioned *Atalante* on 10 January 1803, two days after paying her off, he apparently did not want for crew. His success on anti\\-smuggling patrol had apparently resulted in his previous crew earning prize money the equivalent of their pay for the six\\-month period. Masefield had captured eight smuggling vessels and seized 1,000 ankers of spirits, in addition to bale goods.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, pp.76\\-7\\.",
"On 14 March 1803, *Atalante* sailed from Plymouth to retrieve the sloop {{HMS\\|Galgo\\|1801\\|2}} from Mount's Bay, where she had taken refuge, having been dismasted in a gale. *Atalante* returned the next day with *Galgo*.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, p.244\\. That same day *Atalante* and *Nemesis* sailed under sealed orders to Cawsand Bay where they received further orders that sent them to Bristol to impress seamen.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, pp.247\\-8\\. On 13 May 1803, {{HMS\\|Nemesis\\|1780\\|2}} and *Atalante* returned to Plymouth from a cruise that had them monitoring French naval movements off [Brest](/wiki/Brest%2C_France \"Brest, France\").*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 9, p.417\\. On 16 June 1803, a French brig, prize to *Atalante* came into Plymouth.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 10, p.82\\.",
"On 7 June 1803, *Atlante* captured the merchant ship *Ocean*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15786\\|page\\=304\\|date\\=5 March 1805}} Then one month later, on 8 July 1803, *Atalante* captured the French ship *Prudent*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15708\\|page\\=704\\|date\\=9 June 1804}} Then on 24 September 1803, *Atalante* captured four French merchant vessels. These were the *Jeune Adelphie*, *Marie Elizabeth*, *Betzée*, and *Fortunée*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15705\\|page\\=664\\|date\\=26 May 1804}}",
"On 9 October 1803, *Atalante* pursued two [ketches](/wiki/Ketches \"Ketches\") and a brig at Saint Gildas Point. The quarry ran ashore near the mouth of the Pennerf river. Mansfield then sent in his boats on a cutting out expedition. One boat captured one of the ketches but couldn't bring her off; while they were so engaged they endured fire from soldiers on board the other ketch and troops with two field guns on the beach. The boarding party then abandoned their vessel and went to the assistance of the party that had boarded the brig. That party had killed six of the 10 or 12 soldiers on the brig, thrown two over board, and driven the rest and the crew below decks. The boarding party was unable to get the brig off the shore so they abandoned her without setting her on fire in consideration of the men below decks. *Atalante* lost one man killed and two wounded in the operation. The next day, Masefield was pleased to see that the brig was on a ridge of rocks and \"apparently bilged\".{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15650\\|pages\\=1673–1674\\|date\\=29 November 1803}}",
"That same day, i.e., 9 October, there came into Plymouth a large lugger with brandy, wine, and Castile soup that *Atalante{{'}}*s boats had cut out near Brest. The three timber vessels they cut out at the same time turn out more valuable than had initially been expected because their cargo turned out to be timber of different scantlings for\n[first and second rates](/wiki/First_rate \"First rate\"). The timber vessels had been sailing to 1'Orient, where several ships were building.*Naval Chronicle*, Vol. 10, p.347\\.",
"On 24 March 1804, *Atalante* captured the French [chasse maree](/wiki/Chasse_maree \"Chasse maree\") *Volante*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=15742\\|page\\=1245\\|date\\=2 October 1804}} *Volante* from Nantes, arrived at Plymouth in early April.*Lloyd's List*, no.4441,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/04\\-03\\-1804\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1804/04-03-1804.jpg) \\- accessed 20 June 2014\\.",
"In July 1805, *Atalante* captured the *Belissaire* and the *Napoleon*, carrying brandy and rosin, and sent them into Plymouth.*Lloyd's List*, no.4237,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1805/07\\-26\\-1805\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1805/07-26-1805.jpg) \\- accessed 20 June 2014\\.",
"On 20 May 1806, *Atalante* captured the *Fortuna Waggona*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=16059\\|page\\=1117\\|date\\=25 August 1807}} *Atalante* was also in sight when {{HMS\\|Iris\\|1783\\|2}} captured the French ketch *Amis de Juste*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=16060\\|page\\=1133\\|date\\=29 August 1807}} That same month *Atalante* captured the *Noord Termans*, Wagener, master, as she was sailing from St. Martin's to Bremen. *Atalante* sent her into Plymouth.*Lloyd's List*, no.4057,[http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1806/05\\-30\\-1806\\.jpg](http://www.1812privateers.org/LLOYDS/1806/05-30-1806.jpg) \\- accessed 20 June 2014\\.",
"*Atalante* was assigned to the squadron under [Sir Samuel Hood](/wiki/Sir_Samuel_Hood%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Samuel Hood, 1st Baronet\") on 25 September 1806\\. On 19 October 1806, {{HMS\\|Indefatigable\\|1784\\|2}}, {{HMS\\|Hazard\\|1802\\|2}} and *Atalante* captured the chasse marees *Achille*, *Jenny* and *Marianne*.{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=16058\\|page\\=1104\\|date\\=22 August 1807}}",
"In 1807, Lieutenant John Bowker took over command in an acting capacity.{{sfnp\\|Winfield\\|2008\\|p\\=286}} When he took command, Bowker requested that *Atalante* be surveyed. He noted that when the wind blew fresh, water would enter at a rate of 20 inches per hour. He was refused. Later, Sir Samuel Hood testified in Parliament that Commander Keats had assured him that *Atalante* was seaworthy.{{sfnp\\|Grocott\\|1997\\|pp\\=232\\-3}} Bowker's time in command was short\\-lived.",
""
] |
Product of subgroups
--------------------
If *S* and *T* are subgroups of *G*, their product need not be a subgroup (for example, two distinct subgroups of order 2 in the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group "Symmetric group") on 3 symbols). This product is sometimes called the *Frobenius product*.{{cite book\|author1\=Adolfo Ballester\-Bolinches\|author2\=Ramon Esteban\-Romero\|author3\=Mohamed Asaad\|title\=Products of Finite Groups\|url\=https://archive.org/details/productsfinitegr00masa\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=2010\|publisher\=Walter de Gruyter\|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-022061\-2\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/productsfinitegr00masa/page/n13 1]}} In general, the product of two subgroups *S* and *T* is a subgroup if and only if *ST* \= *TS*,{{cite book\|author\=W. Keith Nicholson\|title\=Introduction to Abstract Algebra\|year\=2012\|publisher\=John Wiley \& Sons\|edition\=4th\|isbn\=978\-1\-118\-13535\-8\|at\=Lemma 2, p. 125}} and the two subgroups are said to [permute](/wiki/Permutable_subgroup "Permutable subgroup"). ([Walter Ledermann](/wiki/Walter_Ledermann "Walter Ledermann") has called this fact the *Product Theorem*,Walter Ledermann, *Introduction to Group Theory*, 1976, Longman, {{ISBN\|0\-582\-44180\-3}}, p. 52 but this name, just like "Frobenius product" is by no means standard.) In this case, *ST* is the group [generated](/wiki/Generating_set_of_a_group "Generating set of a group") by *S* and *T*; i.e., *ST* \= *TS* \= ⟨*S* ∪ *T*⟩.
If either *S* or *T* is [normal](/wiki/Normal_subgroup "Normal subgroup") then the condition *ST* \= *TS* is satisfied and the product is a subgroup.Nicholson, 2012, Theorem 5, p. 125{{cite book\|author\=David A.R. Wallace\|title\=Groups, Rings and Fields\|year\=1998\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-3\-540\-76177\-8\|at\=Theorem 14, p. 123}} If both *S* and *T* are normal, then the product is normal as well.
If *S* and *T* are finite subgroups of a group *G*, then *ST* is a subset of *G* of size *\|ST\|* given by the *product formula*:
\|ST\| \= \\frac{\|S\|\|T\|}{\|S\\cap T\|}
Note that this applies even if neither *S* nor *T* is normal.
### Modular law
The following **modular law (for groups)** holds for any *Q* a subgroup of *S*, where *T* is any other arbitrary subgroup (and both *S* and *T* are subgroups of some group *G*):
*Q*(*S* ∩ *T*) \= *S* ∩ (*QT*).
The two products that appear in this equality are not necessarily subgroups.
If *QT* is a subgroup (equivalently, as noted above, if *Q* and *T* permute) then *QT* \= ⟨*Q* ∪ *T*⟩ \= *Q* ∨ *T*; i.e., *QT* is the [join](/wiki/Join_%28mathematics%29 "Join (mathematics)") of *Q* and *T* in the [lattice of subgroups](/wiki/Lattice_of_subgroups "Lattice of subgroups") of *G*, and the modular law for such a pair may also be written as *Q* ∨ (*S* ∩ *T*) \= *S* ∩ (*Q ∨ T*), which is the equation that defines a [modular lattice](/wiki/Modular_lattice "Modular lattice") if it holds for any three elements of the lattice with *Q* ≤ *S*. In particular, since normal subgroups permute with each other, they form a modular [sublattice](/wiki/Sublattice "Sublattice").
A group in which every subgroup permutes is called an [Iwasawa group](/wiki/Iwasawa_group "Iwasawa group"). The subgroup lattice of an Iwasawa group is thus a modular lattice, so these groups are sometimes called *modular groups*Ballester\-Bolinches, Esteban\-Romero, Asaad, p. 24 (although this latter term may have other meanings.)
The assumption in the modular law for groups (as formulated above) that *Q* is a subgroup of *S* is essential. If *Q* is *not* a subgroup of *S*, then the tentative, more general distributive property that one may consider *S* ∩ (*QT*) \= (*S* ∩ *Q*)(*S* ∩ *T*) is *false*.{{cite book\|author\=Derek Robinson\|title\=A Course in the Theory of Groups\|year\=1996\|publisher\=Springer Science \& Business Media\|isbn\=978\-0\-387\-94461\-6\|page\=15}}{{cite book\|author\=Paul Moritz Cohn\|title\=Classic algebra\|url\=https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Wiley\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-87731\-8\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn/page/n259 248]}}
### Product of subgroups with trivial intersection
In particular, if *S* and *T* intersect only in the identity, then every element of *ST* has a unique expression as a product *st* with *s* in *S* and *t* in *T*. If *S* and *T* also commute, then *ST* is a group, and is called a [Zappa–Szép product](/wiki/Zappa%E2%80%93Sz%C3%A9p_product "Zappa–Szép product"). Even further, if *S* or *T* is normal in *ST*, then *ST* coincides with the [semidirect product](/wiki/Semidirect_product "Semidirect product") of *S* and *T*. Finally, if both *S* and *T* are normal in *ST*, then *ST* coincides with the [direct product](/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups "Direct product of groups") of *S* and *T*.
If *S* and *T* are subgroups whose intersection is the trivial subgroup (identity element) and additionally *ST* \= *G*, then *S* is called a [complement](/wiki/Complement_%28group_theory%29 "Complement (group theory)") of *T* and vice versa.
By a (locally unambiguous) [abuse of terminology](/wiki/Abuse_of_terminology "Abuse of terminology"), two subgroups that intersect only on the (otherwise obligatory) identity are sometimes called [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets "Disjoint sets").{{cite book\|author\=L. Fuchs\|title\=Infinite Abelian Groups. Volume I\|year\=1970\|publisher\=Academic Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-08\-087348\-0\|page\=37}}
### Product of subgroups with non\-trivial intersection
A question that arises in the case of a non\-trivial intersection between a normal subgroup *N* and a subgroup *K* is what is the structure of the quotient *NK*/*N*. Although one might be tempted to just "cancel out" *N* and say the answer is *K*, that is not correct because a homomorphism with kernel *N* will also "collapse" (map to 1\) all elements of *K* that happen to be in *N*. Thus the correct answer is that *NK*/*N* is isomorphic with *K*/(*N*∩*K*). This fact is sometimes called the [second isomorphism theorem](/wiki/Second_isomorphism_theorem "Second isomorphism theorem"),{{cite book\|author\=Dan Saracino\|title\=Abstract Algebra: A First Course\|url\=https://archive.org/details/abstractalgebraf00sara\_691\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=1980\|publisher\=Addison\-Wesley\|isbn\=0\-201\-07391\-9\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/abstractalgebraf00sara\_691/page/n127 123]}} (although the numbering of these theorems sees some variation between authors); it has also been called the *diamond theorem* by [I. Martin Isaacs](/wiki/Martin_Isaacs "Martin Isaacs") because of the shape of subgroup lattice involved,{{cite book\|author\=I. Martin Isaacs\|title\=Algebra: A Graduate Course\|url\=https://archive.org/details/algebragraduatec00isaa\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=1994\|publisher\=American Mathematical Soc.\|isbn\=978\-0\-8218\-4799\-2\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/algebragraduatec00isaa/page/n45 33]}} and has also been called the *parallelogram rule* by [Paul Moritz Cohn](/wiki/Paul_Moritz_Cohn "Paul Moritz Cohn"), who thus emphasized analogy with the [parallelogram rule](/wiki/Parallelogram_rule "Parallelogram rule") for vectors because in the resulting subgroup lattice the two sides assumed to represent the quotient groups (*SN*) / *N* and *S* / (*S* ∩ *N*) are "equal" in the sense of isomorphism.{{cite book\|author\=Paul Moritz Cohn\|author\-link\=Paul Moritz Cohn\|title\=Classic Algebra\|url\=https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn\|url\-access\=limited\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Wiley\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-87731\-8\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn/page/n256 245]}}
[Frattini's argument](/wiki/Frattini%27s_argument "Frattini's argument") guarantees the existence of a product of subgroups (giving rise to the whole group) in a case where the intersection is not necessarily trivial (and for this latter reason the two subgroups are not complements). More specifically, if *G* is a finite group with normal subgroup *N*, and if *P* is a [Sylow *p*\-subgroup](/wiki/Sylow_p-subgroup "Sylow p-subgroup") of *N*, then *G* \= *N**G*(*P*)*N*, where *N**G*(*P*) denotes the [normalizer](/wiki/Centralizer_and_normalizer "Centralizer and normalizer") of *P* in *G*. (Note that the normalizer of *P* includes *P*, so the intersection between *N* and *N**G*(*P*) is at least *P*.)
|
[
"Product of subgroups\n--------------------",
"If *S* and *T* are subgroups of *G*, their product need not be a subgroup (for example, two distinct subgroups of order 2 in the [symmetric group](/wiki/Symmetric_group \"Symmetric group\") on 3 symbols). This product is sometimes called the *Frobenius product*.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Adolfo Ballester\\-Bolinches\\|author2\\=Ramon Esteban\\-Romero\\|author3\\=Mohamed Asaad\\|title\\=Products of Finite Groups\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/productsfinitegr00masa\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=2010\\|publisher\\=Walter de Gruyter\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-022061\\-2\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/productsfinitegr00masa/page/n13 1]}} In general, the product of two subgroups *S* and *T* is a subgroup if and only if *ST* \\= *TS*,{{cite book\\|author\\=W. Keith Nicholson\\|title\\=Introduction to Abstract Algebra\\|year\\=2012\\|publisher\\=John Wiley \\& Sons\\|edition\\=4th\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-118\\-13535\\-8\\|at\\=Lemma 2, p. 125}} and the two subgroups are said to [permute](/wiki/Permutable_subgroup \"Permutable subgroup\"). ([Walter Ledermann](/wiki/Walter_Ledermann \"Walter Ledermann\") has called this fact the *Product Theorem*,Walter Ledermann, *Introduction to Group Theory*, 1976, Longman, {{ISBN\\|0\\-582\\-44180\\-3}}, p. 52 but this name, just like \"Frobenius product\" is by no means standard.) In this case, *ST* is the group [generated](/wiki/Generating_set_of_a_group \"Generating set of a group\") by *S* and *T*; i.e., *ST* \\= *TS* \\= ⟨*S* ∪ *T*⟩.",
"If either *S* or *T* is [normal](/wiki/Normal_subgroup \"Normal subgroup\") then the condition *ST* \\= *TS* is satisfied and the product is a subgroup.Nicholson, 2012, Theorem 5, p. 125{{cite book\\|author\\=David A.R. Wallace\\|title\\=Groups, Rings and Fields\\|year\\=1998\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-540\\-76177\\-8\\|at\\=Theorem 14, p. 123}} If both *S* and *T* are normal, then the product is normal as well.",
"If *S* and *T* are finite subgroups of a group *G*, then *ST* is a subset of *G* of size *\\|ST\\|* given by the *product formula*:\n\\|ST\\| \\= \\\\frac{\\|S\\|\\|T\\|}{\\|S\\\\cap T\\|}\nNote that this applies even if neither *S* nor *T* is normal.",
"### Modular law",
"The following **modular law (for groups)** holds for any *Q* a subgroup of *S*, where *T* is any other arbitrary subgroup (and both *S* and *T* are subgroups of some group *G*):\n*Q*(*S* ∩ *T*) \\= *S* ∩ (*QT*).\nThe two products that appear in this equality are not necessarily subgroups.",
"If *QT* is a subgroup (equivalently, as noted above, if *Q* and *T* permute) then *QT* \\= ⟨*Q* ∪ *T*⟩ \\= *Q* ∨ *T*; i.e., *QT* is the [join](/wiki/Join_%28mathematics%29 \"Join (mathematics)\") of *Q* and *T* in the [lattice of subgroups](/wiki/Lattice_of_subgroups \"Lattice of subgroups\") of *G*, and the modular law for such a pair may also be written as *Q* ∨ (*S* ∩ *T*) \\= *S* ∩ (*Q ∨ T*), which is the equation that defines a [modular lattice](/wiki/Modular_lattice \"Modular lattice\") if it holds for any three elements of the lattice with *Q* ≤ *S*. In particular, since normal subgroups permute with each other, they form a modular [sublattice](/wiki/Sublattice \"Sublattice\").",
"A group in which every subgroup permutes is called an [Iwasawa group](/wiki/Iwasawa_group \"Iwasawa group\"). The subgroup lattice of an Iwasawa group is thus a modular lattice, so these groups are sometimes called *modular groups*Ballester\\-Bolinches, Esteban\\-Romero, Asaad, p. 24 (although this latter term may have other meanings.)",
"The assumption in the modular law for groups (as formulated above) that *Q* is a subgroup of *S* is essential. If *Q* is *not* a subgroup of *S*, then the tentative, more general distributive property that one may consider *S* ∩ (*QT*) \\= (*S* ∩ *Q*)(*S* ∩ *T*) is *false*.{{cite book\\|author\\=Derek Robinson\\|title\\=A Course in the Theory of Groups\\|year\\=1996\\|publisher\\=Springer Science \\& Business Media\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-387\\-94461\\-6\\|page\\=15}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Paul Moritz Cohn\\|title\\=Classic algebra\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-87731\\-8\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn/page/n259 248]}}",
"### Product of subgroups with trivial intersection",
"In particular, if *S* and *T* intersect only in the identity, then every element of *ST* has a unique expression as a product *st* with *s* in *S* and *t* in *T*. If *S* and *T* also commute, then *ST* is a group, and is called a [Zappa–Szép product](/wiki/Zappa%E2%80%93Sz%C3%A9p_product \"Zappa–Szép product\"). Even further, if *S* or *T* is normal in *ST*, then *ST* coincides with the [semidirect product](/wiki/Semidirect_product \"Semidirect product\") of *S* and *T*. Finally, if both *S* and *T* are normal in *ST*, then *ST* coincides with the [direct product](/wiki/Direct_product_of_groups \"Direct product of groups\") of *S* and *T*.",
"If *S* and *T* are subgroups whose intersection is the trivial subgroup (identity element) and additionally *ST* \\= *G*, then *S* is called a [complement](/wiki/Complement_%28group_theory%29 \"Complement (group theory)\") of *T* and vice versa.",
"By a (locally unambiguous) [abuse of terminology](/wiki/Abuse_of_terminology \"Abuse of terminology\"), two subgroups that intersect only on the (otherwise obligatory) identity are sometimes called [disjoint](/wiki/Disjoint_sets \"Disjoint sets\").{{cite book\\|author\\=L. Fuchs\\|title\\=Infinite Abelian Groups. Volume I\\|year\\=1970\\|publisher\\=Academic Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-08\\-087348\\-0\\|page\\=37}}",
"### Product of subgroups with non\\-trivial intersection",
"A question that arises in the case of a non\\-trivial intersection between a normal subgroup *N* and a subgroup *K* is what is the structure of the quotient *NK*/*N*. Although one might be tempted to just \"cancel out\" *N* and say the answer is *K*, that is not correct because a homomorphism with kernel *N* will also \"collapse\" (map to 1\\) all elements of *K* that happen to be in *N*. Thus the correct answer is that *NK*/*N* is isomorphic with *K*/(*N*∩*K*). This fact is sometimes called the [second isomorphism theorem](/wiki/Second_isomorphism_theorem \"Second isomorphism theorem\"),{{cite book\\|author\\=Dan Saracino\\|title\\=Abstract Algebra: A First Course\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/abstractalgebraf00sara\\_691\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=1980\\|publisher\\=Addison\\-Wesley\\|isbn\\=0\\-201\\-07391\\-9\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/abstractalgebraf00sara\\_691/page/n127 123]}} (although the numbering of these theorems sees some variation between authors); it has also been called the *diamond theorem* by [I. Martin Isaacs](/wiki/Martin_Isaacs \"Martin Isaacs\") because of the shape of subgroup lattice involved,{{cite book\\|author\\=I. Martin Isaacs\\|title\\=Algebra: A Graduate Course\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/algebragraduatec00isaa\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=1994\\|publisher\\=American Mathematical Soc.\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8218\\-4799\\-2\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/algebragraduatec00isaa/page/n45 33]}} and has also been called the *parallelogram rule* by [Paul Moritz Cohn](/wiki/Paul_Moritz_Cohn \"Paul Moritz Cohn\"), who thus emphasized analogy with the [parallelogram rule](/wiki/Parallelogram_rule \"Parallelogram rule\") for vectors because in the resulting subgroup lattice the two sides assumed to represent the quotient groups (*SN*) / *N* and *S* / (*S* ∩ *N*) are \"equal\" in the sense of isomorphism.{{cite book\\|author\\=Paul Moritz Cohn\\|author\\-link\\=Paul Moritz Cohn\\|title\\=Classic Algebra\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-87731\\-8\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/classicalgebra00cohn/page/n256 245]}}",
"[Frattini's argument](/wiki/Frattini%27s_argument \"Frattini's argument\") guarantees the existence of a product of subgroups (giving rise to the whole group) in a case where the intersection is not necessarily trivial (and for this latter reason the two subgroups are not complements). More specifically, if *G* is a finite group with normal subgroup *N*, and if *P* is a [Sylow *p*\\-subgroup](/wiki/Sylow_p-subgroup \"Sylow p-subgroup\") of *N*, then *G* \\= *N**G*(*P*)*N*, where *N**G*(*P*) denotes the [normalizer](/wiki/Centralizer_and_normalizer \"Centralizer and normalizer\") of *P* in *G*. (Note that the normalizer of *P* includes *P*, so the intersection between *N* and *N**G*(*P*) is at least *P*.)",
""
] |
History
-------
### Background
The Colts' sideline commander, former defensive back [Don Shula](/wiki/Don_Shula "Don Shula"), made his head coaching debut in [1963](/wiki/1963_Baltimore_Colts_season "1963 Baltimore Colts season"), getting off to a rocky start by dropping five of the first eight games of the season.Walter Taylor, "Baltimore Colts," in William H. Martin and Lee O. Ryan (eds.), *Petersen's 9th Annual Edition: Pro Fotball 1964\.* Los Angeles, CA: Petersen Publishing Co., 1964; pp. 20–23\. The tide then turned, however, and the Colts finished strong, with five wins and a 1\-point loss in the final six contests of the year.
"The last half of 1963 we were as good a team as there was in the NFL," Shula said. "As the season progressed, I learned, the veterans learned, and the rookies learned." Four rookies and one newcomer had started for the blue\-and\-white and after a rough beginning the team had seemingly jelled. Internally, expectations for the team were high for the Colts entering the 1964 campaign.
The team centered around [quarterback](/wiki/Quarterback "Quarterback") [Johnny Unitas](/wiki/Johnny_Unitas "Johnny Unitas"), a two\-time NFL champion who was regarded as one of the most talented passers in the league. The 30\-year old Unitas had finished 1962 ranked second among NFL QBs, with his 237 completions and 3,481 yards gained tops in the league.Jim Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual.* New York: National Football League, 1964; p. 49\. Only 2\.9 percent of Unitas' passes ended in interception in 1963 — also best in the league.
The Colts' ground attack had been led by [halfback](/wiki/Halfback_%28gridiron_football%29 "Halfback (gridiron football)") [Tom Matte](/wiki/Tom_Matte "Tom Matte"), a third\-year player who gained 541 yards in 1963\.Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual,* p. 47\. The Colts' receiving corps featured three of the NFL's top 25 in total receptions, headed by sure\-handed [split end](/wiki/Wide_receiver "Wide receiver") [Raymond Berry](/wiki/Raymond_Berry "Raymond Berry"), characterized by one pundit as "the slowest, most awkward end in the league, and one of the best."Bob Oates, "Baltimore Colts," in Sam E. Andre (ed.), *Pro Football: Street and Smith's 1964 Yearbook.* New York: Conde Nash Publications, 1964; pp. 19–21\. He was joined by a "sawed\-off jet" named [Jimmy Orr](/wiki/Jimmy_Orr "Jimmy Orr"), as well as gritty [tight end](/wiki/Tight_end "Tight end") [John Mackey](/wiki/John_Mackey_%28American_football%29 "John Mackey (American football)"), a future NFL Hall of Famer.Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual,* p. 51\. This potent trio was ably aided by running back and third wide receiver [Lenny Moore](/wiki/Lenny_Moore "Lenny Moore"). It was, on paper, a very solid offensive unit.
The defensive situation was less certain with aging veterans throughout the front seven, including 37\-year crowd favorite [Gino Marchetti](/wiki/Gino_Marchetti "Gino Marchetti") and 32\-year old [Ordell Braase](/wiki/Ordell_Braase "Ordell Braase") as bookend [defensive ends](/wiki/Defensive_end "Defensive end"), with the 36\-year old [Bill Pellington](/wiki/Bill_Pellington "Bill Pellington") anchoring the team's linebackers. The defensive backfield was young and fast, however, with [cornerback](/wiki/Cornerback "Cornerback") [Bob Boyd](/wiki/Bobby_Boyd "Bobby Boyd") and [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28gridiron_football_position%29 "Safety (gridiron football position)") [Jerry Logan](/wiki/Jerry_Logan "Jerry Logan") regarded as stars.
### Preseason
NFL teams played a five game preseason schedule in 1964\.Jim Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1965 Record Manual.* New York: National Football League, 1965; p. 50\. The Colts posted a record of 3 wins, 1 loss, and 1 tie during the season's warmup phase, topping the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles "Philadelphia Eagles") in the opener, battling the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") to a 28–28 tie, and dropping game 3 to the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29 "St. Louis Cardinals (NFL)") by 9\. They finished strong, however, recording blowout victories over the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins "Washington Redskins") and [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers "Pittsburgh Steelers") — with the Colts scoring more than 40 points in each of those one\-sided contests.
### Schedule
| Week
Date
Opponent
Result
Record
Venue
Attendance
| |
1 |
September 13 |
at **[Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1964_Minnesota_Vikings_season "1964 Minnesota Vikings season")** |
**L** 24–34 |
0–1 |
[Metropolitan Stadium](/wiki/Metropolitan_Stadium "Metropolitan Stadium") |
35,563 |
2 |
September 20 |
at **[Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1964_Green_Bay_Packers_season "1964 Green Bay Packers season")** |
**W** 21–20 |
1–1 |
[Lambeau Field](/wiki/Lambeau_Field "Lambeau Field") |
42,327 |
3 |
September 27 |
**[Chicago Bears](/wiki/1964_Chicago_Bears_season "1964 Chicago Bears season")** |
**W** 52–0 |
2–1 |
[Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28Baltimore%29 "Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)") |
56,537 |
4 |
October 4 |
**[Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/1964_Los_Angeles_Rams_season "1964 Los Angeles Rams season")** |
**W** 35–20 |
3–1 |
Memorial Stadium |
56,537 |
5 |
{{dow tooltip\|October 12, 1964}} |
[St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/1964_St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29_season "1964 St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) season") |
**W** 47–27 |
4–1 |
Memorial Stadium^ |
60,213 |
6 |
October 18 |
**[Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1964_Green_Bay_Packers_season "1964 Green Bay Packers season")** |
**W** 24–21 |
5–1 |
Memorial Stadium |
60,213 |
7 |
October 25 |
at **[Detroit Lions](/wiki/1964_Detroit_Lions_season "1964 Detroit Lions season")** |
**W** 34–0 |
6–1 |
[Tiger Stadium](/wiki/Tiger_Stadium_%28Detroit%29 "Tiger Stadium (Detroit)") |
57,814 |
8 |
November 1 |
**[San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1964_San_Francisco_49ers_season "1964 San Francisco 49ers season")** |
**W** 37–7 |
7–1 |
Memorial Stadium |
60,213 |
9 |
November 8 |
at **[Chicago Bears](/wiki/1964_Chicago_Bears_season "1964 Chicago Bears season")** |
**W** 40–24 |
8–1 |
[Wrigley Field](/wiki/Wrigley_Field "Wrigley Field") |
47,891 |
10 |
November 15 |
**[Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1964_Minnesota_Vikings_season "1964 Minnesota Vikings season")** |
**W** 17–14 |
9–1 |
Memorial Stadium |
60,213 |
11 |
November 22 |
at **[Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/1964_Los_Angeles_Rams_season "1964 Los Angeles Rams season")** |
**W** 24–7 |
10–1 |
[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum "Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum") |
72,137 |
12 |
November 29 |
at **[San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1964_San_Francisco_49ers_season "1964 San Francisco 49ers season")** |
**W** 14–3 |
11–1 |
[Kezar Stadium](/wiki/Kezar_Stadium "Kezar Stadium") |
33,642 |
13 |
December 6 |
**[Detroit Lions](/wiki/1964_Detroit_Lions_season "1964 Detroit Lions season")** |
**L** 14–31 |
11–2 |
Memorial Stadium |
60,213 |
14 |
December 13 |
[Washington Redskins](/wiki/1964_Washington_Redskins_season "1964 Washington Redskins season") |
**W** 45–17 |
12–2 |
Memorial Stadium |
60,213 |
**Note:** Intra\-conference opponents are in **bold** text.
**Note:** The Week 5 game with the Cardinals was scheduled to be played at St. Louis, but moved to Baltimore
when the baseball [Cardinals](/wiki/1964_St._Louis_Cardinals_season "1964 St. Louis Cardinals season") reached the [World Series](/wiki/1964_World_Series "1964 World Series"), preempting use of [Busch Stadium](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park "Sportsman's Park").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Background",
"The Colts' sideline commander, former defensive back [Don Shula](/wiki/Don_Shula \"Don Shula\"), made his head coaching debut in [1963](/wiki/1963_Baltimore_Colts_season \"1963 Baltimore Colts season\"), getting off to a rocky start by dropping five of the first eight games of the season.Walter Taylor, \"Baltimore Colts,\" in William H. Martin and Lee O. Ryan (eds.), *Petersen's 9th Annual Edition: Pro Fotball 1964\\.* Los Angeles, CA: Petersen Publishing Co., 1964; pp. 20–23\\. The tide then turned, however, and the Colts finished strong, with five wins and a 1\\-point loss in the final six contests of the year.",
"\"The last half of 1963 we were as good a team as there was in the NFL,\" Shula said. \"As the season progressed, I learned, the veterans learned, and the rookies learned.\" Four rookies and one newcomer had started for the blue\\-and\\-white and after a rough beginning the team had seemingly jelled. Internally, expectations for the team were high for the Colts entering the 1964 campaign.",
"The team centered around [quarterback](/wiki/Quarterback \"Quarterback\") [Johnny Unitas](/wiki/Johnny_Unitas \"Johnny Unitas\"), a two\\-time NFL champion who was regarded as one of the most talented passers in the league. The 30\\-year old Unitas had finished 1962 ranked second among NFL QBs, with his 237 completions and 3,481 yards gained tops in the league.Jim Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual.* New York: National Football League, 1964; p. 49\\. Only 2\\.9 percent of Unitas' passes ended in interception in 1963 — also best in the league.",
"The Colts' ground attack had been led by [halfback](/wiki/Halfback_%28gridiron_football%29 \"Halfback (gridiron football)\") [Tom Matte](/wiki/Tom_Matte \"Tom Matte\"), a third\\-year player who gained 541 yards in 1963\\.Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual,* p. 47\\. The Colts' receiving corps featured three of the NFL's top 25 in total receptions, headed by sure\\-handed [split end](/wiki/Wide_receiver \"Wide receiver\") [Raymond Berry](/wiki/Raymond_Berry \"Raymond Berry\"), characterized by one pundit as \"the slowest, most awkward end in the league, and one of the best.\"Bob Oates, \"Baltimore Colts,\" in Sam E. Andre (ed.), *Pro Football: Street and Smith's 1964 Yearbook.* New York: Conde Nash Publications, 1964; pp. 19–21\\. He was joined by a \"sawed\\-off jet\" named [Jimmy Orr](/wiki/Jimmy_Orr \"Jimmy Orr\"), as well as gritty [tight end](/wiki/Tight_end \"Tight end\") [John Mackey](/wiki/John_Mackey_%28American_football%29 \"John Mackey (American football)\"), a future NFL Hall of Famer.Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1964 Record Manual,* p. 51\\. This potent trio was ably aided by running back and third wide receiver [Lenny Moore](/wiki/Lenny_Moore \"Lenny Moore\"). It was, on paper, a very solid offensive unit.",
"The defensive situation was less certain with aging veterans throughout the front seven, including 37\\-year crowd favorite [Gino Marchetti](/wiki/Gino_Marchetti \"Gino Marchetti\") and 32\\-year old [Ordell Braase](/wiki/Ordell_Braase \"Ordell Braase\") as bookend [defensive ends](/wiki/Defensive_end \"Defensive end\"), with the 36\\-year old [Bill Pellington](/wiki/Bill_Pellington \"Bill Pellington\") anchoring the team's linebackers. The defensive backfield was young and fast, however, with [cornerback](/wiki/Cornerback \"Cornerback\") [Bob Boyd](/wiki/Bobby_Boyd \"Bobby Boyd\") and [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28gridiron_football_position%29 \"Safety (gridiron football position)\") [Jerry Logan](/wiki/Jerry_Logan \"Jerry Logan\") regarded as stars.",
"### Preseason",
"NFL teams played a five game preseason schedule in 1964\\.Jim Kensil (ed.), *National Football League 1965 Record Manual.* New York: National Football League, 1965; p. 50\\. The Colts posted a record of 3 wins, 1 loss, and 1 tie during the season's warmup phase, topping the [Philadelphia Eagles](/wiki/Philadelphia_Eagles \"Philadelphia Eagles\") in the opener, battling the [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") to a 28–28 tie, and dropping game 3 to the [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29 \"St. Louis Cardinals (NFL)\") by 9\\. They finished strong, however, recording blowout victories over the [Washington Redskins](/wiki/Washington_Redskins \"Washington Redskins\") and [Pittsburgh Steelers](/wiki/Pittsburgh_Steelers \"Pittsburgh Steelers\") — with the Colts scoring more than 40 points in each of those one\\-sided contests.",
"### Schedule",
"",
"| Week",
"Date",
"Opponent",
"Result",
"Record",
"Venue",
"Attendance",
"| |",
"1 |\n September 13 |\n at **[Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1964_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"1964 Minnesota Vikings season\")** |\n **L** 24–34 |\n 0–1 |\n [Metropolitan Stadium](/wiki/Metropolitan_Stadium \"Metropolitan Stadium\") |\n 35,563 |\n 2 |\n September 20 |\n at **[Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1964_Green_Bay_Packers_season \"1964 Green Bay Packers season\")** |\n **W** 21–20 |\n 1–1 |\n [Lambeau Field](/wiki/Lambeau_Field \"Lambeau Field\") |\n 42,327 |\n 3 |\n September 27 |\n **[Chicago Bears](/wiki/1964_Chicago_Bears_season \"1964 Chicago Bears season\")** |\n **W** 52–0 |\n 2–1 |\n [Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28Baltimore%29 \"Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)\") |\n 56,537 |\n 4 |\n October 4 |\n **[Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/1964_Los_Angeles_Rams_season \"1964 Los Angeles Rams season\")** |\n **W** 35–20 |\n 3–1 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 56,537 |\n 5 |\n {{dow tooltip\\|October 12, 1964}} |\n [St. Louis Cardinals](/wiki/1964_St._Louis_Cardinals_%28NFL%29_season \"1964 St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) season\") |\n **W** 47–27 |\n 4–1 |\n Memorial Stadium^ |\n 60,213 |\n 6 |\n October 18 |\n **[Green Bay Packers](/wiki/1964_Green_Bay_Packers_season \"1964 Green Bay Packers season\")** |\n **W** 24–21 |\n 5–1 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 60,213 |\n 7 |\n October 25 |\n at **[Detroit Lions](/wiki/1964_Detroit_Lions_season \"1964 Detroit Lions season\")** |\n **W** 34–0 |\n 6–1 |\n [Tiger Stadium](/wiki/Tiger_Stadium_%28Detroit%29 \"Tiger Stadium (Detroit)\") |\n 57,814 |\n 8 |\n November 1 |\n **[San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1964_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"1964 San Francisco 49ers season\")** |\n **W** 37–7 |\n 7–1 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 60,213 |\n 9 |\n November 8 |\n at **[Chicago Bears](/wiki/1964_Chicago_Bears_season \"1964 Chicago Bears season\")** |\n **W** 40–24 |\n 8–1 |\n [Wrigley Field](/wiki/Wrigley_Field \"Wrigley Field\") |\n 47,891 |\n 10 |\n November 15 |\n **[Minnesota Vikings](/wiki/1964_Minnesota_Vikings_season \"1964 Minnesota Vikings season\")** |\n **W** 17–14 |\n 9–1 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 60,213 |\n 11 |\n November 22 |\n at **[Los Angeles Rams](/wiki/1964_Los_Angeles_Rams_season \"1964 Los Angeles Rams season\")** |\n **W** 24–7 |\n 10–1 |\n [Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum \"Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum\") |\n 72,137 |\n 12 |\n November 29 |\n at **[San Francisco 49ers](/wiki/1964_San_Francisco_49ers_season \"1964 San Francisco 49ers season\")** |\n **W** 14–3 |\n 11–1 |\n [Kezar Stadium](/wiki/Kezar_Stadium \"Kezar Stadium\") |\n 33,642 |\n 13 |\n December 6 |\n **[Detroit Lions](/wiki/1964_Detroit_Lions_season \"1964 Detroit Lions season\")** |\n **L** 14–31 |\n 11–2 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 60,213 |\n 14 |\n December 13 |\n [Washington Redskins](/wiki/1964_Washington_Redskins_season \"1964 Washington Redskins season\") |\n **W** 45–17 |\n 12–2 |\n Memorial Stadium |\n 60,213 |\n **Note:** Intra\\-conference opponents are in **bold** text.",
"**Note:** The Week 5 game with the Cardinals was scheduled to be played at St. Louis, but moved to Baltimore \nwhen the baseball [Cardinals](/wiki/1964_St._Louis_Cardinals_season \"1964 St. Louis Cardinals season\") reached the [World Series](/wiki/1964_World_Series \"1964 World Series\"), preempting use of [Busch Stadium](/wiki/Sportsman%27s_Park \"Sportsman's Park\")."
] |
Biography
---------
Acton was born in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan") on February 23, 1823, near [Washington Square Park](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park "Washington Square Park"). From a relatively poor background, he was educated in public schools and found employment as a deputy clerk under Clerk Bradford. He eventually held a position as a Deputy Register for nearly six years. He was appointed [police commissioner](/wiki/Police_commissioner "Police commissioner") of the old [Metropolitan police district](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department "New York City Police Department") by Governor [Edwin D. Morgan](/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan "Edwin D. Morgan") in May 1860 along with [John G. Bergen](/wiki/John_G._Bergen "John G. Bergen") and Superintendent [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Alexander_Kennedy "John Alexander Kennedy").
Acton was made president of the Board of Police Commissioners when [New York County](/wiki/New_York_County "New York County"), at the time comprising the entirety of present\-day New York City, was formed. Acton held this post until the outbreak of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War") a year later.
Acton temporarily re\-assumed command during the [New York Draft Riots](/wiki/New_York_Draft_Riots "New York Draft Riots") when he and Bergen took over the police force after Superintendent Kennedy was incapacitated following an attack by a mob during the first hours of the riots. While Bergen oversaw actions in [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island "Staten Island") and [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn "Brooklyn"), Acton took charge of police forces in Manhattan. His organizational skills, working in coordination with the military, were partially responsible in bringing an end to the rioting. He received and answered over 4,000 telegrams and directed police and military forces, army officers keeping in close contact with the commissioner and referring to him for troop movements. While assuming the position of the Superintendent's office, Acton reportedly did not sleep once during the five\-day period or did he leave police headquarters with exception to brief inspection tours.[Asbury, Herbert](/wiki/Herbert_Asbury "Herbert Asbury"). *The Gangs of New York: An Informal History of the New York Underworld*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928\. (pg. 119, 132, 145, 151\) {{ISBN\|1\-56025\-275\-8}} The strain on his health during the riots forced him to take a leave of absence from the force for the next five years.
Following his departure from the NYPD, Acton became the superintendent of the [New York Assay Office](/wiki/United_States_Assay_Commission "United States Assay Commission") and held the post until 1875\. From 1882 Mr. Acton was [Assistant United States Treasurer](/wiki/United_States_Treasurer "United States Treasurer") until 1886, were resigning his position, and in 1887 he organized and became president of the Bank of New Amsterdam. He held numerous government positions during his later political career as well as becoming a noted social activist and reformer. Acton was a founding member of the [Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals](/wiki/Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals "Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals") and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, as well as a member of the New York Geographical and [Historical](/wiki/New_York_Historical_Society "New York Historical Society") societies. Despite years of opposition,{{clarify\|date\=January 2018}} Acton was instrumental in the founding of the modern [New York City Fire Department](/wiki/New_York_City_Fire_Department "New York City Fire Department") which replaced the old [volunteer firefighter](/wiki/Volunteer_firefighter "Volunteer firefighter") service.
A strong supporter of President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") and [abolitionist movement](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States"), Acton was also one of the most important political activists in the city during the post\-Civil War era. He was an honorary member of the [Union League Club](/wiki/Union_League_Club "Union League Club") since 1864 (and Chairman in 1883{{Cite news \|title\=Action of the Union League Club \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|page\=2 \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75658069/action\-of\-the\-union\-league\-club/ \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12 \|via\=Newspapers.com\|language\=en}}) and later helped establish the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") in [Tammany Hall](/wiki/Tammany_Hall "Tammany Hall")\-dominated New York with the help of Marshall B. Blake and Fred A. Conkling, brother of U.S. Congressman [Roscoe Conkling](/wiki/Roscoe_Conkling "Roscoe Conkling").
On January 3, 1882, Acton became Assistant Treasurer of the United States, having been nominated by his old friend, President Chester A. Arthur.{{Cite news\|title\=Affairs at the Sub\-Treasury \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75658164/affairs\-at\-the\-sub\-treasury/ \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=January 4, 1882 \|page\=3 \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12 \|via\=Newspapers.com\|language\=en}} He soon put himself in an awkward position by deciding to personally sign every gold certificate issued by the department. This required manually signing over 100,000 notes valued at between $20 and $10,000 each. He signed about three certificates per minute for weeks on end.{{Cite news \|title\=Mr. Acton's Autographs \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=October 12, 1882 \|page\=4 \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/42956374/the\-new\-york\-times/ \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-12 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|language\=en}}
In 1887, he was nominated to run as the Republican candidate for the [Mayor of New York City](/wiki/Mayor_of_New_York_City "Mayor of New York City") but refused to accept due to his own business dealings at the time. He would again decline to run at the next election as well. He did, however, remain an opponent to Tammany Hall and its policies. Among his personal friends were [Horace Greeley](/wiki/Horace_Greeley "Horace Greeley") and [George W. Jones](/wiki/George_Jones_%28publisher%29 "George Jones (publisher)"), editors of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")* and *[New York Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Tribune "New York Tribune")*, respectively.
In 1896, he moved to his [summer home](/wiki/Summer_home "Summer home") in [Saybrook, Connecticut](/wiki/Saybrook%2C_Connecticut "Saybrook, Connecticut"). In failing health for some time, Acton died at 6:30 pm, at his home, from "a complication of diseases" on May 1, 1898\. At the time of his death, he was still a director of the Bank of New Amsterdam. His death was attended by his wife, son and three daughters.{{cite news \|title\=Thomas C. Acton Is Dead. He Expired at His Home in Saybrook, Conn., After a Long Illness. Made History In This City, He Stopped the Draft Riots Here During the War. An Abolitionist in Earlier Days and Helped Form the Republican Party \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75668631/thomas\-c\-acton\-is\-dead/ \|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|page\=5 \|date\= May 2, 1898 \|access\-date\=2021\-04\-13 \|via\=Newspapers.com }}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Acton was born in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\") on February 23, 1823, near [Washington Square Park](/wiki/Washington_Square_Park \"Washington Square Park\"). From a relatively poor background, he was educated in public schools and found employment as a deputy clerk under Clerk Bradford. He eventually held a position as a Deputy Register for nearly six years. He was appointed [police commissioner](/wiki/Police_commissioner \"Police commissioner\") of the old [Metropolitan police district](/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department \"New York City Police Department\") by Governor [Edwin D. Morgan](/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan \"Edwin D. Morgan\") in May 1860 along with [John G. Bergen](/wiki/John_G._Bergen \"John G. Bergen\") and Superintendent [John Kennedy](/wiki/John_Alexander_Kennedy \"John Alexander Kennedy\").",
"Acton was made president of the Board of Police Commissioners when [New York County](/wiki/New_York_County \"New York County\"), at the time comprising the entirety of present\\-day New York City, was formed. Acton held this post until the outbreak of the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\") a year later.",
"Acton temporarily re\\-assumed command during the [New York Draft Riots](/wiki/New_York_Draft_Riots \"New York Draft Riots\") when he and Bergen took over the police force after Superintendent Kennedy was incapacitated following an attack by a mob during the first hours of the riots. While Bergen oversaw actions in [Staten Island](/wiki/Staten_Island \"Staten Island\") and [Brooklyn](/wiki/Brooklyn \"Brooklyn\"), Acton took charge of police forces in Manhattan. His organizational skills, working in coordination with the military, were partially responsible in bringing an end to the rioting. He received and answered over 4,000 telegrams and directed police and military forces, army officers keeping in close contact with the commissioner and referring to him for troop movements. While assuming the position of the Superintendent's office, Acton reportedly did not sleep once during the five\\-day period or did he leave police headquarters with exception to brief inspection tours.[Asbury, Herbert](/wiki/Herbert_Asbury \"Herbert Asbury\"). *The Gangs of New York: An Informal History of the New York Underworld*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928\\. (pg. 119, 132, 145, 151\\) {{ISBN\\|1\\-56025\\-275\\-8}} The strain on his health during the riots forced him to take a leave of absence from the force for the next five years.",
"Following his departure from the NYPD, Acton became the superintendent of the [New York Assay Office](/wiki/United_States_Assay_Commission \"United States Assay Commission\") and held the post until 1875\\. From 1882 Mr. Acton was [Assistant United States Treasurer](/wiki/United_States_Treasurer \"United States Treasurer\") until 1886, were resigning his position, and in 1887 he organized and became president of the Bank of New Amsterdam. He held numerous government positions during his later political career as well as becoming a noted social activist and reformer. Acton was a founding member of the [Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals](/wiki/Society_for_the_Prevention_of_Cruelty_to_Animals \"Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals\") and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, as well as a member of the New York Geographical and [Historical](/wiki/New_York_Historical_Society \"New York Historical Society\") societies. Despite years of opposition,{{clarify\\|date\\=January 2018}} Acton was instrumental in the founding of the modern [New York City Fire Department](/wiki/New_York_City_Fire_Department \"New York City Fire Department\") which replaced the old [volunteer firefighter](/wiki/Volunteer_firefighter \"Volunteer firefighter\") service.",
"A strong supporter of President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") and [abolitionist movement](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\"), Acton was also one of the most important political activists in the city during the post\\-Civil War era. He was an honorary member of the [Union League Club](/wiki/Union_League_Club \"Union League Club\") since 1864 (and Chairman in 1883{{Cite news \\|title\\=Action of the Union League Club \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|page\\=2 \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75658069/action\\-of\\-the\\-union\\-league\\-club/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com\\|language\\=en}}) and later helped establish the [Republican Party](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") in [Tammany Hall](/wiki/Tammany_Hall \"Tammany Hall\")\\-dominated New York with the help of Marshall B. Blake and Fred A. Conkling, brother of U.S. Congressman [Roscoe Conkling](/wiki/Roscoe_Conkling \"Roscoe Conkling\").",
"On January 3, 1882, Acton became Assistant Treasurer of the United States, having been nominated by his old friend, President Chester A. Arthur.{{Cite news\\|title\\=Affairs at the Sub\\-Treasury \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75658164/affairs\\-at\\-the\\-sub\\-treasury/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=January 4, 1882 \\|page\\=3 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com\\|language\\=en}} He soon put himself in an awkward position by deciding to personally sign every gold certificate issued by the department. This required manually signing over 100,000 notes valued at between $20 and $10,000 each. He signed about three certificates per minute for weeks on end.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Mr. Acton's Autographs \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=October 12, 1882 \\|page\\=4 \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/42956374/the\\-new\\-york\\-times/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-12 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|language\\=en}}",
"In 1887, he was nominated to run as the Republican candidate for the [Mayor of New York City](/wiki/Mayor_of_New_York_City \"Mayor of New York City\") but refused to accept due to his own business dealings at the time. He would again decline to run at the next election as well. He did, however, remain an opponent to Tammany Hall and its policies. Among his personal friends were [Horace Greeley](/wiki/Horace_Greeley \"Horace Greeley\") and [George W. Jones](/wiki/George_Jones_%28publisher%29 \"George Jones (publisher)\"), editors of the *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")* and *[New York Tribune](/wiki/New_York_Tribune \"New York Tribune\")*, respectively.",
"In 1896, he moved to his [summer home](/wiki/Summer_home \"Summer home\") in [Saybrook, Connecticut](/wiki/Saybrook%2C_Connecticut \"Saybrook, Connecticut\"). In failing health for some time, Acton died at 6:30 pm, at his home, from \"a complication of diseases\" on May 1, 1898\\. At the time of his death, he was still a director of the Bank of New Amsterdam. His death was attended by his wife, son and three daughters.{{cite news \\|title\\=Thomas C. Acton Is Dead. He Expired at His Home in Saybrook, Conn., After a Long Illness. Made History In This City, He Stopped the Draft Riots Here During the War. An Abolitionist in Earlier Days and Helped Form the Republican Party \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75668631/thomas\\-c\\-acton\\-is\\-dead/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|page\\=5 \\|date\\= May 2, 1898 \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-13 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com }}",
""
] |
Missionary college
------------------
[thumb\|The former chapell](/wiki/File:St_Augustine%27s_Abbey_Missionary_School_buildings.jpg "St Augustine's Abbey Missionary School buildings.jpg")
The mid\-19th century witnessed a "mass\-migration" from England to its colonies. In response, the Church of England sent clergy, but the demand for them to serve overseas exceeded supply.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, 1952\) p. 10\. Colonial bishoprics were established, but the bishops were without clergy. The training of missionary clergy for the colonies was “notoriously difficult” because they were required to have not only “piety and desire”, they were required to have an education “equivalent to that of a university degree”. The founding of the missionary college of St Augustine’s provided a solution to this problem.Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\) 265–266, 271–272\.
The Revd Edward Coleridge, a teacher at [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College "Eton College"), envisioned establishing a college for the purpose of training clergy for service in the colonies: both as ministers for the colonists and as missionaries to the native populations.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, 1952\), 10\.
Coleridge’s vision was supported by the “[high church](/wiki/High_church "High church") Anglican network”,{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}} but it aroused opposition in [low church](/wiki/Low_church "Low church") circles as too much like a Roman Catholic seminary. Coupling the establishment of the college with the restoration of the ruins of [St Augustine's Abbey](/wiki/St_Augustine%27s_Abbey "St Augustine's Abbey") in Canterbury attracted sufficient support for the college to be established.Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\) 272–274\.
The abbey had "reached its lowest point of degradation".{{Cite web\|url\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/ewell1896/\|title\=Guide to St. Augustine's Monastery and Missionary College, by Robert Ewell (1896\)\|website\=anglicanhistory.org\|accessdate\=13 October 2023}} The gate was the entrance to a brewery, the kitchen was a public house, the grounds were used for dancing and fireworks. This condition was the culmination of the abbey's dismantling and sale of material that began in 1541 after its closure by the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries "Dissolution of the Monasteries") during the [English Reformation](/wiki/English_Reformation "English Reformation").Judith Roebuck, *St Augustine's Abbey* (English Heritage, 1997\) 13\.
Appalled by the abbey's condition, [Alexander Beresford Hope](/wiki/Alexander_Beresford_Hope "Alexander Beresford Hope") MP (a devoted and wealthy layman) purchased the abbey’s ruins and ground plot in 1844\. Inspired by Edward Coleridge's vision of a missionary college, the work of establishing the college soon commenced. Funds were raised with Hope as the principal donor along with many other contributors including Queen Victoria.{{Cite web\|url\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/missionary\_college1848\.html\|title\=Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canterbury (1848\)\|website\=anglicanhistory.org\|accessdate\=13 October 2023}} "New buildings arose, a new life seemed to come out of the old shadows that lay so long over and around the ruins." Hope was determined to restore the ancient appearance as much as possible and, in accordance with Hope’s desires, “pains were taken to preserve as much as possible of the old work that seemed worth preserving.”{{citation needed\|date\=April 2015}} The Great Gate was refurbished and the college library was built over the foundation of what had been the abbey’s refectory. Beneath the library, the remains of an abbey crypt were restored and used for teaching carpentry and other handicrafts needed when the missionary graduates ventured into primitive conditions. The dormitories comprised a range of new buildings designed to blend in with the old.John Brent, *Canterbury in the Olden Time* (Simpkin, Marshall \& Co, 1879\) 269–272\. Also available online in Google Books. The architect for the reconstruction was [William Butterfield](/wiki/William_Butterfield "William Butterfield").{{National Heritage List for England \|num\=1334337\|accessdate\=5 January 2014}}
The new Missionary College was consecrated on 29 June 1848\. Some 1,200 people came to Canterbury for the occasion. The Archbishop of Canterbury and his party travelled from London on a special train. By 1849, the college was advertising for students. Over time, hundreds of young men, mostly from humble homes, enrolled and attained high standards of education.{{cite web\|author\=Michael Blain\|title\=College of S. Augustine, Canterbury: Participants at the Consecration, S. Peter's Day, 1848\|year\=2007\|url\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/blain\_opening2007\.pdf\|website\=anglicanhistory.org}} Besides religious courses, students were taught practical medicine, Oriental languages, and handicrafts.John Brent, *Canterbury in the Olden Time* (Simpkin, Marshall \& Co, 1879\) 272\. Also available online in Google Books.
### Activities and graduates
*People’s Magazine* (1 June 1870\) described the college's daily activities as summarized in the table below.{{Cite web\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=FznmAAAAMAAJ\&dq\=People%E2%80%99s\+Magazine,\+June\+1,\+1870\&pg\=PA337\|title\=People's Magazine: An Illustrated Miscellany for Family Reading\|date\=13 October 1870\|publisher\=Society for promoting Christian knowledge.\|accessdate\=13 October 2023\|via\=Google Books}}
Graduates of the college went to “remote, isolated, dangerous, and impoverished parts” of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire"). They faced shipwreck, wars, tempests, wild animals and fire. Their destinations and distinctions achieved are shown in the following table.based on Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\), 280–282\.
| TIME | ACTIVITY | ▌ | DESTINATION | NUMBER | ▌ | DISTINCTION | NUMBER |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 6:00am | Wake up | ▌ | Africa and Middle East | 76 | ▌ | Bishop | 5 |
| 7:00am | Chapel, followed by study | ▌ | Asia and India | 126 | ▌ | Dean | 3 |
| 8:00am | Breakfast for students and faculty, followed by study | ▌ | Australia, New Zealand and Pacific | 98 | ▌ | Archdeacons | 20 plus |
| 9:00am | Lectures begin | ▌ | Canada and Newfoundland | 147 | ▌ | Martyrs | 1 |
| 2:00pm | Lunch followed by recreation | ▌ | West Indies and Central and South America | 23 | ▌ | College principals | 2 |
| 6:00pm | Tea followed by study time | ▌ | England and Gibraltar | 10 | ▌ | Decorated military chaplains | 6 |
| 9:30pm | Chapel | ▌ | Zululand | 4 | ▌ | ✙ | ✙ |
| 10:30pm | Lights out | ▌ | Not assigned or not listed | 27 | ▌ | ✙ | ✙ |
| ✙ | ✙ | ▌ | Total | 511 | ▌ | ✙ | |
### Global Majority Students
St Augustine's College admitted men of "any nation and rank in life".{{Cite book \|last\=Carteret\-Bisson \|first\=Frederick Shirley Dumaresq de \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-wECAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA365 \|title\=Our Schools and Colleges ... \|date\=1884 \|publisher\=Simpkin, Marshall \|pages\=366 \|language\=en}} They included a noticeable number of students from around the world. Boggis discusses [Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua](/wiki/Erasmus_Augustine_Kallihirua "Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua") and [Cecil Majaliwa](/wiki/Cecil_Majaliwa "Cecil Majaliwa") amongst others.{{Cite book \|last\=Robert James Edmund Boggis \|url\=http://archive.org/details/ahistorystaugus00bogggoog \|title\=A History of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury: By The Reverend R. J. E. Boggis, B.D. \|date\=1907 \|publisher\=Cross \& Jackson \|others\=Harvard University \|pages\=189–199 \|language\=English}} Other Global Majority students from the early period include [Shapurji Edalji](/wiki/Shapurji_Edalji "Shapurji Edalji").{{Cite book \|last\=Robert James Edmund Boggis \|url\=http://archive.org/details/ahistorystaugus00bogggoog \|title\=A History of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury: By The Reverend R. J. E. Boggis, B.D. \|date\=1907 \|publisher\=Cross \& Jackson \|others\=Harvard University \|pages\=316–317 \|language\=English}} Photographic portraits of some of these students (together with photographs of some white students and additional information) have been published on the St Augustine's Foundation website.{{Cite web \|title\=Our Students \|url\=https://www.staugustinesfoundation.org/our\-students \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-20 \|website\=St Augustine's Foundation \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|title\=Our Story \|url\=https://www.staugustinesfoundation.org/our\-story \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-20 \|website\=St Augustine's Foundation \|language\=en\-US}}
### Closure
On the night of 31 May 1942, a German air\-raid so badly damaged the college that it could no longer operate and the few remaining students moved away. The air\-raid spread shards of glass across the campus. Canon W. F. France, the last warden of the Missionary College, spent his days picking up the glass shards. France knew that if the shards were ground in, the soil would be forever contaminated by them.{{Cite web\|url\=http://archive.org/details/StAugustinesCanterburyAStoryOfEnduringLife\|title\=St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life\|date\=13 October 1952\|accessdate\=13 October 2023\|via\=Internet Archive}}
Fyndon's Great Gate entrance to the college exemplified the devastating damage: it along with buildings inside and outside the college had to be rebuilt.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.britainexpress.com/attractions.htm?attraction\=3365\|title\=Fyndon Gate Tower, Canterbury\|website\=Britain Express\|accessdate\=13 October 2023}}
One factor in the college’s permanent closure was the extensive and costly repairs that would be required to make the buildings again usable. Another factor that led to closing the college as a school for missionaries was that an Archbishops' Commission recommended the closing of separate missionary colleges. Thus, St Augustine's College never reopened as a missionary college. During its century of operation the college sent around 800 men to many parts of the world.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, London, 1952\) 11, 12\.
|
[
"Missionary college\n------------------",
"[thumb\\|The former chapell](/wiki/File:St_Augustine%27s_Abbey_Missionary_School_buildings.jpg \"St Augustine's Abbey Missionary School buildings.jpg\")",
"The mid\\-19th century witnessed a \"mass\\-migration\" from England to its colonies. In response, the Church of England sent clergy, but the demand for them to serve overseas exceeded supply.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, 1952\\) p. 10\\. Colonial bishoprics were established, but the bishops were without clergy. The training of missionary clergy for the colonies was “notoriously difficult” because they were required to have not only “piety and desire”, they were required to have an education “equivalent to that of a university degree”. The founding of the missionary college of St Augustine’s provided a solution to this problem.Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\\) 265–266, 271–272\\.",
"The Revd Edward Coleridge, a teacher at [Eton College](/wiki/Eton_College \"Eton College\"), envisioned establishing a college for the purpose of training clergy for service in the colonies: both as ministers for the colonists and as missionaries to the native populations.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, 1952\\), 10\\.",
"Coleridge’s vision was supported by the “[high church](/wiki/High_church \"High church\") Anglican network”,{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}} but it aroused opposition in [low church](/wiki/Low_church \"Low church\") circles as too much like a Roman Catholic seminary. Coupling the establishment of the college with the restoration of the ruins of [St Augustine's Abbey](/wiki/St_Augustine%27s_Abbey \"St Augustine's Abbey\") in Canterbury attracted sufficient support for the college to be established.Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\\) 272–274\\.",
"The abbey had \"reached its lowest point of degradation\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/ewell1896/\\|title\\=Guide to St. Augustine's Monastery and Missionary College, by Robert Ewell (1896\\)\\|website\\=anglicanhistory.org\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2023}} The gate was the entrance to a brewery, the kitchen was a public house, the grounds were used for dancing and fireworks. This condition was the culmination of the abbey's dismantling and sale of material that began in 1541 after its closure by the [Dissolution of the Monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries \"Dissolution of the Monasteries\") during the [English Reformation](/wiki/English_Reformation \"English Reformation\").Judith Roebuck, *St Augustine's Abbey* (English Heritage, 1997\\) 13\\.",
"Appalled by the abbey's condition, [Alexander Beresford Hope](/wiki/Alexander_Beresford_Hope \"Alexander Beresford Hope\") MP (a devoted and wealthy layman) purchased the abbey’s ruins and ground plot in 1844\\. Inspired by Edward Coleridge's vision of a missionary college, the work of establishing the college soon commenced. Funds were raised with Hope as the principal donor along with many other contributors including Queen Victoria.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/missionary\\_college1848\\.html\\|title\\=Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canterbury (1848\\)\\|website\\=anglicanhistory.org\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2023}} \"New buildings arose, a new life seemed to come out of the old shadows that lay so long over and around the ruins.\" Hope was determined to restore the ancient appearance as much as possible and, in accordance with Hope’s desires, “pains were taken to preserve as much as possible of the old work that seemed worth preserving.”{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2015}} The Great Gate was refurbished and the college library was built over the foundation of what had been the abbey’s refectory. Beneath the library, the remains of an abbey crypt were restored and used for teaching carpentry and other handicrafts needed when the missionary graduates ventured into primitive conditions. The dormitories comprised a range of new buildings designed to blend in with the old.John Brent, *Canterbury in the Olden Time* (Simpkin, Marshall \\& Co, 1879\\) 269–272\\. Also available online in Google Books. The architect for the reconstruction was [William Butterfield](/wiki/William_Butterfield \"William Butterfield\").{{National Heritage List for England \\|num\\=1334337\\|accessdate\\=5 January 2014}}",
"The new Missionary College was consecrated on 29 June 1848\\. Some 1,200 people came to Canterbury for the occasion. The Archbishop of Canterbury and his party travelled from London on a special train. By 1849, the college was advertising for students. Over time, hundreds of young men, mostly from humble homes, enrolled and attained high standards of education.{{cite web\\|author\\=Michael Blain\\|title\\=College of S. Augustine, Canterbury: Participants at the Consecration, S. Peter's Day, 1848\\|year\\=2007\\|url\\=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/sac/blain\\_opening2007\\.pdf\\|website\\=anglicanhistory.org}} Besides religious courses, students were taught practical medicine, Oriental languages, and handicrafts.John Brent, *Canterbury in the Olden Time* (Simpkin, Marshall \\& Co, 1879\\) 272\\. Also available online in Google Books.",
"### Activities and graduates",
"*People’s Magazine* (1 June 1870\\) described the college's daily activities as summarized in the table below.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=FznmAAAAMAAJ\\&dq\\=People%E2%80%99s\\+Magazine,\\+June\\+1,\\+1870\\&pg\\=PA337\\|title\\=People's Magazine: An Illustrated Miscellany for Family Reading\\|date\\=13 October 1870\\|publisher\\=Society for promoting Christian knowledge.\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2023\\|via\\=Google Books}}",
"Graduates of the college went to “remote, isolated, dangerous, and impoverished parts” of the [British Empire](/wiki/British_Empire \"British Empire\"). They faced shipwreck, wars, tempests, wild animals and fire. Their destinations and distinctions achieved are shown in the following table.based on Hilary M. Carey, *God’s Empire* (Cambridge University Press, 2011\\), 280–282\\.",
"",
"| TIME | ACTIVITY | ▌ | DESTINATION | NUMBER | ▌ | DISTINCTION | NUMBER |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 6:00am | Wake up | ▌ | Africa and Middle East | 76 | ▌ | Bishop | 5 |\n| 7:00am | Chapel, followed by study | ▌ | Asia and India | 126 | ▌ | Dean | 3 |\n| 8:00am | Breakfast for students and faculty, followed by study | ▌ | Australia, New Zealand and Pacific | 98 | ▌ | Archdeacons | 20 plus |\n| 9:00am | Lectures begin | ▌ | Canada and Newfoundland | 147 | ▌ | Martyrs | 1 |\n| 2:00pm | Lunch followed by recreation | ▌ | West Indies and Central and South America | 23 | ▌ | College principals | 2 |\n| 6:00pm | Tea followed by study time | ▌ | England and Gibraltar | 10 | ▌ | Decorated military chaplains | 6 |\n| 9:30pm | Chapel | ▌ | Zululand | 4 | ▌ | ✙ | ✙ |\n| 10:30pm | Lights out | ▌ | Not assigned or not listed | 27 | ▌ | ✙ | ✙ |\n| ✙ | ✙ | ▌ | Total | 511 | ▌ | ✙ | |",
"### Global Majority Students",
"St Augustine's College admitted men of \"any nation and rank in life\".{{Cite book \\|last\\=Carteret\\-Bisson \\|first\\=Frederick Shirley Dumaresq de \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-wECAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA365 \\|title\\=Our Schools and Colleges ... \\|date\\=1884 \\|publisher\\=Simpkin, Marshall \\|pages\\=366 \\|language\\=en}} They included a noticeable number of students from around the world. Boggis discusses [Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua](/wiki/Erasmus_Augustine_Kallihirua \"Erasmus Augustine Kallihirua\") and [Cecil Majaliwa](/wiki/Cecil_Majaliwa \"Cecil Majaliwa\") amongst others.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Robert James Edmund Boggis \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/ahistorystaugus00bogggoog \\|title\\=A History of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury: By The Reverend R. J. E. Boggis, B.D. \\|date\\=1907 \\|publisher\\=Cross \\& Jackson \\|others\\=Harvard University \\|pages\\=189–199 \\|language\\=English}} Other Global Majority students from the early period include [Shapurji Edalji](/wiki/Shapurji_Edalji \"Shapurji Edalji\").{{Cite book \\|last\\=Robert James Edmund Boggis \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/ahistorystaugus00bogggoog \\|title\\=A History of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury: By The Reverend R. J. E. Boggis, B.D. \\|date\\=1907 \\|publisher\\=Cross \\& Jackson \\|others\\=Harvard University \\|pages\\=316–317 \\|language\\=English}} Photographic portraits of some of these students (together with photographs of some white students and additional information) have been published on the St Augustine's Foundation website.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Our Students \\|url\\=https://www.staugustinesfoundation.org/our\\-students \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-20 \\|website\\=St Augustine's Foundation \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Our Story \\|url\\=https://www.staugustinesfoundation.org/our\\-story \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-20 \\|website\\=St Augustine's Foundation \\|language\\=en\\-US}}",
"### Closure",
"On the night of 31 May 1942, a German air\\-raid so badly damaged the college that it could no longer operate and the few remaining students moved away. The air\\-raid spread shards of glass across the campus. Canon W. F. France, the last warden of the Missionary College, spent his days picking up the glass shards. France knew that if the shards were ground in, the soil would be forever contaminated by them.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/StAugustinesCanterburyAStoryOfEnduringLife\\|title\\=St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life\\|date\\=13 October 1952\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2023\\|via\\=Internet Archive}}",
"Fyndon's Great Gate entrance to the college exemplified the devastating damage: it along with buildings inside and outside the college had to be rebuilt.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.britainexpress.com/attractions.htm?attraction\\=3365\\|title\\=Fyndon Gate Tower, Canterbury\\|website\\=Britain Express\\|accessdate\\=13 October 2023}}",
"One factor in the college’s permanent closure was the extensive and costly repairs that would be required to make the buildings again usable. Another factor that led to closing the college as a school for missionaries was that an Archbishops' Commission recommended the closing of separate missionary colleges. Thus, St Augustine's College never reopened as a missionary college. During its century of operation the college sent around 800 men to many parts of the world.Canon W. F. France, *St Augustine's, Canterbury: A Story of Enduring Life* (SPCK, London, 1952\\) 11, 12\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Theory
{{multiple image
\|height \= 160
\|image1 \= Business\_cycle.jpg
\|alt1 \= Parts of a business cycle
\|caption1 \= Phases of the business cycle
\|image2 \= World\_Business\_Cycle.png
\|alt2 \= Actual business cycle
\|caption2 \= Long term growth of GDP
}}
The first systematic exposition of [economic crises](/wiki/Economic_crises "Economic crises"), in opposition to the existing theory of [economic equilibrium](/wiki/Economic_equilibrium "Economic equilibrium"), was the 1819 {{Lang\|fr\|Nouveaux Principes d'économie politique}} by [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi "Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi").["Over Production and Under Consumption"](http://www.economictheories.org/2008/11/over-production-and-under-consumption.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425055556/http://www.economictheories.org/2008/11/over\-production\-and\-under\-consumption.html \|date\=2009\-04\-25 }}, ScarLett, History Of Economic Theory and Thought Prior to that point [classical economics](/wiki/Classical_economics "Classical economics") had either denied the existence of business cycles,{{Cite news\|title\=Economics in Crisis: Severe and Logical Contradictions of Classical, Keynesian, and Popular Trade Models \|last\=Batra \|first\=R. \|year\=2002}} blamed them on external factors, notably war,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/classical\-economists\-good\-or\-bad/\|title\=Classical Economists, Good or Bad?\|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091002020124/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/classical\-economists\-good\-or\-bad/\|archive\-date\=2009\-10\-02}} or only studied the long term. Sismondi found vindication in the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 "Panic of 1825"), which was the first unarguably international economic crisis, occurring in peacetime.{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2019}}
Sismondi and his contemporary [Robert Owen](/wiki/Robert_Owen "Robert Owen"), who expressed similar but less systematic thoughts in 1817 *Report to the Committee of the Association for the Relief of the Manufacturing Poor,* both identified the cause of economic cycles as [overproduction](/wiki/Overproduction "Overproduction") and [underconsumption](/wiki/Underconsumption "Underconsumption"), caused in particular by [wealth inequality](/wiki/Wealth_inequality "Wealth inequality"). They advocated [government intervention](/wiki/Government_intervention "Government intervention") and [socialism](/wiki/Socialism "Socialism"), respectively, as the solution. This work did not generate interest among classical economists, though underconsumption theory developed as a heterodox branch in economics until being systematized in [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics") in the 1930s.
Sismondi's theory of periodic crises was developed into a theory of alternating *cycles* by [Charles Dunoyer](/wiki/Charles_Dunoyer "Charles Dunoyer"),{{cite journal \| last1 \= Benkemoune \| first1 \= Rabah \| year \= 2009 \| title \= Charles Dunoyer and the Emergence of the Idea of an Economic Cycle \| journal \= History of Political Economy \| volume \= 41 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 271–295 \| doi \= 10\.1215/00182702\-2009\-003 }} and similar theories, showing signs of influence by Sismondi, were developed by [Johann Karl Rodbertus](/wiki/Johann_Karl_Rodbertus "Johann Karl Rodbertus"). Periodic crises in capitalism formed the basis of the theory of [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx "Karl Marx"), who further claimed that these crises were increasing in severity and, on the basis of which, he predicted a [communist revolution](/wiki/Communist_revolution "Communist revolution").{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}} Though only passing references in *[Das Kapital](/wiki/Das_Kapital "Das Kapital")* (1867\) refer to crises, they were extensively discussed in Marx's posthumously published books, particularly in *[Theories of Surplus Value](/wiki/Theories_of_Surplus_Value "Theories of Surplus Value")*. In *[Progress and Poverty](/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty "Progress and Poverty")* (1879\), [Henry George](/wiki/Henry_George "Henry George") focused on [land](/wiki/Land_%28economics%29 "Land (economics)")'s role in crises – particularly [land speculation](/wiki/Land_speculation "Land speculation") – and proposed a [single tax on land](/wiki/Land_value_tax "Land value tax") as a solution.
Statistical or econometric modelling and theory of business cycle movements can also be used. In this case a time series analysis is used to capture the regularities and the stochastic signals and noise in economic time series such as Real GDP or Investment. \[Harvey and Trimbur, 2003, *Review of Economics and Statistics*] developed models for describing stochastic or pseudo\- cycles, of which business cycles represent a leading case. As well\-formed and compact – and easy to implement – statistical methods may outperform macroeconomic approaches in numerous cases, they provide a solid alternative even for rather complex economic theory.{{cite journal\|last1\=Harvey\|first1\=Andrew C. \|last2\=Trimbur\|first2\=Thomas M.\|year\=2003\|title\=General model based filters for extracting trends and cycles in economic time series \|journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics\|volume\=85\|issue\=2\|pages\=244–255 \|doi\=10\.1162/003465303765299774 \|s2cid\=57567527 \|url\=http://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/research\-files/repec/cam/pdf/wp0113\.pdf }}
### Classification by periods
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|Business cycle with it specific forces in four stages according to [Malcolm C. Rorty](/wiki/Malcolm_C._Rorty "Malcolm C. Rorty"), 1922](/wiki/File:The_Forces_of_the_Business_Cycle%2C_1922.jpg "The Forces of the Business Cycle, 1922.jpg")
In 1860 French economist [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar "Clément Juglar") first identified economic cycles 7 to 11 years long, although he cautiously did not claim any rigid regularity.M. W. Lee, *Economic fluctuations*. Homewood, IL, Richard D. Irwin, 1955 This interval of periodicity is also commonplace, as an empirical finding, in time series models for stochastic cycles in economic data. Furthermore, methods like statistical modelling in a Bayesian framework – see e.g. \[Harvey, Trimbur, and van Dijk, 2007, *Journal of Econometrics*] – can incorporate such a range explicitly by setting up priors that concentrate around say 6 to 12 years, such flexible knowledge about the frequency of business cycles can actually be included in their mathematical study, using a Bayesian statistical paradigm.{{cite journal \|last1\=Harvey \|first1\=Andrew C. \|last2\=Trimbur \|first2\=Thomas M. \|last3\=van Dijk \|first3\=Herman C. \|year\=2007 \|title\=Trends and cycles in economic time series: A Bayesian approach \|url\=http://repub.eur.nl/pub/6913 \|journal\=Journal of Econometrics \|volume\=140 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=618–649 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jeconom.2006\.07\.006 \|hdl\-access\=free \|hdl\=1765/6913}}
Later{{when\|date\=January 2014}}, economist [Joseph Schumpeter](/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter "Joseph Schumpeter") argued that a [Juglar cycle](/wiki/Juglar_cycle "Juglar cycle") has four stages:
1. [Expansion](/wiki/Economic_expansion "Economic expansion") (increase in production and prices, low interest rates)
2. [Crisis](/wiki/Economic_crisis "Economic crisis") (stock exchanges crash and multiple bankruptcies of firms occur)
3. [Recession](/wiki/Recession "Recession") (drops in prices and in output, high interest\-rates)
4. [Recovery](/wiki/Economic_recovery "Economic recovery") (stocks recover because of the fall in prices and incomes)
Schumpeter's Juglar model associates recovery and prosperity with increases in productivity, [consumer confidence](/wiki/Consumer_confidence "Consumer confidence"), [aggregate demand](/wiki/Aggregate_demand "Aggregate demand"), and prices.
In the 20th century, Schumpeter and others proposed a typology of business cycles according to their periodicity, so that a number of particular cycles were named after their discoverers or proposers:
{{cite book \|title\=History of Economic Analysis \|last\=Schumpeter \|first\=J. A. \|year\=1954 \|publisher\=George Allen \& Unwin \|location\=London }}
{{economic waves}}
* The [Kitchin inventory cycle](/wiki/Kitchin_cycle "Kitchin cycle") of 3 to 5 years (after [Joseph Kitchin](/wiki/Joseph_Kitchin "Joseph Kitchin")){{cite journal \|last\=Kitchin \|first\=Joseph \|year\=1923 \|title\=Cycles and Trends in Economic Factors \|journal\=\[\[Review of Economics and Statistics]] \|volume\=5 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=10–16 \|doi\=10\.2307/1927031 \|jstor\=1927031 }}
* The Juglar [fixed\-investment](/wiki/Fixed_investment "Fixed investment") cycle of 7 to 11 years. A range of periods rather than one fixed period is needed to capture business cycle fluctuations, which may be done by using a random or irregular source as in an econometric or statistical framework.
* The [Kuznets infrastructural investment cycle](/wiki/Kuznets_swing "Kuznets swing") of 15 to 25 years (after [Simon Kuznets](/wiki/Simon_Kuznets "Simon Kuznets") – also called "building cycle")
* The [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave "Kondratiev wave") or long technological cycle of 45 to 60 years (after the Soviet economist [Nikolai Kondratiev](/wiki/Nikolai_Kondratiev "Nikolai Kondratiev")){{cite journal \|last1\=Kondratieff \|first1\=N. D. \|last2\=Stolper\|first2\= W. F. \|year\=1935 \|title\=The Long Waves in Economic Life \|journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics \|volume\=17 \|issue\=6 \|pages\=105–115 \|doi\=10\.2307/1928486 \|jstor\=1928486 }}
Some say interest in the different typologies of cycles has waned since the development of modern [macroeconomics](/wiki/Macroeconomics "Macroeconomics"), which gives little support to the idea of regular periodic cycles.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.albany.edu/\~bd445/Eco\_301/Slides/Business\_Cycle\_Notes\_(Print).pdf\|title\=Business cycle notes \|access\-date\=2014\-09\-22\|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125054802/http://www.albany.edu/\~bd445/Eco\_301/Slides/Business\_Cycle\_Notes\_%28Print%29\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2014\-01\-25}} Further econometric studies such as the two works in 2003 and 2007 cited above demonstrate a clear tendency for cyclical components in macroeconomic times to behave in a stochastic rather than deterministic way.
Others, such as [Dmitry Orlov](/wiki/Dmitry_Orlov_%28writer%29 "Dmitry Orlov (writer)"), argue that simple compound interest mandates the cycling of monetary systems. Since 1960, World [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") has increased by fifty\-nine times, and these multiples have not even kept up with annual inflation over the same period. [Social Contract](/wiki/Social_Contract "Social Contract") (freedoms and absence of social problems) collapses may be observed in nations where incomes are not kept in balance with cost\-of\-living over the timeline of the monetary system cycle.
The [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible") (760 BCE) and [Hammurabi](/wiki/Hammurabi "Hammurabi")'s Code (1763 BCE) both explain economic remediations for cyclic sixty\-year recurring great depressions, via fiftieth\-year [Jubilee (biblical)](/wiki/Jubilee_%28biblical%29 "Jubilee (biblical)") debt and wealth resets{{citation needed\|date\=September 2019}}. Thirty major debt forgiveness events are recorded in history including the debt forgiveness given to most European nations in the 1930s to 1954\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11383374/The\-biggest\-debt\-write\-offs\-in\-the\-history\-of\-the\-world.html \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11383374/The\-biggest\-debt\-write\-offs\-in\-the\-history\-of\-the\-world.html \|archive\-date\=2022\-01\-12 \|url\-access\=subscription \|url\-status\=live\|title\=The biggest debt forgiveness write\-offs in the history of the world – Telegraph\|last\=Khan\|first\=Mejreen\|website\=Telegraph.co.uk\|date\=2 February 2015\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-10}}{{cbignore}}
### Occurrence
[thumb\|upright\=2\.05\|A simplified [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave "Kondratiev wave"), with the theory that [productivity](/wiki/Productivity "Productivity") enhancing innovations drive waves of economic growth](/wiki/File:Kondratieff_Wave.svg "Kondratieff Wave.svg")
There were great increases in [productivity](/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_%28historical%29 "Productivity improving technologies (historical)"), industrial production and real per capita product throughout the period from 1870 to 1890 that included the [Long Depression](/wiki/Long_Depression "Long Depression") and two other recessions.{{cite book\|title\=Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well\-Being of Society\|last\=Wells\|first\=David A.\|year\=1890 \|publisher\= D. Appleton and Co.\|location\= New York\|isbn\= 978\-0543724748 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog \|quote\=RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.}}{{cite book\|title\=History of Money and Banking in the United States\|last\=Rothbard\|first\=Murray\|year\=2002\|publisher\=Ludwig Von Mises Inst\|isbn\=978\-0945466338\|url\=https://mises.org/books/historyofmoney.pdf\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210225721/http://mises.org/books/historyofmoney.pdf\|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-10}} There were also significant increases in productivity in the years leading up to the Great Depression. Both the Long and Great Depressions were characterized by overcapacity and market saturation.{{cite book\|title\=Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well\-Being of Society\|last\=Wells\|first\=David A.\|year\=1890 \|publisher\= D. Appleton and Co.\|location\= New York\|isbn\= 978\-0543724748 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog \|quote\=RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.}}Opening line of the Preface.{{cite book \|title\=Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression \|last\=Beaudreau \|first\=Bernard C. \|year\=1996 \|publisher\=Authors Choice Press\|location\=New York, Lincoln, Shanghi }}
Over the period since the Industrial Revolution, technological progress has had a much larger effect on the economy than any fluctuations in credit or debt, the primary exception being the Great Depression, which caused a multi\-year steep economic decline. The effect of technological progress can be seen by the purchasing power of an average hour's work, which has grown from $3 in 1900 to $22 in 1990, measured in 2010 dollars.{{cite book \|title\= Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century \|last\= Lebergott \|first\= Stanley \|year\= 1993 \|publisher\= Princeton University Press \|location\= Princeton, NJ \|isbn\= 978\-0691043227 \|pages\= a:Adapted from Fig. 9\.1 \|url\= https://archive.org/details/pursuinghappines0000lebe \|url\-access\= registration }} There were similar increases in real wages during the 19th century. (*See: [Productivity improving technologies (historical)](/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_%28historical%29 "Productivity improving technologies (historical)")*.) A table of innovations and long cycles can be seen at: {{slink\|Kondratiev wave\|Modern modifications of Kondratiev theory}}. Since surprising news in the economy, which has a random aspect, impact the state of the business cycle, any corresponding descriptions must have a random part at its root that motivates the use of statistical frameworks in this area.
There were frequent crises in Europe and America in the 19th and first half of the 20th century, specifically the period 1815–1939\. This period started from the end of the [Napoleonic wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_wars "Napoleonic wars") in 1815, which was immediately followed by the [Post\-Napoleonic depression](/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_depression "Post-Napoleonic depression") in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") (1815–1830\), and culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of 1929–1939, which led into [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). See [Financial crisis: 19th century](/wiki/Financial_crisis%2319th_century "Financial crisis#19th century") for listing and details. The first of these crises not associated with a war was the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 "Panic of 1825").{{Cite journal\|last\=Shallat\|first\=Todd\|date\=February 2004\|title\=The Rhine: An Eco\-Biography, 1815–2000\|journal\=The Public Historian\|volume\=26\|issue\=1\|pages\=163–164\|doi\=10\.1525/tph.2004\.26\.1\.163\|issn\=0272\-3433}}
Business cycles in [OECD](/wiki/OECD "OECD") countries after World War II were generally more restrained than the earlier business cycles. This was particularly true during the [Golden Age of Capitalism](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Capitalism "Golden Age of Capitalism") (1945/50–1970s), and the period 1945–2008 did not experience a global downturn until the [Late\-2000s recession](/wiki/Late-2000s_recession "Late-2000s recession").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ici.org/pdf/per02\-02\.pdf \|title\=Investment company institute \- Perspective \|access\-date\=2013\-08\-01 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313190606/http://ici.org/pdf/per02\-02\.pdf \|archive\-date\=2013\-03\-13 }} Stock Market Cycles 1942–1995 Economic stabilization policy using [fiscal policy](/wiki/Fiscal_policy "Fiscal policy") and [monetary policy](/wiki/Monetary_policy "Monetary policy") appeared to have dampened the worst excesses of business cycles, and [automatic stabilization](/wiki/Automatic_stabilization "Automatic stabilization") due to the aspects of the [government](/wiki/Government "Government")'s [budget](/wiki/Budget "Budget") also helped mitigate the cycle even without conscious action by policy\-makers.{{Citation\|title\=Business Cycles versus Boom\-and\-Bust Cycles\|work\=Economic and Financial Crises\|year\=2015\|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan\|doi\=10\.1057/9781137461902\.0009\|isbn\=978\-1\-137\-46190\-2}}
In this period, the economic cycle – at least the problem of depressions – was twice declared dead. The first declaration was in the late 1960s, when the [Phillips curve](/wiki/Phillips_curve "Phillips curve") was seen as being able to steer the economy. However, this was followed by [stagflation](/wiki/Stagflation "Stagflation") in the 1970s, which discredited the theory. The second declaration was in the early 2000s, following the stability and growth in the 1980s and 1990s in what came to be known as the [Great Moderation](/wiki/Great_Moderation "Great Moderation"). Notably, in 2003, [Robert Lucas Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Lucas%2C_Jr. "Robert Lucas, Jr."), in his presidential address to the [American Economic Association](/wiki/American_Economic_Association "American Economic Association"), declared that the "central problem of depression\-prevention \[has] been solved, for all practical purposes."Fighting Off Depression, New York Times, {{cite news \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/05/opinion/05krugman.html \|title\=Opinion \| Fighting off Depression \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=5 January 2009 \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-15 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430040012/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/05/opinion/05krugman.html \|archive\-date\=2011\-04\-30 \|last1\=Krugman \|first1\=Paul }}
Various regions have experienced prolonged [depressions](/wiki/Depression_%28economics%29 "Depression (economics)"), most dramatically the economic crisis in former [Eastern Bloc](/wiki/Eastern_Bloc "Eastern Bloc") countries following the end of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") in 1991\. For several of these countries the period 1989–2010 has been an ongoing depression, with real income still lower than in 1989\.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Smith\|first1\=Adrian\|last2\=Swain\|first2\=Adam \|s2cid\=154302466 \|date\=January 2010\|title\=The Global Economic Crisis, Eastern Europe, and the Former Soviet Union: Models of Development and the Contradictions of Internationalization\|journal\=Eurasian Geography and Economics\|volume\=51\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–34\|doi\=10\.2747/1539\-7216\.51\.1\.1\|issn\=1538\-7216}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Theory",
"{{multiple image\n\\|height \\= 160\n\\|image1 \\= Business\\_cycle.jpg\n\\|alt1 \\= Parts of a business cycle\n\\|caption1 \\= Phases of the business cycle\n\\|image2 \\= World\\_Business\\_Cycle.png\n\\|alt2 \\= Actual business cycle\n\\|caption2 \\= Long term growth of GDP\n}}\nThe first systematic exposition of [economic crises](/wiki/Economic_crises \"Economic crises\"), in opposition to the existing theory of [economic equilibrium](/wiki/Economic_equilibrium \"Economic equilibrium\"), was the 1819 {{Lang\\|fr\\|Nouveaux Principes d'économie politique}} by [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi \"Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi\").[\"Over Production and Under Consumption\"](http://www.economictheories.org/2008/11/over-production-and-under-consumption.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425055556/http://www.economictheories.org/2008/11/over\\-production\\-and\\-under\\-consumption.html \\|date\\=2009\\-04\\-25 }}, ScarLett, History Of Economic Theory and Thought Prior to that point [classical economics](/wiki/Classical_economics \"Classical economics\") had either denied the existence of business cycles,{{Cite news\\|title\\=Economics in Crisis: Severe and Logical Contradictions of Classical, Keynesian, and Popular Trade Models \\|last\\=Batra \\|first\\=R. \\|year\\=2002}} blamed them on external factors, notably war,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/classical\\-economists\\-good\\-or\\-bad/\\|title\\=Classical Economists, Good or Bad?\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091002020124/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/classical\\-economists\\-good\\-or\\-bad/\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-10\\-02}} or only studied the long term. Sismondi found vindication in the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 \"Panic of 1825\"), which was the first unarguably international economic crisis, occurring in peacetime.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2019}}",
"Sismondi and his contemporary [Robert Owen](/wiki/Robert_Owen \"Robert Owen\"), who expressed similar but less systematic thoughts in 1817 *Report to the Committee of the Association for the Relief of the Manufacturing Poor,* both identified the cause of economic cycles as [overproduction](/wiki/Overproduction \"Overproduction\") and [underconsumption](/wiki/Underconsumption \"Underconsumption\"), caused in particular by [wealth inequality](/wiki/Wealth_inequality \"Wealth inequality\"). They advocated [government intervention](/wiki/Government_intervention \"Government intervention\") and [socialism](/wiki/Socialism \"Socialism\"), respectively, as the solution. This work did not generate interest among classical economists, though underconsumption theory developed as a heterodox branch in economics until being systematized in [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\") in the 1930s.",
"Sismondi's theory of periodic crises was developed into a theory of alternating *cycles* by [Charles Dunoyer](/wiki/Charles_Dunoyer \"Charles Dunoyer\"),{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Benkemoune \\| first1 \\= Rabah \\| year \\= 2009 \\| title \\= Charles Dunoyer and the Emergence of the Idea of an Economic Cycle \\| journal \\= History of Political Economy \\| volume \\= 41 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 271–295 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1215/00182702\\-2009\\-003 }} and similar theories, showing signs of influence by Sismondi, were developed by [Johann Karl Rodbertus](/wiki/Johann_Karl_Rodbertus \"Johann Karl Rodbertus\"). Periodic crises in capitalism formed the basis of the theory of [Karl Marx](/wiki/Karl_Marx \"Karl Marx\"), who further claimed that these crises were increasing in severity and, on the basis of which, he predicted a [communist revolution](/wiki/Communist_revolution \"Communist revolution\").{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}} Though only passing references in *[Das Kapital](/wiki/Das_Kapital \"Das Kapital\")* (1867\\) refer to crises, they were extensively discussed in Marx's posthumously published books, particularly in *[Theories of Surplus Value](/wiki/Theories_of_Surplus_Value \"Theories of Surplus Value\")*. In *[Progress and Poverty](/wiki/Progress_and_Poverty \"Progress and Poverty\")* (1879\\), [Henry George](/wiki/Henry_George \"Henry George\") focused on [land](/wiki/Land_%28economics%29 \"Land (economics)\")'s role in crises – particularly [land speculation](/wiki/Land_speculation \"Land speculation\") – and proposed a [single tax on land](/wiki/Land_value_tax \"Land value tax\") as a solution.",
"Statistical or econometric modelling and theory of business cycle movements can also be used. In this case a time series analysis is used to capture the regularities and the stochastic signals and noise in economic time series such as Real GDP or Investment. \\[Harvey and Trimbur, 2003, *Review of Economics and Statistics*] developed models for describing stochastic or pseudo\\- cycles, of which business cycles represent a leading case. As well\\-formed and compact – and easy to implement – statistical methods may outperform macroeconomic approaches in numerous cases, they provide a solid alternative even for rather complex economic theory.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Harvey\\|first1\\=Andrew C. \\|last2\\=Trimbur\\|first2\\=Thomas M.\\|year\\=2003\\|title\\=General model based filters for extracting trends and cycles in economic time series \\|journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics\\|volume\\=85\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=244–255 \\|doi\\=10\\.1162/003465303765299774 \\|s2cid\\=57567527 \\|url\\=http://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/research\\-files/repec/cam/pdf/wp0113\\.pdf }}",
"### Classification by periods",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|Business cycle with it specific forces in four stages according to [Malcolm C. Rorty](/wiki/Malcolm_C._Rorty \"Malcolm C. Rorty\"), 1922](/wiki/File:The_Forces_of_the_Business_Cycle%2C_1922.jpg \"The Forces of the Business Cycle, 1922.jpg\")\nIn 1860 French economist [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar \"Clément Juglar\") first identified economic cycles 7 to 11 years long, although he cautiously did not claim any rigid regularity.M. W. Lee, *Economic fluctuations*. Homewood, IL, Richard D. Irwin, 1955 This interval of periodicity is also commonplace, as an empirical finding, in time series models for stochastic cycles in economic data. Furthermore, methods like statistical modelling in a Bayesian framework – see e.g. \\[Harvey, Trimbur, and van Dijk, 2007, *Journal of Econometrics*] – can incorporate such a range explicitly by setting up priors that concentrate around say 6 to 12 years, such flexible knowledge about the frequency of business cycles can actually be included in their mathematical study, using a Bayesian statistical paradigm.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Harvey \\|first1\\=Andrew C. \\|last2\\=Trimbur \\|first2\\=Thomas M. \\|last3\\=van Dijk \\|first3\\=Herman C. \\|year\\=2007 \\|title\\=Trends and cycles in economic time series: A Bayesian approach \\|url\\=http://repub.eur.nl/pub/6913 \\|journal\\=Journal of Econometrics \\|volume\\=140 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=618–649 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jeconom.2006\\.07\\.006 \\|hdl\\-access\\=free \\|hdl\\=1765/6913}}",
"Later{{when\\|date\\=January 2014}}, economist [Joseph Schumpeter](/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter \"Joseph Schumpeter\") argued that a [Juglar cycle](/wiki/Juglar_cycle \"Juglar cycle\") has four stages:\n1. [Expansion](/wiki/Economic_expansion \"Economic expansion\") (increase in production and prices, low interest rates)\n2. [Crisis](/wiki/Economic_crisis \"Economic crisis\") (stock exchanges crash and multiple bankruptcies of firms occur)\n3. [Recession](/wiki/Recession \"Recession\") (drops in prices and in output, high interest\\-rates)\n4. [Recovery](/wiki/Economic_recovery \"Economic recovery\") (stocks recover because of the fall in prices and incomes)",
"Schumpeter's Juglar model associates recovery and prosperity with increases in productivity, [consumer confidence](/wiki/Consumer_confidence \"Consumer confidence\"), [aggregate demand](/wiki/Aggregate_demand \"Aggregate demand\"), and prices.",
"In the 20th century, Schumpeter and others proposed a typology of business cycles according to their periodicity, so that a number of particular cycles were named after their discoverers or proposers:\n{{cite book \\|title\\=History of Economic Analysis \\|last\\=Schumpeter \\|first\\=J. A. \\|year\\=1954 \\|publisher\\=George Allen \\& Unwin \\|location\\=London }}\n{{economic waves}}\n* The [Kitchin inventory cycle](/wiki/Kitchin_cycle \"Kitchin cycle\") of 3 to 5 years (after [Joseph Kitchin](/wiki/Joseph_Kitchin \"Joseph Kitchin\")){{cite journal \\|last\\=Kitchin \\|first\\=Joseph \\|year\\=1923 \\|title\\=Cycles and Trends in Economic Factors \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Review of Economics and Statistics]] \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=10–16 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1927031 \\|jstor\\=1927031 }}\n* The Juglar [fixed\\-investment](/wiki/Fixed_investment \"Fixed investment\") cycle of 7 to 11 years. A range of periods rather than one fixed period is needed to capture business cycle fluctuations, which may be done by using a random or irregular source as in an econometric or statistical framework.\n* The [Kuznets infrastructural investment cycle](/wiki/Kuznets_swing \"Kuznets swing\") of 15 to 25 years (after [Simon Kuznets](/wiki/Simon_Kuznets \"Simon Kuznets\") – also called \"building cycle\")\n* The [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave \"Kondratiev wave\") or long technological cycle of 45 to 60 years (after the Soviet economist [Nikolai Kondratiev](/wiki/Nikolai_Kondratiev \"Nikolai Kondratiev\")){{cite journal \\|last1\\=Kondratieff \\|first1\\=N. D. \\|last2\\=Stolper\\|first2\\= W. F. \\|year\\=1935 \\|title\\=The Long Waves in Economic Life \\|journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=6 \\|pages\\=105–115 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/1928486 \\|jstor\\=1928486 }}",
"Some say interest in the different typologies of cycles has waned since the development of modern [macroeconomics](/wiki/Macroeconomics \"Macroeconomics\"), which gives little support to the idea of regular periodic cycles.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.albany.edu/\\~bd445/Eco\\_301/Slides/Business\\_Cycle\\_Notes\\_(Print).pdf\\|title\\=Business cycle notes \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-09\\-22\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125054802/http://www.albany.edu/\\~bd445/Eco\\_301/Slides/Business\\_Cycle\\_Notes\\_%28Print%29\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-01\\-25}} Further econometric studies such as the two works in 2003 and 2007 cited above demonstrate a clear tendency for cyclical components in macroeconomic times to behave in a stochastic rather than deterministic way.",
"Others, such as [Dmitry Orlov](/wiki/Dmitry_Orlov_%28writer%29 \"Dmitry Orlov (writer)\"), argue that simple compound interest mandates the cycling of monetary systems. Since 1960, World [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") has increased by fifty\\-nine times, and these multiples have not even kept up with annual inflation over the same period. [Social Contract](/wiki/Social_Contract \"Social Contract\") (freedoms and absence of social problems) collapses may be observed in nations where incomes are not kept in balance with cost\\-of\\-living over the timeline of the monetary system cycle.",
"The [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\") (760 BCE) and [Hammurabi](/wiki/Hammurabi \"Hammurabi\")'s Code (1763 BCE) both explain economic remediations for cyclic sixty\\-year recurring great depressions, via fiftieth\\-year [Jubilee (biblical)](/wiki/Jubilee_%28biblical%29 \"Jubilee (biblical)\") debt and wealth resets{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2019}}. Thirty major debt forgiveness events are recorded in history including the debt forgiveness given to most European nations in the 1930s to 1954\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11383374/The\\-biggest\\-debt\\-write\\-offs\\-in\\-the\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-world.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11383374/The\\-biggest\\-debt\\-write\\-offs\\-in\\-the\\-history\\-of\\-the\\-world.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-12 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=The biggest debt forgiveness write\\-offs in the history of the world – Telegraph\\|last\\=Khan\\|first\\=Mejreen\\|website\\=Telegraph.co.uk\\|date\\=2 February 2015\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-10}}{{cbignore}}",
"### Occurrence",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=2\\.05\\|A simplified [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave \"Kondratiev wave\"), with the theory that [productivity](/wiki/Productivity \"Productivity\") enhancing innovations drive waves of economic growth](/wiki/File:Kondratieff_Wave.svg \"Kondratieff Wave.svg\")\nThere were great increases in [productivity](/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_%28historical%29 \"Productivity improving technologies (historical)\"), industrial production and real per capita product throughout the period from 1870 to 1890 that included the [Long Depression](/wiki/Long_Depression \"Long Depression\") and two other recessions.{{cite book\\|title\\=Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well\\-Being of Society\\|last\\=Wells\\|first\\=David A.\\|year\\=1890 \\|publisher\\= D. Appleton and Co.\\|location\\= New York\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0543724748 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog \\|quote\\=RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.}}{{cite book\\|title\\=History of Money and Banking in the United States\\|last\\=Rothbard\\|first\\=Murray\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Ludwig Von Mises Inst\\|isbn\\=978\\-0945466338\\|url\\=https://mises.org/books/historyofmoney.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210225721/http://mises.org/books/historyofmoney.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-10}} There were also significant increases in productivity in the years leading up to the Great Depression. Both the Long and Great Depressions were characterized by overcapacity and market saturation.{{cite book\\|title\\=Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well\\-Being of Society\\|last\\=Wells\\|first\\=David A.\\|year\\=1890 \\|publisher\\= D. Appleton and Co.\\|location\\= New York\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0543724748 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog \\|quote\\=RECENT ECONOMIC CHANGES AND THEIR EFFECT ON DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH AND WELL BEING OF SOCIETY WELLS.}}Opening line of the Preface.{{cite book \\|title\\=Mass Production, the Stock Market Crash and the Great Depression \\|last\\=Beaudreau \\|first\\=Bernard C. \\|year\\=1996 \\|publisher\\=Authors Choice Press\\|location\\=New York, Lincoln, Shanghi }}",
"Over the period since the Industrial Revolution, technological progress has had a much larger effect on the economy than any fluctuations in credit or debt, the primary exception being the Great Depression, which caused a multi\\-year steep economic decline. The effect of technological progress can be seen by the purchasing power of an average hour's work, which has grown from $3 in 1900 to $22 in 1990, measured in 2010 dollars.{{cite book \\|title\\= Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century \\|last\\= Lebergott \\|first\\= Stanley \\|year\\= 1993 \\|publisher\\= Princeton University Press \\|location\\= Princeton, NJ \\|isbn\\= 978\\-0691043227 \\|pages\\= a:Adapted from Fig. 9\\.1 \\|url\\= https://archive.org/details/pursuinghappines0000lebe \\|url\\-access\\= registration }} There were similar increases in real wages during the 19th century. (*See: [Productivity improving technologies (historical)](/wiki/Productivity_improving_technologies_%28historical%29 \"Productivity improving technologies (historical)\")*.) A table of innovations and long cycles can be seen at: {{slink\\|Kondratiev wave\\|Modern modifications of Kondratiev theory}}. Since surprising news in the economy, which has a random aspect, impact the state of the business cycle, any corresponding descriptions must have a random part at its root that motivates the use of statistical frameworks in this area.",
"There were frequent crises in Europe and America in the 19th and first half of the 20th century, specifically the period 1815–1939\\. This period started from the end of the [Napoleonic wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_wars \"Napoleonic wars\") in 1815, which was immediately followed by the [Post\\-Napoleonic depression](/wiki/Post-Napoleonic_depression \"Post-Napoleonic depression\") in the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") (1815–1830\\), and culminated in the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of 1929–1939, which led into [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). See [Financial crisis: 19th century](/wiki/Financial_crisis%2319th_century \"Financial crisis#19th century\") for listing and details. The first of these crises not associated with a war was the [Panic of 1825](/wiki/Panic_of_1825 \"Panic of 1825\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Shallat\\|first\\=Todd\\|date\\=February 2004\\|title\\=The Rhine: An Eco\\-Biography, 1815–2000\\|journal\\=The Public Historian\\|volume\\=26\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=163–164\\|doi\\=10\\.1525/tph.2004\\.26\\.1\\.163\\|issn\\=0272\\-3433}}",
"Business cycles in [OECD](/wiki/OECD \"OECD\") countries after World War II were generally more restrained than the earlier business cycles. This was particularly true during the [Golden Age of Capitalism](/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Capitalism \"Golden Age of Capitalism\") (1945/50–1970s), and the period 1945–2008 did not experience a global downturn until the [Late\\-2000s recession](/wiki/Late-2000s_recession \"Late-2000s recession\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ici.org/pdf/per02\\-02\\.pdf \\|title\\=Investment company institute \\- Perspective \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-08\\-01 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313190606/http://ici.org/pdf/per02\\-02\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-13 }} Stock Market Cycles 1942–1995 Economic stabilization policy using [fiscal policy](/wiki/Fiscal_policy \"Fiscal policy\") and [monetary policy](/wiki/Monetary_policy \"Monetary policy\") appeared to have dampened the worst excesses of business cycles, and [automatic stabilization](/wiki/Automatic_stabilization \"Automatic stabilization\") due to the aspects of the [government](/wiki/Government \"Government\")'s [budget](/wiki/Budget \"Budget\") also helped mitigate the cycle even without conscious action by policy\\-makers.{{Citation\\|title\\=Business Cycles versus Boom\\-and\\-Bust Cycles\\|work\\=Economic and Financial Crises\\|year\\=2015\\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan\\|doi\\=10\\.1057/9781137461902\\.0009\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-137\\-46190\\-2}}",
"In this period, the economic cycle – at least the problem of depressions – was twice declared dead. The first declaration was in the late 1960s, when the [Phillips curve](/wiki/Phillips_curve \"Phillips curve\") was seen as being able to steer the economy. However, this was followed by [stagflation](/wiki/Stagflation \"Stagflation\") in the 1970s, which discredited the theory. The second declaration was in the early 2000s, following the stability and growth in the 1980s and 1990s in what came to be known as the [Great Moderation](/wiki/Great_Moderation \"Great Moderation\"). Notably, in 2003, [Robert Lucas Jr.](/wiki/Robert_Lucas%2C_Jr. \"Robert Lucas, Jr.\"), in his presidential address to the [American Economic Association](/wiki/American_Economic_Association \"American Economic Association\"), declared that the \"central problem of depression\\-prevention \\[has] been solved, for all practical purposes.\"Fighting Off Depression, New York Times, {{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/05/opinion/05krugman.html \\|title\\=Opinion \\| Fighting off Depression \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=5 January 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-15 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430040012/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/05/opinion/05krugman.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-30 \\|last1\\=Krugman \\|first1\\=Paul }}",
"Various regions have experienced prolonged [depressions](/wiki/Depression_%28economics%29 \"Depression (economics)\"), most dramatically the economic crisis in former [Eastern Bloc](/wiki/Eastern_Bloc \"Eastern Bloc\") countries following the end of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") in 1991\\. For several of these countries the period 1989–2010 has been an ongoing depression, with real income still lower than in 1989\\.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Smith\\|first1\\=Adrian\\|last2\\=Swain\\|first2\\=Adam \\|s2cid\\=154302466 \\|date\\=January 2010\\|title\\=The Global Economic Crisis, Eastern Europe, and the Former Soviet Union: Models of Development and the Contradictions of Internationalization\\|journal\\=Eurasian Geography and Economics\\|volume\\=51\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–34\\|doi\\=10\\.2747/1539\\-7216\\.51\\.1\\.1\\|issn\\=1538\\-7216}}",
""
] |
Proposed explanations
---------------------
The explanation of fluctuations in aggregate economic activity is one of the primary concerns of [macroeconomics](/wiki/Macroeconomics "Macroeconomics") and a variety of theories have been proposed to explain them.
### Exogenous vs. endogenous
Within economics, it has been debated as to whether or not the fluctuations of a business cycle are attributable to external (exogenous) versus internal (endogenous) causes. In the first case shocks are stochastic, in the second case shocks are deterministically chaotic and embedded in the economic system.{{cite journal \|last1\=Orlando \|first1\=Giuseppe \|last2\=Zimatore \|first2\=Giovanna \|title\=Business cycle modeling between financial crises and black swans: Ornstein–Uhlenbeck stochastic process vs Kaldor deterministic chaotic model \|journal\=Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science \|date\=August 2020 \|volume\=30 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=083129 \|doi\=10\.1063/5\.0015916\|pmid\=32872798 \|bibcode\=2020Chaos..30h3129O \|s2cid\=235909725 }} The classical school (now neo\-classical) argues for exogenous causes and the [underconsumptionist](/wiki/Underconsumptionist "Underconsumptionist") (now Keynesian) school argues for endogenous causes. These may also broadly be classed as ["supply\-side"](/wiki/Supply-side_economics "Supply-side economics") and ["demand\-side"](/wiki/Demand-side_economics "Demand-side economics") explanations: supply\-side explanations may be styled, following [Say's law](/wiki/Say%27s_law "Say's law"), as arguing that "[supply creates its own demand](/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand "Supply creates its own demand")", while demand\-side explanations argue that [effective demand](/wiki/Effective_demand "Effective demand") may fall short of supply, yielding a recession or depression.
This debate has important policy consequences: proponents of exogenous causes of crises such as neoclassicals largely argue for minimal government policy or regulation ([laissez faire](/wiki/Laissez_faire "Laissez faire")), as absent these external shocks, the market functions, while proponents of endogenous causes of crises such as Keynesians largely argue for larger government policy and regulation, as absent regulation, the market will move from crisis to crisis. This division is not absolute – some classicals (including Say) argued for government policy to mitigate the damage of economic cycles, despite believing in external causes, while [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School "Austrian School") economists argue against government involvement as only worsening crises, despite believing in internal causes.
The view of the economic cycle as caused exogenously dates to Say's law, and much debate on endogeneity or exogeneity of causes of the economic cycle is framed in terms of refuting or supporting Say's law; this is also referred to as the "[general glut](/wiki/General_glut "General glut")" (supply in relation to demand) debate.
Until the [Keynesian revolution](/wiki/Keynesian_revolution "Keynesian revolution") in mainstream economics in the wake of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), classical and neoclassical explanations (exogenous causes) were the mainstream explanation of economic cycles; following the Keynesian revolution, neoclassical macroeconomics was largely rejected. There has been some resurgence of neoclassical approaches in the form of [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle "Real business cycle") (RBC) theory. The debate between Keynesians and neo\-classical advocates was reawakened following the recession of 2007\.
Mainstream economists working in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics "Neoclassical economics") tradition, as opposed to the Keynesian tradition, have usually viewed the departures of the harmonic working of the market economy as due to exogenous influences, such as the State or its regulations, labor unions, business monopolies, or shocks due to technology or natural causes.
Contrarily, in the heterodox tradition of [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi "Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi"), [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar "Clément Juglar"), and [Marx](/wiki/Crisis_theory "Crisis theory") the recurrent upturns and downturns of the market system are an endogenous characteristic of it.{{cite book \|last\=Morgan \|first\=Mary S. \|author\-link\=Mary S. Morgan \|title\=The History of Econometric Ideas \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1990 \|isbn\=978\-0521373982 \|pages\=15–130 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iUpDzJM9lq0C\&pg\=PA15 }}
The 19th\-century school of under consumptionism also posited endogenous causes for the business cycle, notably the [paradox of thrift](/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift "Paradox of thrift"), and today this previously heterodox school has entered the mainstream in the form of [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics") via the Keynesian revolution.
### Mainstream economics
{{Main\|Mainstream economics}}
Mainstream economics views business cycles as essentially "the random summation of random causes". In 1927, [Eugen Slutzky](/wiki/Eugen_Slutzky "Eugen Slutzky") observed that summing random numbers, such as the last digits of the Russian state lottery, could generate patterns akin to that we see in business cycles, an observation that has since been repeated many times. This caused economists to move away from viewing business cycles as a cycle that needed to be explained and instead viewing their apparently cyclical nature as a methodological artefact. This means that what appear to be cyclical phenomena can actually be explained as just random events that are fed into a simple linear model. Thus business cycles are essentially random shocks that average out over time. Mainstream economists have built models of business cycles based the idea that they are caused by random shocks.Drautzburg, Thorsten. "Why Are Recessions So Hard to Predict? Random Shocks and Business Cycles." Economic Insights 4, no. 1 (2019\): 1–8\.Slutzky, Eugen. "The summation of random causes as the source of cyclic processes." Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society (1937\): 105–146\.Chatterjee, Satyajit. "From cycles to shocks: Progress in business cycle theory." Business Review 3 (2000\): 27–37\. Due to this inherent randomness, recessions can sometimes not occur for decades; for example, Australia did not experience any recession between 1991 and 2020\.Isabella Kwai. "Australia’s First Recession in Decades Signals Tougher Times to Come."[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/business/australia\-recession.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/business/australia-recession.html) New York Times, 09\.02\.20
While economists have found it difficult to forecast recessions or determine their likely severity, research indicates that longer expansions do not cause following recessions to be more severe.Tasci, Murat, and Nicholas Zevanove. "Do Longer Expansions Lead to More Severe Recessions?." Economic Commentary 2019\-02 (2019\).
### Keynesian
According to [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics"), fluctuations in [aggregate demand](/wiki/Aggregate_demand "Aggregate demand") cause the economy to come to short run equilibrium at levels that are different from the full employment rate of output. These fluctuations express themselves as the observed business cycles. Keynesian models do not necessarily imply periodic business cycles. However, simple Keynesian models involving the interaction of the Keynesian multiplier and accelerator give rise to cyclical responses to initial shocks. [Paul Samuelson](/wiki/Paul_Samuelson "Paul Samuelson")'s "oscillator model"{{cite journal \| last1 \= Samuelson \| first1 \= P. A. \| year \= 1939 \| title \= Interactions between the multiplier analysis and the principle of acceleration \| journal \= Review of Economic Statistics \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 2\| pages \= 75–78 \| doi\=10\.2307/1927758\| jstor \= 1927758 }} is supposed to account for business cycles thanks to the multiplier and the accelerator. The amplitude of the variations in economic output depends on the level of the investment, for investment determines the level of aggregate output (multiplier), and is determined by aggregate demand (accelerator).
In the Keynesian tradition, [Richard Goodwin](/wiki/Richard_M._Goodwin "Richard M. Goodwin")R. M. Goodwin (1967\) "A Growth Cycle", in C.H. Feinstein, editor, *Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press accounts for cycles in output by the distribution of income between business profits and workers' wages. The fluctuations in wages are almost the same as in the level of employment (wage cycle lags one period behind the employment cycle), for when the economy is at high employment, workers are able to demand rises in wages, whereas in periods of high unemployment, wages tend to fall. According to Goodwin, when unemployment and business profits rise, the output rises.
### Cyclical behavior of exports and imports
[Exports](/wiki/Export "Export") and [imports](/wiki/Import "Import") are large components of an economy's [aggregate expenditure](/wiki/Aggregate_expenditure "Aggregate expenditure"), especially one that is oriented toward [international trade](/wiki/International_trade "International trade"). Income is an essential determinant of the level of imported goods. A higher [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") reflects a higher level of spending on imported goods and services, and vice versa. Therefore, expenditure on imported goods and services fall during a [recession](/wiki/Recession "Recession") and rise during an [economic expansion](/wiki/Economic_expansion "Economic expansion") or boom.{{Cite book\|last\=Acemoglu\|first\=Daron\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956396690\|title\=Macroeconomics\|date\=2018\|others\=David I. Laibson, John A. List\|isbn\=978\-0\-13\-449205\-6\|edition\=Second\|location\=New York\|oclc\=956396690}}
Import expenditures are commonly considered to be procyclical and cyclical in nature, coincident with the business cycle. Domestic export expenditures give a good indication of foreign business cycles as foreign import expenditures are coincident with the foreign business cycle.
### Credit/debt cycle
{{main\|Credit cycle\|Debt deflation}}
One alternative theory is that the primary cause of economic cycles is due to the [credit cycle](/wiki/Credit_cycle "Credit cycle"): the net expansion of credit (increase in private credit, equivalently debt, as a percentage of GDP) yields economic expansions, while the net contraction causes recessions, and if it persists, depressions. In particular, the bursting of [speculative bubbles](/wiki/Speculative_bubble "Speculative bubble") is seen as the proximate cause of depressions, and this theory places finance and banks at the center of the business cycle.
A primary theory in this vein is the [debt deflation](/wiki/Debt_deflation "Debt deflation") theory of [Irving Fisher](/wiki/Irving_Fisher "Irving Fisher"), which he proposed to explain the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"). A more recent complementary theory is the [Financial Instability Hypothesis](/wiki/Financial_Instability_Hypothesis "Financial Instability Hypothesis") of Hyman Minsky, and the credit theory of economic cycles is often associated with [Post\-Keynesian economics](/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics "Post-Keynesian economics") such as [Steve Keen](/wiki/Steve_Keen "Steve Keen").
Post\-Keynesian economist [Hyman Minsky](/wiki/Hyman_Minsky "Hyman Minsky") has proposed an explanation of cycles founded on fluctuations in credit, interest rates and financial frailty, called the Financial Instability Hypothesis. In an expansion period, interest rates are low and companies easily borrow money from banks to invest. Banks are not reluctant to grant them loans, because expanding economic activity allows business increasing cash flows and therefore they will be able to easily pay back the loans. This process leads to firms becoming excessively indebted, so that they stop investing, and the economy goes into recession.
While credit causes have not been a primary theory of the economic cycle within the mainstream, they have gained occasional mention, such as {{Harv\|Eckstein\|Sinai\|1990}}, cited approvingly by {{Harv\|Summers\|1986}}.
### Real business\-cycle theory
{{main\|Real business\-cycle theory}}
Within mainstream economics, Keynesian views have been challenged by [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle "Real business cycle") models in which fluctuations are due to random changes in the total productivity factor (which are caused by changes in technology as well as the legal and regulatory environment). This theory is most associated with [Finn E. Kydland](/wiki/Finn_E._Kydland "Finn E. Kydland") and [Edward C. Prescott](/wiki/Edward_C._Prescott "Edward C. Prescott"), and more generally the [Chicago school of economics](/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics "Chicago school of economics") ([freshwater economics](/wiki/Freshwater_economics "Freshwater economics")). They consider that economic crisis and fluctuations cannot stem from a monetary shock, only from an external shock, such as an innovation.
### Product based theory of economic cycles
[thumb\|International product life cycle](/wiki/File:Product_based_theory_of_economic_cycles.png "Product based theory of economic cycles.png")
This theory explains the nature and causes of economic cycles from the viewpoint of life\-cycle of marketable goods.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Vernon \| first1 \= R. \| year \= 1966 \| title \= International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle \| url \= http://rcin.org.pl/Content/56666\| journal \= Quarterly Journal of Economics \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 2\| pages \= 22–26 \| doi\= 10\.2307/1880689\| jstor \= 1880689 }} The theory originates from the work of [Raymond Vernon](/wiki/Raymond_Vernon "Raymond Vernon"), who described the development of international trade in terms of product life\-cycle – a period of time during which the product circulates in the market. Vernon stated that some countries specialize in the production and export of technologically new products, while others specialize in the production of already known products. The most developed countries are able to invest large amounts of money in the technological innovations and produce new products, thus obtaining a dynamic comparative advantage over developing countries.
Recent research by Georgiy Revyakin proved initial Vernon theory and showed economic cycles in developed countries overran economic cycles in developing countries.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Revyakin \| first1 \= G. \| year \= 2017 \| title \= A new approach to the nature of economic cycles and their analysis in the global context \| journal \= Eureka: Social and Humanities \| volume \= 5 \| pages \= 27–37 \| doi \= 10\.21303/2504\-5571\.2017\.00425 \| doi\-access \= free }} He also presumed economic cycles with different periodicity can be compared to the products with various life\-cycles. In case of [Kondratiev waves](/wiki/Kondratiev_waves "Kondratiev waves") such products correlate with fundamental discoveries implemented in production (inventions which form the [technological paradigm](/wiki/Technological_paradigm "Technological paradigm"): Richard Arkwright's machines, steam engines, industrial use of electricity, computer invention, etc.); [Kuznets cycles](/wiki/Kuznets_swing "Kuznets swing") describe such products as infrastructural components (roadways, transport, utilities, etc.); [Juglar cycles](/wiki/Juglar_cycles "Juglar cycles") may go in parallel with enterprise fixed capital (equipment, machinery, etc.), and [Kitchin cycles](/wiki/Kitchin_cycle "Kitchin cycle") are characterized by change in the society preferences (tastes) for [consumer goods](/wiki/Consumer_goods "Consumer goods"), and time, which is necessary to start the production.
Highly competitive market conditions would determine simultaneous technological updates of all economic agents (as a result, cycle formation): in case if a manufacturing technology at an enterprise does not meet the current technological environment – such company loses its competitiveness and eventually goes bankrupt.
### Political business cycle
Another set of models tries to derive the business cycle from political decisions. The political business cycle theory is strongly linked to the name of [Michał Kalecki](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki "Michał Kalecki") who discussed "the reluctance of the 'captains of industry' to accept government intervention in the matter of employment".{{cite web\|last\=Kalecki\|first\=Michal\|title\=Political Aspects of Full Employment\|date\=January 1970\|url\=http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2010/kalecki220510\.html\|access\-date\=2 May 2012\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407014237/http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2010/kalecki220510\.html\|archive\-date\=7 April 2012}} Persistent [full employment](/wiki/Full_employment "Full employment") would mean increasing workers' bargaining power to raise wages and to avoid doing unpaid labor, potentially hurting profitability. However, he did not see this theory as applying under [fascism](/wiki/Fascism "Fascism"), which would use direct force to destroy labor's power.
In recent years, proponents of the "electoral business cycle" theory have argued that incumbent politicians encourage prosperity before elections in order to ensure re\-election – and make the citizens pay for it with recessions afterwards.{{Cite journal \| url\=https://www.nber.org/papers/w1838 \|doi \= 10\.3386/w1838\|title \= Elections and Macroeconomic Policy Cycles \|last1 \= Rogoff\|first1 \= Kenneth\|last2 \= Sibert\|first2 \= Anne \|journal\=Review of Economic Studies \|volume\=55 \|issue\=181 \|pages\=1–16 \|date\=January 1988 \|doi\-access\=free }} The political business cycle is an alternative theory stating that when an administration of any hue is elected, it initially adopts a contractionary policy to reduce inflation and gain a reputation for economic competence. It then adopts an expansionary policy in the lead up to the next election, hoping to achieve simultaneously low inflation and unemployment on election day.• Allan Drazen, 2008\. "political business cycles", *[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics "The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics")*, 2nd Edition. [Abstract.](http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_P000112&edition=current&q=Political%20business%20cycle&topicid=&result_number=4) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229135043/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id\=pde2008\_P000112\&edition\=current\&q\=Political%20business%20cycle\&topicid\=\&result\_number\=4 \|date\=2010\-12\-29 }}
• [William D. Nordhaus](/wiki/William_D._Nordhaus "William D. Nordhaus"), 1975\. "The Political Business Cycle", *Review of Economic Studies*, 42(2\), pp. [169](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2296528?uid=3739936&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101641116423)–190\.
• \_\_\_\_\_, 1989:2\. "Alternative Approaches to the Political Business Cycle", *Brookings Papers on Economic Activity*, p [pp. 1](https://www.jstor.org/pss/2534461)–68\.
The *partisan business cycle* suggests that cycles result from the successive elections of administrations with different policy regimes. Regime A adopts expansionary policies, resulting in growth and inflation, but is voted out of office when inflation becomes unacceptably high. The replacement, Regime B, adopts contractionary policies reducing inflation and growth, and the downwards swing of the cycle. It is voted out of office when unemployment is too high, being replaced by Party A.
### Marxian economics
{{Main\|Crisis theory}}
For Marx, the economy based on production of commodities to be sold in the market is intrinsically prone to [crisis](/wiki/Crisis_%28Marxian%29 "Crisis (Marxian)"). In the [heterodox](/wiki/Heterodox_economics "Heterodox economics") Marxian view, profit is the major engine of the market economy, but business (capital) profitability has a [tendency to fall](/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall "Tendency of the rate of profit to fall") that recurrently creates crises in which mass unemployment occurs, businesses fail, remaining capital is centralized and concentrated and profitability is recovered. In the long run, these crises tend to be more severe and the system will eventually fail.Henryk Grossmann *Das Akkumulations – und Zusammenbruchsgesetz des kapitalistischen Systems (Zugleich eine Krisentheorie)*, Hirschfeld, Leipzig, 1929
Some Marxist authors such as [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg "Rosa Luxemburg") viewed the lack of purchasing power of workers as a cause of a tendency of supply to be larger than demand, creating crisis, in a model that has similarities with the Keynesian one. Indeed, a number of modern authors have tried to combine Marx's and Keynes's views. [Henryk Grossman](/wiki/Henryk_Grossman "Henryk Grossman")Grossman, Henryk The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System. Pluto reviewed the debates and the counteracting tendencies and [Paul Mattick](/wiki/Paul_Mattick "Paul Mattick") subsequently emphasized the basic differences between the Marxian and the Keynesian perspective. While Keynes saw capitalism as a system worth maintaining and susceptible to efficient regulation, Marx viewed capitalism as a historically doomed system that cannot be put under societal control.Paul Mattick, *Marx and Keynes: The Limits of Mixed Economy*, Boston, Porter Sargent, 1969
The American mathematician and economist [Richard M. Goodwin](/wiki/Richard_M._Goodwin "Richard M. Goodwin") formalised a Marxist model of business cycles known as the [Goodwin Model](/wiki/Goodwin_Model "Goodwin Model") in which recession was caused by increased bargaining power of workers (a result of high employment in boom periods) pushing up the wage share of national income, suppressing profits and leading to a breakdown in [capital accumulation](/wiki/Capital_accumulation "Capital accumulation"). Later theorists applying variants of the Goodwin model have identified both short and long period profit\-led growth and distribution cycles in the United States and elsewhere.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Barbosa\-Filho \| first1 \= Nelson H. \| last2 \= Taylor \| first2 \= Lance \| year \= 2006 \| title \= Distributive and Demand Cycles in the US Economy – A Structuralist Goodwin Model \| journal \= Metroeconomica \| volume \= 57 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 389–411 \| doi\=10\.1111/j.1467\-999x.2006\.00250\.x\| s2cid \= 153733257 }}Peter Flaschel, G. Kauermann, and T. Teuber, 'Long Cycles in Employment, Inflation and Real Wage Costs', American Journal of Applied Sciences Special Issue (2008\): 69–77Mamadou Bobo Diallo et al., 'Reconsidering the Dynamic Interaction Between Real Wages and Macroeconomic Activity', Research in World Economy 2, no. 1 (April 2011\)Reiner Franke, Peter Flaschel, and Christian R. Proaño, 'Wage–price Dynamics and Income Distribution in a Semi\-structural Keynes–Goodwin Model', Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 17, no. 4 (December 2006\): 452–465{{cite journal \| last1 \= Cámara Izquierdo \| first1 \= Sergio \| year \= 2013 \| title \= The cyclical decline of the profit rate as the cause of crises in the U.S. (1947–2011\) \| journal \= Review of Radical Political Economics \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 4\| pages \= 459–467 }} [David Gordon](/wiki/David_Gordon_%28economist%29 "David Gordon (economist)") provided a Marxist model of long period institutional growth cycles in an attempt to explain the [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave "Kondratiev wave"). This cycle is due to the periodic breakdown of the social structure of accumulation, a set of institutions which secure and stabilize capital accumulation.
### Austrian School
{{main\|Austrian business cycle theory}}
Economists of the heterodox [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School "Austrian School") argue that business cycles are caused by excessive issuance of credit by banks in [fractional reserve banking](/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking "Fractional reserve banking") systems. According to Austrian economists, excessive issuance of bank credit may be exacerbated if [central bank](/wiki/Central_bank "Central bank") monetary policy sets interest rates too low, and the resulting expansion of the money supply causes a "boom" in which resources are misallocated or ["malinvested"](/wiki/Malinvestment "Malinvestment") because of artificially low interest rates. Eventually, the boom cannot be sustained and is followed by a "bust" in which the malinvestments are liquidated (sold for less than their original cost) and the money supply contracts.{{cite web\|last1\=Block\|first1\=Walter\|last2\=Garschina\|first2\=Kenneth\|title\=Hayek, Business Cycles and Fractional Reserve Banking: Continuing the De\-Homogenization Process\|url\=https://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae9\_1\_3\.pdf\|website\=www.mises.org\|date\=20 July 2005 \|publisher\=Ludwig von Mises Institute\|access\-date\=28 July 2014\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910205248/http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/RAE9\_1\_3\.pdf\|archive\-date\=10 September 2013}}{{cite web\|last1\=Shostak\|first1\=Dr. Frank\|title\=Fractional Reserve banking and boom\-bust cycles\|url\=https://mises.org/journals/scholar/shostak2\.pdf\|website\=www.mises.org\|publisher\=Ludwig von Mises Institute\|access\-date\=28 July 2014\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714030329/http://mises.org/journals/scholar/shostak2\.pdf\|archive\-date\=14 July 2012}}
One of the criticisms of the [Austrian business cycle theory](/wiki/Austrian_business_cycle_theory%23Criticisms "Austrian business cycle theory#Criticisms") is based on the observation that the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") suffered recurrent economic crises in the 19th century, notably the [Panic of 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 "Panic of 1873"), which occurred prior to the establishment of a U.S. central bank in 1913\. Adherents of the Austrian School, such as the historian [Thomas Woods](/wiki/Thomas_Woods "Thomas Woods"), argue that these earlier financial crises were prompted by government and bankers' efforts to expand credit despite restraints imposed by the prevailing gold standard, and are thus consistent with [Austrian Business Cycle Theory](/wiki/Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory "Austrian Business Cycle Theory").{{cite web\|last1\=Woods\|first1\=Thomas Jr.\|title\=Can We Live Without the Fed?\|url\=http://archive.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods219\.html\|website\=www.lewrockwell.com\|publisher\=Lew Rockwell\|access\-date\=27 July 2014\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313212821/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods219\.html\|archive\-date\=13 March 2014}}{{cite web\|last1\=Woods\|first1\=Thomas Jr.\|title\=Economic Cycles Before the Fed\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=TxcjT8T3EGU\|website\=www.youtube.com\|publisher\=Mises Media\|access\-date\=27 July 2014\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912194610/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=TxcjT8T3EGU\|archive\-date\=12 September 2014}}
The Austrian explanation of the business cycle differs significantly from the [mainstream](/wiki/Mainstream_economics "Mainstream economics") understanding of business cycles and is generally rejected by mainstream economists. Mainstream economists generally do not support Austrian school explanations for business cycles, on both theoretical as well as real\-world empirical grounds.Friedman, Milton. "The Monetary Studies of the National Bureau, 44th Annual Report". The Optimal Quantity of Money and Other Essays. Chicago: Aldine. pp. 261–284\.Friedman, Milton. "The 'Plucking Model' of Business Fluctuations Revisited". Economic Inquiry: 171–177\.{{cite journal \| last1 \= Keeler \| first1 \= JP. \| s2cid \= 18902379 \| year \= 2001 \| title \= Empirical Evidence on the Austrian Business Cycle Theory \| journal \= Review of Austrian Economics \| volume \= 14 \| issue \=4 \| pages \= 331–51\|doi\=10\.1023/A:1011937230775 }}Interview in Barron's Magazine, Aug. 24, 1998 archived at Hoover Institution {{cite web \|url\=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover\-digest/article/6459 \|title\=Mr. Market \| Hoover Institution \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231213357/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover\-digest/article/6459 \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-31 }}{{cite journal \| author\=Nicholas Kaldor\| title\=Professor Hayek and the Concertina\-Effect\| journal\=Economica\| volume\=9 \| issue\=36 \| year\=1942 \| pages\=359–382 \| jstor\=2550326 \| doi\=10\.2307/2550326 }}R. W. Garrison, ["F. A. Hayek as 'Mr. Fluctooations:' In Defense of Hayek's 'Technical Economics'"](http://www.auburn.edu/~garriro/amagi.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808141645/http://www.auburn.edu/\~garriro/amagi.htm \|date\=2011\-08\-08 }}, *Hayek Society Journal* (LSE), **5**(2\), 1 (2003\). Austrians claim that the boom\-and\-bust business cycle is caused by government intervention into the economy, and that the cycle would be comparatively rare and mild without central government interference.
### Yield curve
{{Main\|inverted yield curve}}
[thumb\|375px\|right\|
{{legend\-line\|\#F5A623 solid 3px\|\[\[Mortgage loan\|30 year mortgage average]]}}
{{legend\-line\|\#F8E71C solid 3px\|\[\[treasury bond\|30 Year Treasury Bond]]}}
{{legend\-line\|\#000000 solid 3px\| 10 Year Treasury Bond}}
{{legend\-line\|\#9013FE solid 3px\| 2 Year Treasury Bond}}
{{legend\-line\|\#4A90E2 solid 3px\| 3 month Treasury Bond}}
{{legend\-line\|\#D0021B solid 4px\| Effective Federal Funds Rate}}
{{legend\-line\|\#E786F9 solid 4px\| \[\[United States Consumer Price Index\|CPI inflation]] year/year}}
{{color box\|lightgrey}} [Recessions](/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States "List of recessions in the United States")](/wiki/File:FFR_treasuries.webp "FFR treasuries.webp")
[thumb\|10\-year minus 3\-month US Treasury Yields](/wiki/File:10-year_minus_3-month_US_Treasury_Yields.png "10-year minus 3-month US Treasury Yields.png")
The slope of the [yield curve](/wiki/Yield_curve "Yield curve") is one of the most powerful predictors of future economic growth, inflation, and recessions.{{cite journal \| doi\=10\.1162/003465398557320\|title \= Predicting U.S. Recessions: Financial Variables as Leading Indicators\| journal\=Review of Economics and Statistics\| volume\=80\| pages\=45–61\|year \= 1998\|last1 \= Estrella\|first1 \= Arturo\| last2\=Mishkin\| first2\=Frederic S.\|s2cid \= 11641969\|url \= http://www.nber.org/papers/w5379\.pdf}} One measure of the yield curve slope (i.e. the difference between 10\-year Treasury bond rate and the 3\-month Treasury bond rate) is included in the [Financial Stress Index](http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/STLFSI) published by the [St. Louis Fed](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_St._Louis "Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis").{{cite web\|title\=List of Data Series Used to Construct the St. Louis Fed Financial Stress Index\|date\=31 December 1993 \|url\=https://www.stlouisfed.org/news\-releases/st\-louis\-fed\-financial\-stress\-index/stlfsi\-key\|publisher\=The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis\|access\-date\=2 March 2015\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402151924/https://www.stlouisfed.org/news\-releases/st\-louis\-fed\-financial\-stress\-index/stlfsi\-key\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015}} A different measure of the slope (i.e. the difference between 10\-year Treasury bond rates and the [federal funds rate](/wiki/Federal_funds_rate "Federal funds rate")) is incorporated into the [Index of Leading Economic Indicators](/wiki/Conference_Board_Leading_Economic_Index "Conference Board Leading Economic Index") published by [The Conference Board](/wiki/The_Conference_Board "The Conference Board").{{cite web\|title\=Description of Components\|url\=http://www.conference\-board.org/data/bci/index.cfm?id\=2160\|website\=Business Cycle Indicators\|publisher\=The Conference Board\|access\-date\=2 March 2015\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402203219/http://www.conference\-board.org/data/bci/index.cfm?id\=2160\|archive\-date\=2 April 2015}}
An inverted yield curve is often a harbinger of [recession](/wiki/Recession "Recession"). A positively sloped yield curve is often a harbinger of [inflationary](/wiki/Inflation "Inflation") growth. Work by Arturo Estrella and [Tobias Adrian](/wiki/Tobias_Adrian "Tobias Adrian") has established the predictive power of an inverted yield curve to signal a recession. Their models show that when the difference between short\-term interest rates (they use 3\-month T\-bills) and long\-term interest rates (10\-year Treasury bonds) at the end of a federal reserve tightening cycle is negative or less than 93 basis points positive that a rise in unemployment usually occurs.Arturo Estrella and Tobias Adrian, *[FRB of New York Staff Report No. 397](http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr397.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031016/http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff\_reports/sr397\.pdf \|date\=2015\-09\-06 }}*, 2009 The [New York Fed](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_New_York "Federal Reserve Bank of New York") publishes a [monthly recession probability prediction](http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/capital_markets/ycfaq.html) derived from the yield curve and based on Estrella's work.
All the recessions in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") since 1970 (up through 2017\) have been preceded by an inverted yield curve (10\-year vs. 3\-month). Over the same time frame, every occurrence of an inverted yield curve has been followed by recession as declared by the [NBER](/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research "National Bureau of Economic Research") business cycle dating committee.{{cite web\|title\=Announcement Dates\|url\=https://www.nber.org/cycles/\|website\=US Business Cycle Expansions and Contractions\|publisher\=NBER Business Cycle Dating Committee\|access\-date\=1 March 2015\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012231548/https://www.nber.org/cycles/\|archive\-date\=12 October 2007}}
| Event | Date of inversion start | Date of the recession start | Time from inversion to recession Start | Duration of inversion | Time from recession start to NBER announcement | Time from disinversion to recession end | Duration of recession | Time from recession end to NBER announcement | Max inversion |
| | | | Months | Months | Months | Months | Months | Months | Basis points |
| [1970 recession](/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%9370 "Recession of 1969–70") | December 1968 | January 1970 | 13 | 15 | NA | 8 | 11 | NA | −52 |
| [1974 recession](/wiki/1973%E2%80%9375_recession "1973–75 recession") | June 1973 | December 1973 | 6 | 18 | NA | 3 | 16 | NA | −159 |
| [1980 recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession "Early 1980s recession") | November 1978 | February 1980 | 15 | 18 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 12 | −328 |
| [1981–1982 recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession "Early 1980s recession") | October 1980 | August 1981 | 10 | 12 | 5 | 13 | 16 | 8 | −351 |
| [1990 recession](/wiki/Early_1990s_recession "Early 1990s recession") | June 1989 | August 1990 | 14 | 7 | 8 | 14 | 8 | 21 | −16 |
| [2001 recession](/wiki/Early_2000s_recession "Early 2000s recession") | July 2000 | April 2001 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 20 | −70 |
| [2008–2009 recession](/wiki/Great_Recession "Great Recession") | August 2006 | January 2008 | 17 | 10 | 11 | 24 | 18 | 15 | −51 |
| [2020–2020 recession](/wiki/COVID-19_recession "COVID-19 recession") | March 2020 | April 2020 | | | | | | | |
| Average since 1969 | | | 12 | 12 | 7 | 10 | 12 | 15 | −147 |
| Standard deviation since 1969 | | | 3\.83 | 4\.72 | 2\.74 | 7\.50 | 4\.78 | 5\.45 | 138\.96 |
Estrella and others have postulated that the yield curve affects the business cycle via the balance sheet of banks (or [bank\-like financial institutions](/wiki/Shadow_banking_system "Shadow banking system")).Arturo Estrella, *[FRB of New York Staff Report No. 421](https://ssrn.com/abstract=1532309) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061128/https://ssrn.com/abstract\=1532309 \|date\=2013\-09\-21 }}*, 2010 When the yield curve is inverted banks are often caught paying more on short\-term deposits (or [other forms](/wiki/Repurchase_agreement "Repurchase agreement") of short\-term wholesale funding) than they are making on long\-term loans leading to a loss of profitability and reluctance to lend resulting in a [credit crunch](/wiki/Credit_crunch "Credit crunch"). When the yield curve is upward sloping, banks can profitably take\-in short term deposits and make long\-term loans so they are eager to supply credit to borrowers. This eventually leads to a [credit bubble](/wiki/Economic_bubble "Economic bubble").
### Georgism
{{Main\|Georgism}}
[Henry George](/wiki/Henry_George "Henry George") claimed land price fluctuations were the primary cause of most business cycles.George, Henry. (1881\). *Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth; The Remedy*. Kegan Paul (reissued by [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press "Cambridge University Press"), 2009; {{ISBN\|978\-1108003612}})
### Other factors
Population swings can impact business cycles.{{cite journal \| last\=Easterlin \| first\=Richard A. \| last2\=Wachter \| first2\=Michael L. \| last3\=Wachter \| first3\=Susan M. \| title\=The Changing Impact of Population Swings on the American Economy \| journal\=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society \| publisher\=American Philosophical Society \| volume\=122 \| issue\=3 \| year\=1978 \| issn\=0003049X \| jstor\=986545 \| pages\=119–130 \| url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/986545 \| access\-date\=5 August 2024}}
|
[
"Proposed explanations\n---------------------",
"The explanation of fluctuations in aggregate economic activity is one of the primary concerns of [macroeconomics](/wiki/Macroeconomics \"Macroeconomics\") and a variety of theories have been proposed to explain them.",
"### Exogenous vs. endogenous",
"Within economics, it has been debated as to whether or not the fluctuations of a business cycle are attributable to external (exogenous) versus internal (endogenous) causes. In the first case shocks are stochastic, in the second case shocks are deterministically chaotic and embedded in the economic system.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Orlando \\|first1\\=Giuseppe \\|last2\\=Zimatore \\|first2\\=Giovanna \\|title\\=Business cycle modeling between financial crises and black swans: Ornstein–Uhlenbeck stochastic process vs Kaldor deterministic chaotic model \\|journal\\=Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science \\|date\\=August 2020 \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=083129 \\|doi\\=10\\.1063/5\\.0015916\\|pmid\\=32872798 \\|bibcode\\=2020Chaos..30h3129O \\|s2cid\\=235909725 }} The classical school (now neo\\-classical) argues for exogenous causes and the [underconsumptionist](/wiki/Underconsumptionist \"Underconsumptionist\") (now Keynesian) school argues for endogenous causes. These may also broadly be classed as [\"supply\\-side\"](/wiki/Supply-side_economics \"Supply-side economics\") and [\"demand\\-side\"](/wiki/Demand-side_economics \"Demand-side economics\") explanations: supply\\-side explanations may be styled, following [Say's law](/wiki/Say%27s_law \"Say's law\"), as arguing that \"[supply creates its own demand](/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand \"Supply creates its own demand\")\", while demand\\-side explanations argue that [effective demand](/wiki/Effective_demand \"Effective demand\") may fall short of supply, yielding a recession or depression.",
"This debate has important policy consequences: proponents of exogenous causes of crises such as neoclassicals largely argue for minimal government policy or regulation ([laissez faire](/wiki/Laissez_faire \"Laissez faire\")), as absent these external shocks, the market functions, while proponents of endogenous causes of crises such as Keynesians largely argue for larger government policy and regulation, as absent regulation, the market will move from crisis to crisis. This division is not absolute – some classicals (including Say) argued for government policy to mitigate the damage of economic cycles, despite believing in external causes, while [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School \"Austrian School\") economists argue against government involvement as only worsening crises, despite believing in internal causes.",
"The view of the economic cycle as caused exogenously dates to Say's law, and much debate on endogeneity or exogeneity of causes of the economic cycle is framed in terms of refuting or supporting Say's law; this is also referred to as the \"[general glut](/wiki/General_glut \"General glut\")\" (supply in relation to demand) debate.",
"Until the [Keynesian revolution](/wiki/Keynesian_revolution \"Keynesian revolution\") in mainstream economics in the wake of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), classical and neoclassical explanations (exogenous causes) were the mainstream explanation of economic cycles; following the Keynesian revolution, neoclassical macroeconomics was largely rejected. There has been some resurgence of neoclassical approaches in the form of [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle \"Real business cycle\") (RBC) theory. The debate between Keynesians and neo\\-classical advocates was reawakened following the recession of 2007\\.",
"Mainstream economists working in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics \"Neoclassical economics\") tradition, as opposed to the Keynesian tradition, have usually viewed the departures of the harmonic working of the market economy as due to exogenous influences, such as the State or its regulations, labor unions, business monopolies, or shocks due to technology or natural causes.",
"Contrarily, in the heterodox tradition of [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi \"Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi\"), [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar \"Clément Juglar\"), and [Marx](/wiki/Crisis_theory \"Crisis theory\") the recurrent upturns and downturns of the market system are an endogenous characteristic of it.{{cite book \\|last\\=Morgan \\|first\\=Mary S. \\|author\\-link\\=Mary S. Morgan \\|title\\=The History of Econometric Ideas \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1990 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521373982 \\|pages\\=15–130 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iUpDzJM9lq0C\\&pg\\=PA15 }}",
"The 19th\\-century school of under consumptionism also posited endogenous causes for the business cycle, notably the [paradox of thrift](/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift \"Paradox of thrift\"), and today this previously heterodox school has entered the mainstream in the form of [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\") via the Keynesian revolution.",
"### Mainstream economics",
"{{Main\\|Mainstream economics}}\nMainstream economics views business cycles as essentially \"the random summation of random causes\". In 1927, [Eugen Slutzky](/wiki/Eugen_Slutzky \"Eugen Slutzky\") observed that summing random numbers, such as the last digits of the Russian state lottery, could generate patterns akin to that we see in business cycles, an observation that has since been repeated many times. This caused economists to move away from viewing business cycles as a cycle that needed to be explained and instead viewing their apparently cyclical nature as a methodological artefact. This means that what appear to be cyclical phenomena can actually be explained as just random events that are fed into a simple linear model. Thus business cycles are essentially random shocks that average out over time. Mainstream economists have built models of business cycles based the idea that they are caused by random shocks.Drautzburg, Thorsten. \"Why Are Recessions So Hard to Predict? Random Shocks and Business Cycles.\" Economic Insights 4, no. 1 (2019\\): 1–8\\.Slutzky, Eugen. \"The summation of random causes as the source of cyclic processes.\" Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society (1937\\): 105–146\\.Chatterjee, Satyajit. \"From cycles to shocks: Progress in business cycle theory.\" Business Review 3 (2000\\): 27–37\\. Due to this inherent randomness, recessions can sometimes not occur for decades; for example, Australia did not experience any recession between 1991 and 2020\\.Isabella Kwai. \"Australia’s First Recession in Decades Signals Tougher Times to Come.\"[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/business/australia\\-recession.html](https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/02/business/australia-recession.html) New York Times, 09\\.02\\.20",
"While economists have found it difficult to forecast recessions or determine their likely severity, research indicates that longer expansions do not cause following recessions to be more severe.Tasci, Murat, and Nicholas Zevanove. \"Do Longer Expansions Lead to More Severe Recessions?.\" Economic Commentary 2019\\-02 (2019\\).",
"### Keynesian",
"According to [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\"), fluctuations in [aggregate demand](/wiki/Aggregate_demand \"Aggregate demand\") cause the economy to come to short run equilibrium at levels that are different from the full employment rate of output. These fluctuations express themselves as the observed business cycles. Keynesian models do not necessarily imply periodic business cycles. However, simple Keynesian models involving the interaction of the Keynesian multiplier and accelerator give rise to cyclical responses to initial shocks. [Paul Samuelson](/wiki/Paul_Samuelson \"Paul Samuelson\")'s \"oscillator model\"{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Samuelson \\| first1 \\= P. A. \\| year \\= 1939 \\| title \\= Interactions between the multiplier analysis and the principle of acceleration \\| journal \\= Review of Economic Statistics \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 75–78 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/1927758\\| jstor \\= 1927758 }} is supposed to account for business cycles thanks to the multiplier and the accelerator. The amplitude of the variations in economic output depends on the level of the investment, for investment determines the level of aggregate output (multiplier), and is determined by aggregate demand (accelerator).",
"In the Keynesian tradition, [Richard Goodwin](/wiki/Richard_M._Goodwin \"Richard M. Goodwin\")R. M. Goodwin (1967\\) \"A Growth Cycle\", in C.H. Feinstein, editor, *Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press accounts for cycles in output by the distribution of income between business profits and workers' wages. The fluctuations in wages are almost the same as in the level of employment (wage cycle lags one period behind the employment cycle), for when the economy is at high employment, workers are able to demand rises in wages, whereas in periods of high unemployment, wages tend to fall. According to Goodwin, when unemployment and business profits rise, the output rises.",
"### Cyclical behavior of exports and imports",
"[Exports](/wiki/Export \"Export\") and [imports](/wiki/Import \"Import\") are large components of an economy's [aggregate expenditure](/wiki/Aggregate_expenditure \"Aggregate expenditure\"), especially one that is oriented toward [international trade](/wiki/International_trade \"International trade\"). Income is an essential determinant of the level of imported goods. A higher [GDP](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") reflects a higher level of spending on imported goods and services, and vice versa. Therefore, expenditure on imported goods and services fall during a [recession](/wiki/Recession \"Recession\") and rise during an [economic expansion](/wiki/Economic_expansion \"Economic expansion\") or boom.{{Cite book\\|last\\=Acemoglu\\|first\\=Daron\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956396690\\|title\\=Macroeconomics\\|date\\=2018\\|others\\=David I. Laibson, John A. List\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-13\\-449205\\-6\\|edition\\=Second\\|location\\=New York\\|oclc\\=956396690}}",
"Import expenditures are commonly considered to be procyclical and cyclical in nature, coincident with the business cycle. Domestic export expenditures give a good indication of foreign business cycles as foreign import expenditures are coincident with the foreign business cycle.",
"### Credit/debt cycle",
"{{main\\|Credit cycle\\|Debt deflation}}\nOne alternative theory is that the primary cause of economic cycles is due to the [credit cycle](/wiki/Credit_cycle \"Credit cycle\"): the net expansion of credit (increase in private credit, equivalently debt, as a percentage of GDP) yields economic expansions, while the net contraction causes recessions, and if it persists, depressions. In particular, the bursting of [speculative bubbles](/wiki/Speculative_bubble \"Speculative bubble\") is seen as the proximate cause of depressions, and this theory places finance and banks at the center of the business cycle.",
"A primary theory in this vein is the [debt deflation](/wiki/Debt_deflation \"Debt deflation\") theory of [Irving Fisher](/wiki/Irving_Fisher \"Irving Fisher\"), which he proposed to explain the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"). A more recent complementary theory is the [Financial Instability Hypothesis](/wiki/Financial_Instability_Hypothesis \"Financial Instability Hypothesis\") of Hyman Minsky, and the credit theory of economic cycles is often associated with [Post\\-Keynesian economics](/wiki/Post-Keynesian_economics \"Post-Keynesian economics\") such as [Steve Keen](/wiki/Steve_Keen \"Steve Keen\").",
"Post\\-Keynesian economist [Hyman Minsky](/wiki/Hyman_Minsky \"Hyman Minsky\") has proposed an explanation of cycles founded on fluctuations in credit, interest rates and financial frailty, called the Financial Instability Hypothesis. In an expansion period, interest rates are low and companies easily borrow money from banks to invest. Banks are not reluctant to grant them loans, because expanding economic activity allows business increasing cash flows and therefore they will be able to easily pay back the loans. This process leads to firms becoming excessively indebted, so that they stop investing, and the economy goes into recession.",
"While credit causes have not been a primary theory of the economic cycle within the mainstream, they have gained occasional mention, such as {{Harv\\|Eckstein\\|Sinai\\|1990}}, cited approvingly by {{Harv\\|Summers\\|1986}}.",
"### Real business\\-cycle theory",
"{{main\\|Real business\\-cycle theory}}\nWithin mainstream economics, Keynesian views have been challenged by [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle \"Real business cycle\") models in which fluctuations are due to random changes in the total productivity factor (which are caused by changes in technology as well as the legal and regulatory environment). This theory is most associated with [Finn E. Kydland](/wiki/Finn_E._Kydland \"Finn E. Kydland\") and [Edward C. Prescott](/wiki/Edward_C._Prescott \"Edward C. Prescott\"), and more generally the [Chicago school of economics](/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics \"Chicago school of economics\") ([freshwater economics](/wiki/Freshwater_economics \"Freshwater economics\")). They consider that economic crisis and fluctuations cannot stem from a monetary shock, only from an external shock, such as an innovation.",
"### Product based theory of economic cycles",
"[thumb\\|International product life cycle](/wiki/File:Product_based_theory_of_economic_cycles.png \"Product based theory of economic cycles.png\")\nThis theory explains the nature and causes of economic cycles from the viewpoint of life\\-cycle of marketable goods.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Vernon \\| first1 \\= R. \\| year \\= 1966 \\| title \\= International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle \\| url \\= http://rcin.org.pl/Content/56666\\| journal \\= Quarterly Journal of Economics \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 2\\| pages \\= 22–26 \\| doi\\= 10\\.2307/1880689\\| jstor \\= 1880689 }} The theory originates from the work of [Raymond Vernon](/wiki/Raymond_Vernon \"Raymond Vernon\"), who described the development of international trade in terms of product life\\-cycle – a period of time during which the product circulates in the market. Vernon stated that some countries specialize in the production and export of technologically new products, while others specialize in the production of already known products. The most developed countries are able to invest large amounts of money in the technological innovations and produce new products, thus obtaining a dynamic comparative advantage over developing countries.",
"Recent research by Georgiy Revyakin proved initial Vernon theory and showed economic cycles in developed countries overran economic cycles in developing countries.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Revyakin \\| first1 \\= G. \\| year \\= 2017 \\| title \\= A new approach to the nature of economic cycles and their analysis in the global context \\| journal \\= Eureka: Social and Humanities \\| volume \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 27–37 \\| doi \\= 10\\.21303/2504\\-5571\\.2017\\.00425 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} He also presumed economic cycles with different periodicity can be compared to the products with various life\\-cycles. In case of [Kondratiev waves](/wiki/Kondratiev_waves \"Kondratiev waves\") such products correlate with fundamental discoveries implemented in production (inventions which form the [technological paradigm](/wiki/Technological_paradigm \"Technological paradigm\"): Richard Arkwright's machines, steam engines, industrial use of electricity, computer invention, etc.); [Kuznets cycles](/wiki/Kuznets_swing \"Kuznets swing\") describe such products as infrastructural components (roadways, transport, utilities, etc.); [Juglar cycles](/wiki/Juglar_cycles \"Juglar cycles\") may go in parallel with enterprise fixed capital (equipment, machinery, etc.), and [Kitchin cycles](/wiki/Kitchin_cycle \"Kitchin cycle\") are characterized by change in the society preferences (tastes) for [consumer goods](/wiki/Consumer_goods \"Consumer goods\"), and time, which is necessary to start the production.",
"Highly competitive market conditions would determine simultaneous technological updates of all economic agents (as a result, cycle formation): in case if a manufacturing technology at an enterprise does not meet the current technological environment – such company loses its competitiveness and eventually goes bankrupt.",
"### Political business cycle",
"Another set of models tries to derive the business cycle from political decisions. The political business cycle theory is strongly linked to the name of [Michał Kalecki](/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki \"Michał Kalecki\") who discussed \"the reluctance of the 'captains of industry' to accept government intervention in the matter of employment\".{{cite web\\|last\\=Kalecki\\|first\\=Michal\\|title\\=Political Aspects of Full Employment\\|date\\=January 1970\\|url\\=http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2010/kalecki220510\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2 May 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407014237/http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2010/kalecki220510\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=7 April 2012}} Persistent [full employment](/wiki/Full_employment \"Full employment\") would mean increasing workers' bargaining power to raise wages and to avoid doing unpaid labor, potentially hurting profitability. However, he did not see this theory as applying under [fascism](/wiki/Fascism \"Fascism\"), which would use direct force to destroy labor's power.",
"In recent years, proponents of the \"electoral business cycle\" theory have argued that incumbent politicians encourage prosperity before elections in order to ensure re\\-election – and make the citizens pay for it with recessions afterwards.{{Cite journal \\| url\\=https://www.nber.org/papers/w1838 \\|doi \\= 10\\.3386/w1838\\|title \\= Elections and Macroeconomic Policy Cycles \\|last1 \\= Rogoff\\|first1 \\= Kenneth\\|last2 \\= Sibert\\|first2 \\= Anne \\|journal\\=Review of Economic Studies \\|volume\\=55 \\|issue\\=181 \\|pages\\=1–16 \\|date\\=January 1988 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} The political business cycle is an alternative theory stating that when an administration of any hue is elected, it initially adopts a contractionary policy to reduce inflation and gain a reputation for economic competence. It then adopts an expansionary policy in the lead up to the next election, hoping to achieve simultaneously low inflation and unemployment on election day.• Allan Drazen, 2008\\. \"political business cycles\", *[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics](/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics \"The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics\")*, 2nd Edition. [Abstract.](http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_P000112&edition=current&q=Political%20business%20cycle&topicid=&result_number=4) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229135043/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id\\=pde2008\\_P000112\\&edition\\=current\\&q\\=Political%20business%20cycle\\&topicid\\=\\&result\\_number\\=4 \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-29 }} \n • [William D. Nordhaus](/wiki/William_D._Nordhaus \"William D. Nordhaus\"), 1975\\. \"The Political Business Cycle\", *Review of Economic Studies*, 42(2\\), pp. [169](https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2296528?uid=3739936&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101641116423)–190\\. \n • \\_\\_\\_\\_\\_, 1989:2\\. \"Alternative Approaches to the Political Business Cycle\", *Brookings Papers on Economic Activity*, p [pp. 1](https://www.jstor.org/pss/2534461)–68\\.",
"The *partisan business cycle* suggests that cycles result from the successive elections of administrations with different policy regimes. Regime A adopts expansionary policies, resulting in growth and inflation, but is voted out of office when inflation becomes unacceptably high. The replacement, Regime B, adopts contractionary policies reducing inflation and growth, and the downwards swing of the cycle. It is voted out of office when unemployment is too high, being replaced by Party A.",
"### Marxian economics",
"{{Main\\|Crisis theory}}\nFor Marx, the economy based on production of commodities to be sold in the market is intrinsically prone to [crisis](/wiki/Crisis_%28Marxian%29 \"Crisis (Marxian)\"). In the [heterodox](/wiki/Heterodox_economics \"Heterodox economics\") Marxian view, profit is the major engine of the market economy, but business (capital) profitability has a [tendency to fall](/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall \"Tendency of the rate of profit to fall\") that recurrently creates crises in which mass unemployment occurs, businesses fail, remaining capital is centralized and concentrated and profitability is recovered. In the long run, these crises tend to be more severe and the system will eventually fail.Henryk Grossmann *Das Akkumulations – und Zusammenbruchsgesetz des kapitalistischen Systems (Zugleich eine Krisentheorie)*, Hirschfeld, Leipzig, 1929",
"Some Marxist authors such as [Rosa Luxemburg](/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg \"Rosa Luxemburg\") viewed the lack of purchasing power of workers as a cause of a tendency of supply to be larger than demand, creating crisis, in a model that has similarities with the Keynesian one. Indeed, a number of modern authors have tried to combine Marx's and Keynes's views. [Henryk Grossman](/wiki/Henryk_Grossman \"Henryk Grossman\")Grossman, Henryk The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System. Pluto reviewed the debates and the counteracting tendencies and [Paul Mattick](/wiki/Paul_Mattick \"Paul Mattick\") subsequently emphasized the basic differences between the Marxian and the Keynesian perspective. While Keynes saw capitalism as a system worth maintaining and susceptible to efficient regulation, Marx viewed capitalism as a historically doomed system that cannot be put under societal control.Paul Mattick, *Marx and Keynes: The Limits of Mixed Economy*, Boston, Porter Sargent, 1969",
"The American mathematician and economist [Richard M. Goodwin](/wiki/Richard_M._Goodwin \"Richard M. Goodwin\") formalised a Marxist model of business cycles known as the [Goodwin Model](/wiki/Goodwin_Model \"Goodwin Model\") in which recession was caused by increased bargaining power of workers (a result of high employment in boom periods) pushing up the wage share of national income, suppressing profits and leading to a breakdown in [capital accumulation](/wiki/Capital_accumulation \"Capital accumulation\"). Later theorists applying variants of the Goodwin model have identified both short and long period profit\\-led growth and distribution cycles in the United States and elsewhere.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Barbosa\\-Filho \\| first1 \\= Nelson H. \\| last2 \\= Taylor \\| first2 \\= Lance \\| year \\= 2006 \\| title \\= Distributive and Demand Cycles in the US Economy – A Structuralist Goodwin Model \\| journal \\= Metroeconomica \\| volume \\= 57 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 389–411 \\| doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1467\\-999x.2006\\.00250\\.x\\| s2cid \\= 153733257 }}Peter Flaschel, G. Kauermann, and T. Teuber, 'Long Cycles in Employment, Inflation and Real Wage Costs', American Journal of Applied Sciences Special Issue (2008\\): 69–77Mamadou Bobo Diallo et al., 'Reconsidering the Dynamic Interaction Between Real Wages and Macroeconomic Activity', Research in World Economy 2, no. 1 (April 2011\\)Reiner Franke, Peter Flaschel, and Christian R. Proaño, 'Wage–price Dynamics and Income Distribution in a Semi\\-structural Keynes–Goodwin Model', Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 17, no. 4 (December 2006\\): 452–465{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Cámara Izquierdo \\| first1 \\= Sergio \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= The cyclical decline of the profit rate as the cause of crises in the U.S. (1947–2011\\) \\| journal \\= Review of Radical Political Economics \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 4\\| pages \\= 459–467 }} [David Gordon](/wiki/David_Gordon_%28economist%29 \"David Gordon (economist)\") provided a Marxist model of long period institutional growth cycles in an attempt to explain the [Kondratiev wave](/wiki/Kondratiev_wave \"Kondratiev wave\"). This cycle is due to the periodic breakdown of the social structure of accumulation, a set of institutions which secure and stabilize capital accumulation.",
"### Austrian School",
"{{main\\|Austrian business cycle theory}}\nEconomists of the heterodox [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School \"Austrian School\") argue that business cycles are caused by excessive issuance of credit by banks in [fractional reserve banking](/wiki/Fractional_reserve_banking \"Fractional reserve banking\") systems. According to Austrian economists, excessive issuance of bank credit may be exacerbated if [central bank](/wiki/Central_bank \"Central bank\") monetary policy sets interest rates too low, and the resulting expansion of the money supply causes a \"boom\" in which resources are misallocated or [\"malinvested\"](/wiki/Malinvestment \"Malinvestment\") because of artificially low interest rates. Eventually, the boom cannot be sustained and is followed by a \"bust\" in which the malinvestments are liquidated (sold for less than their original cost) and the money supply contracts.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Block\\|first1\\=Walter\\|last2\\=Garschina\\|first2\\=Kenneth\\|title\\=Hayek, Business Cycles and Fractional Reserve Banking: Continuing the De\\-Homogenization Process\\|url\\=https://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/rae9\\_1\\_3\\.pdf\\|website\\=www.mises.org\\|date\\=20 July 2005 \\|publisher\\=Ludwig von Mises Institute\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910205248/http://mises.org/journals/rae/pdf/RAE9\\_1\\_3\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2013}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Shostak\\|first1\\=Dr. Frank\\|title\\=Fractional Reserve banking and boom\\-bust cycles\\|url\\=https://mises.org/journals/scholar/shostak2\\.pdf\\|website\\=www.mises.org\\|publisher\\=Ludwig von Mises Institute\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714030329/http://mises.org/journals/scholar/shostak2\\.pdf\\|archive\\-date\\=14 July 2012}}",
"One of the criticisms of the [Austrian business cycle theory](/wiki/Austrian_business_cycle_theory%23Criticisms \"Austrian business cycle theory#Criticisms\") is based on the observation that the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") suffered recurrent economic crises in the 19th century, notably the [Panic of 1873](/wiki/Panic_of_1873 \"Panic of 1873\"), which occurred prior to the establishment of a U.S. central bank in 1913\\. Adherents of the Austrian School, such as the historian [Thomas Woods](/wiki/Thomas_Woods \"Thomas Woods\"), argue that these earlier financial crises were prompted by government and bankers' efforts to expand credit despite restraints imposed by the prevailing gold standard, and are thus consistent with [Austrian Business Cycle Theory](/wiki/Austrian_Business_Cycle_Theory \"Austrian Business Cycle Theory\").{{cite web\\|last1\\=Woods\\|first1\\=Thomas Jr.\\|title\\=Can We Live Without the Fed?\\|url\\=http://archive.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods219\\.html\\|website\\=www.lewrockwell.com\\|publisher\\=Lew Rockwell\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313212821/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods219\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2014}}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Woods\\|first1\\=Thomas Jr.\\|title\\=Economic Cycles Before the Fed\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=TxcjT8T3EGU\\|website\\=www.youtube.com\\|publisher\\=Mises Media\\|access\\-date\\=27 July 2014\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912194610/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=TxcjT8T3EGU\\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2014}}",
"The Austrian explanation of the business cycle differs significantly from the [mainstream](/wiki/Mainstream_economics \"Mainstream economics\") understanding of business cycles and is generally rejected by mainstream economists. Mainstream economists generally do not support Austrian school explanations for business cycles, on both theoretical as well as real\\-world empirical grounds.Friedman, Milton. \"The Monetary Studies of the National Bureau, 44th Annual Report\". The Optimal Quantity of Money and Other Essays. Chicago: Aldine. pp. 261–284\\.Friedman, Milton. \"The 'Plucking Model' of Business Fluctuations Revisited\". Economic Inquiry: 171–177\\.{{cite journal \\| last1 \\= Keeler \\| first1 \\= JP. \\| s2cid \\= 18902379 \\| year \\= 2001 \\| title \\= Empirical Evidence on the Austrian Business Cycle Theory \\| journal \\= Review of Austrian Economics \\| volume \\= 14 \\| issue \\=4 \\| pages \\= 331–51\\|doi\\=10\\.1023/A:1011937230775 }}Interview in Barron's Magazine, Aug. 24, 1998 archived at Hoover Institution {{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover\\-digest/article/6459 \\|title\\=Mr. Market \\| Hoover Institution \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231213357/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover\\-digest/article/6459 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-31 }}{{cite journal \\| author\\=Nicholas Kaldor\\| title\\=Professor Hayek and the Concertina\\-Effect\\| journal\\=Economica\\| volume\\=9 \\| issue\\=36 \\| year\\=1942 \\| pages\\=359–382 \\| jstor\\=2550326 \\| doi\\=10\\.2307/2550326 }}R. W. Garrison, [\"F. A. Hayek as 'Mr. Fluctooations:' In Defense of Hayek's 'Technical Economics'\"](http://www.auburn.edu/~garriro/amagi.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808141645/http://www.auburn.edu/\\~garriro/amagi.htm \\|date\\=2011\\-08\\-08 }}, *Hayek Society Journal* (LSE), **5**(2\\), 1 (2003\\). Austrians claim that the boom\\-and\\-bust business cycle is caused by government intervention into the economy, and that the cycle would be comparatively rare and mild without central government interference.",
"### Yield curve",
"{{Main\\|inverted yield curve}}\n[thumb\\|375px\\|right\\|\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#F5A623 solid 3px\\|\\[\\[Mortgage loan\\|30 year mortgage average]]}}\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#F8E71C solid 3px\\|\\[\\[treasury bond\\|30 Year Treasury Bond]]}}\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#000000 solid 3px\\| 10 Year Treasury Bond}}\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#9013FE solid 3px\\| 2 Year Treasury Bond}}\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#4A90E2 solid 3px\\| 3 month Treasury Bond}}\n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#D0021B solid 4px\\| Effective Federal Funds Rate}} \n{{legend\\-line\\|\\#E786F9 solid 4px\\| \\[\\[United States Consumer Price Index\\|CPI inflation]] year/year}}\n{{color box\\|lightgrey}} [Recessions](/wiki/List_of_recessions_in_the_United_States \"List of recessions in the United States\")](/wiki/File:FFR_treasuries.webp \"FFR treasuries.webp\")\n[thumb\\|10\\-year minus 3\\-month US Treasury Yields](/wiki/File:10-year_minus_3-month_US_Treasury_Yields.png \"10-year minus 3-month US Treasury Yields.png\")",
"The slope of the [yield curve](/wiki/Yield_curve \"Yield curve\") is one of the most powerful predictors of future economic growth, inflation, and recessions.{{cite journal \\| doi\\=10\\.1162/003465398557320\\|title \\= Predicting U.S. Recessions: Financial Variables as Leading Indicators\\| journal\\=Review of Economics and Statistics\\| volume\\=80\\| pages\\=45–61\\|year \\= 1998\\|last1 \\= Estrella\\|first1 \\= Arturo\\| last2\\=Mishkin\\| first2\\=Frederic S.\\|s2cid \\= 11641969\\|url \\= http://www.nber.org/papers/w5379\\.pdf}} One measure of the yield curve slope (i.e. the difference between 10\\-year Treasury bond rate and the 3\\-month Treasury bond rate) is included in the [Financial Stress Index](http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/STLFSI) published by the [St. Louis Fed](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_St._Louis \"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis\").{{cite web\\|title\\=List of Data Series Used to Construct the St. Louis Fed Financial Stress Index\\|date\\=31 December 1993 \\|url\\=https://www.stlouisfed.org/news\\-releases/st\\-louis\\-fed\\-financial\\-stress\\-index/stlfsi\\-key\\|publisher\\=The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402151924/https://www.stlouisfed.org/news\\-releases/st\\-louis\\-fed\\-financial\\-stress\\-index/stlfsi\\-key\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015}} A different measure of the slope (i.e. the difference between 10\\-year Treasury bond rates and the [federal funds rate](/wiki/Federal_funds_rate \"Federal funds rate\")) is incorporated into the [Index of Leading Economic Indicators](/wiki/Conference_Board_Leading_Economic_Index \"Conference Board Leading Economic Index\") published by [The Conference Board](/wiki/The_Conference_Board \"The Conference Board\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Description of Components\\|url\\=http://www.conference\\-board.org/data/bci/index.cfm?id\\=2160\\|website\\=Business Cycle Indicators\\|publisher\\=The Conference Board\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402203219/http://www.conference\\-board.org/data/bci/index.cfm?id\\=2160\\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2015}}",
"An inverted yield curve is often a harbinger of [recession](/wiki/Recession \"Recession\"). A positively sloped yield curve is often a harbinger of [inflationary](/wiki/Inflation \"Inflation\") growth. Work by Arturo Estrella and [Tobias Adrian](/wiki/Tobias_Adrian \"Tobias Adrian\") has established the predictive power of an inverted yield curve to signal a recession. Their models show that when the difference between short\\-term interest rates (they use 3\\-month T\\-bills) and long\\-term interest rates (10\\-year Treasury bonds) at the end of a federal reserve tightening cycle is negative or less than 93 basis points positive that a rise in unemployment usually occurs.Arturo Estrella and Tobias Adrian, *[FRB of New York Staff Report No. 397](http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr397.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031016/http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff\\_reports/sr397\\.pdf \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-06 }}*, 2009 The [New York Fed](/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Bank_of_New_York \"Federal Reserve Bank of New York\") publishes a [monthly recession probability prediction](http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/capital_markets/ycfaq.html) derived from the yield curve and based on Estrella's work.",
"All the recessions in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") since 1970 (up through 2017\\) have been preceded by an inverted yield curve (10\\-year vs. 3\\-month). Over the same time frame, every occurrence of an inverted yield curve has been followed by recession as declared by the [NBER](/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research \"National Bureau of Economic Research\") business cycle dating committee.{{cite web\\|title\\=Announcement Dates\\|url\\=https://www.nber.org/cycles/\\|website\\=US Business Cycle Expansions and Contractions\\|publisher\\=NBER Business Cycle Dating Committee\\|access\\-date\\=1 March 2015\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012231548/https://www.nber.org/cycles/\\|archive\\-date\\=12 October 2007}}",
"",
"| Event | Date of inversion start | Date of the recession start | Time from inversion to recession Start | Duration of inversion | Time from recession start to NBER announcement | Time from disinversion to recession end | Duration of recession | Time from recession end to NBER announcement | Max inversion |\n| | | | Months | Months | Months | Months | Months | Months | Basis points |\n| [1970 recession](/wiki/Recession_of_1969%E2%80%9370 \"Recession of 1969–70\") | December 1968 | January 1970 | 13 | 15 | NA | 8 | 11 | NA | −52 |\n| [1974 recession](/wiki/1973%E2%80%9375_recession \"1973–75 recession\") | June 1973 | December 1973 | 6 | 18 | NA | 3 | 16 | NA | −159 |\n| [1980 recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession \"Early 1980s recession\") | November 1978 | February 1980 | 15 | 18 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 12 | −328 |\n| [1981–1982 recession](/wiki/Early_1980s_recession \"Early 1980s recession\") | October 1980 | August 1981 | 10 | 12 | 5 | 13 | 16 | 8 | −351 |\n| [1990 recession](/wiki/Early_1990s_recession \"Early 1990s recession\") | June 1989 | August 1990 | 14 | 7 | 8 | 14 | 8 | 21 | −16 |\n| [2001 recession](/wiki/Early_2000s_recession \"Early 2000s recession\") | July 2000 | April 2001 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 20 | −70 |\n| [2008–2009 recession](/wiki/Great_Recession \"Great Recession\") | August 2006 | January 2008 | 17 | 10 | 11 | 24 | 18 | 15 | −51 |\n| [2020–2020 recession](/wiki/COVID-19_recession \"COVID-19 recession\") | March 2020 | April 2020 | | | | | | | |\n| Average since 1969 | | | 12 | 12 | 7 | 10 | 12 | 15 | −147 |\n| Standard deviation since 1969 | | | 3\\.83 | 4\\.72 | 2\\.74 | 7\\.50 | 4\\.78 | 5\\.45 | 138\\.96 |",
"Estrella and others have postulated that the yield curve affects the business cycle via the balance sheet of banks (or [bank\\-like financial institutions](/wiki/Shadow_banking_system \"Shadow banking system\")).Arturo Estrella, *[FRB of New York Staff Report No. 421](https://ssrn.com/abstract=1532309) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061128/https://ssrn.com/abstract\\=1532309 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-21 }}*, 2010 When the yield curve is inverted banks are often caught paying more on short\\-term deposits (or [other forms](/wiki/Repurchase_agreement \"Repurchase agreement\") of short\\-term wholesale funding) than they are making on long\\-term loans leading to a loss of profitability and reluctance to lend resulting in a [credit crunch](/wiki/Credit_crunch \"Credit crunch\"). When the yield curve is upward sloping, banks can profitably take\\-in short term deposits and make long\\-term loans so they are eager to supply credit to borrowers. This eventually leads to a [credit bubble](/wiki/Economic_bubble \"Economic bubble\").",
"### Georgism",
"{{Main\\|Georgism}}\n[Henry George](/wiki/Henry_George \"Henry George\") claimed land price fluctuations were the primary cause of most business cycles.George, Henry. (1881\\). *Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth; The Remedy*. Kegan Paul (reissued by [Cambridge University Press](/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press \"Cambridge University Press\"), 2009; {{ISBN\\|978\\-1108003612}})",
"### Other factors",
"Population swings can impact business cycles.{{cite journal \\| last\\=Easterlin \\| first\\=Richard A. \\| last2\\=Wachter \\| first2\\=Michael L. \\| last3\\=Wachter \\| first3\\=Susan M. \\| title\\=The Changing Impact of Population Swings on the American Economy \\| journal\\=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society \\| publisher\\=American Philosophical Society \\| volume\\=122 \\| issue\\=3 \\| year\\=1978 \\| issn\\=0003049X \\| jstor\\=986545 \\| pages\\=119–130 \\| url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/986545 \\| access\\-date\\=5 August 2024}}",
""
] |
### Exogenous vs. endogenous
Within economics, it has been debated as to whether or not the fluctuations of a business cycle are attributable to external (exogenous) versus internal (endogenous) causes. In the first case shocks are stochastic, in the second case shocks are deterministically chaotic and embedded in the economic system.{{cite journal \|last1\=Orlando \|first1\=Giuseppe \|last2\=Zimatore \|first2\=Giovanna \|title\=Business cycle modeling between financial crises and black swans: Ornstein–Uhlenbeck stochastic process vs Kaldor deterministic chaotic model \|journal\=Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science \|date\=August 2020 \|volume\=30 \|issue\=8 \|pages\=083129 \|doi\=10\.1063/5\.0015916\|pmid\=32872798 \|bibcode\=2020Chaos..30h3129O \|s2cid\=235909725 }} The classical school (now neo\-classical) argues for exogenous causes and the [underconsumptionist](/wiki/Underconsumptionist "Underconsumptionist") (now Keynesian) school argues for endogenous causes. These may also broadly be classed as ["supply\-side"](/wiki/Supply-side_economics "Supply-side economics") and ["demand\-side"](/wiki/Demand-side_economics "Demand-side economics") explanations: supply\-side explanations may be styled, following [Say's law](/wiki/Say%27s_law "Say's law"), as arguing that "[supply creates its own demand](/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand "Supply creates its own demand")", while demand\-side explanations argue that [effective demand](/wiki/Effective_demand "Effective demand") may fall short of supply, yielding a recession or depression.
This debate has important policy consequences: proponents of exogenous causes of crises such as neoclassicals largely argue for minimal government policy or regulation ([laissez faire](/wiki/Laissez_faire "Laissez faire")), as absent these external shocks, the market functions, while proponents of endogenous causes of crises such as Keynesians largely argue for larger government policy and regulation, as absent regulation, the market will move from crisis to crisis. This division is not absolute – some classicals (including Say) argued for government policy to mitigate the damage of economic cycles, despite believing in external causes, while [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School "Austrian School") economists argue against government involvement as only worsening crises, despite believing in internal causes.
The view of the economic cycle as caused exogenously dates to Say's law, and much debate on endogeneity or exogeneity of causes of the economic cycle is framed in terms of refuting or supporting Say's law; this is also referred to as the "[general glut](/wiki/General_glut "General glut")" (supply in relation to demand) debate.
Until the [Keynesian revolution](/wiki/Keynesian_revolution "Keynesian revolution") in mainstream economics in the wake of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), classical and neoclassical explanations (exogenous causes) were the mainstream explanation of economic cycles; following the Keynesian revolution, neoclassical macroeconomics was largely rejected. There has been some resurgence of neoclassical approaches in the form of [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle "Real business cycle") (RBC) theory. The debate between Keynesians and neo\-classical advocates was reawakened following the recession of 2007\.
Mainstream economists working in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics "Neoclassical economics") tradition, as opposed to the Keynesian tradition, have usually viewed the departures of the harmonic working of the market economy as due to exogenous influences, such as the State or its regulations, labor unions, business monopolies, or shocks due to technology or natural causes.
Contrarily, in the heterodox tradition of [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi "Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi"), [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar "Clément Juglar"), and [Marx](/wiki/Crisis_theory "Crisis theory") the recurrent upturns and downturns of the market system are an endogenous characteristic of it.{{cite book \|last\=Morgan \|first\=Mary S. \|author\-link\=Mary S. Morgan \|title\=The History of Econometric Ideas \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=1990 \|isbn\=978\-0521373982 \|pages\=15–130 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=iUpDzJM9lq0C\&pg\=PA15 }}
The 19th\-century school of under consumptionism also posited endogenous causes for the business cycle, notably the [paradox of thrift](/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift "Paradox of thrift"), and today this previously heterodox school has entered the mainstream in the form of [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics "Keynesian economics") via the Keynesian revolution.
|
[
"### Exogenous vs. endogenous",
"Within economics, it has been debated as to whether or not the fluctuations of a business cycle are attributable to external (exogenous) versus internal (endogenous) causes. In the first case shocks are stochastic, in the second case shocks are deterministically chaotic and embedded in the economic system.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Orlando \\|first1\\=Giuseppe \\|last2\\=Zimatore \\|first2\\=Giovanna \\|title\\=Business cycle modeling between financial crises and black swans: Ornstein–Uhlenbeck stochastic process vs Kaldor deterministic chaotic model \\|journal\\=Chaos: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science \\|date\\=August 2020 \\|volume\\=30 \\|issue\\=8 \\|pages\\=083129 \\|doi\\=10\\.1063/5\\.0015916\\|pmid\\=32872798 \\|bibcode\\=2020Chaos..30h3129O \\|s2cid\\=235909725 }} The classical school (now neo\\-classical) argues for exogenous causes and the [underconsumptionist](/wiki/Underconsumptionist \"Underconsumptionist\") (now Keynesian) school argues for endogenous causes. These may also broadly be classed as [\"supply\\-side\"](/wiki/Supply-side_economics \"Supply-side economics\") and [\"demand\\-side\"](/wiki/Demand-side_economics \"Demand-side economics\") explanations: supply\\-side explanations may be styled, following [Say's law](/wiki/Say%27s_law \"Say's law\"), as arguing that \"[supply creates its own demand](/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand \"Supply creates its own demand\")\", while demand\\-side explanations argue that [effective demand](/wiki/Effective_demand \"Effective demand\") may fall short of supply, yielding a recession or depression.",
"This debate has important policy consequences: proponents of exogenous causes of crises such as neoclassicals largely argue for minimal government policy or regulation ([laissez faire](/wiki/Laissez_faire \"Laissez faire\")), as absent these external shocks, the market functions, while proponents of endogenous causes of crises such as Keynesians largely argue for larger government policy and regulation, as absent regulation, the market will move from crisis to crisis. This division is not absolute – some classicals (including Say) argued for government policy to mitigate the damage of economic cycles, despite believing in external causes, while [Austrian School](/wiki/Austrian_School \"Austrian School\") economists argue against government involvement as only worsening crises, despite believing in internal causes.",
"The view of the economic cycle as caused exogenously dates to Say's law, and much debate on endogeneity or exogeneity of causes of the economic cycle is framed in terms of refuting or supporting Say's law; this is also referred to as the \"[general glut](/wiki/General_glut \"General glut\")\" (supply in relation to demand) debate.",
"Until the [Keynesian revolution](/wiki/Keynesian_revolution \"Keynesian revolution\") in mainstream economics in the wake of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), classical and neoclassical explanations (exogenous causes) were the mainstream explanation of economic cycles; following the Keynesian revolution, neoclassical macroeconomics was largely rejected. There has been some resurgence of neoclassical approaches in the form of [real business cycle](/wiki/Real_business_cycle \"Real business cycle\") (RBC) theory. The debate between Keynesians and neo\\-classical advocates was reawakened following the recession of 2007\\.",
"Mainstream economists working in the [neoclassical](/wiki/Neoclassical_economics \"Neoclassical economics\") tradition, as opposed to the Keynesian tradition, have usually viewed the departures of the harmonic working of the market economy as due to exogenous influences, such as the State or its regulations, labor unions, business monopolies, or shocks due to technology or natural causes.",
"Contrarily, in the heterodox tradition of [Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi](/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_de_Sismondi \"Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi\"), [Clément Juglar](/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Juglar \"Clément Juglar\"), and [Marx](/wiki/Crisis_theory \"Crisis theory\") the recurrent upturns and downturns of the market system are an endogenous characteristic of it.{{cite book \\|last\\=Morgan \\|first\\=Mary S. \\|author\\-link\\=Mary S. Morgan \\|title\\=The History of Econometric Ideas \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=1990 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0521373982 \\|pages\\=15–130 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iUpDzJM9lq0C\\&pg\\=PA15 }}",
"The 19th\\-century school of under consumptionism also posited endogenous causes for the business cycle, notably the [paradox of thrift](/wiki/Paradox_of_thrift \"Paradox of thrift\"), and today this previously heterodox school has entered the mainstream in the form of [Keynesian economics](/wiki/Keynesian_economics \"Keynesian economics\") via the Keynesian revolution.",
""
] |
Events by year
--------------
### 1882
In 1882\. London members of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") were responsible for the burning of an African\-American residence on Wellington Street belonging to the Harrison family. The Harrisons had fled slavery in the United States and were facing racism for settling in London, so much so that they had planned to move to Windsor two days before the fire was set.{{sfn\|Backhouse\|1999\|p\=183}}
Note: See more details in Major events section
### 1920
On December 1, 1920, there was a robbery at the Merchants Bank, which is now known as the South London Branch of the Bank of Montreal, located on Wortley Road. Two masked gunman entered the bank and began demanding money. J. Lackie, who was working as an assistant accountant for the bank, was injured when he was stuck in the head by one of the robbers with the butt of his pistol. E.M. Dagg, who was acting manager during the time of the robbery, was told to get face down on the ground. The robbers were given around $800 (over $11,000 adjusting for inflation) from the tills, this seemed to satisfy them as they did not ask for the safe containing $40,000 (modern equivalent of over $560,000\) in cash and assets to be opened. They exited the bank and for the first time in Canadian history, they entered an automobile that they would use to escape the scene of the crime. They had previously stolen the automobile from a man named Roy Dale. The robbers used the vehicle to escape the crime scene and ditched it on the grounds of the London Asylum located on what is now Highbury Street. No one was ever charged in connection with the robbery as police were not able to gather sufficient evidence or leads on finding the "Wheeled Bandits".
The financial institution would shut its doors on July 31, 1931, partially due to the wartime conditions of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), also due to the fact that it was involved in one of the most notorious robberies in the city's history.
### 1931
On June 27, 1931, London became the site of the first bank robbery in Canadian history to accomplish a getaway with an airplane. The robbery took place on a Saturday afternoon. The target was Toronto Bank's London branch, and required a lot of planning. The robber had contacted the small, local airport in [Lambeth, Ontario](/wiki/Lambeth%2C_Middlesex_County%2C_Ontario "Lambeth, Middlesex County, Ontario"), to arrange a plane to fly him to Hamilton to "view the horse races." He then took a taxi to an area near the bank, located on the corner of Richmond and John Streets. The bank was about to close for the day, but he was able to gain access when he claimed to be an official from the Canadian Bankers Association (CBA). Once inside the bank, he drew his firearm and forced two clerks and the bank's acting manager into the safe. He packed $2,604 (modern equivalent of over $48,000\) in a bag, and locked the employees in the bank's vault; but he did admit a customer to use the bank that was now closed.
After exiting the bank, he made his way down Richmond Street. Cab driver Clifford Bice had been contacted a half an hour earlier by a gentleman who wished to tour the Dunlop Tire Company, located in nearby Lambeth (now part of London). The robber entered the cab and was dropped off close to the airport. After Bice returned to London, he located several coins discarded in the back of his car. He notified the authorities, giving them the first clue that something had happened. By this time, the robber had already boarded the plane and taken off. The pilot he had hired, Al Brown, was a local flying instructor who wanted to make some extra money. Neither Bice nor Brown were accomplices in the robbery, and had no knowledge of their passenger's plans. The robber notified the pilot that he might have made a mistake, and that it might be too busy to land in Hamilton, so the pilot changed course to the Weston Airport near Toronto.
W.C. van Horn was in charge of the operations at the airport, and was attempting to hail a taxi for the robber, who had suddenly disappeared. A Toronto taxi driver claimed to have picked up a mysterious man and given him a ride to Davenport Road. A later report was heard from the owner of a cigar shop, who claimed that a man entered the store, and bragged about robbing a bank in London and escaping via plane, leading to the newspapers referring to him as the "Winged Bandit". Police were unable to find any evidence as to who was behind the robbery, and to this day it remains unsolved.
The financial institution shut its doors for good on July 31, 1931\. Along with what was formerly known as the Merchants Bank, which was robbed in 1920, the banks were closed partially due to the wartime conditions of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), and also due to the fact that the banks were involved in two of the most notorious robberies in the city's history.
### 1940
On January 29, 1940, the East London branch of the Dominion Bank on the corner of Dundas and Rectory Street was robbed. On April 11, 1940, a robbery occurred at Anderson's supermarket located at 511 Elizabeth Street. A man entered the store and asked for a carton of cigarettes. After the owner retrieved them, the individual pulled a pistol on her, and demanded the store's money. She screamed as a result, which caused the man to slightly recoil. Seeing an opening, the owner, Mrs. Jane Anderson, and her 12\-year\-old daughter began to barrage the would\-be robber with a tirade of produce from the store, including [soda](/wiki/Soft_drink "Soft drink") bottles, straw containers, and boxes of cookies. The robber clearly did not want to cause harm to the victims as he quickly fled the scene instead of retaliating. Mrs. Anderson chased him on foot for a little bit until he fled in his vehicle. The Anderson family had immigrated to Canada around the beginning of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"). They had just recently opened the market and were not used to this type of behavior in their native [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom").Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=April/12/1940\|
According to London authorities this robbery matched a series of robberies carried out by a group in the previous months. The cigarettes that were requested by the robber were the same brand of cigarettes that were stolen by two gunmen that had held up other stores and businesses in London's East end, including the March 4th robbery of Mrs. Reemer's store, located on the corner of York and Rectory. A store belonging to the Ross family, located at 623 Hamilton Road, was also robbed on March 15, 1940\.
### 1977
In 1977, the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club") began to expand into Canada. They established their first chapters by patching over several chapters of the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice "Satan's Choice"), one of which was the young London chapter.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=July/02/1977\|
### 1978
At [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine "Wayne Kellestine")'s 1982 trial for assault, one of the witnesses testified that it was widely known in criminal circles that Kellestine, then President of the Holocaust Motorcycle Club, had murdered 37 year old Giovanni DiFilippo in 1978\. DiFilippo was a London, Ontario businessman with assumed associations to organized crime.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=167}} He was killed while answering his front door. An assassin disguised as a pizza delivery man shot him in the head with a pistol three times. His father\-in\-law Vito Fortunate was also shot and injured, but survived the incident.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=167}} A police investigation established that Kellestine had almost certainly been the one who murdered DiFilippo, but there was insufficient evidence to bring charges against him.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=167}}
### 1979
In 1979, there was internal strife in [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain") due to a referendum in 1978\. A separatist movement had begun in 1959 that began resisting the Spanish Government. This event would come to be known as the [Basque conflict](/wiki/Basque_conflict "Basque conflict"). The new Spanish constitution of 1978 had overwhelming support in Spain, with 88\.5% voting in favour, among a voter turnout of 67\.1%. In the three provinces of Basque country, the figures were lower, with 70\.2% voting in favour, from a turnout of 44\.7%. This was due to the call to abstention by [EAJ\-PNV](/wiki/EAJ-PNV "EAJ-PNV") and the creation of a coalition of Abertzale left organisations, brought together to advocate for "no" in the referendum, as they felt that the constitution did not meet their demands for independence.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=October/29/1979\|
When these demands were not met, they began using violence to change the results. This led to a massive strike sparked by the murder of a member of the Socialist Workers Party. The separatists began to attack political leaders, resulting in the death of German Gonzalez Lopez, who was shot dead on October 27, 1979\. Two days later, a man in London, Ontario who went by the alias "Stephan" claimed to represent the Spanish separatists. He delivered a threat to Ignacio Aguirre, who was the Spanish Secretary of State for tourism at the time. He was able to contact Aguirre while he was in Canada for a day long visit. Stephan revealed that the group would begin bombing tourist resorts on the Spanish Mediterranean coast by February 1980, if members were not released from prison. He also stated that the group's target was property of the hotel chains themselves, not necessarily the occupants.
On October 30, 1979, two members of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, Don Walsh and Rebel Russel, were detained by London Police at a TD Canada Trust Bank located in the Westown plaza (now known as Cherryhill Mall). A pedestrian had reported seeing two individuals carrying firearms, and believed a bank robbery was in progress. The bikers did not have firearms on them, and were there just to make deposits at the bank. The chains holding wallets in their pockets were mistaken for pistols. As the London police approached the bank, they tried to do so in a covert manner, but they were noticed by the bikers, who were wondering what was happening outside. The officers then entered the bank and asked them to put their hands above their heads. A search showed that they were not armed. The two Queensmen were released by police. Walsh made the comment: "This is different" in reference to the fact that once police had made their arrests, they did not usually release bikers easily.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=October/30/1979\|
### 1980
On June 24, 1980, five members of the London chapter of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, along with a 15\-year\-old female juvenile faced charges of rape, after two sisters claimed that they had been gang raped at the group's clubhouse. One of the five members was initially convicted of rape and jailed. He was released on a $75,000 bail. The four other members and the juvenile were charged following the subsequent investigation of the group's headquarters. Due to the age of the people involved, including the accused, much of the evidence was banned from being publicly released. But the members received minor prison sentences and fines as a result of the events. Had this occurred in the modern day, the charges would have been much more stringent.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=June/25/1980\|
On July 2, 1980, the clubhouse for the London chapter of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, located at 626 Wonderland Road, was deemed unfit for human habitation by the London\-Middlesex Health Unit. The club was given notice that anyone occupying the residence after the given date could receive a fine of $2,000 and up to six months in prison. There were accusations that this was an attempt by police to remove the Queensman from the area. This was dismissed by Inspector Don Andrews. Who stated:
> We didn't do it because it was a motorcycle club, we did it because it was unfit for human habitation.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=July/02/1980\|
London Police also stated that the club had known about it beforehand, and had removed most items of value, leaving the property with only "junk", "lots of litter, bottles and cans". The two story building marked "No Trespassing" was scattered with images of scantily clad women, liquor bottles and a sign on the bathroom door that said "please don't flush sanitary napkins or dead babies", depicting the group's dark sense of humor. The fenced\-in property, complete with dogs (which had been moved by the club already) and iron bars on the windows, was used as a compound by the club. This event caused the club to relocate to a new location in London.
During this period the London chapter of the Queensmen had over twenty "full\-patch" members and the police feared tensions with the club and its chapters from the surrounding area. The Queensman Motorcycle Club's mother chapter was located in [Windsor, Ontario](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario "Windsor, Ontario"), but by the 1980s, they had established chapters in London, Chatham and Amherstburg as well.
On July 4, 1980, a group of over 300 bikers gathered for a pig roast barbecue on a six\-acre property in Putnam, Ontario, just outside of London. The local authorities monitored the meeting, saying it was a precaution when gatherings of this size involving bikers occur. The bikers claimed that they were just there for a good time and not looking to cause an incident. About 30 or so police officers began handing out tickets to bikers, which the bikers perceived as harassment. Several individuals were ticketed or charged for acts such as traveling with open liquor, possession of marijuana, and license issues. Five others were charged with possessing concealed weapons. A motorcyclist from London was charged for illegal possession of a firearm and wearing headgear that was not government approved for riding.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=July/04/1980\|
On July 7, 1980, an act of arson by an unknown party in an attempt to short\-circuit the city's bulldozers caused an estimated $3,000 (modern equivalent of over $10,000\) in damages to the former Queensmen clubhouse. London firefighters spent a little less than an hour putting out the ensuing inferno. The building was demolished not long after.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=July/07/1980\|
### 1985
In 1985, [Brian "Bo" Beaucage](/wiki/Brian_Beaucage "Brian Beaucage"), a member of the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice "Satan's Choice") Kitchener chapter, visited London, Ontario. Beaucage was known for his violent hatred of the Outlaws. He had travelled to London to pull the sign off of the Outlaws' London clubhouse (which used to formally be a Satan's Choice chapter before "Patching\-over" in 1977\), causing the Outlaws to shoot him.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2013\|p\=182}} He was wearing a bulletproof vest and survived.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2013\|p\=182}}
### 1987
On 16 January 1987\. Beaucage of the Satan's Choice was critically injured during another visit to London. He was shot during an incident by a member of the Outlaws London chapter with a .45 calibre handgun. He took a bullet to the heart, but again survived a shooting.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2013\|p\=182}}
### 1989
In February 1989, during the annual London Motorcycle Show, which was hosted at the Western Fairgrounds, the president of the Annihilators Motorcycle Club St. Thomas chapter, [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine "Wayne Kellestine") became inebriated at the event.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=74\-75}} Kellestine physically assaulted a police officer and then attempted to flee by hijacking a limousine, leading to a car chase that ended with him crashing the car into the Outlaws clubhouse located on Egerton Street.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=74\-75}} The incident confirmed Kellestine's reputation as a "heat score" (underworld slang for a criminal who attracts police attention with his antics), which was why he was never invited to join the Outlaws, and why his club would cease to be a support club for the Outlaws in the late 1990s.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=75}}
### 1992
On March 12, 1992\. As a part of a crackdown on the Outlaws and their support club the Annihilators, London Police, along with members of the [Canadian Armed Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces "Canadian Armed Forces") from the [Wolseley Barracks](/wiki/Wolseley_Barracks "Wolseley Barracks")(called in for the use of their metal detectors) launched a series of raids dubbed Operation Bandito. Police targeted the Outlaws MC chapter in London, their support club the Annihilators MC which was located in nearby St. Thomas at the time was also raided. Authorities eventually charged 15 members and 3 associates, this included two members of the Outlaws London chapter and several members of the associated St. Thomas\-based Annihilators with a total of 66 narcotics and weapons charges. Police had also seized significant amounts of cocaine, marijuana, several restricted firearms and over $52,000(over $110,000 at current rates of inflation) in cash.Publisher\=London Free Press\|Date\=March/13/1992\|
Authorities had been aided by Micheal Simmons, he was related to the President of the Outlaws London chapter and had sought out [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service "London Police Service") to deliver an offer of becoming an informant. The London Police Service was extremely surprised by this but immediately accepted his offer and gave him a list of 12 individuals that they wanted him to gather information on. Simmons began preparing himself to prospect for the Outlaws, he used his influential position as the president's brother to gain trust with the club's members, as they showed him a great amount of respect due to his blood connection.{{cite web \| url\=https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1995/8/7/can\-police\-protect\-a\-witness \| title\=Can police protect a witness? \| Maclean's \| AUGUST 7, 1995 }}
From 1991 to 1992, he gathered evidence on his brother and other members of club, all while working with an undercover officer. By early 1992 the authorities believe they had the necessary evidence to move against the Outlaws. The raids on March 12, led to the arrests of 18 individuals including Simmons brother who was forced to pay a fine of $25,000 and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. However Simmons identity was not properly protected as the undercover officer was present during the apprehension of the accused, his identity had also been openly revealed by the judge during the case. He would eventually fall out of favor and be removed from the witness protection program in 1994\.{{cite web \| url\=https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1995/8/7/can\-police\-protect\-a\-witness \| title\=Can police protect a witness? \| Maclean's \| AUGUST 7, 1995 }}
### 1998
On 7 April 1998, Jeffrey LaBrash and Jody Hart, two members of the Outlaws biker gang, were gunned down leaving the Beef Baron strip club on York Street by two men associated with the Hell's Angels.{{cite web
\| last \= Richmond
\| first \= Randy
\| title \= A long history of bad blood
\| publisher \=The London Free Press
\|date\=12 January 2012\| url \= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2012/01/11/19232481\.html
\| doi \=
\| access\-date \= 2016\-11\-30}} LaBrash was the acting president of the London chapter of the Outlaws and his shooters were brothers Paul and Duane Lewis.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=129}} A London millionaire businessman, Salvatore Vecchio, paid $30,000 of the $50,000 bail the court had imposed on the Lewis brothers charged with killing LaBrash and Hart.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130}} Vecchio lived in a luxury condominium and was one of the few people in London who owned a Ferrari.{{cite web
\| last \=
\| first \=
\| title \= DNA found in Vecchio homicide
\| publisher \= The London Free Press
\|date\=30 October 2009\| url \= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2009/10/30/11574721\-sun.html
\| doi \=
\| access\-date \= 2016\-11\-30}} Besides real estate, Vecchio's fortune rested on loan sharking and a hardcore pornographic web site with ties to both outlaw bikers and the Mafia. Vecchio was an associate of the [Musitano Family](/wiki/Musitano_crime_family "Musitano crime family"), and a friend of "Fat Pat" Musitano.{{cite news \|last1\=Edwards \|first1\=Peter \|title\=Sammy Vecchio was found buried to the neck. Was the wealthy mob associate's murder part of an Ontario biker war? \|url\=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2021/12/12/sammy\-vecchio\-was\-found\-buried\-to\-the\-neck\-was\-the\-wealthy\-mob\-associates\-murder\-part\-of\-an\-ontario\-biker\-war.html \|access\-date\=13 March 2022 \|publisher\=The Toronto Star \|date\=12 December 2021}} Vecchio had known the Lewis brothers, and may have employed them as enforcers with his loan shark business. After the murders of LaBrash and Hart, the Outlaws placed a $50,000 bounty on each of the Lewis brothers.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130}} Also in April 1998, on the same day as the funerals for the two Outlaws, T. J. Baxter's Tap \& Grill, a popular restaurant in London, was bombed, injuring five and causing an estimated $1,000,000 in damages.
On 15 December 1998, Vecchio, who was widely believed to be linked with the Hells Angels, was murdered and his body found buried in a swamp outside London.{{cite web
\| last \= Richmond
\| first \= Randy
\| title \= A long history of bad blood
\| publisher \=The London Free Press
\| date\=12 January 2012
\| url \= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2012/01/11/19232481\.html
\| doi \=
\| access\-date \= 2016\-11\-30}} Because Vecchio's body was found close to [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine "Wayne Kellestine")'s farm, and similarity with the murder of David "Sparky" O'Neil in 1992, the police believe that Kellestine was involved in Vecchio's murder, and may have been the gunman who killed him.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=80}} Kellestine was the president of the Annihilators MC St. Thomas chapter, a puppet club for the Outlaws. The attention brought about by these events would result in the Annihilators ceasing to operate as a puppet club for the Outlaws, which increased tensions between their former allies, they became a probationary chapter for the [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club "Loners Motorcycle Club") and later a full chapter in 1999\.
The Lewis brothers were acquitted in 1999 of killing LaBrash and Hart on the grounds of self\-defense, claiming that LaBrash had pointed at a gun at them in the Beef Baron parking lot. That gun was not found at the crime scene.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130}} The defense claimed that the DJ at the Beef Baron, an Outlaw supporter, had removed the gun from LeBrash's corpse as part of a plot to frame the Lewis brothers. As the DJ had fled back to his native Britain after the killings, he was not available to contradict the defense's theory, which created sufficient doubt in the jury's minds to ensure the acquittal of the Lewis brothers.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130}} The significance of the killing of LaBrash and Hart was that for first time, people associated with the Hells Angels had killed within Ontario, showing the Angels were deadly serious about their plans to expand from Quebec into Ontario.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=129}}
### 1999
* Ontario Biker War
In 1999, the [Ontario Biker War](/wiki/Ontario_Biker_War "Ontario Biker War") would begin due to the Hells Angels attempts at establishing a foothold in the province by trying to "Patch\-over" the [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club "Loners Motorcycle Club") which had been a major club in the Ontario for decades. On 2 June 1999, the [Annihilators Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine%23Annihilators_Motorcycle_Club "Wayne Kellestine#Annihilators Motorcycle Club") was "Patched\-over" by the Loners.{{Citation \|title\=The Bandido Massacre; A True Story of Bikers, Brotherhood and Betrayal \|first\=Peter \|last\=Edwards \|isbn\=978\-0307372765 \|publisher\=\[\[HarperCollins Publishers Ltd]] \|year\=2010\|pages\=61, 81}} One of the members of the London/[Chatham](/wiki/Chatham-Kent "Chatham-Kent") chapter of the Loners, Jimmy Coates, had a brother, John Coates, who was a member of the Hells Angels [Sherbrooke](/wiki/Sherbrooke "Sherbrooke") chapter.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=127\-128}} John Coates was 6'7" tall, weighing 300 pounds, while younger brother Jimmy was not as large, but still intimidating.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=128}} Through his brother, Jimmy Coates opened a secret pipeline for buying drugs from Sherbrooke.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=118}}
The President of the London/St. Thomas chapter, [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine "Wayne Kellestine"), was adamantly against having the Loners join the Hells Angels, and when certain members of his chapter, did not agree with him started meeting behind the club's back with the Hells Angels Sherbrooke chapter, Kellestine stripped them of their colours. One Loner was also stuck with a pistol and robbed for making further comments.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=128}} Together, the Coates brothers worked to encourage a mutiny against Kellestine with the promise of joining the Angels as the reward. On 22 October 1999, an assassination attempt was made against Kellestine as he stopped in his truck for a red light in his hometown of [Iona Station](/wiki/Iona_Station "Iona Station").{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130}} A car drove up alongside, driven by Philippe "Philbilly" Gastonguay of the Angels' Sherbrooke chapter, and a pro\-Angel Loner, David "Dirty" McLeish. One of the two men opened fire, spraying Kellestine's truck with bullets. Both men would be arrested and Kellestine would survive unharmed.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130\-131}} The two shooters and both Coates brothers were charged with "conspiracy to commit murder". They would plead guilty to "conspiracy to commit bodily harm", and were jailed. When the brothers got out, they would be running the club's Hells Angels London chapter.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130\-131}}
The Hells Angels were intent on gaining influence in Southern Ontario especially. In other areas of Ontario, clubs had been quite welcoming of the Angels; but here they faced stiff resistance, their main opposition being their old time rival the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club") (at the time, the largest motorcycle club in the province). As the club's Quebec chapters planned their expansion Eastwards in late 1999, London was solidly in Outlaws control and had been since the late 1977, but in establishing a chapter here, it would create a vital link between Windsor and Kitchener. The Outlaws London chapter clubhouse was located on Egerton Street East, near the grounds of the Western Fair, was considered a local landmark by the people of the city. Their President, Mario Parente, was an individual who could not be intimidated. By the end of 1999, the Hells Angels Ontario Nomad chapter and the Outlaws began to engage each other in both [London](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario "London, Ontario") and [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario "Hamilton, Ontario"), with several brawls and incidents occurring between the clubs. In December, the Montreal\-based Jackels Motorcycle Club established a chapter in London to operate as a support club in the city. A Biker Enforcement Unit representative stated:
> They used to drive by and taunt each other, For the H.A., their priority is to absorb other gangs and gain territorial control. In order to do that, they either have to befriend or fight their rivals.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=130\-131}}
### 2000
* Ontario Biker War
At the same time that the Ontario Biker War was underway, another conflict was occurring in neighboring province of Quebec. The [Quebec Biker War](/wiki/Quebec_Biker_War "Quebec Biker War") began in 1994 and saw the Hells Angels face the Canadian\-based [Rock Machine](/wiki/Rock_Machine "Rock Machine") for control of the narcotics trade in the province. By 2000, the war had intensified. The Rock Machine began expanding into Ontario with three chapters (Toronto, Kingston and Niagara Falls). Not wanting to fall behind the Hells Angels, it established its first Ontario chapter in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") in late 2000\. This infuriated the Outlaws, and the Hells Angels sought to gain the upper hand, so they gave a limited time offer to Outlaw motorcycle clubs in Ontario (especially [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice "Satan's Choice") and Para\-dice Riders). There would be no probationary period for Hells Angels club membership, and all members would receive Full\-Patch. This resulted in 168 members of the Para\-dice Riders, Satan's Choice, Lobos and Last Chance "patching" to the Angels. Overnight, the Hells Angels went from one chapter in Ontario to 13, giving them a massive increase in both manpower and area of operation. Throughout 2000, brawls were common between the two groups across the province, several which occurred in London, with a particularly notable one occurring at the local annual motorcycle show, with multiple injuries on both sides.{{cite news\|url\=https://montrealgazette.com/news/local\-news/quebecs\-biker\-war\-started\-25\-years\-ago\-today\|title\=Quebec's biker war started 25 years ago today\|last\=montrealgazette\|newspaper\=Montrealgazette\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-13}} Shawn "Cheeks" Boshaw, a member of the London Outlaw chapter went over to the Hells Angels together with David "The Hammer" MacDonald of the Outlaws' Hamilton chapter.
* Other events
In late 2000, the street gang [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew "Kipps Lane Crew") was established in the neighborhood of Kipps Lane and the surrounding area in Northeast London. It would keep itself far away from the ongoing conflict between motorcycle clubs.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=23}}
### 2001
* Ontario Biker War
In early 2001, the Hells Angels established a prospective chapter in London, Ontario. They began investing in businesses within the city, this would include strip clubs, tattoo shops and a half\-dozen exotic\-massage parlors, referred to as "rub 'n' tugs" by many in London. They were also involved in the automotive trade and owned two automotive repair shops, but most specifically in the city's narcotics market. In addition to their own businesses, the Hells Angels allegedly supplied a group of up to 30 street gang members to cook cocaine powder into crack, and peddle it on London street corners, sources claim. A Hells Angels clubhouse was opened at 732 York Street, just up the road from the Outlaws main clubhouse, which had around to eight to ten "full\-patch" members. The location seemed to be a deliberate provocation. On 12 April 2001, the Hells Angels promptly informed the Loners that they did not have the right to use "Ontario" on their patch, as the Loners were only a "regional" club.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=87}} Unable to stand on their own, the Chatham/London Loners joined the Bandidos on 22 May 2001, as probationary members becoming full members on 1 December 2001\.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=135}} The Angels also began aggressively attempting to recruit Outlaws to the London chapter. The London chapter of the Outlaws countered this by putting restrictions and intense pressure on members not to defect, sometimes with the threat of violence. Some Outlaws did switch sides and suffered violent retaliation. More exchanges occurred during this period after three Outlaws in London defected to Hell's Angels. Exchanges saw at least 15 people injured in 2001\.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=135}}
During this period, both Coates brothers and their friends were released from prison. John Coates would become President of the London probationary chapter, and Jimmy would begin prospecting.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=137}} In June 2001, the Outlaws' [Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock%2C_Ontario "Woodstock, Ontario") clubhouse was burnt to the ground in an act of arson. The Hells Angels were suspected to be involved. In August 2001, a member of the Outlaws was pulled over by police en route to the York Street clubhouse of the Hells Angels, and authorities confiscated body armor, various firearms, and a pipe bomb.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
In July 2001, three members of the Hells Angels were charged with extortion when they attempted to get a $70,000 payment from a business owner.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=138}} The three men pled guilty to lesser charges.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}} In December 2001, the Hells Angels patched over a dozen more Outlaws in Ontario. Other Outlaws were faced with an ultimatum: switch sides or retire.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=137}}
### 2002
On the night of 7 January 2002, members of the Jackals, a Hells Angels puppet club, showed up outside of the house of Thomas Hughes, the president of the Outlaws' London chapter, on Egerton Street located near the Outlaws clubhouse.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}} The Jackals demanded that Marcus Cornelisse, an Outlaw, come out of Hughes's house to talk to them.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}} Instead, Hughes and Cornelisse came out and opened fire, leading to a shoot\-out that saw one Jackal, Eric Davignon, shot in the stomach.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}} Though a number of shots were exchanged by both groups, Davingon was the only person hit, which he would survive.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}} The shoot\-out ended with the Jackals fleeing in their car as Hughes and Cornelisse ran after them, shooting wildly into the dark.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}}
Hughes was charged with four counts of attempted murder.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=139}} He also incurred 23 additional charges relating to firearms, ammunition, this included semi\-auto rifles and explosives in his residence. Eventually the attempted\-murder charges were dropped as self defense, he was sentenced to only 30 months incarceration.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/when\-hell\-comes\-to\-town/article1138212/\|title\=When Hell comes to town\|first\=Timothy\|last\=Appleby\|newspaper\=The Globe and Mail \|date\=July 17, 2004\|via\=www.theglobeandmail.com}}
By now, London City council and [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service "London Police Service") were under intense pressure by the public to do something about the situation. Then in late January 2002, tensions in the conflict reached their height. Outlaws from locations all over Canada began to travel to London to assist the London chapter, along with some American [Bandidos](/wiki/Bandidos_Motorcycle_Club "Bandidos Motorcycle Club") and other rivals of the Angels. The 2002 London Motorcycle Show, organized at London's the Western Fair District, was promoted by the Hells Angels, who had run London's annual motorcycle\-trade show for the last two years in a row. It was one of the "top five events of its kind in Canada." This venue would be the target of retaliation by the Outlaws and Bandidos.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}}
### The 2002 London Motorcycle Show
In February, 2002, the expo was on a Saturday and was open to the public. Around mid\-afternoon, 120 Outlaws and Bandidos arrived at the Western Fair district in London. On the other side were 110 Hells Angels and their support club, the Jackals.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}} Some of the Outlaws arriving wore body armour. Some brandished large knives on their belts. The Bandidos, who had traveled up the [Highway 401](/wiki/Highway_401 "Highway 401") from the US city of [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit "Detroit"), arrived in a large group. They made a public display of respect for the Outlaws, then positioned themselves with their allies.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}} The Bandidos and the Outlaws found themselves surrounded on three sides by Hells Angels.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}} Surprised spectators fled to safe distances. Before hostilities could begin, a team of over 40 police officers dawning full riot gear from the London Police Service intervened and physically separated the two groups, demanding that the Bandidos, especially members of international status to depart. Police Chief Murray Faulkner said:
> If the police weren't there, we were in for trouble. Big\-time. I was guessing a multiple shooting or stabbing.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=140}}
Either way, the Western Fair committee barred the Hells Angels who organized the event from future use of the venue. London's then\-mayor Anne Marie De Cicco was successful in her attempts to ban the London Motorcycle Show from the city as long as was directed by the Hells Angels. De Cicco banned Pooler's group, 2\-4 the Show Productions, from the London Fairgrounds permanently.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=141}}
### 2005
On 2 June 2005, Shawn "Cheeks" Boshaw of the Hells Angels' London chapter was arrested in Peterbourgh on charges of narcotics trafficking.{{sfn\|Schneider\|2009\|p\=432}}
### 2007
On 15 April 2007, Marcus Cornelisse was questioned by the police about the violation of his bail conditions, leading him to attack and beat two police officers in London strip club.{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=157\-158}}
### 2009
On February 14, 2009, one of the founders of the [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew "Kipps Lane Crew")(KLC), Matthew Owen, was stabbed and killed during brawl at an East London residence. Another member and two others were injured. It is not known what started the incident, but a fight erupted and spread into the backyard of the residence, as someone smashed through the patio door. Authorities say several people were involved in the altercation.
### 2011
On August 25, 2011, a member of the Kipps Lane Crew saw members of an opposing group inside Jack's Bar on Richmond Street. He had been asked to leave the establishment earlier in the day. He fired multiple shots from a 9mm handgun into the business. No one was killed, but an innocent bystander, Ashley Hay, was injured. She spent over a week in the hospital recovering after having a bullet removed from her lung and clavicle. The KLC member was sentenced to 12 years in prison for the incident.{{cite web \| url\=https://lfpress.com/2013/06/24/jury\-out\-in\-trail\-of\-london\-man\-accused\-of\-firing\-gun\-at\-downtown\-bar \| title\=Jordan Faraj guilty of shooting up London patio and leaving one woman injured }}
In October 2011, a member of the Kipps Lane Crew, Denzel Borden, was sentenced to five years in prison for "possession of a loaded and prohibited firearm", and for the killing of Thi Tran, who was shot outside K's Sports Lounge \& Grill. In the fall of 2014, a jury ruled that Borden had acted in self\-defense as Tran had been approaching him with a tire iron.{{cite web \| url\=https://london.ctvnews.ca/mobile/borden\-sentenced\-on\-weapons\-charge\-1\.2186483 \| title\=Borden sentenced on weapons charge \| date\=13 January 2015 }}
### 2012
* London Conflict
In early 2012\. A conflict erupted between the two groups in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario "London, Ontario"). After years of remaining out of the headlines for the most part, the city's street gangs began to gain notoriety in the 2010s when a war broke out between the London chapter of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels "Hells Angels") MC and the FU Crew, a local street gang backed by the London chapter of the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club"). This resulted in the deaths of several individuals, and the arson of several biker and gang\-owned businesses and vehicles, with some of the bikers fleeing town temporarily.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
The dispute first flared up when a tattoo parlor associated with the Outlaws motorcycle club was set ablaze on the morning of January 7\. During this period, the Hells Angels had begun to lean on the FU Crew to operate for them in London. When this was refused, a vehicle belonging to the leader of the street gang was burned. Hostilities continued with two separate arsons at a massage parlour and a strip club, and then the shooting on January 11 of two people associated with the Hells Angels. On the same day, a massage parlor in [St. Thomas, Ontario](/wiki/St._Thomas%2C_Ontario "St. Thomas, Ontario") was burned down. Two more tattoo parlors were also threatened, and some Hells Angels pulled back to regain their footing. The conflict would eventually deescalate with a presumed peace being declared.
* Other events
On August 31, 2012\. A member of the Kipps Lane Crew, shot a man believed to be associated with EOA, near Queens and Adelaide Street around 2:30 p.m. The man survived the attack but these events led to a 5\-hour standoff on a Kipps Lane property, London Police brought in their tactical response unit(SWAT equivalent), a Police modified APC(armoured personnel carrier) and created a perimeter around the residence. The result was the arrest of four members or affiliates and the confiscation of a "shotgun and almost 1,900 rounds of various types of ammunition, a taser, pepper spray, stolen IDs and a small amount of methamphetamine". Over 16 charges were handed out to the four members of the gang, including 12 firearm related charges.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.mykawartha.com/news\-story/4817042\-shooting\-leads\-to\-kipps\-lane\-standoff\-update\-/ \| title\=Shooting leads to Kipps Lane standoff (Update) \| date\=31 August 2014 }}
### 2014
On February 21, 2014, London Police Services raided a home associated with the EOA Gang and seized 3 kilograms of cocaine (worth $300,000\), as well as [cutting agents](/wiki/Cutting_agent "Cutting agent"), $60,000 in marijuana, and $24,000 in other assets. In May 2014, a man walking on Kipps Lane was stabbed and robbed. He was sent to hospital with non\-lethal injuries. Suspects were ever confirmed.{{Cite web\|last\=Fraser\|first\=Tom\|date\=May 19, 2014\|title\=Police Searching for Stabbing Suspect\|url\=https://blackburnnews.com/london/2014/05/19/police\-searching\-for\-stabbing\-suspect\-2/\|website\=Blackburn News}} In October 2014, London Police raided a home on Kipps Lane. They arrested two members of the Kipps Lane Crew and seized almost $50,000 in narcotics, including 409\.9g of cocaine and 488g of psilocybin. They also found close to $7,000 in cash, along with a minor assortment of various other narcotics.
{{Cite web\|last\=Kitching\|first\=Scott\|date\=October 27, 2014\|title\=Two Charged In Drug Bust\|url\=https://blackburnnews.com/london/2014/10/27/two\-charged\-in\-drug\-bust/\|website\=Blackburn News}}
### 2015
[London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service "London Police Service") conducted a raid on a member of the Kipps Lane Crew in February 2015\. The raid uncovered an illegal firearm (9mm pistol), a bag of marijuana, over $2,000 cash, and some KLC clothing. There was a "T\-shirt with a picture of a stick figure pointing a gun at another stick figure bleeding from the head", and a sweatshirt that protests for the release of members who were jailed recently.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
On September 6, 2015\. A full\-patch member of the [Gate Keepers MC](/wiki/Gate_Keepers_Motorcycle_Club "Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club"), Steven Sinclair, was fatally shot outside of a bar on Hamilton Rd. The location was frequently visited by members of the Gate Keepers and Hells Angels. The shooting was committed by a low\-level narcotics dealer from [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario "Hamilton, Ontario") who was hired by an individual whose identity was never discovered, to "leg warmer" (to shoot someone in their legs) Sinclair for $10,000\. The man would tell him "There was this guy who ripped me off and disrespected me. I have to show him he can't do that. I cannot be connected with this". The accused waited outside the bar for hours until around 3:00 in the morning, when Sinclair finally exited the building. It all went wrong when Sinclair was mistakenly shot and killed. The deal fell apart and the shooter testifyied.{{Cite news \|author\=Jane Sims \|date\=January 22, 2018 \|title\=Tearful teenager testifies he was hired to shoot London Hells Angels\-linked biker Steve Sinclair, 49 \|url\=https://edmontonsun.com/2018/01/22/tearful\-teenager\-testifies\-he\-was\-hired\-to\-shoot\-london\-hells\-angels\-linked\-biker\-steve\-sinclair\-49 \|newspaper\=Edmonton Sun \|access\-date\=2018\-01\-23}} Hundreds of Hells Angels, Gate Keepers and several other support clubs arrived in London to show their support at Sinclair's funeral.{{Cite news \|author\= \|date\= \|title\=As friends and family mourned Steve Sinclair Monday, police had nothing new to report on his Sept. 6 shooting death \|url\=https://lfpress.com/2015/09/14/as\-friends\-and\-family\-mourned\-steve\-sinclair\-monday\-police\-had\-nothing\-new\-to\-report\-on\-his\-sept\-6\-shooting\-death/wcm/c84de586\-8051\-082b\-d1d5\-06014e29570d/amp/ \|newspaper\=The London Free Press \|access\-date\=2015\-09\-15}}
### 2020
In July 2020 [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service "London Police Service") in conjunction with [OPP](/wiki/Ontario_Provincial_Police "Ontario Provincial Police") and other law enforcement raided several locations in the province, a former president of the London's "HA" and was previously known as the Teflon biker "because charges against him would not stick", along with other residents of London were arrested and charged with money laundering and this was part of a crackdown on a multi\-million dollar illegal gaming racket that was tied to a series of attempted murders, arsons, extortion threats, shootings and assaults. Across southern Ontario 7 were arrested in charge and over 24 million dollars in assets were seized, along with the liquidation of three property development companies with one having built a 7 million dollar home, 8 luxury vehicles and over $175,000 in other illegal contraband.{{Cite web\|url\=https://beta.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/7/30/1\_5045554\.html\|title\=Police seize $24M in assets, charge London, Ont. man as they tackle illegal gaming\|website\=ctvnews.ca\|access\-date\=2020\-06\-30}}
In mid 2020\. A raid was conducted on a London street gang, EOA in 7 locations (6 in London 1 in Brampton) resulting in the arrest of 18 and the seizure of 2\.1 kilograms of fentanyl valued at over $720,000, $55,000 in cash and 2 firearms. Making this the largest seizure of fentanyl in the city's history.[https://www.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/9/14/1\_5104274\.html](https://www.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/9/14/1_5104274.html) {{Dead link\|date\=September 2022}}
|
[
"Events by year\n--------------",
"### 1882",
"In 1882\\. London members of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") were responsible for the burning of an African\\-American residence on Wellington Street belonging to the Harrison family. The Harrisons had fled slavery in the United States and were facing racism for settling in London, so much so that they had planned to move to Windsor two days before the fire was set.{{sfn\\|Backhouse\\|1999\\|p\\=183}}",
"Note: See more details in Major events section",
"### 1920",
"On December 1, 1920, there was a robbery at the Merchants Bank, which is now known as the South London Branch of the Bank of Montreal, located on Wortley Road. Two masked gunman entered the bank and began demanding money. J. Lackie, who was working as an assistant accountant for the bank, was injured when he was stuck in the head by one of the robbers with the butt of his pistol. E.M. Dagg, who was acting manager during the time of the robbery, was told to get face down on the ground. The robbers were given around $800 (over $11,000 adjusting for inflation) from the tills, this seemed to satisfy them as they did not ask for the safe containing $40,000 (modern equivalent of over $560,000\\) in cash and assets to be opened. They exited the bank and for the first time in Canadian history, they entered an automobile that they would use to escape the scene of the crime. They had previously stolen the automobile from a man named Roy Dale. The robbers used the vehicle to escape the crime scene and ditched it on the grounds of the London Asylum located on what is now Highbury Street. No one was ever charged in connection with the robbery as police were not able to gather sufficient evidence or leads on finding the \"Wheeled Bandits\".",
"The financial institution would shut its doors on July 31, 1931, partially due to the wartime conditions of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), also due to the fact that it was involved in one of the most notorious robberies in the city's history.",
"### 1931",
"On June 27, 1931, London became the site of the first bank robbery in Canadian history to accomplish a getaway with an airplane. The robbery took place on a Saturday afternoon. The target was Toronto Bank's London branch, and required a lot of planning. The robber had contacted the small, local airport in [Lambeth, Ontario](/wiki/Lambeth%2C_Middlesex_County%2C_Ontario \"Lambeth, Middlesex County, Ontario\"), to arrange a plane to fly him to Hamilton to \"view the horse races.\" He then took a taxi to an area near the bank, located on the corner of Richmond and John Streets. The bank was about to close for the day, but he was able to gain access when he claimed to be an official from the Canadian Bankers Association (CBA). Once inside the bank, he drew his firearm and forced two clerks and the bank's acting manager into the safe. He packed $2,604 (modern equivalent of over $48,000\\) in a bag, and locked the employees in the bank's vault; but he did admit a customer to use the bank that was now closed.",
"After exiting the bank, he made his way down Richmond Street. Cab driver Clifford Bice had been contacted a half an hour earlier by a gentleman who wished to tour the Dunlop Tire Company, located in nearby Lambeth (now part of London). The robber entered the cab and was dropped off close to the airport. After Bice returned to London, he located several coins discarded in the back of his car. He notified the authorities, giving them the first clue that something had happened. By this time, the robber had already boarded the plane and taken off. The pilot he had hired, Al Brown, was a local flying instructor who wanted to make some extra money. Neither Bice nor Brown were accomplices in the robbery, and had no knowledge of their passenger's plans. The robber notified the pilot that he might have made a mistake, and that it might be too busy to land in Hamilton, so the pilot changed course to the Weston Airport near Toronto.",
"W.C. van Horn was in charge of the operations at the airport, and was attempting to hail a taxi for the robber, who had suddenly disappeared. A Toronto taxi driver claimed to have picked up a mysterious man and given him a ride to Davenport Road. A later report was heard from the owner of a cigar shop, who claimed that a man entered the store, and bragged about robbing a bank in London and escaping via plane, leading to the newspapers referring to him as the \"Winged Bandit\". Police were unable to find any evidence as to who was behind the robbery, and to this day it remains unsolved.",
"The financial institution shut its doors for good on July 31, 1931\\. Along with what was formerly known as the Merchants Bank, which was robbed in 1920, the banks were closed partially due to the wartime conditions of the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), and also due to the fact that the banks were involved in two of the most notorious robberies in the city's history.",
"### 1940",
"On January 29, 1940, the East London branch of the Dominion Bank on the corner of Dundas and Rectory Street was robbed. On April 11, 1940, a robbery occurred at Anderson's supermarket located at 511 Elizabeth Street. A man entered the store and asked for a carton of cigarettes. After the owner retrieved them, the individual pulled a pistol on her, and demanded the store's money. She screamed as a result, which caused the man to slightly recoil. Seeing an opening, the owner, Mrs. Jane Anderson, and her 12\\-year\\-old daughter began to barrage the would\\-be robber with a tirade of produce from the store, including [soda](/wiki/Soft_drink \"Soft drink\") bottles, straw containers, and boxes of cookies. The robber clearly did not want to cause harm to the victims as he quickly fled the scene instead of retaliating. Mrs. Anderson chased him on foot for a little bit until he fled in his vehicle. The Anderson family had immigrated to Canada around the beginning of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"). They had just recently opened the market and were not used to this type of behavior in their native [Britain](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\").Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=April/12/1940\\|",
"According to London authorities this robbery matched a series of robberies carried out by a group in the previous months. The cigarettes that were requested by the robber were the same brand of cigarettes that were stolen by two gunmen that had held up other stores and businesses in London's East end, including the March 4th robbery of Mrs. Reemer's store, located on the corner of York and Rectory. A store belonging to the Ross family, located at 623 Hamilton Road, was also robbed on March 15, 1940\\.",
"### 1977",
"In 1977, the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\") began to expand into Canada. They established their first chapters by patching over several chapters of the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice \"Satan's Choice\"), one of which was the young London chapter.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=July/02/1977\\|",
"### 1978",
"At [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine \"Wayne Kellestine\")'s 1982 trial for assault, one of the witnesses testified that it was widely known in criminal circles that Kellestine, then President of the Holocaust Motorcycle Club, had murdered 37 year old Giovanni DiFilippo in 1978\\. DiFilippo was a London, Ontario businessman with assumed associations to organized crime.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=167}} He was killed while answering his front door. An assassin disguised as a pizza delivery man shot him in the head with a pistol three times. His father\\-in\\-law Vito Fortunate was also shot and injured, but survived the incident.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=167}} A police investigation established that Kellestine had almost certainly been the one who murdered DiFilippo, but there was insufficient evidence to bring charges against him.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=167}}",
"### 1979",
"In 1979, there was internal strife in [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\") due to a referendum in 1978\\. A separatist movement had begun in 1959 that began resisting the Spanish Government. This event would come to be known as the [Basque conflict](/wiki/Basque_conflict \"Basque conflict\"). The new Spanish constitution of 1978 had overwhelming support in Spain, with 88\\.5% voting in favour, among a voter turnout of 67\\.1%. In the three provinces of Basque country, the figures were lower, with 70\\.2% voting in favour, from a turnout of 44\\.7%. This was due to the call to abstention by [EAJ\\-PNV](/wiki/EAJ-PNV \"EAJ-PNV\") and the creation of a coalition of Abertzale left organisations, brought together to advocate for \"no\" in the referendum, as they felt that the constitution did not meet their demands for independence.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=October/29/1979\\|",
"When these demands were not met, they began using violence to change the results. This led to a massive strike sparked by the murder of a member of the Socialist Workers Party. The separatists began to attack political leaders, resulting in the death of German Gonzalez Lopez, who was shot dead on October 27, 1979\\. Two days later, a man in London, Ontario who went by the alias \"Stephan\" claimed to represent the Spanish separatists. He delivered a threat to Ignacio Aguirre, who was the Spanish Secretary of State for tourism at the time. He was able to contact Aguirre while he was in Canada for a day long visit. Stephan revealed that the group would begin bombing tourist resorts on the Spanish Mediterranean coast by February 1980, if members were not released from prison. He also stated that the group's target was property of the hotel chains themselves, not necessarily the occupants.",
"On October 30, 1979, two members of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, Don Walsh and Rebel Russel, were detained by London Police at a TD Canada Trust Bank located in the Westown plaza (now known as Cherryhill Mall). A pedestrian had reported seeing two individuals carrying firearms, and believed a bank robbery was in progress. The bikers did not have firearms on them, and were there just to make deposits at the bank. The chains holding wallets in their pockets were mistaken for pistols. As the London police approached the bank, they tried to do so in a covert manner, but they were noticed by the bikers, who were wondering what was happening outside. The officers then entered the bank and asked them to put their hands above their heads. A search showed that they were not armed. The two Queensmen were released by police. Walsh made the comment: \"This is different\" in reference to the fact that once police had made their arrests, they did not usually release bikers easily.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=October/30/1979\\|",
"### 1980",
"On June 24, 1980, five members of the London chapter of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, along with a 15\\-year\\-old female juvenile faced charges of rape, after two sisters claimed that they had been gang raped at the group's clubhouse. One of the five members was initially convicted of rape and jailed. He was released on a $75,000 bail. The four other members and the juvenile were charged following the subsequent investigation of the group's headquarters. Due to the age of the people involved, including the accused, much of the evidence was banned from being publicly released. But the members received minor prison sentences and fines as a result of the events. Had this occurred in the modern day, the charges would have been much more stringent.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=June/25/1980\\|",
"On July 2, 1980, the clubhouse for the London chapter of the Queensman Motorcycle Club, located at 626 Wonderland Road, was deemed unfit for human habitation by the London\\-Middlesex Health Unit. The club was given notice that anyone occupying the residence after the given date could receive a fine of $2,000 and up to six months in prison. There were accusations that this was an attempt by police to remove the Queensman from the area. This was dismissed by Inspector Don Andrews. Who stated:",
"",
"> We didn't do it because it was a motorcycle club, we did it because it was unfit for human habitation.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=July/02/1980\\|",
"London Police also stated that the club had known about it beforehand, and had removed most items of value, leaving the property with only \"junk\", \"lots of litter, bottles and cans\". The two story building marked \"No Trespassing\" was scattered with images of scantily clad women, liquor bottles and a sign on the bathroom door that said \"please don't flush sanitary napkins or dead babies\", depicting the group's dark sense of humor. The fenced\\-in property, complete with dogs (which had been moved by the club already) and iron bars on the windows, was used as a compound by the club. This event caused the club to relocate to a new location in London.",
"During this period the London chapter of the Queensmen had over twenty \"full\\-patch\" members and the police feared tensions with the club and its chapters from the surrounding area. The Queensman Motorcycle Club's mother chapter was located in [Windsor, Ontario](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario \"Windsor, Ontario\"), but by the 1980s, they had established chapters in London, Chatham and Amherstburg as well.",
"On July 4, 1980, a group of over 300 bikers gathered for a pig roast barbecue on a six\\-acre property in Putnam, Ontario, just outside of London. The local authorities monitored the meeting, saying it was a precaution when gatherings of this size involving bikers occur. The bikers claimed that they were just there for a good time and not looking to cause an incident. About 30 or so police officers began handing out tickets to bikers, which the bikers perceived as harassment. Several individuals were ticketed or charged for acts such as traveling with open liquor, possession of marijuana, and license issues. Five others were charged with possessing concealed weapons. A motorcyclist from London was charged for illegal possession of a firearm and wearing headgear that was not government approved for riding.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=July/04/1980\\|",
"On July 7, 1980, an act of arson by an unknown party in an attempt to short\\-circuit the city's bulldozers caused an estimated $3,000 (modern equivalent of over $10,000\\) in damages to the former Queensmen clubhouse. London firefighters spent a little less than an hour putting out the ensuing inferno. The building was demolished not long after.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=July/07/1980\\|",
"### 1985",
"In 1985, [Brian \"Bo\" Beaucage](/wiki/Brian_Beaucage \"Brian Beaucage\"), a member of the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice \"Satan's Choice\") Kitchener chapter, visited London, Ontario. Beaucage was known for his violent hatred of the Outlaws. He had travelled to London to pull the sign off of the Outlaws' London clubhouse (which used to formally be a Satan's Choice chapter before \"Patching\\-over\" in 1977\\), causing the Outlaws to shoot him.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2013\\|p\\=182}} He was wearing a bulletproof vest and survived.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2013\\|p\\=182}}",
"### 1987",
"On 16 January 1987\\. Beaucage of the Satan's Choice was critically injured during another visit to London. He was shot during an incident by a member of the Outlaws London chapter with a .45 calibre handgun. He took a bullet to the heart, but again survived a shooting.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2013\\|p\\=182}}",
"### 1989",
"In February 1989, during the annual London Motorcycle Show, which was hosted at the Western Fairgrounds, the president of the Annihilators Motorcycle Club St. Thomas chapter, [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine \"Wayne Kellestine\") became inebriated at the event.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=74\\-75}} Kellestine physically assaulted a police officer and then attempted to flee by hijacking a limousine, leading to a car chase that ended with him crashing the car into the Outlaws clubhouse located on Egerton Street.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=74\\-75}} The incident confirmed Kellestine's reputation as a \"heat score\" (underworld slang for a criminal who attracts police attention with his antics), which was why he was never invited to join the Outlaws, and why his club would cease to be a support club for the Outlaws in the late 1990s.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=75}}",
"### 1992",
"On March 12, 1992\\. As a part of a crackdown on the Outlaws and their support club the Annihilators, London Police, along with members of the [Canadian Armed Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces \"Canadian Armed Forces\") from the [Wolseley Barracks](/wiki/Wolseley_Barracks \"Wolseley Barracks\")(called in for the use of their metal detectors) launched a series of raids dubbed Operation Bandito. Police targeted the Outlaws MC chapter in London, their support club the Annihilators MC which was located in nearby St. Thomas at the time was also raided. Authorities eventually charged 15 members and 3 associates, this included two members of the Outlaws London chapter and several members of the associated St. Thomas\\-based Annihilators with a total of 66 narcotics and weapons charges. Police had also seized significant amounts of cocaine, marijuana, several restricted firearms and over $52,000(over $110,000 at current rates of inflation) in cash.Publisher\\=London Free Press\\|Date\\=March/13/1992\\|",
"Authorities had been aided by Micheal Simmons, he was related to the President of the Outlaws London chapter and had sought out [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service \"London Police Service\") to deliver an offer of becoming an informant. The London Police Service was extremely surprised by this but immediately accepted his offer and gave him a list of 12 individuals that they wanted him to gather information on. Simmons began preparing himself to prospect for the Outlaws, he used his influential position as the president's brother to gain trust with the club's members, as they showed him a great amount of respect due to his blood connection.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1995/8/7/can\\-police\\-protect\\-a\\-witness \\| title\\=Can police protect a witness? \\| Maclean's \\| AUGUST 7, 1995 }}",
"From 1991 to 1992, he gathered evidence on his brother and other members of club, all while working with an undercover officer. By early 1992 the authorities believe they had the necessary evidence to move against the Outlaws. The raids on March 12, led to the arrests of 18 individuals including Simmons brother who was forced to pay a fine of $25,000 and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. However Simmons identity was not properly protected as the undercover officer was present during the apprehension of the accused, his identity had also been openly revealed by the judge during the case. He would eventually fall out of favor and be removed from the witness protection program in 1994\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://archive.macleans.ca/article/1995/8/7/can\\-police\\-protect\\-a\\-witness \\| title\\=Can police protect a witness? \\| Maclean's \\| AUGUST 7, 1995 }}",
"### 1998",
"On 7 April 1998, Jeffrey LaBrash and Jody Hart, two members of the Outlaws biker gang, were gunned down leaving the Beef Baron strip club on York Street by two men associated with the Hell's Angels.{{cite web\n \\| last \\= Richmond\n \\| first \\= Randy\n \\| title \\= A long history of bad blood\n \\| publisher \\=The London Free Press\n \\|date\\=12 January 2012\\| url \\= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2012/01/11/19232481\\.html\n \\| doi \\=\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2016\\-11\\-30}} LaBrash was the acting president of the London chapter of the Outlaws and his shooters were brothers Paul and Duane Lewis.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=129}} A London millionaire businessman, Salvatore Vecchio, paid $30,000 of the $50,000 bail the court had imposed on the Lewis brothers charged with killing LaBrash and Hart.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130}} Vecchio lived in a luxury condominium and was one of the few people in London who owned a Ferrari.{{cite web\n \\| last \\= \n \\| first \\= \n \\| title \\= DNA found in Vecchio homicide\n \\| publisher \\= The London Free Press\n \\|date\\=30 October 2009\\| url \\= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2009/10/30/11574721\\-sun.html\n \\| doi \\=\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2016\\-11\\-30}} Besides real estate, Vecchio's fortune rested on loan sharking and a hardcore pornographic web site with ties to both outlaw bikers and the Mafia. Vecchio was an associate of the [Musitano Family](/wiki/Musitano_crime_family \"Musitano crime family\"), and a friend of \"Fat Pat\" Musitano.{{cite news \\|last1\\=Edwards \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=Sammy Vecchio was found buried to the neck. Was the wealthy mob associate's murder part of an Ontario biker war? \\|url\\=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2021/12/12/sammy\\-vecchio\\-was\\-found\\-buried\\-to\\-the\\-neck\\-was\\-the\\-wealthy\\-mob\\-associates\\-murder\\-part\\-of\\-an\\-ontario\\-biker\\-war.html \\|access\\-date\\=13 March 2022 \\|publisher\\=The Toronto Star \\|date\\=12 December 2021}} Vecchio had known the Lewis brothers, and may have employed them as enforcers with his loan shark business. After the murders of LaBrash and Hart, the Outlaws placed a $50,000 bounty on each of the Lewis brothers.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130}} Also in April 1998, on the same day as the funerals for the two Outlaws, T. J. Baxter's Tap \\& Grill, a popular restaurant in London, was bombed, injuring five and causing an estimated $1,000,000 in damages.",
"On 15 December 1998, Vecchio, who was widely believed to be linked with the Hells Angels, was murdered and his body found buried in a swamp outside London.{{cite web\n \\| last \\= Richmond\n \\| first \\= Randy\n \\| title \\= A long history of bad blood\n \\| publisher \\=The London Free Press\n \\| date\\=12 January 2012\n \\| url \\= http://www.lfpress.com/news/london/2012/01/11/19232481\\.html\n \\| doi \\=\n \\| access\\-date \\= 2016\\-11\\-30}} Because Vecchio's body was found close to [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine \"Wayne Kellestine\")'s farm, and similarity with the murder of David \"Sparky\" O'Neil in 1992, the police believe that Kellestine was involved in Vecchio's murder, and may have been the gunman who killed him.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=80}} Kellestine was the president of the Annihilators MC St. Thomas chapter, a puppet club for the Outlaws. The attention brought about by these events would result in the Annihilators ceasing to operate as a puppet club for the Outlaws, which increased tensions between their former allies, they became a probationary chapter for the [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club \"Loners Motorcycle Club\") and later a full chapter in 1999\\.",
"The Lewis brothers were acquitted in 1999 of killing LaBrash and Hart on the grounds of self\\-defense, claiming that LaBrash had pointed at a gun at them in the Beef Baron parking lot. That gun was not found at the crime scene.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130}} The defense claimed that the DJ at the Beef Baron, an Outlaw supporter, had removed the gun from LeBrash's corpse as part of a plot to frame the Lewis brothers. As the DJ had fled back to his native Britain after the killings, he was not available to contradict the defense's theory, which created sufficient doubt in the jury's minds to ensure the acquittal of the Lewis brothers.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130}} The significance of the killing of LaBrash and Hart was that for first time, people associated with the Hells Angels had killed within Ontario, showing the Angels were deadly serious about their plans to expand from Quebec into Ontario.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=129}}",
"### 1999",
"* Ontario Biker War\nIn 1999, the [Ontario Biker War](/wiki/Ontario_Biker_War \"Ontario Biker War\") would begin due to the Hells Angels attempts at establishing a foothold in the province by trying to \"Patch\\-over\" the [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club \"Loners Motorcycle Club\") which had been a major club in the Ontario for decades. On 2 June 1999, the [Annihilators Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine%23Annihilators_Motorcycle_Club \"Wayne Kellestine#Annihilators Motorcycle Club\") was \"Patched\\-over\" by the Loners.{{Citation \\|title\\=The Bandido Massacre; A True Story of Bikers, Brotherhood and Betrayal \\|first\\=Peter \\|last\\=Edwards \\|isbn\\=978\\-0307372765 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[HarperCollins Publishers Ltd]] \\|year\\=2010\\|pages\\=61, 81}} One of the members of the London/[Chatham](/wiki/Chatham-Kent \"Chatham-Kent\") chapter of the Loners, Jimmy Coates, had a brother, John Coates, who was a member of the Hells Angels [Sherbrooke](/wiki/Sherbrooke \"Sherbrooke\") chapter.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=127\\-128}} John Coates was 6'7\" tall, weighing 300 pounds, while younger brother Jimmy was not as large, but still intimidating.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=128}} Through his brother, Jimmy Coates opened a secret pipeline for buying drugs from Sherbrooke.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=118}}",
"The President of the London/St. Thomas chapter, [Wayne Kellestine](/wiki/Wayne_Kellestine \"Wayne Kellestine\"), was adamantly against having the Loners join the Hells Angels, and when certain members of his chapter, did not agree with him started meeting behind the club's back with the Hells Angels Sherbrooke chapter, Kellestine stripped them of their colours. One Loner was also stuck with a pistol and robbed for making further comments.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=128}} Together, the Coates brothers worked to encourage a mutiny against Kellestine with the promise of joining the Angels as the reward. On 22 October 1999, an assassination attempt was made against Kellestine as he stopped in his truck for a red light in his hometown of [Iona Station](/wiki/Iona_Station \"Iona Station\").{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130}} A car drove up alongside, driven by Philippe \"Philbilly\" Gastonguay of the Angels' Sherbrooke chapter, and a pro\\-Angel Loner, David \"Dirty\" McLeish. One of the two men opened fire, spraying Kellestine's truck with bullets. Both men would be arrested and Kellestine would survive unharmed.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130\\-131}} The two shooters and both Coates brothers were charged with \"conspiracy to commit murder\". They would plead guilty to \"conspiracy to commit bodily harm\", and were jailed. When the brothers got out, they would be running the club's Hells Angels London chapter.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130\\-131}}",
"The Hells Angels were intent on gaining influence in Southern Ontario especially. In other areas of Ontario, clubs had been quite welcoming of the Angels; but here they faced stiff resistance, their main opposition being their old time rival the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\") (at the time, the largest motorcycle club in the province). As the club's Quebec chapters planned their expansion Eastwards in late 1999, London was solidly in Outlaws control and had been since the late 1977, but in establishing a chapter here, it would create a vital link between Windsor and Kitchener. The Outlaws London chapter clubhouse was located on Egerton Street East, near the grounds of the Western Fair, was considered a local landmark by the people of the city. Their President, Mario Parente, was an individual who could not be intimidated. By the end of 1999, the Hells Angels Ontario Nomad chapter and the Outlaws began to engage each other in both [London](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario \"London, Ontario\") and [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario \"Hamilton, Ontario\"), with several brawls and incidents occurring between the clubs. In December, the Montreal\\-based Jackels Motorcycle Club established a chapter in London to operate as a support club in the city. A Biker Enforcement Unit representative stated:",
"",
"> They used to drive by and taunt each other, For the H.A., their priority is to absorb other gangs and gain territorial control. In order to do that, they either have to befriend or fight their rivals.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=130\\-131}}",
"### 2000",
"* Ontario Biker War\nAt the same time that the Ontario Biker War was underway, another conflict was occurring in neighboring province of Quebec. The [Quebec Biker War](/wiki/Quebec_Biker_War \"Quebec Biker War\") began in 1994 and saw the Hells Angels face the Canadian\\-based [Rock Machine](/wiki/Rock_Machine \"Rock Machine\") for control of the narcotics trade in the province. By 2000, the war had intensified. The Rock Machine began expanding into Ontario with three chapters (Toronto, Kingston and Niagara Falls). Not wanting to fall behind the Hells Angels, it established its first Ontario chapter in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") in late 2000\\. This infuriated the Outlaws, and the Hells Angels sought to gain the upper hand, so they gave a limited time offer to Outlaw motorcycle clubs in Ontario (especially [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice \"Satan's Choice\") and Para\\-dice Riders). There would be no probationary period for Hells Angels club membership, and all members would receive Full\\-Patch. This resulted in 168 members of the Para\\-dice Riders, Satan's Choice, Lobos and Last Chance \"patching\" to the Angels. Overnight, the Hells Angels went from one chapter in Ontario to 13, giving them a massive increase in both manpower and area of operation. Throughout 2000, brawls were common between the two groups across the province, several which occurred in London, with a particularly notable one occurring at the local annual motorcycle show, with multiple injuries on both sides.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://montrealgazette.com/news/local\\-news/quebecs\\-biker\\-war\\-started\\-25\\-years\\-ago\\-today\\|title\\=Quebec's biker war started 25 years ago today\\|last\\=montrealgazette\\|newspaper\\=Montrealgazette\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-13}} Shawn \"Cheeks\" Boshaw, a member of the London Outlaw chapter went over to the Hells Angels together with David \"The Hammer\" MacDonald of the Outlaws' Hamilton chapter.\n* Other events\nIn late 2000, the street gang [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew \"Kipps Lane Crew\") was established in the neighborhood of Kipps Lane and the surrounding area in Northeast London. It would keep itself far away from the ongoing conflict between motorcycle clubs.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=23}}",
"### 2001",
"* Ontario Biker War\nIn early 2001, the Hells Angels established a prospective chapter in London, Ontario. They began investing in businesses within the city, this would include strip clubs, tattoo shops and a half\\-dozen exotic\\-massage parlors, referred to as \"rub 'n' tugs\" by many in London. They were also involved in the automotive trade and owned two automotive repair shops, but most specifically in the city's narcotics market. In addition to their own businesses, the Hells Angels allegedly supplied a group of up to 30 street gang members to cook cocaine powder into crack, and peddle it on London street corners, sources claim. A Hells Angels clubhouse was opened at 732 York Street, just up the road from the Outlaws main clubhouse, which had around to eight to ten \"full\\-patch\" members. The location seemed to be a deliberate provocation. On 12 April 2001, the Hells Angels promptly informed the Loners that they did not have the right to use \"Ontario\" on their patch, as the Loners were only a \"regional\" club.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=87}} Unable to stand on their own, the Chatham/London Loners joined the Bandidos on 22 May 2001, as probationary members becoming full members on 1 December 2001\\.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=135}} The Angels also began aggressively attempting to recruit Outlaws to the London chapter. The London chapter of the Outlaws countered this by putting restrictions and intense pressure on members not to defect, sometimes with the threat of violence. Some Outlaws did switch sides and suffered violent retaliation. More exchanges occurred during this period after three Outlaws in London defected to Hell's Angels. Exchanges saw at least 15 people injured in 2001\\.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=135}}",
"During this period, both Coates brothers and their friends were released from prison. John Coates would become President of the London probationary chapter, and Jimmy would begin prospecting.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=137}} In June 2001, the Outlaws' [Woodstock](/wiki/Woodstock%2C_Ontario \"Woodstock, Ontario\") clubhouse was burnt to the ground in an act of arson. The Hells Angels were suspected to be involved. In August 2001, a member of the Outlaws was pulled over by police en route to the York Street clubhouse of the Hells Angels, and authorities confiscated body armor, various firearms, and a pipe bomb.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"In July 2001, three members of the Hells Angels were charged with extortion when they attempted to get a $70,000 payment from a business owner.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=138}} The three men pled guilty to lesser charges.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}} In December 2001, the Hells Angels patched over a dozen more Outlaws in Ontario. Other Outlaws were faced with an ultimatum: switch sides or retire.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=137}}",
"### 2002",
"On the night of 7 January 2002, members of the Jackals, a Hells Angels puppet club, showed up outside of the house of Thomas Hughes, the president of the Outlaws' London chapter, on Egerton Street located near the Outlaws clubhouse.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}} The Jackals demanded that Marcus Cornelisse, an Outlaw, come out of Hughes's house to talk to them.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}} Instead, Hughes and Cornelisse came out and opened fire, leading to a shoot\\-out that saw one Jackal, Eric Davignon, shot in the stomach.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}} Though a number of shots were exchanged by both groups, Davingon was the only person hit, which he would survive.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}} The shoot\\-out ended with the Jackals fleeing in their car as Hughes and Cornelisse ran after them, shooting wildly into the dark.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}}",
"Hughes was charged with four counts of attempted murder.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=139}} He also incurred 23 additional charges relating to firearms, ammunition, this included semi\\-auto rifles and explosives in his residence. Eventually the attempted\\-murder charges were dropped as self defense, he was sentenced to only 30 months incarceration.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/when\\-hell\\-comes\\-to\\-town/article1138212/\\|title\\=When Hell comes to town\\|first\\=Timothy\\|last\\=Appleby\\|newspaper\\=The Globe and Mail \\|date\\=July 17, 2004\\|via\\=www.theglobeandmail.com}}",
"By now, London City council and [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service \"London Police Service\") were under intense pressure by the public to do something about the situation. Then in late January 2002, tensions in the conflict reached their height. Outlaws from locations all over Canada began to travel to London to assist the London chapter, along with some American [Bandidos](/wiki/Bandidos_Motorcycle_Club \"Bandidos Motorcycle Club\") and other rivals of the Angels. The 2002 London Motorcycle Show, organized at London's the Western Fair District, was promoted by the Hells Angels, who had run London's annual motorcycle\\-trade show for the last two years in a row. It was one of the \"top five events of its kind in Canada.\" This venue would be the target of retaliation by the Outlaws and Bandidos.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}}",
"### The 2002 London Motorcycle Show",
"In February, 2002, the expo was on a Saturday and was open to the public. Around mid\\-afternoon, 120 Outlaws and Bandidos arrived at the Western Fair district in London. On the other side were 110 Hells Angels and their support club, the Jackals.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}} Some of the Outlaws arriving wore body armour. Some brandished large knives on their belts. The Bandidos, who had traveled up the [Highway 401](/wiki/Highway_401 \"Highway 401\") from the US city of [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit \"Detroit\"), arrived in a large group. They made a public display of respect for the Outlaws, then positioned themselves with their allies.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}} The Bandidos and the Outlaws found themselves surrounded on three sides by Hells Angels.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}} Surprised spectators fled to safe distances. Before hostilities could begin, a team of over 40 police officers dawning full riot gear from the London Police Service intervened and physically separated the two groups, demanding that the Bandidos, especially members of international status to depart. Police Chief Murray Faulkner said:",
"",
"> If the police weren't there, we were in for trouble. Big\\-time. I was guessing a multiple shooting or stabbing.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=140}}",
"Either way, the Western Fair committee barred the Hells Angels who organized the event from future use of the venue. London's then\\-mayor Anne Marie De Cicco was successful in her attempts to ban the London Motorcycle Show from the city as long as was directed by the Hells Angels. De Cicco banned Pooler's group, 2\\-4 the Show Productions, from the London Fairgrounds permanently.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=141}}",
"### 2005",
"On 2 June 2005, Shawn \"Cheeks\" Boshaw of the Hells Angels' London chapter was arrested in Peterbourgh on charges of narcotics trafficking.{{sfn\\|Schneider\\|2009\\|p\\=432}}",
"### 2007",
"On 15 April 2007, Marcus Cornelisse was questioned by the police about the violation of his bail conditions, leading him to attack and beat two police officers in London strip club.{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=157\\-158}}",
"### 2009",
"On February 14, 2009, one of the founders of the [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew \"Kipps Lane Crew\")(KLC), Matthew Owen, was stabbed and killed during brawl at an East London residence. Another member and two others were injured. It is not known what started the incident, but a fight erupted and spread into the backyard of the residence, as someone smashed through the patio door. Authorities say several people were involved in the altercation.",
"### 2011",
"On August 25, 2011, a member of the Kipps Lane Crew saw members of an opposing group inside Jack's Bar on Richmond Street. He had been asked to leave the establishment earlier in the day. He fired multiple shots from a 9mm handgun into the business. No one was killed, but an innocent bystander, Ashley Hay, was injured. She spent over a week in the hospital recovering after having a bullet removed from her lung and clavicle. The KLC member was sentenced to 12 years in prison for the incident.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://lfpress.com/2013/06/24/jury\\-out\\-in\\-trail\\-of\\-london\\-man\\-accused\\-of\\-firing\\-gun\\-at\\-downtown\\-bar \\| title\\=Jordan Faraj guilty of shooting up London patio and leaving one woman injured }}\nIn October 2011, a member of the Kipps Lane Crew, Denzel Borden, was sentenced to five years in prison for \"possession of a loaded and prohibited firearm\", and for the killing of Thi Tran, who was shot outside K's Sports Lounge \\& Grill. In the fall of 2014, a jury ruled that Borden had acted in self\\-defense as Tran had been approaching him with a tire iron.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://london.ctvnews.ca/mobile/borden\\-sentenced\\-on\\-weapons\\-charge\\-1\\.2186483 \\| title\\=Borden sentenced on weapons charge \\| date\\=13 January 2015 }}",
"### 2012",
"* London Conflict\nIn early 2012\\. A conflict erupted between the two groups in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario \"London, Ontario\"). After years of remaining out of the headlines for the most part, the city's street gangs began to gain notoriety in the 2010s when a war broke out between the London chapter of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels \"Hells Angels\") MC and the FU Crew, a local street gang backed by the London chapter of the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\"). This resulted in the deaths of several individuals, and the arson of several biker and gang\\-owned businesses and vehicles, with some of the bikers fleeing town temporarily.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"The dispute first flared up when a tattoo parlor associated with the Outlaws motorcycle club was set ablaze on the morning of January 7\\. During this period, the Hells Angels had begun to lean on the FU Crew to operate for them in London. When this was refused, a vehicle belonging to the leader of the street gang was burned. Hostilities continued with two separate arsons at a massage parlour and a strip club, and then the shooting on January 11 of two people associated with the Hells Angels. On the same day, a massage parlor in [St. Thomas, Ontario](/wiki/St._Thomas%2C_Ontario \"St. Thomas, Ontario\") was burned down. Two more tattoo parlors were also threatened, and some Hells Angels pulled back to regain their footing. The conflict would eventually deescalate with a presumed peace being declared.",
"* Other events\nOn August 31, 2012\\. A member of the Kipps Lane Crew, shot a man believed to be associated with EOA, near Queens and Adelaide Street around 2:30 p.m. The man survived the attack but these events led to a 5\\-hour standoff on a Kipps Lane property, London Police brought in their tactical response unit(SWAT equivalent), a Police modified APC(armoured personnel carrier) and created a perimeter around the residence. The result was the arrest of four members or affiliates and the confiscation of a \"shotgun and almost 1,900 rounds of various types of ammunition, a taser, pepper spray, stolen IDs and a small amount of methamphetamine\". Over 16 charges were handed out to the four members of the gang, including 12 firearm related charges.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.mykawartha.com/news\\-story/4817042\\-shooting\\-leads\\-to\\-kipps\\-lane\\-standoff\\-update\\-/ \\| title\\=Shooting leads to Kipps Lane standoff (Update) \\| date\\=31 August 2014 }}",
"### 2014",
"On February 21, 2014, London Police Services raided a home associated with the EOA Gang and seized 3 kilograms of cocaine (worth $300,000\\), as well as [cutting agents](/wiki/Cutting_agent \"Cutting agent\"), $60,000 in marijuana, and $24,000 in other assets. In May 2014, a man walking on Kipps Lane was stabbed and robbed. He was sent to hospital with non\\-lethal injuries. Suspects were ever confirmed.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Fraser\\|first\\=Tom\\|date\\=May 19, 2014\\|title\\=Police Searching for Stabbing Suspect\\|url\\=https://blackburnnews.com/london/2014/05/19/police\\-searching\\-for\\-stabbing\\-suspect\\-2/\\|website\\=Blackburn News}} In October 2014, London Police raided a home on Kipps Lane. They arrested two members of the Kipps Lane Crew and seized almost $50,000 in narcotics, including 409\\.9g of cocaine and 488g of psilocybin. They also found close to $7,000 in cash, along with a minor assortment of various other narcotics.\n{{Cite web\\|last\\=Kitching\\|first\\=Scott\\|date\\=October 27, 2014\\|title\\=Two Charged In Drug Bust\\|url\\=https://blackburnnews.com/london/2014/10/27/two\\-charged\\-in\\-drug\\-bust/\\|website\\=Blackburn News}}",
"### 2015",
"[London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service \"London Police Service\") conducted a raid on a member of the Kipps Lane Crew in February 2015\\. The raid uncovered an illegal firearm (9mm pistol), a bag of marijuana, over $2,000 cash, and some KLC clothing. There was a \"T\\-shirt with a picture of a stick figure pointing a gun at another stick figure bleeding from the head\", and a sweatshirt that protests for the release of members who were jailed recently.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"On September 6, 2015\\. A full\\-patch member of the [Gate Keepers MC](/wiki/Gate_Keepers_Motorcycle_Club \"Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club\"), Steven Sinclair, was fatally shot outside of a bar on Hamilton Rd. The location was frequently visited by members of the Gate Keepers and Hells Angels. The shooting was committed by a low\\-level narcotics dealer from [Hamilton, Ontario](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario \"Hamilton, Ontario\") who was hired by an individual whose identity was never discovered, to \"leg warmer\" (to shoot someone in their legs) Sinclair for $10,000\\. The man would tell him \"There was this guy who ripped me off and disrespected me. I have to show him he can't do that. I cannot be connected with this\". The accused waited outside the bar for hours until around 3:00 in the morning, when Sinclair finally exited the building. It all went wrong when Sinclair was mistakenly shot and killed. The deal fell apart and the shooter testifyied.{{Cite news \\|author\\=Jane Sims \\|date\\=January 22, 2018 \\|title\\=Tearful teenager testifies he was hired to shoot London Hells Angels\\-linked biker Steve Sinclair, 49 \\|url\\=https://edmontonsun.com/2018/01/22/tearful\\-teenager\\-testifies\\-he\\-was\\-hired\\-to\\-shoot\\-london\\-hells\\-angels\\-linked\\-biker\\-steve\\-sinclair\\-49 \\|newspaper\\=Edmonton Sun \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-01\\-23}} Hundreds of Hells Angels, Gate Keepers and several other support clubs arrived in London to show their support at Sinclair's funeral.{{Cite news \\|author\\= \\|date\\= \\|title\\=As friends and family mourned Steve Sinclair Monday, police had nothing new to report on his Sept. 6 shooting death \\|url\\=https://lfpress.com/2015/09/14/as\\-friends\\-and\\-family\\-mourned\\-steve\\-sinclair\\-monday\\-police\\-had\\-nothing\\-new\\-to\\-report\\-on\\-his\\-sept\\-6\\-shooting\\-death/wcm/c84de586\\-8051\\-082b\\-d1d5\\-06014e29570d/amp/ \\|newspaper\\=The London Free Press \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-09\\-15}}",
"### 2020",
"In July 2020 [London Police Service](/wiki/London_Police_Service \"London Police Service\") in conjunction with [OPP](/wiki/Ontario_Provincial_Police \"Ontario Provincial Police\") and other law enforcement raided several locations in the province, a former president of the London's \"HA\" and was previously known as the Teflon biker \"because charges against him would not stick\", along with other residents of London were arrested and charged with money laundering and this was part of a crackdown on a multi\\-million dollar illegal gaming racket that was tied to a series of attempted murders, arsons, extortion threats, shootings and assaults. Across southern Ontario 7 were arrested in charge and over 24 million dollars in assets were seized, along with the liquidation of three property development companies with one having built a 7 million dollar home, 8 luxury vehicles and over $175,000 in other illegal contraband.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://beta.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/7/30/1\\_5045554\\.html\\|title\\=Police seize $24M in assets, charge London, Ont. man as they tackle illegal gaming\\|website\\=ctvnews.ca\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-06\\-30}}",
"In mid 2020\\. A raid was conducted on a London street gang, EOA in 7 locations (6 in London 1 in Brampton) resulting in the arrest of 18 and the seizure of 2\\.1 kilograms of fentanyl valued at over $720,000, $55,000 in cash and 2 firearms. Making this the largest seizure of fentanyl in the city's history.[https://www.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/9/14/1\\_5104274\\.html](https://www.ctvnews.ca/local/london/2020/9/14/1_5104274.html) {{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2022}}",
""
] |
Groups, street gangs and crime syndicates
-----------------------------------------
### Annihilators Motorcycle Club
Although the Annihilators clubhouse was for period of time located in Chatham, they were involved in several crimes including murders in the city of London. Their clubhouse would eventually be relocated to [St. Thomas](/wiki/St_Thomas%2C_Ontario "St Thomas, Ontario") and later the nearby Iona Station in the 1990s. The club began to frequently do business in London during this period, and were even referred to as the London Annihilators, as many of the club's members resided in London. This move saw the number of criminal incidents in the city increase. In the mid\-1980s, Kellestine became the president of the Annihilators Motorcycle Club in Chatham, when the Holocaust Motorcycle Club "patched\-over" to the Richmond Hills\-based [Annihilators Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Shedden_Massacre%23Annihilators_Motorcycle_Club "Shedden Massacre#Annihilators Motorcycle Club").{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=73–74}} Soon after becoming the Annihilators, they relocated to the town of [St. Thomas](/wiki/St._Thomas%2C_Ontario "St. Thomas, Ontario"). In 1991, the club would relocate again to the nearby hamlet of [Iona Station](/wiki/Iona_Station%2C_Ontario "Iona Station, Ontario"). Not long after their St. Thomas clubhouse was raided in 1992, Iona Station is where Kellestine made his residence. He had purchased a $50,000 farm in 1982, and bought the adjoining property in 1987\. This acted as the Annihilators new base of operations.{{sfn\|Edwards\|2010\|p\=73–74}}
### Bandidos Motorcycle Club
{{Main\|Bandidos Motorcycle Club}}
In 2001, the Iona Station\-based Loners Motorcycle Club (commonly referred to as the London or St. Thomas Loners, as they operated in both areas and many of the club's members lived in the city of London) patched over to the Canadian branch of the Bandidos. This chapter was redubbed the "London Bandidos" and wore a "London" side rocker displaying the chapters territory.,{{sfn\|Langton\|2010\|p\=22\-23}} they were involved in the altercation at the 2002 London Motorcycle Show hosted at the Western Fair Complex (part of the Ontario Biker War). They were also involved in the [Shedden Massacre](/wiki/Shedden_Massacre "Shedden Massacre") in 2006, the trial for which happened in a London court.
### Boullee Boys
Longtime London street gang that has operated on Boullee Street and the surrounding area, they have been involved in several high\-profile incidents since the group's creation.{{cite web \| url\=https://lfpress.com/2013/02/12/live\-london\-police\-press\-conference\-of\-the\-jonathan\-zak\-homicide\-investigation \| title\=Killing looks like gang's work }}
### Black Shirts Gang (BSG)
The Black Shirts are a London, Ontario\-based [Neo\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi "Neo-Nazi") gang (presumably named after the nickname given to the [Schutzstaffel](/wiki/Schutzstaffel "Schutzstaffel")) that became active in the late 2000s and has been responsible for several high\-profile incidents over the years, including multiple hate crimes. The group had multiple members convicted of two separate fatal shootings that occurred in 2011 and a stabbing in 2019\. London has some of the highest hate crime rates in Canada.
On June 6, 2021, four members of a Canadian Muslim family were killed when a man purposely targeted them with his vehicle. Involvement of the Black Shirts Gang was alleged by authorities and local citizens; the attack fit the group's ideological nature, and they had been involved in several hate crimes in the past. Nathaniel Veltman was arrested shortly after the incident and charged with four counts of first\-degree murder and one count of attempted murder. A link between Veltman and the BSG could not be verified by authorities, but they were able to confirm in March 2022 that he had been accessing white supremacist content via the [Dark Web](/wiki/Dark_Web "Dark Web"). White supremacist gangs and Neo\-Nazi terrorist groups frequently use this method to contact each other and convey information.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/mobile/canada/suspect\-in\-killing\-of\-muslim\-family\-in\-london\-ont\-may\-have\-accessed\-neo\-nazi\-site\-on\-dark\-web\-documents\-1\.5819475 \| title\=Suspect in killing of Muslim family in London, Ont., may have accessed neo\-Nazi site on dark web: Documents \| newspaper\=Ctvnews \| date\=15 March 2022 }}
[CTV news](/wiki/CTV_news "CTV news") reported that "police also seized several USB flash drives along with two smartphones, a laptop and an external hard drive. They found that the Tor Browser, a web browser used to surf sites on the dark web, was installed on a laptop, as well as desktop shortcuts to launch the browser."
### EOA (East Of Adelaide)
A conglomerate of street gangs and individuals involved in the narcotics trade based in the east end of London, Ontario. These neighborhood gangs are linked together by London Police Service into a single entity known as EOA due to the fact that they are mostly all connected to the same supplier. The city's largest organized crime group as a whole.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.lfpress.com/2014/01/23/no\-gang\-related\-shootings\-since\-london\-police\-launched\-crackdown\-two\-years\-ago/wcm/74ba2623\-a16c\-1f03\-9e70\-dfc15d9bc3db/amp/ \| title\=London Free Press }}
### Filthy 15 Motorcycle Club
The Filthy 15 MC was created in 2017, to act as a support club for the [Outlaws](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club") London chapter.{{Cite web\|url\=https://lfpress.com/2017/12/06/despite\-recent\-arrests\-clubhouse\-closing\-resurgent\-london\-chapter\-defying\-hells\-angels\-dominance\|title\=Despite recent arrests, clubhouse closing, resurgent London chapter defying Hells Angels' dominance\|website\=lfpress.com\|access\-date\=March 5, 2022}}
### First Division
Created in 2014, the gang quickly rose to prominence in London earning a spot on "The Seven".
### FU Crew
A London, Ontario\-based street gang that started a war with the London charter of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels "Hells Angels") in 2012, affiliates of the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club"), it has constantly been involved in the city's narcotics trade for the last two decades and was formerly listed as one of "The Seven".
### Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club
{{Main\|Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club}}
The Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club are one of the official support club of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels "Hells Angels") in Canada. The Gate Keeper established their "Middlesex County" Chapter in London in late 2013, and remains active as of 2022\. It has been involved in several charity events as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### Hells Angels Motorcycle Club
{{Main\|Hells Angels}}
{{Main\|Ontario Biker War}}
The Hells Angels are the largest outlaw motorcycle club in the world and in Canada, with 44 active chapters across the nation as of 2022, Canada possesses the highest number of Hells Angels per capita. The Hells Angels established a probationary chapter in London in early 2001 which, as of 2022, remains active. It has been involved in several charity events and protests against improper treatment of prison inmates as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### H\-Block
Longtime London street gang that operates in a significant area south of Victoria Drive on the North\-east side of the city, they have been involved in several high\-profile incidents since the group's creation.
### Outlaws Motorcycle Club
{{Main\|Outlaws Motorcycle Club}}
{{Main\|Ontario Biker War}}
The Outlaws are the second largest outlaw motorcycle club in Canada, with 21 active chapters as of 2022, The Outlaws arrived in Canada in 1977 and gained a chapter in London, Ontario after the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice "Satan's Choice") "Patched\-over" a number of their chapters. It has been involved in several charity events as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### Juggalo Gang
The Juggalo Gang is a London, Ontario\-based street gang, that borrows the name of [Insane Clown Posse](/wiki/Insane_Clown_Posse "Insane Clown Posse") fans. It shares no connection with the band, The group commonly paints their faces and wield items such as hatchets. According to the London Police Service this group is involved in violent crime and is one of the active street gangs currently being viewed by authorities.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### Jackels Motorcycle Club
A now defunct support club of the Hells Angels that had chapters in London, Ontario and Montreal. Was active in the late 1990s and early 2000s and was a participant in the [Ontario Biker War](/wiki/Ontario_Biker_War "Ontario Biker War"). It was at some point absorbed into the Hells Angels.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### Kipps Lane Crew
{{Main\|Kipps Lane Crew}}
The [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew "Kipps Lane Crew") (**KLC**) is a [street gang](/wiki/Gang%23Street_gang "Gang#Street gang") founded in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario "London, Ontario"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"), in 2000\. The gang's name originates from the area in which the group operates, Kipps Lane and the surrounding area in Northeast London. The [colors](/wiki/Gang_colors "Gang colors") of the Kipps Lane Crew are red, although the gang is not associated with the [Bloods](/wiki/Bloods "Bloods"), the group has been involved in several high\-profile incidents and its actions partially contributed towards the creation of the London "Gang Unit".{{Cite news \|date\=February 27, 2015\|title\=On the beat with the gangbusters\|url\=https://lfpress.com/2015/02/27/lfpress.com/2015/02/27/on\-the\-beat\-with\-the\-gangbusters \|newspaper\=\[\[The London Free Press]]}}
### Ku Klux Klan: London chapter
{{Main\|Ku Klux Klan in Canada}}
[thumb\|A Klan cross\-burning ceremony in London, Ontario, in late 1925](/wiki/File:Ku_Klux_Klan_ceremony_in_London%2C_Ontario.jpg "Ku Klux Klan ceremony in London, Ontario.jpg")
The history of the Ku Klux Klan in London, Ontario began on May 18, 1872\. When the former leader of the KKK in South Carolina, [J. Rufus Bratton](/wiki/J._Rufus_Bratton "J. Rufus Bratton") arrived in London, Ontario and remained there until the 1880s. During this period he began secretly making major contributions to the construction of the London chapter. In 1882, the most notorious incident in the London area occurred when London Klansmen set fire to the Harrison residence. The Harrisons were an African\-American family that had escaped slavery in Kentucky and Missouri, then fled to Canada in 1854 via the [Underground Railroad](/wiki/Underground_Railroad "Underground Railroad").{{sfn\|Appleblatt\|1976\|p\=75}}
Bratton returned to America in the 1880s, but left behind an influence on the community that would see the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in London, Ontario during the 1890s and 1900s. By the 1920s the rise of the "Second Klan" in the United States had further spurred on expansion and recruitment in Canada, this saw membership in London reach an all\-time high. Though they would never regain the numbers in membership they possessed in the 1920s, the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan continued to operate in London and Ontario well into the 2000s, with some holdouts even continuing into the modern day.{{sfn\|Appleblatt\|1976\|p\=75}}
### Loners Motorcycle Club
{{Main\|Loners Motorcycle Club}}
The [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club "Loners Motorcycle Club") operated a chapter in London, with their clubhouse located in the nearby hamlet of Iona Station. This occurred when the Annihilators Motorcycle Club patched over in 1999\. They operated in the area for two years until merging with the [Bandidos](/wiki/Bandidos_Motorcycle_Club "Bandidos Motorcycle Club") in late 2001\. Several members would also join the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels "Hells Angels") in the split that occurred in 2001\. When the Hells Angels opened a probationary chapter in London Ontario, in 2001, most of its members consisted of former Loners.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### Ontario Wide Crew
Ontario Wide Crew**(OWC)** was created in 2013, the gang quickly rose to prominence in London earning a spot on "The Seven".
### Pond Mills Crew
A long time street gang that operates in the neighborhood of Pond Mills and the surrounding area in London's Southside.{{cite web \| url\=https://lfpress.com/2016/05/27/shots\-fired\-at\-taxi\-in\-southeast\-london\-townhouse\-complex \| title\=Parents in Pond Mills fear for their kids? Safety after several shots were fired Thursday }}
### Satan's Choice
{{Main\|Satan's Choice Motorcycle Club}}
At some point in the late 1970s the Satans choice opened a chapter in London, Ontario. The chapter was still very young when it was patched over to the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club "Outlaws Motorcycle Club") in 1977, becoming the Outlaws London chapter.{{citation needed\|date\=May 2022}}
### The Wheeled Bandits
A London, Ontario\-based group responsible for conducting the first bank robbery in Canadian history using a motor vehicle to flee the scene of the crime. The Wheeled Bandits was the name given to the group by the authorities after they robbed the Merchants Bank using an automobile to escape the police on December 1, 1920\.
### Queensman Motorcycle Club
The Queensman Motorcycle Club was formally active in [London](/wiki/London "London") during the 1970s and 1980s, but at some point the London chapter relocated to the nearby hamlet of Iona Station, where it remains as of 2022\. It has several chapters in the surrounding area including [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario "Windsor, Ontario"), [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham-Kent "Chatham-Kent") and [Amherstburg](/wiki/Amherstburg "Amherstburg").
### The Crew
Little is known about this "Unknown Group" referred to as The Crew. Loosely based yet very sophisticated. Reports of membership as low as 20 but known to be responsible for multiple organized crimes including drug/ gun trafficking, sale of stolen property, fraud, arson, and murder linked to multiple members of the loosely based street gang currently incarcerated for murder in southern Ontario stretching from Windsor to Toronto with most affiliates living in London. Multiple unsolved crimes including gang related shooting are suspected to have been carried out by members. Large quantity drug sales are attributed to this "crew". Members are known for their brutality invoked in the drugtrade.
|
[
"Groups, street gangs and crime syndicates\n-----------------------------------------",
"### Annihilators Motorcycle Club",
"Although the Annihilators clubhouse was for period of time located in Chatham, they were involved in several crimes including murders in the city of London. Their clubhouse would eventually be relocated to [St. Thomas](/wiki/St_Thomas%2C_Ontario \"St Thomas, Ontario\") and later the nearby Iona Station in the 1990s. The club began to frequently do business in London during this period, and were even referred to as the London Annihilators, as many of the club's members resided in London. This move saw the number of criminal incidents in the city increase. In the mid\\-1980s, Kellestine became the president of the Annihilators Motorcycle Club in Chatham, when the Holocaust Motorcycle Club \"patched\\-over\" to the Richmond Hills\\-based [Annihilators Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Shedden_Massacre%23Annihilators_Motorcycle_Club \"Shedden Massacre#Annihilators Motorcycle Club\").{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=73–74}} Soon after becoming the Annihilators, they relocated to the town of [St. Thomas](/wiki/St._Thomas%2C_Ontario \"St. Thomas, Ontario\"). In 1991, the club would relocate again to the nearby hamlet of [Iona Station](/wiki/Iona_Station%2C_Ontario \"Iona Station, Ontario\"). Not long after their St. Thomas clubhouse was raided in 1992, Iona Station is where Kellestine made his residence. He had purchased a $50,000 farm in 1982, and bought the adjoining property in 1987\\. This acted as the Annihilators new base of operations.{{sfn\\|Edwards\\|2010\\|p\\=73–74}}",
"### Bandidos Motorcycle Club",
"{{Main\\|Bandidos Motorcycle Club}}\nIn 2001, the Iona Station\\-based Loners Motorcycle Club (commonly referred to as the London or St. Thomas Loners, as they operated in both areas and many of the club's members lived in the city of London) patched over to the Canadian branch of the Bandidos. This chapter was redubbed the \"London Bandidos\" and wore a \"London\" side rocker displaying the chapters territory.,{{sfn\\|Langton\\|2010\\|p\\=22\\-23}} they were involved in the altercation at the 2002 London Motorcycle Show hosted at the Western Fair Complex (part of the Ontario Biker War). They were also involved in the [Shedden Massacre](/wiki/Shedden_Massacre \"Shedden Massacre\") in 2006, the trial for which happened in a London court.",
"### Boullee Boys",
"Longtime London street gang that has operated on Boullee Street and the surrounding area, they have been involved in several high\\-profile incidents since the group's creation.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://lfpress.com/2013/02/12/live\\-london\\-police\\-press\\-conference\\-of\\-the\\-jonathan\\-zak\\-homicide\\-investigation \\| title\\=Killing looks like gang's work }}",
"### Black Shirts Gang (BSG)",
"The Black Shirts are a London, Ontario\\-based [Neo\\-Nazi](/wiki/Neo-Nazi \"Neo-Nazi\") gang (presumably named after the nickname given to the [Schutzstaffel](/wiki/Schutzstaffel \"Schutzstaffel\")) that became active in the late 2000s and has been responsible for several high\\-profile incidents over the years, including multiple hate crimes. The group had multiple members convicted of two separate fatal shootings that occurred in 2011 and a stabbing in 2019\\. London has some of the highest hate crime rates in Canada.",
"On June 6, 2021, four members of a Canadian Muslim family were killed when a man purposely targeted them with his vehicle. Involvement of the Black Shirts Gang was alleged by authorities and local citizens; the attack fit the group's ideological nature, and they had been involved in several hate crimes in the past. Nathaniel Veltman was arrested shortly after the incident and charged with four counts of first\\-degree murder and one count of attempted murder. A link between Veltman and the BSG could not be verified by authorities, but they were able to confirm in March 2022 that he had been accessing white supremacist content via the [Dark Web](/wiki/Dark_Web \"Dark Web\"). White supremacist gangs and Neo\\-Nazi terrorist groups frequently use this method to contact each other and convey information.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.ctvnews.ca/mobile/canada/suspect\\-in\\-killing\\-of\\-muslim\\-family\\-in\\-london\\-ont\\-may\\-have\\-accessed\\-neo\\-nazi\\-site\\-on\\-dark\\-web\\-documents\\-1\\.5819475 \\| title\\=Suspect in killing of Muslim family in London, Ont., may have accessed neo\\-Nazi site on dark web: Documents \\| newspaper\\=Ctvnews \\| date\\=15 March 2022 }}",
"[CTV news](/wiki/CTV_news \"CTV news\") reported that \"police also seized several USB flash drives along with two smartphones, a laptop and an external hard drive. They found that the Tor Browser, a web browser used to surf sites on the dark web, was installed on a laptop, as well as desktop shortcuts to launch the browser.\"",
"### EOA (East Of Adelaide)",
"A conglomerate of street gangs and individuals involved in the narcotics trade based in the east end of London, Ontario. These neighborhood gangs are linked together by London Police Service into a single entity known as EOA due to the fact that they are mostly all connected to the same supplier. The city's largest organized crime group as a whole.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.lfpress.com/2014/01/23/no\\-gang\\-related\\-shootings\\-since\\-london\\-police\\-launched\\-crackdown\\-two\\-years\\-ago/wcm/74ba2623\\-a16c\\-1f03\\-9e70\\-dfc15d9bc3db/amp/ \\| title\\=London Free Press }}",
"### Filthy 15 Motorcycle Club",
"The Filthy 15 MC was created in 2017, to act as a support club for the [Outlaws](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\") London chapter.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lfpress.com/2017/12/06/despite\\-recent\\-arrests\\-clubhouse\\-closing\\-resurgent\\-london\\-chapter\\-defying\\-hells\\-angels\\-dominance\\|title\\=Despite recent arrests, clubhouse closing, resurgent London chapter defying Hells Angels' dominance\\|website\\=lfpress.com\\|access\\-date\\=March 5, 2022}}",
"### First Division",
"Created in 2014, the gang quickly rose to prominence in London earning a spot on \"The Seven\".",
"### FU Crew",
"A London, Ontario\\-based street gang that started a war with the London charter of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels \"Hells Angels\") in 2012, affiliates of the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\"), it has constantly been involved in the city's narcotics trade for the last two decades and was formerly listed as one of \"The Seven\".",
"### Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club",
"{{Main\\|Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club}}\nThe Gate Keepers Motorcycle Club are one of the official support club of the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels \"Hells Angels\") in Canada. The Gate Keeper established their \"Middlesex County\" Chapter in London in late 2013, and remains active as of 2022\\. It has been involved in several charity events as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### Hells Angels Motorcycle Club",
"{{Main\\|Hells Angels}}\n{{Main\\|Ontario Biker War}}\nThe Hells Angels are the largest outlaw motorcycle club in the world and in Canada, with 44 active chapters across the nation as of 2022, Canada possesses the highest number of Hells Angels per capita. The Hells Angels established a probationary chapter in London in early 2001 which, as of 2022, remains active. It has been involved in several charity events and protests against improper treatment of prison inmates as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### H\\-Block",
"Longtime London street gang that operates in a significant area south of Victoria Drive on the North\\-east side of the city, they have been involved in several high\\-profile incidents since the group's creation.",
"### Outlaws Motorcycle Club",
"{{Main\\|Outlaws Motorcycle Club}}\n{{Main\\|Ontario Biker War}}\nThe Outlaws are the second largest outlaw motorcycle club in Canada, with 21 active chapters as of 2022, The Outlaws arrived in Canada in 1977 and gained a chapter in London, Ontario after the [Satan's Choice](/wiki/Satan%27s_Choice \"Satan's Choice\") \"Patched\\-over\" a number of their chapters. It has been involved in several charity events as well as several incidents.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### Juggalo Gang",
"The Juggalo Gang is a London, Ontario\\-based street gang, that borrows the name of [Insane Clown Posse](/wiki/Insane_Clown_Posse \"Insane Clown Posse\") fans. It shares no connection with the band, The group commonly paints their faces and wield items such as hatchets. According to the London Police Service this group is involved in violent crime and is one of the active street gangs currently being viewed by authorities.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### Jackels Motorcycle Club",
"A now defunct support club of the Hells Angels that had chapters in London, Ontario and Montreal. Was active in the late 1990s and early 2000s and was a participant in the [Ontario Biker War](/wiki/Ontario_Biker_War \"Ontario Biker War\"). It was at some point absorbed into the Hells Angels.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### Kipps Lane Crew",
"{{Main\\|Kipps Lane Crew}}\nThe [Kipps Lane Crew](/wiki/Kipps_Lane_Crew \"Kipps Lane Crew\") (**KLC**) is a [street gang](/wiki/Gang%23Street_gang \"Gang#Street gang\") founded in [London, Ontario](/wiki/London%2C_Ontario \"London, Ontario\"), [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"), in 2000\\. The gang's name originates from the area in which the group operates, Kipps Lane and the surrounding area in Northeast London. The [colors](/wiki/Gang_colors \"Gang colors\") of the Kipps Lane Crew are red, although the gang is not associated with the [Bloods](/wiki/Bloods \"Bloods\"), the group has been involved in several high\\-profile incidents and its actions partially contributed towards the creation of the London \"Gang Unit\".{{Cite news \\|date\\=February 27, 2015\\|title\\=On the beat with the gangbusters\\|url\\=https://lfpress.com/2015/02/27/lfpress.com/2015/02/27/on\\-the\\-beat\\-with\\-the\\-gangbusters \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The London Free Press]]}}",
"### Ku Klux Klan: London chapter",
"{{Main\\|Ku Klux Klan in Canada}}\n[thumb\\|A Klan cross\\-burning ceremony in London, Ontario, in late 1925](/wiki/File:Ku_Klux_Klan_ceremony_in_London%2C_Ontario.jpg \"Ku Klux Klan ceremony in London, Ontario.jpg\")",
"The history of the Ku Klux Klan in London, Ontario began on May 18, 1872\\. When the former leader of the KKK in South Carolina, [J. Rufus Bratton](/wiki/J._Rufus_Bratton \"J. Rufus Bratton\") arrived in London, Ontario and remained there until the 1880s. During this period he began secretly making major contributions to the construction of the London chapter. In 1882, the most notorious incident in the London area occurred when London Klansmen set fire to the Harrison residence. The Harrisons were an African\\-American family that had escaped slavery in Kentucky and Missouri, then fled to Canada in 1854 via the [Underground Railroad](/wiki/Underground_Railroad \"Underground Railroad\").{{sfn\\|Appleblatt\\|1976\\|p\\=75}}",
"Bratton returned to America in the 1880s, but left behind an influence on the community that would see the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in London, Ontario during the 1890s and 1900s. By the 1920s the rise of the \"Second Klan\" in the United States had further spurred on expansion and recruitment in Canada, this saw membership in London reach an all\\-time high. Though they would never regain the numbers in membership they possessed in the 1920s, the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan continued to operate in London and Ontario well into the 2000s, with some holdouts even continuing into the modern day.{{sfn\\|Appleblatt\\|1976\\|p\\=75}}",
"### Loners Motorcycle Club",
"{{Main\\|Loners Motorcycle Club}}\nThe [Loners Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Loners_Motorcycle_Club \"Loners Motorcycle Club\") operated a chapter in London, with their clubhouse located in the nearby hamlet of Iona Station. This occurred when the Annihilators Motorcycle Club patched over in 1999\\. They operated in the area for two years until merging with the [Bandidos](/wiki/Bandidos_Motorcycle_Club \"Bandidos Motorcycle Club\") in late 2001\\. Several members would also join the [Hells Angels](/wiki/Hells_Angels \"Hells Angels\") in the split that occurred in 2001\\. When the Hells Angels opened a probationary chapter in London Ontario, in 2001, most of its members consisted of former Loners.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### Ontario Wide Crew",
"Ontario Wide Crew**(OWC)** was created in 2013, the gang quickly rose to prominence in London earning a spot on \"The Seven\".",
"### Pond Mills Crew",
"A long time street gang that operates in the neighborhood of Pond Mills and the surrounding area in London's Southside.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://lfpress.com/2016/05/27/shots\\-fired\\-at\\-taxi\\-in\\-southeast\\-london\\-townhouse\\-complex \\| title\\=Parents in Pond Mills fear for their kids? Safety after several shots were fired Thursday }}",
"### Satan's Choice",
"{{Main\\|Satan's Choice Motorcycle Club}}\nAt some point in the late 1970s the Satans choice opened a chapter in London, Ontario. The chapter was still very young when it was patched over to the [Outlaws Motorcycle Club](/wiki/Outlaws_Motorcycle_Club \"Outlaws Motorcycle Club\") in 1977, becoming the Outlaws London chapter.{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2022}}",
"### The Wheeled Bandits",
"A London, Ontario\\-based group responsible for conducting the first bank robbery in Canadian history using a motor vehicle to flee the scene of the crime. The Wheeled Bandits was the name given to the group by the authorities after they robbed the Merchants Bank using an automobile to escape the police on December 1, 1920\\.",
"### Queensman Motorcycle Club",
"The Queensman Motorcycle Club was formally active in [London](/wiki/London \"London\") during the 1970s and 1980s, but at some point the London chapter relocated to the nearby hamlet of Iona Station, where it remains as of 2022\\. It has several chapters in the surrounding area including [Windsor](/wiki/Windsor%2C_Ontario \"Windsor, Ontario\"), [Chatham](/wiki/Chatham-Kent \"Chatham-Kent\") and [Amherstburg](/wiki/Amherstburg \"Amherstburg\").",
"### The Crew",
"Little is known about this \"Unknown Group\" referred to as The Crew. Loosely based yet very sophisticated. Reports of membership as low as 20 but known to be responsible for multiple organized crimes including drug/ gun trafficking, sale of stolen property, fraud, arson, and murder linked to multiple members of the loosely based street gang currently incarcerated for murder in southern Ontario stretching from Windsor to Toronto with most affiliates living in London. Multiple unsolved crimes including gang related shooting are suspected to have been carried out by members. Large quantity drug sales are attributed to this \"crew\". Members are known for their brutality invoked in the drugtrade.",
""
] |
International career
--------------------
{{BLP unsourced section\|date\=November 2021}}
Moxon earned 10 caps through his [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket "Test cricket") career that was delayed by injury. He was due to play against the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team "West Indies cricket team") in 1984, but a broken arm meant that his debut was delayed until the 1986 series against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team "New Zealand cricket team"). In the intervening time, Moxon was chosen for the [1984/5 tour of India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_India_and_Sri_Lanka_in_1984-85 "English cricket team in India and Sri Lanka in 1984-85"), but the premature death of his father forced him to miss early matches, by which time, [Tim Robinson](/wiki/Tim_Robinson_%28English_cricketer%29 "Tim Robinson (English cricketer)") had cemented his place as [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler "Graeme Fowler")'s opening partner. Moxon did make his [one\-day\-international](/wiki/ODI_cricket "ODI cricket") debut later in the tour, making 70 on his debut at Nagpur, which remained his highest ODI score.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england\-tour\-of\-india\-1984\-85\-61797/india\-vs\-england\-4th\-odi\-64252/full\-scorecard\|title\=Full scorecard of England vs India 4th ODI, 1984\-5\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=21 June 2022}}
When his Test debut finally did come, he took his chance well. As [Graham Gooch](/wiki/Graham_Gooch "Graham Gooch")'s sixth opening partner of the Test and ODI summer (after [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler "Graeme Fowler"), Robinson, [Wilf Slack](/wiki/Wilf_Slack "Wilf Slack"), [Mark Benson](/wiki/Mark_Benson "Mark Benson"), and [Bill Athey](/wiki/Bill_Athey "Bill Athey"), with [Wayne Larkins](/wiki/Wayne_Larkins "Wayne Larkins") also initially being called into a Test squad before pulling out due to injury{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/one\-match\-wonders\-and\-shah\-s\-second\-chance\-294164\|title\=One\-match wonders, and Shah's second chance\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=22 June 2022}}), Moxon took on a New Zealand side that boasted [Richard Hadlee](/wiki/Richard_Hadlee "Richard Hadlee"). *Wisden Cricket Monthly* described Moxon as batting with *"little panache, but a lot of polish"* during a maiden innings of 74, which was ended when a Hadlee off cutter squeezed through his gate.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/new\-zealand\-tour\-of\-england\-1986\-62082/england\-vs\-new\-zealand\-1st\-test\-63435/full\-scorecard\|title\=Full Scorecard of England v New Zealand 1st Test 1986\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=22 June 2022}} In the second innings at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s "Lord's") and during the second Test at [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), Moxon was unable to build on his promising start, and was left out of the side for [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval "The Oval"), having scored 111 runs in his first four innings, at an average of 27\.75\.
The winter touring party for the [trip to Australia in 1986/7](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1986-87 "English cricket team in Australia in 1986-87") was far from settled in advance. [Chris Broad](/wiki/Chris_Broad_%28cricketer%29 "Chris Broad (cricketer)") was recalled after a two\-year absence, [Wilf Slack](/wiki/Wilf_Slack "Wilf Slack") brought back having missed all but one Test during the summer, and [Bill Athey](/wiki/Bill_Athey "Bill Athey") was included as an 'auxiliary' batsman. The choice of two left\-handers at the top of England's order highlighted the fact that Australia's big threat came from the battery of left arm seamers available to them, led by [Bruce Reid](/wiki/Bruce_Reid "Bruce Reid"). In the event, Slack, out of form, played no International cricket on the tour while Athey and Broad flourished as an opening pair, Broad going on to be named as the International Cricketer of the Season, and England retaining the [Ashes](/wiki/1986-87_Ashes "1986-87 Ashes"). Moxon had to wait until the last Test of 1987 for a recall. Such were England's selection uncertainties that [Tim Robinson](/wiki/Tim_Robinson_%28English_cricketer%29 "Tim Robinson (English cricketer)") had been recalled again in the intervening time.
Moxon was described by [ESPNcricinfo](/wiki/ESPNcricinfo "ESPNcricinfo") as "the unluckiest of the eight men to make 99 in a Test but never a century".{{cite web\|url\= https://www.espncricinfo.com/player/martyn\-moxon\-17119\|title\=Martyn Moxon profile and biography \|work\=ESPN Cricinfo \|accessdate\=4 May 2018}} This observation is made because early in Moxon's innings when he made 99, in the second test against New Zealand in 1987–88 (Moxon's sixth test in total), he swept three runs seemingly off the middle of the bat only for the umpire to signal [leg byes](/wiki/Leg_bye "Leg bye"), costing Moxon the runs that would have taken him to a century.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149169\.html \|title\=Another Wasim hat\-trick \|work\=ESPN Cricinfo \|date\=4 May 2005 \|accessdate\=4 May 2018}} He appeared also to be building an innings in the next test, but rain washed out the last two days with Moxon stuck on 81 not out.
In June 1988, Moxon was recalled to the test side at Lord's in place of [Mike Gatting](/wiki/Mike_Gatting "Mike Gatting") to bat at number 3\. By this time, television commentators such as [Tom Graveney](/wiki/Tom_Graveney "Tom Graveney") had begun to spot a discernible hole in Moxon's technique: when playing forward his left knee would not come forward quite far enough creating a small "gate". [Malcolm Marshall](/wiki/Malcolm_Marshall "Malcolm Marshall") exploited this in the [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 "Old Trafford (cricket ground)") test of that series, bowling Moxon "through the gate".{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/west\-indies\-tour\-of\-england\-1988\-61887/england\-vs\-west\-indies\-3rd\-test\-63486/full\-scorecard\|title\=Full Scorecard of England v West Indies 3rd Test 1986\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=22 June 2022}} England lost both Test matches heavily and lost the series.
His final test match came the following summer, for an England again being heavily beaten. [Australia](/wiki/Australia_cricket_team "Australia cricket team") batted first at [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge "Trent Bridge"), rival opening batters [Geoff Marsh](/wiki/Geoff_Marsh "Geoff Marsh") and [Mark Taylor](/wiki/Mark_Taylor_%28cricketer%29 "Mark Taylor (cricketer)") batting through the whole of the first day without being dismissed. Finally getting into bat just before lunch on the third day, Moxon suffered somewhat by the comparison and was dismissed by [Terry Alderman](/wiki/Terry_Alderman "Terry Alderman") (who was having a prolific summer against English batters) for 0 in the first over. In the second innings Moxon was demoted down the order. Although he at least got on the score sheet, making 18,{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/australia\-tour\-of\-england\-scotland\-netherlands\-and\-denmark\-1989\-61353/england\-vs\-australia\-5th\-test\-63511/full\-scorecard\|title\=Full scorecard of England vs Australia 5th Test, 1989\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=21 June 2022}} England were heavily beaten again and Moxon never played for England again, although he [captained](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 "Captain (cricket)") an [England 'A'](/wiki/England_Lions_cricket_team "England Lions cricket team") tour of Australia in 1992–3\.{{cite web\|url\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1992\-93/ENG\-A\_IN\_AUS/ENG\-A\_IN\_AUS\_JAN\-MAR1993\_ENG\-A\-SQUAD.html\|title\=England 'A' Squad\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=22 June 2022}}
Moxon played in a struggling era for English cricket, the team not winning any of the Test matches in which he played,{{cite web\|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/17119\.html?class\=1;template\=results;type\=allround;view\=results
\|title\=Statistics/MD Moxon/Test Matches\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=21 June 2022}} and only 2 of his 8 ODIs.{{cite web\|url\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/17119\.html?class\=2;template\=results;type\=allround;view\=results\|title\=Statistics/MD Moxon/One Day Internationals\|publisher\=\[\[ESPNCricinfo]]\|access\-date\=21 June 2022}} As of May 2022, only one England player ([Bruce French](/wiki/Bruce_French_%28cricketer%29 "Bruce French (cricketer)"), who played alongside Moxon in most of Moxon's tests) played more Tests for England without finishing on the winning side.
|
[
"International career\n--------------------",
"{{BLP unsourced section\\|date\\=November 2021}}\nMoxon earned 10 caps through his [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") career that was delayed by injury. He was due to play against the [West Indies](/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team \"West Indies cricket team\") in 1984, but a broken arm meant that his debut was delayed until the 1986 series against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team \"New Zealand cricket team\"). In the intervening time, Moxon was chosen for the [1984/5 tour of India and Sri Lanka](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_India_and_Sri_Lanka_in_1984-85 \"English cricket team in India and Sri Lanka in 1984-85\"), but the premature death of his father forced him to miss early matches, by which time, [Tim Robinson](/wiki/Tim_Robinson_%28English_cricketer%29 \"Tim Robinson (English cricketer)\") had cemented his place as [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler \"Graeme Fowler\")'s opening partner. Moxon did make his [one\\-day\\-international](/wiki/ODI_cricket \"ODI cricket\") debut later in the tour, making 70 on his debut at Nagpur, which remained his highest ODI score.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/england\\-tour\\-of\\-india\\-1984\\-85\\-61797/india\\-vs\\-england\\-4th\\-odi\\-64252/full\\-scorecard\\|title\\=Full scorecard of England vs India 4th ODI, 1984\\-5\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2022}}",
"When his Test debut finally did come, he took his chance well. As [Graham Gooch](/wiki/Graham_Gooch \"Graham Gooch\")'s sixth opening partner of the Test and ODI summer (after [Graeme Fowler](/wiki/Graeme_Fowler \"Graeme Fowler\"), Robinson, [Wilf Slack](/wiki/Wilf_Slack \"Wilf Slack\"), [Mark Benson](/wiki/Mark_Benson \"Mark Benson\"), and [Bill Athey](/wiki/Bill_Athey \"Bill Athey\"), with [Wayne Larkins](/wiki/Wayne_Larkins \"Wayne Larkins\") also initially being called into a Test squad before pulling out due to injury{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/one\\-match\\-wonders\\-and\\-shah\\-s\\-second\\-chance\\-294164\\|title\\=One\\-match wonders, and Shah's second chance\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2022}}), Moxon took on a New Zealand side that boasted [Richard Hadlee](/wiki/Richard_Hadlee \"Richard Hadlee\"). *Wisden Cricket Monthly* described Moxon as batting with *\"little panache, but a lot of polish\"* during a maiden innings of 74, which was ended when a Hadlee off cutter squeezed through his gate.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/new\\-zealand\\-tour\\-of\\-england\\-1986\\-62082/england\\-vs\\-new\\-zealand\\-1st\\-test\\-63435/full\\-scorecard\\|title\\=Full Scorecard of England v New Zealand 1st Test 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2022}} In the second innings at [Lord's](/wiki/Lord%27s \"Lord's\") and during the second Test at [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), Moxon was unable to build on his promising start, and was left out of the side for [The Oval](/wiki/The_Oval \"The Oval\"), having scored 111 runs in his first four innings, at an average of 27\\.75\\.",
"The winter touring party for the [trip to Australia in 1986/7](/wiki/English_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1986-87 \"English cricket team in Australia in 1986-87\") was far from settled in advance. [Chris Broad](/wiki/Chris_Broad_%28cricketer%29 \"Chris Broad (cricketer)\") was recalled after a two\\-year absence, [Wilf Slack](/wiki/Wilf_Slack \"Wilf Slack\") brought back having missed all but one Test during the summer, and [Bill Athey](/wiki/Bill_Athey \"Bill Athey\") was included as an 'auxiliary' batsman. The choice of two left\\-handers at the top of England's order highlighted the fact that Australia's big threat came from the battery of left arm seamers available to them, led by [Bruce Reid](/wiki/Bruce_Reid \"Bruce Reid\"). In the event, Slack, out of form, played no International cricket on the tour while Athey and Broad flourished as an opening pair, Broad going on to be named as the International Cricketer of the Season, and England retaining the [Ashes](/wiki/1986-87_Ashes \"1986-87 Ashes\"). Moxon had to wait until the last Test of 1987 for a recall. Such were England's selection uncertainties that [Tim Robinson](/wiki/Tim_Robinson_%28English_cricketer%29 \"Tim Robinson (English cricketer)\") had been recalled again in the intervening time.",
"Moxon was described by [ESPNcricinfo](/wiki/ESPNcricinfo \"ESPNcricinfo\") as \"the unluckiest of the eight men to make 99 in a Test but never a century\".{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.espncricinfo.com/player/martyn\\-moxon\\-17119\\|title\\=Martyn Moxon profile and biography \\|work\\=ESPN Cricinfo \\|accessdate\\=4 May 2018}} This observation is made because early in Moxon's innings when he made 99, in the second test against New Zealand in 1987–88 (Moxon's sixth test in total), he swept three runs seemingly off the middle of the bat only for the umpire to signal [leg byes](/wiki/Leg_bye \"Leg bye\"), costing Moxon the runs that would have taken him to a century.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149169\\.html \\|title\\=Another Wasim hat\\-trick \\|work\\=ESPN Cricinfo \\|date\\=4 May 2005 \\|accessdate\\=4 May 2018}} He appeared also to be building an innings in the next test, but rain washed out the last two days with Moxon stuck on 81 not out.",
"In June 1988, Moxon was recalled to the test side at Lord's in place of [Mike Gatting](/wiki/Mike_Gatting \"Mike Gatting\") to bat at number 3\\. By this time, television commentators such as [Tom Graveney](/wiki/Tom_Graveney \"Tom Graveney\") had begun to spot a discernible hole in Moxon's technique: when playing forward his left knee would not come forward quite far enough creating a small \"gate\". [Malcolm Marshall](/wiki/Malcolm_Marshall \"Malcolm Marshall\") exploited this in the [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford_%28cricket_ground%29 \"Old Trafford (cricket ground)\") test of that series, bowling Moxon \"through the gate\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/west\\-indies\\-tour\\-of\\-england\\-1988\\-61887/england\\-vs\\-west\\-indies\\-3rd\\-test\\-63486/full\\-scorecard\\|title\\=Full Scorecard of England v West Indies 3rd Test 1986\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2022}} England lost both Test matches heavily and lost the series.",
"His final test match came the following summer, for an England again being heavily beaten. [Australia](/wiki/Australia_cricket_team \"Australia cricket team\") batted first at [Trent Bridge](/wiki/Trent_Bridge \"Trent Bridge\"), rival opening batters [Geoff Marsh](/wiki/Geoff_Marsh \"Geoff Marsh\") and [Mark Taylor](/wiki/Mark_Taylor_%28cricketer%29 \"Mark Taylor (cricketer)\") batting through the whole of the first day without being dismissed. Finally getting into bat just before lunch on the third day, Moxon suffered somewhat by the comparison and was dismissed by [Terry Alderman](/wiki/Terry_Alderman \"Terry Alderman\") (who was having a prolific summer against English batters) for 0 in the first over. In the second innings Moxon was demoted down the order. Although he at least got on the score sheet, making 18,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/australia\\-tour\\-of\\-england\\-scotland\\-netherlands\\-and\\-denmark\\-1989\\-61353/england\\-vs\\-australia\\-5th\\-test\\-63511/full\\-scorecard\\|title\\=Full scorecard of England vs Australia 5th Test, 1989\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2022}} England were heavily beaten again and Moxon never played for England again, although he [captained](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") an [England 'A'](/wiki/England_Lions_cricket_team \"England Lions cricket team\") tour of Australia in 1992–3\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1992\\-93/ENG\\-A\\_IN\\_AUS/ENG\\-A\\_IN\\_AUS\\_JAN\\-MAR1993\\_ENG\\-A\\-SQUAD.html\\|title\\=England 'A' Squad\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=22 June 2022}}",
"Moxon played in a struggling era for English cricket, the team not winning any of the Test matches in which he played,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/17119\\.html?class\\=1;template\\=results;type\\=allround;view\\=results\n\\|title\\=Statistics/MD Moxon/Test Matches\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2022}} and only 2 of his 8 ODIs.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/17119\\.html?class\\=2;template\\=results;type\\=allround;view\\=results\\|title\\=Statistics/MD Moxon/One Day Internationals\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ESPNCricinfo]]\\|access\\-date\\=21 June 2022}} As of May 2022, only one England player ([Bruce French](/wiki/Bruce_French_%28cricketer%29 \"Bruce French (cricketer)\"), who played alongside Moxon in most of Moxon's tests) played more Tests for England without finishing on the winning side.",
""
] |
Historical sites and landmarks
------------------------------
[thumb\|Lajim Tower](/wiki/File:Davood_Zand_14.jpg "Davood Zand 14.jpg")
[thumb\|Veresk Bridge](/wiki/File:Veresk_Bridge%2C_Iran.jpg "Veresk Bridge, Iran.jpg")
### Veresk Bridge
The [Veresk Bridge](/wiki/Veresk_Bridge "Veresk Bridge") is a [masonry](/wiki/Masonry "Masonry") [arch](/wiki/Arch "Arch") bridge in northern [Iran](/wiki/Iran "Iran"). It was constructed mostly by Austrians before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") by leadership of an engineer named Walter Aigner, constructed during the reign of [Reza Shah](/wiki/Reza_Shah "Reza Shah").[Veresk Bridge, the Born of the World War](https://www.tasteiran.net/stories/20/veresk-bridge) It is located in the [Veresk district](/wiki/Veresk%2C_Iran "Veresk, Iran") of Savadkuh County, in [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran "Mazandaran") province.[Veresk Bridge / SeeIran](http://seeiran.ir/en/veresk-bridge/)[Veresk bridge in Mazandaran / Mehr News Agency](https://en.mehrnews.com/photo/115907/Veresk-bridge-in-Mazandaran)
During World War II, it was known as the Pol\-e Piroozi ("The bridge of victory").[Veresk Bridge / itto](https://www.itto.org/iran/attraction/2103-Veresk-Bridge/) The bridge stands {{Convert\|110\|m\|ft}} tall and its arch measures {{Convert\|66\|m\|ft}} long. The bridge serves the [Trans\-Iranian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Iranian_Railway "Trans-Iranian Railway") network in Northern Iran.
The Veresk bridge connects the railway between Tehran and the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea "Caspian Sea") region. It is located in [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran "Mazandaran") Veresk district of Savadkuh, 85 kilometers south of [Ghaemshahr](/wiki/Ghaemshahr "Ghaemshahr") and connects two of the mountains in the Abbas Abad region. The bridge is one of the masterpieces of the Danish engineering firm [Kampsax](/wiki/Kampsax "Kampsax"), (consisting of Danish, German and Austrian engineers) serving the [Trans\-Iranian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Iranian_Railway "Trans-Iranian Railway") network in Northern Iran.Fritz Leonhardt: Brücken. Deutsche Verlags\-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1982, {{ISBN\|3\-421\-02590\-8}}; Marcel Prade: Les grands ponts du monde. Deuxième partie, Hors d'Europe. Brissaud à Poitiers, {{ISBN\|2\-902170\-68\-8}}
The construction of this bridge included craftsmen of many nationalities, including many Italian. The Master Carpenter for the construction of the lumber concrete forms was Giacomo Di Marco, from the Friuli region of Italy, and detailed in the book he authored. It has been said after finishing the bridge, people had a fear that the train wouldn't be able to pass the narrow bridge and that it would break. As a result, the engineer and his family stood under it when the first train passed the bridge (local accounts claim that Reza Shah had asked them to do so anyway).[*Veresk Bridge Safe*](http://financialtribune.com/articles/people/2936/veresk-bridge-safe) auf FinancialTribune.com
### Lajim Tower
Lajim Tower, also known as Tomb Tower of Lajim,{{Cite journal\|last\=Michailidis\|first\=Melanie\|date\=2003\|title\=Tomb Tower of Lajim\|url\=https://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721\.3/50049\|journal\=Aga Khan Visual Archive}} is a tall cylindrical tower in the village of [Lajim](/wiki/Lajim "Lajim"){{Cite book\|title\=The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana\|last\=Blair\|first\=Sheila\|year\=1992\|pages\=88–90}} in the province of [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran_Province "Mazandaran Province"), Iran. The tower was built around AD 1022\. The Lajim inscriptions includes the first documented example of the word *[qubba](/wiki/Qubba "Qubba")* referring to the domed structure of the building. There is no doubt that the Lajim Tower was the [mausoleum](/wiki/Mausoleum "Mausoleum") of an unknown [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people "Persian people") prince of [Tabaristan](/wiki/Tabaristan "Tabaristan").
### Kangelo Castle
Kangelo Castle is a historical fortress located in the Savadkuh and in the village of [Kangelo](/wiki/Kangelo "Kangelo"). The [Kangelo Castle](/wiki/Kangelo_Castle "Kangelo Castle") during the time The [Sassanian Empire](/wiki/Sassanian_Empire "Sassanian Empire") was built. According to historians, the castle of Kangelo was used as a place to worship the mirta.
### Espahbod Khorshid Cave
This cave is located between the railway station of Pol\-e Sefid and Surkh Abad, in the vicinity of Do Ab. It was discovered in the year 1956\.
The cave has a simple area or hall, with a ceiling 80 m. in width and height, and is considered spectacular in the world. Near this cave is a remnant of a ruined castle and tower, which was once a beautiful structure of stone and mortar. This cave is also known as Dej\-e\-Afsanehie, and this was most probably the defense center of the [House of Ispahbudhan](/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan "House of Ispahbudhan") of [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran "Mazandaran") in the past.
### Balu Bridge
Located along the Shirgah\-Zirab road, near Talar river, it was made of fired bricks and mortar. The main part of this bridge was destroyed because of breaking, and now two herring\-bone\-shaped arches remained intact. One of them is {{convert\|3\|m\|ft}} wide and {{convert\|4\.75\|m\|ft}} high, and another is {{convert\|4\.5\|m\|ft}} wide and {{convert\|5\.50\|m\|ft}} high. According to its architectural features, it probably dates back to before the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty "Safavid dynasty").
### Urim Rudbar Church
This monument was built, following the erection of the northern Iranian railway. It was used for religious ceremonies by foreign personnel. The church consists of a chamber, measuring {{convert\|4\.20\|by\|5\.20\|m\|ft}}. With a height of {{convert\|4\|m\|ft}}, it houses a [prayer niche](/wiki/Prayer_niche "Prayer niche") and four cement candlesticks. The construction was made of stone and cement.
|
[
"Historical sites and landmarks\n------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|Lajim Tower](/wiki/File:Davood_Zand_14.jpg \"Davood Zand 14.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Veresk Bridge](/wiki/File:Veresk_Bridge%2C_Iran.jpg \"Veresk Bridge, Iran.jpg\")",
"### Veresk Bridge",
"The [Veresk Bridge](/wiki/Veresk_Bridge \"Veresk Bridge\") is a [masonry](/wiki/Masonry \"Masonry\") [arch](/wiki/Arch \"Arch\") bridge in northern [Iran](/wiki/Iran \"Iran\"). It was constructed mostly by Austrians before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") by leadership of an engineer named Walter Aigner, constructed during the reign of [Reza Shah](/wiki/Reza_Shah \"Reza Shah\").[Veresk Bridge, the Born of the World War](https://www.tasteiran.net/stories/20/veresk-bridge) It is located in the [Veresk district](/wiki/Veresk%2C_Iran \"Veresk, Iran\") of Savadkuh County, in [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran \"Mazandaran\") province.[Veresk Bridge / SeeIran](http://seeiran.ir/en/veresk-bridge/)[Veresk bridge in Mazandaran / Mehr News Agency](https://en.mehrnews.com/photo/115907/Veresk-bridge-in-Mazandaran)",
"During World War II, it was known as the Pol\\-e Piroozi (\"The bridge of victory\").[Veresk Bridge / itto](https://www.itto.org/iran/attraction/2103-Veresk-Bridge/) The bridge stands {{Convert\\|110\\|m\\|ft}} tall and its arch measures {{Convert\\|66\\|m\\|ft}} long. The bridge serves the [Trans\\-Iranian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Iranian_Railway \"Trans-Iranian Railway\") network in Northern Iran.\nThe Veresk bridge connects the railway between Tehran and the [Caspian Sea](/wiki/Caspian_Sea \"Caspian Sea\") region. It is located in [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran \"Mazandaran\") Veresk district of Savadkuh, 85 kilometers south of [Ghaemshahr](/wiki/Ghaemshahr \"Ghaemshahr\") and connects two of the mountains in the Abbas Abad region. The bridge is one of the masterpieces of the Danish engineering firm [Kampsax](/wiki/Kampsax \"Kampsax\"), (consisting of Danish, German and Austrian engineers) serving the [Trans\\-Iranian Railway](/wiki/Trans-Iranian_Railway \"Trans-Iranian Railway\") network in Northern Iran.Fritz Leonhardt: Brücken. Deutsche Verlags\\-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1982, {{ISBN\\|3\\-421\\-02590\\-8}}; Marcel Prade: Les grands ponts du monde. Deuxième partie, Hors d'Europe. Brissaud à Poitiers, {{ISBN\\|2\\-902170\\-68\\-8}}\n The construction of this bridge included craftsmen of many nationalities, including many Italian. The Master Carpenter for the construction of the lumber concrete forms was Giacomo Di Marco, from the Friuli region of Italy, and detailed in the book he authored. It has been said after finishing the bridge, people had a fear that the train wouldn't be able to pass the narrow bridge and that it would break. As a result, the engineer and his family stood under it when the first train passed the bridge (local accounts claim that Reza Shah had asked them to do so anyway).[*Veresk Bridge Safe*](http://financialtribune.com/articles/people/2936/veresk-bridge-safe) auf FinancialTribune.com",
"### Lajim Tower",
"Lajim Tower, also known as Tomb Tower of Lajim,{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Michailidis\\|first\\=Melanie\\|date\\=2003\\|title\\=Tomb Tower of Lajim\\|url\\=https://dome.mit.edu/handle/1721\\.3/50049\\|journal\\=Aga Khan Visual Archive}} is a tall cylindrical tower in the village of [Lajim](/wiki/Lajim \"Lajim\"){{Cite book\\|title\\=The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana\\|last\\=Blair\\|first\\=Sheila\\|year\\=1992\\|pages\\=88–90}} in the province of [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran_Province \"Mazandaran Province\"), Iran. The tower was built around AD 1022\\. The Lajim inscriptions includes the first documented example of the word *[qubba](/wiki/Qubba \"Qubba\")* referring to the domed structure of the building. There is no doubt that the Lajim Tower was the [mausoleum](/wiki/Mausoleum \"Mausoleum\") of an unknown [Persian](/wiki/Persian_people \"Persian people\") prince of [Tabaristan](/wiki/Tabaristan \"Tabaristan\").",
"### Kangelo Castle",
"Kangelo Castle is a historical fortress located in the Savadkuh and in the village of [Kangelo](/wiki/Kangelo \"Kangelo\"). The [Kangelo Castle](/wiki/Kangelo_Castle \"Kangelo Castle\") during the time The [Sassanian Empire](/wiki/Sassanian_Empire \"Sassanian Empire\") was built. According to historians, the castle of Kangelo was used as a place to worship the mirta.",
"### Espahbod Khorshid Cave",
"This cave is located between the railway station of Pol\\-e Sefid and Surkh Abad, in the vicinity of Do Ab. It was discovered in the year 1956\\.\nThe cave has a simple area or hall, with a ceiling 80 m. in width and height, and is considered spectacular in the world. Near this cave is a remnant of a ruined castle and tower, which was once a beautiful structure of stone and mortar. This cave is also known as Dej\\-e\\-Afsanehie, and this was most probably the defense center of the [House of Ispahbudhan](/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan \"House of Ispahbudhan\") of [Mazandaran](/wiki/Mazandaran \"Mazandaran\") in the past.",
"### Balu Bridge",
"Located along the Shirgah\\-Zirab road, near Talar river, it was made of fired bricks and mortar. The main part of this bridge was destroyed because of breaking, and now two herring\\-bone\\-shaped arches remained intact. One of them is {{convert\\|3\\|m\\|ft}} wide and {{convert\\|4\\.75\\|m\\|ft}} high, and another is {{convert\\|4\\.5\\|m\\|ft}} wide and {{convert\\|5\\.50\\|m\\|ft}} high. According to its architectural features, it probably dates back to before the [Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Safavid_dynasty \"Safavid dynasty\").",
"### Urim Rudbar Church",
"This monument was built, following the erection of the northern Iranian railway. It was used for religious ceremonies by foreign personnel. The church consists of a chamber, measuring {{convert\\|4\\.20\\|by\\|5\\.20\\|m\\|ft}}. With a height of {{convert\\|4\\|m\\|ft}}, it houses a [prayer niche](/wiki/Prayer_niche \"Prayer niche\") and four cement candlesticks. The construction was made of stone and cement.",
""
] |
Playing career
--------------
Drafted in the third round of the [1987 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1987_NHL_Entry_Draft "1987 NHL Entry Draft"), 44th overall, by the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens "Montreal Canadiens"), Schneider was the Canadiens' fourth pick (after forwards [Andrew Cassels](/wiki/Andrew_Cassels "Andrew Cassels") and [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair "John LeClair"), and fellow defenseman [Éric Desjardins](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Desjardins "Éric Desjardins")). He played his first [NHL](/wiki/National_Hockey_League "National Hockey League") game a few months later when he suited up on [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_NHL_season "1987–88 NHL season") opening night against the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers "Philadelphia Flyers"). However, after four games, he was sent back to his [junior](/wiki/Junior_hockey "Junior hockey") team ([Cornwall Royals](/wiki/Cornwall_Royals "Cornwall Royals")) for the rest of the season. He would spend the entirety of [1988–89](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_OHL_season "1988–89 OHL season") with Cornwall before splitting the next season between Montreal and their [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League "American Hockey League") [farm team](/wiki/Farm_system "Farm system"), the [Sherbrooke Canadiens](/wiki/Sherbrooke_Canadiens "Sherbrooke Canadiens"). After being promoted to the Canadiens, he scored seven goals and 21 points in 44 games with Montreal. Schneider earned a full\-time NHL roster spot in the [1990–91 season](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_NHL_season "1990–91 NHL season") and, two years later, he won the [1993](/wiki/1993_Stanley_Cup_Finals "1993 Stanley Cup Finals") [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup "Stanley Cup") with the Canadiens, defeating [Wayne Gretzky](/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky "Wayne Gretzky") and the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings") in five games. Following his Stanley Cup victory, Schneider broke out with 52 points in [1993–94](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_NHL_season "1993–94 NHL season"), topping all team defensemen. During the 1994–95 season, Schneider was traded to the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders "New York Islanders") finishing the season with 29 points in 43 games between the two clubs. In 1995–96, he recorded 47 points in 65 games with the Islanders and appeared in his first [NHL All\-Star Game](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_Game "NHL All-Star Game") ([1996](/wiki/1996_NHL_All-Star_Game "1996 NHL All-Star Game")), before being traded in March 1996 to the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") (along with Toronto fan\-favorite Wendel Clark) in exchange for three players and a first\-round selection in the [1997 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1997_NHL_Entry_Draft "1997 NHL Entry Draft") (eventually [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo "Roberto Luongo")).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\=8451224\&view\=notes \|publisher\=NHL.com \|title\= Players: Mathieu Schneider \|access\-date\=February 27, 2009}} He finished the year with 54 points in 78 games between the two clubs.
Prior to the [1996–97 season](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_NHL_season "1996–97 NHL season"), Schneider was a member of the [1996](/wiki/1996_World_Cup_of_Hockey "1996 World Cup of Hockey") [World Cup](/wiki/World_Cup_of_Hockey "World Cup of Hockey") champion [Team USA](/wiki/United_States_national_men%27s_ice_hockey_team "United States national men's ice hockey team") squad. It was his high point for the season as he suffered a serious groin injury and was lost for the majority of the season, playing only 26 games. He returned to the Leafs from his injury the following season and tallied 37 points in 76 games. He was a contract hold\-out as a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent "Restricted free agent") prior to the [1998–99 season](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_NHL_season "1998–99 NHL season"), reportedly seeking a $3\.3 million salary with the Maple Leafs. Consequently, a few games into the season, the Maple Leafs traded him to the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers "New York Rangers") where he then signed a one\-year, $2\.75 million contract. Born in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan "Manhattan"), Schneider stated his excitement to be playing for his hometown team.{{cite news\|title\=Schneider's wish is granted, a trade to the Rangers\|url\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\=F50C10FF385E0C768DDDA90994D0494D81\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=October 15, 1998\|newspaper\=New York Times \| first\=Steve \| last\=Popper}} In two seasons with the Rangers he accumulated 34, then 30 points.
Schneider was left unprotected in the [2000 NHL Expansion Draft](/wiki/2000_NHL_Expansion_Draft "2000 NHL Expansion Draft") and he was chosen by the [Columbus Blue Jackets](/wiki/Columbus_Blue_Jackets "Columbus Blue Jackets").{{cite news\|title\=Blue Jackets, Wild stock rosters, deal\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/shn/00exstory.htm\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=June 24, 2000\|newspaper\=\[\[USA Today]]}} However, he was never signed by the Blue Jackets and, less than a month later, Schneider signed with the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings").{{cite news\|title\=Mathieu joins Kings \|url\=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/sports/2000/08/14/2000\-08\-14\_mathieu\_joins\_kings.html \|access\-date\=September 27, 2008 \|newspaper\=\[\[New York Daily News]] \|date\=August 14, 2000 }}{{dead link\|date\=June 2017 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} In his first season with the Kings, Schneider tallied 51 points in 73 games, his highest total since his 52\-point season with the Canadiens in 1993–94\. As the Kings played into the second round of the [2001 playoffs](/wiki/2001_Stanley_Cup_Playoffs "2001 Stanley Cup Playoffs"), Schneider matched a career\-high 9 points in 13 playoff games.
After appearing in his second All\-Star Game in [2003](/wiki/2003_NHL_All-Star_Game "2003 NHL All-Star Game"), Schneider was dealt at the trade deadline to the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings "Detroit Red Wings") for two players and two draft picks. The Kings had shopped Schneider around as he was set to become an [unrestricted free agent](/wiki/Unrestricted_free_agent "Unrestricted free agent") at the end of the season. With the development of offensive\-minded defensemen [Joe Corvo](/wiki/Joe_Corvo "Joe Corvo") and [Lubomir Visnovsky](/wiki/%C4%BDubom%C3%ADr_Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ovsk%C3%BD "Ľubomír Višňovský"), Schneider was considered replaceable by the Kings.{{cite news\|title\=Red Wings acquire Schneider from Kings\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/wings/2003\-03\-11\-schneider\_x.htm\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=March 11, 2003\|newspaper\=USA Today}} Although the Red Wings had traded for Schneider as a rental player to bolster their Stanley Cup run, they were upset in the first round by the [Mighty Ducks of Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim_Ducks "Anaheim Ducks"). Schneider finished the season with 16 goals and 50 points between the Kings and Red Wings.
[200px\|thumb\|Schneider during a game against [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks") – October 6, 2006](/wiki/Image:Mathieu_Schneider_2006.jpg "Mathieu Schneider 2006.jpg")
Schneider was re\-signed by Detroit in the off\-season to a two\-year deal{{cite news\|title\=Schneider re\-signs\|url\=http://www.projo.com/bostonbruins/content/projo\_20050805\_05nhljo.1d500d73\.html\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|newspaper\=\[\[Providence Journal]]}} and he eventually played another three seasons with the Red Wings that included a career\-high 21 goals and 59 points in [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season "2005–06 NHL season"). He played his 1,000th NHL game against the Anaheim Ducks on October 21 of that same season and scored his 200th NHL goal on March 6, 2007, against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators "Nashville Predators").{{cite web\|title\=Babcock beats former team as Red Wings nip Ducks\|url\=http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251021005\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024194628/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\=251021005\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=October 24, 2012\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=October 21, 2005\|publisher\=ESPN}}
Following the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_NHL_season "2006–07 NHL season"), Schneider became an unrestricted free agent and he signed a two\-year, $11\.25 million deal with the Anaheim Ducks. The Ducks had pursued Schneider in lieu of [Norris Trophy](/wiki/James_Norris_Trophy "James Norris Trophy")\-winner and [team captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29 "Captain (ice hockey)") [Scott Niedermayer](/wiki/Scott_Niedermayer "Scott Niedermayer")'s expected retirement (although Niedermayer returned to the Ducks later in the season).{{cite news\|title\=Schneider signs with Ducks, Niedermayer to retire?\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/schneider\-signs\-with\-ducks\-niedermayer\-to\-retire\-1\.675820\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=July 1, 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Canadian Broadcasting Company\|CBC]]}}{{cite news\|title\=Scott Niedermayer returns to Ducks\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/scott\-niedermayer\-returns\-to\-ducks\-1\.658136\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=December 5, 2007\|publisher\=CBC}} By signing with the Ducks, he missed a chance for another Stanley Cup, arriving in Anaheim the same year that Detroit won the [2008 Stanley Cup](/wiki/2008_Stanley_Cup_Finals "2008 Stanley Cup Finals") championship and a year after the Ducks' [2007 Stanley Cup](/wiki/2007_Stanley_Cup_Finals "2007 Stanley Cup Finals") victory. Schneider did not debut with the Ducks until a couple months into the season, as he sustained a [broken ankle](/wiki/Ankle_injury "Ankle injury") in a pre\-season game against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings "Los Angeles Kings").{{cite news\|title\=Ducks' Schneider sustains broken ankle\|url\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/ducks\-schneider\-sustains\-broken\-ankle\-1\.643271\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=September 16, 2007\|publisher\=CBC}} In his only season with the Ducks, he tallied 39 points in 65 games, second among Ducks' defensemen.{{cite web\|title\=2007–08 Anaheim Ducks (NHL)\|url\=http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/leagues/seasons/teams/0043122008\.html\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|publisher\=HockeyDb.com}}
As the [2008–09 season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season "2008–09 NHL season") approached, the Ducks looked to free up [cap space](/wiki/Salary_cap "Salary cap") in order to re\-sign [Teemu Selänne](/wiki/Teemu_Sel%C3%A4nne "Teemu Selänne"). With [All\-Star](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_team "NHL All-Star team") defensemen [Chris Pronger](/wiki/Chris_Pronger "Chris Pronger") and [Scott Niedermayer](/wiki/Scott_Niedermayer "Scott Niedermayer") ahead of him on the depth chart, Schneider was placed on waivers, but cleared.{{cite web\|title\=Schneider clears waivers, Burke responds\|url\=http://ducks.nhl.com/team/app/?service\=page\&page\=NewsPage\&articleid\=382137\|access\-date\=September 27, 2008\|date\=September 17, 2008\|publisher\=\[\[Anaheim Ducks]]}} The Ducks instead traded him to the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers "Atlanta Thrashers") on September 26, 2008, in exchange for three players.{{cite web\|title\=Thrashers acquire Schneider from Ducks\|url\=https://www.nhl.com/news/thrashers\-acquire\-schneider\-from\-ducks/c\-383588\|access\-date\=March 8, 2020\|date\=September 27, 2008\|publisher\=\[\[National Hockey League]]}} However, Schneider did not remain with the Thrashers for the whole season. He was traded back to the Montreal Canadiens in February 2009 for two draft choices.
On August 28, 2009, the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks") signed Schneider to a one\-year, $1\.55 million contract. The deal included a $1 million signing bonus (making his base salary $550,000\), dispersed throughout the season over four equal payments.{{cite news\|title\=Former Canuck Mathieu Schneider heeds Moose call just in time to collect $250,000\|url\=http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Former\+Canuck\+Mathieu\+Schneider\+heeds\+Moose\+call\+just\+time\+collect/2402385/story.html\|access\-date\=March 8, 2020\|date\=January 4, 2010\|newspaper\=\[\[Vancouver Sun]]}} After having undergone off\-season shoulder surgery, Schneider missed the first 10 games of the [2009–10 season](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_NHL_season "2009–10 NHL season") and made his Canucks debut on October 25 in a 2–0 win against the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers "Edmonton Oilers").{{cite news\|title\=No pain, no gain: Injured Canucks find a way to win\|url\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/amp/sports/no\-pain\-no\-gain\-injured\-canucks\-find\-a\-way\-to\-win/article1348189/\|access\-date\=March 8, 2020\|date\=October 26, 2009\|work\=\[\[The Globe and Mail]]}} He was playing primarily as a depth defenseman and on December 20, he left the team due to a reported dispute about his playing time. Following his debut for the Canucks, he was a healthy scratch 11 times in 28 games. The Canucks explained his absence as a "personal matter", while general manager [Mike Gillis](/wiki/Mike_Gillis "Mike Gillis") reportedly tried to trade Schneider.{{cite news\|title\=Canucks look to deal Mathieu Schneider to resolve playing time issue \|url\=http://communities.canada.com/theprovince/blogs/whitetowel/archive/2009/12/28/canucks\-look\-to\-deal\-mathieu\-schneider\-to\-resolve\-playing\-time\-issue.aspx \|access\-date\=December 29, 2009 \|date\=December 28, 2009 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Province]] \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231084227/http://communities.canada.com/theprovince/blogs/whitetowel/archive/2009/12/28/canucks\-look\-to\-deal\-mathieu\-schneider\-to\-resolve\-playing\-time\-issue.aspx \|archive\-date\=December 31, 2009 }}
On December 29, 2009, Schneider was waived by the Vancouver Canucks.{{cite web\|title\=Canucks place veteran D Schneider on waivers\|url\=http://tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\=303923\|publisher\=\[\[The Sports Network]]}} After clearing waivers, he reported to the Canucks' AHL affiliate, the [Manitoba Moose](/wiki/Manitoba_Moose "Manitoba Moose") on January 2, 2010\.{{cite news\|title\=NHL vet sent down to Moose\|url\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/sports/hockey/moose/nhl\-vet\-schneider\-down\-to\-moose\-80494972\.html\|access\-date\=2010\-01\-03\|date\=2010\-01\-03\|newspaper\=Winnipeg Free Press}} On March 3, 2010, Schneider was traded from the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks "Vancouver Canucks") to the [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Phoenix_Coyotes "Phoenix Coyotes") for [Sean Zimmerman](/wiki/Sean_Zimmerman "Sean Zimmerman") and a sixth\-round draft pick. At the end of 2010, Schneider officially ended his career as a player.{{cite web\|title\=Retired defenceman Mathieu Schneider joins NHL Players' Association\|url\=http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/38620\-Retired\-defenceman\-Mathieu\-Schneider\-joins\-NHL\-Players\-Association.html\|work\=Canadian Press\|access\-date\=27 May 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328031506/http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/38620\-Retired\-defenceman\-Mathieu\-Schneider\-joins\-NHL\-Players\-Association.html\|archive\-date\=2012\-03\-28\|url\-status\=dead}}
Schneider appeared as a member of the Red Wings alumni team on December 31, 2013 at [Comerica Park](/wiki/Comerica_Park "Comerica Park") against members of the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs "Toronto Maple Leafs") alumni.
|
[
"Playing career\n--------------",
"Drafted in the third round of the [1987 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1987_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1987 NHL Entry Draft\"), 44th overall, by the [Montreal Canadiens](/wiki/Montreal_Canadiens \"Montreal Canadiens\"), Schneider was the Canadiens' fourth pick (after forwards [Andrew Cassels](/wiki/Andrew_Cassels \"Andrew Cassels\") and [John LeClair](/wiki/John_LeClair \"John LeClair\"), and fellow defenseman [Éric Desjardins](/wiki/%C3%89ric_Desjardins \"Éric Desjardins\")). He played his first [NHL](/wiki/National_Hockey_League \"National Hockey League\") game a few months later when he suited up on [1987–88](/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_NHL_season \"1987–88 NHL season\") opening night against the [Philadelphia Flyers](/wiki/Philadelphia_Flyers \"Philadelphia Flyers\"). However, after four games, he was sent back to his [junior](/wiki/Junior_hockey \"Junior hockey\") team ([Cornwall Royals](/wiki/Cornwall_Royals \"Cornwall Royals\")) for the rest of the season. He would spend the entirety of [1988–89](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_OHL_season \"1988–89 OHL season\") with Cornwall before splitting the next season between Montreal and their [American Hockey League](/wiki/American_Hockey_League \"American Hockey League\") [farm team](/wiki/Farm_system \"Farm system\"), the [Sherbrooke Canadiens](/wiki/Sherbrooke_Canadiens \"Sherbrooke Canadiens\"). After being promoted to the Canadiens, he scored seven goals and 21 points in 44 games with Montreal. Schneider earned a full\\-time NHL roster spot in the [1990–91 season](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_NHL_season \"1990–91 NHL season\") and, two years later, he won the [1993](/wiki/1993_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"1993 Stanley Cup Finals\") [Stanley Cup](/wiki/Stanley_Cup \"Stanley Cup\") with the Canadiens, defeating [Wayne Gretzky](/wiki/Wayne_Gretzky \"Wayne Gretzky\") and the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\") in five games. Following his Stanley Cup victory, Schneider broke out with 52 points in [1993–94](/wiki/1993%E2%80%9394_NHL_season \"1993–94 NHL season\"), topping all team defensemen. During the 1994–95 season, Schneider was traded to the [New York Islanders](/wiki/New_York_Islanders \"New York Islanders\") finishing the season with 29 points in 43 games between the two clubs. In 1995–96, he recorded 47 points in 65 games with the Islanders and appeared in his first [NHL All\\-Star Game](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_Game \"NHL All-Star Game\") ([1996](/wiki/1996_NHL_All-Star_Game \"1996 NHL All-Star Game\")), before being traded in March 1996 to the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") (along with Toronto fan\\-favorite Wendel Clark) in exchange for three players and a first\\-round selection in the [1997 NHL Entry Draft](/wiki/1997_NHL_Entry_Draft \"1997 NHL Entry Draft\") (eventually [Roberto Luongo](/wiki/Roberto_Luongo \"Roberto Luongo\")).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.nhl.com/ice/player.htm?id\\=8451224\\&view\\=notes \\|publisher\\=NHL.com \\|title\\= Players: Mathieu Schneider \\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2009}} He finished the year with 54 points in 78 games between the two clubs.",
"Prior to the [1996–97 season](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_NHL_season \"1996–97 NHL season\"), Schneider was a member of the [1996](/wiki/1996_World_Cup_of_Hockey \"1996 World Cup of Hockey\") [World Cup](/wiki/World_Cup_of_Hockey \"World Cup of Hockey\") champion [Team USA](/wiki/United_States_national_men%27s_ice_hockey_team \"United States national men's ice hockey team\") squad. It was his high point for the season as he suffered a serious groin injury and was lost for the majority of the season, playing only 26 games. He returned to the Leafs from his injury the following season and tallied 37 points in 76 games. He was a contract hold\\-out as a [restricted free agent](/wiki/Restricted_free_agent \"Restricted free agent\") prior to the [1998–99 season](/wiki/1998%E2%80%9399_NHL_season \"1998–99 NHL season\"), reportedly seeking a $3\\.3 million salary with the Maple Leafs. Consequently, a few games into the season, the Maple Leafs traded him to the [New York Rangers](/wiki/New_York_Rangers \"New York Rangers\") where he then signed a one\\-year, $2\\.75 million contract. Born in [Manhattan](/wiki/Manhattan \"Manhattan\"), Schneider stated his excitement to be playing for his hometown team.{{cite news\\|title\\=Schneider's wish is granted, a trade to the Rangers\\|url\\=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\\=F50C10FF385E0C768DDDA90994D0494D81\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=October 15, 1998\\|newspaper\\=New York Times \\| first\\=Steve \\| last\\=Popper}} In two seasons with the Rangers he accumulated 34, then 30 points.",
"Schneider was left unprotected in the [2000 NHL Expansion Draft](/wiki/2000_NHL_Expansion_Draft \"2000 NHL Expansion Draft\") and he was chosen by the [Columbus Blue Jackets](/wiki/Columbus_Blue_Jackets \"Columbus Blue Jackets\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Blue Jackets, Wild stock rosters, deal\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/shn/00exstory.htm\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=June 24, 2000\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]}} However, he was never signed by the Blue Jackets and, less than a month later, Schneider signed with the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Mathieu joins Kings \\|url\\=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/sports/2000/08/14/2000\\-08\\-14\\_mathieu\\_joins\\_kings.html \\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[New York Daily News]] \\|date\\=August 14, 2000 }}{{dead link\\|date\\=June 2017 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} In his first season with the Kings, Schneider tallied 51 points in 73 games, his highest total since his 52\\-point season with the Canadiens in 1993–94\\. As the Kings played into the second round of the [2001 playoffs](/wiki/2001_Stanley_Cup_Playoffs \"2001 Stanley Cup Playoffs\"), Schneider matched a career\\-high 9 points in 13 playoff games.",
"After appearing in his second All\\-Star Game in [2003](/wiki/2003_NHL_All-Star_Game \"2003 NHL All-Star Game\"), Schneider was dealt at the trade deadline to the [Detroit Red Wings](/wiki/Detroit_Red_Wings \"Detroit Red Wings\") for two players and two draft picks. The Kings had shopped Schneider around as he was set to become an [unrestricted free agent](/wiki/Unrestricted_free_agent \"Unrestricted free agent\") at the end of the season. With the development of offensive\\-minded defensemen [Joe Corvo](/wiki/Joe_Corvo \"Joe Corvo\") and [Lubomir Visnovsky](/wiki/%C4%BDubom%C3%ADr_Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ovsk%C3%BD \"Ľubomír Višňovský\"), Schneider was considered replaceable by the Kings.{{cite news\\|title\\=Red Wings acquire Schneider from Kings\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/hockey/nhl/wings/2003\\-03\\-11\\-schneider\\_x.htm\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=March 11, 2003\\|newspaper\\=USA Today}} Although the Red Wings had traded for Schneider as a rental player to bolster their Stanley Cup run, they were upset in the first round by the [Mighty Ducks of Anaheim](/wiki/Anaheim_Ducks \"Anaheim Ducks\"). Schneider finished the season with 16 goals and 50 points between the Kings and Red Wings.",
"[200px\\|thumb\\|Schneider during a game against [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\") – October 6, 2006](/wiki/Image:Mathieu_Schneider_2006.jpg \"Mathieu Schneider 2006.jpg\")\nSchneider was re\\-signed by Detroit in the off\\-season to a two\\-year deal{{cite news\\|title\\=Schneider re\\-signs\\|url\\=http://www.projo.com/bostonbruins/content/projo\\_20050805\\_05nhljo.1d500d73\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Providence Journal]]}} and he eventually played another three seasons with the Red Wings that included a career\\-high 21 goals and 59 points in [2005–06](/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_NHL_season \"2005–06 NHL season\"). He played his 1,000th NHL game against the Anaheim Ducks on October 21 of that same season and scored his 200th NHL goal on March 6, 2007, against the [Nashville Predators](/wiki/Nashville_Predators \"Nashville Predators\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Babcock beats former team as Red Wings nip Ducks\\|url\\=http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251021005\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024194628/http://sports.espn.go.com/nhl/recap?gameId\\=251021005\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=October 24, 2012\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=October 21, 2005\\|publisher\\=ESPN}}",
"Following the [2006–07 season](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_NHL_season \"2006–07 NHL season\"), Schneider became an unrestricted free agent and he signed a two\\-year, $11\\.25 million deal with the Anaheim Ducks. The Ducks had pursued Schneider in lieu of [Norris Trophy](/wiki/James_Norris_Trophy \"James Norris Trophy\")\\-winner and [team captain](/wiki/Captain_%28ice_hockey%29 \"Captain (ice hockey)\") [Scott Niedermayer](/wiki/Scott_Niedermayer \"Scott Niedermayer\")'s expected retirement (although Niedermayer returned to the Ducks later in the season).{{cite news\\|title\\=Schneider signs with Ducks, Niedermayer to retire?\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/schneider\\-signs\\-with\\-ducks\\-niedermayer\\-to\\-retire\\-1\\.675820\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=July 1, 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Canadian Broadcasting Company\\|CBC]]}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Scott Niedermayer returns to Ducks\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/scott\\-niedermayer\\-returns\\-to\\-ducks\\-1\\.658136\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=December 5, 2007\\|publisher\\=CBC}} By signing with the Ducks, he missed a chance for another Stanley Cup, arriving in Anaheim the same year that Detroit won the [2008 Stanley Cup](/wiki/2008_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"2008 Stanley Cup Finals\") championship and a year after the Ducks' [2007 Stanley Cup](/wiki/2007_Stanley_Cup_Finals \"2007 Stanley Cup Finals\") victory. Schneider did not debut with the Ducks until a couple months into the season, as he sustained a [broken ankle](/wiki/Ankle_injury \"Ankle injury\") in a pre\\-season game against the [Los Angeles Kings](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Kings \"Los Angeles Kings\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Ducks' Schneider sustains broken ankle\\|url\\=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/hockey/ducks\\-schneider\\-sustains\\-broken\\-ankle\\-1\\.643271\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=September 16, 2007\\|publisher\\=CBC}} In his only season with the Ducks, he tallied 39 points in 65 games, second among Ducks' defensemen.{{cite web\\|title\\=2007–08 Anaheim Ducks (NHL)\\|url\\=http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/stats/leagues/seasons/teams/0043122008\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|publisher\\=HockeyDb.com}}",
"As the [2008–09 season](/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_NHL_season \"2008–09 NHL season\") approached, the Ducks looked to free up [cap space](/wiki/Salary_cap \"Salary cap\") in order to re\\-sign [Teemu Selänne](/wiki/Teemu_Sel%C3%A4nne \"Teemu Selänne\"). With [All\\-Star](/wiki/NHL_All-Star_team \"NHL All-Star team\") defensemen [Chris Pronger](/wiki/Chris_Pronger \"Chris Pronger\") and [Scott Niedermayer](/wiki/Scott_Niedermayer \"Scott Niedermayer\") ahead of him on the depth chart, Schneider was placed on waivers, but cleared.{{cite web\\|title\\=Schneider clears waivers, Burke responds\\|url\\=http://ducks.nhl.com/team/app/?service\\=page\\&page\\=NewsPage\\&articleid\\=382137\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2008\\|date\\=September 17, 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Anaheim Ducks]]}} The Ducks instead traded him to the [Atlanta Thrashers](/wiki/Atlanta_Thrashers \"Atlanta Thrashers\") on September 26, 2008, in exchange for three players.{{cite web\\|title\\=Thrashers acquire Schneider from Ducks\\|url\\=https://www.nhl.com/news/thrashers\\-acquire\\-schneider\\-from\\-ducks/c\\-383588\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2020\\|date\\=September 27, 2008\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[National Hockey League]]}} However, Schneider did not remain with the Thrashers for the whole season. He was traded back to the Montreal Canadiens in February 2009 for two draft choices.",
"On August 28, 2009, the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\") signed Schneider to a one\\-year, $1\\.55 million contract. The deal included a $1 million signing bonus (making his base salary $550,000\\), dispersed throughout the season over four equal payments.{{cite news\\|title\\=Former Canuck Mathieu Schneider heeds Moose call just in time to collect $250,000\\|url\\=http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Former\\+Canuck\\+Mathieu\\+Schneider\\+heeds\\+Moose\\+call\\+just\\+time\\+collect/2402385/story.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2020\\|date\\=January 4, 2010\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Vancouver Sun]]}} After having undergone off\\-season shoulder surgery, Schneider missed the first 10 games of the [2009–10 season](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_NHL_season \"2009–10 NHL season\") and made his Canucks debut on October 25 in a 2–0 win against the [Edmonton Oilers](/wiki/Edmonton_Oilers \"Edmonton Oilers\").{{cite news\\|title\\=No pain, no gain: Injured Canucks find a way to win\\|url\\=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/amp/sports/no\\-pain\\-no\\-gain\\-injured\\-canucks\\-find\\-a\\-way\\-to\\-win/article1348189/\\|access\\-date\\=March 8, 2020\\|date\\=October 26, 2009\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Globe and Mail]]}} He was playing primarily as a depth defenseman and on December 20, he left the team due to a reported dispute about his playing time. Following his debut for the Canucks, he was a healthy scratch 11 times in 28 games. The Canucks explained his absence as a \"personal matter\", while general manager [Mike Gillis](/wiki/Mike_Gillis \"Mike Gillis\") reportedly tried to trade Schneider.{{cite news\\|title\\=Canucks look to deal Mathieu Schneider to resolve playing time issue \\|url\\=http://communities.canada.com/theprovince/blogs/whitetowel/archive/2009/12/28/canucks\\-look\\-to\\-deal\\-mathieu\\-schneider\\-to\\-resolve\\-playing\\-time\\-issue.aspx \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2009 \\|date\\=December 28, 2009 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Province]] \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231084227/http://communities.canada.com/theprovince/blogs/whitetowel/archive/2009/12/28/canucks\\-look\\-to\\-deal\\-mathieu\\-schneider\\-to\\-resolve\\-playing\\-time\\-issue.aspx \\|archive\\-date\\=December 31, 2009 }}",
"On December 29, 2009, Schneider was waived by the Vancouver Canucks.{{cite web\\|title\\=Canucks place veteran D Schneider on waivers\\|url\\=http://tsn.ca/nhl/story/?id\\=303923\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[The Sports Network]]}} After clearing waivers, he reported to the Canucks' AHL affiliate, the [Manitoba Moose](/wiki/Manitoba_Moose \"Manitoba Moose\") on January 2, 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=NHL vet sent down to Moose\\|url\\=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/sports/hockey/moose/nhl\\-vet\\-schneider\\-down\\-to\\-moose\\-80494972\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-03\\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-03\\|newspaper\\=Winnipeg Free Press}} On March 3, 2010, Schneider was traded from the [Vancouver Canucks](/wiki/Vancouver_Canucks \"Vancouver Canucks\") to the [Phoenix Coyotes](/wiki/Phoenix_Coyotes \"Phoenix Coyotes\") for [Sean Zimmerman](/wiki/Sean_Zimmerman \"Sean Zimmerman\") and a sixth\\-round draft pick. At the end of 2010, Schneider officially ended his career as a player.{{cite web\\|title\\=Retired defenceman Mathieu Schneider joins NHL Players' Association\\|url\\=http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/38620\\-Retired\\-defenceman\\-Mathieu\\-Schneider\\-joins\\-NHL\\-Players\\-Association.html\\|work\\=Canadian Press\\|access\\-date\\=27 May 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328031506/http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/38620\\-Retired\\-defenceman\\-Mathieu\\-Schneider\\-joins\\-NHL\\-Players\\-Association.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-03\\-28\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Schneider appeared as a member of the Red Wings alumni team on December 31, 2013 at [Comerica Park](/wiki/Comerica_Park \"Comerica Park\") against members of the [Toronto Maple Leafs](/wiki/Toronto_Maple_Leafs \"Toronto Maple Leafs\") alumni.",
""
] |
LifeBank
--------
Nicanor Perlas sits as the Chairman of the Board of Trustees/Corporation of [LifeBank](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 "LifeBank (Philippines)"), a microfinancial institution and rural bank in the Philippines.
LifeBank which is founded in 1970 is divided into two corporate arms each with its own different banking/financing functions \- the LifeBank \- A Rural Bank (LifeBank RB) and LifeBank Microfinance Foundation, Inc. (LifeBank MFI).
LifeBank RB is one of the fastest growing rural banks supervised under the jurisdiction of the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas "Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas") (BSP). As of 2020, it operates 4 bank branches and 31 branch\-lite units (BLUs) in Western Visayas.
The LifeBank MFI or LifeBank Microfinance, is an offshoot of LifeBank founded in 2003\. Presently, it operates as a non\-governmental organization (NGO) microfinance institution (MFI) with 477 branches and 20\+ zonal and district offices across the Philippines covering 300,000\+ loan clients and 400,000\+ saving deposits clients. It is the 3rd largest microfinance institution in the country.
LifeBank MFI is also involved in social responsible programs by the Perlas Group/LifeBank Group. Its social and sustainable development programs created a nearly 2000 academic scholars across, built public buildings for government use, promoted healthcare through medical missions in far flung areas, among others, across the Philippines.
|
[
"LifeBank\n--------",
"Nicanor Perlas sits as the Chairman of the Board of Trustees/Corporation of [LifeBank](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 \"LifeBank (Philippines)\"), a microfinancial institution and rural bank in the Philippines.",
"LifeBank which is founded in 1970 is divided into two corporate arms each with its own different banking/financing functions \\- the LifeBank \\- A Rural Bank (LifeBank RB) and LifeBank Microfinance Foundation, Inc. (LifeBank MFI).",
"LifeBank RB is one of the fastest growing rural banks supervised under the jurisdiction of the [Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas](/wiki/Bangko_Sentral_ng_Pilipinas \"Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas\") (BSP). As of 2020, it operates 4 bank branches and 31 branch\\-lite units (BLUs) in Western Visayas.",
"The LifeBank MFI or LifeBank Microfinance, is an offshoot of LifeBank founded in 2003\\. Presently, it operates as a non\\-governmental organization (NGO) microfinance institution (MFI) with 477 branches and 20\\+ zonal and district offices across the Philippines covering 300,000\\+ loan clients and 400,000\\+ saving deposits clients. It is the 3rd largest microfinance institution in the country.",
"LifeBank MFI is also involved in social responsible programs by the Perlas Group/LifeBank Group. Its social and sustainable development programs created a nearly 2000 academic scholars across, built public buildings for government use, promoted healthcare through medical missions in far flung areas, among others, across the Philippines.",
""
] |
Activism
--------
In his university days, Perlas was one of the key organizers of a university\-wide education reform movement that resulted in changes in university policies. During this time, he founded the first ecological society in the Philippines. After graduation, he co\-organized a successful large scale global campaign, the first of its kind during his time, to halt 12 nuclear plants in the Philippines. Perlas subsequently become a technical adviser to the Presidential Commission on the Philippine Nuclear Power Plant, Office of the President of the Philippines, where he was instrumental in stopping the operation of the fully constructed and operational [Bataan Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Bataan_Nuclear_Power_Plant "Bataan Nuclear Power Plant"), a $2\.2 billion project plagued with design, construction, location, and corruption problems.
Shortly thereafter, Perlas was appointed member of the national technical panel overseeing the regulation of [pesticide](/wiki/Pesticide "Pesticide") use in Philippine [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture "Agriculture"). While in this capacity, he simultaneously mobilized and headed a national effort that resulted in the banning of 32 hazardous pesticide formulations in the Philippines. The ban triggered the creation of a [P](/wiki/Philippine_peso "Philippine peso")750 million government program to reduce the use of pesticides in Philippine agriculture.
In parallel with these efforts, Perlas pioneered the introduction of large scale commercial [organic](/wiki/Organic_agriculture "Organic agriculture") and [biodynamic agriculture](/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture "Biodynamic agriculture") in many provinces in the Philippines. All these efforts were the fruition of early advocacies in sustainable agriculture when he was still an [agricultural journalist](/wiki/Agricultural_journalism "Agricultural journalism") and columnist at the Modern Agriculture and Industry\-Asia, where he pioneered the first monthly articles on ecological agriculture in the Asian context. Together with colleagues at the [International Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture](/wiki/International_Alliance_for_Sustainable_Agriculture "International Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture") or IASA, he coined the term [sustainable agriculture](/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture "Sustainable agriculture") in 1983, a term which has received wide use and currency until today.
Perlas was the chief negotiator for a network of national networks, which involved 5000 organizations, that successfully stopped the agenda of radical and one sided liberalization in the [Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation](/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Economic_Cooperation "Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation") or APEC. He successfully introduced strong sustainable development language in the Leaders and Ministerial Declarations in APEC, and constrained the Individual Action Plan of the Philippines to abide by sustainable development principles. The successful negotiations prevented the premature exposure and economic decline of 3 million Philippine [rice](/wiki/Rice "Rice") farmers to [subsidized](/wiki/Subsidized "Subsidized") and artificially cheap rice coming from other countries.
### Projects and offices
Perlas is the co\-founder, president and executive director of the [Center for Alternative Development Initiatives](/wiki/Center_for_Alternative_Development_Initiatives "Center for Alternative Development Initiatives") or CADI, in Metro Manila and Iloilo City, where he guides research and policy work and develops initiatives on globalization, threefolding and their impacts on civil society, cultural power and sustainable development.
He is also the co\-founder and spokesperson of [Karangalan](/wiki/Karangalan "Karangalan") which hosted a series of national conferences highlighting important global and national innovations and achievements by Filipinos in many disciplines and fields. Karangalan aims to stimulate the creation of a visionary Philippines. The 1st National Conference and Festival on “Mobilizing Excellence for Creating a Visionary Philippines” was January 21–23, 2005 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, in partnership with over 40 organizations and networks.
Perlas was the chief facilitator and co\-founder of the ABS\-CBN "Forum on the Filipino Future", held on December 16, 2004\. He was Chairman, Adviser on Strategy and Integral Sustainable Development, and Member, Board of Directors, [LifeBank ARB](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 "LifeBank (Philippines)"), and Board of Trustees of [LifeBank MFI](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 "LifeBank (Philippines)"), both of which help close to more than 400,000 (both LifeBank ARB and LifeBank MFI) economically poor families through microfinance and other lending products offerings.
He has been chairman of several national civil society networks including the Green Forum Philippines, the Philippine Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, and the Civil Society Counterpart Council for Sustainable Development.
### Social Three\-Folding
Co\-founder the [Global Network for Social Three\-Folding](/wiki/Global_Network_for_Social_Three-Folding "Global Network for Social Three-Folding"), Globenet3 or GN3, with more than 17 geographic and functional nodes in over 12 countries in Asia, Europe, Africa, and the United States of America. GN3 advances profound societal transformation towards integral sustainable development on the basis of socially\-engaged spirituality and deep substantive inner change.
Co\-founder and spokesperson for Tindog Pilipinas! A national movement for a better Philippines, Professionals for Social Responsibility, and the Philippine Advancement and Renewal through Threefolding Networking, Research \& Service, or PARTNERS, which is the Philippine node for GlobeNet3\.
### Philippine Agenda 21
In the mid\-1990s he was one of two technical writers of Philippine [Agenda 21](/wiki/Agenda_21 "Agenda 21") or PA21, which is a creative response to the challenges of elite [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization"). He was one of the official [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society "Civil society") delegates from the Philippines at the [Earth Summit](/wiki/Earth_Summit "Earth Summit") in Rio. It was out of this experience, among others, that he helped shape the process and substance of PA21\. Having emerged from more than 26 regional and national consultations, PA21 was characterized by the former Philippine president as the most consultative policy document in post\-[martial law](/wiki/Martial_law "Martial law") Philippines. PA21 is still officially the blueprint for [sustainable development](/wiki/Sustainable_development "Sustainable development") in the Philippines, although presently marginalized by the current controversial government of the Philippines.
He was also the technical writer of SIAD: Framework for the Localization of Philippine Agenda 21, which is now used by a number of local governments and civil society organizations to advance sustainable integrated area development in towns.
### Speaking and Consultancy
Perlas has been the resource person and keynote speaker in over 70 global conferences and events in over 20 countries, and over 120 national conferences on a range of topics including culture and societal transformation, integral sustainable development, globalization, technology, corporate [social responsibility](/wiki/Social_responsibility "Social responsibility"), science and spirituality, social threefolding, strategic [microfinance](/wiki/Microfinance "Microfinance"), direct democracy and others.
He has provided consultancy work for several [UN](/wiki/UN "UN") agencies, the Philippine Senate, donor agencies and foundations, as well as many other global and national civil society organizations and networks and businesses striving for ecological and social responsibility.
As a technical writer and key formulator of Philippine Agenda 21, as well as co\-chair for the Civil Society of the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development, Office of the President of the Philippines, Perlas was invited to attend several UN meetings including the UN General Assembly on Sustainable Development, UNGASS and the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, 6th Session, as Technical Adviser to the Philippine Delegation to the UN.
Perlas is a member of the [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev "Mikhail Gorbachev")’s Commission on Globalization [Commission final report](http://www.worldforum.org/Commission-On-Globalisation/homelinks/CommissionFinalReport.htm)worldforum.org {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121135821/http://www.worldforum.org/Commission\-On\-Globalisation/homelinks/CommissionFinalReport.htm \|date\=2010\-01\-21 }}
Creative Member, Club of Budapest, Recognized as “highly creative innovators for a social and ecological sustainable world and a culture of peace”.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.clubofbudapest.org/p\-amb\-perlas.php \|title\=Club of Budapest: Members \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-14 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814162008/http://www.clubofbudapest.org/p\-amb\-perlas.php \|archive\-date\=2009\-08\-14 }} Agenda 21 is a program of action into the 21st century for bringing the Earth into a sustainable future. It was adopted by the participating governments of the world in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992\.
### Training
Perlas has conducted hundreds of training sessions in the Philippines and abroad on a wide range of topics convergent with his writings. In this context he has innovated and developed a new framework for advancing integral sustainable development through the harmonious weaving together of profound inner change and radical but peaceful societal transformation. He calls this new framework the Lemniscate Process, which integrates the substance of more than two dozen disciplines and fields, all geared towards unlocking human creativity, enthusiasm and commitment for creating a better world.
Nicanor Perlas is part of the faculty at the graduate program of the [Southeast Asian Interdisciplinary Development Institute](/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Interdisciplinary_Development_Institute "Southeast Asia Interdisciplinary Development Institute") (SAIDI).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.saidi.edu.ph/faculty?page\=1\|title \= SAIDI Graduate School of Organization Development}} Perlas was a professor at the accredited Doctoral program on Applied Cosmic Anthropology of the [Asian Social Institute](/wiki/Asian_Social_Institute "Asian Social Institute"), where he gave in depth theoretical and practical elaborations of the Lemniscate Process. He is also a board member and a resource person for training programs of the Gamot Cogon Institute or GCI, based in Iloilo, Philippines.
### Writings
Perlas has written over 500 articles, editorials, monographs and books on a range of topics including [globalization](/wiki/Globalization "Globalization"), [social threefolding](/wiki/Social_threefolding "Social threefolding"), conscious evolution, [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society "Civil society"), [multiple intelligence](/wiki/Multiple_intelligence "Multiple intelligence"), creativity, cultural power, philosophy of science and biology, [technological singularity](/wiki/Technological_singularity "Technological singularity"), [sustainable agriculture](/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture "Sustainable agriculture"), [appreciative inquiry](/wiki/Appreciative_inquiry "Appreciative inquiry"), [neurophysiology](/wiki/Neurophysiology "Neurophysiology") and [consciousness](/wiki/Consciousness "Consciousness"), [anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy "Anthroposophy"), good governance, new politics, associative economics, and the integration of inner change and large\-scale societal transformation.
He is the publisher and editor\-in\-chief for *TruthForce*!, a national and global internet\-based news and analysis service which reaches thousands of subscribers and readers in over 60 countries.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.truthforce.info/ \|title\=Home \|website\=truthforce.info}}
Formerly, he was Editor\-In\-Chief, *Ikabuhi Newspaper for Micro\-Entrepreneurs* (34,000 \+ circulation)
His book, *Shaping Globalization: Civil Society, Cultural Power, and Threefolding*,{{Cite book \|isbn \= 9719223308\|title \= Shaping Globalization: Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding\|last1 \= Perlas\|first1 \= Nicanor\|year \= 2000\| publisher\=Center for Alternative Development Initiatives }} has been translated in 9 languages. It is being used in dozens of universities in the Philippines and various parts of the world.
### Presidential candidate in 2010
On June 17, 2009, Perlas announced his intentions to become one of the candidates for the [presidential election in 2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election "2010 Philippine presidential election"). He announced this during a press conference at the [Bantayog ng mga Bayani](/wiki/Bantayog_ng_mga_Bayani "Bantayog ng mga Bayani") in Quezon City.{{cite web \|url\=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\-211014/Environmentalist\-to\-run\-for\-president \|title\=Environmentalist to run for president \- INQUIRER.net, Philippine News for Filipinos \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-30 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620071220/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\-211014/Environmentalist\-to\-run\-for\-president \|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-20 }} He was a Philippine presidential aspirant for the 2010 presidential elections but lost to [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28Philippines%29 "Liberal Party (Philippines)")'s presidential candidate [Benigno S. Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_S._Aquino_III "Benigno S. Aquino III").{{cite web\|title\=Environmentalist to run for president\|url\=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\-211014/Environmentalist\-to\-run\-for\-president\|publisher\=\[\[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]\|date\=2009\-06\-17\|access\-date\=2009\-08\-30\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620071220/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\-211014/Environmentalist\-to\-run\-for\-president\|archive\-date\=2009\-06\-20}}
A month before the Philippines would begin the first automated local and national elections, Perlas petitioned but failed to get the nod of the [Commission on Elections](/wiki/Commission_on_Elections_%28Philippines%29 "Commission on Elections (Philippines)") to postpone the polls for 90 days, citing irregularities of COMELEC to assure that all is set for the election to take place.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.mb.com.ph/node/254277/perla\|title \= 'Perla' intensifies further into severe storm\| website\=\[\[Manila Bulletin]] \|date \= 19 October 2019}}
|
[
"Activism\n--------",
"In his university days, Perlas was one of the key organizers of a university\\-wide education reform movement that resulted in changes in university policies. During this time, he founded the first ecological society in the Philippines. After graduation, he co\\-organized a successful large scale global campaign, the first of its kind during his time, to halt 12 nuclear plants in the Philippines. Perlas subsequently become a technical adviser to the Presidential Commission on the Philippine Nuclear Power Plant, Office of the President of the Philippines, where he was instrumental in stopping the operation of the fully constructed and operational [Bataan Nuclear Power Plant](/wiki/Bataan_Nuclear_Power_Plant \"Bataan Nuclear Power Plant\"), a $2\\.2 billion project plagued with design, construction, location, and corruption problems.",
"Shortly thereafter, Perlas was appointed member of the national technical panel overseeing the regulation of [pesticide](/wiki/Pesticide \"Pesticide\") use in Philippine [agriculture](/wiki/Agriculture \"Agriculture\"). While in this capacity, he simultaneously mobilized and headed a national effort that resulted in the banning of 32 hazardous pesticide formulations in the Philippines. The ban triggered the creation of a [P](/wiki/Philippine_peso \"Philippine peso\")750 million government program to reduce the use of pesticides in Philippine agriculture.",
"In parallel with these efforts, Perlas pioneered the introduction of large scale commercial [organic](/wiki/Organic_agriculture \"Organic agriculture\") and [biodynamic agriculture](/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture \"Biodynamic agriculture\") in many provinces in the Philippines. All these efforts were the fruition of early advocacies in sustainable agriculture when he was still an [agricultural journalist](/wiki/Agricultural_journalism \"Agricultural journalism\") and columnist at the Modern Agriculture and Industry\\-Asia, where he pioneered the first monthly articles on ecological agriculture in the Asian context. Together with colleagues at the [International Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture](/wiki/International_Alliance_for_Sustainable_Agriculture \"International Alliance for Sustainable Agriculture\") or IASA, he coined the term [sustainable agriculture](/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture \"Sustainable agriculture\") in 1983, a term which has received wide use and currency until today.",
"Perlas was the chief negotiator for a network of national networks, which involved 5000 organizations, that successfully stopped the agenda of radical and one sided liberalization in the [Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation](/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Economic_Cooperation \"Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation\") or APEC. He successfully introduced strong sustainable development language in the Leaders and Ministerial Declarations in APEC, and constrained the Individual Action Plan of the Philippines to abide by sustainable development principles. The successful negotiations prevented the premature exposure and economic decline of 3 million Philippine [rice](/wiki/Rice \"Rice\") farmers to [subsidized](/wiki/Subsidized \"Subsidized\") and artificially cheap rice coming from other countries.",
"### Projects and offices",
"Perlas is the co\\-founder, president and executive director of the [Center for Alternative Development Initiatives](/wiki/Center_for_Alternative_Development_Initiatives \"Center for Alternative Development Initiatives\") or CADI, in Metro Manila and Iloilo City, where he guides research and policy work and develops initiatives on globalization, threefolding and their impacts on civil society, cultural power and sustainable development.",
"He is also the co\\-founder and spokesperson of [Karangalan](/wiki/Karangalan \"Karangalan\") which hosted a series of national conferences highlighting important global and national innovations and achievements by Filipinos in many disciplines and fields. Karangalan aims to stimulate the creation of a visionary Philippines. The 1st National Conference and Festival on “Mobilizing Excellence for Creating a Visionary Philippines” was January 21–23, 2005 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, in partnership with over 40 organizations and networks.",
"Perlas was the chief facilitator and co\\-founder of the ABS\\-CBN \"Forum on the Filipino Future\", held on December 16, 2004\\. He was Chairman, Adviser on Strategy and Integral Sustainable Development, and Member, Board of Directors, [LifeBank ARB](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 \"LifeBank (Philippines)\"), and Board of Trustees of [LifeBank MFI](/wiki/LifeBank_%28Philippines%29 \"LifeBank (Philippines)\"), both of which help close to more than 400,000 (both LifeBank ARB and LifeBank MFI) economically poor families through microfinance and other lending products offerings.",
"He has been chairman of several national civil society networks including the Green Forum Philippines, the Philippine Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, and the Civil Society Counterpart Council for Sustainable Development.",
"### Social Three\\-Folding",
"Co\\-founder the [Global Network for Social Three\\-Folding](/wiki/Global_Network_for_Social_Three-Folding \"Global Network for Social Three-Folding\"), Globenet3 or GN3, with more than 17 geographic and functional nodes in over 12 countries in Asia, Europe, Africa, and the United States of America. GN3 advances profound societal transformation towards integral sustainable development on the basis of socially\\-engaged spirituality and deep substantive inner change.",
"Co\\-founder and spokesperson for Tindog Pilipinas! A national movement for a better Philippines, Professionals for Social Responsibility, and the Philippine Advancement and Renewal through Threefolding Networking, Research \\& Service, or PARTNERS, which is the Philippine node for GlobeNet3\\.",
"### Philippine Agenda 21",
"In the mid\\-1990s he was one of two technical writers of Philippine [Agenda 21](/wiki/Agenda_21 \"Agenda 21\") or PA21, which is a creative response to the challenges of elite [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\"). He was one of the official [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society \"Civil society\") delegates from the Philippines at the [Earth Summit](/wiki/Earth_Summit \"Earth Summit\") in Rio. It was out of this experience, among others, that he helped shape the process and substance of PA21\\. Having emerged from more than 26 regional and national consultations, PA21 was characterized by the former Philippine president as the most consultative policy document in post\\-[martial law](/wiki/Martial_law \"Martial law\") Philippines. PA21 is still officially the blueprint for [sustainable development](/wiki/Sustainable_development \"Sustainable development\") in the Philippines, although presently marginalized by the current controversial government of the Philippines.",
"He was also the technical writer of SIAD: Framework for the Localization of Philippine Agenda 21, which is now used by a number of local governments and civil society organizations to advance sustainable integrated area development in towns.",
"### Speaking and Consultancy",
"Perlas has been the resource person and keynote speaker in over 70 global conferences and events in over 20 countries, and over 120 national conferences on a range of topics including culture and societal transformation, integral sustainable development, globalization, technology, corporate [social responsibility](/wiki/Social_responsibility \"Social responsibility\"), science and spirituality, social threefolding, strategic [microfinance](/wiki/Microfinance \"Microfinance\"), direct democracy and others.",
"He has provided consultancy work for several [UN](/wiki/UN \"UN\") agencies, the Philippine Senate, donor agencies and foundations, as well as many other global and national civil society organizations and networks and businesses striving for ecological and social responsibility.",
"As a technical writer and key formulator of Philippine Agenda 21, as well as co\\-chair for the Civil Society of the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development, Office of the President of the Philippines, Perlas was invited to attend several UN meetings including the UN General Assembly on Sustainable Development, UNGASS and the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, 6th Session, as Technical Adviser to the Philippine Delegation to the UN.",
"Perlas is a member of the [Mikhail Gorbachev](/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev \"Mikhail Gorbachev\")’s Commission on Globalization [Commission final report](http://www.worldforum.org/Commission-On-Globalisation/homelinks/CommissionFinalReport.htm)worldforum.org {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121135821/http://www.worldforum.org/Commission\\-On\\-Globalisation/homelinks/CommissionFinalReport.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-21 }}",
"Creative Member, Club of Budapest, Recognized as “highly creative innovators for a social and ecological sustainable world and a culture of peace”.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.clubofbudapest.org/p\\-amb\\-perlas.php \\|title\\=Club of Budapest: Members \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-14 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814162008/http://www.clubofbudapest.org/p\\-amb\\-perlas.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-14 }} Agenda 21 is a program of action into the 21st century for bringing the Earth into a sustainable future. It was adopted by the participating governments of the world in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), otherwise known as the Earth Summit, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992\\.",
"### Training",
"Perlas has conducted hundreds of training sessions in the Philippines and abroad on a wide range of topics convergent with his writings. In this context he has innovated and developed a new framework for advancing integral sustainable development through the harmonious weaving together of profound inner change and radical but peaceful societal transformation. He calls this new framework the Lemniscate Process, which integrates the substance of more than two dozen disciplines and fields, all geared towards unlocking human creativity, enthusiasm and commitment for creating a better world.",
"Nicanor Perlas is part of the faculty at the graduate program of the [Southeast Asian Interdisciplinary Development Institute](/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Interdisciplinary_Development_Institute \"Southeast Asia Interdisciplinary Development Institute\") (SAIDI).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.saidi.edu.ph/faculty?page\\=1\\|title \\= SAIDI Graduate School of Organization Development}} Perlas was a professor at the accredited Doctoral program on Applied Cosmic Anthropology of the [Asian Social Institute](/wiki/Asian_Social_Institute \"Asian Social Institute\"), where he gave in depth theoretical and practical elaborations of the Lemniscate Process. He is also a board member and a resource person for training programs of the Gamot Cogon Institute or GCI, based in Iloilo, Philippines.",
"### Writings",
"Perlas has written over 500 articles, editorials, monographs and books on a range of topics including [globalization](/wiki/Globalization \"Globalization\"), [social threefolding](/wiki/Social_threefolding \"Social threefolding\"), conscious evolution, [civil society](/wiki/Civil_society \"Civil society\"), [multiple intelligence](/wiki/Multiple_intelligence \"Multiple intelligence\"), creativity, cultural power, philosophy of science and biology, [technological singularity](/wiki/Technological_singularity \"Technological singularity\"), [sustainable agriculture](/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture \"Sustainable agriculture\"), [appreciative inquiry](/wiki/Appreciative_inquiry \"Appreciative inquiry\"), [neurophysiology](/wiki/Neurophysiology \"Neurophysiology\") and [consciousness](/wiki/Consciousness \"Consciousness\"), [anthroposophy](/wiki/Anthroposophy \"Anthroposophy\"), good governance, new politics, associative economics, and the integration of inner change and large\\-scale societal transformation.",
"He is the publisher and editor\\-in\\-chief for *TruthForce*!, a national and global internet\\-based news and analysis service which reaches thousands of subscribers and readers in over 60 countries.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.truthforce.info/ \\|title\\=Home \\|website\\=truthforce.info}}",
"Formerly, he was Editor\\-In\\-Chief, *Ikabuhi Newspaper for Micro\\-Entrepreneurs* (34,000 \\+ circulation)",
"His book, *Shaping Globalization: Civil Society, Cultural Power, and Threefolding*,{{Cite book \\|isbn \\= 9719223308\\|title \\= Shaping Globalization: Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding\\|last1 \\= Perlas\\|first1 \\= Nicanor\\|year \\= 2000\\| publisher\\=Center for Alternative Development Initiatives }} has been translated in 9 languages. It is being used in dozens of universities in the Philippines and various parts of the world.",
"### Presidential candidate in 2010",
"On June 17, 2009, Perlas announced his intentions to become one of the candidates for the [presidential election in 2010](/wiki/2010_Philippine_presidential_election \"2010 Philippine presidential election\"). He announced this during a press conference at the [Bantayog ng mga Bayani](/wiki/Bantayog_ng_mga_Bayani \"Bantayog ng mga Bayani\") in Quezon City.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\\-211014/Environmentalist\\-to\\-run\\-for\\-president \\|title\\=Environmentalist to run for president \\- INQUIRER.net, Philippine News for Filipinos \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620071220/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\\-211014/Environmentalist\\-to\\-run\\-for\\-president \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-20 }} He was a Philippine presidential aspirant for the 2010 presidential elections but lost to [Liberal Party](/wiki/Liberal_Party_%28Philippines%29 \"Liberal Party (Philippines)\")'s presidential candidate [Benigno S. Aquino III](/wiki/Benigno_S._Aquino_III \"Benigno S. Aquino III\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Environmentalist to run for president\\|url\\=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\\-211014/Environmentalist\\-to\\-run\\-for\\-president\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]\\|date\\=2009\\-06\\-17\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620071220/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view/20090617\\-211014/Environmentalist\\-to\\-run\\-for\\-president\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-06\\-20}}",
"A month before the Philippines would begin the first automated local and national elections, Perlas petitioned but failed to get the nod of the [Commission on Elections](/wiki/Commission_on_Elections_%28Philippines%29 \"Commission on Elections (Philippines)\") to postpone the polls for 90 days, citing irregularities of COMELEC to assure that all is set for the election to take place.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.mb.com.ph/node/254277/perla\\|title \\= 'Perla' intensifies further into severe storm\\| website\\=\\[\\[Manila Bulletin]] \\|date \\= 19 October 2019}}",
""
] |
Academics
---------
Lynbrook has widely been known for consistently being one of the top 20 academic high schools in [California](/wiki/California "California") for several years.{{cite web \|url\=http://lhs.fuhsd.org/school\_info/API\_history.htm \|title\=Lynbrook High School, San Jose, CA \|access\-date\=2006\-06\-30 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713072828/http://lhs.fuhsd.org/school\_info/API\_history.htm \|archive\-date\=2006\-07\-13 }} Lynbrook's academic reputation has also influenced the real estate market in the surrounding neighborhood, causing home prices to rise higher than other neighborhoods in the San Jose area.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2015}}
As of 2011, Lynbrook High School's base [Academic Performance Index](/wiki/Academic_Performance_Index "Academic Performance Index") (API) is 943, which is 201 points higher than the state average for high schools, and is similar to those of [Saratoga](/wiki/Saratoga_High_School_%28California%29 "Saratoga High School (California)"), [Mission San Jose](/wiki/Mission_San_Jose_High_School "Mission San Jose High School"), and [Monta Vista](/wiki/Monta_Vista_High_School "Monta Vista High School").{{cite web\|url\=http://api.cde.ca.gov/AcntRpt2010/2010GrowthSch.aspx?allcds\=43694684334421\|title\=2010 Growth API School Report \- Lynbrook High\|access\-date\=July 9, 2016}} The API ranking for Lynbrook High School is 19 out of 19, which is the best rating possible for any school, and its similar\-schools API ranking is 9 out of 10\. In 2008, Lynbrook was ranked 6th out of all public schools in the state of California, excluding [magnet schools](/wiki/Magnet_schools "Magnet schools"), based on API scores.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/about\_lhs\|title\=Lynbrook High School: About Lynbrook\|access\-date\=July 9, 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709221525/http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/about\_lhs\|archive\-date\=2016\-07\-09\|url\-status\=dead}} In 2009, [the U.S. News \& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report "U.S. News & World Report") ranked Lynbrook as the 98th best high school in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.usnews.com/articles/education/high\-schools/2009/12/09/americas\-best\-high\-schools\-gold\-medal\-list.html?PageNr\=4\|title\=The Best High Schools in America, Ranked\|access\-date\=July 9, 2016}} In 2007, the school scored a 10 out of 10 in both API Statewide and Similar School ranking.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.greatschools.net/modperl/achievement/ca/5499\#from..Tab \|title\=Lynbrook High School Test Scores \- San Jose, California \- CA \|publisher\=Greatschools.net \|date\=2010\-09\-07 \|access\-date\=2011\-08\-26}}
Lynbrook students consistently receive high marks on standardized [exams](/wiki/Test_%28assessment%29 "Test (assessment)"), including the [SAT](/wiki/SAT "SAT") and [Advanced Placement Exams](/wiki/Advanced_Placement_Program "Advanced Placement Program"). A report of public and private high schools by *[Business Insider](/wiki/Business_Insider "Business Insider")* and *[Niche](/wiki/Niche_%28company%29 "Niche (company)")* ranked the students' average [SAT](/wiki/SAT "SAT")/[ACT](/wiki/ACT_%28test%29 "ACT (test)") scores as 7th nationwide. The *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times "Los Angeles Times")* ranked Lynbrook first among all public high schools in California using a similar metric. On the SAT Reasoning Test, the mean critical reading score for the class of 2012 was 636/800, the mean writing score was 668/800, and the mean mathematics score was 696/800\. The mean composite score on the [SAT](/wiki/SAT "SAT") was a 2000/2400\. Out of 1585 tests taken by 672 students who took Advanced Placement Exams in May 2012, 57% scored a 5, the highest score possible, and 94% of the people passed by scoring a 3 or higher.{{cite web\|url\=http://links.schoolloop.com/link/rd?href\=736c5f6c696e6b6666303163633065623266687474703a2f2f6c796e62726f6f6b2e7363686f6f6c6c6f6f702e636f6d2f66696c652f313231313931303036383933342f313232363139343430363433372f333039383736393436353635353237323939322e706466\|title \= Please Come Back Later}}
Lynbrook produced 62 [National Merit semifinalists](/wiki/National_Merit_Scholarship_Program "National Merit Scholarship Program"), and 93 commended students from the class of 2013, which is the highest proportion based on the size of the graduating class (431\) out of all of the high schools in the [Fremont Union High School District](/wiki/Fremont_Union_High_School_District "Fremont Union High School District").
Between 1999 and 2018, Lynbrook High School students won 37 semi\-finalist and 7 finalist awards in the [Regeneron Science Talent Search](/wiki/Regeneron_Science_Talent_Search "Regeneron Science Talent Search"). This was among the highest number of award winners of all high schools in the country.
93% of Lynbrook students passed the English\-portion of the [CAHSEE](/wiki/California_High_School_Exit_Exam "California High School Exit Exam") and 95% passed the mathematics portion.
Lynbrook has a relatively high proportion of high student GPA's, and the top 10 percent of students have a GPA from 3\.97 to 4\.00\.{{cite web\|url\=https://lynbrook.schoolloop.com/file/1187658036599/1290582956012/9113725324800017537\.pdf\|title\=LHS school profile 2015\-16}} More than half of all Lynbrook graduates attend the [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California "University of California"), making Lynbrook one of the university's largest feeders. Not all students attend four\-year colleges; about one\-fourth attend two\-year colleges such as nearby [De Anza College](/wiki/De_Anza_College "De Anza College") before transferring to other institutions.
In 2009–2010, Lynbrook had a total of 6 semifinalists, two finalists, and one 2nd\-place student from the [Intel Science Talent Search](/wiki/Intel_Science_Talent_Search "Intel Science Talent Search"), one of the most prestigious science competitions in America.
In 2010, Lynbrook had 8 qualifiers for the [USAMO](/wiki/USAMO "USAMO") (USA Mathematical Olympiad) and 8 for the [USAJMO](/wiki/United_States_of_America_Mathematical_Olympiad "United States of America Mathematical Olympiad") (USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad), some of the most prestigious math competitions in the nation.
In 2011, Lynbrook was recognized at a Gala Dinner in Washington DC as an Intel School of Distinction Winner in science. Lynbrook is one of only six schools (two elementary, two middle and two high schools, each for either math or science) in the nation to receive this recognition.
|
[
"Academics\n---------",
"Lynbrook has widely been known for consistently being one of the top 20 academic high schools in [California](/wiki/California \"California\") for several years.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://lhs.fuhsd.org/school\\_info/API\\_history.htm \\|title\\=Lynbrook High School, San Jose, CA \\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-06\\-30 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060713072828/http://lhs.fuhsd.org/school\\_info/API\\_history.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-07\\-13 }} Lynbrook's academic reputation has also influenced the real estate market in the surrounding neighborhood, causing home prices to rise higher than other neighborhoods in the San Jose area.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2015}}",
"As of 2011, Lynbrook High School's base [Academic Performance Index](/wiki/Academic_Performance_Index \"Academic Performance Index\") (API) is 943, which is 201 points higher than the state average for high schools, and is similar to those of [Saratoga](/wiki/Saratoga_High_School_%28California%29 \"Saratoga High School (California)\"), [Mission San Jose](/wiki/Mission_San_Jose_High_School \"Mission San Jose High School\"), and [Monta Vista](/wiki/Monta_Vista_High_School \"Monta Vista High School\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://api.cde.ca.gov/AcntRpt2010/2010GrowthSch.aspx?allcds\\=43694684334421\\|title\\=2010 Growth API School Report \\- Lynbrook High\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2016}} The API ranking for Lynbrook High School is 19 out of 19, which is the best rating possible for any school, and its similar\\-schools API ranking is 9 out of 10\\. In 2008, Lynbrook was ranked 6th out of all public schools in the state of California, excluding [magnet schools](/wiki/Magnet_schools \"Magnet schools\"), based on API scores.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/about\\_lhs\\|title\\=Lynbrook High School: About Lynbrook\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709221525/http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/about\\_lhs\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-07\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In 2009, [the U.S. News \\& World Report](/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report \"U.S. News & World Report\") ranked Lynbrook as the 98th best high school in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.usnews.com/articles/education/high\\-schools/2009/12/09/americas\\-best\\-high\\-schools\\-gold\\-medal\\-list.html?PageNr\\=4\\|title\\=The Best High Schools in America, Ranked\\|access\\-date\\=July 9, 2016}} In 2007, the school scored a 10 out of 10 in both API Statewide and Similar School ranking.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.greatschools.net/modperl/achievement/ca/5499\\#from..Tab \\|title\\=Lynbrook High School Test Scores \\- San Jose, California \\- CA \\|publisher\\=Greatschools.net \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-07 \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-26}}",
"Lynbrook students consistently receive high marks on standardized [exams](/wiki/Test_%28assessment%29 \"Test (assessment)\"), including the [SAT](/wiki/SAT \"SAT\") and [Advanced Placement Exams](/wiki/Advanced_Placement_Program \"Advanced Placement Program\"). A report of public and private high schools by *[Business Insider](/wiki/Business_Insider \"Business Insider\")* and *[Niche](/wiki/Niche_%28company%29 \"Niche (company)\")* ranked the students' average [SAT](/wiki/SAT \"SAT\")/[ACT](/wiki/ACT_%28test%29 \"ACT (test)\") scores as 7th nationwide. The *[Los Angeles Times](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times \"Los Angeles Times\")* ranked Lynbrook first among all public high schools in California using a similar metric. On the SAT Reasoning Test, the mean critical reading score for the class of 2012 was 636/800, the mean writing score was 668/800, and the mean mathematics score was 696/800\\. The mean composite score on the [SAT](/wiki/SAT \"SAT\") was a 2000/2400\\. Out of 1585 tests taken by 672 students who took Advanced Placement Exams in May 2012, 57% scored a 5, the highest score possible, and 94% of the people passed by scoring a 3 or higher.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://links.schoolloop.com/link/rd?href\\=736c5f6c696e6b6666303163633065623266687474703a2f2f6c796e62726f6f6b2e7363686f6f6c6c6f6f702e636f6d2f66696c652f313231313931303036383933342f313232363139343430363433372f333039383736393436353635353237323939322e706466\\|title \\= Please Come Back Later}}",
"Lynbrook produced 62 [National Merit semifinalists](/wiki/National_Merit_Scholarship_Program \"National Merit Scholarship Program\"), and 93 commended students from the class of 2013, which is the highest proportion based on the size of the graduating class (431\\) out of all of the high schools in the [Fremont Union High School District](/wiki/Fremont_Union_High_School_District \"Fremont Union High School District\").",
"Between 1999 and 2018, Lynbrook High School students won 37 semi\\-finalist and 7 finalist awards in the [Regeneron Science Talent Search](/wiki/Regeneron_Science_Talent_Search \"Regeneron Science Talent Search\"). This was among the highest number of award winners of all high schools in the country.",
"93% of Lynbrook students passed the English\\-portion of the [CAHSEE](/wiki/California_High_School_Exit_Exam \"California High School Exit Exam\") and 95% passed the mathematics portion.",
"Lynbrook has a relatively high proportion of high student GPA's, and the top 10 percent of students have a GPA from 3\\.97 to 4\\.00\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://lynbrook.schoolloop.com/file/1187658036599/1290582956012/9113725324800017537\\.pdf\\|title\\=LHS school profile 2015\\-16}} More than half of all Lynbrook graduates attend the [University of California](/wiki/University_of_California \"University of California\"), making Lynbrook one of the university's largest feeders. Not all students attend four\\-year colleges; about one\\-fourth attend two\\-year colleges such as nearby [De Anza College](/wiki/De_Anza_College \"De Anza College\") before transferring to other institutions.",
"In 2009–2010, Lynbrook had a total of 6 semifinalists, two finalists, and one 2nd\\-place student from the [Intel Science Talent Search](/wiki/Intel_Science_Talent_Search \"Intel Science Talent Search\"), one of the most prestigious science competitions in America.",
"In 2010, Lynbrook had 8 qualifiers for the [USAMO](/wiki/USAMO \"USAMO\") (USA Mathematical Olympiad) and 8 for the [USAJMO](/wiki/United_States_of_America_Mathematical_Olympiad \"United States of America Mathematical Olympiad\") (USA Junior Mathematical Olympiad), some of the most prestigious math competitions in the nation.",
"In 2011, Lynbrook was recognized at a Gala Dinner in Washington DC as an Intel School of Distinction Winner in science. Lynbrook is one of only six schools (two elementary, two middle and two high schools, each for either math or science) in the nation to receive this recognition.",
""
] |
Athletics and extracurriculars
------------------------------
{{ref improve section\|date\=December 2023}}
### Sports
Lynbrook is a member of the [California Interscholastic Federation](/wiki/California_Interscholastic_Federation "California Interscholastic Federation"). It offers a total of 16 distinct varsity and JV sports, with sports split into two different seasons for girls and boys (such as tennis and volleyball) counted as one sport.[Lynbrook High School, San Jose, CA](http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/athletics/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505075029/http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/athletics/ \|date\=2007\-05\-05 }}
Lynbrook has confirmed employment of the controversial judge in the [Brock Turner](/wiki/Brock_Turner "Brock Turner") case, Mr. [Michael Aaron Persky](/wiki/Michael_Aaron_Persky "Michael Aaron Persky"), as the high school's new coach of the Junior Varsity Girls Tennis Team. Persky was recalled as a judge by Santa Clara County voters in 2018 for his handling of the Turner case (the first judge to be recalled in California since 1932\).
The school made the following statement regarding Persky's employment:
"Mr. Persky is in his first year as an athletic coach in our District. He applied for the open coaching position over the summer and successfully completed all of the District’s hiring requirements before starting as a coach, including a fingerprint background check. He was a highly qualified applicant, having attended several tennis coaching clinics for youth and holds a high rating from the United States Tennis Association."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Judge\-Aaron\-Persky\-Brock\-Turner\-Stanford\-Tennis\-Coach\-San\-Jose\-559956561\.html\|title \= Judge in Brock Turner Case Hired as Tennis Coach at Lynbrook High School}}
### ASB
Lynbrook ASB, or Leadership, consists of 7 ASB Officers, 25 commissioners, and 21 class officers. ASB officers and commissioners focus on schoolwide projects. Class officers plan various class events such as Homecoming, rallies, proms, and fundraisers. The Freshmen, Sophomores, and Juniors have 5 officers, and the Seniors have 6\. ASB also serves as a liaison for school administration, Legislative Council, FUHSD Intra\-District Council (IDC), and parent and community organizations like PTSA and School Site Council (SSC).
#### Tech
The Tech commission brings innovative technologies to Lynbrook, documents major school events, and manages all technology present in the promotion and execution of ASB events. In order to spread awareness of events and promote our school, the Tech Commissioners take photos and videos of ASB events including rallies, brunch activities, and dances. They help publicize events, manage the Student Life portion of the LHS website, and work with other technical aspects such as filming and operating the sound system. Tech had also DJed a few of LHS dances in the last few years.
#### Community Link
Community Link intersects the responsibilities of overseeing organizations on Lynbrook's campus and focuses on greater outreach to the community. Commissioners are responsible for creating a platform to facilitate communication between the school's student body, administration, as well as groups outside in the community.
#### Public Relations
The PR Commission promotes school\-wide events, increases transparency, and informs the student body through ASB Videos. Public Relations Commissioners provide much\-needed service to our student body by promoting ASB events and activities including homecoming, dances, spirit weeks, etc. through announcements, posters, flyers, stickers and other creative ways.
#### Recognition
Recognition Commissioners help promote a positive and supportive school environment by planning annual events like Kindness Week, Finals Campus Wellness Week, and the Coffeehouse Talent Show. Recognition aims to appreciate all students and teachers for their hard work and dedication through awards like student VIP Vikings and Staff Appreciation Week, and they seek to recognize underrepresented groups and individuals on campus. In addition to celebrating faculty and student accomplishments, this commission runs the Facebook and Instagram page known as Humans of Lynbrook High, featuring interviews from students and staff.
#### Social
Social commissioners are in charge of overseeing, publicizing, and planning events, such as school dances, movie nights, and the InDesign fashion show, for students to get together and socialize.
#### Spirit
Spirit Commissioners play the biggest role in rallies by organizing the themes, games, script, and presentation of sports teams. During the rallies, they may have the center stage as MCs. They also run several other events throughout the year aiming to increase student participation. During other events, they may introduce activities, classes, speakers, etc. They work closely with Tech in video production and will work to promote student involvement in all activities. Examples of this include Homecoming Week as well as Junior/Senior Prom.
#### IDC
The Intra\-District Council promotes positive relationships between students and ASBs across the FUHSD district. The IDC represents the voices of Lynbrook students and takes inspiration from other schools to better Lynbrook and every student’s Lynbrook experience. The IDC for each school consists of two representatives and the ASB President.
#### Class Officers
Class Officers are representatives elected by members of their class to lead and serve their grade level. Class Officers plan various events and initiatives such as Homecoming, fundraisers, and more. Each grade consists of 1 President, 2 VPs (3 for the senior class), 1 Secretary and 1 Treasurer
### Studio 74
Lynbrook's theater department, LHS Studio 74 typically performs 2 plays per year.
#### Drama Club
Studio 74's drama club is a subgroup within the theater department, which hosts meetings every friday in room 74 about acting, tech, and directing.
#### Advanced Drama Honors
Studio 74's honors class is an in\-school activity, but meets outside of school hours. Honors students not only participate in the aforementioned productions, but write their own plays, musicals, and short films that they then perform or present during an end of the year event called the drama awards.
|
[
"Athletics and extracurriculars\n------------------------------",
"{{ref improve section\\|date\\=December 2023}}\n### Sports",
"Lynbrook is a member of the [California Interscholastic Federation](/wiki/California_Interscholastic_Federation \"California Interscholastic Federation\"). It offers a total of 16 distinct varsity and JV sports, with sports split into two different seasons for girls and boys (such as tennis and volleyball) counted as one sport.[Lynbrook High School, San Jose, CA](http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/athletics/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070505075029/http://www.lhs.fuhsd.org/athletics/ \\|date\\=2007\\-05\\-05 }}\nLynbrook has confirmed employment of the controversial judge in the [Brock Turner](/wiki/Brock_Turner \"Brock Turner\") case, Mr. [Michael Aaron Persky](/wiki/Michael_Aaron_Persky \"Michael Aaron Persky\"), as the high school's new coach of the Junior Varsity Girls Tennis Team. Persky was recalled as a judge by Santa Clara County voters in 2018 for his handling of the Turner case (the first judge to be recalled in California since 1932\\).",
"The school made the following statement regarding Persky's employment:\n\"Mr. Persky is in his first year as an athletic coach in our District. He applied for the open coaching position over the summer and successfully completed all of the District’s hiring requirements before starting as a coach, including a fingerprint background check. He was a highly qualified applicant, having attended several tennis coaching clinics for youth and holds a high rating from the United States Tennis Association.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Judge\\-Aaron\\-Persky\\-Brock\\-Turner\\-Stanford\\-Tennis\\-Coach\\-San\\-Jose\\-559956561\\.html\\|title \\= Judge in Brock Turner Case Hired as Tennis Coach at Lynbrook High School}}",
"### ASB",
"Lynbrook ASB, or Leadership, consists of 7 ASB Officers, 25 commissioners, and 21 class officers. ASB officers and commissioners focus on schoolwide projects. Class officers plan various class events such as Homecoming, rallies, proms, and fundraisers. The Freshmen, Sophomores, and Juniors have 5 officers, and the Seniors have 6\\. ASB also serves as a liaison for school administration, Legislative Council, FUHSD Intra\\-District Council (IDC), and parent and community organizations like PTSA and School Site Council (SSC).",
"#### Tech",
"The Tech commission brings innovative technologies to Lynbrook, documents major school events, and manages all technology present in the promotion and execution of ASB events. In order to spread awareness of events and promote our school, the Tech Commissioners take photos and videos of ASB events including rallies, brunch activities, and dances. They help publicize events, manage the Student Life portion of the LHS website, and work with other technical aspects such as filming and operating the sound system. Tech had also DJed a few of LHS dances in the last few years.",
"#### Community Link",
"Community Link intersects the responsibilities of overseeing organizations on Lynbrook's campus and focuses on greater outreach to the community. Commissioners are responsible for creating a platform to facilitate communication between the school's student body, administration, as well as groups outside in the community.",
"#### Public Relations",
"The PR Commission promotes school\\-wide events, increases transparency, and informs the student body through ASB Videos. Public Relations Commissioners provide much\\-needed service to our student body by promoting ASB events and activities including homecoming, dances, spirit weeks, etc. through announcements, posters, flyers, stickers and other creative ways.",
"#### Recognition",
"Recognition Commissioners help promote a positive and supportive school environment by planning annual events like Kindness Week, Finals Campus Wellness Week, and the Coffeehouse Talent Show. Recognition aims to appreciate all students and teachers for their hard work and dedication through awards like student VIP Vikings and Staff Appreciation Week, and they seek to recognize underrepresented groups and individuals on campus. In addition to celebrating faculty and student accomplishments, this commission runs the Facebook and Instagram page known as Humans of Lynbrook High, featuring interviews from students and staff.",
"#### Social",
"Social commissioners are in charge of overseeing, publicizing, and planning events, such as school dances, movie nights, and the InDesign fashion show, for students to get together and socialize.",
"#### Spirit",
"Spirit Commissioners play the biggest role in rallies by organizing the themes, games, script, and presentation of sports teams. During the rallies, they may have the center stage as MCs. They also run several other events throughout the year aiming to increase student participation. During other events, they may introduce activities, classes, speakers, etc. They work closely with Tech in video production and will work to promote student involvement in all activities. Examples of this include Homecoming Week as well as Junior/Senior Prom.",
"#### IDC",
"The Intra\\-District Council promotes positive relationships between students and ASBs across the FUHSD district. The IDC represents the voices of Lynbrook students and takes inspiration from other schools to better Lynbrook and every student’s Lynbrook experience. The IDC for each school consists of two representatives and the ASB President.",
"#### Class Officers",
"Class Officers are representatives elected by members of their class to lead and serve their grade level. Class Officers plan various events and initiatives such as Homecoming, fundraisers, and more. Each grade consists of 1 President, 2 VPs (3 for the senior class), 1 Secretary and 1 Treasurer",
"### Studio 74",
"Lynbrook's theater department, LHS Studio 74 typically performs 2 plays per year.",
"#### Drama Club",
"Studio 74's drama club is a subgroup within the theater department, which hosts meetings every friday in room 74 about acting, tech, and directing.",
"#### Advanced Drama Honors",
"Studio 74's honors class is an in\\-school activity, but meets outside of school hours. Honors students not only participate in the aforementioned productions, but write their own plays, musicals, and short films that they then perform or present during an end of the year event called the drama awards.",
""
] |
### ASB
Lynbrook ASB, or Leadership, consists of 7 ASB Officers, 25 commissioners, and 21 class officers. ASB officers and commissioners focus on schoolwide projects. Class officers plan various class events such as Homecoming, rallies, proms, and fundraisers. The Freshmen, Sophomores, and Juniors have 5 officers, and the Seniors have 6\. ASB also serves as a liaison for school administration, Legislative Council, FUHSD Intra\-District Council (IDC), and parent and community organizations like PTSA and School Site Council (SSC).
#### Tech
The Tech commission brings innovative technologies to Lynbrook, documents major school events, and manages all technology present in the promotion and execution of ASB events. In order to spread awareness of events and promote our school, the Tech Commissioners take photos and videos of ASB events including rallies, brunch activities, and dances. They help publicize events, manage the Student Life portion of the LHS website, and work with other technical aspects such as filming and operating the sound system. Tech had also DJed a few of LHS dances in the last few years.
#### Community Link
Community Link intersects the responsibilities of overseeing organizations on Lynbrook's campus and focuses on greater outreach to the community. Commissioners are responsible for creating a platform to facilitate communication between the school's student body, administration, as well as groups outside in the community.
#### Public Relations
The PR Commission promotes school\-wide events, increases transparency, and informs the student body through ASB Videos. Public Relations Commissioners provide much\-needed service to our student body by promoting ASB events and activities including homecoming, dances, spirit weeks, etc. through announcements, posters, flyers, stickers and other creative ways.
#### Recognition
Recognition Commissioners help promote a positive and supportive school environment by planning annual events like Kindness Week, Finals Campus Wellness Week, and the Coffeehouse Talent Show. Recognition aims to appreciate all students and teachers for their hard work and dedication through awards like student VIP Vikings and Staff Appreciation Week, and they seek to recognize underrepresented groups and individuals on campus. In addition to celebrating faculty and student accomplishments, this commission runs the Facebook and Instagram page known as Humans of Lynbrook High, featuring interviews from students and staff.
#### Social
Social commissioners are in charge of overseeing, publicizing, and planning events, such as school dances, movie nights, and the InDesign fashion show, for students to get together and socialize.
#### Spirit
Spirit Commissioners play the biggest role in rallies by organizing the themes, games, script, and presentation of sports teams. During the rallies, they may have the center stage as MCs. They also run several other events throughout the year aiming to increase student participation. During other events, they may introduce activities, classes, speakers, etc. They work closely with Tech in video production and will work to promote student involvement in all activities. Examples of this include Homecoming Week as well as Junior/Senior Prom.
#### IDC
The Intra\-District Council promotes positive relationships between students and ASBs across the FUHSD district. The IDC represents the voices of Lynbrook students and takes inspiration from other schools to better Lynbrook and every student’s Lynbrook experience. The IDC for each school consists of two representatives and the ASB President.
#### Class Officers
Class Officers are representatives elected by members of their class to lead and serve their grade level. Class Officers plan various events and initiatives such as Homecoming, fundraisers, and more. Each grade consists of 1 President, 2 VPs (3 for the senior class), 1 Secretary and 1 Treasurer
|
[
"### ASB",
"Lynbrook ASB, or Leadership, consists of 7 ASB Officers, 25 commissioners, and 21 class officers. ASB officers and commissioners focus on schoolwide projects. Class officers plan various class events such as Homecoming, rallies, proms, and fundraisers. The Freshmen, Sophomores, and Juniors have 5 officers, and the Seniors have 6\\. ASB also serves as a liaison for school administration, Legislative Council, FUHSD Intra\\-District Council (IDC), and parent and community organizations like PTSA and School Site Council (SSC).",
"#### Tech",
"The Tech commission brings innovative technologies to Lynbrook, documents major school events, and manages all technology present in the promotion and execution of ASB events. In order to spread awareness of events and promote our school, the Tech Commissioners take photos and videos of ASB events including rallies, brunch activities, and dances. They help publicize events, manage the Student Life portion of the LHS website, and work with other technical aspects such as filming and operating the sound system. Tech had also DJed a few of LHS dances in the last few years.",
"#### Community Link",
"Community Link intersects the responsibilities of overseeing organizations on Lynbrook's campus and focuses on greater outreach to the community. Commissioners are responsible for creating a platform to facilitate communication between the school's student body, administration, as well as groups outside in the community.",
"#### Public Relations",
"The PR Commission promotes school\\-wide events, increases transparency, and informs the student body through ASB Videos. Public Relations Commissioners provide much\\-needed service to our student body by promoting ASB events and activities including homecoming, dances, spirit weeks, etc. through announcements, posters, flyers, stickers and other creative ways.",
"#### Recognition",
"Recognition Commissioners help promote a positive and supportive school environment by planning annual events like Kindness Week, Finals Campus Wellness Week, and the Coffeehouse Talent Show. Recognition aims to appreciate all students and teachers for their hard work and dedication through awards like student VIP Vikings and Staff Appreciation Week, and they seek to recognize underrepresented groups and individuals on campus. In addition to celebrating faculty and student accomplishments, this commission runs the Facebook and Instagram page known as Humans of Lynbrook High, featuring interviews from students and staff.",
"#### Social",
"Social commissioners are in charge of overseeing, publicizing, and planning events, such as school dances, movie nights, and the InDesign fashion show, for students to get together and socialize.",
"#### Spirit",
"Spirit Commissioners play the biggest role in rallies by organizing the themes, games, script, and presentation of sports teams. During the rallies, they may have the center stage as MCs. They also run several other events throughout the year aiming to increase student participation. During other events, they may introduce activities, classes, speakers, etc. They work closely with Tech in video production and will work to promote student involvement in all activities. Examples of this include Homecoming Week as well as Junior/Senior Prom.",
"#### IDC",
"The Intra\\-District Council promotes positive relationships between students and ASBs across the FUHSD district. The IDC represents the voices of Lynbrook students and takes inspiration from other schools to better Lynbrook and every student’s Lynbrook experience. The IDC for each school consists of two representatives and the ASB President.",
"#### Class Officers",
"Class Officers are representatives elected by members of their class to lead and serve their grade level. Class Officers plan various events and initiatives such as Homecoming, fundraisers, and more. Each grade consists of 1 President, 2 VPs (3 for the senior class), 1 Secretary and 1 Treasurer",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Stella Weiner was born in [Tipton, Missouri](/wiki/Tipton%2C_Missouri "Tipton, Missouri"), the daughter of Joseph Weiner, a druggist who owned the pharmacy on 28th and Washington Avenue, St Louis, for many years. When she was 7 years old, her family moved to St. Louis, where she began her music lessons with Mr. Eliling, under whose tuition she remained for seven years. Going through the grammar and high schools, she also took lessons on the organ during that time from him. At the age of eighteen this she studied for a year under A. Epstein, and a course of harmony for five seasons with Ernest Kroeger. She never went abroad to study, never gone away from St. Louis for any instruction in her musical education, believing that she could be guided in this development just as well by resident instructors as by those living abroad.
Stella Weiner made her first appearance in public at the age of nine years in St. Louis, at the piano store of P. G. Anton, the father of the violoncellist, P. G. Anton, Jr. On Monday and Wednesday evenings of each week the music store of Anton, then located at 308\-10 North Broadway, St. Louis, and later at 11th and Olive Streets, was the gathering place for the men and women who were largely instrumental in putting St. Louis on the musical footing and giving it the prestige which later held in the musical world. Weiner accompanied by her mother and attended these Monday\-night musicales, where she was recognized and encouraged for her unusual ability. At these Monday musicales at the Anton Store all were welcome who wished to take part and enjoyed music. Those who wanted to play were cordially received. There was much string music with piano accompaniment, trios, quartettes, quintettes, etc. Among those taking part prominently were Louis Hammerstein, G. Herrich, Ernst Spiering, Egmont Froelich, John Boehmen, [Anna Graser Strothotte](/wiki/Anna_Graser_Strothotte "Anna Graser Strothotte") and her son, [Maurice Arnold Strothotte](/wiki/Maurice_Arnold_Strothotte "Maurice Arnold Strothotte"); [Robert Bernays](/wiki/Robert_Bernays "Robert Bernays"), who later married a sister of the bandmaster, Sousa, and resided in Washington until his death; Frank Geeks, Sr. and Jr.; Mr. Ehling, Lena Anton, and others.
In 1901 she married David Kriegshaber, a native of Kentucky. He was engaged in the wholesale liquor business. They had two daughters: Edith K. Felsenthanl and Amy K. Lears.
Since its organization Kriegshaber was a member of the Tuesday Musical Club, which was the first piano club of any importance existing in St. Louis. Later the St. Louis Musical Club was organized. These two progressed for some time when they united under the name of the Union Musical, and under that flourished for several years, until it was changed again to the St. Louis Musical Club, of which Kriegshaber was the president. One of the objects of the organization was to encourage and aid amateur musicians, and assist them in developing talent that might lead them to a successful career. Once or twice each year they brought artists to give concerts and for many years the incomparable [Kneisel Quartette](/wiki/Kneisel_Quartette "Kneisel Quartette") performed in St. Louis under their auspices. Once a month the club held its meeting in the Musical Arts Building. Mrs. Paul Tupper and Mrs. George Frankel each held the office of the presidency.
Kriegshaber rendered selections for the popular concerts given by the Symphony Society, and for the Morning Choral. In 1912, she played with the Morning Choral orchestra, but before that her programme consisted only of solos. She also gave numbers for the Union Club, and for Ernest Kroeger's recitals; in 1912 the lectures were on *Tristan and Isolde*. In 1913 an explanation of Wagner's opera, *Die Walkiire*, which was played as duos on two pianos to illustrate the various motifs. This opera musicale was given for the benefit of the Smith College Club Fund, which was to be used in endowing chairs in the departments of the college work at the institution.
Kriegshaber was the organist for the King's Highway Presbyterian Church. One summer she acted as substitute at St. John's Church. She also gave private lessons at her home. In the Ladies' Friday Musical Club she took a very active part. The meetings took place, as the name indicates, on Friday of each week at the home of someone of the members. The membership was composed almost entirely of Jewish women.{{cite book\|last1\=Ehrlich\|first1\=Walter\|title\=Zion in the Valley: The Jewish Community of St. Louis, Volume 2\|date\=2002\|publisher\=University of Missouri Press\|page\=492\|isbn\=9780826262646\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LkA3uZy8x3QC\&pg\=PA492\|accessdate\=27 January 2018}} The club was organized in 1884 and was always successfully conducted, numbering among its members many of the best musicians of St. Louis. The charter members of the Friday club were Mrs. Louis Hirsch, Mrs. J. P. Weil, Mrs. Adolph Drey and Mrs. Joseph Glaser. The club numbered about twenty\-five members, and their work showed the skill of professionals.{{cite book\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Anne\|title\=Notable women of St. Louis, 1914\|date\=1914\|publisher\=St. Louis, Woodward\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/notablewomenofst00john/page/132 132]\|url\=https://archive.org/details/notablewomenofst00john\|accessdate\=17 August 2017}}{{PD\-notice}} In 1938 Kriegshaber was included in *Who's Who in American Jewry*. In 1962, at 83 years old, Kriegshaber participated to the Friday Musical Club 80 years celebrations.{{cite journal\|title\=80 Years of Good Music by Friday Musical \- 01 Nov 1962, Thu • Page 64\|journal\=St. Louis Post\-Dispatch\|date\=1962\|page\=64\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902703/st\_louis\_postdispatch/\|accessdate\=27 January 2018}}
In 1916, she performed as soloist with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra at the University Auditorium, conductor Max Zach.{{cite journal\|title\=Woman will be soloist \- 06 Mar 1916, Mon • Page 1\|journal\=The Evening Missourian\|date\=1916\|page\=1\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902676/the\_evening\_missourian/\|accessdate\=27 January 2018}}
She died on April 3, 1966\.{{cite journal\|title\=Deaths\|journal\=St. Louis Post\-Dispatch\|date\=April 4, 1966\|page\=16\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902738/st\_louis\_postdispatch/\|accessdate\=27 January 2018}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Stella Weiner was born in [Tipton, Missouri](/wiki/Tipton%2C_Missouri \"Tipton, Missouri\"), the daughter of Joseph Weiner, a druggist who owned the pharmacy on 28th and Washington Avenue, St Louis, for many years. When she was 7 years old, her family moved to St. Louis, where she began her music lessons with Mr. Eliling, under whose tuition she remained for seven years. Going through the grammar and high schools, she also took lessons on the organ during that time from him. At the age of eighteen this she studied for a year under A. Epstein, and a course of harmony for five seasons with Ernest Kroeger. She never went abroad to study, never gone away from St. Louis for any instruction in her musical education, believing that she could be guided in this development just as well by resident instructors as by those living abroad.",
"Stella Weiner made her first appearance in public at the age of nine years in St. Louis, at the piano store of P. G. Anton, the father of the violoncellist, P. G. Anton, Jr. On Monday and Wednesday evenings of each week the music store of Anton, then located at 308\\-10 North Broadway, St. Louis, and later at 11th and Olive Streets, was the gathering place for the men and women who were largely instrumental in putting St. Louis on the musical footing and giving it the prestige which later held in the musical world. Weiner accompanied by her mother and attended these Monday\\-night musicales, where she was recognized and encouraged for her unusual ability. At these Monday musicales at the Anton Store all were welcome who wished to take part and enjoyed music. Those who wanted to play were cordially received. There was much string music with piano accompaniment, trios, quartettes, quintettes, etc. Among those taking part prominently were Louis Hammerstein, G. Herrich, Ernst Spiering, Egmont Froelich, John Boehmen, [Anna Graser Strothotte](/wiki/Anna_Graser_Strothotte \"Anna Graser Strothotte\") and her son, [Maurice Arnold Strothotte](/wiki/Maurice_Arnold_Strothotte \"Maurice Arnold Strothotte\"); [Robert Bernays](/wiki/Robert_Bernays \"Robert Bernays\"), who later married a sister of the bandmaster, Sousa, and resided in Washington until his death; Frank Geeks, Sr. and Jr.; Mr. Ehling, Lena Anton, and others.",
"In 1901 she married David Kriegshaber, a native of Kentucky. He was engaged in the wholesale liquor business. They had two daughters: Edith K. Felsenthanl and Amy K. Lears.",
"Since its organization Kriegshaber was a member of the Tuesday Musical Club, which was the first piano club of any importance existing in St. Louis. Later the St. Louis Musical Club was organized. These two progressed for some time when they united under the name of the Union Musical, and under that flourished for several years, until it was changed again to the St. Louis Musical Club, of which Kriegshaber was the president. One of the objects of the organization was to encourage and aid amateur musicians, and assist them in developing talent that might lead them to a successful career. Once or twice each year they brought artists to give concerts and for many years the incomparable [Kneisel Quartette](/wiki/Kneisel_Quartette \"Kneisel Quartette\") performed in St. Louis under their auspices. Once a month the club held its meeting in the Musical Arts Building. Mrs. Paul Tupper and Mrs. George Frankel each held the office of the presidency.",
"Kriegshaber rendered selections for the popular concerts given by the Symphony Society, and for the Morning Choral. In 1912, she played with the Morning Choral orchestra, but before that her programme consisted only of solos. She also gave numbers for the Union Club, and for Ernest Kroeger's recitals; in 1912 the lectures were on *Tristan and Isolde*. In 1913 an explanation of Wagner's opera, *Die Walkiire*, which was played as duos on two pianos to illustrate the various motifs. This opera musicale was given for the benefit of the Smith College Club Fund, which was to be used in endowing chairs in the departments of the college work at the institution.",
"Kriegshaber was the organist for the King's Highway Presbyterian Church. One summer she acted as substitute at St. John's Church. She also gave private lessons at her home. In the Ladies' Friday Musical Club she took a very active part. The meetings took place, as the name indicates, on Friday of each week at the home of someone of the members. The membership was composed almost entirely of Jewish women.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Ehrlich\\|first1\\=Walter\\|title\\=Zion in the Valley: The Jewish Community of St. Louis, Volume 2\\|date\\=2002\\|publisher\\=University of Missouri Press\\|page\\=492\\|isbn\\=9780826262646\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LkA3uZy8x3QC\\&pg\\=PA492\\|accessdate\\=27 January 2018}} The club was organized in 1884 and was always successfully conducted, numbering among its members many of the best musicians of St. Louis. The charter members of the Friday club were Mrs. Louis Hirsch, Mrs. J. P. Weil, Mrs. Adolph Drey and Mrs. Joseph Glaser. The club numbered about twenty\\-five members, and their work showed the skill of professionals.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Anne\\|title\\=Notable women of St. Louis, 1914\\|date\\=1914\\|publisher\\=St. Louis, Woodward\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/notablewomenofst00john/page/132 132]\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/notablewomenofst00john\\|accessdate\\=17 August 2017}}{{PD\\-notice}} In 1938 Kriegshaber was included in *Who's Who in American Jewry*. In 1962, at 83 years old, Kriegshaber participated to the Friday Musical Club 80 years celebrations.{{cite journal\\|title\\=80 Years of Good Music by Friday Musical \\- 01 Nov 1962, Thu • Page 64\\|journal\\=St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch\\|date\\=1962\\|page\\=64\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902703/st\\_louis\\_postdispatch/\\|accessdate\\=27 January 2018}}",
"In 1916, she performed as soloist with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra at the University Auditorium, conductor Max Zach.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Woman will be soloist \\- 06 Mar 1916, Mon • Page 1\\|journal\\=The Evening Missourian\\|date\\=1916\\|page\\=1\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902676/the\\_evening\\_missourian/\\|accessdate\\=27 January 2018}}",
"She died on April 3, 1966\\.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Deaths\\|journal\\=St. Louis Post\\-Dispatch\\|date\\=April 4, 1966\\|page\\=16\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/16902738/st\\_louis\\_postdispatch/\\|accessdate\\=27 January 2018}}",
""
] |
Festival programme
------------------
### Official Selection Competition
The two in\-competition, official sections are the Tiantan and the Forward Future.{{cite web \|title\=14th Beijing International Film Festival – Call for Entry 2024 \|url\=https://asianfilmfestivals.com/2023/11/21/beijing\-international\-film\-festival\-call\-for\-entry\-2024/ \|website\=Asian Film Festivals \|access\-date\=4 April 2024}}
#### Tiantan Award
The "Tiantan Award" was established in 2012 and began its selection process in 2013\. The award adheres to the value concept of “unity of man and nature, beauty shared by all.” It is evaluated with an international perspective, standardized procedures, and professional standards. The judges are composed of masters and celebrities from the international film industry. The award aims to discover and collect the latest and best works worldwide, encourage film diversity, and serve as the highest award for the Beijing International Film Festival.
The design concept of the Tiantan Award trophy originates from the core value concept of “unity of man and nature, beauty shared by all”. The overall height of the trophy is 45 cm, with a base height of 9 cm and a cup height of 36 cm, both multiples of “9”, which symbolizes the highest honor of the Tiantan Award. The homophonic sound of “9” means “long\-lasting” and means people admire for auspiciousness.
#### Forward Future
The "Forward Future" section was established in 2014 to encourage innovative spirit in film\-making, stimulating creativity in film art; discovering and promoting new filmmakers; capturing trends and tendencies in international film; showcase rich and diverse cultural connotations in film art; enhance cooperation and communication among young filmmakers from various countries. This section is dedicated to encouraging new directors and originality. The films selected must be the director's first or second feature\-length films.
### Beijing Film Panorama
The Beijing Film Panorama is one of the most popular sections for moviegoers at the Beijing International Film Festival. Hundreds of domestic and foreign films are screened at dozens of participating cinemas in Beijing during this event. It includes over ten sub\-sections, such as Jury Chairman, Classic Restoration, Tribute to Filmmakers, Focus Filmmakers, Global Vision, Chinese Power, etc., and nearly a hundred main creative meetings for audiences. It is one of the largest international film festivals in China.
### Beijing Film Market
The Beijing Film Market was formerly known as the “Film Market”. Since 2019 it has been renamed as the “Beijing Film Market”. It includes sections such as investment promotion exhibitions, project investment financing, industry dialogues, special events, signing ceremonies, film promotion meetings, etc., with a theme of “displaying, promoting, communicating, and trading”. It builds three significant platforms for “film elements”, “project investment” and “copyright trading”, covering the entire film industry chain to promote the development of the film industry. It is one of Asia’s most active film markets.
### Theme Forum
The Beijing Planning · Theme Forum aims to promote international exchanges on film concepts, art, and technology; enhance China’s understanding and reference to the global film industry; promote domestic and foreign film cooperation; explore the latest developments in film art and technology.
#### Film Master Class
The Film Master Class invites outstanding filmmakers from China and abroad to give lectures on topics such as their experience with filmmaking, their ideas on filmmaking, opportunities and challenges in film development, etc., share their most authentic career paths and most valuable life experiences, inherit the precious spiritual wealth of images and stories. It serves as a bridge between filmmakers and moviegoers.
### Beijing College Student Film Festival
The [Beijing College Student Film Festival](/wiki/Beijing_College_Student_Film_Festival "Beijing College Student Film Festival") was founded in 1993\. It aims to inspire college students’ attention to Chinese films; discover young talents among college students in film theory and criticism; promote talent cultivation reserve for Chinese film theory talents; develop a Chinese film criticism career. Since its establishment in 2011 by Beijing International Film Festival, it has been merged into one of its parallel sections.
|
[
"Festival programme\n------------------",
"### Official Selection Competition",
"The two in\\-competition, official sections are the Tiantan and the Forward Future.{{cite web \\|title\\=14th Beijing International Film Festival – Call for Entry 2024 \\|url\\=https://asianfilmfestivals.com/2023/11/21/beijing\\-international\\-film\\-festival\\-call\\-for\\-entry\\-2024/ \\|website\\=Asian Film Festivals \\|access\\-date\\=4 April 2024}}",
"#### Tiantan Award",
"The \"Tiantan Award\" was established in 2012 and began its selection process in 2013\\. The award adheres to the value concept of “unity of man and nature, beauty shared by all.” It is evaluated with an international perspective, standardized procedures, and professional standards. The judges are composed of masters and celebrities from the international film industry. The award aims to discover and collect the latest and best works worldwide, encourage film diversity, and serve as the highest award for the Beijing International Film Festival.",
"The design concept of the Tiantan Award trophy originates from the core value concept of “unity of man and nature, beauty shared by all”. The overall height of the trophy is 45 cm, with a base height of 9 cm and a cup height of 36 cm, both multiples of “9”, which symbolizes the highest honor of the Tiantan Award. The homophonic sound of “9” means “long\\-lasting” and means people admire for auspiciousness.",
"#### Forward Future",
"The \"Forward Future\" section was established in 2014 to encourage innovative spirit in film\\-making, stimulating creativity in film art; discovering and promoting new filmmakers; capturing trends and tendencies in international film; showcase rich and diverse cultural connotations in film art; enhance cooperation and communication among young filmmakers from various countries. This section is dedicated to encouraging new directors and originality. The films selected must be the director's first or second feature\\-length films.",
"### Beijing Film Panorama",
"The Beijing Film Panorama is one of the most popular sections for moviegoers at the Beijing International Film Festival. Hundreds of domestic and foreign films are screened at dozens of participating cinemas in Beijing during this event. It includes over ten sub\\-sections, such as Jury Chairman, Classic Restoration, Tribute to Filmmakers, Focus Filmmakers, Global Vision, Chinese Power, etc., and nearly a hundred main creative meetings for audiences. It is one of the largest international film festivals in China.",
"### Beijing Film Market",
"The Beijing Film Market was formerly known as the “Film Market”. Since 2019 it has been renamed as the “Beijing Film Market”. It includes sections such as investment promotion exhibitions, project investment financing, industry dialogues, special events, signing ceremonies, film promotion meetings, etc., with a theme of “displaying, promoting, communicating, and trading”. It builds three significant platforms for “film elements”, “project investment” and “copyright trading”, covering the entire film industry chain to promote the development of the film industry. It is one of Asia’s most active film markets.",
"### Theme Forum",
"The Beijing Planning · Theme Forum aims to promote international exchanges on film concepts, art, and technology; enhance China’s understanding and reference to the global film industry; promote domestic and foreign film cooperation; explore the latest developments in film art and technology.",
"#### Film Master Class",
"The Film Master Class invites outstanding filmmakers from China and abroad to give lectures on topics such as their experience with filmmaking, their ideas on filmmaking, opportunities and challenges in film development, etc., share their most authentic career paths and most valuable life experiences, inherit the precious spiritual wealth of images and stories. It serves as a bridge between filmmakers and moviegoers.",
"### Beijing College Student Film Festival",
"The [Beijing College Student Film Festival](/wiki/Beijing_College_Student_Film_Festival \"Beijing College Student Film Festival\") was founded in 1993\\. It aims to inspire college students’ attention to Chinese films; discover young talents among college students in film theory and criticism; promote talent cultivation reserve for Chinese film theory talents; develop a Chinese film criticism career. Since its establishment in 2011 by Beijing International Film Festival, it has been merged into one of its parallel sections.",
""
] |
Club career
-----------
### Brazil
Menezes began his professional club career at [Madureira EC](/wiki/Madureira_Esporte_Clube "Madureira Esporte Clube") in 1996 and appeared in [Campeonato Carioca Série B1](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca_S%C3%A9rie_B1 "Campeonato Carioca Série B1"). He later moved to another Brazilian team [America FC Rio](/wiki/America_Football_Club_%28Rio_de_Janeiro%29 "America Football Club (Rio de Janeiro)") in 1997 and played until 1998\.
In 1999, he appeared with two different lower league clubs in Brazil, [Bangu Atlético](/wiki/Bangu_Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube "Bangu Atlético Clube") and [Clube de Regatas Brasil](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_Brasil "Clube de Regatas Brasil") before his stint in top flight side Botafogo between 2000 and 2001\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ogol.com.br/player.php?id\=99727\|title\=Tony Menezes: Canada soccer player detailed stats and transfers\|website\=ogol.com\|access\-date\=21 March 2021\|archive\-date\=28 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182620/https://www.ogol.com.br/player.php?id\=99727\|url\-status\=live}}
He signed with [Campeonato Brasileiro Série A](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A "Campeonato Brasileiro Série A") outfit [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas "Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro "Rio de Janeiro") and appeared in 6 [Campeonato Carioca](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca "Campeonato Carioca") league matches.
### China
In 2002, he moved to Asia and joined [Gansu Tianma F.C.](/wiki/Gansu_Tianma_F.C. "Gansu Tianma F.C."), where he appeared in 19 league matches. He then signed with [China League One](/wiki/China_League_One "China League One") side [Nanjing Yoyo](/wiki/Nanjing_Yoyo "Nanjing Yoyo") and played in 17 league matches, scoring 3 goals.[All Washed Up?](https://web.archive.org/web/20090426023050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501030310-428130,00.html) *Time.com*. Retrieved 21 March 2021 He again signed with a [China League One](/wiki/China_League_One "China League One") outfit [Zhejiang Lucheng](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. "Zhejiang Professional F.C.") in 2004\. Menezes played as a defender but scored 4 goals in 22 league matches.
### Canada
On April 19, 2006 he signed with a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada "Canada") club for the first time, joining [Toronto Lynx](/wiki/Toronto_Lynx "Toronto Lynx") in the [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two "USL League Two").[Lynx add former Canadian international Menezes](http://uslpro.uslsoccer.com/home/129236.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920101642/http://uslpro.uslsoccer.com/home/129236\.html \|date\=2008\-09\-20 }}{{Cite web \|url\=http://torontolynx.com/releases/2006/april18\.htm \|title\=TONY MENEZES SIGNS WITH LYNX \|access\-date\=2009\-03\-14 \|archive\-date\=2016\-10\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026162849/http://torontolynx.com/releases/2006/april18\.htm \|url\-status\=live }} He played there for only one season.
In 2006, he returned to [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil") and played for [SC Ulbra (RS)](/wiki/Canoas_Sport_Club "Canoas Sport Club"). He with the club, competed in the [Campeonato Brasileiro Série C](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_C "Campeonato Brasileiro Série C"), but was eliminated in the second stage of the competition.[2006 Campeonato Brasileiro Série C at RSSSF](http://paginas.terra.com.br/esporte/rsssfbrasil/tables/br2006l3.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118021525/http://paginas.terra.com.br/esporte/rsssfbrasil/tables/br2006l3\.htm \|date\=November 18, 2007 }}
### India
In November 2006, he signed with the defending champions [Mahindra United](/wiki/Mahindra_United "Mahindra United"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.indianfootball.de/transfers2006\.html\|title\=Season ending transfers 2006\|website\=Indianfootball.de\|access\-date\=21 March 2021\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000401/http://www.indianfootball.de/transfers2006\.html\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.worldfootball.net/teams/mahindra\-united/10/\|title\=Mahindra United » Players from A–Z\|website\=WorldFootball.net\|access\-date\=28 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027091629/https://www.worldfootball.net/teams/mahindra\-united/10/\|archive\-date\=27 October 2013}} of [Indian](/wiki/India "India") [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League_%28India%29 "National Football League (India)") as their third foreign player. He debuted for the *Jeepmen* at the [2006 Durand Cup](/wiki/Durand_Cup "Durand Cup") tournament in [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi "Delhi").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mahindra\-sign\-up\-canada\-born\-brazilian\-meneze/430317\|title\=Mahindra sign up Canada\-born Brazilian Meneze\|website\=Outlook India\|access\-date\=21 March 2021\|archive\-date\=28 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182629/https://www.outlookindia.com/\|url\-status\=live}}
{{quote box\|width\=33%\|align\=right\|quote\="Mahindra United is the best team in India and I'm proud to be part of the team. There is a professional attitude at this club which governs the functioning right up to the president. Also I found the team to be a tight knit bunch and bound like a family."\|source\=—Menezes on joining \[\[Mahindra United FC]]\[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/mahindra\-united\-sign\-on\-third\-foreigner/story\-EDmaS10Ih0rCeFi90zS8eJ\_amp.html Defending champions Mahindra United signed Tony Menezes as their 3rd foreigner] {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182632/https://www.hindustantimes.com/amp \|date\=2023\-03\-28 }} ''The Hindustan Times''. Retrieved 21 March 2021}}
With Mahindra United, he appeared in two competitive seasons and won the [IFA Shield](/wiki/IFA_Shield "IFA Shield") in 2006\. In the [2006–07 National Football League](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_National_Football_League_%28India%29 "2006–07 National Football League (India)") season, Mahindra finished 3rd in the league table. He has also represented Mahindra at the [2007 AFC Cup](/wiki/2007_AFC_Cup "2007 AFC Cup"), where they qualified for the knockout stages, finishing 2nd in the Group\-E behind [Singapore Armed Forces](/wiki/Warriors_FC "Warriors FC") but lost in the QF to [Al\-Najmeh](/wiki/Nejmeh_SC "Nejmeh SC") of Lebanon (4–5 aggregate).{{Cite web\|url\=https://inbedwithmaradona.com/journal/2011/9/13/the\-death\-of\-mahindra\-united.html\|title\=THE DEATH OF MAHINDRA UNITED\|access\-date\=21 March 2021\|website\=inbedwithmaradona.com\|archive\-date\=28 December 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228173318/http://inbedwithmaradona.com/journal/2011/9/13/the\-death\-of\-mahindra\-united.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://tribuna.com/en/match/101474287/\|title\=Mahindra United \- Al Nejmeh: AFC Cup 2007 Quarter Finals (09/18/2007\)\|website\=Tribuna.com\|access\-date\=21 March 2021\|archive\-date\=28 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182628/https://tribuna.com/en/match/101474287/\|url\-status\=live}}
### Back to Brazil
After two years in India, Menezes joined back to his homeland Brazil and signed in January 2008 with [Porto Alegre FC](/wiki/Porto_Alegre_Futebol_Clube "Porto Alegre Futebol Clube")[Canadian Arena Team Announces Players for Montreal](https://web.archive.org/web/20081003080053/http://www.arenaleague.com/pro/255301.html) *arenaleague.com*. Retrieved 21 March 2021 and played until 2010\.
|
[
"Club career\n-----------",
"### Brazil",
"Menezes began his professional club career at [Madureira EC](/wiki/Madureira_Esporte_Clube \"Madureira Esporte Clube\") in 1996 and appeared in [Campeonato Carioca Série B1](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca_S%C3%A9rie_B1 \"Campeonato Carioca Série B1\"). He later moved to another Brazilian team [America FC Rio](/wiki/America_Football_Club_%28Rio_de_Janeiro%29 \"America Football Club (Rio de Janeiro)\") in 1997 and played until 1998\\.",
"In 1999, he appeared with two different lower league clubs in Brazil, [Bangu Atlético](/wiki/Bangu_Atl%C3%A9tico_Clube \"Bangu Atlético Clube\") and [Clube de Regatas Brasil](/wiki/Clube_de_Regatas_Brasil \"Clube de Regatas Brasil\") before his stint in top flight side Botafogo between 2000 and 2001\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ogol.com.br/player.php?id\\=99727\\|title\\=Tony Menezes: Canada soccer player detailed stats and transfers\\|website\\=ogol.com\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182620/https://www.ogol.com.br/player.php?id\\=99727\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"He signed with [Campeonato Brasileiro Série A](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_A \"Campeonato Brasileiro Série A\") outfit [Botafogo](/wiki/Botafogo_de_Futebol_e_Regatas \"Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas\") in [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro \"Rio de Janeiro\") and appeared in 6 [Campeonato Carioca](/wiki/Campeonato_Carioca \"Campeonato Carioca\") league matches.",
"### China",
"In 2002, he moved to Asia and joined [Gansu Tianma F.C.](/wiki/Gansu_Tianma_F.C. \"Gansu Tianma F.C.\"), where he appeared in 19 league matches. He then signed with [China League One](/wiki/China_League_One \"China League One\") side [Nanjing Yoyo](/wiki/Nanjing_Yoyo \"Nanjing Yoyo\") and played in 17 league matches, scoring 3 goals.[All Washed Up?](https://web.archive.org/web/20090426023050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501030310-428130,00.html) *Time.com*. Retrieved 21 March 2021 He again signed with a [China League One](/wiki/China_League_One \"China League One\") outfit [Zhejiang Lucheng](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. \"Zhejiang Professional F.C.\") in 2004\\. Menezes played as a defender but scored 4 goals in 22 league matches.",
"### Canada",
"On April 19, 2006 he signed with a [Canadian](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") club for the first time, joining [Toronto Lynx](/wiki/Toronto_Lynx \"Toronto Lynx\") in the [USL League Two](/wiki/USL_League_Two \"USL League Two\").[Lynx add former Canadian international Menezes](http://uslpro.uslsoccer.com/home/129236.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920101642/http://uslpro.uslsoccer.com/home/129236\\.html \\|date\\=2008\\-09\\-20 }}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://torontolynx.com/releases/2006/april18\\.htm \\|title\\=TONY MENEZES SIGNS WITH LYNX \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-14 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-10\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026162849/http://torontolynx.com/releases/2006/april18\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }} He played there for only one season.",
"In 2006, he returned to [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\") and played for [SC Ulbra (RS)](/wiki/Canoas_Sport_Club \"Canoas Sport Club\"). He with the club, competed in the [Campeonato Brasileiro Série C](/wiki/Campeonato_Brasileiro_S%C3%A9rie_C \"Campeonato Brasileiro Série C\"), but was eliminated in the second stage of the competition.[2006 Campeonato Brasileiro Série C at RSSSF](http://paginas.terra.com.br/esporte/rsssfbrasil/tables/br2006l3.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118021525/http://paginas.terra.com.br/esporte/rsssfbrasil/tables/br2006l3\\.htm \\|date\\=November 18, 2007 }}",
"### India",
"In November 2006, he signed with the defending champions [Mahindra United](/wiki/Mahindra_United \"Mahindra United\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.indianfootball.de/transfers2006\\.html\\|title\\=Season ending transfers 2006\\|website\\=Indianfootball.de\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000401/http://www.indianfootball.de/transfers2006\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.worldfootball.net/teams/mahindra\\-united/10/\\|title\\=Mahindra United » Players from A–Z\\|website\\=WorldFootball.net\\|access\\-date\\=28 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027091629/https://www.worldfootball.net/teams/mahindra\\-united/10/\\|archive\\-date\\=27 October 2013}} of [Indian](/wiki/India \"India\") [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League_%28India%29 \"National Football League (India)\") as their third foreign player. He debuted for the *Jeepmen* at the [2006 Durand Cup](/wiki/Durand_Cup \"Durand Cup\") tournament in [Delhi](/wiki/Delhi \"Delhi\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mahindra\\-sign\\-up\\-canada\\-born\\-brazilian\\-meneze/430317\\|title\\=Mahindra sign up Canada\\-born Brazilian Meneze\\|website\\=Outlook India\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182629/https://www.outlookindia.com/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"{{quote box\\|width\\=33%\\|align\\=right\\|quote\\=\"Mahindra United is the best team in India and I'm proud to be part of the team. There is a professional attitude at this club which governs the functioning right up to the president. Also I found the team to be a tight knit bunch and bound like a family.\"\\|source\\=—Menezes on joining \\[\\[Mahindra United FC]]\\[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/mahindra\\-united\\-sign\\-on\\-third\\-foreigner/story\\-EDmaS10Ih0rCeFi90zS8eJ\\_amp.html Defending champions Mahindra United signed Tony Menezes as their 3rd foreigner] {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182632/https://www.hindustantimes.com/amp \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-28 }} ''The Hindustan Times''. Retrieved 21 March 2021}}",
"With Mahindra United, he appeared in two competitive seasons and won the [IFA Shield](/wiki/IFA_Shield \"IFA Shield\") in 2006\\. In the [2006–07 National Football League](/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_National_Football_League_%28India%29 \"2006–07 National Football League (India)\") season, Mahindra finished 3rd in the league table. He has also represented Mahindra at the [2007 AFC Cup](/wiki/2007_AFC_Cup \"2007 AFC Cup\"), where they qualified for the knockout stages, finishing 2nd in the Group\\-E behind [Singapore Armed Forces](/wiki/Warriors_FC \"Warriors FC\") but lost in the QF to [Al\\-Najmeh](/wiki/Nejmeh_SC \"Nejmeh SC\") of Lebanon (4–5 aggregate).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://inbedwithmaradona.com/journal/2011/9/13/the\\-death\\-of\\-mahindra\\-united.html\\|title\\=THE DEATH OF MAHINDRA UNITED\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021\\|website\\=inbedwithmaradona.com\\|archive\\-date\\=28 December 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228173318/http://inbedwithmaradona.com/journal/2011/9/13/the\\-death\\-of\\-mahindra\\-united.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://tribuna.com/en/match/101474287/\\|title\\=Mahindra United \\- Al Nejmeh: AFC Cup 2007 Quarter Finals (09/18/2007\\)\\|website\\=Tribuna.com\\|access\\-date\\=21 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328182628/https://tribuna.com/en/match/101474287/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"### Back to Brazil",
"After two years in India, Menezes joined back to his homeland Brazil and signed in January 2008 with [Porto Alegre FC](/wiki/Porto_Alegre_Futebol_Clube \"Porto Alegre Futebol Clube\")[Canadian Arena Team Announces Players for Montreal](https://web.archive.org/web/20081003080053/http://www.arenaleague.com/pro/255301.html) *arenaleague.com*. Retrieved 21 March 2021 and played until 2010\\.",
""
] |
Classification
--------------
[thumb\|upright\|In [Maya religion](/wiki/Maya_religion "Maya religion"), the [dwarf](/wiki/Dwarfism "Dwarfism") was an embodiment of the [Maize God](/wiki/Maya_maize_god "Maya maize god")'s [helpers](/wiki/Maya_religion%23Goblins_and_dwarfs "Maya religion#Goblins and dwarfs") at [creation](/wiki/Maya_maize_god%23Cosmological_creation_myth "Maya maize god#Cosmological creation myth").[Description](/wiki/commons:File:Mayan_-_Dwarf_Figurine_-_Walters_20092036_-_View_A.jpg "File:Mayan - Dwarf Figurine - Walters 20092036 - View A.jpg") from [Walters Art Museum](/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum "Walters Art Museum")](/wiki/File:Mayan_-_Dwarf_Figurine_-_Walters_20092036_-_View_A.jpg "Mayan - Dwarf Figurine - Walters 20092036 - View A.jpg")
{{See also\|List of creation myths}}
[Mythologists](/wiki/Mythologist "Mythologist") have applied various schemes to classify creation myths found throughout human cultures. Eliade and his colleague Charles Long developed a classification based on some common [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28literature%29 "Motif (literature)") that reappear in stories the world over. The classification identifies five basic types:{{harvnb\|Leonard\|McClure\|2004\|pages\=32–33}}
[thumb\|upright\|[Brahmā](/wiki/Brahma "Brahma"), the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism "Hinduism") *[deva](/wiki/Deva_%28Hinduism%29 "Deva (Hinduism)")* of creation, emerges from a [lotus](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera "Nelumbo nucifera") risen from the navel of [Viṣņu](/wiki/Vishnu "Vishnu"), who lies with [Lakshmi](/wiki/Lakshmi "Lakshmi") on the serpent [Ananta Shesha](/wiki/Ananta_Shesha "Ananta Shesha").](/wiki/File:Shesh_shaiya_Vishnu.jpg "Shesh shaiya Vishnu.jpg")
* [Creation *ex nihilo*](/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo "Creatio ex nihilo") in which the creation is through the thought, word, dream, or bodily secretions of a divine being.
* [Earth\-diver](/wiki/Earth-diver "Earth-diver") creation in which a diver, usually a bird or amphibian sent by a creator, plunges to the seabed through a [primordial ocean](/wiki/Cosmic_ocean "Cosmic ocean") to bring up sand or mud which develops into a terrestrial world.
* Emergence myths in which progenitors pass through a series of worlds and metamorphoses until reaching the present world.
* Creation by the dismemberment of a primordial being.
* Creation by the splitting or ordering of a primordial unity such as the cracking of a [cosmic egg](/wiki/World_egg "World egg") or a bringing order from [chaos](/wiki/Chaos_%28cosmogony%29 "Chaos (cosmogony)").
[Marta Weigle](/wiki/Marta_Weigle "Marta Weigle") further developed and refined this typology to highlight nine themes, adding elements such as *[deus faber](/wiki/Deus_faber "Deus faber")*, a creation crafted by a deity, creation from the work of two creators working together or against each other, creation from sacrifice and creation from division/conjugation, accretion/conjunction, or secretion.
An alternative system based on six recurring narrative themes was designed by Raymond Van Over:
* Primeval [abyss](/wiki/Abyss_%28religion%29 "Abyss (religion)"), an infinite expanse of waters or space
* Originator deity which is awakened or an eternal entity within the abyss
* Originator deity poised above the abyss
* Cosmic egg or [embryo](/wiki/Embryo "Embryo")
* Originator deity creating life through sound or word
* Life generating from the corpse or dismembered parts of an originator deity
### *Ex nihilo*
{{Main\|Creatio ex nihilo}}
[thumb\|upright\|*Creation* on the exterior shutters of [Hieronymus Bosch](/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch "Hieronymus Bosch")'s [triptych](/wiki/Triptych "Triptych") *[The Garden of Earthly Delights](/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights "The Garden of Earthly Delights")* (c. 1490–1510\)](/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_The_exterior_%28shutters%29.jpg "Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - The exterior (shutters).jpg")
The myth that [God](/wiki/God "God") [created the world out of nothing](/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo "Creatio ex nihilo") – *ex nihilo* – is central today to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and the medieval Jewish philosopher [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides "Maimonides") felt it was the only concept that the three religions shared.{{sfn\|Soskice\|2010\|p\=24}} Nonetheless, the concept is not found in the entire Hebrew Bible.{{sfn\|Nebe\|2002\|p\=119}} The authors of Genesis 1 were concerned not with the origins of matter (the material which God formed into the habitable cosmos), but with assigning roles so that the cosmos should function.{{sfn\|Walton\|2006\|p\=183}} In the early 2nd century CE, early Christian scholars were beginning to see a tension between the idea of world\-formation and the omnipotence of God, and by the beginning of the 3rd century creation *ex nihilo* had become a fundamental tenet of Christian theology.{{sfn\|May\|2004\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=eu4RBwAAQBAJ\&q\=%22tension\+between\+the\+idea\+of\+world\-formation%22\&pg\=PA179 179]}}
*Ex nihilo* creation is found in creation stories from [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt "Ancient Egypt"), the [Rig Veda](/wiki/Rig_Veda "Rig Veda"), and many [animistic](/wiki/Animism "Animism") cultures in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and North America.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|2010\|pages\=1–3, 153}} In most of these stories, the world is brought into being by the speech, dream, breath, or pure thought of a creator but creation ex nihilo may also take place through a creator's bodily secretions.
The literal translation of the phrase *ex nihilo* is "from nothing" but in many creation myths the line is blurred whether the creative act would be better classified as a creation *ex nihilo* or creation from chaos. In *ex nihilo* creation myths, the potential and the substance of creation springs from within the creator. Such a creator may or may not be existing in physical surroundings such as darkness or water, but does not create the world from them, whereas in creation from chaos the substance used for creation is pre\-existing within the unformed void.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|Leeming\|1994\|pages\=60–61}}
### Creation from chaos
{{Main\|Chaos (cosmogony)}}
In creation from chaos myths, there is nothing initially but a formless, shapeless expanse. In these stories the word "chaos" means "disorder", and this formless expanse, which is also sometimes called a void or an abyss, contains the material with which the created world will be made. Chaos may be described as having the consistency of vapor or water, dimensionless, and sometimes salty or muddy. These myths associate chaos with evil and oblivion, in contrast to "order" (*cosmos*) which is the good. The act of creation is the bringing of order from disorder, and in many of these cultures it is believed that at some point the forces preserving order and form will weaken and the world will once again be engulfed into the abyss.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|2010}} One example is the [Genesis creation narrative](/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative "Genesis creation narrative") from the first chapter of the [Book of Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis "Book of Genesis").
### World parent
[right\|thumb\|upright\|In one [Maori creation myth](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology "Māori mythology"), the primal couple are [Rangi and Papa](/wiki/Rangi_and_Papa "Rangi and Papa"), depicted holding each other in a tight embrace.](/wiki/File:WahineTane.jpg "WahineTane.jpg")
There are two types of world parent myths, both describing a separation or splitting of a primeval entity, the world parent or parents. One form describes the primeval state as an eternal union of two parents, and the creation takes place when the two are pulled apart. The two parents are commonly identified as [Sky](/wiki/Sky_father "Sky father") (usually male) and [Earth](/wiki/Earth_Mother "Earth Mother") (usually female), who were so tightly bound to each other in the primeval state that no offspring could emerge. These myths often depict creation as the result of a sexual union and serve as genealogical record of the deities born from it.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|2010\|page\=16}}
In the second form of world parent myths, creation itself springs from dismembered parts of the body of the primeval being. Often, in these stories, the limbs, hair, blood, bones, or organs of the primeval being are somehow severed or sacrificed to transform into sky, earth, animal or plant life, and other worldly features. These myths tend to emphasize creative forces as animistic in nature rather than sexual, and depict the sacred as the elemental and integral component of the natural world.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|2010\|page\=18}} One example of this is the [Norse](/wiki/Norse_mythology "Norse mythology") creation myth described in "[Völuspá](/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1 "Völuspá")", the first poem in the *[Poetic Edda](/wiki/Poetic_Edda "Poetic Edda")*, and in *[Gylfaginning](/wiki/Gylfaginning "Gylfaginning")*.{{sfn\|Leeming\|2010\|p\=209}}
### Emergence
In emergence myths, humanity emerges from another world into the one they currently inhabit. The previous world is often considered the womb of the [earth mother](/wiki/Earth_mother "Earth mother"), and the process of emergence is likened to the act of giving birth. The role of midwife is usually played by a female deity, like the spider woman of several mythologies of Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Male characters rarely figure into these stories, and scholars often consider them in counterpoint to male\-oriented creation myths, like those of the *ex nihilo* variety.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|chapter\="Creation"\|2011a}}
[thumb\|upright\|left\|In the [kiva](/wiki/Kiva "Kiva") of both [ancient](/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans "Ancestral Puebloans") and present\-day [Pueblo peoples](/wiki/Pueblo_people "Pueblo people"), the [sipapu](/wiki/Sipapu "Sipapu") is a small round hole in the floor that represents the portal through which the ancestors [first emerged](/wiki/Hopi_mythology%23Four_Worlds "Hopi mythology#Four Worlds"). (The larger hole is a fire pit, here in a ruin from the [Mesa Verde National Park](/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park "Mesa Verde National Park").)](/wiki/File:Sipapu_%28small_round_hole%29_in_floor_of_ruined_kiva_in_Mesa_Verde_National_Park.jpg "Sipapu (small round hole) in floor of ruined kiva in Mesa Verde National Park.jpg")
Emergence myths commonly describe the creation of people and/or supernatural beings as a staged ascent or [metamorphosis](/wiki/Metamorphosis "Metamorphosis") from nascent forms through a series of subterranean worlds to arrive at their current place and form. Often the passage from one world or stage to the next is impelled by inner forces, a process of germination or gestation from earlier, embryonic forms.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|2010\|pages\=21–24}}{{harvnb\|Long\|1963}} The genre is most commonly found in Native American cultures where the myths frequently link the final emergence of people from a hole opening to the underworld to stories about their subsequent migrations and eventual settlement in their current homelands.{{harvnb\|Wheeler\-Voegelin\|Moore\|1957\|pages\=66–73}}
### Earth\-diver
{{Other uses\|Earthdivers (disambiguation){{!}}Earthdivers}}
The earth\-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives){{cite book \|last\=Hatt \|first\=Gudmund \| author\-link\=Gudmund Hatt \|title\=Asiatic influences in American folklore \|date\=1949 \|publisher\=I kommission hos ejnar Munksgaard \|location\=København \|chapter\=Earth\-diver\|pages\=12–36\|url\=http://publ.royalacademy.dk/books/248/1508?lang\=en}} into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land.Eason, Cassandra. *Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook*. Greenwood Press. 2008\. p. 56\. {{ISBN\|9780275994259}}. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them [cosmogonically](/wiki/Cosmogony "Cosmogony"). In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|chapter\="Earth\-Diver Creation"\|2011b}}
#### Motif distribution
According to [Gudmund Hatt](/wiki/Gudmund_Hatt "Gudmund Hatt") and [Tristram P. Coffin](/wiki/Tristram_P._Coffin "Tristram P. Coffin"), Earth\-diver myths are common in [Native American folklore](/wiki/Native_American_mythology "Native American mythology"), among the following populations: [Shoshone](/wiki/Shoshone "Shoshone"), [Meskwaki](/wiki/Meskwaki "Meskwaki"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy "Blackfoot Confederacy"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan "Chipewyan"), [Newettee](/wiki/Nahwitti_%28trading_site%29 "Nahwitti (trading site)"), [Yokuts](/wiki/Yokuts "Yokuts") of California, [Mandan](/wiki/Mandan "Mandan"), [Hidatsa](/wiki/Hidatsa "Hidatsa"), [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne "Cheyenne"), [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho "Arapaho"), [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe"), [Yuchi](/wiki/Yuchi "Yuchi"), and [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee").{{cite book \|title\=Indian Tales of North America: An Anthology for the Adult Reader \|editor\=Tristam P. Coffin \|location\=New York, USA \|date\=1961 \|publisher\=University of Texas Press \|page\=3 \|s2cid\=243789306 \|doi\=10\.7560/735064\-003 \|quote\=The most common Indian myth begins with a primeval water, out of which some animal brings up a few grains of sand or mud which a culture hero then develops into the world}}
American anthropologist [Gladys Reichard](/wiki/Gladys_Reichard "Gladys Reichard") located the distribution of the motif across "all parts of North America", save for "the extreme north, northeast, and southwest".Reichard, Gladys A. "Literary Types and Dissemination of Myths". In: *The Journal of American Folklore* 34, no. 133 (1921\): 274\-275\. [https://doi.org/10\.2307/535151](https://doi.org/10.2307/535151). In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth\-diver motif appeared in "[hunting\-gathering societies](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer "Hunter-gatherer")", mainly among northerly groups such as the [Hare](/wiki/Hare_people "Hare people"), [Dogrib](/wiki/Dogrib "Dogrib"), [Kaska](/wiki/Kaska "Kaska"), [Beaver](/wiki/Beaver_people "Beaver people"), [Carrier](/wiki/Carrier_people "Carrier people"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan "Chipewyan"), [Sarsi](/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation "Tsuutʼina Nation"), [Cree](/wiki/Cree "Cree"), and [Montagnais](/wiki/Innu_people "Innu people").Barnouw, Victor. *Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977\. pp. 59 (map 2\), 57, 60\.
Similar tales are also found among the [Chukchi](/wiki/Chukchi_people "Chukchi people") and [Yukaghir](/wiki/Yukaghir "Yukaghir"), the [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars"), and many [Finno\-Ugric](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_mythologies "Finno-Ugric mythologies") traditions,Deviatkina, Tatiana. "[Images of Birds in Mordvinian Mythology](https://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol48/deviatkina.pdf)". In: *Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore* Vo. 48 (2011\). p. 144\. as well as among the [Buryat](/wiki/Buryats "Buryats") and the Samoyed.[Leeming, David Adams](/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming "David Adams Leeming"). *A Dictionary of Asian Mythology*. Oxford University Press. 2001\. p. 55\. {{ISBN\|0\-19\-512052\-3}}. In addition, the earth\-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people "Romani people"),Kornel, Vladislav. "[Gypsy Anecdotes From Hungary: II\-How the Devil assisted God in the Creation of the World](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005721066&view=1up&seq=91&skin=2021)". In: *Gypsy Lore Journal* Vol II, No. 2\. April, 1890\. pp. 67\-68\. Romanian,[Beza, Marcu](/wiki/Marcu_Beza "Marcu Beza"). *Paganism in Romanian Folklore*. London: J. M. Dent \& Sons LTD. 1928\. pp. 120\-123\. [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_creation_myth%23Creation_by_diving "Slavic creation myth#Creation by diving") (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions.Laurinkienė, Nijolė. "[Pasaulio kūrimo motyvai lietuvių pasakojamojoje tautosakoje](https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/7396)" \[The Motifs of creating the world in the Lithuanian narrative folklore]. In: *Liaudies kultūra* Nr. 5 (2002\), p. 9\. {{ISSN\|0236\-0551}}.
The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the [eastern Asiatic](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") and east to the [North American](/wiki/North_America "North America") continent.{{harvnb\|Booth\|1984\|pages\=168–70}}[Vladimir Napolskikh](/wiki/Vladimir_Napolskikh "Vladimir Napolskikh") (2012\), *[Diving Bird Myth after 20 years 2012](https://www.academia.edu/4918926/Diving_Bird_Myth_after_20_years_2012)* (Earth\-Diver Myth (А812\) in northern Eurasia and North America: twenty years later) However, there are examples of this [mytheme](/wiki/Mytheme "Mytheme") found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African [Yoruba](/wiki/Yoruba_culture "Yoruba culture") creation myth of [Ọbatala](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cbatala "Ọbatala") and [Oduduwa](/wiki/Oduduwa "Oduduwa").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.artsmia.org/world\-myths/artbyculture/kingscrown\_story.html\|title\=King's Crown Story\|website\=The Minneapolis institute of Art}} citing {{cite journal\|first\=P. C. \|last\=Lloyd\|title\=Sacred Kingship and Government among the Yoruba\|journal\=Africa\|volume\=30\|issue\=3\|pages\= 222–223}}[R.D.V. Glasgow](/wiki/Rupert_Glasgow "Rupert Glasgow") (2009\), *The Concept of Water*, p. 28
#### Native American narrative
Characteristic of many Native American myths, earth\-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth\-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found.{{harvnb\|Leonard\|McClure\|2004\|page\=38}}[Thompson, Stith](/wiki/Stith_Thompson "Stith Thompson"). *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\. p. 279\.
Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth\-diver cosmogony is attested in [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology%23Creation "Iroquois mythology#Creation"): a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the [beaver](/wiki/Beaver "Beaver"), the [otter](/wiki/Otter "Otter"), the [duck](/wiki/Duck "Duck"), and the [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat "Muskrat") dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island.[Converse, Harriet Maxwell (Ya\-ie\-wa\-no)](/wiki/Harriet_Maxwell_Converse "Harriet Maxwell Converse"); Parker, Arthur Caswell (Ga\-wa\-so\-wa\-neh) (December 15, 1908\). "[Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois](https://archive.org/details/cu31924055492973/page/n49/mode/1up)". Education Department Bulletin. University of the State of New York: 33\.Brinton, Daniel G. *[The Myths of the New World: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19347/19347-h/19347-h.htm)*. New York: Leypoldt \& Holt. 1868\. pp. 197\-198\.
In a similar story from the [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_people "Seneca people"), people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by [waterfowl](/wiki/Waterfowl "Waterfowl"). A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the [toad](/wiki/Toad "Toad") dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil.Thompson, Stith. *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\. pp. 14\-15, 278\.
In another version from the [Wyandot](/wiki/Wyandot_people "Wyandot people"), the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the [medicine man](/wiki/Medicine_man "Medicine man") recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful.Barbeau, Marius. *Huron and Wyandot mythology, with an appendix containing earlier published records*. Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau. 1915\. pp. 303\-304\.
|
[
"Classification\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|In [Maya religion](/wiki/Maya_religion \"Maya religion\"), the [dwarf](/wiki/Dwarfism \"Dwarfism\") was an embodiment of the [Maize God](/wiki/Maya_maize_god \"Maya maize god\")'s [helpers](/wiki/Maya_religion%23Goblins_and_dwarfs \"Maya religion#Goblins and dwarfs\") at [creation](/wiki/Maya_maize_god%23Cosmological_creation_myth \"Maya maize god#Cosmological creation myth\").[Description](/wiki/commons:File:Mayan_-_Dwarf_Figurine_-_Walters_20092036_-_View_A.jpg \"File:Mayan - Dwarf Figurine - Walters 20092036 - View A.jpg\") from [Walters Art Museum](/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum \"Walters Art Museum\")](/wiki/File:Mayan_-_Dwarf_Figurine_-_Walters_20092036_-_View_A.jpg \"Mayan - Dwarf Figurine - Walters 20092036 - View A.jpg\")\n{{See also\\|List of creation myths}}\n[Mythologists](/wiki/Mythologist \"Mythologist\") have applied various schemes to classify creation myths found throughout human cultures. Eliade and his colleague Charles Long developed a classification based on some common [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28literature%29 \"Motif (literature)\") that reappear in stories the world over. The classification identifies five basic types:{{harvnb\\|Leonard\\|McClure\\|2004\\|pages\\=32–33}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Brahmā](/wiki/Brahma \"Brahma\"), the [Hindu](/wiki/Hinduism \"Hinduism\") *[deva](/wiki/Deva_%28Hinduism%29 \"Deva (Hinduism)\")* of creation, emerges from a [lotus](/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera \"Nelumbo nucifera\") risen from the navel of [Viṣņu](/wiki/Vishnu \"Vishnu\"), who lies with [Lakshmi](/wiki/Lakshmi \"Lakshmi\") on the serpent [Ananta Shesha](/wiki/Ananta_Shesha \"Ananta Shesha\").](/wiki/File:Shesh_shaiya_Vishnu.jpg \"Shesh shaiya Vishnu.jpg\")",
"* [Creation *ex nihilo*](/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo \"Creatio ex nihilo\") in which the creation is through the thought, word, dream, or bodily secretions of a divine being.\n* [Earth\\-diver](/wiki/Earth-diver \"Earth-diver\") creation in which a diver, usually a bird or amphibian sent by a creator, plunges to the seabed through a [primordial ocean](/wiki/Cosmic_ocean \"Cosmic ocean\") to bring up sand or mud which develops into a terrestrial world.\n* Emergence myths in which progenitors pass through a series of worlds and metamorphoses until reaching the present world.\n* Creation by the dismemberment of a primordial being.\n* Creation by the splitting or ordering of a primordial unity such as the cracking of a [cosmic egg](/wiki/World_egg \"World egg\") or a bringing order from [chaos](/wiki/Chaos_%28cosmogony%29 \"Chaos (cosmogony)\").",
"[Marta Weigle](/wiki/Marta_Weigle \"Marta Weigle\") further developed and refined this typology to highlight nine themes, adding elements such as *[deus faber](/wiki/Deus_faber \"Deus faber\")*, a creation crafted by a deity, creation from the work of two creators working together or against each other, creation from sacrifice and creation from division/conjugation, accretion/conjunction, or secretion.",
"An alternative system based on six recurring narrative themes was designed by Raymond Van Over:\n* Primeval [abyss](/wiki/Abyss_%28religion%29 \"Abyss (religion)\"), an infinite expanse of waters or space\n* Originator deity which is awakened or an eternal entity within the abyss\n* Originator deity poised above the abyss\n* Cosmic egg or [embryo](/wiki/Embryo \"Embryo\")\n* Originator deity creating life through sound or word\n* Life generating from the corpse or dismembered parts of an originator deity",
"### *Ex nihilo*",
"{{Main\\|Creatio ex nihilo}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\|*Creation* on the exterior shutters of [Hieronymus Bosch](/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch \"Hieronymus Bosch\")'s [triptych](/wiki/Triptych \"Triptych\") *[The Garden of Earthly Delights](/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights \"The Garden of Earthly Delights\")* (c. 1490–1510\\)](/wiki/File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_The_exterior_%28shutters%29.jpg \"Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - The exterior (shutters).jpg\")",
"The myth that [God](/wiki/God \"God\") [created the world out of nothing](/wiki/Creatio_ex_nihilo \"Creatio ex nihilo\") – *ex nihilo* – is central today to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and the medieval Jewish philosopher [Maimonides](/wiki/Maimonides \"Maimonides\") felt it was the only concept that the three religions shared.{{sfn\\|Soskice\\|2010\\|p\\=24}} Nonetheless, the concept is not found in the entire Hebrew Bible.{{sfn\\|Nebe\\|2002\\|p\\=119}} The authors of Genesis 1 were concerned not with the origins of matter (the material which God formed into the habitable cosmos), but with assigning roles so that the cosmos should function.{{sfn\\|Walton\\|2006\\|p\\=183}} In the early 2nd century CE, early Christian scholars were beginning to see a tension between the idea of world\\-formation and the omnipotence of God, and by the beginning of the 3rd century creation *ex nihilo* had become a fundamental tenet of Christian theology.{{sfn\\|May\\|2004\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eu4RBwAAQBAJ\\&q\\=%22tension\\+between\\+the\\+idea\\+of\\+world\\-formation%22\\&pg\\=PA179 179]}}",
"*Ex nihilo* creation is found in creation stories from [ancient Egypt](/wiki/Ancient_Egypt \"Ancient Egypt\"), the [Rig Veda](/wiki/Rig_Veda \"Rig Veda\"), and many [animistic](/wiki/Animism \"Animism\") cultures in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and North America.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|2010\\|pages\\=1–3, 153}} In most of these stories, the world is brought into being by the speech, dream, breath, or pure thought of a creator but creation ex nihilo may also take place through a creator's bodily secretions.",
"The literal translation of the phrase *ex nihilo* is \"from nothing\" but in many creation myths the line is blurred whether the creative act would be better classified as a creation *ex nihilo* or creation from chaos. In *ex nihilo* creation myths, the potential and the substance of creation springs from within the creator. Such a creator may or may not be existing in physical surroundings such as darkness or water, but does not create the world from them, whereas in creation from chaos the substance used for creation is pre\\-existing within the unformed void.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|Leeming\\|1994\\|pages\\=60–61}}",
"### Creation from chaos",
"{{Main\\|Chaos (cosmogony)}}\nIn creation from chaos myths, there is nothing initially but a formless, shapeless expanse. In these stories the word \"chaos\" means \"disorder\", and this formless expanse, which is also sometimes called a void or an abyss, contains the material with which the created world will be made. Chaos may be described as having the consistency of vapor or water, dimensionless, and sometimes salty or muddy. These myths associate chaos with evil and oblivion, in contrast to \"order\" (*cosmos*) which is the good. The act of creation is the bringing of order from disorder, and in many of these cultures it is believed that at some point the forces preserving order and form will weaken and the world will once again be engulfed into the abyss.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|2010}} One example is the [Genesis creation narrative](/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative \"Genesis creation narrative\") from the first chapter of the [Book of Genesis](/wiki/Book_of_Genesis \"Book of Genesis\").",
"### World parent",
"[right\\|thumb\\|upright\\|In one [Maori creation myth](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology \"Māori mythology\"), the primal couple are [Rangi and Papa](/wiki/Rangi_and_Papa \"Rangi and Papa\"), depicted holding each other in a tight embrace.](/wiki/File:WahineTane.jpg \"WahineTane.jpg\")\nThere are two types of world parent myths, both describing a separation or splitting of a primeval entity, the world parent or parents. One form describes the primeval state as an eternal union of two parents, and the creation takes place when the two are pulled apart. The two parents are commonly identified as [Sky](/wiki/Sky_father \"Sky father\") (usually male) and [Earth](/wiki/Earth_Mother \"Earth Mother\") (usually female), who were so tightly bound to each other in the primeval state that no offspring could emerge. These myths often depict creation as the result of a sexual union and serve as genealogical record of the deities born from it.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|2010\\|page\\=16}}",
"In the second form of world parent myths, creation itself springs from dismembered parts of the body of the primeval being. Often, in these stories, the limbs, hair, blood, bones, or organs of the primeval being are somehow severed or sacrificed to transform into sky, earth, animal or plant life, and other worldly features. These myths tend to emphasize creative forces as animistic in nature rather than sexual, and depict the sacred as the elemental and integral component of the natural world.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|2010\\|page\\=18}} One example of this is the [Norse](/wiki/Norse_mythology \"Norse mythology\") creation myth described in \"[Völuspá](/wiki/V%C3%B6lusp%C3%A1 \"Völuspá\")\", the first poem in the *[Poetic Edda](/wiki/Poetic_Edda \"Poetic Edda\")*, and in *[Gylfaginning](/wiki/Gylfaginning \"Gylfaginning\")*.{{sfn\\|Leeming\\|2010\\|p\\=209}}",
"### Emergence",
"In emergence myths, humanity emerges from another world into the one they currently inhabit. The previous world is often considered the womb of the [earth mother](/wiki/Earth_mother \"Earth mother\"), and the process of emergence is likened to the act of giving birth. The role of midwife is usually played by a female deity, like the spider woman of several mythologies of Indigenous peoples in the Americas. Male characters rarely figure into these stories, and scholars often consider them in counterpoint to male\\-oriented creation myths, like those of the *ex nihilo* variety.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|chapter\\=\"Creation\"\\|2011a}}",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|In the [kiva](/wiki/Kiva \"Kiva\") of both [ancient](/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans \"Ancestral Puebloans\") and present\\-day [Pueblo peoples](/wiki/Pueblo_people \"Pueblo people\"), the [sipapu](/wiki/Sipapu \"Sipapu\") is a small round hole in the floor that represents the portal through which the ancestors [first emerged](/wiki/Hopi_mythology%23Four_Worlds \"Hopi mythology#Four Worlds\"). (The larger hole is a fire pit, here in a ruin from the [Mesa Verde National Park](/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park \"Mesa Verde National Park\").)](/wiki/File:Sipapu_%28small_round_hole%29_in_floor_of_ruined_kiva_in_Mesa_Verde_National_Park.jpg \"Sipapu (small round hole) in floor of ruined kiva in Mesa Verde National Park.jpg\")",
"Emergence myths commonly describe the creation of people and/or supernatural beings as a staged ascent or [metamorphosis](/wiki/Metamorphosis \"Metamorphosis\") from nascent forms through a series of subterranean worlds to arrive at their current place and form. Often the passage from one world or stage to the next is impelled by inner forces, a process of germination or gestation from earlier, embryonic forms.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|2010\\|pages\\=21–24}}{{harvnb\\|Long\\|1963}} The genre is most commonly found in Native American cultures where the myths frequently link the final emergence of people from a hole opening to the underworld to stories about their subsequent migrations and eventual settlement in their current homelands.{{harvnb\\|Wheeler\\-Voegelin\\|Moore\\|1957\\|pages\\=66–73}}",
"### Earth\\-diver",
"{{Other uses\\|Earthdivers (disambiguation){{!}}Earthdivers}}\nThe earth\\-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives){{cite book \\|last\\=Hatt \\|first\\=Gudmund \\| author\\-link\\=Gudmund Hatt \\|title\\=Asiatic influences in American folklore \\|date\\=1949 \\|publisher\\=I kommission hos ejnar Munksgaard \\|location\\=København \\|chapter\\=Earth\\-diver\\|pages\\=12–36\\|url\\=http://publ.royalacademy.dk/books/248/1508?lang\\=en}} into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land.Eason, Cassandra. *Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook*. Greenwood Press. 2008\\. p. 56\\. {{ISBN\\|9780275994259}}. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them [cosmogonically](/wiki/Cosmogony \"Cosmogony\"). In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|chapter\\=\"Earth\\-Diver Creation\"\\|2011b}}",
"#### Motif distribution",
"According to [Gudmund Hatt](/wiki/Gudmund_Hatt \"Gudmund Hatt\") and [Tristram P. Coffin](/wiki/Tristram_P._Coffin \"Tristram P. Coffin\"), Earth\\-diver myths are common in [Native American folklore](/wiki/Native_American_mythology \"Native American mythology\"), among the following populations: [Shoshone](/wiki/Shoshone \"Shoshone\"), [Meskwaki](/wiki/Meskwaki \"Meskwaki\"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy \"Blackfoot Confederacy\"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan \"Chipewyan\"), [Newettee](/wiki/Nahwitti_%28trading_site%29 \"Nahwitti (trading site)\"), [Yokuts](/wiki/Yokuts \"Yokuts\") of California, [Mandan](/wiki/Mandan \"Mandan\"), [Hidatsa](/wiki/Hidatsa \"Hidatsa\"), [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne \"Cheyenne\"), [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho \"Arapaho\"), [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\"), [Yuchi](/wiki/Yuchi \"Yuchi\"), and [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Indian Tales of North America: An Anthology for the Adult Reader \\|editor\\=Tristam P. Coffin \\|location\\=New York, USA \\|date\\=1961 \\|publisher\\=University of Texas Press \\|page\\=3 \\|s2cid\\=243789306 \\|doi\\=10\\.7560/735064\\-003 \\|quote\\=The most common Indian myth begins with a primeval water, out of which some animal brings up a few grains of sand or mud which a culture hero then develops into the world}}",
"American anthropologist [Gladys Reichard](/wiki/Gladys_Reichard \"Gladys Reichard\") located the distribution of the motif across \"all parts of North America\", save for \"the extreme north, northeast, and southwest\".Reichard, Gladys A. \"Literary Types and Dissemination of Myths\". In: *The Journal of American Folklore* 34, no. 133 (1921\\): 274\\-275\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.2307/535151](https://doi.org/10.2307/535151). In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth\\-diver motif appeared in \"[hunting\\-gathering societies](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer \"Hunter-gatherer\")\", mainly among northerly groups such as the [Hare](/wiki/Hare_people \"Hare people\"), [Dogrib](/wiki/Dogrib \"Dogrib\"), [Kaska](/wiki/Kaska \"Kaska\"), [Beaver](/wiki/Beaver_people \"Beaver people\"), [Carrier](/wiki/Carrier_people \"Carrier people\"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan \"Chipewyan\"), [Sarsi](/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation \"Tsuutʼina Nation\"), [Cree](/wiki/Cree \"Cree\"), and [Montagnais](/wiki/Innu_people \"Innu people\").Barnouw, Victor. *Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977\\. pp. 59 (map 2\\), 57, 60\\.",
"Similar tales are also found among the [Chukchi](/wiki/Chukchi_people \"Chukchi people\") and [Yukaghir](/wiki/Yukaghir \"Yukaghir\"), the [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\"), and many [Finno\\-Ugric](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_mythologies \"Finno-Ugric mythologies\") traditions,Deviatkina, Tatiana. \"[Images of Birds in Mordvinian Mythology](https://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol48/deviatkina.pdf)\". In: *Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore* Vo. 48 (2011\\). p. 144\\. as well as among the [Buryat](/wiki/Buryats \"Buryats\") and the Samoyed.[Leeming, David Adams](/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming \"David Adams Leeming\"). *A Dictionary of Asian Mythology*. Oxford University Press. 2001\\. p. 55\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-512052\\-3}}. In addition, the earth\\-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\"),Kornel, Vladislav. \"[Gypsy Anecdotes From Hungary: II\\-How the Devil assisted God in the Creation of the World](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005721066&view=1up&seq=91&skin=2021)\". In: *Gypsy Lore Journal* Vol II, No. 2\\. April, 1890\\. pp. 67\\-68\\. Romanian,[Beza, Marcu](/wiki/Marcu_Beza \"Marcu Beza\"). *Paganism in Romanian Folklore*. London: J. M. Dent \\& Sons LTD. 1928\\. pp. 120\\-123\\. [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_creation_myth%23Creation_by_diving \"Slavic creation myth#Creation by diving\") (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions.Laurinkienė, Nijolė. \"[Pasaulio kūrimo motyvai lietuvių pasakojamojoje tautosakoje](https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/7396)\" \\[The Motifs of creating the world in the Lithuanian narrative folklore]. In: *Liaudies kultūra* Nr. 5 (2002\\), p. 9\\. {{ISSN\\|0236\\-0551}}.",
"The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the [eastern Asiatic](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\") coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") and east to the [North American](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") continent.{{harvnb\\|Booth\\|1984\\|pages\\=168–70}}[Vladimir Napolskikh](/wiki/Vladimir_Napolskikh \"Vladimir Napolskikh\") (2012\\), *[Diving Bird Myth after 20 years 2012](https://www.academia.edu/4918926/Diving_Bird_Myth_after_20_years_2012)* (Earth\\-Diver Myth (А812\\) in northern Eurasia and North America: twenty years later) However, there are examples of this [mytheme](/wiki/Mytheme \"Mytheme\") found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African [Yoruba](/wiki/Yoruba_culture \"Yoruba culture\") creation myth of [Ọbatala](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cbatala \"Ọbatala\") and [Oduduwa](/wiki/Oduduwa \"Oduduwa\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.artsmia.org/world\\-myths/artbyculture/kingscrown\\_story.html\\|title\\=King's Crown Story\\|website\\=The Minneapolis institute of Art}} citing {{cite journal\\|first\\=P. C. \\|last\\=Lloyd\\|title\\=Sacred Kingship and Government among the Yoruba\\|journal\\=Africa\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\= 222–223}}[R.D.V. Glasgow](/wiki/Rupert_Glasgow \"Rupert Glasgow\") (2009\\), *The Concept of Water*, p. 28",
"#### Native American narrative",
"Characteristic of many Native American myths, earth\\-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth\\-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found.{{harvnb\\|Leonard\\|McClure\\|2004\\|page\\=38}}[Thompson, Stith](/wiki/Stith_Thompson \"Stith Thompson\"). *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\\. p. 279\\.",
"Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth\\-diver cosmogony is attested in [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology%23Creation \"Iroquois mythology#Creation\"): a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the [beaver](/wiki/Beaver \"Beaver\"), the [otter](/wiki/Otter \"Otter\"), the [duck](/wiki/Duck \"Duck\"), and the [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat \"Muskrat\") dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island.[Converse, Harriet Maxwell (Ya\\-ie\\-wa\\-no)](/wiki/Harriet_Maxwell_Converse \"Harriet Maxwell Converse\"); Parker, Arthur Caswell (Ga\\-wa\\-so\\-wa\\-neh) (December 15, 1908\\). \"[Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois](https://archive.org/details/cu31924055492973/page/n49/mode/1up)\". Education Department Bulletin. University of the State of New York: 33\\.Brinton, Daniel G. *[The Myths of the New World: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19347/19347-h/19347-h.htm)*. New York: Leypoldt \\& Holt. 1868\\. pp. 197\\-198\\.",
"In a similar story from the [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_people \"Seneca people\"), people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by [waterfowl](/wiki/Waterfowl \"Waterfowl\"). A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the [toad](/wiki/Toad \"Toad\") dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil.Thompson, Stith. *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\\. pp. 14\\-15, 278\\.",
"In another version from the [Wyandot](/wiki/Wyandot_people \"Wyandot people\"), the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the [medicine man](/wiki/Medicine_man \"Medicine man\") recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful.Barbeau, Marius. *Huron and Wyandot mythology, with an appendix containing earlier published records*. Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau. 1915\\. pp. 303\\-304\\.",
""
] |
### Earth\-diver
{{Other uses\|Earthdivers (disambiguation){{!}}Earthdivers}}
The earth\-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives){{cite book \|last\=Hatt \|first\=Gudmund \| author\-link\=Gudmund Hatt \|title\=Asiatic influences in American folklore \|date\=1949 \|publisher\=I kommission hos ejnar Munksgaard \|location\=København \|chapter\=Earth\-diver\|pages\=12–36\|url\=http://publ.royalacademy.dk/books/248/1508?lang\=en}} into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land.Eason, Cassandra. *Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook*. Greenwood Press. 2008\. p. 56\. {{ISBN\|9780275994259}}. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them [cosmogonically](/wiki/Cosmogony "Cosmogony"). In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths.{{harvnb\|Leeming\|chapter\="Earth\-Diver Creation"\|2011b}}
#### Motif distribution
According to [Gudmund Hatt](/wiki/Gudmund_Hatt "Gudmund Hatt") and [Tristram P. Coffin](/wiki/Tristram_P._Coffin "Tristram P. Coffin"), Earth\-diver myths are common in [Native American folklore](/wiki/Native_American_mythology "Native American mythology"), among the following populations: [Shoshone](/wiki/Shoshone "Shoshone"), [Meskwaki](/wiki/Meskwaki "Meskwaki"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy "Blackfoot Confederacy"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan "Chipewyan"), [Newettee](/wiki/Nahwitti_%28trading_site%29 "Nahwitti (trading site)"), [Yokuts](/wiki/Yokuts "Yokuts") of California, [Mandan](/wiki/Mandan "Mandan"), [Hidatsa](/wiki/Hidatsa "Hidatsa"), [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne "Cheyenne"), [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho "Arapaho"), [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe "Ojibwe"), [Yuchi](/wiki/Yuchi "Yuchi"), and [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee "Cherokee").{{cite book \|title\=Indian Tales of North America: An Anthology for the Adult Reader \|editor\=Tristam P. Coffin \|location\=New York, USA \|date\=1961 \|publisher\=University of Texas Press \|page\=3 \|s2cid\=243789306 \|doi\=10\.7560/735064\-003 \|quote\=The most common Indian myth begins with a primeval water, out of which some animal brings up a few grains of sand or mud which a culture hero then develops into the world}}
American anthropologist [Gladys Reichard](/wiki/Gladys_Reichard "Gladys Reichard") located the distribution of the motif across "all parts of North America", save for "the extreme north, northeast, and southwest".Reichard, Gladys A. "Literary Types and Dissemination of Myths". In: *The Journal of American Folklore* 34, no. 133 (1921\): 274\-275\. [https://doi.org/10\.2307/535151](https://doi.org/10.2307/535151). In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth\-diver motif appeared in "[hunting\-gathering societies](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer "Hunter-gatherer")", mainly among northerly groups such as the [Hare](/wiki/Hare_people "Hare people"), [Dogrib](/wiki/Dogrib "Dogrib"), [Kaska](/wiki/Kaska "Kaska"), [Beaver](/wiki/Beaver_people "Beaver people"), [Carrier](/wiki/Carrier_people "Carrier people"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan "Chipewyan"), [Sarsi](/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation "Tsuutʼina Nation"), [Cree](/wiki/Cree "Cree"), and [Montagnais](/wiki/Innu_people "Innu people").Barnouw, Victor. *Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977\. pp. 59 (map 2\), 57, 60\.
Similar tales are also found among the [Chukchi](/wiki/Chukchi_people "Chukchi people") and [Yukaghir](/wiki/Yukaghir "Yukaghir"), the [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars "Tatars"), and many [Finno\-Ugric](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_mythologies "Finno-Ugric mythologies") traditions,Deviatkina, Tatiana. "[Images of Birds in Mordvinian Mythology](https://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol48/deviatkina.pdf)". In: *Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore* Vo. 48 (2011\). p. 144\. as well as among the [Buryat](/wiki/Buryats "Buryats") and the Samoyed.[Leeming, David Adams](/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming "David Adams Leeming"). *A Dictionary of Asian Mythology*. Oxford University Press. 2001\. p. 55\. {{ISBN\|0\-19\-512052\-3}}. In addition, the earth\-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people "Romani people"),Kornel, Vladislav. "[Gypsy Anecdotes From Hungary: II\-How the Devil assisted God in the Creation of the World](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005721066&view=1up&seq=91&skin=2021)". In: *Gypsy Lore Journal* Vol II, No. 2\. April, 1890\. pp. 67\-68\. Romanian,[Beza, Marcu](/wiki/Marcu_Beza "Marcu Beza"). *Paganism in Romanian Folklore*. London: J. M. Dent \& Sons LTD. 1928\. pp. 120\-123\. [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_creation_myth%23Creation_by_diving "Slavic creation myth#Creation by diving") (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions.Laurinkienė, Nijolė. "[Pasaulio kūrimo motyvai lietuvių pasakojamojoje tautosakoje](https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/7396)" \[The Motifs of creating the world in the Lithuanian narrative folklore]. In: *Liaudies kultūra* Nr. 5 (2002\), p. 9\. {{ISSN\|0236\-0551}}.
The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the [eastern Asiatic](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia") coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") and east to the [North American](/wiki/North_America "North America") continent.{{harvnb\|Booth\|1984\|pages\=168–70}}[Vladimir Napolskikh](/wiki/Vladimir_Napolskikh "Vladimir Napolskikh") (2012\), *[Diving Bird Myth after 20 years 2012](https://www.academia.edu/4918926/Diving_Bird_Myth_after_20_years_2012)* (Earth\-Diver Myth (А812\) in northern Eurasia and North America: twenty years later) However, there are examples of this [mytheme](/wiki/Mytheme "Mytheme") found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African [Yoruba](/wiki/Yoruba_culture "Yoruba culture") creation myth of [Ọbatala](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cbatala "Ọbatala") and [Oduduwa](/wiki/Oduduwa "Oduduwa").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.artsmia.org/world\-myths/artbyculture/kingscrown\_story.html\|title\=King's Crown Story\|website\=The Minneapolis institute of Art}} citing {{cite journal\|first\=P. C. \|last\=Lloyd\|title\=Sacred Kingship and Government among the Yoruba\|journal\=Africa\|volume\=30\|issue\=3\|pages\= 222–223}}[R.D.V. Glasgow](/wiki/Rupert_Glasgow "Rupert Glasgow") (2009\), *The Concept of Water*, p. 28
#### Native American narrative
Characteristic of many Native American myths, earth\-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth\-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found.{{harvnb\|Leonard\|McClure\|2004\|page\=38}}[Thompson, Stith](/wiki/Stith_Thompson "Stith Thompson"). *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\. p. 279\.
Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth\-diver cosmogony is attested in [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology%23Creation "Iroquois mythology#Creation"): a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the [beaver](/wiki/Beaver "Beaver"), the [otter](/wiki/Otter "Otter"), the [duck](/wiki/Duck "Duck"), and the [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat "Muskrat") dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island.[Converse, Harriet Maxwell (Ya\-ie\-wa\-no)](/wiki/Harriet_Maxwell_Converse "Harriet Maxwell Converse"); Parker, Arthur Caswell (Ga\-wa\-so\-wa\-neh) (December 15, 1908\). "[Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois](https://archive.org/details/cu31924055492973/page/n49/mode/1up)". Education Department Bulletin. University of the State of New York: 33\.Brinton, Daniel G. *[The Myths of the New World: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19347/19347-h/19347-h.htm)*. New York: Leypoldt \& Holt. 1868\. pp. 197\-198\.
In a similar story from the [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_people "Seneca people"), people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by [waterfowl](/wiki/Waterfowl "Waterfowl"). A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the [toad](/wiki/Toad "Toad") dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil.Thompson, Stith. *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\. pp. 14\-15, 278\.
In another version from the [Wyandot](/wiki/Wyandot_people "Wyandot people"), the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the [medicine man](/wiki/Medicine_man "Medicine man") recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful.Barbeau, Marius. *Huron and Wyandot mythology, with an appendix containing earlier published records*. Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau. 1915\. pp. 303\-304\.
|
[
"### Earth\\-diver",
"{{Other uses\\|Earthdivers (disambiguation){{!}}Earthdivers}}\nThe earth\\-diver is a common character in various traditional creation myths. In these stories a supreme being usually sends an animal (most often a type of bird, but also crustaceans, insects, and fish in some narratives){{cite book \\|last\\=Hatt \\|first\\=Gudmund \\| author\\-link\\=Gudmund Hatt \\|title\\=Asiatic influences in American folklore \\|date\\=1949 \\|publisher\\=I kommission hos ejnar Munksgaard \\|location\\=København \\|chapter\\=Earth\\-diver\\|pages\\=12–36\\|url\\=http://publ.royalacademy.dk/books/248/1508?lang\\=en}} into the primal waters to find bits of sand or mud with which to build habitable land.Eason, Cassandra. *Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook*. Greenwood Press. 2008\\. p. 56\\. {{ISBN\\|9780275994259}}. Some scholars interpret these myths psychologically while others interpret them [cosmogonically](/wiki/Cosmogony \"Cosmogony\"). In both cases emphasis is placed on beginnings emanating from the depths.{{harvnb\\|Leeming\\|chapter\\=\"Earth\\-Diver Creation\"\\|2011b}}",
"#### Motif distribution",
"According to [Gudmund Hatt](/wiki/Gudmund_Hatt \"Gudmund Hatt\") and [Tristram P. Coffin](/wiki/Tristram_P._Coffin \"Tristram P. Coffin\"), Earth\\-diver myths are common in [Native American folklore](/wiki/Native_American_mythology \"Native American mythology\"), among the following populations: [Shoshone](/wiki/Shoshone \"Shoshone\"), [Meskwaki](/wiki/Meskwaki \"Meskwaki\"), [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy \"Blackfoot Confederacy\"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan \"Chipewyan\"), [Newettee](/wiki/Nahwitti_%28trading_site%29 \"Nahwitti (trading site)\"), [Yokuts](/wiki/Yokuts \"Yokuts\") of California, [Mandan](/wiki/Mandan \"Mandan\"), [Hidatsa](/wiki/Hidatsa \"Hidatsa\"), [Cheyenne](/wiki/Cheyenne \"Cheyenne\"), [Arapaho](/wiki/Arapaho \"Arapaho\"), [Ojibwe](/wiki/Ojibwe \"Ojibwe\"), [Yuchi](/wiki/Yuchi \"Yuchi\"), and [Cherokee](/wiki/Cherokee \"Cherokee\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Indian Tales of North America: An Anthology for the Adult Reader \\|editor\\=Tristam P. Coffin \\|location\\=New York, USA \\|date\\=1961 \\|publisher\\=University of Texas Press \\|page\\=3 \\|s2cid\\=243789306 \\|doi\\=10\\.7560/735064\\-003 \\|quote\\=The most common Indian myth begins with a primeval water, out of which some animal brings up a few grains of sand or mud which a culture hero then develops into the world}}",
"American anthropologist [Gladys Reichard](/wiki/Gladys_Reichard \"Gladys Reichard\") located the distribution of the motif across \"all parts of North America\", save for \"the extreme north, northeast, and southwest\".Reichard, Gladys A. \"Literary Types and Dissemination of Myths\". In: *The Journal of American Folklore* 34, no. 133 (1921\\): 274\\-275\\. [https://doi.org/10\\.2307/535151](https://doi.org/10.2307/535151). In a 1977 study, anthropologist Victor Barnouw surmised that the earth\\-diver motif appeared in \"[hunting\\-gathering societies](/wiki/Hunter-gatherer \"Hunter-gatherer\")\", mainly among northerly groups such as the [Hare](/wiki/Hare_people \"Hare people\"), [Dogrib](/wiki/Dogrib \"Dogrib\"), [Kaska](/wiki/Kaska \"Kaska\"), [Beaver](/wiki/Beaver_people \"Beaver people\"), [Carrier](/wiki/Carrier_people \"Carrier people\"), [Chipewyan](/wiki/Chipewyan \"Chipewyan\"), [Sarsi](/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_Nation \"Tsuutʼina Nation\"), [Cree](/wiki/Cree \"Cree\"), and [Montagnais](/wiki/Innu_people \"Innu people\").Barnouw, Victor. *Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977\\. pp. 59 (map 2\\), 57, 60\\.",
"Similar tales are also found among the [Chukchi](/wiki/Chukchi_people \"Chukchi people\") and [Yukaghir](/wiki/Yukaghir \"Yukaghir\"), the [Tatars](/wiki/Tatars \"Tatars\"), and many [Finno\\-Ugric](/wiki/Finno-Ugric_mythologies \"Finno-Ugric mythologies\") traditions,Deviatkina, Tatiana. \"[Images of Birds in Mordvinian Mythology](https://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol48/deviatkina.pdf)\". In: *Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore* Vo. 48 (2011\\). p. 144\\. as well as among the [Buryat](/wiki/Buryats \"Buryats\") and the Samoyed.[Leeming, David Adams](/wiki/David_Adams_Leeming \"David Adams Leeming\"). *A Dictionary of Asian Mythology*. Oxford University Press. 2001\\. p. 55\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-19\\-512052\\-3}}. In addition, the earth\\-diver motif also exists in narratives from Eastern Europe, namely [Romani](/wiki/Romani_people \"Romani people\"),Kornel, Vladislav. \"[Gypsy Anecdotes From Hungary: II\\-How the Devil assisted God in the Creation of the World](https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015005721066&view=1up&seq=91&skin=2021)\". In: *Gypsy Lore Journal* Vol II, No. 2\\. April, 1890\\. pp. 67\\-68\\. Romanian,[Beza, Marcu](/wiki/Marcu_Beza \"Marcu Beza\"). *Paganism in Romanian Folklore*. London: J. M. Dent \\& Sons LTD. 1928\\. pp. 120\\-123\\. [Slavic](/wiki/Slavic_creation_myth%23Creation_by_diving \"Slavic creation myth#Creation by diving\") (namely, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Belarusian), and Lithuanian mythological traditions.Laurinkienė, Nijolė. \"[Pasaulio kūrimo motyvai lietuvių pasakojamojoje tautosakoje](https://www.lituanistika.lt/content/7396)\" \\[The Motifs of creating the world in the Lithuanian narrative folklore]. In: *Liaudies kultūra* Nr. 5 (2002\\), p. 9\\. {{ISSN\\|0236\\-0551}}.",
"The pattern of distribution of these stories suggest they have a common origin in the [eastern Asiatic](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\") coastal region, spreading as peoples migrated west into [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") and east to the [North American](/wiki/North_America \"North America\") continent.{{harvnb\\|Booth\\|1984\\|pages\\=168–70}}[Vladimir Napolskikh](/wiki/Vladimir_Napolskikh \"Vladimir Napolskikh\") (2012\\), *[Diving Bird Myth after 20 years 2012](https://www.academia.edu/4918926/Diving_Bird_Myth_after_20_years_2012)* (Earth\\-Diver Myth (А812\\) in northern Eurasia and North America: twenty years later) However, there are examples of this [mytheme](/wiki/Mytheme \"Mytheme\") found well outside of this boreal distribution pattern, for example the West African [Yoruba](/wiki/Yoruba_culture \"Yoruba culture\") creation myth of [Ọbatala](/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cbatala \"Ọbatala\") and [Oduduwa](/wiki/Oduduwa \"Oduduwa\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.artsmia.org/world\\-myths/artbyculture/kingscrown\\_story.html\\|title\\=King's Crown Story\\|website\\=The Minneapolis institute of Art}} citing {{cite journal\\|first\\=P. C. \\|last\\=Lloyd\\|title\\=Sacred Kingship and Government among the Yoruba\\|journal\\=Africa\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\= 222–223}}[R.D.V. Glasgow](/wiki/Rupert_Glasgow \"Rupert Glasgow\") (2009\\), *The Concept of Water*, p. 28",
"#### Native American narrative",
"Characteristic of many Native American myths, earth\\-diver creation stories begin as beings and potential forms linger asleep or suspended in the primordial realm. The earth\\-diver is among the first of them to awaken and lay the necessary groundwork by building suitable lands where the coming creation will be able to live. In many cases, these stories will describe a series of failed attempts to make land before the solution is found.{{harvnb\\|Leonard\\|McClure\\|2004\\|page\\=38}}[Thompson, Stith](/wiki/Stith_Thompson \"Stith Thompson\"). *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\\. p. 279\\.",
"Among the indigenous peoples of the Americas, the earth\\-diver cosmogony is attested in [Iroquois mythology](/wiki/Iroquois_mythology%23Creation \"Iroquois mythology#Creation\"): a female sky deity falls from the heavens, and certain animals, the [beaver](/wiki/Beaver \"Beaver\"), the [otter](/wiki/Otter \"Otter\"), the [duck](/wiki/Duck \"Duck\"), and the [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat \"Muskrat\") dive in the waters to fetch mud to construct an island.[Converse, Harriet Maxwell (Ya\\-ie\\-wa\\-no)](/wiki/Harriet_Maxwell_Converse \"Harriet Maxwell Converse\"); Parker, Arthur Caswell (Ga\\-wa\\-so\\-wa\\-neh) (December 15, 1908\\). \"[Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois](https://archive.org/details/cu31924055492973/page/n49/mode/1up)\". Education Department Bulletin. University of the State of New York: 33\\.Brinton, Daniel G. *[The Myths of the New World: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/19347/19347-h/19347-h.htm)*. New York: Leypoldt \\& Holt. 1868\\. pp. 197\\-198\\.",
"In a similar story from the [Seneca](/wiki/Seneca_people \"Seneca people\"), people lived in a sky realm. One day, the chief's daughter was afflicted with a mysterious illness, and the only cure recommended for her (revealed in a dream) was to lie beside a tree and to have it be dug up. The people do so, but a man complains that the tree was their livelihood, and kicks the girl through the hole. She ends up falling from the sky to a world of only water, but is rescued by [waterfowl](/wiki/Waterfowl \"Waterfowl\"). A turtle offers to bear her on its shell, but asked where would be a definitive dwelling place for her. They decide to create land, and the [toad](/wiki/Toad \"Toad\") dives into the depths of the primal sea to get pieces of soil. The toad puts it on the turtle's back, which grows larger with every deposit of soil.Thompson, Stith. *Tales of the North American Indians*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university press, 1929\\. pp. 14\\-15, 278\\.",
"In another version from the [Wyandot](/wiki/Wyandot_people \"Wyandot people\"), the Wyandot lived in heaven. The daughter of the Big Chief (or Mighty Ruler) was sick, so the [medicine man](/wiki/Medicine_man \"Medicine man\") recommends that they dig up the wild apple tree that stands next to the Lodge of the Mighty Ruler, because the remedy is to be found on its roots. However, as the tree has been dug out, the ground begins to sink away, and the treetops catch and carry down the sick daughter with it. As the girl falls from the skies, two swans rescue her on their backs. The birds decide to summon all the Swimmers and the Water Tribes. Many volunteer to dive into the Great Water to fetch bits of earth from the bottom of the sea, but only the toad (female, in the story) is the one successful.Barbeau, Marius. *Huron and Wyandot mythology, with an appendix containing earlier published records*. Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau. 1915\\. pp. 303\\-304\\.",
""
] |
Physical characteristics
------------------------
### Spectral type and color
After its discovery, Pholus was quickly found to be very red in color. The color has been speculated to be due to organic compounds on its surface. It is classified as a Z\-class object on the [Tholen](/wiki/Tholen_classification "Tholen classification") taxonomic scheme.
The object has been classified by astronomers as [RR](/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object%23Colours "Trans-Neptunian object#Colours") and [RR\-U](/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object%23Colours "Trans-Neptunian object#Colours") type, respectively. Polarimetric observations with ESO's [Very Large Telescope](/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope "Very Large Telescope") in 2007 and 2008, revealed noticeable negative polarization at certain phase angles, distinctly different from that of trans\-Neptunian objects. Pholus appears to have a rather homogeneous surface with a small amount of water frost on its darker regions.
The surface composition of Pholus has been estimated from its reflectance spectrum using two spatially segregated components: dark [amorphous carbon](/wiki/Amorphous_carbon "Amorphous carbon") and an intimate mixture of [water](/wiki/Water "Water") ice, [methanol](/wiki/Methanol "Methanol") ice, [olivine](/wiki/Olivine "Olivine") grains, and complex organic compounds ([tholins](/wiki/Tholin "Tholin")). The [carbon black](/wiki/Carbon_black "Carbon black") component was used to match the low [albedo](/wiki/Albedo "Albedo") of the object. Unlike [Chiron](/wiki/2060_Chiron "2060 Chiron"), Pholus has shown no signs of [cometary](/wiki/Comet "Comet") activity.
### Diameter and albedo
Diameter calculations range from 99 to 190 kilometers with a corresponding [albedo](/wiki/Geometric_albedo "Geometric albedo") between 0\.155 and 0\.04\.
According to the [Herschel Space Observatory](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory "Herschel Space Observatory") with its [PACS](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory%23PACS "Herschel Space Observatory#PACS") instrument, Pholus measures 99 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an [albedo](/wiki/Astronomical_albedo "Astronomical albedo") of 0\.155, while a study from 1996 derived a diameter of 185 km. During 2003–2004, observations with the 1\.8\-meter [Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope](/wiki/Vatican_Advanced_Technology_Telescope "Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope") (VATT) on [Mount Graham Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Graham_Observatory "Mount Graham Observatory"), Arizona, determined an elongated shape, {{val\|310\|x\|160\|x\|150\|u\=km}}, with a mean diameter of 190 kilometers, based on a low albedo of 0\.04\. Johnston's archive lists a diameter of 107 km with an albedo of 0\.126, and *Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link* assumes a standard albedo of a [carbonaceous](/wiki/C-type_asteroid "C-type asteroid") body of 0\.057 and derives a diameter of 165 km based on an [absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude "Absolute magnitude") of 7\.64\.
### Rotation period
In March 2005, a rotational [lightcurve](/wiki/Lightcurve "Lightcurve") of Pholus was obtained from [photometric](/wiki/Photometry_%28astronomy%29 "Photometry (astronomy)") observations by Tegler using the VATT at Mount Graham. Lightcurve analysis gave a [rotation period](/wiki/Rotation_period "Rotation period") of 9\.980 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0\.60 [magnitude](/wiki/Magnitude_%28astronomy%29 "Magnitude (astronomy)") ({{small\|\[\[LCDB quality code\|U\=3\-]]}}). Alternative period determinations were also conducted by Hoffmann, Franham, and Buie with concurring results of 9\.977, 9\.982, and 9\.983 hours, respectively ({{small\|\[\[LCDB quality code\|U\=3/3/3]]}}).
|
[
"Physical characteristics\n------------------------",
"### Spectral type and color",
"After its discovery, Pholus was quickly found to be very red in color. The color has been speculated to be due to organic compounds on its surface. It is classified as a Z\\-class object on the [Tholen](/wiki/Tholen_classification \"Tholen classification\") taxonomic scheme.",
"The object has been classified by astronomers as [RR](/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object%23Colours \"Trans-Neptunian object#Colours\") and [RR\\-U](/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object%23Colours \"Trans-Neptunian object#Colours\") type, respectively. Polarimetric observations with ESO's [Very Large Telescope](/wiki/Very_Large_Telescope \"Very Large Telescope\") in 2007 and 2008, revealed noticeable negative polarization at certain phase angles, distinctly different from that of trans\\-Neptunian objects. Pholus appears to have a rather homogeneous surface with a small amount of water frost on its darker regions.",
"The surface composition of Pholus has been estimated from its reflectance spectrum using two spatially segregated components: dark [amorphous carbon](/wiki/Amorphous_carbon \"Amorphous carbon\") and an intimate mixture of [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\") ice, [methanol](/wiki/Methanol \"Methanol\") ice, [olivine](/wiki/Olivine \"Olivine\") grains, and complex organic compounds ([tholins](/wiki/Tholin \"Tholin\")). The [carbon black](/wiki/Carbon_black \"Carbon black\") component was used to match the low [albedo](/wiki/Albedo \"Albedo\") of the object. Unlike [Chiron](/wiki/2060_Chiron \"2060 Chiron\"), Pholus has shown no signs of [cometary](/wiki/Comet \"Comet\") activity.",
"### Diameter and albedo",
"Diameter calculations range from 99 to 190 kilometers with a corresponding [albedo](/wiki/Geometric_albedo \"Geometric albedo\") between 0\\.155 and 0\\.04\\.",
"According to the [Herschel Space Observatory](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory \"Herschel Space Observatory\") with its [PACS](/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory%23PACS \"Herschel Space Observatory#PACS\") instrument, Pholus measures 99 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an [albedo](/wiki/Astronomical_albedo \"Astronomical albedo\") of 0\\.155, while a study from 1996 derived a diameter of 185 km. During 2003–2004, observations with the 1\\.8\\-meter [Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope](/wiki/Vatican_Advanced_Technology_Telescope \"Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope\") (VATT) on [Mount Graham Observatory](/wiki/Mount_Graham_Observatory \"Mount Graham Observatory\"), Arizona, determined an elongated shape, {{val\\|310\\|x\\|160\\|x\\|150\\|u\\=km}}, with a mean diameter of 190 kilometers, based on a low albedo of 0\\.04\\. Johnston's archive lists a diameter of 107 km with an albedo of 0\\.126, and *Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link* assumes a standard albedo of a [carbonaceous](/wiki/C-type_asteroid \"C-type asteroid\") body of 0\\.057 and derives a diameter of 165 km based on an [absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude \"Absolute magnitude\") of 7\\.64\\.",
"### Rotation period",
"In March 2005, a rotational [lightcurve](/wiki/Lightcurve \"Lightcurve\") of Pholus was obtained from [photometric](/wiki/Photometry_%28astronomy%29 \"Photometry (astronomy)\") observations by Tegler using the VATT at Mount Graham. Lightcurve analysis gave a [rotation period](/wiki/Rotation_period \"Rotation period\") of 9\\.980 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0\\.60 [magnitude](/wiki/Magnitude_%28astronomy%29 \"Magnitude (astronomy)\") ({{small\\|\\[\\[LCDB quality code\\|U\\=3\\-]]}}). Alternative period determinations were also conducted by Hoffmann, Franham, and Buie with concurring results of 9\\.977, 9\\.982, and 9\\.983 hours, respectively ({{small\\|\\[\\[LCDB quality code\\|U\\=3/3/3]]}}).",
""
] |
Operations
----------
The Group has a current market share in Botswana of 30%, according to an independent survey conducted by Briggs and Associates{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2023}}.
The South African operations are executed through a wholly owned subsidiary Choppies Supermarkets SA (Proprietary) Limited, which operates in the [Limpopo](/wiki/Limpopo "Limpopo"), [North\-West](/wiki/North_West_%28South_African_province%29 "North West (South African province)") and [Free State](/wiki/Free_State_%28province%29 "Free State (province)") provinces.
### Distribution and supply
Choppies' [distribution centres](/wiki/Distribution_centre "Distribution centre") function as a central sourcing for Choppies stores. The company's top 200 products are delivered in bulk to the distribution centres and then distributed from there to the stores. Other products are delivered from the source to the stores directly. Choppies operates two distribution centres in Botswana; one in the International Commerce Park in [Gaborone](/wiki/Gaborone "Gaborone"), and the other in Lobatse. A new 10,000m2 South African distribution centre opened in September 2012 in [Rustenburg](/wiki/Rustenburg "Rustenburg") to serve the South African stores.
Welldone (Proprietary) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Choppies Group, is a logistics company that supports the day\-to\-day operations of the stores.
In 2008, the first store in [Zeerust](/wiki/Zeerust "Zeerust"), South Africa was opened there by expanding in the north west region. 2014 was the year when the group opened its first distribution centre in Zimbabwe and in the year 2016 the secondary listing was done in the Johannesburg stock exchange. By the end of 2015 Zambian operations began and in early 2016 saw the acquisition of Jwayelani group in [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban"), South Africa. Kenyan acquisition of [Ulkwala](/wiki/Ukwala_Supermarkets "Ukwala Supermarkets") group was also carried out in early 2016\. As part of long term growth plan the group opened its first store in Tanzania and Mozambique in 2017\.
|
[
"Operations\n----------",
"The Group has a current market share in Botswana of 30%, according to an independent survey conducted by Briggs and Associates{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2023}}.",
"The South African operations are executed through a wholly owned subsidiary Choppies Supermarkets SA (Proprietary) Limited, which operates in the [Limpopo](/wiki/Limpopo \"Limpopo\"), [North\\-West](/wiki/North_West_%28South_African_province%29 \"North West (South African province)\") and [Free State](/wiki/Free_State_%28province%29 \"Free State (province)\") provinces.",
"### Distribution and supply",
"Choppies' [distribution centres](/wiki/Distribution_centre \"Distribution centre\") function as a central sourcing for Choppies stores. The company's top 200 products are delivered in bulk to the distribution centres and then distributed from there to the stores. Other products are delivered from the source to the stores directly. Choppies operates two distribution centres in Botswana; one in the International Commerce Park in [Gaborone](/wiki/Gaborone \"Gaborone\"), and the other in Lobatse. A new 10,000m2 South African distribution centre opened in September 2012 in [Rustenburg](/wiki/Rustenburg \"Rustenburg\") to serve the South African stores.",
"Welldone (Proprietary) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Choppies Group, is a logistics company that supports the day\\-to\\-day operations of the stores.",
"In 2008, the first store in [Zeerust](/wiki/Zeerust \"Zeerust\"), South Africa was opened there by expanding in the north west region. 2014 was the year when the group opened its first distribution centre in Zimbabwe and in the year 2016 the secondary listing was done in the Johannesburg stock exchange. By the end of 2015 Zambian operations began and in early 2016 saw the acquisition of Jwayelani group in [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\"), South Africa. Kenyan acquisition of [Ulkwala](/wiki/Ukwala_Supermarkets \"Ukwala Supermarkets\") group was also carried out in early 2016\\. As part of long term growth plan the group opened its first store in Tanzania and Mozambique in 2017\\.",
""
] |
20th century
------------
### Early 20th century
The fall of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") in 1911 brought civil unrest, and the start of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") in 1914 saw many European officers enlist and return to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"). In the 1920s and 1930s, Hong Kong's general peace was punctuated by bouts of [civil unrest](/wiki/Civil_disorder "Civil disorder") sparked by labour disputes, instability in China and Japanese militarism. When war came again in 1941, an unknown number of police officers and reserves \- Chinese, Indian, European and Eurasian \- had their lives taken by the Japanese during both the main conflict and the [occupation](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong "Japanese occupation of Hong Kong").
### World War II
[thumb\|200px\|left\|Model of Hong Kong [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai "Kempeitai") officer in uniform](/wiki/File:HK_SKW_Museum_of_Coastal_Defence_1940s_Japanese.JPG "HK SKW Museum of Coastal Defence 1940s Japanese.JPG")
From 1942 to 1945, Japan occupied Hong Kong and the HKPF was temporarily disbanded and replaced by Japanese [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai "Kempeitai"),Carroll, John Mark. \[2007] (2007\). A concise history of Hong Kong. {{ISBN\|0\-7425\-3422\-7}}, {{ISBN\|978\-0\-7425\-3422\-3}}. p 123\-125, p 129\. which was headquartered at the [Legislative Council Building](/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Hong_Kong "Old Supreme Court Building, Hong Kong").
After the war, the mechanism of government in Hong Kong was in shambles; no men or equipment, devastated buildings and important resources like intelligence files, fingerprints, criminal records and personnel documents all lost or destroyed. The Water Police had four barely serviceable launches. Nevertheless, the situation presented an opportunity to "start from scratch" and after the 'British Military Administration', during which [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel") [C.H. Sansom](/wiki/C.H._Sansom "C.H. Sansom") headed the force, Hong Kong was in a position to stand on its own feet again in May 1946\.
When Japan [invaded](/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong "Battle of Hong Kong") Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the [Commissioner of Police](/wiki/Commissioner_of_Police_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Commissioner of Police (Hong Kong)") was [John Pennefather\-Evans](/wiki/John_Pennefather-Evans "John Pennefather-Evans"), and through his wartime internment, he worked secretly to draft a conceptual plan for the reorganisation of the force, presenting his plan in July 1946{{Where\|date\=July 2012}}. Although he was not to head the force after the war, his plans were both sound and progressive{{How\|date\=July 2012}}. [Governor Sir Mark Young](/wiki/Mark_Aitchison_Young "Mark Aitchison Young") broadly supported them, and they were implemented under Commissioner [Duncan Macintosh](/wiki/Duncan_Macintosh "Duncan Macintosh") thereby generating the foundation of today's structure and philosophy. The proposals included equality in recruitment and promotion for local officers and the cessation of recruitment of European [constables](/wiki/Constable "Constable"). Moreover, doubts about the willingness of the Hong Kong people to accept Indian officers who had worked, and often abused their authority under the Japanese administration{{How\|date\=July 2012}} (December 1941 until August 1945\) forced authorities to wind down the Sikh contingent. Instead, [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan "Pakistan") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong "Shandong") Chinese were recruited as constables, and this went on until the early 1960s. The last European inspectorate officers joined in 1994\. The first female inspector joined in 1949, followed by the first intake of Woman Police Constables in 1951 \- currently about 14 percent of the force is female, being represented in all ranks between constable and assistant commissioner.
### Second half of the century
In 1945, firefighting responsibilities passed to a [separate fire brigade](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Fire_Services "Hong Kong Fire Services"). The 1950s saw the start of Hong Kong's forty\-year rise to global eminence. Throughout this period, the Hong Kong Police had successfully tackled many issues that had challenged the city's stability. Between 1949 and 1989, for example, Hong Kong experienced several huge waves of immigration from mainland China, most notably the period from 1958 to 1962\.
The most serious challenge to the force has been civil disorder. In 1956, supporters of the China Nationalist movement defied government regulations providing the pretext for the eruption of conflict with pro\-[Communist](/wiki/Communism "Communism") activists and sympathisers \- serious disorder was suppressed by the force with assistance from the [British military](/wiki/British_Armed_Forces "British Armed Forces"). In 1966, Communist groups fanned the flames of discontent: [Riots](/wiki/Riot "Riot") broke out over a price rise on the [Star Ferry](/wiki/Star_Ferry "Star Ferry"). Following this, in the spring of 1967, at the time of the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution "Cultural Revolution") in [China](/wiki/China "China"), [left\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing "Left-wing") workers instigated long and bloody riots. The Hong Kong Police lost ten men during the turmoil which saw a [ten\-month campaign of insurrection, bombing and murder](/wiki/Hong_Kong_1967_riots "Hong Kong 1967 riots"). For its determined and successful efforts in suppressing this lengthy insurrection, the Hong Kong Police were granted the "Royal" prefix in 1969\. [Princess Alexandra](/wiki/Princess_Alexandra%2C_The_Honourable_Lady_Ogilvy "Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy") was appointed by Queen [Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II "Elizabeth II") to become the Commandant General of the Royal Hong Kong Police.{{when\|date\=October 2019}}
In 1961, the responsibility for [immigration](/wiki/Immigration_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Immigration Department (Hong Kong)"), [customs, and excise duties](/wiki/Customs_and_Excise_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 "Customs and Excise Department (Hong Kong)") passed out of the duties of the Hong Kong Police Force.
Corruption emerged as a prominent issue in Hong Kong in the 1960s; the Hong Kong Police—as did almost every government department—experienced this{{Why\|date\=July 2012}} and it peaked between 1962 and 1974, involving officers of all ranks and ethnicities.{{Why\|date\=July 2012}} Motives and opportunities for corruption were many and varied, but mainly included poor pay and worries about China invading and abolishing pensions, while opportunities resulted from the vibrant growth in economic progress and its industrious, self\-starting people were forming thousands of small street\-level businesses all ripe for "protection."
During this time, the police, along with members of departments like Public Works, Fire, Transport and others, all had their own distinct methods of earning [illicit](/wiki/Illicit_work "Illicit work") income to boost their meagre wages. Members of the police were offenders with the highest profile and took most opprobrium. It took the determined stance of [Governor MacLehose](/wiki/Murray_MacLehose "Murray MacLehose"), together with Commissioner Charles Payne Sutcliffe, to instigate the firmest of measures to eradicate syndicated corruption—and the establishment of the [Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC)](/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_of_Hong_Kong "Independent Commission Against Corruption of Hong Kong") in 1974 was the prime one. After teething troubles, including a mass walkout by officers in 1977, by the early '80s a combination of the ICAC, firm police management, better emoluments and an amnesty had succeeded in destroying the overall culture, removing powerful figures, educating against greed and increasing instances of accountability.
In the 1970s and 1980s, large numbers of [Vietnamese people](/wiki/Vietnamese_people "Vietnamese people") arrived in Hong Kong, putting considerable strain on police resources{{Snd}} first for the marine police who intercepted them, then for the officers who processed them and manned the dozens of camps in the territory, and lastly for those who had to repatriate unsuccessful asylum applicants up until 1997\.
On 1 July 1997, when China resumed sovereignty over Hong Kong, the "Royal" prefix was removed from the force's title, changing it to "Hong Kong Police Force".{{cite web \|title\=Chapter 4 Changes to the Policing Model and the Return of Hong Kong to China 1994–1999 \|url\=https://www.police.gov.hk/ppp\_en/01\_about\_us/ph\_04\.html \|website\=\[\[Hong Kong Police Force]] \|language\=en \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 }} The [crest](/wiki/Crest_%28heraldry%29 "Crest (heraldry)") was also changed, replacing the royal crown with a [bauhinia](/wiki/Bauhinia_%C3%97_blakeana "Bauhinia × blakeana") emblem.{{cite web \|title\=4\) Changes to the Policing Model and the Return of Hong Kong to China 1994–1999 \|url\=https://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/history/chapter04\_en.pdf \|website\=\[\[Hong Kong Police Force]] \|access\-date\=25 November 2019 \|page\=2 \|language\=en \|quote\=... the Force changed its title on 1 July 1997 to the 'Hong Kong Police Force' and adopted a new crest, replacing the royal crown with a bauhinia emblem.}}
|
[
"20th century\n------------",
"### Early 20th century",
"The fall of the [Qing dynasty](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") in 1911 brought civil unrest, and the start of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in 1914 saw many European officers enlist and return to the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"). In the 1920s and 1930s, Hong Kong's general peace was punctuated by bouts of [civil unrest](/wiki/Civil_disorder \"Civil disorder\") sparked by labour disputes, instability in China and Japanese militarism. When war came again in 1941, an unknown number of police officers and reserves \\- Chinese, Indian, European and Eurasian \\- had their lives taken by the Japanese during both the main conflict and the [occupation](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong \"Japanese occupation of Hong Kong\").",
"### World War II",
"[thumb\\|200px\\|left\\|Model of Hong Kong [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai \"Kempeitai\") officer in uniform](/wiki/File:HK_SKW_Museum_of_Coastal_Defence_1940s_Japanese.JPG \"HK SKW Museum of Coastal Defence 1940s Japanese.JPG\")\nFrom 1942 to 1945, Japan occupied Hong Kong and the HKPF was temporarily disbanded and replaced by Japanese [Kempeitai](/wiki/Kempeitai \"Kempeitai\"),Carroll, John Mark. \\[2007] (2007\\). A concise history of Hong Kong. {{ISBN\\|0\\-7425\\-3422\\-7}}, {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-7425\\-3422\\-3}}. p 123\\-125, p 129\\. which was headquartered at the [Legislative Council Building](/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Building%2C_Hong_Kong \"Old Supreme Court Building, Hong Kong\").",
"After the war, the mechanism of government in Hong Kong was in shambles; no men or equipment, devastated buildings and important resources like intelligence files, fingerprints, criminal records and personnel documents all lost or destroyed. The Water Police had four barely serviceable launches. Nevertheless, the situation presented an opportunity to \"start from scratch\" and after the 'British Military Administration', during which [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\") [C.H. Sansom](/wiki/C.H._Sansom \"C.H. Sansom\") headed the force, Hong Kong was in a position to stand on its own feet again in May 1946\\.",
"When Japan [invaded](/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong \"Battle of Hong Kong\") Hong Kong on 8 December 1941, the [Commissioner of Police](/wiki/Commissioner_of_Police_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Commissioner of Police (Hong Kong)\") was [John Pennefather\\-Evans](/wiki/John_Pennefather-Evans \"John Pennefather-Evans\"), and through his wartime internment, he worked secretly to draft a conceptual plan for the reorganisation of the force, presenting his plan in July 1946{{Where\\|date\\=July 2012}}. Although he was not to head the force after the war, his plans were both sound and progressive{{How\\|date\\=July 2012}}. [Governor Sir Mark Young](/wiki/Mark_Aitchison_Young \"Mark Aitchison Young\") broadly supported them, and they were implemented under Commissioner [Duncan Macintosh](/wiki/Duncan_Macintosh \"Duncan Macintosh\") thereby generating the foundation of today's structure and philosophy. The proposals included equality in recruitment and promotion for local officers and the cessation of recruitment of European [constables](/wiki/Constable \"Constable\"). Moreover, doubts about the willingness of the Hong Kong people to accept Indian officers who had worked, and often abused their authority under the Japanese administration{{How\\|date\\=July 2012}} (December 1941 until August 1945\\) forced authorities to wind down the Sikh contingent. Instead, [Pakistani](/wiki/Pakistan \"Pakistan\") and [Shandong](/wiki/Shandong \"Shandong\") Chinese were recruited as constables, and this went on until the early 1960s. The last European inspectorate officers joined in 1994\\. The first female inspector joined in 1949, followed by the first intake of Woman Police Constables in 1951 \\- currently about 14 percent of the force is female, being represented in all ranks between constable and assistant commissioner.",
"### Second half of the century",
"In 1945, firefighting responsibilities passed to a [separate fire brigade](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Fire_Services \"Hong Kong Fire Services\"). The 1950s saw the start of Hong Kong's forty\\-year rise to global eminence. Throughout this period, the Hong Kong Police had successfully tackled many issues that had challenged the city's stability. Between 1949 and 1989, for example, Hong Kong experienced several huge waves of immigration from mainland China, most notably the period from 1958 to 1962\\.",
"The most serious challenge to the force has been civil disorder. In 1956, supporters of the China Nationalist movement defied government regulations providing the pretext for the eruption of conflict with pro\\-[Communist](/wiki/Communism \"Communism\") activists and sympathisers \\- serious disorder was suppressed by the force with assistance from the [British military](/wiki/British_Armed_Forces \"British Armed Forces\"). In 1966, Communist groups fanned the flames of discontent: [Riots](/wiki/Riot \"Riot\") broke out over a price rise on the [Star Ferry](/wiki/Star_Ferry \"Star Ferry\"). Following this, in the spring of 1967, at the time of the [Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\") in [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), [left\\-wing](/wiki/Left-wing \"Left-wing\") workers instigated long and bloody riots. The Hong Kong Police lost ten men during the turmoil which saw a [ten\\-month campaign of insurrection, bombing and murder](/wiki/Hong_Kong_1967_riots \"Hong Kong 1967 riots\"). For its determined and successful efforts in suppressing this lengthy insurrection, the Hong Kong Police were granted the \"Royal\" prefix in 1969\\. [Princess Alexandra](/wiki/Princess_Alexandra%2C_The_Honourable_Lady_Ogilvy \"Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy\") was appointed by Queen [Elizabeth II](/wiki/Elizabeth_II \"Elizabeth II\") to become the Commandant General of the Royal Hong Kong Police.{{when\\|date\\=October 2019}}",
"In 1961, the responsibility for [immigration](/wiki/Immigration_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Immigration Department (Hong Kong)\"), [customs, and excise duties](/wiki/Customs_and_Excise_Department_%28Hong_Kong%29 \"Customs and Excise Department (Hong Kong)\") passed out of the duties of the Hong Kong Police Force.",
"Corruption emerged as a prominent issue in Hong Kong in the 1960s; the Hong Kong Police—as did almost every government department—experienced this{{Why\\|date\\=July 2012}} and it peaked between 1962 and 1974, involving officers of all ranks and ethnicities.{{Why\\|date\\=July 2012}} Motives and opportunities for corruption were many and varied, but mainly included poor pay and worries about China invading and abolishing pensions, while opportunities resulted from the vibrant growth in economic progress and its industrious, self\\-starting people were forming thousands of small street\\-level businesses all ripe for \"protection.\"",
"During this time, the police, along with members of departments like Public Works, Fire, Transport and others, all had their own distinct methods of earning [illicit](/wiki/Illicit_work \"Illicit work\") income to boost their meagre wages. Members of the police were offenders with the highest profile and took most opprobrium. It took the determined stance of [Governor MacLehose](/wiki/Murray_MacLehose \"Murray MacLehose\"), together with Commissioner Charles Payne Sutcliffe, to instigate the firmest of measures to eradicate syndicated corruption—and the establishment of the [Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC)](/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_of_Hong_Kong \"Independent Commission Against Corruption of Hong Kong\") in 1974 was the prime one. After teething troubles, including a mass walkout by officers in 1977, by the early '80s a combination of the ICAC, firm police management, better emoluments and an amnesty had succeeded in destroying the overall culture, removing powerful figures, educating against greed and increasing instances of accountability.",
"In the 1970s and 1980s, large numbers of [Vietnamese people](/wiki/Vietnamese_people \"Vietnamese people\") arrived in Hong Kong, putting considerable strain on police resources{{Snd}} first for the marine police who intercepted them, then for the officers who processed them and manned the dozens of camps in the territory, and lastly for those who had to repatriate unsuccessful asylum applicants up until 1997\\.",
"On 1 July 1997, when China resumed sovereignty over Hong Kong, the \"Royal\" prefix was removed from the force's title, changing it to \"Hong Kong Police Force\".{{cite web \\|title\\=Chapter 4 Changes to the Policing Model and the Return of Hong Kong to China 1994–1999 \\|url\\=https://www.police.gov.hk/ppp\\_en/01\\_about\\_us/ph\\_04\\.html \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hong Kong Police Force]] \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 }} The [crest](/wiki/Crest_%28heraldry%29 \"Crest (heraldry)\") was also changed, replacing the royal crown with a [bauhinia](/wiki/Bauhinia_%C3%97_blakeana \"Bauhinia × blakeana\") emblem.{{cite web \\|title\\=4\\) Changes to the Policing Model and the Return of Hong Kong to China 1994–1999 \\|url\\=https://www.police.gov.hk/info/doc/history/chapter04\\_en.pdf \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hong Kong Police Force]] \\|access\\-date\\=25 November 2019 \\|page\\=2 \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=... the Force changed its title on 1 July 1997 to the 'Hong Kong Police Force' and adopted a new crest, replacing the royal crown with a bauhinia emblem.}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Tivoli was [incorporated](/wiki/Municipal_corporation "Municipal corporation") as a [village](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_New_York%23Village "Administrative divisions of New York#Village") of the [Town of Red Hook](/wiki/Red_Hook_%28town%29%2C_New_York "Red Hook (town), New York") in 1872, after a period of tremendous growth due to commerce along the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River "Hudson River"). Two smaller existing settlements, Upper Red Hook Landing and Madalin, were combined in the new municipality.
As soon as the village came into existence, its government discussed the need for a new firehouse to serve the community. These discussions continued for a quarter\-century, during which its commercial importance began to decline. In 1896 the Village Board passed legislation creating a fire department and calling a special election to decide how it would be financed. Two years later [John Watts De Peyster](/wiki/John_Watts_De_Peyster "John Watts De Peyster"), a wealthy resident of the area and village president as well as an influential authority on firefighting, saved the village the trouble by hiring local architect Michael O'Connor to design a new firehouse. Once it was built, he leased it to the village.
In 1900, during a tax dispute with the village, he barred the board from meeting there. He had also threatened to close the firehouse if his estranged son, who had been elected village president, was allowed in the building. Seven years later, upon his death, the lease passed to a local orphanage he had founded. That arrangement lasted until 1921, when his descendants bought the lease from the orphanage and donated the building to the village.
Since 1986, when a new firehouse was built, the building has been the location of the [Tivoli Village Offices](/wiki/Tivoli%2C_New_York%23Government "Tivoli, New York#Government") and [Tivoli Free Library](http://www.tivolilibrary.org/), as well as the Tivoli Bays Visitor Center of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve.
The Watts de Peyster Fireman's Hall was restored and renovated in 1994\.Restoration plaque on building, to right of front door.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Tivoli was [incorporated](/wiki/Municipal_corporation \"Municipal corporation\") as a [village](/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_New_York%23Village \"Administrative divisions of New York#Village\") of the [Town of Red Hook](/wiki/Red_Hook_%28town%29%2C_New_York \"Red Hook (town), New York\") in 1872, after a period of tremendous growth due to commerce along the [Hudson River](/wiki/Hudson_River \"Hudson River\"). Two smaller existing settlements, Upper Red Hook Landing and Madalin, were combined in the new municipality.",
"As soon as the village came into existence, its government discussed the need for a new firehouse to serve the community. These discussions continued for a quarter\\-century, during which its commercial importance began to decline. In 1896 the Village Board passed legislation creating a fire department and calling a special election to decide how it would be financed. Two years later [John Watts De Peyster](/wiki/John_Watts_De_Peyster \"John Watts De Peyster\"), a wealthy resident of the area and village president as well as an influential authority on firefighting, saved the village the trouble by hiring local architect Michael O'Connor to design a new firehouse. Once it was built, he leased it to the village.",
"In 1900, during a tax dispute with the village, he barred the board from meeting there. He had also threatened to close the firehouse if his estranged son, who had been elected village president, was allowed in the building. Seven years later, upon his death, the lease passed to a local orphanage he had founded. That arrangement lasted until 1921, when his descendants bought the lease from the orphanage and donated the building to the village.",
"Since 1986, when a new firehouse was built, the building has been the location of the [Tivoli Village Offices](/wiki/Tivoli%2C_New_York%23Government \"Tivoli, New York#Government\") and [Tivoli Free Library](http://www.tivolilibrary.org/), as well as the Tivoli Bays Visitor Center of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve.",
"The Watts de Peyster Fireman's Hall was restored and renovated in 1994\\.Restoration plaque on building, to right of front door.",
""
] |
The emergence of the back\-to\-Africa movement
----------------------------------------------
Much of the African\-American population was freed people seeking opportunity. Many Southern freed blacks migrated to the industrial North to seek employment, while others moved to surrounding Southern states.{{cite book \|last1\=Jenkins \|first1\=David \|title\=Black Zion: The Return of Afro\-Americans and West Indians to Africa \|date\=1975 \|publisher\=\[\[Wildwood House (publisher)\|Wildwood House]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-7045\-0116\-4 \|pages\=41–43 }} No one anywhere wanted them; they were seen as [perpetual foreigners](/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner "Perpetual foreigner") who, by working for less, took jobs from citizens. Whites were not used to sharing space with blacks in a context outside of chattel slavery. Many did not believe that free blacks had a place in America.Kenneth C. Barnes, *Journey of Hope: The Back\-to\-Africa Movement in Arkan* (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004\), 3\.
In the North, many whites believed that blacks could not achieve equality in the United States and therefore pushed for their emigration to Africa,{{cite book \|last1\=Dixon \|first1\=Rebecca S. \|chapter\=Back to Africa Movement \|page\=28 \|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=lNHVLB7Xc9IC\&pg\=PA28 \|editor1\-last\=Smith \|editor1\-first\=Jessie Carney \|editor2\-last\=Wynn \|editor2\-first\=Linda T. \|title\=Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=Visible Ink Press \|isbn\=978\-1\-57859\-260\-9 }} even though most had been born in the U.S. and had never seen Africa.
Such sentiment was not exclusive to Northerners. One proponent of the colonization movement, Solomon Parker of [Hampshire County, Virginia](/wiki/Hampshire_County%2C_Virginia "Hampshire County, Virginia"), was quoted as having said: "I am not willing that the Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain in the United States.... Am opposed to slavery and also opposed to freeing blacks to stay in our Country and do sincerely hope that the time is approaching when our Land shall be rid of them."{{cite journal \|last1\=Ailes \|first1\=Jane \|last2\=Tyler\-McGraw \|first2\=Marie \|title\=Leaving Virginia for Liberia: Western Virginia Emigrants and Emancipators \|journal\=West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies \|date\=2012 \|volume\=6 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=1–34 \|doi\=10\.1353/wvh.2012\.0021 \|s2cid\=159669576 }}
Riots swept the free states in waves, usually in urban areas where there had been recent immigration of blacks from the South. The height of these riots was in 1819, with 25 riots recorded, resulting in many injuries and fatalities,Ronald L. F. Davis, ["Creating Jim Crow"](http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020614223755/http://jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2\.htm \|date\=2002\-06\-14 }}, The History of Jim Crow. Accessed 14 October 2007\. although riots continued up through the 1830s (see [anti\-abolitionism in the North](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States%23Anti-abolitionism_in_the_North "Abolitionism in the United States#Anti-abolitionism in the North")). The back\-to\-Africa movement was seen as the solution to these problems by both groups, with more support from the white population than the black population. Blacks often viewed the project with skepticism, particularly among the middle\-class, who feared that the Colonization movement was a ploy to deport freed African Americans to restrict their efforts against slavery. Shortly after the foundation of the [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society "American Colonization Society"), 3,000 free blacks gathered in a church in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia "Philadelphia") and issued forth a declaration stating that they "will never separate ourselves voluntarily from the slave population of the country."{{cite journal\|title\=The Noyes Academy, 1834–35: The Road to the Oberlin Collegiate Institute and the Higher Education of African\-Americans in the Nineteenth Century\|last1\=Irvine\|first1\=Russell W.\|last2\=Dunkerton\|first2\=Donna Zani\|journal\=Western Journal of Black Studies\|date\=Winter 1998\|volume\=22\|issue\=4\|pages\=260–273\|id\={{ProQuest\|200334994}}}}{{rp\|261}} Similarly, black leaders, such as [James Forten](/wiki/James_Forten "James Forten"), who had previously supported the Colonization Movement, changed their minds as a result of widespread black resistance to the idea.White, Deborah Gray. "Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic." In ''Freedom on my mind''. S.l.: Bedford Bks St Martin's, 2012, pp. 186–188\.
### Religious motivations for colonization
Following the [Great Awakening](/wiki/Great_Awakening "Great Awakening"), in which America was swept by a wave of religious fervor, many enslaved African Americans converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity "Christianity"). At the same time, many religious people in America struggled to reconcile slavery with their beliefs. [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers_in_North_America "Quakers in North America") in particular found difficulty in continued support for the enslavement of their brothers in Christ. For example, Reverend Moses Tichnell and Reverend Samuel R. Houston freed slaves and sent them to Liberia in 1855 and 1856 respectively. These two men, believing that they were morally obligated to finance such voyages, played an important role in the colonization movement.
### American Colonization Society
{{Main\|American Colonization Society}}
The [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society "American Colonization Society") (ACS) was an early advocate of the idea of resettling American\-born blacks in Africa. Founded in 1816 by Dr. [Robert Finley](/wiki/Robert_Finley "Robert Finley"), it was composed of two core groups: abolitionists and slave owners. Abolitionist members believed in freeing African slaves, along with their descendants, and providing them with the opportunity to return to Africa. Slave\-owning members believed free blacks endangered the system of slavery and sought to expel them from America by means of migration.{{Cite web\|url\=http://personal.denison.edu/\~waite/liberia/history/acs.htm\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923185003/http://personal.denison.edu/\~waite/liberia/history/acs.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=The American Colonization Society.\|archivedate\=September 23, 2017}}{{self\-published inline\|date\=July 2020}}
The American Colonization Society came under attack from American abolitionists, who insisted that the removal of freed slaves from the United States reinforced the institution of slavery.{{Cite web \|last1\=Douglass \|first1\=Frederick \|last2\=Brown \|first2\=John \|last3\=Stowe \|first3\=Harriet Beecher \|last4\=Reynolds \|first4\=William \|last5\=Garrison \|first5\=William Lloyd \|date\=1998\-02\-09 \|title\=Abolition, Anti\-Slavery Movements, and the Rise of the Sectional Controversy \- The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship {{!}} Exhibitions (Library of Congress) \|url\=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african\-american\-odyssey/abolition.html \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-23 \|website\=www.loc.gov}}
Since its inception, the American Colonization Society struggled to garner support from within free black communities. During the late 1840s and early 1850s, the creation of an independent [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia "Liberia") state splintered the nearly uniform voice against colonization. The [Fugitive Slave Act of 1850](/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850 "Fugitive Slave Act of 1850") provided the United States government ample power to recapture fugitive slaves. Following its passage, many black leaders promoted emigration and colonization to a nation that would provide and protect their rights.{{cite journal \|last1\=Mills \|first1\=Brandon \|title\='The United States of Africa': Liberian Independence and the Contested Meaning of a Black Republic \|journal\=Journal of the Early Republic \|date\=2014 \|volume\=34 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=79–107 \|doi\=10\.1353/jer.2014\.0012 \|s2cid\=143753119 }}
In spite of this, several black critics were outspoken against the back\-to\-Africa movement and the activities of the American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference in New York warned: "all kinds of chicanery and stratagem will be employed to allure the people \[to the colony]...the independence of its inhabitants; the enjoyment and privileges of its citizens, will be pictured forth in glowing colors, to deceive you."
According to the *Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture*, "as early as 1820, black Americans had begun to return to their ancestral homeland through the auspices of the American Colonization Society." By 1847, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia, a land to be settled by black people returning from the United States of America.["Back\-to\-Africa Movement"](http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=4), *The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture*. 2007\. The Central Arkansas Library System. Between 1822 and the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), the American Colonization Society had migrated approximately 15,000 free blacks back to Africa.["July 26, 1847 Liberian independence proclaimed"](http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/liberian-independence-proclaimed), This Day In History, History website.
Notable members of the American Colonization Society included [Thomas Buchanan](/wiki/Thomas_Buchanan_%28Governor_of_Liberia%29 "Thomas Buchanan (Governor of Liberia)"), [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson"), [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe "James Monroe"), [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln"), [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison "James Madison"), [Daniel Webster](/wiki/Daniel_Webster "Daniel Webster"), [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall "John Marshall"), and [Francis Scott Key](/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key "Francis Scott Key").{{cite book\|last\=Cox\|first\=Earnest\|title\=Lincoln's Negro Policy\|year\=1938\|publisher\=William Byrd Press\|location\=Richmond, VA\|pages\=13}}
### Other pre\-Civil War attempts
In 1811, [Paul Cuffe](/wiki/Paul_Cuffe "Paul Cuffe"), "a black man who was a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks",{{cite book \|last1\=Campbell \|first1\=Mavis Christine \|last2\=Ross \|first2\=George \|title\=Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons: from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone \|date\=1993 \|publisher\=Africa World Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-86543\-383\-0 }}{{page needed\|date\=July 2020}} began to explore the idea of Black people returning to their native land; convinced that "opportunities for the advancement of black people were limited in America, and he became interested in African colonization."{{cite book \|editor1\-last\=Lapsansky\-Werner \|editor1\-first\=Emma J. \|editor2\-last\=Bacon \|editor2\-first\=Margaret Hope \|title\=Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America, 1848\-1880 \|date\=2010 \|publisher\=Penn State Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-271\-04571\-9 \|page\=8 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9X0rc6E9EGkC\&pg\=PA8 }} With the help of Quakers in Philadelphia, he was able to transport 38 blacks to [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Sierra_Leone "Freetown, Sierra Leone"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone "Sierra Leone") in 1815\.{{cite book \|last1\=O'Donnell \|first1\=Edward T. \|title\=1001 Things Everyone Should Know about Irish American History \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Random House Value Publishing \|isbn\=978\-0\-517\-22754\-1 }}{{page needed\|date\=July 2020}}
[Martin Delany](/wiki/Martin_Delany "Martin Delany"), an African American, in 1854 led the National Emigration Convention in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio "Cleveland, Ohio").{{Cite encyclopedia\|publisher\=Case Western Reserve University\|title\=National Emigration Convention of Colored People\|encyclopedia\=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History\|access\-date\=May 30, 2013\|date\=March 4, 1998\|url\=http://ech.case.edu/cgi/article.pl?id\=NECOCP\|location\=Cleveland, Ohio}} He visited Liberia and made plans, largely unrealized, to assist Blacks in relocating there.
### Post\-emancipation
The back\-to\-Africa movement eventually began to decline but would see a revival again in 1877 at the end of the [Reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States "Reconstruction era of the United States"), as many blacks in the South faced violence from groups such as the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan").["The Ending of Reconstruction"](http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section5/section5_intro.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028042208/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section5/section5\_intro.html\|date\=October 28, 2007}}, *America's Reconstruction, People and Politics After the Civil War*. University of Houston Digital History. Interest among the South's black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place.Kenneth C. Barnes, *Journey of Hope: The Back\-to\-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s* (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004\), p. 2\. The continued experience of segregation, discrimination, and the belief that they would never achieve true equality attracted many blacks to a Pan\-African emancipation in their motherland.
The movement declined again following many hoaxes and fraudulent activities associated with the movement. According to Crumrin, however, the most important reason for the decline in the back\-to\-Africa movement was that the "vast majority of those who were meant to colonize did not wish to leave. Most free blacks simply did not want to go "home" to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home, and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not their own."Crumrin, Timothy, ["'Back to Africa?' The Colonization Movement in Early America"](http://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/juan.galvanrodriguez/extra-credit/Readings/timothy-crumrin-back-to-africa-the-colonization-movement-in-early-america) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524115602/http://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/juan.galvanrodriguez/extra\-credit/Readings/timothy\-crumrin\-back\-to\-africa\-the\-colonization\-movement\-in\-early\-america \|date\=May 24, 2015 }}. 2007\. They often said that they were no more African than white Americans were British.
Florida Governor [Napoleon Bonaparte Broward](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_Broward "Napoleon Bonaparte Broward") (1905–1909\) called for blacks to be permanently moved to land the federal government would purchase, either foreign or domestic. After buying their respective properties, a territory would be established in which blacks could not leave, and whites could not enter.{{cn\|date\=July 2024}}
Early 20th century attempts at resettlement were made, such as those by [Chief Alfred Sam](/wiki/Chief_Alfred_Sam "Chief Alfred Sam") between 1913 and 1915\.[S. K. B. Asante, "Sam, Alfred", *Dictionary of African Christian Biography*, reprinted from *The Encyclopedia Africana Dictionary of African Biography*, 1977](http://www.dacb.org/stories/ghana/sam_alfred.html). Retrieved August 8, 2016 The eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to the North and the frustrations of struggling to cope with urban life set the scene for the back\-to\-Africa movement of the 1920s, established by [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey "Marcus Garvey").Daniel M. Johnson and Rex R. Campbell, *Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History* (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981\), p. 62\. Garvey contemporaneously served as a major inspiration for a number of 1920s activists and preachers, such as James E. Lewis, whose [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") congregation help to finance the construction of a passenger ship.{{cite web\|url\=https://thethinkersgarden.com/los\-angeles\-noah\-reverend\-j\-e\-lewis\-liberian\-arks/ \|title\=Los Angeles Noah: Reverend J. E. Lewis and the Liberian Arks\|date\=February 11, 2022\|access\-date\= April 25, 2022}} Many of those who migrated to the Northern States from the South found that, although they were financially better off, they remained at the bottom both economically and socially.{{cite book \|last1\=Jenkins \|title\=Black Zion: The Return of Afro\-Americans and West Indians to Africa \|date\=1975 \|publisher\= \|isbn\= \|page\=43 }} Garvey supported a proposal by [Torrey George McCallum](/wiki/Torrey_George_McCallum "Torrey George McCallum") that passed the Mississippi State Senate in 1922, though it was widely rejected and ridiculed by the Black press.{{cite news\|title\=A century ago, Mississippi's Senate voted to send all the state's Black people to Africa\|language\=en\-US\|newspaper\=\[\[Washington Post]]\|first\=Joshua\|last\=Benton\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2022/02/20/mississippi\-black\-africa\-mccallum/\|date\=2022\-02\-19\|issn\=0190\-8286}}
The movement picked up steam once again in the decade or so preceding the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Activists in the [Peace Movement of Ethiopia](/wiki/Peace_Movement_of_Ethiopia "Peace Movement of Ethiopia") organisation were committed to black emigration to West Africa in order to escape from the torrid social conditions which they were experiencing in the United States due to the Depression.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fitzgerald \|first1\=Michael W. \|title\='We Have Found a Moses': Theodore Bilbo, Black Nationalism, and the Greater Liberia Bill of 1939 \|journal\=The Journal of Southern History \|date\=May 1997 \|volume\=63 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=293–320 \|doi\=10\.2307/2211284 \|jstor\=2211284 }} They harboured an almost utopian vision of Liberia, created from a simultaneous vision of [Pan\-Africanism](/wiki/Pan-Africanism "Pan-Africanism") and a belief that the Americanisation they would provide would heal Liberia's social and economic troubles. This reflects the imperialist assumption of the PME and other back\-to\-Africa proponents that African\-Americans had the right to return to and determine Africa's future.{{Cite journal \|last\=McDuffie \|first\=Erik S. \|date\=2015 \|title\=Chicago, Garveyism, and the history of the diasporic Midwest \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/17528631\.2015\.1027332 \|journal\=African and Black Diaspora\|volume\=8 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=139 \|doi\=10\.1080/17528631\.2015\.1027332 \|s2cid\=145594257 \|via\=Taylor \& Francis Online}} Others were unaware or ignored that Liberia had been crippled by the Depression and instead viewed it as prosperous. [Mittie Maude Lena Gordon](/wiki/Mittie_Maude_Lena_Gordon "Mittie Maude Lena Gordon"), the founder of the PME, was essential to this campaign as she acquired the support of [Earnest Sevier Cox](/wiki/Earnest_Sevier_Cox "Earnest Sevier Cox"), a [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalist "White nationalist") from Richmond, Virginia. She convinced him to support their cause by using her gender in order to appear submissive and thus appeal to Cox's masculinity, as well as by playing on their mutual goal of racial separatism. Cox provided influential connections that the movement had previously lacked, and he gave the issue of black emigration political exposure when he managed to convince members of the Virginia General Assembly to recommend the US Congress provide financial aid for this in 1936\. Despite Cox's racial beliefs, the PME retained support amongst black communities because Gordon described him as a necessary, Moses\-like figure.{{cite book\|title\=Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom\|last\=Blain\|first\=Keisha N.\|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-9477\-4\|location\=Philadelphia\|oclc\=1021885414\|year\=2018}}{{page needed\|date\=July 2020}}
His support soon began to diminish so Gordon looked elsewhere, once again finding an unlikely ally on the opposite side of the moral compass in Senator [Theodore G. Bilbo](/wiki/Theodore_G._Bilbo "Theodore G. Bilbo"). An ardent white nationalist, Bilbo had been campaigning for racial separatism within the government for a while. He proposed an amendment to the House Joint Resolution 679—a work relief bill—in 1938, that would have "repatriated" African American volunteers to Liberia, providing them with financial assistance. This amendment was endorsed by [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey "Marcus Garvey") and the [Universal Negro Improvement Association](/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League "Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League") at the Eight International UNIA convention. This amendment provided the precedent for the movement to progress; Bilbo had the political capital which he needed in order to get the issue of black repatriation into wide\-scale political debate. This issue continued to exist, and in early 1939, Bilbo began to draft what came to be known as the Greater Liberia Bill. The bill suggested that the United States should purchase 400,000 square miles of African land from England and France, it should credit them as war debts, and it should provide financial assistance to black Americans in order to encourage them to relocate to Africa. It is unclear who, if anyone, the PME sent to Liberia in order to facilitate the emigration which this bill would have encouraged.{{Cite journal \|last\=Sanders \|first\=Crystal R. \|date\=2019 \|title\=Challenging Historical Iconography: A Look at Women's Everyday Political Mobilization \|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1353/rah.2019\.0087 \|journal\=Reviews in American History \|volume\=47 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=634 \|doi\=10\.1353/rah.2019\.0087 \|s2cid\=214306080 \|via\=Project MUSE}}
Outside the black nationalist movement, the bill did not garner much support, with leading civil rights groups such as the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP "NAACP") refusing to endorse it and the national press lambasting it. Other African Americans did not support emigration to Liberia due to charges of slavery and political corruption which were filed against its government by the League of Nations. Additionally, the bill received very little support from the Senate, thus, the idea of black repatriation lost much of its traction. US participation in the Second World War led to a decline in public racism, which made any passing of the bill unlikely after that.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.mississippihistory.org/sites/default/files/bilbo.pdf \| title\=Theodore G. Bilbo and the Decline of Public Racism, 1938\-1947 \| access\-date\=May 11, 2021 \| archive\-date\=August 8, 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808213315/http://www.mississippihistory.org/sites/default/files/bilbo.pdf \| url\-status\=dead }}
The back\-to\-Africa movement returned to national prominence in the 1960s, due to the racial unrest which occurred during the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement "Civil Rights Movement"). [George Lincoln Rockwell](/wiki/George_Lincoln_Rockwell "George Lincoln Rockwell"), the founder of the [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party "American Nazi Party"), viewed black people as a "primitive, lethargic race who desired only simple pleasures and a life of irresponsibility." Like Bilbo, Rockwell was a white nationalist who supported the resettlement of all African Americans in a new African state to be funded by the U.S. government. Rockwell attempted to draw attention to his cause by starting a small [record label](/wiki/Record_label "Record label") named Hatenanny Records. The name was based on the word *[hootenanny](/wiki/Hootenanny "Hootenanny")*, a term given to [folk music](/wiki/Folk_music "Folk music") performances. The label released a 45 RPM [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 "Single (music)") by a band called Odis Cochran and the Three Bigots with the songs "Ship Those Niggers Back" and "We Is Non\-Violent Niggers", and a second single by a group called the Coon Hunters: "We Don't Want No Niggers For Neighbors" backed with "Who Needs A Nigger?". They were sold mostly through mail order and at party rallies.{{cite web \| url\=https://images.socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/items/show/263 \| title\=Hatenanny Records Advertisement \[American Nazi Party handbill] \| publisher\=\[\[Virginia Commonwealth University]]}}
Rockwell got along well with many leaders of the [black nationalist](/wiki/Black_nationalist "Black nationalist") movement, such as [Elijah Muhammad](/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad "Elijah Muhammad") ([Nation of Islam](/wiki/Nation_of_Islam "Nation of Islam") leader) and [Malcolm X](/wiki/Malcolm_X "Malcolm X"), who later changed his views and opposed the N.O.I's [black separatism](/wiki/Black_separatism "Black separatism"), since they shared his racial separatist views.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.anthonyflood.com/rockwellelijah.htm \| title\=When George Lincoln Rockwell, Elijah Muhammad, and Malcolm X Shared the Same Stage\|first\=William H. \|last\=Schmaltz\|date\=June 25, 1961\|website\=AnthonyFlood.com}} In January 1962, Rockwell wrote to his followers that Elijah Muhammad "has gathered millions of the dirty, immoral, drunken, filthy\-mouthed, lazy and repulsive people sneeringly called 'niggers' and inspired them to the point where they are clean, sober, honest, hard working, dignified, dedicated and admirable human beings in spite of their color...Muhammad knows that mixing is a Jewish fraud and leads only to aggravation of the problems that it is supposed to solve...I have talked to the Muslim leaders and am certain that a workable plan for separation of the races could be effected to the satisfaction of all concerned—except the communist\-Jew agitators."{{cite book \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=7T8CDAAAQBAJ \| title\=The Portable Malcolm X Reader \| first\=Manning \| last\=Marable \| publisher\=\[\[Penguin Books]] \| date\=2013 \| isbn\=9780143106944 }} He also said of the N.O.I, "I am fully in concert with their program, and I have the highest respect for Elijah Muhammad." Rockwell referred to Elijah Muhammad as "The Black People's Hitler" {{failed verification\|date\=June 2023}} and donated $20 (\~${{Format price\|{{Inflation\|index\=US\|value\=20\|start\_year\=1961}}}} in {{Inflation/year\|US}}) to the Nation of Islam at their "Freedom Rally" event on June 25, 1961, at Uline Arena in Washington, where he and 10–20 of his "stormtroopers" attended a speech given by Malcolm X.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.vice.com/en\_us/article/dpwamv/when\-malcolm\-x\-met\-the\-nazis\-0000620\-v22n4 \| title\=When Malcolm X Met the Nazis \| first\=Sam \| last\=McPheeters \| work\=\[\[Vice (magazine)\|Vice]] \| date\=April 16, 2015}} Rockwell was a guest speaker at a N.O.I event in the International Amphitheater in Chicago hosted by Elijah Mohammed and Malcolm X on February 25, 1962\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://pro.magnumphotos.com/C.aspx?VP3\=CMS3\&VF\=MAGO31\_2\_VForm\|title\=Magnum Photos Home\|website\=pro.magnumphotos.com}}{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.blvckvrchives.com/thenationofislam \|title\=The Nation of Islam — BLVCK Vrchives \|access\-date\=2021\-05\-11 \|archive\-date\=2020\-07\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727133613/http://www.blvckvrchives.com/thenationofislam \|url\-status\=dead }}
|
[
"The emergence of the back\\-to\\-Africa movement\n----------------------------------------------",
"Much of the African\\-American population was freed people seeking opportunity. Many Southern freed blacks migrated to the industrial North to seek employment, while others moved to surrounding Southern states.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jenkins \\|first1\\=David \\|title\\=Black Zion: The Return of Afro\\-Americans and West Indians to Africa \\|date\\=1975 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Wildwood House (publisher)\\|Wildwood House]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7045\\-0116\\-4 \\|pages\\=41–43 }} No one anywhere wanted them; they were seen as [perpetual foreigners](/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner \"Perpetual foreigner\") who, by working for less, took jobs from citizens. Whites were not used to sharing space with blacks in a context outside of chattel slavery. Many did not believe that free blacks had a place in America.Kenneth C. Barnes, *Journey of Hope: The Back\\-to\\-Africa Movement in Arkan* (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004\\), 3\\.",
"In the North, many whites believed that blacks could not achieve equality in the United States and therefore pushed for their emigration to Africa,{{cite book \\|last1\\=Dixon \\|first1\\=Rebecca S. \\|chapter\\=Back to Africa Movement \\|page\\=28 \\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=lNHVLB7Xc9IC\\&pg\\=PA28 \\|editor1\\-last\\=Smith \\|editor1\\-first\\=Jessie Carney \\|editor2\\-last\\=Wynn \\|editor2\\-first\\=Linda T. \\|title\\=Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Visible Ink Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57859\\-260\\-9 }} even though most had been born in the U.S. and had never seen Africa.",
"Such sentiment was not exclusive to Northerners. One proponent of the colonization movement, Solomon Parker of [Hampshire County, Virginia](/wiki/Hampshire_County%2C_Virginia \"Hampshire County, Virginia\"), was quoted as having said: \"I am not willing that the Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain in the United States.... Am opposed to slavery and also opposed to freeing blacks to stay in our Country and do sincerely hope that the time is approaching when our Land shall be rid of them.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Ailes \\|first1\\=Jane \\|last2\\=Tyler\\-McGraw \\|first2\\=Marie \\|title\\=Leaving Virginia for Liberia: Western Virginia Emigrants and Emancipators \\|journal\\=West Virginia History: A Journal of Regional Studies \\|date\\=2012 \\|volume\\=6 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=1–34 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/wvh.2012\\.0021 \\|s2cid\\=159669576 }}",
"Riots swept the free states in waves, usually in urban areas where there had been recent immigration of blacks from the South. The height of these riots was in 1819, with 25 riots recorded, resulting in many injuries and fatalities,Ronald L. F. Davis, [\"Creating Jim Crow\"](http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020614223755/http://jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2\\.htm \\|date\\=2002\\-06\\-14 }}, The History of Jim Crow. Accessed 14 October 2007\\. although riots continued up through the 1830s (see [anti\\-abolitionism in the North](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States%23Anti-abolitionism_in_the_North \"Abolitionism in the United States#Anti-abolitionism in the North\")). The back\\-to\\-Africa movement was seen as the solution to these problems by both groups, with more support from the white population than the black population. Blacks often viewed the project with skepticism, particularly among the middle\\-class, who feared that the Colonization movement was a ploy to deport freed African Americans to restrict their efforts against slavery. Shortly after the foundation of the [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society \"American Colonization Society\"), 3,000 free blacks gathered in a church in [Philadelphia](/wiki/Philadelphia \"Philadelphia\") and issued forth a declaration stating that they \"will never separate ourselves voluntarily from the slave population of the country.\"{{cite journal\\|title\\=The Noyes Academy, 1834–35: The Road to the Oberlin Collegiate Institute and the Higher Education of African\\-Americans in the Nineteenth Century\\|last1\\=Irvine\\|first1\\=Russell W.\\|last2\\=Dunkerton\\|first2\\=Donna Zani\\|journal\\=Western Journal of Black Studies\\|date\\=Winter 1998\\|volume\\=22\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=260–273\\|id\\={{ProQuest\\|200334994}}}}{{rp\\|261}} Similarly, black leaders, such as [James Forten](/wiki/James_Forten \"James Forten\"), who had previously supported the Colonization Movement, changed their minds as a result of widespread black resistance to the idea.White, Deborah Gray. \"Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic.\" In ''Freedom on my mind''. S.l.: Bedford Bks St Martin's, 2012, pp. 186–188\\.",
"### Religious motivations for colonization",
"Following the [Great Awakening](/wiki/Great_Awakening \"Great Awakening\"), in which America was swept by a wave of religious fervor, many enslaved African Americans converted to [Christianity](/wiki/Christianity \"Christianity\"). At the same time, many religious people in America struggled to reconcile slavery with their beliefs. [Quakers](/wiki/Quakers_in_North_America \"Quakers in North America\") in particular found difficulty in continued support for the enslavement of their brothers in Christ. For example, Reverend Moses Tichnell and Reverend Samuel R. Houston freed slaves and sent them to Liberia in 1855 and 1856 respectively. These two men, believing that they were morally obligated to finance such voyages, played an important role in the colonization movement.",
"### American Colonization Society",
"{{Main\\|American Colonization Society}}",
"The [American Colonization Society](/wiki/American_Colonization_Society \"American Colonization Society\") (ACS) was an early advocate of the idea of resettling American\\-born blacks in Africa. Founded in 1816 by Dr. [Robert Finley](/wiki/Robert_Finley \"Robert Finley\"), it was composed of two core groups: abolitionists and slave owners. Abolitionist members believed in freeing African slaves, along with their descendants, and providing them with the opportunity to return to Africa. Slave\\-owning members believed free blacks endangered the system of slavery and sought to expel them from America by means of migration.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://personal.denison.edu/\\~waite/liberia/history/acs.htm\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923185003/http://personal.denison.edu/\\~waite/liberia/history/acs.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=The American Colonization Society.\\|archivedate\\=September 23, 2017}}{{self\\-published inline\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"The American Colonization Society came under attack from American abolitionists, who insisted that the removal of freed slaves from the United States reinforced the institution of slavery.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Douglass \\|first1\\=Frederick \\|last2\\=Brown \\|first2\\=John \\|last3\\=Stowe \\|first3\\=Harriet Beecher \\|last4\\=Reynolds \\|first4\\=William \\|last5\\=Garrison \\|first5\\=William Lloyd \\|date\\=1998\\-02\\-09 \\|title\\=Abolition, Anti\\-Slavery Movements, and the Rise of the Sectional Controversy \\- The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship {{!}} Exhibitions (Library of Congress) \\|url\\=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/african\\-american\\-odyssey/abolition.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-23 \\|website\\=www.loc.gov}}",
"Since its inception, the American Colonization Society struggled to garner support from within free black communities. During the late 1840s and early 1850s, the creation of an independent [Liberian](/wiki/Liberia \"Liberia\") state splintered the nearly uniform voice against colonization. The [Fugitive Slave Act of 1850](/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850 \"Fugitive Slave Act of 1850\") provided the United States government ample power to recapture fugitive slaves. Following its passage, many black leaders promoted emigration and colonization to a nation that would provide and protect their rights.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Mills \\|first1\\=Brandon \\|title\\='The United States of Africa': Liberian Independence and the Contested Meaning of a Black Republic \\|journal\\=Journal of the Early Republic \\|date\\=2014 \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=79–107 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/jer.2014\\.0012 \\|s2cid\\=143753119 }}",
"In spite of this, several black critics were outspoken against the back\\-to\\-Africa movement and the activities of the American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference in New York warned: \"all kinds of chicanery and stratagem will be employed to allure the people \\[to the colony]...the independence of its inhabitants; the enjoyment and privileges of its citizens, will be pictured forth in glowing colors, to deceive you.\"",
"According to the *Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture*, \"as early as 1820, black Americans had begun to return to their ancestral homeland through the auspices of the American Colonization Society.\" By 1847, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia, a land to be settled by black people returning from the United States of America.[\"Back\\-to\\-Africa Movement\"](http://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=4), *The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture*. 2007\\. The Central Arkansas Library System. Between 1822 and the [American Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), the American Colonization Society had migrated approximately 15,000 free blacks back to Africa.[\"July 26, 1847 Liberian independence proclaimed\"](http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/liberian-independence-proclaimed), This Day In History, History website.",
"Notable members of the American Colonization Society included [Thomas Buchanan](/wiki/Thomas_Buchanan_%28Governor_of_Liberia%29 \"Thomas Buchanan (Governor of Liberia)\"), [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\"), [James Monroe](/wiki/James_Monroe \"James Monroe\"), [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\"), [James Madison](/wiki/James_Madison \"James Madison\"), [Daniel Webster](/wiki/Daniel_Webster \"Daniel Webster\"), [John Marshall](/wiki/John_Marshall \"John Marshall\"), and [Francis Scott Key](/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key \"Francis Scott Key\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Cox\\|first\\=Earnest\\|title\\=Lincoln's Negro Policy\\|year\\=1938\\|publisher\\=William Byrd Press\\|location\\=Richmond, VA\\|pages\\=13}}",
"### Other pre\\-Civil War attempts",
"In 1811, [Paul Cuffe](/wiki/Paul_Cuffe \"Paul Cuffe\"), \"a black man who was a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks\",{{cite book \\|last1\\=Campbell \\|first1\\=Mavis Christine \\|last2\\=Ross \\|first2\\=George \\|title\\=Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons: from Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone \\|date\\=1993 \\|publisher\\=Africa World Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-86543\\-383\\-0 }}{{page needed\\|date\\=July 2020}} began to explore the idea of Black people returning to their native land; convinced that \"opportunities for the advancement of black people were limited in America, and he became interested in African colonization.\"{{cite book \\|editor1\\-last\\=Lapsansky\\-Werner \\|editor1\\-first\\=Emma J. \\|editor2\\-last\\=Bacon \\|editor2\\-first\\=Margaret Hope \\|title\\=Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America, 1848\\-1880 \\|date\\=2010 \\|publisher\\=Penn State Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-271\\-04571\\-9 \\|page\\=8 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9X0rc6E9EGkC\\&pg\\=PA8 }} With the help of Quakers in Philadelphia, he was able to transport 38 blacks to [Freetown](/wiki/Freetown%2C_Sierra_Leone \"Freetown, Sierra Leone\"), [Sierra Leone](/wiki/Sierra_Leone \"Sierra Leone\") in 1815\\.{{cite book \\|last1\\=O'Donnell \\|first1\\=Edward T. \\|title\\=1001 Things Everyone Should Know about Irish American History \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Random House Value Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-517\\-22754\\-1 }}{{page needed\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"[Martin Delany](/wiki/Martin_Delany \"Martin Delany\"), an African American, in 1854 led the National Emigration Convention in [Cleveland, Ohio](/wiki/Cleveland%2C_Ohio \"Cleveland, Ohio\").{{Cite encyclopedia\\|publisher\\=Case Western Reserve University\\|title\\=National Emigration Convention of Colored People\\|encyclopedia\\=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History\\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2013\\|date\\=March 4, 1998\\|url\\=http://ech.case.edu/cgi/article.pl?id\\=NECOCP\\|location\\=Cleveland, Ohio}} He visited Liberia and made plans, largely unrealized, to assist Blacks in relocating there.",
"### Post\\-emancipation",
"The back\\-to\\-Africa movement eventually began to decline but would see a revival again in 1877 at the end of the [Reconstruction era](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States \"Reconstruction era of the United States\"), as many blacks in the South faced violence from groups such as the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\").[\"The Ending of Reconstruction\"](http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section5/section5_intro.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028042208/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/reconstruction/section5/section5\\_intro.html\\|date\\=October 28, 2007}}, *America's Reconstruction, People and Politics After the Civil War*. University of Houston Digital History. Interest among the South's black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place.Kenneth C. Barnes, *Journey of Hope: The Back\\-to\\-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s* (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004\\), p. 2\\. The continued experience of segregation, discrimination, and the belief that they would never achieve true equality attracted many blacks to a Pan\\-African emancipation in their motherland.",
"The movement declined again following many hoaxes and fraudulent activities associated with the movement. According to Crumrin, however, the most important reason for the decline in the back\\-to\\-Africa movement was that the \"vast majority of those who were meant to colonize did not wish to leave. Most free blacks simply did not want to go \"home\" to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home, and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not their own.\"Crumrin, Timothy, [\"'Back to Africa?' The Colonization Movement in Early America\"](http://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/juan.galvanrodriguez/extra-credit/Readings/timothy-crumrin-back-to-africa-the-colonization-movement-in-early-america) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524115602/http://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/juan.galvanrodriguez/extra\\-credit/Readings/timothy\\-crumrin\\-back\\-to\\-africa\\-the\\-colonization\\-movement\\-in\\-early\\-america \\|date\\=May 24, 2015 }}. 2007\\. They often said that they were no more African than white Americans were British.",
"Florida Governor [Napoleon Bonaparte Broward](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte_Broward \"Napoleon Bonaparte Broward\") (1905–1909\\) called for blacks to be permanently moved to land the federal government would purchase, either foreign or domestic. After buying their respective properties, a territory would be established in which blacks could not leave, and whites could not enter.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2024}}",
"Early 20th century attempts at resettlement were made, such as those by [Chief Alfred Sam](/wiki/Chief_Alfred_Sam \"Chief Alfred Sam\") between 1913 and 1915\\.[S. K. B. Asante, \"Sam, Alfred\", *Dictionary of African Christian Biography*, reprinted from *The Encyclopedia Africana Dictionary of African Biography*, 1977](http://www.dacb.org/stories/ghana/sam_alfred.html). Retrieved August 8, 2016 The eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to the North and the frustrations of struggling to cope with urban life set the scene for the back\\-to\\-Africa movement of the 1920s, established by [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey \"Marcus Garvey\").Daniel M. Johnson and Rex R. Campbell, *Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History* (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981\\), p. 62\\. Garvey contemporaneously served as a major inspiration for a number of 1920s activists and preachers, such as James E. Lewis, whose [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") congregation help to finance the construction of a passenger ship.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://thethinkersgarden.com/los\\-angeles\\-noah\\-reverend\\-j\\-e\\-lewis\\-liberian\\-arks/ \\|title\\=Los Angeles Noah: Reverend J. E. Lewis and the Liberian Arks\\|date\\=February 11, 2022\\|access\\-date\\= April 25, 2022}} Many of those who migrated to the Northern States from the South found that, although they were financially better off, they remained at the bottom both economically and socially.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Jenkins \\|title\\=Black Zion: The Return of Afro\\-Americans and West Indians to Africa \\|date\\=1975 \\|publisher\\= \\|isbn\\= \\|page\\=43 }} Garvey supported a proposal by [Torrey George McCallum](/wiki/Torrey_George_McCallum \"Torrey George McCallum\") that passed the Mississippi State Senate in 1922, though it was widely rejected and ridiculed by the Black press.{{cite news\\|title\\=A century ago, Mississippi's Senate voted to send all the state's Black people to Africa\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[Washington Post]]\\|first\\=Joshua\\|last\\=Benton\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2022/02/20/mississippi\\-black\\-africa\\-mccallum/\\|date\\=2022\\-02\\-19\\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}}",
"The movement picked up steam once again in the decade or so preceding the [Second World War](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). Activists in the [Peace Movement of Ethiopia](/wiki/Peace_Movement_of_Ethiopia \"Peace Movement of Ethiopia\") organisation were committed to black emigration to West Africa in order to escape from the torrid social conditions which they were experiencing in the United States due to the Depression.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fitzgerald \\|first1\\=Michael W. \\|title\\='We Have Found a Moses': Theodore Bilbo, Black Nationalism, and the Greater Liberia Bill of 1939 \\|journal\\=The Journal of Southern History \\|date\\=May 1997 \\|volume\\=63 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=293–320 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/2211284 \\|jstor\\=2211284 }} They harboured an almost utopian vision of Liberia, created from a simultaneous vision of [Pan\\-Africanism](/wiki/Pan-Africanism \"Pan-Africanism\") and a belief that the Americanisation they would provide would heal Liberia's social and economic troubles. This reflects the imperialist assumption of the PME and other back\\-to\\-Africa proponents that African\\-Americans had the right to return to and determine Africa's future.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=McDuffie \\|first\\=Erik S. \\|date\\=2015 \\|title\\=Chicago, Garveyism, and the history of the diasporic Midwest \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/17528631\\.2015\\.1027332 \\|journal\\=African and Black Diaspora\\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=139 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/17528631\\.2015\\.1027332 \\|s2cid\\=145594257 \\|via\\=Taylor \\& Francis Online}} Others were unaware or ignored that Liberia had been crippled by the Depression and instead viewed it as prosperous. [Mittie Maude Lena Gordon](/wiki/Mittie_Maude_Lena_Gordon \"Mittie Maude Lena Gordon\"), the founder of the PME, was essential to this campaign as she acquired the support of [Earnest Sevier Cox](/wiki/Earnest_Sevier_Cox \"Earnest Sevier Cox\"), a [white nationalist](/wiki/White_nationalist \"White nationalist\") from Richmond, Virginia. She convinced him to support their cause by using her gender in order to appear submissive and thus appeal to Cox's masculinity, as well as by playing on their mutual goal of racial separatism. Cox provided influential connections that the movement had previously lacked, and he gave the issue of black emigration political exposure when he managed to convince members of the Virginia General Assembly to recommend the US Congress provide financial aid for this in 1936\\. Despite Cox's racial beliefs, the PME retained support amongst black communities because Gordon described him as a necessary, Moses\\-like figure.{{cite book\\|title\\=Set the World on Fire: Black Nationalist Women and the Global Struggle for Freedom\\|last\\=Blain\\|first\\=Keisha N.\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-9477\\-4\\|location\\=Philadelphia\\|oclc\\=1021885414\\|year\\=2018}}{{page needed\\|date\\=July 2020}}",
"His support soon began to diminish so Gordon looked elsewhere, once again finding an unlikely ally on the opposite side of the moral compass in Senator [Theodore G. Bilbo](/wiki/Theodore_G._Bilbo \"Theodore G. Bilbo\"). An ardent white nationalist, Bilbo had been campaigning for racial separatism within the government for a while. He proposed an amendment to the House Joint Resolution 679—a work relief bill—in 1938, that would have \"repatriated\" African American volunteers to Liberia, providing them with financial assistance. This amendment was endorsed by [Marcus Garvey](/wiki/Marcus_Garvey \"Marcus Garvey\") and the [Universal Negro Improvement Association](/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League \"Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League\") at the Eight International UNIA convention. This amendment provided the precedent for the movement to progress; Bilbo had the political capital which he needed in order to get the issue of black repatriation into wide\\-scale political debate. This issue continued to exist, and in early 1939, Bilbo began to draft what came to be known as the Greater Liberia Bill. The bill suggested that the United States should purchase 400,000 square miles of African land from England and France, it should credit them as war debts, and it should provide financial assistance to black Americans in order to encourage them to relocate to Africa. It is unclear who, if anyone, the PME sent to Liberia in order to facilitate the emigration which this bill would have encouraged.{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Sanders \\|first\\=Crystal R. \\|date\\=2019 \\|title\\=Challenging Historical Iconography: A Look at Women's Everyday Political Mobilization \\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1353/rah.2019\\.0087 \\|journal\\=Reviews in American History \\|volume\\=47 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=634 \\|doi\\=10\\.1353/rah.2019\\.0087 \\|s2cid\\=214306080 \\|via\\=Project MUSE}}",
"Outside the black nationalist movement, the bill did not garner much support, with leading civil rights groups such as the [NAACP](/wiki/NAACP \"NAACP\") refusing to endorse it and the national press lambasting it. Other African Americans did not support emigration to Liberia due to charges of slavery and political corruption which were filed against its government by the League of Nations. Additionally, the bill received very little support from the Senate, thus, the idea of black repatriation lost much of its traction. US participation in the Second World War led to a decline in public racism, which made any passing of the bill unlikely after that.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.mississippihistory.org/sites/default/files/bilbo.pdf \\| title\\=Theodore G. Bilbo and the Decline of Public Racism, 1938\\-1947 \\| access\\-date\\=May 11, 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808213315/http://www.mississippihistory.org/sites/default/files/bilbo.pdf \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"The back\\-to\\-Africa movement returned to national prominence in the 1960s, due to the racial unrest which occurred during the [Civil Rights Movement](/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement \"Civil Rights Movement\"). [George Lincoln Rockwell](/wiki/George_Lincoln_Rockwell \"George Lincoln Rockwell\"), the founder of the [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party \"American Nazi Party\"), viewed black people as a \"primitive, lethargic race who desired only simple pleasures and a life of irresponsibility.\" Like Bilbo, Rockwell was a white nationalist who supported the resettlement of all African Americans in a new African state to be funded by the U.S. government. Rockwell attempted to draw attention to his cause by starting a small [record label](/wiki/Record_label \"Record label\") named Hatenanny Records. The name was based on the word *[hootenanny](/wiki/Hootenanny \"Hootenanny\")*, a term given to [folk music](/wiki/Folk_music \"Folk music\") performances. The label released a 45 RPM [single](/wiki/Single_%28music%29 \"Single (music)\") by a band called Odis Cochran and the Three Bigots with the songs \"Ship Those Niggers Back\" and \"We Is Non\\-Violent Niggers\", and a second single by a group called the Coon Hunters: \"We Don't Want No Niggers For Neighbors\" backed with \"Who Needs A Nigger?\". They were sold mostly through mail order and at party rallies.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://images.socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/items/show/263 \\| title\\=Hatenanny Records Advertisement \\[American Nazi Party handbill] \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Virginia Commonwealth University]]}}",
"Rockwell got along well with many leaders of the [black nationalist](/wiki/Black_nationalist \"Black nationalist\") movement, such as [Elijah Muhammad](/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad \"Elijah Muhammad\") ([Nation of Islam](/wiki/Nation_of_Islam \"Nation of Islam\") leader) and [Malcolm X](/wiki/Malcolm_X \"Malcolm X\"), who later changed his views and opposed the N.O.I's [black separatism](/wiki/Black_separatism \"Black separatism\"), since they shared his racial separatist views.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.anthonyflood.com/rockwellelijah.htm \\| title\\=When George Lincoln Rockwell, Elijah Muhammad, and Malcolm X Shared the Same Stage\\|first\\=William H. \\|last\\=Schmaltz\\|date\\=June 25, 1961\\|website\\=AnthonyFlood.com}} In January 1962, Rockwell wrote to his followers that Elijah Muhammad \"has gathered millions of the dirty, immoral, drunken, filthy\\-mouthed, lazy and repulsive people sneeringly called 'niggers' and inspired them to the point where they are clean, sober, honest, hard working, dignified, dedicated and admirable human beings in spite of their color...Muhammad knows that mixing is a Jewish fraud and leads only to aggravation of the problems that it is supposed to solve...I have talked to the Muslim leaders and am certain that a workable plan for separation of the races could be effected to the satisfaction of all concerned—except the communist\\-Jew agitators.\"{{cite book \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=7T8CDAAAQBAJ \\| title\\=The Portable Malcolm X Reader \\| first\\=Manning \\| last\\=Marable \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[Penguin Books]] \\| date\\=2013 \\| isbn\\=9780143106944 }} He also said of the N.O.I, \"I am fully in concert with their program, and I have the highest respect for Elijah Muhammad.\" Rockwell referred to Elijah Muhammad as \"The Black People's Hitler\" {{failed verification\\|date\\=June 2023}} and donated $20 (\\~${{Format price\\|{{Inflation\\|index\\=US\\|value\\=20\\|start\\_year\\=1961}}}} in {{Inflation/year\\|US}}) to the Nation of Islam at their \"Freedom Rally\" event on June 25, 1961, at Uline Arena in Washington, where he and 10–20 of his \"stormtroopers\" attended a speech given by Malcolm X.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.vice.com/en\\_us/article/dpwamv/when\\-malcolm\\-x\\-met\\-the\\-nazis\\-0000620\\-v22n4 \\| title\\=When Malcolm X Met the Nazis \\| first\\=Sam \\| last\\=McPheeters \\| work\\=\\[\\[Vice (magazine)\\|Vice]] \\| date\\=April 16, 2015}} Rockwell was a guest speaker at a N.O.I event in the International Amphitheater in Chicago hosted by Elijah Mohammed and Malcolm X on February 25, 1962\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://pro.magnumphotos.com/C.aspx?VP3\\=CMS3\\&VF\\=MAGO31\\_2\\_VForm\\|title\\=Magnum Photos Home\\|website\\=pro.magnumphotos.com}}{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.blvckvrchives.com/thenationofislam \\|title\\=The Nation of Islam — BLVCK Vrchives \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-11 \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727133613/http://www.blvckvrchives.com/thenationofislam \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
""
] |
Championship games
------------------
### Vs Tipperary
---
{{football box \|
date \= 8 June
Semi\-final \|
team1 \= \[\[Cork GAA\|Cork]] \|
score \= 1\-13 \- 1\-19\|
team2 \= \[\[Tipperary GAA\|Tipperary]] \|
goals1 \= B O'Connor 1\-3 (2f), C Naughton 0\-4, J O'Connor 0\-2, S Óg Ó hAilpín, P O'Sullivan, T Kenny, B Corry 0\-1 each. \|
goals2 \= E Kelly 1\-7 (5f), L Corbett 0\-4, S Callinan 0\-3, E Corcoran (sl), W Ryan, S McGrath, P Kerwick, M Webster 0\-1 each. \|
stadium \= \[\[Páirc Uí Chaoimh]], \[\[Cork (city)\|Cork]]
\| referee \= B Kelly (Westmeath)
\| report \= \[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0608/cork\_tipperary.html?gaa Report] }}
---
Tipperary created history at Páirc Uí Chaoimh on this occasion as they won their county's first championship match in Cork since 1923\. A [Ben O'Connor](/wiki/Ben_O%27Connor_%28hurler%29 "Ben O'Connor (hurler)") goal and three [Cathal Naughton](/wiki/Cathal_Naughton "Cathal Naughton") points had Cork leading by 1\-08 to 0\-04 but Tipp, thanks to a dominant spell late in the half, only trailed by 1\-08 to 1\-07 at half\-time. Tipp, taking their unbeaten run this season to 11 wins and two draws, scored eight of the game's final nine points to power to victory. Team captain [Eoin Kelly](/wiki/Eoin_Kelly_%28Tipperary_hurler%29 "Eoin Kelly (Tipperary hurler)") rocketed home a goal in the 24th minute, leaving his marker [Brian Murphy](/wiki/Brian_Murphy_%28hurler%2C_born_1982%29 "Brian Murphy (hurler, born 1982)") and goalkeeper [Donal Óg Cusack](/wiki/Donal_%C3%93g_Cusack "Donal Óg Cusack") gasping. Kelly finished with a personal tally of 1\-07 and was ably assisted by [Lar Corbett](/wiki/Lar_Corbett "Lar Corbett") (0\-04\) and championship debutant [Séamus Callinan](/wiki/S%C3%A9amus_Callinan "Séamus Callinan") (0\-03\).
### Vs Dublin
---
{{football box \|
date \= 12 July
Phase 3\|
team1 \= \[\[Cork GAA\|Cork]]\|
score \= 1\-17 \- 0\-15 \|
team2 \= \[\[Dublin GAA\|Dublin]] \|
goals1 \= J Deane 1\-1, C Naughton 0\-3, T Kenny, J O'Connor, B O'Connor (1f), N Ronan 0\-2 each, J Gardiner (1f), E Cadogan, N McCarthy, P Cronin, P Horgan 0\-1 each. \|
goals2 \= D O'Callaghan 0\-10 (7f), R O'Carroll 0\-3, P Ryan 0\-2\. \|
stadium \= \[\[Páirc Uí Chaoimh]], \[\[Cork (city)\|Cork]]
\| referee \= J. Owens (Wexford)
\| report \= \[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0712/cork\_dublin.html?gaa Report]}}
---
An opportunistic goal from [Joe Deane](/wiki/Joe_Deane "Joe Deane") proved crucial at Páirc Uí Chaoimh as Cork fended off a wholehearted Dublin side to progress to the fourth round of the All\-Ireland SHC qualifiers. The Rebels, who had an early wind advantage, were 0\-10 to 0\-06 ahead at half\-time with free\-taker David O'Callaghan (0\-05\) top\-scoring for the Dubs. Not many observers would have predicted such a hard\-fought game as 'the Dubs' proved once again that they can live with the top\-tier counties.
### Vs Galway
---
{{football box \|
date \= 19 July
Phase 4\|
team1 \= \[\[Galway GAA\|Galway]]\|
score \= 2\-15 \- 0\-23 \|
team2 \= \[\[Cork GAA\|Cork]] \|
goals1 \= J Canning 2\-12, N Healy, D Hayes, R Murray 0\-1 each. \|
goals2 \= B O’Connor 0\-12, J Deane 0\-4, C Naughton 0\-3, J Gardiner 0\-2, N McCarthy, P Horgan 0\-1 each. \|
stadium \= \[\[Semple Stadium]], \[\[Thurles]]
\| referee \= B Kelly (Westmeath)
\| report \= \[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0719/galway\_cork.html?gaa Report]}}
---
Facing each other in the Championship for the first time since the 2005 All\-Ireland final, this was a game that both Cork and Galway's seasons rested upon and quite possibly the futures of their respective managers. [Ger Loughnane](/wiki/Ger_Loughnane "Ger Loughnane")'s side got off to a poor start, going 0\-04 to 0\-00 behind with the Cork forwards all on target. Ten minutes in however, [Joe Canning](/wiki/Joe_Canning "Joe Canning") got Galway into contention as he shrugged off the challenge of [Diarmuid O'Sullivan](/wiki/Diarmuid_O%27Sullivan "Diarmuid O'Sullivan") and sneaked a stunning shot past [Dónal Óg Cusack](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_%C3%93g_Cusack "Dónal Óg Cusack") for his first goal. Some time later a swift Galway attack ended with [Alan Kerins](/wiki/Alan_Kerins "Alan Kerins") batting the sliotar to the Cork net but referee [Barry Kelly](/wiki/Barry_Kelly_%28referee%29 "Barry Kelly (referee)") had already blown his whistle before the goal was scored. Kelly penalised Cork 'keeper Cusack for a foul on Kerins. The foul earned Cusack his second yellow card, Cork were suddenly down to 14 men and they had a penalty to defend. After converting the penalty Canning had 2\-04 to show for the first 35 minutes. In the second\-half Galway struggled to pull away and Cork managed to heap the pressure on them with a run of six successive points. Loughnane's team threw everything they had at their opponents in the closing ten minutes. Canning tried his heart out, firing over three late points but [Ben O'Connor](/wiki/Ben_O%27Connor_%28hurler%29 "Ben O'Connor (hurler)") had the last word when he split the posts with a superb effort from near the sideline.
### Vs Clare
---
{{football box \|
date \= 27 July
Quarter\-final\|
team1 \= \[\[Clare GAA\|Clare]]\|
score \= 2\-17 \- 2\-19 \|
team2 \= \[\[Cork GAA\|Cork]]\|
goals1 \= N Gilligan 0\-8 (3f, 1 '65'), D Mc Mahon, B Nugent 1\-1 each, J Clancy, T Carmody 0\-2 each, G Quinn (1f), P Donnellan, B O'Connell (sl) 0\-1 each. \|
goals2 \= B O'Connor 0\-7 (3f, 1 '65'), T McCarthy, K Murphy 1\-0 each, P Horgan 0\-3, P Cronin, N Ronan 0\-2 each, T Kenny, J O'Connor, N McCarthy, C Naughton, J Deane 0\-1 each. \|
stadium \= \[\[Semple Stadium]], \[\[Thurles]]
\| referee \= D Murphy (Wexford)
\| report \=
\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0727/clare\_cork.html?gaa Report]{{dead link\|date\=November 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} }}
---
For the third weekend in\-a\-row Cork faced a win\-or\-bust championship game. A feature of the opening quarter was Cork full\-back [Diarmuid O'Sullivan](/wiki/Diarmuid_O%27Sullivan "Diarmuid O'Sullivan")'s struggle to keep tabs on the elusive [Niall Gilligan](/wiki/Niall_Gilligan "Niall Gilligan"). Wides blighted Clare's play in the Munster final and wayward shooting was again threatening to derail them on this occasion. The tempo of the game increased as [Barry Nugent](/wiki/Barry_Nugent "Barry Nugent") turned onto his right and pointed. A brace of points came from [Pat Donnellan](/wiki/Pat_Donnellan "Pat Donnellan") and Clare then turned on the afterburners to score 1\-04 without reply. Eight points in arrears and staring at an embarrassing championship exit, half\-time came at just the right time for Cork. Just as they did when they were in trouble at the break in the Galway game, Cork rallied superbly with a brilliant second half performance. Incredibly, the deficit was back to just four points \- 1\-11 to 1\-07 \- within three minutes of the restart. [Timmy McCarthy](/wiki/Timmy_McCarthy "Timmy McCarthy") followed up with a timely goal. A short while later Clare were just about keeping Cork at arm's length. As the clock ticked towards 70 minutes, Cork never really looked assured. Searching for that levelling point, Clare were left wanting. It was left to [Neil Ronan](/wiki/Neil_Ronan "Neil Ronan") to confirm crestfallen Clare's exit from the championship as he landed the insurance point in the 72nd minute.
### Vs Kilkenny
---
{{football box \|
date \= 10 August
Semi\-final\|
team1 \= \[\[Kilkenny GAA\|Kilkenny]]\|
score \= 1\-23 \- 0\-17 \|
team2 \= \[\[Cork GAA\|Cork]]\|
goals1 \= H Shefflin 0\-11 (6f), E Larkin 1\-2, A Fogarty 0\-5, TJ Reid 0\-2, R Power, E Brennan, J Fitzpatrick 0\-1 each. \|
goals2 \= B O'Connor 0\-8 (8f), N McCarthy, T Kenny, J O'Connor 0\-2 each, C Naughton, J Gardiner, P Cronin 0\-1 each. \|
stadium \= \[\[Croke Park]], \[\[Dublin]]
\| referee \= M Wadding (Waterford)
\| report \= \[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0810/killkenny\_cork.html?gaa Report] }}
---
In a unique fixture Cork's All\-Ireland semi\-final meeting with Kilkenny was the first time in the history of the championship that both sides met outside of the All\-Ireland final. Kilkenny were hoping for a victory to keep their three\-in\-a\-row dream on track, while Cork were hoping to deny 'the Cats' a spot in the championship decider and a chance to go one ahead of Cork in the all\-time roll of honour. The game began evenly enough and the sides were level six times in the opening twenty\-one minutes. Just on the half\-hour mark [Eoin Larkin](/wiki/Eoin_Larkin "Eoin Larkin") found himself in space for a Kilkenny goal to give his side a 1\-09 to 0\-06 lead. While Cork came back for a brief time in the second half, the deadly accuracy of [Henry Shefflin](/wiki/Henry_Shefflin "Henry Shefflin") made sure that a victory for 'the Cats' was always going to be the outcome. The nearest Cork came to closing the gap in the second half was to make it a five\-point margin. But a great point by Martin Comerford showed that Kilkenny were ready to step up a further gear as they swept to a comprehensive win.
{{Cork county hurling team}}
{{GAA 2008}}
[Cork](/wiki/Category:2008_in_hurling "2008 in hurling")
[Category:Cork county hurling team seasons](/wiki/Category:Cork_county_hurling_team_seasons "Cork county hurling team seasons")
|
[
"Championship games\n------------------",
"### Vs Tipperary",
"",
"---",
"{{football box \\|\ndate \\= 8 June \nSemi\\-final \\|\nteam1 \\= \\[\\[Cork GAA\\|Cork]] \\|\nscore \\= 1\\-13 \\- 1\\-19\\|\nteam2 \\= \\[\\[Tipperary GAA\\|Tipperary]] \\|\ngoals1 \\= B O'Connor 1\\-3 (2f), C Naughton 0\\-4, J O'Connor 0\\-2, S Óg Ó hAilpín, P O'Sullivan, T Kenny, B Corry 0\\-1 each. \\|\ngoals2 \\= E Kelly 1\\-7 (5f), L Corbett 0\\-4, S Callinan 0\\-3, E Corcoran (sl), W Ryan, S McGrath, P Kerwick, M Webster 0\\-1 each. \\|\nstadium \\= \\[\\[Páirc Uí Chaoimh]], \\[\\[Cork (city)\\|Cork]]\n\\| referee \\= B Kelly (Westmeath)\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0608/cork\\_tipperary.html?gaa Report] }}",
"---",
"",
"Tipperary created history at Páirc Uí Chaoimh on this occasion as they won their county's first championship match in Cork since 1923\\. A [Ben O'Connor](/wiki/Ben_O%27Connor_%28hurler%29 \"Ben O'Connor (hurler)\") goal and three [Cathal Naughton](/wiki/Cathal_Naughton \"Cathal Naughton\") points had Cork leading by 1\\-08 to 0\\-04 but Tipp, thanks to a dominant spell late in the half, only trailed by 1\\-08 to 1\\-07 at half\\-time. Tipp, taking their unbeaten run this season to 11 wins and two draws, scored eight of the game's final nine points to power to victory. Team captain [Eoin Kelly](/wiki/Eoin_Kelly_%28Tipperary_hurler%29 \"Eoin Kelly (Tipperary hurler)\") rocketed home a goal in the 24th minute, leaving his marker [Brian Murphy](/wiki/Brian_Murphy_%28hurler%2C_born_1982%29 \"Brian Murphy (hurler, born 1982)\") and goalkeeper [Donal Óg Cusack](/wiki/Donal_%C3%93g_Cusack \"Donal Óg Cusack\") gasping. Kelly finished with a personal tally of 1\\-07 and was ably assisted by [Lar Corbett](/wiki/Lar_Corbett \"Lar Corbett\") (0\\-04\\) and championship debutant [Séamus Callinan](/wiki/S%C3%A9amus_Callinan \"Séamus Callinan\") (0\\-03\\).",
"### Vs Dublin",
"",
"---",
"{{football box \\|\ndate \\= 12 July \nPhase 3\\|\nteam1 \\= \\[\\[Cork GAA\\|Cork]]\\|\nscore \\= 1\\-17 \\- 0\\-15 \\|\nteam2 \\= \\[\\[Dublin GAA\\|Dublin]] \\|\ngoals1 \\= J Deane 1\\-1, C Naughton 0\\-3, T Kenny, J O'Connor, B O'Connor (1f), N Ronan 0\\-2 each, J Gardiner (1f), E Cadogan, N McCarthy, P Cronin, P Horgan 0\\-1 each. \\|\ngoals2 \\= D O'Callaghan 0\\-10 (7f), R O'Carroll 0\\-3, P Ryan 0\\-2\\. \\|\nstadium \\= \\[\\[Páirc Uí Chaoimh]], \\[\\[Cork (city)\\|Cork]] \n\\| referee \\= J. Owens (Wexford)\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0712/cork\\_dublin.html?gaa Report]}}",
"---",
"",
"An opportunistic goal from [Joe Deane](/wiki/Joe_Deane \"Joe Deane\") proved crucial at Páirc Uí Chaoimh as Cork fended off a wholehearted Dublin side to progress to the fourth round of the All\\-Ireland SHC qualifiers. The Rebels, who had an early wind advantage, were 0\\-10 to 0\\-06 ahead at half\\-time with free\\-taker David O'Callaghan (0\\-05\\) top\\-scoring for the Dubs. Not many observers would have predicted such a hard\\-fought game as 'the Dubs' proved once again that they can live with the top\\-tier counties.",
"### Vs Galway",
"",
"---",
"{{football box \\|\ndate \\= 19 July \nPhase 4\\|\nteam1 \\= \\[\\[Galway GAA\\|Galway]]\\|\nscore \\= 2\\-15 \\- 0\\-23 \\|\nteam2 \\= \\[\\[Cork GAA\\|Cork]] \\|\ngoals1 \\= J Canning 2\\-12, N Healy, D Hayes, R Murray 0\\-1 each. \\|\ngoals2 \\= B O’Connor 0\\-12, J Deane 0\\-4, C Naughton 0\\-3, J Gardiner 0\\-2, N McCarthy, P Horgan 0\\-1 each. \\|\nstadium \\= \\[\\[Semple Stadium]], \\[\\[Thurles]] \n\\| referee \\= B Kelly (Westmeath)\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0719/galway\\_cork.html?gaa Report]}}",
"---",
"",
"Facing each other in the Championship for the first time since the 2005 All\\-Ireland final, this was a game that both Cork and Galway's seasons rested upon and quite possibly the futures of their respective managers. [Ger Loughnane](/wiki/Ger_Loughnane \"Ger Loughnane\")'s side got off to a poor start, going 0\\-04 to 0\\-00 behind with the Cork forwards all on target. Ten minutes in however, [Joe Canning](/wiki/Joe_Canning \"Joe Canning\") got Galway into contention as he shrugged off the challenge of [Diarmuid O'Sullivan](/wiki/Diarmuid_O%27Sullivan \"Diarmuid O'Sullivan\") and sneaked a stunning shot past [Dónal Óg Cusack](/wiki/D%C3%B3nal_%C3%93g_Cusack \"Dónal Óg Cusack\") for his first goal. Some time later a swift Galway attack ended with [Alan Kerins](/wiki/Alan_Kerins \"Alan Kerins\") batting the sliotar to the Cork net but referee [Barry Kelly](/wiki/Barry_Kelly_%28referee%29 \"Barry Kelly (referee)\") had already blown his whistle before the goal was scored. Kelly penalised Cork 'keeper Cusack for a foul on Kerins. The foul earned Cusack his second yellow card, Cork were suddenly down to 14 men and they had a penalty to defend. After converting the penalty Canning had 2\\-04 to show for the first 35 minutes. In the second\\-half Galway struggled to pull away and Cork managed to heap the pressure on them with a run of six successive points. Loughnane's team threw everything they had at their opponents in the closing ten minutes. Canning tried his heart out, firing over three late points but [Ben O'Connor](/wiki/Ben_O%27Connor_%28hurler%29 \"Ben O'Connor (hurler)\") had the last word when he split the posts with a superb effort from near the sideline.",
"### Vs Clare",
"",
"---",
"{{football box \\|\ndate \\= 27 July \nQuarter\\-final\\|\nteam1 \\= \\[\\[Clare GAA\\|Clare]]\\|\nscore \\= 2\\-17 \\- 2\\-19 \\|\nteam2 \\= \\[\\[Cork GAA\\|Cork]]\\|\ngoals1 \\= N Gilligan 0\\-8 (3f, 1 '65'), D Mc Mahon, B Nugent 1\\-1 each, J Clancy, T Carmody 0\\-2 each, G Quinn (1f), P Donnellan, B O'Connell (sl) 0\\-1 each. \\|\ngoals2 \\= B O'Connor 0\\-7 (3f, 1 '65'), T McCarthy, K Murphy 1\\-0 each, P Horgan 0\\-3, P Cronin, N Ronan 0\\-2 each, T Kenny, J O'Connor, N McCarthy, C Naughton, J Deane 0\\-1 each. \\|\nstadium \\= \\[\\[Semple Stadium]], \\[\\[Thurles]] \n\\| referee \\= D Murphy (Wexford)\n\\| report \\= \n\\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0727/clare\\_cork.html?gaa Report]{{dead link\\|date\\=November 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} }}",
"---",
"",
"For the third weekend in\\-a\\-row Cork faced a win\\-or\\-bust championship game. A feature of the opening quarter was Cork full\\-back [Diarmuid O'Sullivan](/wiki/Diarmuid_O%27Sullivan \"Diarmuid O'Sullivan\")'s struggle to keep tabs on the elusive [Niall Gilligan](/wiki/Niall_Gilligan \"Niall Gilligan\"). Wides blighted Clare's play in the Munster final and wayward shooting was again threatening to derail them on this occasion. The tempo of the game increased as [Barry Nugent](/wiki/Barry_Nugent \"Barry Nugent\") turned onto his right and pointed. A brace of points came from [Pat Donnellan](/wiki/Pat_Donnellan \"Pat Donnellan\") and Clare then turned on the afterburners to score 1\\-04 without reply. Eight points in arrears and staring at an embarrassing championship exit, half\\-time came at just the right time for Cork. Just as they did when they were in trouble at the break in the Galway game, Cork rallied superbly with a brilliant second half performance. Incredibly, the deficit was back to just four points \\- 1\\-11 to 1\\-07 \\- within three minutes of the restart. [Timmy McCarthy](/wiki/Timmy_McCarthy \"Timmy McCarthy\") followed up with a timely goal. A short while later Clare were just about keeping Cork at arm's length. As the clock ticked towards 70 minutes, Cork never really looked assured. Searching for that levelling point, Clare were left wanting. It was left to [Neil Ronan](/wiki/Neil_Ronan \"Neil Ronan\") to confirm crestfallen Clare's exit from the championship as he landed the insurance point in the 72nd minute.",
"### Vs Kilkenny",
"",
"---",
"{{football box \\|\ndate \\= 10 August \nSemi\\-final\\|\nteam1 \\= \\[\\[Kilkenny GAA\\|Kilkenny]]\\| \nscore \\= 1\\-23 \\- 0\\-17 \\|\nteam2 \\= \\[\\[Cork GAA\\|Cork]]\\|\ngoals1 \\= H Shefflin 0\\-11 (6f), E Larkin 1\\-2, A Fogarty 0\\-5, TJ Reid 0\\-2, R Power, E Brennan, J Fitzpatrick 0\\-1 each. \\|\ngoals2 \\= B O'Connor 0\\-8 (8f), N McCarthy, T Kenny, J O'Connor 0\\-2 each, C Naughton, J Gardiner, P Cronin 0\\-1 each. \\|\nstadium \\= \\[\\[Croke Park]], \\[\\[Dublin]] \n\\| referee \\= M Wadding (Waterford)\n\\| report \\= \\[http://www.rte.ie/sport/gaa/championship/2008/0810/killkenny\\_cork.html?gaa Report] }}",
"---",
"",
"In a unique fixture Cork's All\\-Ireland semi\\-final meeting with Kilkenny was the first time in the history of the championship that both sides met outside of the All\\-Ireland final. Kilkenny were hoping for a victory to keep their three\\-in\\-a\\-row dream on track, while Cork were hoping to deny 'the Cats' a spot in the championship decider and a chance to go one ahead of Cork in the all\\-time roll of honour. The game began evenly enough and the sides were level six times in the opening twenty\\-one minutes. Just on the half\\-hour mark [Eoin Larkin](/wiki/Eoin_Larkin \"Eoin Larkin\") found himself in space for a Kilkenny goal to give his side a 1\\-09 to 0\\-06 lead. While Cork came back for a brief time in the second half, the deadly accuracy of [Henry Shefflin](/wiki/Henry_Shefflin \"Henry Shefflin\") made sure that a victory for 'the Cats' was always going to be the outcome. The nearest Cork came to closing the gap in the second half was to make it a five\\-point margin. But a great point by Martin Comerford showed that Kilkenny were ready to step up a further gear as they swept to a comprehensive win.",
"{{Cork county hurling team}}\n{{GAA 2008}}",
"[Cork](/wiki/Category:2008_in_hurling \"2008 in hurling\")\n[Category:Cork county hurling team seasons](/wiki/Category:Cork_county_hurling_team_seasons \"Cork county hurling team seasons\")",
""
] |
Plot
----
{{Long plot\|date\=May 2021}}
After an argument, Ellinor Devine reveals to her husband, Sir Richard, that he is not actually the father of their son, also named Richard, but that he was fathered by her cousin, Lord Bellasis. Sir Richard throws his son out and storms off in a rage. Shortly afterwards, Richard Junior finds his biological father dead in the forest. Only the viewer and an unidentified witness know that Lord Bellasis has actually been killed by his own son, known as John Rex. However, it is Richard Devine who is found next to the body and arrested. Thinking that his father killed Bellasis, Richard wants to protect his mother's reputation and gives his name as Rufus Dawes.
The convict ship that brings Dawes to [Van Diemen's Land](/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land "Van Diemen's Land") also carries the new governor Vickers and his wife and his daughter Sylvia. The commander of the ship is a brutal man by the name of Maurice Frere. With the Vickers is a young girl, Sarah Purfoy, as a nurse to the child. However, she really is the fiancée of John Rex, convicted for forgery, and tries to help the convicts take the ship. The rebellion is led by a murderer named Gabbett. They fail when Dawes overhears their plans and manages to warn an officer while being brought to a quarantine room for the sick. Gabbett decides to claim that Dawes was the actual ringleader.
A few years later, Frere comes to visit Vickers and shows interest in Sylvia, who has grown to be a beautiful young woman. Gabbett has come back after an escape and hints that he cannibalized his comrades to survive. Dawes, who is kept in solitary confinement on an island before the coast, attempts to drown himself. Frere has brought Vickers the order to give up the settlement and move to [Port Arthur](/wiki/Port_Arthur%2C_Tasmania "Port Arthur, Tasmania"). Vickers embarks the convicts and sails with them. A smaller boat is supposed to carry Frere, Mrs Vickers and Sylvia, but is taken by John Rex, who maroons the three on the abandoned shore. Dawes finds them there a few days later and manages to inspire in them a new will to live. Sylvia especially takes to him very much and convinces him to make a boat, but Mrs Vickers dies before they can leave and makes Dawes promise to look after her daughter. The three survivors are found later by Vickers who has started to search for them. Frere takes the credit for saving Sylvia, who is herself unable to remember a thing after waking. Dawes is put back into prison.
Later again, it is shortly before the wedding of Sylvia and Frere. John Rex has been captured and Sarah Purfoy begs Frere to save his life by saying that he left them food and weapons. She threatens to reveal his past with some of the women in the settlement to Sylvia and Frere complies. Dawes, who also testifies, is shocked to find that Sylvia cannot remember him. He escapes on the night of the wedding to speak to Sylvia but is apprehended. The next day, a young convict named Cranky Brown is sentenced to a flogging for escape despite the protest of the reverend North and Dawes is ordered to carry out the punishment. He refuses to do so after Brown faints and is flogged himself. Upon finding that Brown is dead, Dawes curses Frere.
John Rex has planned another escape with the help of Gabbett. Dawes refuses to leave with them but asks Rex to post a letter for him. John Rex manages to escape with Sarah's help, while Gabbett and five other man get lost in the wilderness. Gabbett again starts killing and eating his comrades to survive. When he arrives at the shore, he is found by a group of sailors, who kill him. Rex reads Dawes letter in Sydney and understands his striking resemblance to Dawes, since they have the same father. He returns to England, where Ellinor Devine first accepts him as her son, but begins to become suspicious when he starts spending the family fortune. She confronts him with the fact that Richard was illegitimate, and Rex confesses to what happened.
Some years later again, Dawes is on Norfolk Island. Frere is on his way there to restore order. He quickly finds out that Dawes is the core of a rebellious "ring" whose members avenge every punishment through violence. The heavy punishments to which he sentences Dawes break him after some days. Reverend North becomes a close friend of Sylvia and when he visits Dawes in the hospital, the latter begs him to talk to Sylvia. Frere quickly learns about their friendship and after North infuriates him, he revenges it by punishing Dawes. One evening, he finds North and Sylvia in an embrace and suspects his wife to cheat on him. After he strikes her, Sylvia takes the next boat to the mainland; to her father. North goes to visit Dawes and confesses to him that he witnessed the murder of Lord Bellasis but did not tell anyone because Lord Bellasis held banknotes that North had forged. He gives Dawes his coat and tells him to go and see Sylvia. A storm breaks loose. The ship is about to sink as North frees the [Norfolk Island](/wiki/Norfolk_Island "Norfolk Island") convicts, who go after Frere. Sylvia recognises Dawes shortly before the ship sinks; at the same time, the convicts kill Frere. The next morning finds Dawes and Sylvia on a plank in calm waters.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"{{Long plot\\|date\\=May 2021}}\nAfter an argument, Ellinor Devine reveals to her husband, Sir Richard, that he is not actually the father of their son, also named Richard, but that he was fathered by her cousin, Lord Bellasis. Sir Richard throws his son out and storms off in a rage. Shortly afterwards, Richard Junior finds his biological father dead in the forest. Only the viewer and an unidentified witness know that Lord Bellasis has actually been killed by his own son, known as John Rex. However, it is Richard Devine who is found next to the body and arrested. Thinking that his father killed Bellasis, Richard wants to protect his mother's reputation and gives his name as Rufus Dawes.",
"The convict ship that brings Dawes to [Van Diemen's Land](/wiki/Van_Diemen%27s_Land \"Van Diemen's Land\") also carries the new governor Vickers and his wife and his daughter Sylvia. The commander of the ship is a brutal man by the name of Maurice Frere. With the Vickers is a young girl, Sarah Purfoy, as a nurse to the child. However, she really is the fiancée of John Rex, convicted for forgery, and tries to help the convicts take the ship. The rebellion is led by a murderer named Gabbett. They fail when Dawes overhears their plans and manages to warn an officer while being brought to a quarantine room for the sick. Gabbett decides to claim that Dawes was the actual ringleader.",
"A few years later, Frere comes to visit Vickers and shows interest in Sylvia, who has grown to be a beautiful young woman. Gabbett has come back after an escape and hints that he cannibalized his comrades to survive. Dawes, who is kept in solitary confinement on an island before the coast, attempts to drown himself. Frere has brought Vickers the order to give up the settlement and move to [Port Arthur](/wiki/Port_Arthur%2C_Tasmania \"Port Arthur, Tasmania\"). Vickers embarks the convicts and sails with them. A smaller boat is supposed to carry Frere, Mrs Vickers and Sylvia, but is taken by John Rex, who maroons the three on the abandoned shore. Dawes finds them there a few days later and manages to inspire in them a new will to live. Sylvia especially takes to him very much and convinces him to make a boat, but Mrs Vickers dies before they can leave and makes Dawes promise to look after her daughter. The three survivors are found later by Vickers who has started to search for them. Frere takes the credit for saving Sylvia, who is herself unable to remember a thing after waking. Dawes is put back into prison.",
"Later again, it is shortly before the wedding of Sylvia and Frere. John Rex has been captured and Sarah Purfoy begs Frere to save his life by saying that he left them food and weapons. She threatens to reveal his past with some of the women in the settlement to Sylvia and Frere complies. Dawes, who also testifies, is shocked to find that Sylvia cannot remember him. He escapes on the night of the wedding to speak to Sylvia but is apprehended. The next day, a young convict named Cranky Brown is sentenced to a flogging for escape despite the protest of the reverend North and Dawes is ordered to carry out the punishment. He refuses to do so after Brown faints and is flogged himself. Upon finding that Brown is dead, Dawes curses Frere.",
"John Rex has planned another escape with the help of Gabbett. Dawes refuses to leave with them but asks Rex to post a letter for him. John Rex manages to escape with Sarah's help, while Gabbett and five other man get lost in the wilderness. Gabbett again starts killing and eating his comrades to survive. When he arrives at the shore, he is found by a group of sailors, who kill him. Rex reads Dawes letter in Sydney and understands his striking resemblance to Dawes, since they have the same father. He returns to England, where Ellinor Devine first accepts him as her son, but begins to become suspicious when he starts spending the family fortune. She confronts him with the fact that Richard was illegitimate, and Rex confesses to what happened.",
"Some years later again, Dawes is on Norfolk Island. Frere is on his way there to restore order. He quickly finds out that Dawes is the core of a rebellious \"ring\" whose members avenge every punishment through violence. The heavy punishments to which he sentences Dawes break him after some days. Reverend North becomes a close friend of Sylvia and when he visits Dawes in the hospital, the latter begs him to talk to Sylvia. Frere quickly learns about their friendship and after North infuriates him, he revenges it by punishing Dawes. One evening, he finds North and Sylvia in an embrace and suspects his wife to cheat on him. After he strikes her, Sylvia takes the next boat to the mainland; to her father. North goes to visit Dawes and confesses to him that he witnessed the murder of Lord Bellasis but did not tell anyone because Lord Bellasis held banknotes that North had forged. He gives Dawes his coat and tells him to go and see Sylvia. A storm breaks loose. The ship is about to sink as North frees the [Norfolk Island](/wiki/Norfolk_Island \"Norfolk Island\") convicts, who go after Frere. Sylvia recognises Dawes shortly before the ship sinks; at the same time, the convicts kill Frere. The next morning finds Dawes and Sylvia on a plank in calm waters.",
""
] |
Obama Administration
--------------------
On July 7, 2009, President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama "Barack Obama") announced his intent to nominate Posner to serve in the [State Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State "United States Department of State") as [Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_State_for_Democracy%2C_Human_Rights%2C_and_Labor "Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor").{{Cite web \|url\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\_press\_office/President\-Obama\-Announces\-More\-Key\-Administration\-Posts\-7\-7\-09/ \|work\=\[\[whitehouse.gov]] \|title\=July 7, 2009, White House Press Release \|date\=7 July 2009 \|via\=\[\[NARA\|National Archives]] \|access\-date\=2009\-07\-16 }} He was named to the position on September 23, 2009\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.humanrights\-geneva.info/US\-names\-new\-human\-rights\-chief,6663 \|title\=US names new human rights chief \| Infosud \- Human Rights Tribune \| www.infosud.org \|access\-date\=2010\-05\-18 \|archive\-date\=2009\-09\-26 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926190939/http://www.humanrights\-geneva.info/US\-names\-new\-human\-rights\-chief,6663 }}
### Confirmation
In his statement as the nominee for Assistant Secretary of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on July 28, 2009, Posner affirmed that
> \[s}ince the late 1970s, I often have looked to the U.S. government as a key ally in the struggle to protect human rights around the world. As a non\-governmental advocate, I have witnessed and often benefited from the incredible power and [moral authority](/wiki/Moral_authority "Moral authority") of the United States to lead on these important but often complicated issues. The U.S. government's potential to provide leadership on human rights democracy and the rule of law is part of what Secretary Clinton has referred to as the smart power.
Posner later recalled the personal lessons of the Holocaust that helped shape his vocation as a human rights advocate. Posner was raised with a consciousness of the horrors of the Holocaust and "internalized two important lessons. The first is that governments that fall into the hands of dictators and demagogues are capable of unspeakable brutality and horror. The second, more hopeful lesson is that courageous people can and often do stand up to oppression and it is our duty to help them".Michael H. Posner, " [Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee](http://foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/PosnerTestimony090728a.pdf)"
During his testimony, Posner gave a brief synopsis of his previous involvement with the U.S. government in their mutual effort to promote and protect human rights. His first appearance before the Senate was in 1978 when Posner testified before the [Senate Foreign Relations Committee](/wiki/Senate_Foreign_Relations_Committee "Senate Foreign Relations Committee") regarding the trade sanctions against [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin "Idi Amin")'s Uganda. Posner commented that "this was the first of many instances where I have seen and been part of efforts to harness the political, diplomatic and economic power of the United States Government as a force for good". Congress passed a total ban on trade with Uganda and the people regained control of their country within the year. He went on to describe other shared successes including "the work we did with [Andrei Sakharov](/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov "Andrei Sakharov") and other dissidents in the former Soviet Union, especially through the [Helsinki process](/wiki/Helsinki_Accords "Helsinki Accords"). I experienced it in the 1980s when President Reagan stood behind Philippine "[people's power](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution "People Power Revolution")" and ensured a successful transition of power from [Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos "Ferdinand Marcos") to [Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino "Corazon Aquino"). I saw it in Northern Ireland where [George Mitchell](/wiki/George_J._Mitchell "George J. Mitchell") and the Clinton Administration provided a roadmap for peace through the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement "Good Friday Agreement"). And I witnessed it as the Bush Administration, working closely with Congressional leaders like Senators [Cardin](/wiki/Ben_Cardin "Ben Cardin") and [Voinovich](/wiki/George_Voinovich "George Voinovich") and Congressman [Chris Smith](/wiki/Chris_Smith_%28New_Jersey_politician%29 "Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)"), took a leading role in challenging European anti\-Semitism and other racial and religious persecution through the [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe "Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe")".
Posner closed with an affirmation that "\[t]he promotion of democracy and human rights here, and around the world, helps define us – and who we are as a people".
Posner's confirmation by the 111th Congress was welcomed by the international human rights community. [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International "Amnesty International") USA Executive Director Larry Cox issued the following statement:
"Michael has been a brilliant advocate on behalf of protecting the rights and dignity of people the world over. At this time of great opportunity to advance the rights of those whose freedoms are denied, it is invaluable to have an advocate of Michael's accomplishment in this role", said Cox. "Amnesty International looks forward to continuing to work with now\-Secretary Posner on crucial issues concerning the global protection of human rights for all people".{{Cite web \|url\= http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id\=ENGUSA20090925002⟨\=e \|title\=Amnesty International Public Statement {{!}} Support for Michael Posner \|access\-date\=2010\-06\-20 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110219174936/http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id\=ENGUSA20090925002⟨\=e \|archive\-date\= 2011\-02\-19 }}
At his Swearing\-in Ceremony at the State Department, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton commented that "as soon as \[his confirmation] was completed, literally, he was on a plane, going to lead the first ever U.S. delegation to the UN Human Rights Council. Our team there under Mike's leadership not only made significant progress on women's rights and human security issues, but co\-sponsored a successful resolution with Egypt upholding freedom of expression and freedom of religion. And Mike went on to Warsaw to present the Obama Administration's proposal for advancing the "Human Dimension" of the Helsinki process. I think I only talked to him two times during that period, because I had great confidence that he would indeed be successful as we rejoined the Human Rights Council and it exceeded our expectations".[Remarks at Swearing\-in Ceremony {{!}} Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton](https://web.archive.org/web/20091022003133/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2009a/10/130698.htm)
### U.S.\-China Human Rights Dialogue
In May 2010, Posner was a key negotiator in a "U.S.\-[China](/wiki/China "China") Human Rights Dialogue" in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") On May 14, Posner gave the press conference after the event, where he described the U.S. approach to the meeting as, "Part of a mature relationship is that you have an open discussion where you not only raise the other guy's problems, but you raise your own." To that end, he said the American side had brought up the United States' "treatment of [Muslim Americans](/wiki/Muslim_American "Muslim American")", as well as [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona")'s recently passed [Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act](/wiki/Support_Our_Law_Enforcement_and_Safe_Neighborhoods_Act "Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act"), which Posner said had been brought up "early and often", "as a troubling trend in our society".[Briefing on the U.S.\-China Human Rights Dialogue](https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/05/141899.htm) (transcript), Michael H. Posner, May 14, 2010
Posner's comments proved controversial in the United States. Arizona's two senators, [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 "Republican Party (United States)") [Jon Kyl](/wiki/Jon_Kyl "Jon Kyl") and [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain "John McCain"), wrote an open letter to Posner that stated, "To compare in any way the lawful and democratic act of the government of the state of Arizona with the arbitrary abuses of the unelected [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party "Chinese Communist Party") is inappropriate and offensive", and called for a retraction and apology."[US senators blast Arizona\-China rights comparison](https://web.archive.org/web/20100521064044/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iu-WvXuevN87FM-FqVYjLDtAxWZA)", *[Agence France\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse "Agence France-Presse")*, May 18, 2010 The conservative *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")* called the comments "misguided [moral equivalence](/wiki/Moral_equivalence "Moral equivalence")" and "despicable", citing China's treatment of its own Muslim population, the [Uyghurs](/wiki/Uyghur_people "Uyghur people"), as well as its policy of sending back refugees who arrive from [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea "North Korea"), "where certain, agonizing death awaits them"."[Maligning America—Again](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/editorials/maligning_america_again_dKQQPC3xtwD9eO4IsnsAFM)", editorial, *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post "New York Post")*, May 18, 2010\.
The State Department defended Posner's actions. Spokesman [P. J. Crowley](/wiki/P.%C2%A0J._Crowley "P. J. Crowley") disputed the notion Posner was apologizing to China when he was actually "standing up" for America by demonstrating how debate works in a "civil society". Crowley also reiterated the Obama administration's concerns about the Arizona law, stating, "There is, as many have said, real concerns about \-\- that this Arizona law will inevitably devolve into racial profiling. That would be a fundamental challenge to human rights around the world".{{cite news \|title\=State Department Defends Official Who Expressed Regret to Chinese Over Arizona Law \|newspaper\=FoxNews\|date\=18 May 2010 \|url\=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/05/18/state\-department\-defends\-official\-expressed\-regret\-chinese\-arizona\-law/ }}
### Internet freedom
As Assistant Secretary of State, Posner has played a leading role in implementing Secretary Clinton's vision for [Internet freedom](/wiki/Internet_censorship "Internet censorship").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2011/02/156619\.htm \|title\=Internet Rights and Wrongs: Choices \& Challenges in a Networked World \|website\=www.state.gov \|access\-date\=12 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217024633/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2011/02/156619\.htm \|archive\-date\=17 February 2011 }} In testimony before the Senate Judiciary Human Rights and the Law Subcommittee in March 2010, Posner said, "the defense of a free, open and interconnected Internet is in our national and global interests and is important for commerce, for diplomatic and political relations, and for building sustainable democratic societies."[Testimony](http://judiciary.senate.gov/pdf/3-2-10%20Posner%20testimony.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206070830/http://judiciary.senate.gov/pdf/3\-2\-10%20Posner%20testimony.pdf \|date\=2011\-02\-06 }}, 2 March 2010 Posner frequently speaks on the topic of Internet freedom and the role of the Internet in advancing human rights and helping people build sustainable democracies."[Internet Freedom: Promoting Human Rights in the Digital Age – A Panel Discussion](http://geneva.usmission.gov/2011/03/08/internet-freedom_hrc/)", United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, March 4, 2011\.
Under Posner's leadership, the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor has played a leading role in supporting democratic activists in their use of new technologies, particularly in the Middle East. Posner led efforts described as "uncharacteristically cool" to fund millions of dollars in technology development meant to aid pro\-democracy activists around the world.{{Cite web\|url\=http://realtwister.blogspot.com/2011/04/us\-develops\-panic\-button\-app\-for\-pro.html\|title \= US develops 'panic button' app for pro\-democracy activists!!!!!!\|date \= 9 April 2011}} In describing a "panic button" designed to allow pro\-democracy campaigners wipe out their phones' address books and emit emergency signals to other activists, Posner said, "We're operating like venture capitalists. We are looking for the most innovative people who are going to tailor their technology and their expertise to the particular community of people we're trying to protect."{{cite news\|last\=Quinn\|first\=Andrew\|title\=U.S. develops "panic button" for democracy activists\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\-rights\-usa\-technology\-idUSTRE72O6DH20110325\|newspaper\=Reuters\|date\=25 March 2011}} Digital activists commended Posner's bureau in this approach in an open letter to Congress in March 2011, saying, "The State Department, and particularly the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), has taken significant interest in supporting technologies that enhance Internet freedom, and reached out to leading organizations in a collaborative and open approach".<http://mobileactive.tumblr.com> {{User\-generated source\|date\=August 2022}}
### Strategic dialogues
Posner has participated in more than a dozen strategic dialogues since joining the State Department. Both Secretary Clinton and Posner have placed great emphasis on building partnerships beyond the state, and giving civil society a stronger voice in shaping the political decision\-making process. In her July 2010 speech in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), Secretary Clinton said, "markets and politics usually receive more attention. But civil society is every bit as important. And it undergirds both democratic governance and broad\-based prosperity".{{cite speech \|title\="Civil Society: Supporting Democracy in the 21st Century", at the Community of Democracies \|author\=Hillary Rodham Clinton\|author\-link\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \|date\= 3 July 2010 \| location\= Slowacki Theater, Krakow, Poland \|url\= https://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/07/143952\.htm \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100707235951/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/07/143952\.htm \|archive\-date\= 7 July 2010 }} In February 2010, Posner and Secretary Clinton launched a Strategic Dialogue with Civil Society, an endeavor to help streamline and strengthen dialogue with non\-governmental organizations and other members of civil society. Clinton and Posner engaged in a town hall style discussion with over fifty civil society representatives, domestically and internationally.
In the summer of 2010, Posner participated in the U.S.\-Russia Civil Society Working Group of the Bilateral Commission, which focused on prisons and migration, as well as the Civil Society to Civil Society Summit, where Secretary Clinton told participants "we need creative, committed, courageous organizations like you and yours to find innovative solutions, to expose corruption, to give voice to the voiceless, to hold governments accountable to their citizens, to keep people informed and engaged on the issues that matter most to them".{{cite speech \|title\= Remarks at the U.S.\-Russia "Civil Society to Civil Society" Summit \|author\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \|author\-link\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \|date\= 24 June 2010 \|location\= Washington, D.C. \|url\= http://www.humanrights.gov/2010/12/09/remarks\-at\-the\-u\-s\-russia\-civil\-society\-to\-civil\-society\-summit/ \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095431/http://www.humanrights.gov/2010/12/09/remarks\-at\-the\-u\-s\-russia\-civil\-society\-to\-civil\-society\-summit/ \|archive\-date\= 24 December 2013 }}
### Economic and social rights
Posner has been a vocal proponent of the Obama Administration's integrated approach to human rights and the inexorable relationship between national security and economic, social, and political rights. On March 24, Posner delivered a keynote address, "The Four Freedoms Turn 70: Ensuring Economic, Political, and National Security in the 21st Century", at the [American Society of International Law](/wiki/American_Society_of_International_Law "American Society of International Law"). The speech took place on the anniversary of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's famous Four Freedom speech. Posner's speech re\-examined the Four Freedoms, or "moral cornerstones", and discussed the important intersection between political and economic rights, which he said are "inexorably linked". According to Posner, "Human dignity has a political component and an economic component". Posner highlighted the turmoil in the Middle East as evidence that the shaping of U.S. national security must include the promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and that only if the two are interlinked will peaceful societies flourish economically, socially, and politically. The unrest in the Middle East, according to Posner, "once again demonstrates the fallacy of trying to divide America's "hard" strategic interests from our "soft" interests, including our commitment to human rights". Posner stated, "The recent protests demonstrate the centrality of human rights to those interests and the links among civil, political, economic and social rights".{{cite speech \|title\=The Four Freedoms Turn 70, Address to the American Society of International Law \|author\=Michael H. Posner \|date\=24 March 2011 \| location\= Ritz Carlton Hotel, Washington, D.C. \|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/rm/2011/159195\.htm }}
### Voluntary Principles
Since March 2010, Posner has been involved in the [Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights](/wiki/Voluntary_Principles_on_Security_and_Human_Rights "Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights").{{cite web\|title\=Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights\|url\=http://www.voluntaryprinciples.org/\|website\=voluntaryprinciples.org\|access\-date\=July 23, 2014}} Established in 2000 (the United States is a founding member), the Voluntary Principles—an initiative by governments, NGOs, and companies—provides guidance to extractives companies on maintaining the safety and security of their operations within a framework that ensures respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Voluntary Principles are the only human rights guidelines designed specifically for oil, gas, and mining companies. On March 22 and 23, 2011, Posner chaired the 11th annual Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights Plenary Meeting in Washington, a multi\-stakeholder forum where human rights issues in the extractives sector, particularly in areas of conflict and civil strife, were addressed. Posner also participated in the Annual Plenary Meeting in London in March 2010 and in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa "Ottawa") in March 2012\. Later in May and November 2012, Posner travelled to Libya and Nigeria respectively to conduct multi\-stakeholder meetings regarding implementation of the VPs. Currently there are seven governments, 20 companies, 12 NGOs, and four observers participating in the Voluntary Principles."[The Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights](http://www.humanrights.gov/2012/12/03/the-voluntary-principles-on-security-and-human-rights/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226035135/http://www.humanrights.gov/2012/12/03/the\-voluntary\-principles\-on\-security\-and\-human\-rights/ \|date\=2013\-02\-26 }}", HumanRights.gov, 3 December 2012
### Human Rights Reports
Posner has been actively engaged in reporting on global human rights situations through the State Department's annual Human Rights Reports, which are submitted to Congress by the Department of State in compliance with Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the [Foreign Assistance Act](/wiki/Foreign_Assistance_Act "Foreign Assistance Act") of 1961 (FAA), as amended. The report offers a comprehensive record of human rights situations of almost 200 countries and territories worldwide, and uses information from nongovernmental and international organizations, U.S. embassies and consulates, and other sources. At the 2010 Human Rights Report roll\-out in April 2011, Posner called it "the single most comprehensive report on human rights produced by anybody in the world—194 countries, 2,200,000 words, 7,000 pages".Michael H. Posner, "[Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2010](https://fpc.state.gov/160395.htm) ", U.S. State Department Foreign Press Center, April 8, 2011\. That year's report was viewed by more than one million people.
Posner highlighted three trends identified in the 2010 report:
* Ongoing conflicts that continue to disproportionately affect vulnerable populations
* Greater access to connective technologies that has helped to both promote human rights, "but also has given governments greater energy in curtailing freedom of expression"
* The "use and misuse of national security legislation and emergency legislation to apply broad curtailments on basic civil liberties"{{cite web \|url\=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2010/138263\.htm \|title\=Briefing on the Release of the 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices \|website\=www.state.gov \|access\-date\=12 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315142625/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2010/138263\.htm \|archive\-date\=15 March 2010 }}
The following year, at the rollout of the [2011 Human Rights report](/wiki/2011_Human_Rights_report "2011 Human Rights report"), Posner emphasized two worrying trends:
* "Flawed elections, restrictions on physical and internet freedom, media censorship, attempts to restrict the activities of civil society groups"
* "Increasing persecution of many religious groups, including the [Ahmadis](/wiki/Ahmadiyya "Ahmadiyya"), the [Baháʼí](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith "Baháʼí Faith"), [Tibetan Buddhists](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhists "Tibetan Buddhists"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews "Jews"), and Christians" as well as "racial and ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, women, and the LGBT community, which continue to face criminalization and violence in many countries""[Briefing on the Release of the 2011 Human Rights Reports](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/rm/2012/190837.htm)", May 24, 2012
The 2011 report was designed to be more concise, focused and user\-friendly.John F. Kerry, "[Secretary's Preface](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper)", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, U.S. Department of State
### Universal Periodic Review
Posner has been a proponent of the [Universal Periodic Review](/wiki/Universal_Periodic_Review "Universal Periodic Review") (UPR), established by the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/UN_General_Assembly "UN General Assembly") in 2006 as a process through which the human rights records of the United Nations' 193 Member States is reviewed and assessed. In November 2010, Posner traveled to Geneva as one of three co\-heads of the 32\-person interagency U.S. government delegation submitting the United States' first report through the UPR to the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council "UN Human Rights Council"). Speaking of the UPR at a press conference at the Foreign Press Center in April 2011, Posner stated, "We are very open to the notion that people in this country have not only a right but are well open to be critical of what we do, and we engage them in that criticism". During the week of the UPR hearing, Posner defended the United States' engagement with the UN Human Rights Council against domestic criticism, saying "this is what principled engagement looks like".["US defends human rights record in first comprehensive review before UN body](http://www.startribune.com/templates/Print_This_Story?sid=106756658)", *Associated Press/Star Tribune*, 5 November 2010 He reiterated the Obama administration's stance that there was no room for torture or cruel treatment of detainees in U.S. policy: "We're not mincing words. We're not winking and nodding", he said. "The prohibition against torture and cruel treatment applies to every U.S. official, every agency, everywhere in the world. There is an absolute prohibition as a matter of law and policy".
### International religious freedom
Since being sworn in as Assistant Secretary, Posner has engaged on a number of fronts promoting religious freedom, particularly in the Middle East and South Central Asia. Following the release of the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report, Posner discussed religious freedom issues in the Middle East before the House Foreign Affairs Committee Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia. Said Posner, "Religion is a global phenomenon and all nations, including the United States, wrestle with how best to accommodate their religious diversity. We are convinced that the freedom to profess, practice, and promote one's religion is a basic human right, a social good, a source of stability, and a key component of international security".Michael H. Posner, "[The State of Political and Religious Freedom in the Middle East](https://web.archive.org/web/20091123085214/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2009/132167.htm)", Statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia, November 19, 2009\. Posner has engaged on international religious freedom issues in meetings with Egyptian Coptic Christians, Chinese religious freedom advocates, Vietnamese, Pakistani, and Afghan officials, and others since being sworn in as Assistant Secretary.
|
[
"Obama Administration\n--------------------",
"On July 7, 2009, President [Barack Obama](/wiki/Barack_Obama \"Barack Obama\") announced his intent to nominate Posner to serve in the [State Department](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State \"United States Department of State\") as [Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor](/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_State_for_Democracy%2C_Human_Rights%2C_and_Labor \"Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the\\_press\\_office/President\\-Obama\\-Announces\\-More\\-Key\\-Administration\\-Posts\\-7\\-7\\-09/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[whitehouse.gov]] \\|title\\=July 7, 2009, White House Press Release \\|date\\=7 July 2009 \\|via\\=\\[\\[NARA\\|National Archives]] \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-16 }} He was named to the position on September 23, 2009\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.humanrights\\-geneva.info/US\\-names\\-new\\-human\\-rights\\-chief,6663 \\|title\\=US names new human rights chief \\| Infosud \\- Human Rights Tribune \\| www.infosud.org \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-05\\-18 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-26 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926190939/http://www.humanrights\\-geneva.info/US\\-names\\-new\\-human\\-rights\\-chief,6663 }}",
"### Confirmation",
"In his statement as the nominee for Assistant Secretary of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on July 28, 2009, Posner affirmed that",
"",
"> \\[s}ince the late 1970s, I often have looked to the U.S. government as a key ally in the struggle to protect human rights around the world. As a non\\-governmental advocate, I have witnessed and often benefited from the incredible power and [moral authority](/wiki/Moral_authority \"Moral authority\") of the United States to lead on these important but often complicated issues. The U.S. government's potential to provide leadership on human rights democracy and the rule of law is part of what Secretary Clinton has referred to as the smart power.",
"Posner later recalled the personal lessons of the Holocaust that helped shape his vocation as a human rights advocate. Posner was raised with a consciousness of the horrors of the Holocaust and \"internalized two important lessons. The first is that governments that fall into the hands of dictators and demagogues are capable of unspeakable brutality and horror. The second, more hopeful lesson is that courageous people can and often do stand up to oppression and it is our duty to help them\".Michael H. Posner, \" [Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee](http://foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/PosnerTestimony090728a.pdf)\"",
"During his testimony, Posner gave a brief synopsis of his previous involvement with the U.S. government in their mutual effort to promote and protect human rights. His first appearance before the Senate was in 1978 when Posner testified before the [Senate Foreign Relations Committee](/wiki/Senate_Foreign_Relations_Committee \"Senate Foreign Relations Committee\") regarding the trade sanctions against [Idi Amin](/wiki/Idi_Amin \"Idi Amin\")'s Uganda. Posner commented that \"this was the first of many instances where I have seen and been part of efforts to harness the political, diplomatic and economic power of the United States Government as a force for good\". Congress passed a total ban on trade with Uganda and the people regained control of their country within the year. He went on to describe other shared successes including \"the work we did with [Andrei Sakharov](/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov \"Andrei Sakharov\") and other dissidents in the former Soviet Union, especially through the [Helsinki process](/wiki/Helsinki_Accords \"Helsinki Accords\"). I experienced it in the 1980s when President Reagan stood behind Philippine \"[people's power](/wiki/People_Power_Revolution \"People Power Revolution\")\" and ensured a successful transition of power from [Marcos](/wiki/Ferdinand_Marcos \"Ferdinand Marcos\") to [Aquino](/wiki/Corazon_Aquino \"Corazon Aquino\"). I saw it in Northern Ireland where [George Mitchell](/wiki/George_J._Mitchell \"George J. Mitchell\") and the Clinton Administration provided a roadmap for peace through the [Good Friday Agreement](/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement \"Good Friday Agreement\"). And I witnessed it as the Bush Administration, working closely with Congressional leaders like Senators [Cardin](/wiki/Ben_Cardin \"Ben Cardin\") and [Voinovich](/wiki/George_Voinovich \"George Voinovich\") and Congressman [Chris Smith](/wiki/Chris_Smith_%28New_Jersey_politician%29 \"Chris Smith (New Jersey politician)\"), took a leading role in challenging European anti\\-Semitism and other racial and religious persecution through the [Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe](/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Cooperation_in_Europe \"Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe\")\".",
"Posner closed with an affirmation that \"\\[t]he promotion of democracy and human rights here, and around the world, helps define us – and who we are as a people\".",
"Posner's confirmation by the 111th Congress was welcomed by the international human rights community. [Amnesty International](/wiki/Amnesty_International \"Amnesty International\") USA Executive Director Larry Cox issued the following statement: \n\"Michael has been a brilliant advocate on behalf of protecting the rights and dignity of people the world over. At this time of great opportunity to advance the rights of those whose freedoms are denied, it is invaluable to have an advocate of Michael's accomplishment in this role\", said Cox. \"Amnesty International looks forward to continuing to work with now\\-Secretary Posner on crucial issues concerning the global protection of human rights for all people\".{{Cite web \\|url\\= http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id\\=ENGUSA20090925002⟨\\=e \\|title\\=Amnesty International Public Statement {{!}} Support for Michael Posner \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-06\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110219174936/http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?id\\=ENGUSA20090925002⟨\\=e \\|archive\\-date\\= 2011\\-02\\-19 }}",
"At his Swearing\\-in Ceremony at the State Department, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton commented that \"as soon as \\[his confirmation] was completed, literally, he was on a plane, going to lead the first ever U.S. delegation to the UN Human Rights Council. Our team there under Mike's leadership not only made significant progress on women's rights and human security issues, but co\\-sponsored a successful resolution with Egypt upholding freedom of expression and freedom of religion. And Mike went on to Warsaw to present the Obama Administration's proposal for advancing the \"Human Dimension\" of the Helsinki process. I think I only talked to him two times during that period, because I had great confidence that he would indeed be successful as we rejoined the Human Rights Council and it exceeded our expectations\".[Remarks at Swearing\\-in Ceremony {{!}} Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton](https://web.archive.org/web/20091022003133/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2009a/10/130698.htm)",
"### U.S.\\-China Human Rights Dialogue",
"In May 2010, Posner was a key negotiator in a \"U.S.\\-[China](/wiki/China \"China\") Human Rights Dialogue\" in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") On May 14, Posner gave the press conference after the event, where he described the U.S. approach to the meeting as, \"Part of a mature relationship is that you have an open discussion where you not only raise the other guy's problems, but you raise your own.\" To that end, he said the American side had brought up the United States' \"treatment of [Muslim Americans](/wiki/Muslim_American \"Muslim American\")\", as well as [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\")'s recently passed [Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act](/wiki/Support_Our_Law_Enforcement_and_Safe_Neighborhoods_Act \"Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act\"), which Posner said had been brought up \"early and often\", \"as a troubling trend in our society\".[Briefing on the U.S.\\-China Human Rights Dialogue](https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/05/141899.htm) (transcript), Michael H. Posner, May 14, 2010",
"Posner's comments proved controversial in the United States. Arizona's two senators, [Republicans](/wiki/Republican_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Republican Party (United States)\") [Jon Kyl](/wiki/Jon_Kyl \"Jon Kyl\") and [John McCain](/wiki/John_McCain \"John McCain\"), wrote an open letter to Posner that stated, \"To compare in any way the lawful and democratic act of the government of the state of Arizona with the arbitrary abuses of the unelected [Chinese Communist Party](/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party \"Chinese Communist Party\") is inappropriate and offensive\", and called for a retraction and apology.\"[US senators blast Arizona\\-China rights comparison](https://web.archive.org/web/20100521064044/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iu-WvXuevN87FM-FqVYjLDtAxWZA)\", *[Agence France\\-Presse](/wiki/Agence_France-Presse \"Agence France-Presse\")*, May 18, 2010 The conservative *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")* called the comments \"misguided [moral equivalence](/wiki/Moral_equivalence \"Moral equivalence\")\" and \"despicable\", citing China's treatment of its own Muslim population, the [Uyghurs](/wiki/Uyghur_people \"Uyghur people\"), as well as its policy of sending back refugees who arrive from [North Korea](/wiki/North_Korea \"North Korea\"), \"where certain, agonizing death awaits them\".\"[Maligning America—Again](http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/editorials/maligning_america_again_dKQQPC3xtwD9eO4IsnsAFM)\", editorial, *[New York Post](/wiki/New_York_Post \"New York Post\")*, May 18, 2010\\.",
"The State Department defended Posner's actions. Spokesman [P. J. Crowley](/wiki/P.%C2%A0J._Crowley \"P. J. Crowley\") disputed the notion Posner was apologizing to China when he was actually \"standing up\" for America by demonstrating how debate works in a \"civil society\". Crowley also reiterated the Obama administration's concerns about the Arizona law, stating, \"There is, as many have said, real concerns about \\-\\- that this Arizona law will inevitably devolve into racial profiling. That would be a fundamental challenge to human rights around the world\".{{cite news \\|title\\=State Department Defends Official Who Expressed Regret to Chinese Over Arizona Law \\|newspaper\\=FoxNews\\|date\\=18 May 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/05/18/state\\-department\\-defends\\-official\\-expressed\\-regret\\-chinese\\-arizona\\-law/ }}",
"### Internet freedom",
"As Assistant Secretary of State, Posner has played a leading role in implementing Secretary Clinton's vision for [Internet freedom](/wiki/Internet_censorship \"Internet censorship\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2011/02/156619\\.htm \\|title\\=Internet Rights and Wrongs: Choices \\& Challenges in a Networked World \\|website\\=www.state.gov \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217024633/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2011/02/156619\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2011 }} In testimony before the Senate Judiciary Human Rights and the Law Subcommittee in March 2010, Posner said, \"the defense of a free, open and interconnected Internet is in our national and global interests and is important for commerce, for diplomatic and political relations, and for building sustainable democratic societies.\"[Testimony](http://judiciary.senate.gov/pdf/3-2-10%20Posner%20testimony.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206070830/http://judiciary.senate.gov/pdf/3\\-2\\-10%20Posner%20testimony.pdf \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-06 }}, 2 March 2010 Posner frequently speaks on the topic of Internet freedom and the role of the Internet in advancing human rights and helping people build sustainable democracies.\"[Internet Freedom: Promoting Human Rights in the Digital Age – A Panel Discussion](http://geneva.usmission.gov/2011/03/08/internet-freedom_hrc/)\", United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, March 4, 2011\\.",
"Under Posner's leadership, the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor has played a leading role in supporting democratic activists in their use of new technologies, particularly in the Middle East. Posner led efforts described as \"uncharacteristically cool\" to fund millions of dollars in technology development meant to aid pro\\-democracy activists around the world.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://realtwister.blogspot.com/2011/04/us\\-develops\\-panic\\-button\\-app\\-for\\-pro.html\\|title \\= US develops 'panic button' app for pro\\-democracy activists!!!!!!\\|date \\= 9 April 2011}} In describing a \"panic button\" designed to allow pro\\-democracy campaigners wipe out their phones' address books and emit emergency signals to other activists, Posner said, \"We're operating like venture capitalists. We are looking for the most innovative people who are going to tailor their technology and their expertise to the particular community of people we're trying to protect.\"{{cite news\\|last\\=Quinn\\|first\\=Andrew\\|title\\=U.S. develops \"panic button\" for democracy activists\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/us\\-rights\\-usa\\-technology\\-idUSTRE72O6DH20110325\\|newspaper\\=Reuters\\|date\\=25 March 2011}} Digital activists commended Posner's bureau in this approach in an open letter to Congress in March 2011, saying, \"The State Department, and particularly the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), has taken significant interest in supporting technologies that enhance Internet freedom, and reached out to leading organizations in a collaborative and open approach\".<http://mobileactive.tumblr.com> {{User\\-generated source\\|date\\=August 2022}}",
"### Strategic dialogues",
"Posner has participated in more than a dozen strategic dialogues since joining the State Department. Both Secretary Clinton and Posner have placed great emphasis on building partnerships beyond the state, and giving civil society a stronger voice in shaping the political decision\\-making process. In her July 2010 speech in [Kraków](/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w \"Kraków\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), Secretary Clinton said, \"markets and politics usually receive more attention. But civil society is every bit as important. And it undergirds both democratic governance and broad\\-based prosperity\".{{cite speech \\|title\\=\"Civil Society: Supporting Democracy in the 21st Century\", at the Community of Democracies \\|author\\=Hillary Rodham Clinton\\|author\\-link\\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \\|date\\= 3 July 2010 \\| location\\= Slowacki Theater, Krakow, Poland \\|url\\= https://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/07/143952\\.htm \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20100707235951/http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/07/143952\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\= 7 July 2010 }} In February 2010, Posner and Secretary Clinton launched a Strategic Dialogue with Civil Society, an endeavor to help streamline and strengthen dialogue with non\\-governmental organizations and other members of civil society. Clinton and Posner engaged in a town hall style discussion with over fifty civil society representatives, domestically and internationally.",
"In the summer of 2010, Posner participated in the U.S.\\-Russia Civil Society Working Group of the Bilateral Commission, which focused on prisons and migration, as well as the Civil Society to Civil Society Summit, where Secretary Clinton told participants \"we need creative, committed, courageous organizations like you and yours to find innovative solutions, to expose corruption, to give voice to the voiceless, to hold governments accountable to their citizens, to keep people informed and engaged on the issues that matter most to them\".{{cite speech \\|title\\= Remarks at the U.S.\\-Russia \"Civil Society to Civil Society\" Summit \\|author\\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \\|author\\-link\\= Hillary Rodham Clinton \\|date\\= 24 June 2010 \\|location\\= Washington, D.C. \\|url\\= http://www.humanrights.gov/2010/12/09/remarks\\-at\\-the\\-u\\-s\\-russia\\-civil\\-society\\-to\\-civil\\-society\\-summit/ \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095431/http://www.humanrights.gov/2010/12/09/remarks\\-at\\-the\\-u\\-s\\-russia\\-civil\\-society\\-to\\-civil\\-society\\-summit/ \\|archive\\-date\\= 24 December 2013 }}",
"### Economic and social rights",
"Posner has been a vocal proponent of the Obama Administration's integrated approach to human rights and the inexorable relationship between national security and economic, social, and political rights. On March 24, Posner delivered a keynote address, \"The Four Freedoms Turn 70: Ensuring Economic, Political, and National Security in the 21st Century\", at the [American Society of International Law](/wiki/American_Society_of_International_Law \"American Society of International Law\"). The speech took place on the anniversary of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's famous Four Freedom speech. Posner's speech re\\-examined the Four Freedoms, or \"moral cornerstones\", and discussed the important intersection between political and economic rights, which he said are \"inexorably linked\". According to Posner, \"Human dignity has a political component and an economic component\". Posner highlighted the turmoil in the Middle East as evidence that the shaping of U.S. national security must include the promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and that only if the two are interlinked will peaceful societies flourish economically, socially, and politically. The unrest in the Middle East, according to Posner, \"once again demonstrates the fallacy of trying to divide America's \"hard\" strategic interests from our \"soft\" interests, including our commitment to human rights\". Posner stated, \"The recent protests demonstrate the centrality of human rights to those interests and the links among civil, political, economic and social rights\".{{cite speech \\|title\\=The Four Freedoms Turn 70, Address to the American Society of International Law \\|author\\=Michael H. Posner \\|date\\=24 March 2011 \\| location\\= Ritz Carlton Hotel, Washington, D.C. \\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/j/drl/rls/rm/2011/159195\\.htm }}",
"### Voluntary Principles",
"Since March 2010, Posner has been involved in the [Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights](/wiki/Voluntary_Principles_on_Security_and_Human_Rights \"Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights\\|url\\=http://www.voluntaryprinciples.org/\\|website\\=voluntaryprinciples.org\\|access\\-date\\=July 23, 2014}} Established in 2000 (the United States is a founding member), the Voluntary Principles—an initiative by governments, NGOs, and companies—provides guidance to extractives companies on maintaining the safety and security of their operations within a framework that ensures respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Voluntary Principles are the only human rights guidelines designed specifically for oil, gas, and mining companies. On March 22 and 23, 2011, Posner chaired the 11th annual Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights Plenary Meeting in Washington, a multi\\-stakeholder forum where human rights issues in the extractives sector, particularly in areas of conflict and civil strife, were addressed. Posner also participated in the Annual Plenary Meeting in London in March 2010 and in [Ottawa](/wiki/Ottawa \"Ottawa\") in March 2012\\. Later in May and November 2012, Posner travelled to Libya and Nigeria respectively to conduct multi\\-stakeholder meetings regarding implementation of the VPs. Currently there are seven governments, 20 companies, 12 NGOs, and four observers participating in the Voluntary Principles.\"[The Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights](http://www.humanrights.gov/2012/12/03/the-voluntary-principles-on-security-and-human-rights/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226035135/http://www.humanrights.gov/2012/12/03/the\\-voluntary\\-principles\\-on\\-security\\-and\\-human\\-rights/ \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-26 }}\", HumanRights.gov, 3 December 2012",
"### Human Rights Reports",
"Posner has been actively engaged in reporting on global human rights situations through the State Department's annual Human Rights Reports, which are submitted to Congress by the Department of State in compliance with Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the [Foreign Assistance Act](/wiki/Foreign_Assistance_Act \"Foreign Assistance Act\") of 1961 (FAA), as amended. The report offers a comprehensive record of human rights situations of almost 200 countries and territories worldwide, and uses information from nongovernmental and international organizations, U.S. embassies and consulates, and other sources. At the 2010 Human Rights Report roll\\-out in April 2011, Posner called it \"the single most comprehensive report on human rights produced by anybody in the world—194 countries, 2,200,000 words, 7,000 pages\".Michael H. Posner, \"[Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2010](https://fpc.state.gov/160395.htm) \", U.S. State Department Foreign Press Center, April 8, 2011\\. That year's report was viewed by more than one million people.",
"Posner highlighted three trends identified in the 2010 report:\n* Ongoing conflicts that continue to disproportionately affect vulnerable populations\n* Greater access to connective technologies that has helped to both promote human rights, \"but also has given governments greater energy in curtailing freedom of expression\"\n* The \"use and misuse of national security legislation and emergency legislation to apply broad curtailments on basic civil liberties\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2010/138263\\.htm \\|title\\=Briefing on the Release of the 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices \\|website\\=www.state.gov \\|access\\-date\\=12 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315142625/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2010/138263\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=15 March 2010 }}",
"The following year, at the rollout of the [2011 Human Rights report](/wiki/2011_Human_Rights_report \"2011 Human Rights report\"), Posner emphasized two worrying trends:\n* \"Flawed elections, restrictions on physical and internet freedom, media censorship, attempts to restrict the activities of civil society groups\"\n* \"Increasing persecution of many religious groups, including the [Ahmadis](/wiki/Ahmadiyya \"Ahmadiyya\"), the [Baháʼí](/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith \"Baháʼí Faith\"), [Tibetan Buddhists](/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhists \"Tibetan Buddhists\"), [Jews](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\"), and Christians\" as well as \"racial and ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, women, and the LGBT community, which continue to face criminalization and violence in many countries\"\"[Briefing on the Release of the 2011 Human Rights Reports](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/rm/2012/190837.htm)\", May 24, 2012",
"The 2011 report was designed to be more concise, focused and user\\-friendly.John F. Kerry, \"[Secretary's Preface](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper)\", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012, U.S. Department of State",
"### Universal Periodic Review",
"Posner has been a proponent of the [Universal Periodic Review](/wiki/Universal_Periodic_Review \"Universal Periodic Review\") (UPR), established by the [UN General Assembly](/wiki/UN_General_Assembly \"UN General Assembly\") in 2006 as a process through which the human rights records of the United Nations' 193 Member States is reviewed and assessed. In November 2010, Posner traveled to Geneva as one of three co\\-heads of the 32\\-person interagency U.S. government delegation submitting the United States' first report through the UPR to the [UN Human Rights Council](/wiki/UN_Human_Rights_Council \"UN Human Rights Council\"). Speaking of the UPR at a press conference at the Foreign Press Center in April 2011, Posner stated, \"We are very open to the notion that people in this country have not only a right but are well open to be critical of what we do, and we engage them in that criticism\". During the week of the UPR hearing, Posner defended the United States' engagement with the UN Human Rights Council against domestic criticism, saying \"this is what principled engagement looks like\".[\"US defends human rights record in first comprehensive review before UN body](http://www.startribune.com/templates/Print_This_Story?sid=106756658)\", *Associated Press/Star Tribune*, 5 November 2010 He reiterated the Obama administration's stance that there was no room for torture or cruel treatment of detainees in U.S. policy: \"We're not mincing words. We're not winking and nodding\", he said. \"The prohibition against torture and cruel treatment applies to every U.S. official, every agency, everywhere in the world. There is an absolute prohibition as a matter of law and policy\".",
"### International religious freedom",
"Since being sworn in as Assistant Secretary, Posner has engaged on a number of fronts promoting religious freedom, particularly in the Middle East and South Central Asia. Following the release of the 2009 International Religious Freedom Report, Posner discussed religious freedom issues in the Middle East before the House Foreign Affairs Committee Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia. Said Posner, \"Religion is a global phenomenon and all nations, including the United States, wrestle with how best to accommodate their religious diversity. We are convinced that the freedom to profess, practice, and promote one's religion is a basic human right, a social good, a source of stability, and a key component of international security\".Michael H. Posner, \"[The State of Political and Religious Freedom in the Middle East](https://web.archive.org/web/20091123085214/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/rm/2009/132167.htm)\", Statement before House Foreign Affairs Committee Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia, November 19, 2009\\. Posner has engaged on international religious freedom issues in meetings with Egyptian Coptic Christians, Chinese religious freedom advocates, Vietnamese, Pakistani, and Afghan officials, and others since being sworn in as Assistant Secretary.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In the present day, Reggie is a [turkey](/wiki/Domesticated_turkey "Domesticated turkey") who has always feared [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving "Thanksgiving") because turkeys are always on the menu, but his attempts to warn his flock have made him an outcast. When the other turkeys finally realize what is happening, they throw Reggie outside in an attempt to save themselves. To his surprise, he is named the "[pardoned](/wiki/National_Thanksgiving_Turkey_Presentation "National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation") turkey" by the [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States") and is taken to [Camp David](/wiki/Camp_David "Camp David"). Reggie soon eases into a routine of doing nothing but enjoying pizza from the "Pizza Dude" and watching Mexican [telenovelas](/wiki/Telenovela "Telenovela").
One night, Reggie is kidnapped by Jake, a member of the Turkey Freedom Front, who says he has been instructed by "The Great Turkey" to take Reggie and go "back in time to the first Thanksgiving to get turkeys off the menu." They steal a [time machine](/wiki/Time_travel "Time travel") controlled by an A.I. named S.T.E.V.E. (Space Time Exploration Vehicle Envoy) from a government facility, and time\-travel back to three days before the first Thanksgiving in the year of 1621\. Once there, they are ambushed by colonial hunters led by [Myles Standish](/wiki/Myles_Standish "Myles Standish"), and are rescued by native turkeys led by Chief Broadbeak and his two children, Ranger and Jenny.
Broadbeak explains that turkeys have been forced underground since the settlers came, and orders Jake and Ranger to spy on the settlers while Reggie and Jenny spring the humans' hunting traps. Ranger and Jake discover that the settlers have already begun preparations for Thanksgiving, and where they keep their weapons.
Jenny is unconvinced Reggie is from the future, but is impressed with his accidental unorthodox way of springing traps. They are intercepted by Standish, and Reggie sends Jenny into orbit aboard the time machine, validating his story. Reggie asks Jenny to go back to the future with him once everything blows over, but she refuses to leave the flock no matter how much she likes him.
Jake tells Reggie he has a plan to attack the settlers, and that this trip was more about him making up for his failure to save turkey eggs while escaping a [factory farm](/wiki/Factory_farm "Factory farm") when he was young, maintaining that the Great Turkey convinced him to go through with this. Reggie reluctantly goes along with the plan. They blow up the weapons shack, but Jake inadvertently leaves a [gunpowder](/wiki/Gunpowder "Gunpowder") trail back to the turkeys' hideout. Standish and his men flush the turkeys out from underground, capturing enough for the feast. Broadbeak sacrifices his life to help the remaining turkeys escape. Disgraced, Reggie returns home, where he discovers from S.T.E.V.E. and three alternate versions of himself that *he* is the Great Turkey. He travels back in time to send the young Jake on his mission. Jenny is sworn in as the new chief and orders the remaining turkeys to prepare an attack on the settlers.
Jenny, Jake and Ranger lead the turkeys in an attack on the settlement just as Chief [Massasoit](/wiki/Massasoit "Massasoit") and his tribe arrive. Reggie goes back in time to stop the attack, inadvertently trapping Standish in the time stream. Through S.T.E.V.E. and the Pizza Dude, Reggie convinces the settlers and Native Americans that pizza is a more acceptable food than turkeys, taking turkeys off the Thanksgiving menu entirely. Reggie decides to stay in the 17th century with Jenny while Jake takes S.T.E.V.E. back to the present to look for new adventures.
In the mid\-credits, Jake returns in S.T.E.V.E. moments after leaving Reggie and Jenny. With a chicken and a duck in his wings, Jake starts to tell the turkeys about the [turducken](/wiki/Turducken "Turducken").
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In the present day, Reggie is a [turkey](/wiki/Domesticated_turkey \"Domesticated turkey\") who has always feared [Thanksgiving](/wiki/Thanksgiving \"Thanksgiving\") because turkeys are always on the menu, but his attempts to warn his flock have made him an outcast. When the other turkeys finally realize what is happening, they throw Reggie outside in an attempt to save themselves. To his surprise, he is named the \"[pardoned](/wiki/National_Thanksgiving_Turkey_Presentation \"National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation\") turkey\" by the [President of the United States](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\") and is taken to [Camp David](/wiki/Camp_David \"Camp David\"). Reggie soon eases into a routine of doing nothing but enjoying pizza from the \"Pizza Dude\" and watching Mexican [telenovelas](/wiki/Telenovela \"Telenovela\").",
"One night, Reggie is kidnapped by Jake, a member of the Turkey Freedom Front, who says he has been instructed by \"The Great Turkey\" to take Reggie and go \"back in time to the first Thanksgiving to get turkeys off the menu.\" They steal a [time machine](/wiki/Time_travel \"Time travel\") controlled by an A.I. named S.T.E.V.E. (Space Time Exploration Vehicle Envoy) from a government facility, and time\\-travel back to three days before the first Thanksgiving in the year of 1621\\. Once there, they are ambushed by colonial hunters led by [Myles Standish](/wiki/Myles_Standish \"Myles Standish\"), and are rescued by native turkeys led by Chief Broadbeak and his two children, Ranger and Jenny.",
"Broadbeak explains that turkeys have been forced underground since the settlers came, and orders Jake and Ranger to spy on the settlers while Reggie and Jenny spring the humans' hunting traps. Ranger and Jake discover that the settlers have already begun preparations for Thanksgiving, and where they keep their weapons.",
"Jenny is unconvinced Reggie is from the future, but is impressed with his accidental unorthodox way of springing traps. They are intercepted by Standish, and Reggie sends Jenny into orbit aboard the time machine, validating his story. Reggie asks Jenny to go back to the future with him once everything blows over, but she refuses to leave the flock no matter how much she likes him.",
"Jake tells Reggie he has a plan to attack the settlers, and that this trip was more about him making up for his failure to save turkey eggs while escaping a [factory farm](/wiki/Factory_farm \"Factory farm\") when he was young, maintaining that the Great Turkey convinced him to go through with this. Reggie reluctantly goes along with the plan. They blow up the weapons shack, but Jake inadvertently leaves a [gunpowder](/wiki/Gunpowder \"Gunpowder\") trail back to the turkeys' hideout. Standish and his men flush the turkeys out from underground, capturing enough for the feast. Broadbeak sacrifices his life to help the remaining turkeys escape. Disgraced, Reggie returns home, where he discovers from S.T.E.V.E. and three alternate versions of himself that *he* is the Great Turkey. He travels back in time to send the young Jake on his mission. Jenny is sworn in as the new chief and orders the remaining turkeys to prepare an attack on the settlers.",
"Jenny, Jake and Ranger lead the turkeys in an attack on the settlement just as Chief [Massasoit](/wiki/Massasoit \"Massasoit\") and his tribe arrive. Reggie goes back in time to stop the attack, inadvertently trapping Standish in the time stream. Through S.T.E.V.E. and the Pizza Dude, Reggie convinces the settlers and Native Americans that pizza is a more acceptable food than turkeys, taking turkeys off the Thanksgiving menu entirely. Reggie decides to stay in the 17th century with Jenny while Jake takes S.T.E.V.E. back to the present to look for new adventures.",
"In the mid\\-credits, Jake returns in S.T.E.V.E. moments after leaving Reggie and Jenny. With a chicken and a duck in his wings, Jake starts to tell the turkeys about the [turducken](/wiki/Turducken \"Turducken\").",
""
] |
Resolution
----------
### Observations
It was recognised that diamonds provided a major source of income for the [Revolutionary United Front](/wiki/Revolutionary_United_Front "Revolutionary United Front") (RUF) and other armed groups in Sierra Leone. The diamonds would leave Sierra Leone through Liberia with permission from Liberian authorities, and there was concern at evidence that the [Liberian government](/wiki/Politics_of_Liberia "Politics of Liberia") was supporting the RUF at all levels.{{cite book\|last\=Fischer\|first\=Horst\|title\=Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law:, Volume 4; Volume 2001\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Cambridge University Press\|isbn\=978\-90\-6704\-169\-0\|author2\=McDonald, Avril \|author3\=Dugard, John \|author4\=Gasser, Hans\-Peter \|author5\=Greenwood, Christopher \|author6\=Fenrick, William \|author7\= Posse, Hortensia Gutierrez \|page\=306}} The illicit diamond trade was fuelling the conflict in Sierra Leone and transiting neighbouring countries including Liberia.
The council reiterated the call on all West African states, particularly Liberia, to cease military support for armed groups in neighbouring countries or allowing their territory to be used for attacks by individuals against other states. It determined that the support for RUF rebels in Sierra Leone by the Liberian government constituted a threat to international peace and security.
### Acts
The following provisions were enacted under [Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter](/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter "Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter"), thus making them legally enforceable.
#### A
The security council recalled resolutions [788](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_788 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 788") (1992\) and [985](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_985 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 985") (1995\) and noted that the [Liberian conflict](/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War "First Liberian Civil War") had been resolved and [elections had taken place](/wiki/Liberian_general_election%2C_1997 "Liberian general election, 1997"). The [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo "Arms embargo") was terminated and Committee established to monitor the sanctions dissolved.
#### B
The resolution demanded that the Liberian government end its support for rebels in Sierra Leone and expel RUF members from its country; end financial and military support; cease import of rough diamonds; freeze RUF assets and ground Liberia\-registered aircraft operating within its jurisdiction until a proper registration system was in place.{{cite news\|last\=Crossette\|first\=Barbara\|title\=Behave or Face a Diamond Ban, Security Council Tells Liberians\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/08/world/behave\-or\-face\-a\-diamond\-ban\-security\-council\-tells\-liberians.html\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=8 March 2001}} Furthermore, the [President of Liberia](/wiki/President_of_Liberia "President of Liberia") [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 "Charles Taylor (Liberia)") was asked to allow the [United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone](/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone "United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone") (UNAMSIL) [freedom of movement](/wiki/Freedom_of_movement "Freedom of movement") in the country and return seized weapons and equipment; release all abductees and enter their fighters into [disarmament](/wiki/Disarmament "Disarmament"), [demobilization](/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization") and reintegration programmes. It demanded that all states in the region take action to prevent armed attacks against neighbouring countries that could contribute to the destabilisation of the situation at the borders between [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea "Guinea"), Sierra Leone and Liberia.
All countries were then instructed to implement an arms embargo against Liberia including the prevention of military assistance; the measures would not apply to resources destined for United Nations or humanitarian personnel. The import of rough diamonds from Liberia was prohibited and a [travel ban](/wiki/Persona_non-grata "Persona non-grata") imposed on senior Liberian government officials, army officials and others providing aid to rebels in Sierra Leone; humanitarian and religious exceptions to the restrictions would be granted by a Committee of the Security Council established in the current resolution.{{cite book\|last\=Sillinger\|first\=Brett\|title\=Sierra Leone: current issues and background\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Nova Publishers\|isbn\=978\-1\-59033\-662\-5\|page\=46}} The Council decided that the sanctions would come into effect at 00:01 [EST](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone "Eastern Time Zone") two months following the adoption of the current resolution unless Liberia had complied with Security Council demands. If there was no compliance, the arms embargo would be in effect for 14 months and the arms embargo and travel ban for 12 months, both of which were to be followed by a review. In this regard, the Secretary\-General [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan "Kofi Annan") was requested to submit his first report on 30 April 2001 and every six months thereafter on whether there had been progress on Liberian compliance with Security Council demands and other aspects of the situation in the country.
The security council authorised the establishment of a Committee to gather information on what measures states had taken to implement the restrictions, investigate violations and make recommendations to improve their effectiveness. The Liberian government and diamond exporting countries in West Africa were called upon to establish [Certificate of Origin](/wiki/Certificate_of_Origin "Certificate of Origin") regimes. Countries were asked to combat the proliferation and [trafficking of weapons](/wiki/Arms_trafficking "Arms trafficking") in West Africa and to report within 30 days on the measures they had taken to implement the sanctions against Liberia.
The secretary\-general was requested to establish an expert panel for six months consisting of up to five members to investigate links between the [exploitation of natural resources](/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources "Exploitation of natural resources") and the conflict in Sierra Leone and neighbouring countries and monitor the compliance of the Liberian government with security council demands. Any information the panel found, particularly regarding violations of the sanctions, would be brought to the concerned Member States' attention. All countries were urged to co\-operate with the committee and expert panel, with the Council decided to conduct a review of the sanctions within 60 days and every six months thereafter.
|
[
"Resolution\n----------",
"### Observations",
"It was recognised that diamonds provided a major source of income for the [Revolutionary United Front](/wiki/Revolutionary_United_Front \"Revolutionary United Front\") (RUF) and other armed groups in Sierra Leone. The diamonds would leave Sierra Leone through Liberia with permission from Liberian authorities, and there was concern at evidence that the [Liberian government](/wiki/Politics_of_Liberia \"Politics of Liberia\") was supporting the RUF at all levels.{{cite book\\|last\\=Fischer\\|first\\=Horst\\|title\\=Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law:, Volume 4; Volume 2001\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-6704\\-169\\-0\\|author2\\=McDonald, Avril \\|author3\\=Dugard, John \\|author4\\=Gasser, Hans\\-Peter \\|author5\\=Greenwood, Christopher \\|author6\\=Fenrick, William \\|author7\\= Posse, Hortensia Gutierrez \\|page\\=306}} The illicit diamond trade was fuelling the conflict in Sierra Leone and transiting neighbouring countries including Liberia.",
"The council reiterated the call on all West African states, particularly Liberia, to cease military support for armed groups in neighbouring countries or allowing their territory to be used for attacks by individuals against other states. It determined that the support for RUF rebels in Sierra Leone by the Liberian government constituted a threat to international peace and security.",
"### Acts",
"The following provisions were enacted under [Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter](/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter \"Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter\"), thus making them legally enforceable.",
"#### A",
"The security council recalled resolutions [788](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_788 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 788\") (1992\\) and [985](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_985 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 985\") (1995\\) and noted that the [Liberian conflict](/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War \"First Liberian Civil War\") had been resolved and [elections had taken place](/wiki/Liberian_general_election%2C_1997 \"Liberian general election, 1997\"). The [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo \"Arms embargo\") was terminated and Committee established to monitor the sanctions dissolved.",
"#### B",
"The resolution demanded that the Liberian government end its support for rebels in Sierra Leone and expel RUF members from its country; end financial and military support; cease import of rough diamonds; freeze RUF assets and ground Liberia\\-registered aircraft operating within its jurisdiction until a proper registration system was in place.{{cite news\\|last\\=Crossette\\|first\\=Barbara\\|title\\=Behave or Face a Diamond Ban, Security Council Tells Liberians\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/08/world/behave\\-or\\-face\\-a\\-diamond\\-ban\\-security\\-council\\-tells\\-liberians.html\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=8 March 2001}} Furthermore, the [President of Liberia](/wiki/President_of_Liberia \"President of Liberia\") [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)\") was asked to allow the [United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone](/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone \"United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone\") (UNAMSIL) [freedom of movement](/wiki/Freedom_of_movement \"Freedom of movement\") in the country and return seized weapons and equipment; release all abductees and enter their fighters into [disarmament](/wiki/Disarmament \"Disarmament\"), [demobilization](/wiki/Demobilization \"Demobilization\") and reintegration programmes. It demanded that all states in the region take action to prevent armed attacks against neighbouring countries that could contribute to the destabilisation of the situation at the borders between [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea \"Guinea\"), Sierra Leone and Liberia.",
"All countries were then instructed to implement an arms embargo against Liberia including the prevention of military assistance; the measures would not apply to resources destined for United Nations or humanitarian personnel. The import of rough diamonds from Liberia was prohibited and a [travel ban](/wiki/Persona_non-grata \"Persona non-grata\") imposed on senior Liberian government officials, army officials and others providing aid to rebels in Sierra Leone; humanitarian and religious exceptions to the restrictions would be granted by a Committee of the Security Council established in the current resolution.{{cite book\\|last\\=Sillinger\\|first\\=Brett\\|title\\=Sierra Leone: current issues and background\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Nova Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59033\\-662\\-5\\|page\\=46}} The Council decided that the sanctions would come into effect at 00:01 [EST](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone \"Eastern Time Zone\") two months following the adoption of the current resolution unless Liberia had complied with Security Council demands. If there was no compliance, the arms embargo would be in effect for 14 months and the arms embargo and travel ban for 12 months, both of which were to be followed by a review. In this regard, the Secretary\\-General [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan \"Kofi Annan\") was requested to submit his first report on 30 April 2001 and every six months thereafter on whether there had been progress on Liberian compliance with Security Council demands and other aspects of the situation in the country.",
"The security council authorised the establishment of a Committee to gather information on what measures states had taken to implement the restrictions, investigate violations and make recommendations to improve their effectiveness. The Liberian government and diamond exporting countries in West Africa were called upon to establish [Certificate of Origin](/wiki/Certificate_of_Origin \"Certificate of Origin\") regimes. Countries were asked to combat the proliferation and [trafficking of weapons](/wiki/Arms_trafficking \"Arms trafficking\") in West Africa and to report within 30 days on the measures they had taken to implement the sanctions against Liberia.",
"The secretary\\-general was requested to establish an expert panel for six months consisting of up to five members to investigate links between the [exploitation of natural resources](/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources \"Exploitation of natural resources\") and the conflict in Sierra Leone and neighbouring countries and monitor the compliance of the Liberian government with security council demands. Any information the panel found, particularly regarding violations of the sanctions, would be brought to the concerned Member States' attention. All countries were urged to co\\-operate with the committee and expert panel, with the Council decided to conduct a review of the sanctions within 60 days and every six months thereafter.",
""
] |
### Acts
The following provisions were enacted under [Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter](/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter "Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter"), thus making them legally enforceable.
#### A
The security council recalled resolutions [788](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_788 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 788") (1992\) and [985](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_985 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 985") (1995\) and noted that the [Liberian conflict](/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War "First Liberian Civil War") had been resolved and [elections had taken place](/wiki/Liberian_general_election%2C_1997 "Liberian general election, 1997"). The [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo "Arms embargo") was terminated and Committee established to monitor the sanctions dissolved.
#### B
The resolution demanded that the Liberian government end its support for rebels in Sierra Leone and expel RUF members from its country; end financial and military support; cease import of rough diamonds; freeze RUF assets and ground Liberia\-registered aircraft operating within its jurisdiction until a proper registration system was in place.{{cite news\|last\=Crossette\|first\=Barbara\|title\=Behave or Face a Diamond Ban, Security Council Tells Liberians\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/08/world/behave\-or\-face\-a\-diamond\-ban\-security\-council\-tells\-liberians.html\|newspaper\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=8 March 2001}} Furthermore, the [President of Liberia](/wiki/President_of_Liberia "President of Liberia") [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 "Charles Taylor (Liberia)") was asked to allow the [United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone](/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone "United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone") (UNAMSIL) [freedom of movement](/wiki/Freedom_of_movement "Freedom of movement") in the country and return seized weapons and equipment; release all abductees and enter their fighters into [disarmament](/wiki/Disarmament "Disarmament"), [demobilization](/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization") and reintegration programmes. It demanded that all states in the region take action to prevent armed attacks against neighbouring countries that could contribute to the destabilisation of the situation at the borders between [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea "Guinea"), Sierra Leone and Liberia.
All countries were then instructed to implement an arms embargo against Liberia including the prevention of military assistance; the measures would not apply to resources destined for United Nations or humanitarian personnel. The import of rough diamonds from Liberia was prohibited and a [travel ban](/wiki/Persona_non-grata "Persona non-grata") imposed on senior Liberian government officials, army officials and others providing aid to rebels in Sierra Leone; humanitarian and religious exceptions to the restrictions would be granted by a Committee of the Security Council established in the current resolution.{{cite book\|last\=Sillinger\|first\=Brett\|title\=Sierra Leone: current issues and background\|year\=2003\|publisher\=Nova Publishers\|isbn\=978\-1\-59033\-662\-5\|page\=46}} The Council decided that the sanctions would come into effect at 00:01 [EST](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone "Eastern Time Zone") two months following the adoption of the current resolution unless Liberia had complied with Security Council demands. If there was no compliance, the arms embargo would be in effect for 14 months and the arms embargo and travel ban for 12 months, both of which were to be followed by a review. In this regard, the Secretary\-General [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan "Kofi Annan") was requested to submit his first report on 30 April 2001 and every six months thereafter on whether there had been progress on Liberian compliance with Security Council demands and other aspects of the situation in the country.
The security council authorised the establishment of a Committee to gather information on what measures states had taken to implement the restrictions, investigate violations and make recommendations to improve their effectiveness. The Liberian government and diamond exporting countries in West Africa were called upon to establish [Certificate of Origin](/wiki/Certificate_of_Origin "Certificate of Origin") regimes. Countries were asked to combat the proliferation and [trafficking of weapons](/wiki/Arms_trafficking "Arms trafficking") in West Africa and to report within 30 days on the measures they had taken to implement the sanctions against Liberia.
The secretary\-general was requested to establish an expert panel for six months consisting of up to five members to investigate links between the [exploitation of natural resources](/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources "Exploitation of natural resources") and the conflict in Sierra Leone and neighbouring countries and monitor the compliance of the Liberian government with security council demands. Any information the panel found, particularly regarding violations of the sanctions, would be brought to the concerned Member States' attention. All countries were urged to co\-operate with the committee and expert panel, with the Council decided to conduct a review of the sanctions within 60 days and every six months thereafter.
|
[
"### Acts",
"The following provisions were enacted under [Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter](/wiki/Chapter_VII_of_the_United_Nations_Charter \"Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter\"), thus making them legally enforceable.",
"#### A",
"The security council recalled resolutions [788](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_788 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 788\") (1992\\) and [985](/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_985 \"United Nations Security Council Resolution 985\") (1995\\) and noted that the [Liberian conflict](/wiki/First_Liberian_Civil_War \"First Liberian Civil War\") had been resolved and [elections had taken place](/wiki/Liberian_general_election%2C_1997 \"Liberian general election, 1997\"). The [arms embargo](/wiki/Arms_embargo \"Arms embargo\") was terminated and Committee established to monitor the sanctions dissolved.",
"#### B",
"The resolution demanded that the Liberian government end its support for rebels in Sierra Leone and expel RUF members from its country; end financial and military support; cease import of rough diamonds; freeze RUF assets and ground Liberia\\-registered aircraft operating within its jurisdiction until a proper registration system was in place.{{cite news\\|last\\=Crossette\\|first\\=Barbara\\|title\\=Behave or Face a Diamond Ban, Security Council Tells Liberians\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/08/world/behave\\-or\\-face\\-a\\-diamond\\-ban\\-security\\-council\\-tells\\-liberians.html\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=8 March 2001}} Furthermore, the [President of Liberia](/wiki/President_of_Liberia \"President of Liberia\") [Charles Taylor](/wiki/Charles_Taylor_%28Liberia%29 \"Charles Taylor (Liberia)\") was asked to allow the [United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone](/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_in_Sierra_Leone \"United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone\") (UNAMSIL) [freedom of movement](/wiki/Freedom_of_movement \"Freedom of movement\") in the country and return seized weapons and equipment; release all abductees and enter their fighters into [disarmament](/wiki/Disarmament \"Disarmament\"), [demobilization](/wiki/Demobilization \"Demobilization\") and reintegration programmes. It demanded that all states in the region take action to prevent armed attacks against neighbouring countries that could contribute to the destabilisation of the situation at the borders between [Guinea](/wiki/Guinea \"Guinea\"), Sierra Leone and Liberia.",
"All countries were then instructed to implement an arms embargo against Liberia including the prevention of military assistance; the measures would not apply to resources destined for United Nations or humanitarian personnel. The import of rough diamonds from Liberia was prohibited and a [travel ban](/wiki/Persona_non-grata \"Persona non-grata\") imposed on senior Liberian government officials, army officials and others providing aid to rebels in Sierra Leone; humanitarian and religious exceptions to the restrictions would be granted by a Committee of the Security Council established in the current resolution.{{cite book\\|last\\=Sillinger\\|first\\=Brett\\|title\\=Sierra Leone: current issues and background\\|year\\=2003\\|publisher\\=Nova Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-59033\\-662\\-5\\|page\\=46}} The Council decided that the sanctions would come into effect at 00:01 [EST](/wiki/Eastern_Time_Zone \"Eastern Time Zone\") two months following the adoption of the current resolution unless Liberia had complied with Security Council demands. If there was no compliance, the arms embargo would be in effect for 14 months and the arms embargo and travel ban for 12 months, both of which were to be followed by a review. In this regard, the Secretary\\-General [Kofi Annan](/wiki/Kofi_Annan \"Kofi Annan\") was requested to submit his first report on 30 April 2001 and every six months thereafter on whether there had been progress on Liberian compliance with Security Council demands and other aspects of the situation in the country.",
"The security council authorised the establishment of a Committee to gather information on what measures states had taken to implement the restrictions, investigate violations and make recommendations to improve their effectiveness. The Liberian government and diamond exporting countries in West Africa were called upon to establish [Certificate of Origin](/wiki/Certificate_of_Origin \"Certificate of Origin\") regimes. Countries were asked to combat the proliferation and [trafficking of weapons](/wiki/Arms_trafficking \"Arms trafficking\") in West Africa and to report within 30 days on the measures they had taken to implement the sanctions against Liberia.",
"The secretary\\-general was requested to establish an expert panel for six months consisting of up to five members to investigate links between the [exploitation of natural resources](/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources \"Exploitation of natural resources\") and the conflict in Sierra Leone and neighbouring countries and monitor the compliance of the Liberian government with security council demands. Any information the panel found, particularly regarding violations of the sanctions, would be brought to the concerned Member States' attention. All countries were urged to co\\-operate with the committee and expert panel, with the Council decided to conduct a review of the sanctions within 60 days and every six months thereafter.",
""
] |
Integration
-----------
[left\|thumb\|Baltimore City College Main Entrance, 2007](/wiki/File:Main_entrance%2C_Baltimore_City_College_%282007%29.jpg "Main entrance, Baltimore City College (2007).jpg")
Following the landmark [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruling in *[Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education "Brown v. Board of Education")*, the Baltimore City board of school commissioners was forced to [desegregate](/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States "School integration in the United States") the school system, which had been racially divided since the 1860s. As a result, 10 African\-American students entered City College in September 1954,Hlubb (1965\), p. 10\. comprising 0\.5% of the student population. A decade later, in the 1964–65 academic year, African\-American students represented 30% of the student population.
In 1956 the school system also sent two African\-American men to teach at the school: Eugene Parker, who coached for thirty years, and Pierre Davis, who left after one year but returned in 1971 as City College's first African\-American principal.Daneker (1988\), p. 38\.
Although African\-American enrollment increased, the transition from the segregated system was not seamless. In 1964, enrollment in the selective "A" Course still skewed disproportionately to white students. Only six African Americans were enrolled that year compared with 110 Whites,Hlubb (1965\), p. 20\. and they were similarly underrepresented in extracurricular activities.Hlubb (1965\), p. 34\.
Such [*de facto* segregation](/wiki/De_facto_segregation "De facto segregation") was a systemic problem in Baltimore throughout the 1960s.{{cite web\|title\=From the Old Order to the New Order–Reasons and Results, 1957–1997 \|publisher\=Baltimore City Public School System \|year\=2006 \|url\=http://vtma.baltimorecityschools.org/About/History/From\_the\_Oldorder1\.asp \|access\-date\=2007\-07\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121073045/http://vtma.baltimorecityschools.org/About/History/From\_the\_Oldorder1\.asp \|archive\-date\=January 21, 2016 }} To address the problem, Superintendent Laurence G. Paquin proposed a reorganization of Baltimore's high schools. He called for the creation of 13 comprehensive high schools that would offer both vocational training and college preparatory classes, and the elimination of multiple academic tracks in high school. However, Paquin's proposal met stiff opposition from City College parents and alumni, who feared that his plan threatened the foundations of City College's academic program. Councilman [William Donald Schaefer](/wiki/William_Donald_Schaefer "William Donald Schaefer"), an alumnus of City College, convened a City Council hearing on the proposal, which stymied Paquin's effort.
By the late 1970s, the school's population, academic program, and building were all in decline, in part reflecting the economic problems of the city as a whole. In 1977, the city school system allocated money to refurbish the school and bolster the college preparatory program. That same year the school system announced its intent to make City College [coeducational](/wiki/Coeducational "Coeducational"); however, the all\-male tradition did not end easily. Alumni argued for the uniqueness of a [single\-sex education](/wiki/Single-sex_education "Single-sex education") system, and a task force studying the issue voted 11–6 in favor of keeping the all\-male tradition. In a stunning reversal, the board of school commissioners voted to admit women citing [constitutional](/wiki/U.S._constitution "U.S. constitution") concerns over equal rights. The following year City College enrolled women for the first time.
|
[
"Integration\n-----------",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Baltimore City College Main Entrance, 2007](/wiki/File:Main_entrance%2C_Baltimore_City_College_%282007%29.jpg \"Main entrance, Baltimore City College (2007).jpg\")",
"Following the landmark [Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruling in *[Brown v. Board of Education](/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education \"Brown v. Board of Education\")*, the Baltimore City board of school commissioners was forced to [desegregate](/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States \"School integration in the United States\") the school system, which had been racially divided since the 1860s. As a result, 10 African\\-American students entered City College in September 1954,Hlubb (1965\\), p. 10\\. comprising 0\\.5% of the student population. A decade later, in the 1964–65 academic year, African\\-American students represented 30% of the student population.",
"In 1956 the school system also sent two African\\-American men to teach at the school: Eugene Parker, who coached for thirty years, and Pierre Davis, who left after one year but returned in 1971 as City College's first African\\-American principal.Daneker (1988\\), p. 38\\.",
"Although African\\-American enrollment increased, the transition from the segregated system was not seamless. In 1964, enrollment in the selective \"A\" Course still skewed disproportionately to white students. Only six African Americans were enrolled that year compared with 110 Whites,Hlubb (1965\\), p. 20\\. and they were similarly underrepresented in extracurricular activities.Hlubb (1965\\), p. 34\\.",
"Such [*de facto* segregation](/wiki/De_facto_segregation \"De facto segregation\") was a systemic problem in Baltimore throughout the 1960s.{{cite web\\|title\\=From the Old Order to the New Order–Reasons and Results, 1957–1997 \\|publisher\\=Baltimore City Public School System \\|year\\=2006 \\|url\\=http://vtma.baltimorecityschools.org/About/History/From\\_the\\_Oldorder1\\.asp \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-07\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121073045/http://vtma.baltimorecityschools.org/About/History/From\\_the\\_Oldorder1\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2016 }} To address the problem, Superintendent Laurence G. Paquin proposed a reorganization of Baltimore's high schools. He called for the creation of 13 comprehensive high schools that would offer both vocational training and college preparatory classes, and the elimination of multiple academic tracks in high school. However, Paquin's proposal met stiff opposition from City College parents and alumni, who feared that his plan threatened the foundations of City College's academic program. Councilman [William Donald Schaefer](/wiki/William_Donald_Schaefer \"William Donald Schaefer\"), an alumnus of City College, convened a City Council hearing on the proposal, which stymied Paquin's effort.",
"By the late 1970s, the school's population, academic program, and building were all in decline, in part reflecting the economic problems of the city as a whole. In 1977, the city school system allocated money to refurbish the school and bolster the college preparatory program. That same year the school system announced its intent to make City College [coeducational](/wiki/Coeducational \"Coeducational\"); however, the all\\-male tradition did not end easily. Alumni argued for the uniqueness of a [single\\-sex education](/wiki/Single-sex_education \"Single-sex education\") system, and a task force studying the issue voted 11–6 in favor of keeping the all\\-male tradition. In a stunning reversal, the board of school commissioners voted to admit women citing [constitutional](/wiki/U.S._constitution \"U.S. constitution\") concerns over equal rights. The following year City College enrolled women for the first time.",
""
] |
Precedents
----------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|The [Polish–Lithuanian union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union "Polish–Lithuanian union") at its greatest extent, 1386–1434](/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_%28pink%29_and_the_Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_%28red%29_and_its_neighborhood_in_1386_%E2%80%93_1434_%28English_version%29.png "Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (pink) and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (red) and its neighborhood in 1386 – 1434 (English version).png")
[alt\=\|thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|The [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth") at its greatest extent, 1635](/wiki/File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1635.png "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1635.png")
### Commonwealth
{{main\|Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth\|Treaty of Hadiach}}
A [Polish–Lithuanian union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union "Polish–Lithuanian union") and [military alliance](/wiki/Military_alliance "Military alliance") had come about as a mutual response to common threats posed by the [Teutonic Order](/wiki/Teutonic_Order "Teutonic Order"), the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde "Golden Horde"), and the [Grand Duchy of Moscow](/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow "Principality of Moscow"). The alliance was first established in 1385 by the [Union of Krewo](/wiki/Union_of_Krewo "Union of Krewo"),{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-08\-13 \|title\=Union of Krewo (Act of Kreva) \|url\=https://polishhistory.pl/union\-of\-krewo\-act\-of\-kreva/ \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-24 \|website\=Polish History \|language\=en\-US}} solemnized by the marriage of Poland's [Queen Jadwiga](/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland "Jadwiga of Poland") and Lithuania's Grand Duke [Jogaila](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o "Władysław II Jagiełło") of the [Gediminid dynasty](/wiki/Gediminids "Gediminids"), who became King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland.
A longer\-lasting federation subsequently came about in 1569 in the form of the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), an arrangement that lasted until 1795, i.e., until the [Third Partition of the Poland](/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland "Third Partition of Poland").
The Polish–Lithuanian alliance thus lasted a total of 410 years, and constituted at times the largest state in Europe.
Under the Commonwealth, proposals were advanced to establish expanded, [Polish–Lithuanian\-*Muscovite*](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Muscovite_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth") or [Polish–Lithuanian–*Ruthenian*](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth") Commonwealths. Though the Commonwealth temporarily controlled parts of Russia and governed much of Ruthenia for centuries, these proposals were never implemented at a constitutional level.
### Adam Czartoryski's plan
Between the [November](/wiki/November_Uprising "November Uprising") and [January Uprisings](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising"), in the period between 1832 and 1861, the idea of resurrecting an updated Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was advocated by Prince [Adam Jerzy Czartoryski](/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski "Adam Jerzy Czartoryski"), residing in exile at the [Hôtel Lambert](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Lambert "Hôtel Lambert") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris").[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*" ("A Polish Pioneer of a United Europe"), *[Gwiazda Polarna](/wiki/Gwiazda_Polarna "Gwiazda Polarna")* (Pole Star), Sept. 17, 2005, pp. 10–11\.
In his youth, Czartoryski had fought against Russia in the [Polish–Russian War of 1792](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792 "Polish–Russian War of 1792"); he would have done so again in the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising "Kościuszko Uprising") of 1794 had he not been arrested at [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels") on his way back to Poland. Subsequently, in 1795, he and his younger brother had been commanded to enter the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army "Imperial Russian Army"), and [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great "Catherine the Great") had been so favourably impressed with them that she had restored to them part of their confiscated estates. Adam Czartoryski subsequently served the Russian emperors [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia") and [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia "Alexander I of Russia") as a diplomat and foreign minister, establishing an anti\-French coalition during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"). Czartoryski, one of the leaders of the Polish November 1830 Uprising, had been sentenced to death after its suppression by Russia, but was eventually allowed to go into exile in France.
[thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|[Coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") for a proposed [Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth") during the [January 1863 Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising"): Polish [White Eagle](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland "Coat of arms of Poland"), Lithuanian *[Pagaunė](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania "Coat of arms of Lithuania")*, and [Ruthenian](/wiki/Ruthenia "Ruthenia") [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 "Michael (archangel)")](/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_the_January_Uprising.svg "Coat of arms of the January Uprising.svg")
In Paris the "visionary""The Prince \[Czartoryski] thus shows himself a *visionary* (emphasis added], the outstanding Polish statesman of the period between the November and January Uprisings." [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. statesman and former friend, confidant, and *de facto* foreign minister of Alexander I acted as the "uncrowned king and unacknowledged foreign minister" of a nonexistent Poland.[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 10\.
In his book, *Essai sur la diplomatie* (Essay on Diplomacy), completed in 1827 but published only in 1830, Czartoryski observed that, "Having extended her sway south and west, and being by the nature of things unreachable from the east and north, Russia becomes a source of constant threat to Europe." He argued that Russia would have done better cultivating "friends rather than slaves". He also identified a future threat from [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") and urged the incorporation of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia") into a resurrected Poland. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), *Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*, p. 10\.
Czartoryski's diplomatic efforts anticipated Piłsudski's Prometheist project in linking efforts for Polish independence with similar movements of other subjugated nations in Europe, as far east as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains "Caucasus Mountains"), most notably in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 "Georgia (country)").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," pp. 10–11\.
Czartoryski aspired above all to reconstitute—with French, British, and Ottoman support—a sort of ["pan\-Slavic"](/wiki/Pan-Slavism "Pan-Slavism") Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth federated with the [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs "Czechs"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks "Slovaks"), [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians "Hungarians"), [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians "Romanians"), and all the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs "South Slavs") of the future [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"). Poland, in his concept, could have mediated the conflicts between Hungary and the Slavs, and between Hungary and Romania. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski "M.K. Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. The plan seemed achievable"Adam Czartoryski's great plan, *which had seemed close to realization* (emphasis added) during the [Spring of Nations](/wiki/Spring_of_Nations "Spring of Nations") in 1848–49, failed..." [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. during the period of [national revolutions](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 "Revolutions of 1848") in 1848–49 but foundered on lack of western support, on Hungarian intransigence toward the Czechs, Slovaks, and Romanians, and on the rise of [German nationalism](/wiki/German_nationalism "German nationalism").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski "M.K. Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*", p. 11\.
[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski") writes that "the Prince's endeavour constitutes a \[vital] link \[between] the 16th\-century Jagiellon \[federative prototype] and Józef Piłsudski's federative\-Prometheist program \[that was to follow after World War I]."
|
[
"Precedents\n----------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|The [Polish–Lithuanian union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union \"Polish–Lithuanian union\") at its greatest extent, 1386–1434](/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania_%28pink%29_and_the_Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland_%28red%29_and_its_neighborhood_in_1386_%E2%80%93_1434_%28English_version%29.png \"Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (pink) and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland (red) and its neighborhood in 1386 – 1434 (English version).png\")\n[alt\\=\\|thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|The [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\") at its greatest extent, 1635](/wiki/File:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_1635.png \"Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 1635.png\")",
"### Commonwealth",
"{{main\\|Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth\\|Treaty of Hadiach}}\nA [Polish–Lithuanian union](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union \"Polish–Lithuanian union\") and [military alliance](/wiki/Military_alliance \"Military alliance\") had come about as a mutual response to common threats posed by the [Teutonic Order](/wiki/Teutonic_Order \"Teutonic Order\"), the [Golden Horde](/wiki/Golden_Horde \"Golden Horde\"), and the [Grand Duchy of Moscow](/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow \"Principality of Moscow\"). The alliance was first established in 1385 by the [Union of Krewo](/wiki/Union_of_Krewo \"Union of Krewo\"),{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-08\\-13 \\|title\\=Union of Krewo (Act of Kreva) \\|url\\=https://polishhistory.pl/union\\-of\\-krewo\\-act\\-of\\-kreva/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-24 \\|website\\=Polish History \\|language\\=en\\-US}} solemnized by the marriage of Poland's [Queen Jadwiga](/wiki/Jadwiga_of_Poland \"Jadwiga of Poland\") and Lithuania's Grand Duke [Jogaila](/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_II_Jagie%C5%82%C5%82o \"Władysław II Jagiełło\") of the [Gediminid dynasty](/wiki/Gediminids \"Gediminids\"), who became King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland.",
"A longer\\-lasting federation subsequently came about in 1569 in the form of the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), an arrangement that lasted until 1795, i.e., until the [Third Partition of the Poland](/wiki/Third_Partition_of_Poland \"Third Partition of Poland\").",
"The Polish–Lithuanian alliance thus lasted a total of 410 years, and constituted at times the largest state in Europe.",
"Under the Commonwealth, proposals were advanced to establish expanded, [Polish–Lithuanian\\-*Muscovite*](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Muscovite_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian–Muscovite Commonwealth\") or [Polish–Lithuanian–*Ruthenian*](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth\") Commonwealths. Though the Commonwealth temporarily controlled parts of Russia and governed much of Ruthenia for centuries, these proposals were never implemented at a constitutional level.",
"### Adam Czartoryski's plan",
"Between the [November](/wiki/November_Uprising \"November Uprising\") and [January Uprisings](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\"), in the period between 1832 and 1861, the idea of resurrecting an updated Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was advocated by Prince [Adam Jerzy Czartoryski](/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski \"Adam Jerzy Czartoryski\"), residing in exile at the [Hôtel Lambert](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Lambert \"Hôtel Lambert\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\").[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*\" (\"A Polish Pioneer of a United Europe\"), *[Gwiazda Polarna](/wiki/Gwiazda_Polarna \"Gwiazda Polarna\")* (Pole Star), Sept. 17, 2005, pp. 10–11\\.",
"In his youth, Czartoryski had fought against Russia in the [Polish–Russian War of 1792](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792 \"Polish–Russian War of 1792\"); he would have done so again in the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising \"Kościuszko Uprising\") of 1794 had he not been arrested at [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\") on his way back to Poland. Subsequently, in 1795, he and his younger brother had been commanded to enter the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army \"Imperial Russian Army\"), and [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great \"Catherine the Great\") had been so favourably impressed with them that she had restored to them part of their confiscated estates. Adam Czartoryski subsequently served the Russian emperors [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\") and [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia \"Alexander I of Russia\") as a diplomat and foreign minister, establishing an anti\\-French coalition during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"). Czartoryski, one of the leaders of the Polish November 1830 Uprising, had been sentenced to death after its suppression by Russia, but was eventually allowed to go into exile in France.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|[Coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") for a proposed [Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth\") during the [January 1863 Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\"): Polish [White Eagle](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland \"Coat of arms of Poland\"), Lithuanian *[Pagaunė](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania \"Coat of arms of Lithuania\")*, and [Ruthenian](/wiki/Ruthenia \"Ruthenia\") [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 \"Michael (archangel)\")](/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_the_January_Uprising.svg \"Coat of arms of the January Uprising.svg\")",
"In Paris the \"visionary\"\"The Prince \\[Czartoryski] thus shows himself a *visionary* (emphasis added], the outstanding Polish statesman of the period between the November and January Uprisings.\" [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. statesman and former friend, confidant, and *de facto* foreign minister of Alexander I acted as the \"uncrowned king and unacknowledged foreign minister\" of a nonexistent Poland.[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 10\\.",
"In his book, *Essai sur la diplomatie* (Essay on Diplomacy), completed in 1827 but published only in 1830, Czartoryski observed that, \"Having extended her sway south and west, and being by the nature of things unreachable from the east and north, Russia becomes a source of constant threat to Europe.\" He argued that Russia would have done better cultivating \"friends rather than slaves\". He also identified a future threat from [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") and urged the incorporation of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\") into a resurrected Poland. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), *Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*, p. 10\\.",
"Czartoryski's diplomatic efforts anticipated Piłsudski's Prometheist project in linking efforts for Polish independence with similar movements of other subjugated nations in Europe, as far east as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains \"Caucasus Mountains\"), most notably in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 \"Georgia (country)\").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" pp. 10–11\\.",
"Czartoryski aspired above all to reconstitute—with French, British, and Ottoman support—a sort of [\"pan\\-Slavic\"](/wiki/Pan-Slavism \"Pan-Slavism\") Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth federated with the [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs \"Czechs\"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks \"Slovaks\"), [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians \"Hungarians\"), [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians \"Romanians\"), and all the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs \"South Slavs\") of the future [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"). Poland, in his concept, could have mediated the conflicts between Hungary and the Slavs, and between Hungary and Romania. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski \"M.K. Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. The plan seemed achievable\"Adam Czartoryski's great plan, *which had seemed close to realization* (emphasis added) during the [Spring of Nations](/wiki/Spring_of_Nations \"Spring of Nations\") in 1848–49, failed...\" [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. during the period of [national revolutions](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 \"Revolutions of 1848\") in 1848–49 but foundered on lack of western support, on Hungarian intransigence toward the Czechs, Slovaks, and Romanians, and on the rise of [German nationalism](/wiki/German_nationalism \"German nationalism\").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski \"M.K. Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*\", p. 11\\.",
"[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\") writes that \"the Prince's endeavour constitutes a \\[vital] link \\[between] the 16th\\-century Jagiellon \\[federative prototype] and Józef Piłsudski's federative\\-Prometheist program \\[that was to follow after World War I].\"",
""
] |
### Adam Czartoryski's plan
Between the [November](/wiki/November_Uprising "November Uprising") and [January Uprisings](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising"), in the period between 1832 and 1861, the idea of resurrecting an updated Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was advocated by Prince [Adam Jerzy Czartoryski](/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski "Adam Jerzy Czartoryski"), residing in exile at the [Hôtel Lambert](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Lambert "Hôtel Lambert") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris").[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*" ("A Polish Pioneer of a United Europe"), *[Gwiazda Polarna](/wiki/Gwiazda_Polarna "Gwiazda Polarna")* (Pole Star), Sept. 17, 2005, pp. 10–11\.
In his youth, Czartoryski had fought against Russia in the [Polish–Russian War of 1792](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792 "Polish–Russian War of 1792"); he would have done so again in the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising "Kościuszko Uprising") of 1794 had he not been arrested at [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels") on his way back to Poland. Subsequently, in 1795, he and his younger brother had been commanded to enter the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army "Imperial Russian Army"), and [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great "Catherine the Great") had been so favourably impressed with them that she had restored to them part of their confiscated estates. Adam Czartoryski subsequently served the Russian emperors [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia "Paul I of Russia") and [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia "Alexander I of Russia") as a diplomat and foreign minister, establishing an anti\-French coalition during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"). Czartoryski, one of the leaders of the Polish November 1830 Uprising, had been sentenced to death after its suppression by Russia, but was eventually allowed to go into exile in France.
[thumb\|upright\=1\.0\|[Coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms "Coat of arms") for a proposed [Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth") during the [January 1863 Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising "January Uprising"): Polish [White Eagle](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland "Coat of arms of Poland"), Lithuanian *[Pagaunė](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania "Coat of arms of Lithuania")*, and [Ruthenian](/wiki/Ruthenia "Ruthenia") [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 "Michael (archangel)")](/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_the_January_Uprising.svg "Coat of arms of the January Uprising.svg")
In Paris the "visionary""The Prince \[Czartoryski] thus shows himself a *visionary* (emphasis added], the outstanding Polish statesman of the period between the November and January Uprisings." [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. statesman and former friend, confidant, and *de facto* foreign minister of Alexander I acted as the "uncrowned king and unacknowledged foreign minister" of a nonexistent Poland.[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 10\.
In his book, *Essai sur la diplomatie* (Essay on Diplomacy), completed in 1827 but published only in 1830, Czartoryski observed that, "Having extended her sway south and west, and being by the nature of things unreachable from the east and north, Russia becomes a source of constant threat to Europe." He argued that Russia would have done better cultivating "friends rather than slaves". He also identified a future threat from [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") and urged the incorporation of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia") into a resurrected Poland. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), *Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*, p. 10\.
Czartoryski's diplomatic efforts anticipated Piłsudski's Prometheist project in linking efforts for Polish independence with similar movements of other subjugated nations in Europe, as far east as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains "Caucasus Mountains"), most notably in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 "Georgia (country)").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," pp. 10–11\.
Czartoryski aspired above all to reconstitute—with French, British, and Ottoman support—a sort of ["pan\-Slavic"](/wiki/Pan-Slavism "Pan-Slavism") Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth federated with the [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs "Czechs"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks "Slovaks"), [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians "Hungarians"), [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians "Romanians"), and all the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs "South Slavs") of the future [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"). Poland, in his concept, could have mediated the conflicts between Hungary and the Slavs, and between Hungary and Romania. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski "M.K. Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. The plan seemed achievable"Adam Czartoryski's great plan, *which had seemed close to realization* (emphasis added) during the [Spring of Nations](/wiki/Spring_of_Nations "Spring of Nations") in 1848–49, failed..." [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*," p. 11\. during the period of [national revolutions](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 "Revolutions of 1848") in 1848–49 but foundered on lack of western support, on Hungarian intransigence toward the Czechs, Slovaks, and Romanians, and on the rise of [German nationalism](/wiki/German_nationalism "German nationalism").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski "M.K. Dziewanowski"), "*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*", p. 11\.
[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski "Marian Kamil Dziewanowski") writes that "the Prince's endeavour constitutes a \[vital] link \[between] the 16th\-century Jagiellon \[federative prototype] and Józef Piłsudski's federative\-Prometheist program \[that was to follow after World War I]."
|
[
"### Adam Czartoryski's plan",
"Between the [November](/wiki/November_Uprising \"November Uprising\") and [January Uprisings](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\"), in the period between 1832 and 1861, the idea of resurrecting an updated Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was advocated by Prince [Adam Jerzy Czartoryski](/wiki/Adam_Jerzy_Czartoryski \"Adam Jerzy Czartoryski\"), residing in exile at the [Hôtel Lambert](/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_Lambert \"Hôtel Lambert\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\").[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*\" (\"A Polish Pioneer of a United Europe\"), *[Gwiazda Polarna](/wiki/Gwiazda_Polarna \"Gwiazda Polarna\")* (Pole Star), Sept. 17, 2005, pp. 10–11\\.",
"In his youth, Czartoryski had fought against Russia in the [Polish–Russian War of 1792](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Russian_War_of_1792 \"Polish–Russian War of 1792\"); he would have done so again in the [Kościuszko Uprising](/wiki/Ko%C5%9Bciuszko_Uprising \"Kościuszko Uprising\") of 1794 had he not been arrested at [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\") on his way back to Poland. Subsequently, in 1795, he and his younger brother had been commanded to enter the [Imperial Russian Army](/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army \"Imperial Russian Army\"), and [Catherine the Great](/wiki/Catherine_the_Great \"Catherine the Great\") had been so favourably impressed with them that she had restored to them part of their confiscated estates. Adam Czartoryski subsequently served the Russian emperors [Paul](/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia \"Paul I of Russia\") and [Alexander I](/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia \"Alexander I of Russia\") as a diplomat and foreign minister, establishing an anti\\-French coalition during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"). Czartoryski, one of the leaders of the Polish November 1830 Uprising, had been sentenced to death after its suppression by Russia, but was eventually allowed to go into exile in France.",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.0\\|[Coat of arms](/wiki/Coat_of_arms \"Coat of arms\") for a proposed [Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian%E2%80%93Ruthenian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth\") during the [January 1863 Uprising](/wiki/January_Uprising \"January Uprising\"): Polish [White Eagle](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Poland \"Coat of arms of Poland\"), Lithuanian *[Pagaunė](/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lithuania \"Coat of arms of Lithuania\")*, and [Ruthenian](/wiki/Ruthenia \"Ruthenia\") [Archangel Michael](/wiki/Michael_%28archangel%29 \"Michael (archangel)\")](/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_the_January_Uprising.svg \"Coat of arms of the January Uprising.svg\")",
"In Paris the \"visionary\"\"The Prince \\[Czartoryski] thus shows himself a *visionary* (emphasis added], the outstanding Polish statesman of the period between the November and January Uprisings.\" [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. statesman and former friend, confidant, and *de facto* foreign minister of Alexander I acted as the \"uncrowned king and unacknowledged foreign minister\" of a nonexistent Poland.[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 10\\.",
"In his book, *Essai sur la diplomatie* (Essay on Diplomacy), completed in 1827 but published only in 1830, Czartoryski observed that, \"Having extended her sway south and west, and being by the nature of things unreachable from the east and north, Russia becomes a source of constant threat to Europe.\" He argued that Russia would have done better cultivating \"friends rather than slaves\". He also identified a future threat from [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") and urged the incorporation of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\") into a resurrected Poland. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), *Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*, p. 10\\.",
"Czartoryski's diplomatic efforts anticipated Piłsudski's Prometheist project in linking efforts for Polish independence with similar movements of other subjugated nations in Europe, as far east as the [Caucasus Mountains](/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains \"Caucasus Mountains\"), most notably in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29 \"Georgia (country)\").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" pp. 10–11\\.",
"Czartoryski aspired above all to reconstitute—with French, British, and Ottoman support—a sort of [\"pan\\-Slavic\"](/wiki/Pan-Slavism \"Pan-Slavism\") Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth federated with the [Czechs](/wiki/Czechs \"Czechs\"), [Slovaks](/wiki/Slovaks \"Slovaks\"), [Hungarians](/wiki/Hungarians \"Hungarians\"), [Romanians](/wiki/Romanians \"Romanians\"), and all the [South Slavs](/wiki/South_Slavs \"South Slavs\") of the future [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"). Poland, in his concept, could have mediated the conflicts between Hungary and the Slavs, and between Hungary and Romania. [Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski \"M.K. Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. The plan seemed achievable\"Adam Czartoryski's great plan, *which had seemed close to realization* (emphasis added) during the [Spring of Nations](/wiki/Spring_of_Nations \"Spring of Nations\") in 1848–49, failed...\" [Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*,\" p. 11\\. during the period of [national revolutions](/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848 \"Revolutions of 1848\") in 1848–49 but foundered on lack of western support, on Hungarian intransigence toward the Czechs, Slovaks, and Romanians, and on the rise of [German nationalism](/wiki/German_nationalism \"German nationalism\").[Dziewanowski](/wiki/M.K._Dziewanowski \"M.K. Dziewanowski\"), \"*Polski pionier zjednoczonej Europy*\", p. 11\\.",
"[Marian Kamil Dziewanowski](/wiki/Marian_Kamil_Dziewanowski \"Marian Kamil Dziewanowski\") writes that \"the Prince's endeavour constitutes a \\[vital] link \\[between] the 16th\\-century Jagiellon \\[federative prototype] and Józef Piłsudski's federative\\-Prometheist program \\[that was to follow after World War I].\"",
""
] |
Józef Piłsudski's *Międzymorze*
-------------------------------
[thumb\|upright\=0\.85\|[Józef Piłsudski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski "Józef Piłsudski")](/wiki/File:Jozef_Pilsudski1_%28cropped%29.jpg "Jozef Pilsudski1 (cropped).jpg")
[thumb\|Piłsudski's initial plan for Intermarium: a resurrected [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth")](/wiki/Image:Intermarium_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.png "Intermarium Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.png")
Józef Piłsudski's strategic goal was to resurrect an updated, democratic form of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while working for the disintegration of the Russian Empire, and later the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), into its ethnic constituents.{{cite book\|author\=Jonathan Levy\|title\=The Intermarium: Wilson, Madison, \& East Central European Federalism\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=wNb4RXDxEt4C\&pg\=PA166\|access\-date\=11 April 2011\|date\=6 June 2007\|publisher\=Universal\-Publishers\|isbn\=978\-1\-58112\-369\-2\|pages\=166–167}} (The latter was his Prometheist project.) Piłsudski saw an Intermarium federation as a counterweight to Russian and German [imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism").{{cite book\|author\=Janusz Cisek\|title\=Kościuszko, we are here!: American pilots of the Kościuszko Squadron in defense of Poland, 1919\-1921\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=hNuGZOGk6UoC\&pg\=PA47\|access\-date\=11 April 2011\|date\=26 September 2002\|publisher\=McFarland\|isbn\=978\-0\-7864\-1240\-2\|page\=47}}{{cite book\|author\=Joshua B. Spero\|title\=Bridging the European divide: middle power politics and regional security dilemmas\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=RaLqtGuwyoEC\&pg\=PA36\|access\-date\=11 April 2011\|year\=2004\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-7425\-3553\-4\|page\=36}}
According to Dziewanowski, the plan was never expressed in systematic fashion but instead relied on Piłsudski's pragmatic instincts.Kenneth F. Lewalski (March 1972\). ["Review of *Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918–1922*, by M. K. Dziewanowski"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1878849). *Journal of Modern History*. Accessed September 16, 2007\. According to British scholar [George Sanford](/wiki/George_Sanford_%28political_scientist%29 "George Sanford (political scientist)"), about the time of the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War") of 1920 Piłsudski recognised that the plan was not feasible.[George Sanford](/wiki/George_Sanford_%28scholar%29 "George Sanford (scholar)"), [*Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics since 1989*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&dq=democratic+government+in+poland+unworkable&pg=PA6). Palgrave Macmillan 2002\. {{ISBN\|0\-333\-77475\-2}}. pp. 5–6\.
### Opposition
Piłsudski's plan faced opposition from virtually all quarters. The Soviets, whose [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence "Sphere of influence") was directly threatened, worked to thwart the Intermarium agenda. The Allied Powers assumed that [Bolshevism](/wiki/Bolshevism "Bolshevism") was only a temporary threat and did not want to see their important (from the [balance\-of\-power](/wiki/Balance_of_power_%28international_relations%29 "Balance of power (international relations)") viewpoint) traditional ally, Russia, weakened. They resented Piłsudski's refusal to aid their [White](/wiki/White_movement "White movement") allies, viewed Piłsudski with suspicion, saw his plans as unrealistic, and urged Poland to confine itself to areas of clear\-cut Polish ethnicity.[Adam Bruno Ulam](/wiki/Adam_Bruno_Ulam "Adam Bruno Ulam"), *Stalin: The Man and His Era*, Beacon Press, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-8070\-7005\-X}}, [p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=A1eYKftgwgYC&dq=nationalists+opposed+Pilsudski+federation&pg=PA185)
["Polish\-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw"](http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y). {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007194853/http://www.historynet.com/wars\_conflicts/20\_21\_century/3038436\.html?featured\=y\&c\=y \|date\=2007\-10\-07 }}. Accessed September 30, 2007\.[Norman Davies](/wiki/Norman_Davies "Norman Davies"), *White Eagle, Red Star*, Polish edition, Wydawnictwo Znak, 1997, {{ISBN\|83\-7006\-761\-1}}, p.228 The Lithuanians,[Piotr Łossowski](/wiki/Piotr_%C5%81ossowski "Piotr Łossowski"), *Konflikt polsko\-litewski 1918–1920*, Książka i Wiedza, 1995, {{ISBN\|83\-05\-12769\-9}}, p.13–16 and p. 36 who had [re\-established their independence in 1918](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania "Act of Independence of Lithuania"), were unwilling to join; the Ukrainians, similarly seeking independence,{{Cite book \|last\=Eidintas \|first\=Alfonsas \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0\_i8yez8udgC\&q\=Polish\-Lithuanian\+Commonwealth\+negative\&pg\=PA78 \|title\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\-1940 \|last2\=Zalys \|first2\=Vytautas \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|isbn\=978\-0\-312\-22458\-5 \|language\=en}} likewise feared that Poland might again subjugate them; and the Belarusians, though nearly not as interested in independence as Ukraine, were still fearful of Polish domination. The chances for Piłsudski's scheme were not enhanced by a series of post\-World War I wars and border conflicts between Poland and its neighbors in disputed territories—the Polish–Soviet War, the [Polish–Lithuanian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War "Polish–Lithuanian War"), the [Polish–Ukrainian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War "Polish–Ukrainian War"), and [border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts "Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts").
Piłsudski's concept was opposed within Poland itself, where [National Democracy](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Poland%29 "National Democracy (Poland)") leader [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski"){{in lang\|pl}} ["Wojna polsko\-bolszewicka"](http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3997498). {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111103019/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id\=3997498 \|date\=2013\-11\-11 }}. *[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN](/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN "Internetowa encyklopedia PWN")*. Accessed 27 October 2006\."Pilsudski dreamed of drawing all the nations situated between Germany and Russia into an enormous federation in which Poland, by virtue of its size, would be the leader, while Dmowski wanted to see a unitary Polish state, in which other Slav peoples would become assimilated." Andrzej Paczkowski, [*The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&q=0271023082), p. 10, Penn State Press, 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-271\-02308\-2}} argued for an ethnically homogeneous Poland in which minorities would be [Polonised](/wiki/Polonization "Polonization").Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Glaser, *The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years*, Cambridge University Press, 1998, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-62132\-1}}, [p.314](https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314)[Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski") has been quoted as saying: "Wherever we can multiply our forces and our civilizational efforts, absorbing other elements, no law can prohibit us from doing so, as such actions are our duty." J. Tomaszewski, {{lang\|pl\|Kresy Wschodnie w polskiej mysli politycznej XIX i XX w./Między Polską etniczną a historyczną. Polska myśl polityczna XIX i XX wieku}}, vol. 6, Warsaw, 1988, p. 101\. Cited in Oleksandr Derhachov, *ibid.* Many Polish politicians, including Dmowski, opposed the idea of a multiethnic federation, preferring instead to work for a [unitary](/wiki/Unitary_state "Unitary state") Polish [nation state](/wiki/Nation_state "Nation state"). Sanford has described Piłsudski's policies after his resumption of power in 1926 as similarly focusing on the Polonisation of the country's Eastern Slavic minorities and on the centralisation of power.
While some scholars accept at face value the democratic principles claimed by Piłsudski for his federative plan,[Aviel Roshwald](/wiki/Aviel_Roshwald "Aviel Roshwald"), *Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923*, 2001, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN\|0\-415\-24229\-0}}, [p. 49](https://books.google.com/books?id=qPyer6Pks0oC&pg=PA49){{Dead link\|date\=April 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} others view such claims with skepticism, pointing out a [coup d'état in 1926](/wiki/May_Coup_%28Poland%29 "May Coup (Poland)") when Piłsudski assumed nearly dictatorial powers.[Yohanan Cohen](/wiki/Yohanan_Cohen "Yohanan Cohen"), *Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation*, SUNY Press, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-7914\-0018\-2}} [p. 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=aN96TB0RUB8C&dq=Pilsudski+hero&pg=PA65) In particular, his project is viewed unfavourably by most Ukrainian historians, with [Oleksandr Derhachov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Derhachov "Oleksandr Derhachov") arguing that the federation would have created a greater Poland in which the interests of non\-Poles, especially Ukrainians, would have received short shrift."The essence of \[Józef Piłsudski's 'federalist' program] was that after the overthrow of tsardom and the disintegration of the Russian empire, a large, strong and mighty Poland was to be created in Eastern Europe. It would be the reincarnation of the *Rzeczpospolita* on 'federative' principles. It was to include the Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. The leading role, of course, was to be given to the Polish ethnic, political, economic and cultural element. ... As such two influential and popular political doctrines with regard to Ukraine—the 'incorporationist' and the 'federalist'—even before the creation of Polish statehood, were based on ignoring the right of the Ukrainian people to self\-determination and put forward claims to rule over the Ukrainian territories ..." "Ukraine in Polish concepts of foreign policy", in Oleksandr Derhachov (ed.), *Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis*, Kyiv, 1996, {{ISBN\|966\-543\-040\-8}}.
Some historians hold that Piłsudski, who argued that "There can be no independent Poland without an independent Ukraine", may have been more interested in splitting Ukraine from Russia than in assuring Ukrainians' welfare."The newly founded Polish state cared much more about the expansion of its borders to the east and southeast ('between the seas') than about helping the dying \[Ukrainian] state of which Petlura was *de facto* dictator." "A Belated Idealist", *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli "Zerkalo Nedeli")* \[*Mirror Weekly*], 22–28 May 2004\. Available online [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116140351/http://www.zerkalo\-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/ \|date\=2006\-01\-16 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310220124/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/ \|date\=2007\-03\-10 }}. Piłsudski is quoted to have said: "After Polish independence we will see about Poland's size." (ibid)A month before his death, Pilsudski told an aide: "My life is lost. I failed to create a Ukraine free of the Russians." {{in lang\|ru\|uk}} Oleksa Pidlutskyi, "Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State", in *Postati XX stolittia* \[*Figures of the 20th century*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"), 2004, {{ISBN\|966\-8290\-01\-1}}, {{LCCN\|2004440333}}. reprinted in *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli "Zerkalo Nedeli")* \[*Mirror Weekly*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"), 3–9 February 2001, [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126150005/http://www.zerkalo\-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/ \|date\=2005\-11\-26 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051914/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/ \|date\=2005\-11\-07 }}. He did not hesitate to use military force to expand Poland's borders to [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)") and [Volhynia](/wiki/Volhynia "Volhynia"), crushing a [Ukrainian attempt at self\-determination](/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "West Ukrainian People's Republic") in disputed territories east of the [Bug River](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 "Bug (river)") which contained a substantial Polish presence[Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala "Anna M. Cienciala"), 2004\. ["The Rebirth of Poland"](http://www.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect11.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108132721/http://www.ku.edu/\~eceurope/hist557/lect11\.htm \|date\=2020\-11\-08 }} (lecture notes). University of Kansas. Asccessed 2 June 2006\. (a Polish majority mainly in cities such as [Lwów](/wiki/Lviv "Lviv"), surrounded by a rural Ukrainian majority).
Speaking of Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said: "All that we can gain in the west depends on the [Entente](/wiki/Triple_Entente "Triple Entente")—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany", while in the east "there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far".[MacMillan, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan "Margaret MacMillan"), *Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World*, Random House, 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-375\-76052\-0}}, p. 212 In the eastern chaos, the Polish forces set out to expand as far as feasible. On the other hand, Poland had no interest in joining the western intervention in the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War") or in conquering Russia itself.Joseph Pilsudski. Interview by [Dymitr Merejkowsky](/wiki/Dymitr_Merejkowsky "Dymitr Merejkowsky"), 1921\. Translated from the Russian by Harriet E Kennedy B. A. London \& Edinburgh, Sampson Low, Marston \& Co Ltd 1921\. Piłsudski said: "Poland can have nothing to do with the restoration of old Russia. Anything rather than that–even Bolshevism".
### Failure
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\| Piłsudski's revised Intermarium plan](/wiki/File:Revised_Intermarium_Plan.png "Revised Intermarium Plan.png")
[thumb\|upright\=1\.2\|[Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck "Józef Beck")'s plan for "Third Europe", an alliance of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"), [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania "Kingdom of Romania"), and [Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)")](/wiki/File:Intermarium_third_europe.png "Intermarium third europe.png")
In the aftermath of the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921\), and the establishment of the [Ukrainian SSR](/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic"), Piłsudski's concept of a federation of Central and Eastern European countries, based on a Polish\-Ukrainian axis, lost any chance of realisation.Tadeusz Marczak, *"[Międzymorze wczoraj i dziś](http://www.ism.uni.wroc.pl/publikacje/polonia/marczak_miedzymorze_wczoraj_i_dzis.pdf)* {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303230826/http://www.ism.uni.wroc.pl/publikacje/polonia/marczak\_miedzymorze\_wczoraj\_i\_dzis.pdf \|date\=2009\-03\-03 }} \[Międzymorze Yesterday and Today], a Polish\-language version of the paper, {{lang\|pl\|Myezhdumorye vchera i syevodnia}} \[Międzymorze Yesterday and Today], published in {{lang\|be\|Беларусь — Польша: путь к сотрудничеству}} (Belarus and Poland: the Path toward Cooperation. Materials of an International Scholarly Conference), [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk "Minsk"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus "Belarus"), 2005\.
Piłsudski next contemplated a federation or alliance with the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_states "Baltic states") and [Balkan](/wiki/Balkan "Balkan") states. This plan envisioned a Central European union including Poland, [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic "First Czechoslovak Republic"), [Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), the Baltic states, [Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy "Kingdom of Italy"), [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania "Kingdom of Romania"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria "Kingdom of Bulgaria"), [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Kingdom of Yugoslavia"), and [Greece](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece "Kingdom of Greece")—thus stretching not only west\-east from the Baltic to the Black Sea, but north\-south from the [Arctic Ocean](/wiki/Arctic_Ocean "Arctic Ocean") to the Mediterranean Sea. This project also failed: Poland was distrusted by Czechoslovakia and Lithuania; and while it had relatively good relations with the other countries, they had tensions with their neighbors, making it virtually impossible to create in Central Europe a large block of countries that all had good relations with each other. In the end, in place of a large federation, only a [Polish–Romanian alliance](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Romanian_alliance "Polish–Romanian alliance") was established, beginning in 1921\.Hugh Ragsdale, *The Soviets, the Munich Crisis, and the Coming of World War II*, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge {{ISBN\|0\-521\-83030\-3}}
In comparison, Czechoslovakia had more success with its [Little Entente](/wiki/Little_Entente "Little Entente") (1920–1938\) with Romania and Yugoslavia, supported by France.
Piłsudski died in 1935\. A later, much reduced version of his concept was attempted by [interwar](/wiki/Interwar_period "Interwar period") Polish Foreign Minister [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck "Józef Beck"), a protégé of Piłsudski. His proposal, during the late 1930s, of a "[Third Europe](/wiki/Third_Europe "Third Europe")"—an alliance of Poland, Romania, and Hungary—gained little ground before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") supervened. Beck's Third Europe concept failed to achieve any traction because [Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") was the world's second largest economy and all of eastern Europe was dominated economically by the *Reich*.{{cite book\|last1\=Greenwood\|first\=Sean\|chapter\=Danzig: the phantom crisis, 1939\|page\=227\|editor\=Gordon Martel\|title\=Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\|location\=London\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|date\=2002\|isbn\=9781134714186}} For economic reasons, the tendency in eastern Europe was to follow the lead of [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") rather than [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw "Warsaw").
Disregarding the 1932 [Polish–Soviet Non\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact "Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact"), the Soviet Union allied itself with Nazi Germany to divide Central and Eastern Europe between them.[Marek Jan Chodakiewicz](/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz "Marek Jan Chodakiewicz"), *Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas*. Transaction: [New Brunswick, New Jersey](/wiki/New_Brunswick%2C_New_Jersey "New Brunswick, New Jersey"), 2012\. According to some historians, it was the failure to create a strong counterweight to Germany and the Soviet Union, as proposed by Piłsudski, that doomed Intermarium's prospective member countries to their fates in World War II.
{{cite book\|author\=Alexandros Petersen\|title\=The World Island: Eurasian Geopolitics and the Fate of the West\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=PZDriQW8DHIC\&pg\=PA78\|access\-date\=12 April 2011\|date\=18 February 2011\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-39137\-8\|pages\=77–78}}
{{cite book\|author\=Alexandros Petersen\|title\=The World Island: Eurasian Geopolitics and the Fate of the West\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2QwHa1iec\-0C\&pg\=PA153\|access\-date\=12 April 2011\|date\=18 February 2011\|publisher\=ABC\-CLIO\|isbn\=978\-0\-313\-39137\-8\|page\=153}}
|
[
"Józef Piłsudski's *Międzymorze*\n-------------------------------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.85\\|[Józef Piłsudski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Pi%C5%82sudski \"Józef Piłsudski\")](/wiki/File:Jozef_Pilsudski1_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Jozef Pilsudski1 (cropped).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Piłsudski's initial plan for Intermarium: a resurrected [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\")](/wiki/Image:Intermarium_Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.png \"Intermarium Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.png\")\nJózef Piłsudski's strategic goal was to resurrect an updated, democratic form of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while working for the disintegration of the Russian Empire, and later the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), into its ethnic constituents.{{cite book\\|author\\=Jonathan Levy\\|title\\=The Intermarium: Wilson, Madison, \\& East Central European Federalism\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wNb4RXDxEt4C\\&pg\\=PA166\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2011\\|date\\=6 June 2007\\|publisher\\=Universal\\-Publishers\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58112\\-369\\-2\\|pages\\=166–167}} (The latter was his Prometheist project.) Piłsudski saw an Intermarium federation as a counterweight to Russian and German [imperialism](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Janusz Cisek\\|title\\=Kościuszko, we are here!: American pilots of the Kościuszko Squadron in defense of Poland, 1919\\-1921\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=hNuGZOGk6UoC\\&pg\\=PA47\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2011\\|date\\=26 September 2002\\|publisher\\=McFarland\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7864\\-1240\\-2\\|page\\=47}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Joshua B. Spero\\|title\\=Bridging the European divide: middle power politics and regional security dilemmas\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=RaLqtGuwyoEC\\&pg\\=PA36\\|access\\-date\\=11 April 2011\\|year\\=2004\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7425\\-3553\\-4\\|page\\=36}}",
"According to Dziewanowski, the plan was never expressed in systematic fashion but instead relied on Piłsudski's pragmatic instincts.Kenneth F. Lewalski (March 1972\\). [\"Review of *Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918–1922*, by M. K. Dziewanowski\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1878849). *Journal of Modern History*. Accessed September 16, 2007\\. According to British scholar [George Sanford](/wiki/George_Sanford_%28political_scientist%29 \"George Sanford (political scientist)\"), about the time of the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\") of 1920 Piłsudski recognised that the plan was not feasible.[George Sanford](/wiki/George_Sanford_%28scholar%29 \"George Sanford (scholar)\"), [*Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics since 1989*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tOaXi0hX1RAC&dq=democratic+government+in+poland+unworkable&pg=PA6). Palgrave Macmillan 2002\\. {{ISBN\\|0\\-333\\-77475\\-2}}. pp. 5–6\\.",
"### Opposition",
"Piłsudski's plan faced opposition from virtually all quarters. The Soviets, whose [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence \"Sphere of influence\") was directly threatened, worked to thwart the Intermarium agenda. The Allied Powers assumed that [Bolshevism](/wiki/Bolshevism \"Bolshevism\") was only a temporary threat and did not want to see their important (from the [balance\\-of\\-power](/wiki/Balance_of_power_%28international_relations%29 \"Balance of power (international relations)\") viewpoint) traditional ally, Russia, weakened. They resented Piłsudski's refusal to aid their [White](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") allies, viewed Piłsudski with suspicion, saw his plans as unrealistic, and urged Poland to confine itself to areas of clear\\-cut Polish ethnicity.[Adam Bruno Ulam](/wiki/Adam_Bruno_Ulam \"Adam Bruno Ulam\"), *Stalin: The Man and His Era*, Beacon Press, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8070\\-7005\\-X}}, [p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=A1eYKftgwgYC&dq=nationalists+opposed+Pilsudski+federation&pg=PA185)\n[\"Polish\\-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw\"](http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y). {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007194853/http://www.historynet.com/wars\\_conflicts/20\\_21\\_century/3038436\\.html?featured\\=y\\&c\\=y \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-07 }}. Accessed September 30, 2007\\.[Norman Davies](/wiki/Norman_Davies \"Norman Davies\"), *White Eagle, Red Star*, Polish edition, Wydawnictwo Znak, 1997, {{ISBN\\|83\\-7006\\-761\\-1}}, p.228 The Lithuanians,[Piotr Łossowski](/wiki/Piotr_%C5%81ossowski \"Piotr Łossowski\"), *Konflikt polsko\\-litewski 1918–1920*, Książka i Wiedza, 1995, {{ISBN\\|83\\-05\\-12769\\-9}}, p.13–16 and p. 36 who had [re\\-established their independence in 1918](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania \"Act of Independence of Lithuania\"), were unwilling to join; the Ukrainians, similarly seeking independence,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Eidintas \\|first\\=Alfonsas \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0\\_i8yez8udgC\\&q\\=Polish\\-Lithuanian\\+Commonwealth\\+negative\\&pg\\=PA78 \\|title\\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\\-1940 \\|last2\\=Zalys \\|first2\\=Vytautas \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-312\\-22458\\-5 \\|language\\=en}} likewise feared that Poland might again subjugate them; and the Belarusians, though nearly not as interested in independence as Ukraine, were still fearful of Polish domination. The chances for Piłsudski's scheme were not enhanced by a series of post\\-World War I wars and border conflicts between Poland and its neighbors in disputed territories—the Polish–Soviet War, the [Polish–Lithuanian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War \"Polish–Lithuanian War\"), the [Polish–Ukrainian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War \"Polish–Ukrainian War\"), and [border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts \"Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts\").",
"Piłsudski's concept was opposed within Poland itself, where [National Democracy](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Poland%29 \"National Democracy (Poland)\") leader [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\"){{in lang\\|pl}} [\"Wojna polsko\\-bolszewicka\"](http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3997498). {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111103019/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id\\=3997498 \\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-11 }}. *[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN](/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN \"Internetowa encyklopedia PWN\")*. Accessed 27 October 2006\\.\"Pilsudski dreamed of drawing all the nations situated between Germany and Russia into an enormous federation in which Poland, by virtue of its size, would be the leader, while Dmowski wanted to see a unitary Polish state, in which other Slav peoples would become assimilated.\" Andrzej Paczkowski, [*The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&q=0271023082), p. 10, Penn State Press, 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-271\\-02308\\-2}} argued for an ethnically homogeneous Poland in which minorities would be [Polonised](/wiki/Polonization \"Polonization\").Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Glaser, *The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years*, Cambridge University Press, 1998, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-62132\\-1}}, [p.314](https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314)[Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\") has been quoted as saying: \"Wherever we can multiply our forces and our civilizational efforts, absorbing other elements, no law can prohibit us from doing so, as such actions are our duty.\" J. Tomaszewski, {{lang\\|pl\\|Kresy Wschodnie w polskiej mysli politycznej XIX i XX w./Między Polską etniczną a historyczną. Polska myśl polityczna XIX i XX wieku}}, vol. 6, Warsaw, 1988, p. 101\\. Cited in Oleksandr Derhachov, *ibid.* Many Polish politicians, including Dmowski, opposed the idea of a multiethnic federation, preferring instead to work for a [unitary](/wiki/Unitary_state \"Unitary state\") Polish [nation state](/wiki/Nation_state \"Nation state\"). Sanford has described Piłsudski's policies after his resumption of power in 1926 as similarly focusing on the Polonisation of the country's Eastern Slavic minorities and on the centralisation of power.",
"While some scholars accept at face value the democratic principles claimed by Piłsudski for his federative plan,[Aviel Roshwald](/wiki/Aviel_Roshwald \"Aviel Roshwald\"), *Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923*, 2001, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN\\|0\\-415\\-24229\\-0}}, [p. 49](https://books.google.com/books?id=qPyer6Pks0oC&pg=PA49){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} others view such claims with skepticism, pointing out a [coup d'état in 1926](/wiki/May_Coup_%28Poland%29 \"May Coup (Poland)\") when Piłsudski assumed nearly dictatorial powers.[Yohanan Cohen](/wiki/Yohanan_Cohen \"Yohanan Cohen\"), *Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation*, SUNY Press, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7914\\-0018\\-2}} [p. 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=aN96TB0RUB8C&dq=Pilsudski+hero&pg=PA65) In particular, his project is viewed unfavourably by most Ukrainian historians, with [Oleksandr Derhachov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Derhachov \"Oleksandr Derhachov\") arguing that the federation would have created a greater Poland in which the interests of non\\-Poles, especially Ukrainians, would have received short shrift.\"The essence of \\[Józef Piłsudski's 'federalist' program] was that after the overthrow of tsardom and the disintegration of the Russian empire, a large, strong and mighty Poland was to be created in Eastern Europe. It would be the reincarnation of the *Rzeczpospolita* on 'federative' principles. It was to include the Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. The leading role, of course, was to be given to the Polish ethnic, political, economic and cultural element. ... As such two influential and popular political doctrines with regard to Ukraine—the 'incorporationist' and the 'federalist'—even before the creation of Polish statehood, were based on ignoring the right of the Ukrainian people to self\\-determination and put forward claims to rule over the Ukrainian territories ...\" \"Ukraine in Polish concepts of foreign policy\", in Oleksandr Derhachov (ed.), *Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis*, Kyiv, 1996, {{ISBN\\|966\\-543\\-040\\-8}}.",
"Some historians hold that Piłsudski, who argued that \"There can be no independent Poland without an independent Ukraine\", may have been more interested in splitting Ukraine from Russia than in assuring Ukrainians' welfare.\"The newly founded Polish state cared much more about the expansion of its borders to the east and southeast ('between the seas') than about helping the dying \\[Ukrainian] state of which Petlura was *de facto* dictator.\" \"A Belated Idealist\", *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli \"Zerkalo Nedeli\")* \\[*Mirror Weekly*], 22–28 May 2004\\. Available online [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116140351/http://www.zerkalo\\-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/ \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-16 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310220124/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/ \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-10 }}. Piłsudski is quoted to have said: \"After Polish independence we will see about Poland's size.\" (ibid)A month before his death, Pilsudski told an aide: \"My life is lost. I failed to create a Ukraine free of the Russians.\" {{in lang\\|ru\\|uk}} Oleksa Pidlutskyi, \"Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State\", in *Postati XX stolittia* \\[*Figures of the 20th century*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), 2004, {{ISBN\\|966\\-8290\\-01\\-1}}, {{LCCN\\|2004440333}}. reprinted in *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli \"Zerkalo Nedeli\")* \\[*Mirror Weekly*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), 3–9 February 2001, [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126150005/http://www.zerkalo\\-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/ \\|date\\=2005\\-11\\-26 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051914/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/ \\|date\\=2005\\-11\\-07 }}. He did not hesitate to use military force to expand Poland's borders to [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\") and [Volhynia](/wiki/Volhynia \"Volhynia\"), crushing a [Ukrainian attempt at self\\-determination](/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"West Ukrainian People's Republic\") in disputed territories east of the [Bug River](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 \"Bug (river)\") which contained a substantial Polish presence[Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala \"Anna M. Cienciala\"), 2004\\. [\"The Rebirth of Poland\"](http://www.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect11.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108132721/http://www.ku.edu/\\~eceurope/hist557/lect11\\.htm \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-08 }} (lecture notes). University of Kansas. Asccessed 2 June 2006\\. (a Polish majority mainly in cities such as [Lwów](/wiki/Lviv \"Lviv\"), surrounded by a rural Ukrainian majority).",
"Speaking of Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said: \"All that we can gain in the west depends on the [Entente](/wiki/Triple_Entente \"Triple Entente\")—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany\", while in the east \"there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far\".[MacMillan, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan \"Margaret MacMillan\"), *Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World*, Random House, 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-375\\-76052\\-0}}, p. 212 In the eastern chaos, the Polish forces set out to expand as far as feasible. On the other hand, Poland had no interest in joining the western intervention in the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\") or in conquering Russia itself.Joseph Pilsudski. Interview by [Dymitr Merejkowsky](/wiki/Dymitr_Merejkowsky \"Dymitr Merejkowsky\"), 1921\\. Translated from the Russian by Harriet E Kennedy B. A. London \\& Edinburgh, Sampson Low, Marston \\& Co Ltd 1921\\. Piłsudski said: \"Poland can have nothing to do with the restoration of old Russia. Anything rather than that–even Bolshevism\".",
"### Failure",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\| Piłsudski's revised Intermarium plan](/wiki/File:Revised_Intermarium_Plan.png \"Revised Intermarium Plan.png\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.2\\|[Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck \"Józef Beck\")'s plan for \"Third Europe\", an alliance of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"), [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\"), and [Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 \"Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)\")](/wiki/File:Intermarium_third_europe.png \"Intermarium third europe.png\")\nIn the aftermath of the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921\\), and the establishment of the [Ukrainian SSR](/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic \"Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic\"), Piłsudski's concept of a federation of Central and Eastern European countries, based on a Polish\\-Ukrainian axis, lost any chance of realisation.Tadeusz Marczak, *\"[Międzymorze wczoraj i dziś](http://www.ism.uni.wroc.pl/publikacje/polonia/marczak_miedzymorze_wczoraj_i_dzis.pdf)* {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303230826/http://www.ism.uni.wroc.pl/publikacje/polonia/marczak\\_miedzymorze\\_wczoraj\\_i\\_dzis.pdf \\|date\\=2009\\-03\\-03 }} \\[Międzymorze Yesterday and Today], a Polish\\-language version of the paper, {{lang\\|pl\\|Myezhdumorye vchera i syevodnia}} \\[Międzymorze Yesterday and Today], published in {{lang\\|be\\|Беларусь — Польша: путь к сотрудничеству}} (Belarus and Poland: the Path toward Cooperation. Materials of an International Scholarly Conference), [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk \"Minsk\"), [Belarus](/wiki/Belarus \"Belarus\"), 2005\\.",
"Piłsudski next contemplated a federation or alliance with the [Baltic](/wiki/Baltic_states \"Baltic states\") and [Balkan](/wiki/Balkan \"Balkan\") states. This plan envisioned a Central European union including Poland, [Czechoslovakia](/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic \"First Czechoslovak Republic\"), [Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281920%E2%80%931946%29 \"Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)\"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), the Baltic states, [Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy \"Kingdom of Italy\"), [Romania](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania \"Kingdom of Romania\"), [Bulgaria](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bulgaria \"Kingdom of Bulgaria\"), [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"), and [Greece](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece \"Kingdom of Greece\")—thus stretching not only west\\-east from the Baltic to the Black Sea, but north\\-south from the [Arctic Ocean](/wiki/Arctic_Ocean \"Arctic Ocean\") to the Mediterranean Sea. This project also failed: Poland was distrusted by Czechoslovakia and Lithuania; and while it had relatively good relations with the other countries, they had tensions with their neighbors, making it virtually impossible to create in Central Europe a large block of countries that all had good relations with each other. In the end, in place of a large federation, only a [Polish–Romanian alliance](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Romanian_alliance \"Polish–Romanian alliance\") was established, beginning in 1921\\.Hugh Ragsdale, *The Soviets, the Munich Crisis, and the Coming of World War II*, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-83030\\-3}}\n In comparison, Czechoslovakia had more success with its [Little Entente](/wiki/Little_Entente \"Little Entente\") (1920–1938\\) with Romania and Yugoslavia, supported by France.",
"Piłsudski died in 1935\\. A later, much reduced version of his concept was attempted by [interwar](/wiki/Interwar_period \"Interwar period\") Polish Foreign Minister [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck \"Józef Beck\"), a protégé of Piłsudski. His proposal, during the late 1930s, of a \"[Third Europe](/wiki/Third_Europe \"Third Europe\")\"—an alliance of Poland, Romania, and Hungary—gained little ground before [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") supervened. Beck's Third Europe concept failed to achieve any traction because [Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") was the world's second largest economy and all of eastern Europe was dominated economically by the *Reich*.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Greenwood\\|first\\=Sean\\|chapter\\=Danzig: the phantom crisis, 1939\\|page\\=227\\|editor\\=Gordon Martel\\|title\\=Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians\\|location\\=London\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|date\\=2002\\|isbn\\=9781134714186}} For economic reasons, the tendency in eastern Europe was to follow the lead of [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") rather than [Warsaw](/wiki/Warsaw \"Warsaw\").",
"Disregarding the 1932 [Polish–Soviet Non\\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact \"Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact\"), the Soviet Union allied itself with Nazi Germany to divide Central and Eastern Europe between them.[Marek Jan Chodakiewicz](/wiki/Marek_Jan_Chodakiewicz \"Marek Jan Chodakiewicz\"), *Intermarium: The Land between the Black and Baltic Seas*. Transaction: [New Brunswick, New Jersey](/wiki/New_Brunswick%2C_New_Jersey \"New Brunswick, New Jersey\"), 2012\\. According to some historians, it was the failure to create a strong counterweight to Germany and the Soviet Union, as proposed by Piłsudski, that doomed Intermarium's prospective member countries to their fates in World War II.\n{{cite book\\|author\\=Alexandros Petersen\\|title\\=The World Island: Eurasian Geopolitics and the Fate of the West\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=PZDriQW8DHIC\\&pg\\=PA78\\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2011\\|date\\=18 February 2011\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-39137\\-8\\|pages\\=77–78}}",
"{{cite book\\|author\\=Alexandros Petersen\\|title\\=The World Island: Eurasian Geopolitics and the Fate of the West\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2QwHa1iec\\-0C\\&pg\\=PA153\\|access\\-date\\=12 April 2011\\|date\\=18 February 2011\\|publisher\\=ABC\\-CLIO\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-313\\-39137\\-8\\|page\\=153}}",
"",
""
] |
### Opposition
Piłsudski's plan faced opposition from virtually all quarters. The Soviets, whose [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence "Sphere of influence") was directly threatened, worked to thwart the Intermarium agenda. The Allied Powers assumed that [Bolshevism](/wiki/Bolshevism "Bolshevism") was only a temporary threat and did not want to see their important (from the [balance\-of\-power](/wiki/Balance_of_power_%28international_relations%29 "Balance of power (international relations)") viewpoint) traditional ally, Russia, weakened. They resented Piłsudski's refusal to aid their [White](/wiki/White_movement "White movement") allies, viewed Piłsudski with suspicion, saw his plans as unrealistic, and urged Poland to confine itself to areas of clear\-cut Polish ethnicity.[Adam Bruno Ulam](/wiki/Adam_Bruno_Ulam "Adam Bruno Ulam"), *Stalin: The Man and His Era*, Beacon Press, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-8070\-7005\-X}}, [p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=A1eYKftgwgYC&dq=nationalists+opposed+Pilsudski+federation&pg=PA185)
["Polish\-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw"](http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y). {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007194853/http://www.historynet.com/wars\_conflicts/20\_21\_century/3038436\.html?featured\=y\&c\=y \|date\=2007\-10\-07 }}. Accessed September 30, 2007\.[Norman Davies](/wiki/Norman_Davies "Norman Davies"), *White Eagle, Red Star*, Polish edition, Wydawnictwo Znak, 1997, {{ISBN\|83\-7006\-761\-1}}, p.228 The Lithuanians,[Piotr Łossowski](/wiki/Piotr_%C5%81ossowski "Piotr Łossowski"), *Konflikt polsko\-litewski 1918–1920*, Książka i Wiedza, 1995, {{ISBN\|83\-05\-12769\-9}}, p.13–16 and p. 36 who had [re\-established their independence in 1918](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania "Act of Independence of Lithuania"), were unwilling to join; the Ukrainians, similarly seeking independence,{{Cite book \|last\=Eidintas \|first\=Alfonsas \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0\_i8yez8udgC\&q\=Polish\-Lithuanian\+Commonwealth\+negative\&pg\=PA78 \|title\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\-1940 \|last2\=Zalys \|first2\=Vytautas \|date\=1999 \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|isbn\=978\-0\-312\-22458\-5 \|language\=en}} likewise feared that Poland might again subjugate them; and the Belarusians, though nearly not as interested in independence as Ukraine, were still fearful of Polish domination. The chances for Piłsudski's scheme were not enhanced by a series of post\-World War I wars and border conflicts between Poland and its neighbors in disputed territories—the Polish–Soviet War, the [Polish–Lithuanian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War "Polish–Lithuanian War"), the [Polish–Ukrainian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War "Polish–Ukrainian War"), and [border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts "Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts").
Piłsudski's concept was opposed within Poland itself, where [National Democracy](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Poland%29 "National Democracy (Poland)") leader [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski"){{in lang\|pl}} ["Wojna polsko\-bolszewicka"](http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3997498). {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111103019/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id\=3997498 \|date\=2013\-11\-11 }}. *[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN](/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN "Internetowa encyklopedia PWN")*. Accessed 27 October 2006\."Pilsudski dreamed of drawing all the nations situated between Germany and Russia into an enormous federation in which Poland, by virtue of its size, would be the leader, while Dmowski wanted to see a unitary Polish state, in which other Slav peoples would become assimilated." Andrzej Paczkowski, [*The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&q=0271023082), p. 10, Penn State Press, 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-271\-02308\-2}} argued for an ethnically homogeneous Poland in which minorities would be [Polonised](/wiki/Polonization "Polonization").Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Glaser, *The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years*, Cambridge University Press, 1998, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-62132\-1}}, [p.314](https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314)[Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski") has been quoted as saying: "Wherever we can multiply our forces and our civilizational efforts, absorbing other elements, no law can prohibit us from doing so, as such actions are our duty." J. Tomaszewski, {{lang\|pl\|Kresy Wschodnie w polskiej mysli politycznej XIX i XX w./Między Polską etniczną a historyczną. Polska myśl polityczna XIX i XX wieku}}, vol. 6, Warsaw, 1988, p. 101\. Cited in Oleksandr Derhachov, *ibid.* Many Polish politicians, including Dmowski, opposed the idea of a multiethnic federation, preferring instead to work for a [unitary](/wiki/Unitary_state "Unitary state") Polish [nation state](/wiki/Nation_state "Nation state"). Sanford has described Piłsudski's policies after his resumption of power in 1926 as similarly focusing on the Polonisation of the country's Eastern Slavic minorities and on the centralisation of power.
While some scholars accept at face value the democratic principles claimed by Piłsudski for his federative plan,[Aviel Roshwald](/wiki/Aviel_Roshwald "Aviel Roshwald"), *Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923*, 2001, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN\|0\-415\-24229\-0}}, [p. 49](https://books.google.com/books?id=qPyer6Pks0oC&pg=PA49){{Dead link\|date\=April 2024 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} others view such claims with skepticism, pointing out a [coup d'état in 1926](/wiki/May_Coup_%28Poland%29 "May Coup (Poland)") when Piłsudski assumed nearly dictatorial powers.[Yohanan Cohen](/wiki/Yohanan_Cohen "Yohanan Cohen"), *Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation*, SUNY Press, 1989, {{ISBN\|0\-7914\-0018\-2}} [p. 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=aN96TB0RUB8C&dq=Pilsudski+hero&pg=PA65) In particular, his project is viewed unfavourably by most Ukrainian historians, with [Oleksandr Derhachov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Derhachov "Oleksandr Derhachov") arguing that the federation would have created a greater Poland in which the interests of non\-Poles, especially Ukrainians, would have received short shrift."The essence of \[Józef Piłsudski's 'federalist' program] was that after the overthrow of tsardom and the disintegration of the Russian empire, a large, strong and mighty Poland was to be created in Eastern Europe. It would be the reincarnation of the *Rzeczpospolita* on 'federative' principles. It was to include the Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. The leading role, of course, was to be given to the Polish ethnic, political, economic and cultural element. ... As such two influential and popular political doctrines with regard to Ukraine—the 'incorporationist' and the 'federalist'—even before the creation of Polish statehood, were based on ignoring the right of the Ukrainian people to self\-determination and put forward claims to rule over the Ukrainian territories ..." "Ukraine in Polish concepts of foreign policy", in Oleksandr Derhachov (ed.), *Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis*, Kyiv, 1996, {{ISBN\|966\-543\-040\-8}}.
Some historians hold that Piłsudski, who argued that "There can be no independent Poland without an independent Ukraine", may have been more interested in splitting Ukraine from Russia than in assuring Ukrainians' welfare."The newly founded Polish state cared much more about the expansion of its borders to the east and southeast ('between the seas') than about helping the dying \[Ukrainian] state of which Petlura was *de facto* dictator." "A Belated Idealist", *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli "Zerkalo Nedeli")* \[*Mirror Weekly*], 22–28 May 2004\. Available online [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116140351/http://www.zerkalo\-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/ \|date\=2006\-01\-16 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310220124/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/ \|date\=2007\-03\-10 }}. Piłsudski is quoted to have said: "After Polish independence we will see about Poland's size." (ibid)A month before his death, Pilsudski told an aide: "My life is lost. I failed to create a Ukraine free of the Russians." {{in lang\|ru\|uk}} Oleksa Pidlutskyi, "Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State", in *Postati XX stolittia* \[*Figures of the 20th century*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"), 2004, {{ISBN\|966\-8290\-01\-1}}, {{LCCN\|2004440333}}. reprinted in *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli "Zerkalo Nedeli")* \[*Mirror Weekly*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv "Kyiv"), 3–9 February 2001, [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126150005/http://www.zerkalo\-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/ \|date\=2005\-11\-26 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051914/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/ \|date\=2005\-11\-07 }}. He did not hesitate to use military force to expand Poland's borders to [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 "Galicia (Eastern Europe)") and [Volhynia](/wiki/Volhynia "Volhynia"), crushing a [Ukrainian attempt at self\-determination](/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic "West Ukrainian People's Republic") in disputed territories east of the [Bug River](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 "Bug (river)") which contained a substantial Polish presence[Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala "Anna M. Cienciala"), 2004\. ["The Rebirth of Poland"](http://www.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect11.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108132721/http://www.ku.edu/\~eceurope/hist557/lect11\.htm \|date\=2020\-11\-08 }} (lecture notes). University of Kansas. Asccessed 2 June 2006\. (a Polish majority mainly in cities such as [Lwów](/wiki/Lviv "Lviv"), surrounded by a rural Ukrainian majority).
Speaking of Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said: "All that we can gain in the west depends on the [Entente](/wiki/Triple_Entente "Triple Entente")—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany", while in the east "there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far".[MacMillan, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan "Margaret MacMillan"), *Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World*, Random House, 2003, {{ISBN\|0\-375\-76052\-0}}, p. 212 In the eastern chaos, the Polish forces set out to expand as far as feasible. On the other hand, Poland had no interest in joining the western intervention in the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War") or in conquering Russia itself.Joseph Pilsudski. Interview by [Dymitr Merejkowsky](/wiki/Dymitr_Merejkowsky "Dymitr Merejkowsky"), 1921\. Translated from the Russian by Harriet E Kennedy B. A. London \& Edinburgh, Sampson Low, Marston \& Co Ltd 1921\. Piłsudski said: "Poland can have nothing to do with the restoration of old Russia. Anything rather than that–even Bolshevism".
|
[
"### Opposition",
"Piłsudski's plan faced opposition from virtually all quarters. The Soviets, whose [sphere of influence](/wiki/Sphere_of_influence \"Sphere of influence\") was directly threatened, worked to thwart the Intermarium agenda. The Allied Powers assumed that [Bolshevism](/wiki/Bolshevism \"Bolshevism\") was only a temporary threat and did not want to see their important (from the [balance\\-of\\-power](/wiki/Balance_of_power_%28international_relations%29 \"Balance of power (international relations)\") viewpoint) traditional ally, Russia, weakened. They resented Piłsudski's refusal to aid their [White](/wiki/White_movement \"White movement\") allies, viewed Piłsudski with suspicion, saw his plans as unrealistic, and urged Poland to confine itself to areas of clear\\-cut Polish ethnicity.[Adam Bruno Ulam](/wiki/Adam_Bruno_Ulam \"Adam Bruno Ulam\"), *Stalin: The Man and His Era*, Beacon Press, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8070\\-7005\\-X}}, [p. 185](https://books.google.com/books?id=A1eYKftgwgYC&dq=nationalists+opposed+Pilsudski+federation&pg=PA185)\n[\"Polish\\-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw\"](http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y). {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007194853/http://www.historynet.com/wars\\_conflicts/20\\_21\\_century/3038436\\.html?featured\\=y\\&c\\=y \\|date\\=2007\\-10\\-07 }}. Accessed September 30, 2007\\.[Norman Davies](/wiki/Norman_Davies \"Norman Davies\"), *White Eagle, Red Star*, Polish edition, Wydawnictwo Znak, 1997, {{ISBN\\|83\\-7006\\-761\\-1}}, p.228 The Lithuanians,[Piotr Łossowski](/wiki/Piotr_%C5%81ossowski \"Piotr Łossowski\"), *Konflikt polsko\\-litewski 1918–1920*, Książka i Wiedza, 1995, {{ISBN\\|83\\-05\\-12769\\-9}}, p.13–16 and p. 36 who had [re\\-established their independence in 1918](/wiki/Act_of_Independence_of_Lithuania \"Act of Independence of Lithuania\"), were unwilling to join; the Ukrainians, similarly seeking independence,{{Cite book \\|last\\=Eidintas \\|first\\=Alfonsas \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0\\_i8yez8udgC\\&q\\=Polish\\-Lithuanian\\+Commonwealth\\+negative\\&pg\\=PA78 \\|title\\=Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918\\-1940 \\|last2\\=Zalys \\|first2\\=Vytautas \\|date\\=1999 \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-312\\-22458\\-5 \\|language\\=en}} likewise feared that Poland might again subjugate them; and the Belarusians, though nearly not as interested in independence as Ukraine, were still fearful of Polish domination. The chances for Piłsudski's scheme were not enhanced by a series of post\\-World War I wars and border conflicts between Poland and its neighbors in disputed territories—the Polish–Soviet War, the [Polish–Lithuanian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War \"Polish–Lithuanian War\"), the [Polish–Ukrainian War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ukrainian_War \"Polish–Ukrainian War\"), and [border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Czechoslovak_border_conflicts \"Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts\").",
"Piłsudski's concept was opposed within Poland itself, where [National Democracy](/wiki/National_Democracy_%28Poland%29 \"National Democracy (Poland)\") leader [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\"){{in lang\\|pl}} [\"Wojna polsko\\-bolszewicka\"](http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3997498). {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111103019/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id\\=3997498 \\|date\\=2013\\-11\\-11 }}. *[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN](/wiki/Internetowa_encyklopedia_PWN \"Internetowa encyklopedia PWN\")*. Accessed 27 October 2006\\.\"Pilsudski dreamed of drawing all the nations situated between Germany and Russia into an enormous federation in which Poland, by virtue of its size, would be the leader, while Dmowski wanted to see a unitary Polish state, in which other Slav peoples would become assimilated.\" Andrzej Paczkowski, [*The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&q=0271023082), p. 10, Penn State Press, 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-271\\-02308\\-2}} argued for an ethnically homogeneous Poland in which minorities would be [Polonised](/wiki/Polonization \"Polonization\").Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman, Elisabeth Glaser, *The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years*, Cambridge University Press, 1998, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-62132\\-1}}, [p.314](https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314)[Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\") has been quoted as saying: \"Wherever we can multiply our forces and our civilizational efforts, absorbing other elements, no law can prohibit us from doing so, as such actions are our duty.\" J. Tomaszewski, {{lang\\|pl\\|Kresy Wschodnie w polskiej mysli politycznej XIX i XX w./Między Polską etniczną a historyczną. Polska myśl polityczna XIX i XX wieku}}, vol. 6, Warsaw, 1988, p. 101\\. Cited in Oleksandr Derhachov, *ibid.* Many Polish politicians, including Dmowski, opposed the idea of a multiethnic federation, preferring instead to work for a [unitary](/wiki/Unitary_state \"Unitary state\") Polish [nation state](/wiki/Nation_state \"Nation state\"). Sanford has described Piłsudski's policies after his resumption of power in 1926 as similarly focusing on the Polonisation of the country's Eastern Slavic minorities and on the centralisation of power.",
"While some scholars accept at face value the democratic principles claimed by Piłsudski for his federative plan,[Aviel Roshwald](/wiki/Aviel_Roshwald \"Aviel Roshwald\"), *Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923*, 2001, Routledge (UK), {{ISBN\\|0\\-415\\-24229\\-0}}, [p. 49](https://books.google.com/books?id=qPyer6Pks0oC&pg=PA49){{Dead link\\|date\\=April 2024 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} others view such claims with skepticism, pointing out a [coup d'état in 1926](/wiki/May_Coup_%28Poland%29 \"May Coup (Poland)\") when Piłsudski assumed nearly dictatorial powers.[Yohanan Cohen](/wiki/Yohanan_Cohen \"Yohanan Cohen\"), *Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation*, SUNY Press, 1989, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7914\\-0018\\-2}} [p. 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=aN96TB0RUB8C&dq=Pilsudski+hero&pg=PA65) In particular, his project is viewed unfavourably by most Ukrainian historians, with [Oleksandr Derhachov](/wiki/Oleksandr_Derhachov \"Oleksandr Derhachov\") arguing that the federation would have created a greater Poland in which the interests of non\\-Poles, especially Ukrainians, would have received short shrift.\"The essence of \\[Józef Piłsudski's 'federalist' program] was that after the overthrow of tsardom and the disintegration of the Russian empire, a large, strong and mighty Poland was to be created in Eastern Europe. It would be the reincarnation of the *Rzeczpospolita* on 'federative' principles. It was to include the Polish, Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. The leading role, of course, was to be given to the Polish ethnic, political, economic and cultural element. ... As such two influential and popular political doctrines with regard to Ukraine—the 'incorporationist' and the 'federalist'—even before the creation of Polish statehood, were based on ignoring the right of the Ukrainian people to self\\-determination and put forward claims to rule over the Ukrainian territories ...\" \"Ukraine in Polish concepts of foreign policy\", in Oleksandr Derhachov (ed.), *Ukrainian Statehood in the Twentieth Century: Historical and Political Analysis*, Kyiv, 1996, {{ISBN\\|966\\-543\\-040\\-8}}.",
"Some historians hold that Piłsudski, who argued that \"There can be no independent Poland without an independent Ukraine\", may have been more interested in splitting Ukraine from Russia than in assuring Ukrainians' welfare.\"The newly founded Polish state cared much more about the expansion of its borders to the east and southeast ('between the seas') than about helping the dying \\[Ukrainian] state of which Petlura was *de facto* dictator.\" \"A Belated Idealist\", *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli \"Zerkalo Nedeli\")* \\[*Mirror Weekly*], 22–28 May 2004\\. Available online [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116140351/http://www.zerkalo\\-nedeli.com/nn/show/495/46522/ \\|date\\=2006\\-01\\-16 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310220124/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/495/46522/ \\|date\\=2007\\-03\\-10 }}. Piłsudski is quoted to have said: \"After Polish independence we will see about Poland's size.\" (ibid)A month before his death, Pilsudski told an aide: \"My life is lost. I failed to create a Ukraine free of the Russians.\" {{in lang\\|ru\\|uk}} Oleksa Pidlutskyi, \"Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State\", in *Postati XX stolittia* \\[*Figures of the 20th century*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), 2004, {{ISBN\\|966\\-8290\\-01\\-1}}, {{LCCN\\|2004440333}}. reprinted in *[Zerkalo Nedeli](/wiki/Zerkalo_Nedeli \"Zerkalo Nedeli\")* \\[*Mirror Weekly*], [Kyiv](/wiki/Kyiv \"Kyiv\"), 3–9 February 2001, [in Russian](http://www.zerkalo-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126150005/http://www.zerkalo\\-nedeli.com/nn/show/329/29435/ \\|date\\=2005\\-11\\-26 }} and [in Ukrainian](http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107051914/http://www.zn.kiev.ua/ie/show/329/29435/ \\|date\\=2005\\-11\\-07 }}. He did not hesitate to use military force to expand Poland's borders to [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Eastern_Europe%29 \"Galicia (Eastern Europe)\") and [Volhynia](/wiki/Volhynia \"Volhynia\"), crushing a [Ukrainian attempt at self\\-determination](/wiki/West_Ukrainian_People%27s_Republic \"West Ukrainian People's Republic\") in disputed territories east of the [Bug River](/wiki/Bug_%28river%29 \"Bug (river)\") which contained a substantial Polish presence[Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala \"Anna M. Cienciala\"), 2004\\. [\"The Rebirth of Poland\"](http://www.ku.edu/~eceurope/hist557/lect11.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108132721/http://www.ku.edu/\\~eceurope/hist557/lect11\\.htm \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-08 }} (lecture notes). University of Kansas. Asccessed 2 June 2006\\. (a Polish majority mainly in cities such as [Lwów](/wiki/Lviv \"Lviv\"), surrounded by a rural Ukrainian majority).",
"Speaking of Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said: \"All that we can gain in the west depends on the [Entente](/wiki/Triple_Entente \"Triple Entente\")—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany\", while in the east \"there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far\".[MacMillan, Margaret](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan \"Margaret MacMillan\"), *Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World*, Random House, 2003, {{ISBN\\|0\\-375\\-76052\\-0}}, p. 212 In the eastern chaos, the Polish forces set out to expand as far as feasible. On the other hand, Poland had no interest in joining the western intervention in the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\") or in conquering Russia itself.Joseph Pilsudski. Interview by [Dymitr Merejkowsky](/wiki/Dymitr_Merejkowsky \"Dymitr Merejkowsky\"), 1921\\. Translated from the Russian by Harriet E Kennedy B. A. London \\& Edinburgh, Sampson Low, Marston \\& Co Ltd 1921\\. Piłsudski said: \"Poland can have nothing to do with the restoration of old Russia. Anything rather than that–even Bolshevism\".",
""
] |
History
-------
The Revels Office has an influential role in the history of the English stage. Among the expenses of the royal [Wardrobe](/wiki/Wardrobe_%28government%29 "Wardrobe (government)") in 1347, there was provision for *tunicae* and *viseres* ([shirts](/wiki/Shirt "Shirt") and [hats](/wiki/Hat "Hat")) for the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") *ludi* ([plays](/wiki/Play_%28theatre%29 "Play (theatre)")) of [Edward III](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England "Edward III of England"). During the reign of [King Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England "Henry VII of England"), payments are also recorded for various forms of court revels; and it became regular, apparently, to appoint a special functionary, called Master of the Revels, to superintend the royal festivities, quite distinct from the [Lord of Misrule](/wiki/Lord_of_Misrule "Lord of Misrule").{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911}}
In [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII "Henry VIII")'s court, the post became more important, following the burgeoning of courtly shows, plays and masques. To support the increased demand for theatrical entertainment, an officer of the Wardrobe was permanently employed to act under the Master of the Revels. Under [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I "Elizabeth I") the Office of the Revels was further increased and was subdivided into Toyles, Revels and Tents. With the patent given to John Farlyon in 1534 as [Yeoman](/wiki/Yeoman "Yeoman") of the Revels, what may be considered as an independent office of the Revels (within the general sphere of the [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain "Lord Chamberlain")) came into being. When Sir [Thomas Cawarden](/wiki/Thomas_Cawarden "Thomas Cawarden") received a 1544 patent as Master of the Revels and Tents he became the first to head an independent office. At this point the role of the Master of the Revels was focused on royal entertainment. One of the master’s fundamental roles was to audition players and companies for performances before the monarch and court. The master was also charged with matters of public health and ensured that playing companies ceased performances during plague seasons, as well as religious matters, guaranteeing that theaters closed on [Lent](/wiki/Lent "Lent"). Each Master of the Revels kept an official office book that served as a record of all business transactions; including purchases and preparations for each theatrical entertainment and after 1578 included fees taken after licensing plays for performance.
After the [Dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries "Dissolution of the monasteries"), priories became open spaces to house British royal household offices. Soon after Cawarden's appointment, the office and its stores were transferred to a dissolved [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order "Dominican Order") [monastery](/wiki/Monastery "Monastery") at [Blackfriars](/wiki/Blackfriars%2C_London "Blackfriars, London"). The office of the Revels had been previously housed at Warwick Inn in the city, the [London Charterhouse](/wiki/London_Charterhouse "London Charterhouse"), and then at the [priory](/wiki/Priory "Priory") of [St. John of Jerusalem](/wiki/St._John_of_Jerusalem "St. John of Jerusalem") in [Clerkenwell](/wiki/Clerkenwell_Priory "Clerkenwell Priory"), to which a return was made after Cawarden's death in 1559\.{{sfn\|Chisholm\|1911}} Cawarden lived at Loseley Park, near Guildford, where his official papers were preserved.{{sfn\|Chambers\|1906\|loc\=''passim''}} Sir [Thomas Benger](/wiki/Thomas_Benger "Thomas Benger") succeeded Cawarden, followed by Sir [Thomas Blagrave](/wiki/Thomas_Blagrave "Thomas Blagrave") (1573–79\), and [Edmund Tylney](/wiki/Edmund_Tylney "Edmund Tylney") followed him (1579–1610\). Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended and the office acquired the legal power to censor and control playing across the entire country. This increase in theatrical control coincided with the appearance of permanent adult theatres in London. Every company and traveling troupe had to submit a play manuscript to the Office of the Revels. The master read the manuscript and sometimes even attended rehearsals. Once a play was approved, the master would sign the last page of the manuscript. The licensed manuscript attesting to the Master of the Revels' approval of a play was a treasured item for playing companies. When traveling and taking a play into the country troupes had to carry the licensed copy of the play manuscript. There was a licensing fee charged by the Office of the Revels for the approving of plays. Tylney charged seven shillings per play.
With the legal authority to censor came the power to punish dramatists, actors and companies that published or performed subversive material. The master had the authority to imprison, torture or even maim those associated with dissident or unapproved theatrical material. In 1640 [William Beeston](/wiki/William_Beeston "William Beeston") was imprisoned for supporting the performance of a play without the approval and censor of Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels.
At the height of the Master of the Revels’ power, the master had the licensing authority to approve and censor plays as well as any publication or printing of theatrical materials across the entire country. He also had the authority to issue royal patents for new playing companies and approve the erection of their playhouses. The master was able to collect fees not only from the approval of allowed books and plays, but also through annual allowances from playing companies for the continued approval of their playhouses.
Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended to a general censorship of the stage.{{cite ODNB \| url\=https://dx.doi.org/10\.1093/ref:odnb/3821 \| doi\=10\.1093/ref:odnb/3821 \| title\=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \| date\=2004 }}{{sfn\|Eccles\|1933\|pp\=418–419}} In 1624 the Office of the Revels was put directly in the hands of the Lord Chamberlain, thus leading to the [Licensing Act 1737](/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737 "Licensing Act 1737"), when the role was taken over by the Examiner of the Stage, an official of the Lord Chamberlain. The function was abolished only in 1968\. In addition, by the end of Tylney's tenure, the authority of the Revels Office (rather than the City of London) to license plays for performance within the City was clearly established. Tylney was succeeded by his relation by marriage, Sir [George Buck](/wiki/George_Buck "George Buck").Tilney's cousin was the husband of Buck’s aunt. See {{harvnb\|Eccles\|1933\|p\=416}}. Buck was granted the reversion of the mastership in 1597, which led to much repining on the part of the dramatist [John Lyly](/wiki/John_Lyly "John Lyly"), who had expected to be appointed to the post.Letters from Lyly to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Earl_of_Salisbury "Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury"), 22 December 1597 and 27 February 1601, and letter from Lyly to Queen Elizabeth I, probably in 1598, *quoted* in {{harvnb\|Chambers\|1923\|pp\=96–98}} and {{harvnb\|Chambers\|1906\|pp\=\[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924026121495\#page/n63/mode/2up 57–58]}} Sir [John Astley](/wiki/John_Astley_%28Master_of_the_Revels%29 "John Astley (Master of the Revels)") followed Buck in the office, but he soon sold his right to license plays to his deputy, [Henry Herbert](/wiki/Henry_Herbert_%28Master_of_the_Revels%29 "Henry Herbert (Master of the Revels)"), who became Master in 1641\.
For the study of [English Renaissance theatre](/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre "English Renaissance theatre"), the accounts of the Revels Office provide one of the two crucial sources of reliable and specific information from the [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_Dynasty "Tudor Dynasty") and [Stuart](/wiki/House_of_Stuart "House of Stuart") eras (the other being the Register of the [Stationers Company](/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Stationers_and_Newspaper_Makers "Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers")). Within the revels accounts scholars find facts, dates, and other data available nowhere else. A catalogue of the [Folger Shakespeare Library](/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library "Folger Shakespeare Library") collection based on the majority of surviving papers of Thomas Cawarden is available on\-line. Other papers are available to study at the Public Record Office at Kew, or the Surrey Record Office.
With the outbreak of the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War "English Civil War") in 1642, stage plays were prohibited.["September 1642: Order for Stage\-plays to cease"](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=55741), British History Online, accessed 6 November 2014 Stage plays did not return to England until the [Restoration](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 "Restoration (England)") in 1660\.Baker, p. 85{{incomplete short citation\|date\=March 2023}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The Revels Office has an influential role in the history of the English stage. Among the expenses of the royal [Wardrobe](/wiki/Wardrobe_%28government%29 \"Wardrobe (government)\") in 1347, there was provision for *tunicae* and *viseres* ([shirts](/wiki/Shirt \"Shirt\") and [hats](/wiki/Hat \"Hat\")) for the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") *ludi* ([plays](/wiki/Play_%28theatre%29 \"Play (theatre)\")) of [Edward III](/wiki/Edward_III_of_England \"Edward III of England\"). During the reign of [King Henry VII](/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England \"Henry VII of England\"), payments are also recorded for various forms of court revels; and it became regular, apparently, to appoint a special functionary, called Master of the Revels, to superintend the royal festivities, quite distinct from the [Lord of Misrule](/wiki/Lord_of_Misrule \"Lord of Misrule\").{{sfn\\|Chisholm\\|1911}}",
"In [Henry VIII](/wiki/Henry_VIII \"Henry VIII\")'s court, the post became more important, following the burgeoning of courtly shows, plays and masques. To support the increased demand for theatrical entertainment, an officer of the Wardrobe was permanently employed to act under the Master of the Revels. Under [Elizabeth I](/wiki/Elizabeth_I \"Elizabeth I\") the Office of the Revels was further increased and was subdivided into Toyles, Revels and Tents. With the patent given to John Farlyon in 1534 as [Yeoman](/wiki/Yeoman \"Yeoman\") of the Revels, what may be considered as an independent office of the Revels (within the general sphere of the [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Lord_Chamberlain \"Lord Chamberlain\")) came into being. When Sir [Thomas Cawarden](/wiki/Thomas_Cawarden \"Thomas Cawarden\") received a 1544 patent as Master of the Revels and Tents he became the first to head an independent office. At this point the role of the Master of the Revels was focused on royal entertainment. One of the master’s fundamental roles was to audition players and companies for performances before the monarch and court. The master was also charged with matters of public health and ensured that playing companies ceased performances during plague seasons, as well as religious matters, guaranteeing that theaters closed on [Lent](/wiki/Lent \"Lent\"). Each Master of the Revels kept an official office book that served as a record of all business transactions; including purchases and preparations for each theatrical entertainment and after 1578 included fees taken after licensing plays for performance.",
"After the [Dissolution of the monasteries](/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries \"Dissolution of the monasteries\"), priories became open spaces to house British royal household offices. Soon after Cawarden's appointment, the office and its stores were transferred to a dissolved [Dominican](/wiki/Dominican_Order \"Dominican Order\") [monastery](/wiki/Monastery \"Monastery\") at [Blackfriars](/wiki/Blackfriars%2C_London \"Blackfriars, London\"). The office of the Revels had been previously housed at Warwick Inn in the city, the [London Charterhouse](/wiki/London_Charterhouse \"London Charterhouse\"), and then at the [priory](/wiki/Priory \"Priory\") of [St. John of Jerusalem](/wiki/St._John_of_Jerusalem \"St. John of Jerusalem\") in [Clerkenwell](/wiki/Clerkenwell_Priory \"Clerkenwell Priory\"), to which a return was made after Cawarden's death in 1559\\.{{sfn\\|Chisholm\\|1911}} Cawarden lived at Loseley Park, near Guildford, where his official papers were preserved.{{sfn\\|Chambers\\|1906\\|loc\\=''passim''}} Sir [Thomas Benger](/wiki/Thomas_Benger \"Thomas Benger\") succeeded Cawarden, followed by Sir [Thomas Blagrave](/wiki/Thomas_Blagrave \"Thomas Blagrave\") (1573–79\\), and [Edmund Tylney](/wiki/Edmund_Tylney \"Edmund Tylney\") followed him (1579–1610\\). Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended and the office acquired the legal power to censor and control playing across the entire country. This increase in theatrical control coincided with the appearance of permanent adult theatres in London. Every company and traveling troupe had to submit a play manuscript to the Office of the Revels. The master read the manuscript and sometimes even attended rehearsals. Once a play was approved, the master would sign the last page of the manuscript. The licensed manuscript attesting to the Master of the Revels' approval of a play was a treasured item for playing companies. When traveling and taking a play into the country troupes had to carry the licensed copy of the play manuscript. There was a licensing fee charged by the Office of the Revels for the approving of plays. Tylney charged seven shillings per play.",
"With the legal authority to censor came the power to punish dramatists, actors and companies that published or performed subversive material. The master had the authority to imprison, torture or even maim those associated with dissident or unapproved theatrical material. In 1640 [William Beeston](/wiki/William_Beeston \"William Beeston\") was imprisoned for supporting the performance of a play without the approval and censor of Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels.",
"At the height of the Master of the Revels’ power, the master had the licensing authority to approve and censor plays as well as any publication or printing of theatrical materials across the entire country. He also had the authority to issue royal patents for new playing companies and approve the erection of their playhouses. The master was able to collect fees not only from the approval of allowed books and plays, but also through annual allowances from playing companies for the continued approval of their playhouses.",
"Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended to a general censorship of the stage.{{cite ODNB \\| url\\=https://dx.doi.org/10\\.1093/ref:odnb/3821 \\| doi\\=10\\.1093/ref:odnb/3821 \\| title\\=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography \\| date\\=2004 }}{{sfn\\|Eccles\\|1933\\|pp\\=418–419}} In 1624 the Office of the Revels was put directly in the hands of the Lord Chamberlain, thus leading to the [Licensing Act 1737](/wiki/Licensing_Act_1737 \"Licensing Act 1737\"), when the role was taken over by the Examiner of the Stage, an official of the Lord Chamberlain. The function was abolished only in 1968\\. In addition, by the end of Tylney's tenure, the authority of the Revels Office (rather than the City of London) to license plays for performance within the City was clearly established. Tylney was succeeded by his relation by marriage, Sir [George Buck](/wiki/George_Buck \"George Buck\").Tilney's cousin was the husband of Buck’s aunt. See {{harvnb\\|Eccles\\|1933\\|p\\=416}}. Buck was granted the reversion of the mastership in 1597, which led to much repining on the part of the dramatist [John Lyly](/wiki/John_Lyly \"John Lyly\"), who had expected to be appointed to the post.Letters from Lyly to [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Earl_of_Salisbury \"Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury\"), 22 December 1597 and 27 February 1601, and letter from Lyly to Queen Elizabeth I, probably in 1598, *quoted* in {{harvnb\\|Chambers\\|1923\\|pp\\=96–98}} and {{harvnb\\|Chambers\\|1906\\|pp\\=\\[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924026121495\\#page/n63/mode/2up 57–58]}} Sir [John Astley](/wiki/John_Astley_%28Master_of_the_Revels%29 \"John Astley (Master of the Revels)\") followed Buck in the office, but he soon sold his right to license plays to his deputy, [Henry Herbert](/wiki/Henry_Herbert_%28Master_of_the_Revels%29 \"Henry Herbert (Master of the Revels)\"), who became Master in 1641\\.",
"For the study of [English Renaissance theatre](/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre \"English Renaissance theatre\"), the accounts of the Revels Office provide one of the two crucial sources of reliable and specific information from the [Tudor](/wiki/Tudor_Dynasty \"Tudor Dynasty\") and [Stuart](/wiki/House_of_Stuart \"House of Stuart\") eras (the other being the Register of the [Stationers Company](/wiki/Worshipful_Company_of_Stationers_and_Newspaper_Makers \"Worshipful Company of Stationers and Newspaper Makers\")). Within the revels accounts scholars find facts, dates, and other data available nowhere else. A catalogue of the [Folger Shakespeare Library](/wiki/Folger_Shakespeare_Library \"Folger Shakespeare Library\") collection based on the majority of surviving papers of Thomas Cawarden is available on\\-line. Other papers are available to study at the Public Record Office at Kew, or the Surrey Record Office.",
"With the outbreak of the [English Civil War](/wiki/English_Civil_War \"English Civil War\") in 1642, stage plays were prohibited.[\"September 1642: Order for Stage\\-plays to cease\"](http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=55741), British History Online, accessed 6 November 2014 Stage plays did not return to England until the [Restoration](/wiki/Restoration_%28England%29 \"Restoration (England)\") in 1660\\.Baker, p. 85{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=March 2023}}",
""
] |
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