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Development in France --------------------- After Roman times, there is no record of water jousting until the twelfth century. It is possible that the sport survived during the intervening period in communities close to water, but it is not mentioned anywhere. The oldest document dating from the post Roman period in France refers to a jousting tournament in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon "Lyon") on 2 June 1177, to commemorate the millennium of the Christian martyrs of Lyon and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"). Another document tells us that "in 1270 in [Aigues\-Mortes](/wiki/Aigues-Mortes "Aigues-Mortes"), crusaders, soldiers and sailors, awaiting embarkation for the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land "Holy Land") with [King Louis IX](/wiki/King_Louis_IX "King Louis IX") (Saint Louis), faced off in single combat mounted on small boats. Documents both written and illustrated become more numerous in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, citing games in [Sologne](/wiki/Sologne "Sologne"), in [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon "Toulon"), and more generally throughout the Mediterranean coast. On the [Languedoc](/wiki/Languedoc "Languedoc") coast in Southern France, jousts have been practised regularly since the seventeenth century. There is evidence that the inauguration of the port of [Sète](/wiki/S%C3%A8te "Sète") in 1666 gave rise to a jousting tournament. In the [Rhone\-Alps](/wiki/Rhone-Alps "Rhone-Alps") region, it was reported 13 April 1507 that the fishermen of St Vincent (Lyon) jousted on the [Saône](/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne "Saône") at St. Jean to entertain Queen [Anne of Brittany](/wiki/Anne_of_Brittany "Anne of Brittany") and her people. In 1536, a show of jousting is given by the sailors in [Saint\-Just\-Saint\-Rambert](/wiki/Saint-Just-Saint-Rambert "Saint-Just-Saint-Rambert") (Loire), in honour of [François I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France"). Games are also held on the Saône in 1548 for [Henri II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France "Henry II of France") and [Catherine of Medici](/wiki/Catherine_of_Medici "Catherine of Medici"). The nineteenth century was a watershed in the history of jousting on the Rhone with the creation of certain societies. The original object of these societies was not primarily concerned with the practice of jousting. Rather, they were societies of sailors who came together to bring relief to residents during the frequent floods of the Rhone. They practised jousting at local festivals, thus perpetuating the tradition passed down from generation to generation by these proud watermen. In 1899, the Federal Union of French Societies of Swimming and Rescue was created. The Union held the first jousting championship in France in 1901 on the {{ill\|Tête d'or Lake\|fr\|Lac de la Tête d'or}} in Lyon, although this was somewhat rudimentary. In 1905, the Union was replaced by the National Federation of Swimming and Rescue, which also holds regional championships. A French postage stamp depicting water jousting was issued in 1958\. It was not until 1960 that the game was officially recognized as a sport by the government. The current federation (Federation of French Jousting and Water Rescue) was born in 1964 following a strong disagreement with the former federation, which did not sufficiently develop the game as a sport. The sport is currently practised throughout France, notably in Languedoc, [Provence](/wiki/Provence "Provence"), the [Rhone Valley](/wiki/Rhone_Valley "Rhone Valley"), around [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") and in [Alsace](/wiki/Alsace "Alsace"). Jousting festivals are also held in [Cognac](/wiki/Cognac%2C_France "Cognac, France"), [Accolay](/wiki/Accolay%2C_Yonne "Accolay, Yonne"), [Merville](/wiki/Merville%2C_Nord "Merville, Nord") and in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany "Brittany"). Each region has its own methods of jousting and its own rules of engagement.
[ "Development in France\n---------------------", "After Roman times, there is no record of water jousting until the twelfth century. It is possible that the sport survived during the intervening period in communities close to water, but it is not mentioned anywhere. The oldest document dating from the post Roman period in France refers to a jousting tournament in [Lyon](/wiki/Lyon \"Lyon\") on 2 June 1177, to commemorate the millennium of the Christian martyrs of Lyon and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"). Another document tells us that \"in 1270 in [Aigues\\-Mortes](/wiki/Aigues-Mortes \"Aigues-Mortes\"), crusaders, soldiers and sailors, awaiting embarkation for the [Holy Land](/wiki/Holy_Land \"Holy Land\") with [King Louis IX](/wiki/King_Louis_IX \"King Louis IX\") (Saint Louis), faced off in single combat mounted on small boats.", "Documents both written and illustrated become more numerous in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, citing games in [Sologne](/wiki/Sologne \"Sologne\"), in [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon \"Toulon\"), and more generally throughout the Mediterranean coast. On the [Languedoc](/wiki/Languedoc \"Languedoc\") coast in Southern France, jousts have been practised regularly since the seventeenth century. There is evidence that the inauguration of the port of [Sète](/wiki/S%C3%A8te \"Sète\") in 1666 gave rise to a jousting tournament. In the [Rhone\\-Alps](/wiki/Rhone-Alps \"Rhone-Alps\") region, it was reported 13 April 1507 that the fishermen of St Vincent (Lyon) jousted on the [Saône](/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne \"Saône\") at St. Jean to entertain Queen [Anne of Brittany](/wiki/Anne_of_Brittany \"Anne of Brittany\") and her people. In 1536, a show of jousting is given by the sailors in [Saint\\-Just\\-Saint\\-Rambert](/wiki/Saint-Just-Saint-Rambert \"Saint-Just-Saint-Rambert\") (Loire), in honour of [François I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\"). Games are also held on the Saône in 1548 for [Henri II](/wiki/Henry_II_of_France \"Henry II of France\") and [Catherine of Medici](/wiki/Catherine_of_Medici \"Catherine of Medici\").", "The nineteenth century was a watershed in the history of jousting on the Rhone with the creation of certain societies. The original object of these societies was not primarily concerned with the practice of jousting. Rather, they were societies of sailors who came together to bring relief to residents during the frequent floods of the Rhone. They practised jousting at local festivals, thus perpetuating the tradition passed down from generation to generation by these proud watermen.", "In 1899, the Federal Union of French Societies of Swimming and Rescue was created. The Union held the first jousting championship in France in 1901 on the {{ill\\|Tête d'or Lake\\|fr\\|Lac de la Tête d'or}} in Lyon, although this was somewhat rudimentary. In 1905, the Union was replaced by the National Federation of Swimming and Rescue, which also holds regional championships.", "A French postage stamp depicting water jousting was issued in 1958\\.", "It was not until 1960 that the game was officially recognized as a sport by the government. The current federation (Federation of French Jousting and Water Rescue) was born in 1964 following a strong disagreement with the former federation, which did not sufficiently develop the game as a sport.", "The sport is currently practised throughout France, notably in Languedoc, [Provence](/wiki/Provence \"Provence\"), the [Rhone Valley](/wiki/Rhone_Valley \"Rhone Valley\"), around [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") and in [Alsace](/wiki/Alsace \"Alsace\"). Jousting festivals are also held in [Cognac](/wiki/Cognac%2C_France \"Cognac, France\"), [Accolay](/wiki/Accolay%2C_Yonne \"Accolay, Yonne\"), [Merville](/wiki/Merville%2C_Nord \"Merville, Nord\") and in [Brittany](/wiki/Brittany \"Brittany\"). Each region has its own methods of jousting and its own rules of engagement.", "" ]
Release ------- On 9 March 2010, the band announced the name of the EP on Twitter.{{cite tweet \|author\=Imagine Dragons \|author\-link\=Imagine Dragons \|user\=Imaginedragons \|number\=45209620603600896 \|date\=2011\-03\-08 \|title\=Our new EP "It's Time" is coming very soon... stay tuned for an announcement... \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220163800/https://twitter.com/imaginedragons/status/45209620603600896 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-20 \|url\-status\=live}} On 22 May, the band posted a [video](https://www.youtube.com/_Wo70KQXBX4) featuring 4 snippets of new demos they were working on. Out of these, only "Pantomime" managed to get a release on the EP. On 23 June, they released a [music video](https://www.youtube.com/KiO2-R8yKjE) for the song "America". During the summer of 2010, the band began introducing newer material into their live performances. With the exception of "It's Time" and "Pantomime," early versions of the remaining tracks were played live before the EP's release in March 2011\. On 16 September, the band posted a video{{cite AV media \|date\=2010\-09\-16 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=GiPnkndWVeU \|title\=Palms Studio, September 2010 \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522095146/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=GiPnkndWVeU \|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-22 \|url\-status\=live}} of them working at the Palms Studio, Las Vegas with the instrumental demos of "Amsterdam" and "It's Time" played in the background. The video also features the band playing around with a high\-pitched version of their song "The River". A music video for "The River" was soon uploaded on their YouTube channel on 19 December.{{cite AV media \|date\=2010\-12\-19 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OxxNSG1GM7M \|title\=The River \- Imagine Dragons \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817153451/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=OxxNSG1GM7M \|archive\-date\=2022\-08\-17 \|url\-status\=live}} "It's Time" also got a visuals video two days later.{{cite AV media \|date\=2010\-12\-21 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=VvHP8GWDPHY \|title\="It's Time" by Imagine Dragons (w/ visuals) \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023170947/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=VvHP8GWDPHY \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-23 \|url\-status\=live}} "Amsterdam" got a music video on New Year's Eve.{{cite AV media \|date\=2010\-12\-30 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=s6Nc4qEI3k4 \|title\=Amsterdam \- Imagine Dragons \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05}} A preview of "Tokyo" was posted on the same day.{{cite AV media \|date\=2010\-12\-30 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=mlb1RMeVGC0 \|title\=Tokyo \- Imagine Dragons (preview) \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220165025/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=mlb1RMeVGC0 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-20 \|url\-status\=live}} "Look How Far We've Come" got a music video on 3 January 2011\.{{cite AV media \|date\=2011\-01\-03 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=HD5biGaQpsU \|title\=Look How Far We've Come \- Imagine Dragons \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013215603/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=HD5biGaQpsU \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-13 \|url\-status\=live}} A video featuring a compilation of dance clips from fans was made for "Tokyo" on 10 January.{{cite AV media \|date\=2011\-01\-10 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=gFs3GAMmWtE \|title\=Tokyo \- Imagine Dragons \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817153650/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=gFs3GAMmWtE \|archive\-date\=2022\-08\-17 \|url\-status\=live}} The final music video was made for "Pantomime" on 14 February featuring the band performing a lyric prank on a lady.{{cite AV media \|date\=2011\-02\-14 \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=tUVMBZDfzAY \|title\=Pantomime \|publisher\=ImagineDragons \|via\=\[\[YouTube]] \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220918125644/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=tUVMBZDfzAY \|archive\-date\=2022\-09\-18 \|url\-status\=live}} The EP was finally released on iTunes and CDBaby on 12 March 2011,{{cite tweet \|author\=Imagine Dragons \|author\-link\=Imagine Dragons \|user\=Imaginedragons \|number\=46628934774820864 \|date\=2011\-03\-12 \|title\=So excited to share our NEW EP "It's Time," avail at cdbaby: http://bit.ly/e6HrQc and iTunes: http://bit.ly/hUG2VL \|language\=en \|access\-date\=2022\-12\-05 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220170204/https://twitter.com/imaginedragons/status/46628934774820864 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-20 \|url\-status\=live}} "Leave Me" being the only previously unreleased song on it.
[ "Release\n-------", "On 9 March 2010, the band announced the name of the EP on Twitter.{{cite tweet \\|author\\=Imagine Dragons \\|author\\-link\\=Imagine Dragons \\|user\\=Imaginedragons \\|number\\=45209620603600896 \\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-08 \\|title\\=Our new EP \"It's Time\" is coming very soon... stay tuned for an announcement... \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220163800/https://twitter.com/imaginedragons/status/45209620603600896 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On 22 May, the band posted a [video](https://www.youtube.com/_Wo70KQXBX4) featuring 4 snippets of new demos they were working on. Out of these, only \"Pantomime\" managed to get a release on the EP.", "On 23 June, they released a [music video](https://www.youtube.com/KiO2-R8yKjE) for the song \"America\".", "During the summer of 2010, the band began introducing newer material into their live performances. With the exception of \"It's Time\" and \"Pantomime,\" early versions of the remaining tracks were played live before the EP's release in March 2011\\.", "On 16 September, the band posted a video{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2010\\-09\\-16 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=GiPnkndWVeU \\|title\\=Palms Studio, September 2010 \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522095146/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=GiPnkndWVeU \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} of them working at the Palms Studio, Las Vegas with the instrumental demos of \"Amsterdam\" and \"It's Time\" played in the background. The video also features the band playing around with a high\\-pitched version of their song \"The River\".", "A music video for \"The River\" was soon uploaded on their YouTube channel on 19 December.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-19 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OxxNSG1GM7M \\|title\\=The River \\- Imagine Dragons \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817153451/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=OxxNSG1GM7M \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} \"It's Time\" also got a visuals video two days later.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-21 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=VvHP8GWDPHY \\|title\\=\"It's Time\" by Imagine Dragons (w/ visuals) \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023170947/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=VvHP8GWDPHY \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-23 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} \"Amsterdam\" got a music video on New Year's Eve.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-30 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=s6Nc4qEI3k4 \\|title\\=Amsterdam \\- Imagine Dragons \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05}} A preview of \"Tokyo\" was posted on the same day.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-30 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=mlb1RMeVGC0 \\|title\\=Tokyo \\- Imagine Dragons (preview) \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220165025/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=mlb1RMeVGC0 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} \"Look How Far We've Come\" got a music video on 3 January 2011\\.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-03 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=HD5biGaQpsU \\|title\\=Look How Far We've Come \\- Imagine Dragons \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013215603/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=HD5biGaQpsU \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-13 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} A video featuring a compilation of dance clips from fans was made for \"Tokyo\" on 10 January.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2011\\-01\\-10 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=gFs3GAMmWtE \\|title\\=Tokyo \\- Imagine Dragons \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817153650/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=gFs3GAMmWtE \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} The final music video was made for \"Pantomime\" on 14 February featuring the band performing a lyric prank on a lady.{{cite AV media \\|date\\=2011\\-02\\-14 \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=tUVMBZDfzAY \\|title\\=Pantomime \\|publisher\\=ImagineDragons \\|via\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220918125644/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=tUVMBZDfzAY \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-18 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The EP was finally released on iTunes and CDBaby on 12 March 2011,{{cite tweet \\|author\\=Imagine Dragons \\|author\\-link\\=Imagine Dragons \\|user\\=Imaginedragons \\|number\\=46628934774820864 \\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-12 \\|title\\=So excited to share our NEW EP \"It's Time,\" avail at cdbaby: http://bit.ly/e6HrQc and iTunes: http://bit.ly/hUG2VL \\|language\\=en \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-12\\-05 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220170204/https://twitter.com/imaginedragons/status/46628934774820864 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-20 \\|url\\-status\\=live}} \"Leave Me\" being the only previously unreleased song on it.", "" ]
Multiple Lawsuits ----------------- ### North Carolina About 500 plaintiffs in 29 cases have sued [Smithfield Foods](/wiki/Smithfield_Foods "Smithfield Foods") through its subsidiary Murphy\-Brown alleging harm from odors and insects associated with anaerobic lagoons. As of July 2019, a federal judge required the two sides to take turns picking cases to establish a typical case value for use in a negotiated settlement. In April 2018, a jury in federal court awarded ten plaintiffs who lived close to a hog farm, Kinlaw Farms in Bladen County, with 15,000 animals a total of $750,000 in compensatory damages and $50 million in punitive damages.{{cite web\|url\= https://www.porkbusiness.com/news/ag\-policy/breaking\-jury\-adds\-50m\-damages\-smithfield\-nuisance\-case \|title\=BREAKING: Jury Adds $50M Damages to Smithfield Nuisance Case\|author\=Sara Brown\|date\=April 26, 2018\|work\=Farm Journal's Pork}} The award for punitive damages was adjusted downward as mandated by North Carolina law that caps punitive damages at a level equal to three times the award for compensatory damages, or $250,000, whichever is greater.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/another\-smithfield\-hog\-farm\-found\-guilty\-jury \|title\=Another Smithfield Hog Farm Found Guilty by Jury\|author\=JoAnn Alumbaugh\|date\=July 2, 2018\|work\=Farm Journal's Pork}} Under this law total damages were reduced to $3\.25 million.{{cite news \|author1\=Staff \|title\=Hog lawsuits still unresolved in appeals court \|url\=https://www.yourdailyjournal.com/opinion/88903/opinion\-hog\-lawsuits\-still\-unresolved\-in\-appeals\-court \|accessdate\=26 September 2019 \|work\=Richmond County Daily Journal \|publisher\=Champion Media \|date\=24 September 2019}} In July 2018, two plaintiffs, who were neighbors of a Smithfield operation in Duplin County, were awarded a $25 million verdict.{{cite news \|last\=Tamarov \|first\=Maxim \|date\=16 December 2018 \|title\=Dixon: Hog farmers win battle, not war\|url\=https://www.jdnews.com/news/20181216/dixon\-hog\-farmers\-win\-battle\-not\-war\|work\=The Daily News \|access\-date\=26 July 2019}}{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Curliss: If it can happen to Joey Carter, it can happen to anyone \|url\=https://www.nationalhogfarmer.com/agenda/curliss\-if\-it\-can\-happen\-joey\-carter\-it\-can\-happen\-anyone \|work\=National Hog Farmer \|date\=17 January 2019 \|access\-date\=26 July 2019}} Immediately after this verdict, 1,000 to 1,600 people attended a rally on a Duplin County farm to support farmers in their struggle against nuisance suits. North Carolina's lieutenant governor, speaker of the house, agriculture commissioner, and a state legislator attended.{{cite news \|last1\=King \|first1\=Donna \|title\=Residents file petition in support of farming neighbors \|url\=https://nsjonline.com/article/2018/07/residents\-file\-petition\-in\-support\-of\-farming\-neighbors/ \|accessdate\=24 October 2019 \|work\=\[\[North State Journal]] \|publisher\=North State Media LLC \|date\=13 July 2018}} In December 2018, eight plaintiffs who live near a contract farm in Sampson County won a verdict against Smithfield Foods. Four plaintiffs received $100 in compensatory damages. Two won $1,000 in compensatory damages. One received $25,000 in compensatory damages. One elderly female plaintiff who lived close to the farm and grew up nearby was awarded $75,000 in compensatory damages. A judge ruled that the plaintiffs did not provide enough evidence to justify the award of punitive damages. Before and during the trial, many residents of the area planted yard signs that read, "Stand for hog farmers."{{cite news \|author\= \|title\=Judge rules no punishing Smithfield Foods in hog farm nuisance case \|url\=https://www.wral.com/judge\-rules\-no\-punishing\-smithfield\-foods\-in\-hog\-farm\-nuisance\-case/18060672/ \|work\=WRAL.com \|date\=13 December 2018 \|access\-date\=14 August 2019}} Farm trade groups and sympathetic politicians have openly complained that these suits endanger their industry. In 2018 North Carolina changed its right\-to\-farm law to further protect farmers from frivolous lawsuits.{{cite news \|author1\=A.P. Dillon \|title\=Documentary examines Smithfield hog farm nuisance trials \|url\=https://nsjonline.com/article/2022/09/documentary\-examines\-smithfield\-hog\-farm\-nuisance\-trials/ \|access\-date\=6 October 2022 \|work\=\[\[North State Journal]] \|date\=29 September 2022 \|language\=en \|quote\=legislators passed the Farm Act of 2018 to protect the state’s farmers from nuisance lawsuits}} The language of the law was substantially altered to more narrowly and clearly define what qualifies as a nuisance while limiting when plaintiffs may be awarded punitive damages. United States District Court Judge Earl Britt lifted his gag order on September 3, 2018\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/judge\-lifts\-gag\-order\-north\-carolina\-nuisance\-suits \|title\=Judge Lifts Gag Order in North Carolina Nuisance Suits\|author\=National Pork Producers Council\|date\=September 3, 2018\|work\=Farm Journal's Pork}} The jurors were not allowed to visit the farms in question or the areas around them in all of these cases.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/pig\-farmer\-joey\-carter\-was\-blindsided\-it\-could\-happen\-you\|title\=Pig Farmer Joey Carter was Blindsided \- It Could Happen to You\|author\=JoAnn Alumbaugh\|date\=September 6, 2018\|work\=Farm Journal's Pork}} The cases presided over by Judge Earl Britt have ended with different verdicts than those heard by Judge David Faber. #### Bifurcation of compensatory and punitive damages Smithfield moved to bifurcate the issues of its liability for compensatory damages and its liability for punitive damages. This motion was granted on October 24, 2018, by Senior United States District Judge David A. Faber.[Bifurcation decision by Judge David A. Faber (24 October 2018\)](https://cases.justia.com/federal/district-courts/north-carolina/ncedce/7:2014cv00185/138555/184/0.pdf?ts=1540456123) Research shows that bifurcating trials in this manner creates more uniform verdicts for compensatory damages and decreased the chance of juries awarding extremely high judgments for compensatory damages. Bifurcation also results in lower awards for compensatory damages in cases of involving minor or less severe injuries while resulting in higher awards for in cases where injuries are severe. Jurors report they feel they use evidence more appropriately in bifurcated trials.{{cite journal\|journal\=Law and Human Behavior\|date\=2006\|volume\=30\|issue\=1\|pages\=11\-30\|title\=Separating compensatory and punitive damage award decisions by trial bifurcation\|last\=Adams \|first\=Christine M. Shea\|last2\=Bourgeois \|first2\=Martin J.\|PMID\=16729206\|DOI\=10\.1007/s10979\-006\-9001\-8}} As of September 24, 2019, jurors in the cases mentioned above have awarded a total of $549,772,400 in damages. These damages have been reduced to $97\.9 million in accordance with North Carolina's laws limiting punitive damages. ### Legislation The state legislature passed the North Carolina Farm Act of 2018 to help reduce the exposure of farmers to unreasonable litigation and high punitive damage awards. Governor Roy Cooper vetoed the act, but the legislature overrode his veto. The new law does not apply to lawsuits that have already been filed. ### Virginia In February 1978, Virginia's State Water Control Board sought civil penalties against Smithfield for failing to make improvements to mitigate wastewater discharge into the [Pagan River](/wiki/Pagan_River "Pagan River") in a timely manner. In June of that year, the state attorney general accepted an out\-of\-court settlement that included a $25,000 payment.{{cite news\|author1\=Staff\|title\=Timeline {{!}} The history of Smithfield Foods\|url\=https://www.pilotonline.com/business/article\_a2a34b25\-aeb2\-5d29\-ab26\-54094bb62bfd.html\|accessdate\=31 October 2019\|work\=The Virginian\-Pilot\|date\=29 May 2013}} In 1985, a federal judge in Richmond fined a Smithfield subsidiary about $1\.2 million in a [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act "Clean Water Act") suit filed by the [Chesapeake Bay Foundation](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay_Foundation "Chesapeake Bay Foundation") and the [Natural Resources Defense Council](/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council "Natural Resources Defense Council").
[ "Multiple Lawsuits\n-----------------", "### North Carolina", "About 500 plaintiffs in 29 cases have sued [Smithfield Foods](/wiki/Smithfield_Foods \"Smithfield Foods\") through its subsidiary Murphy\\-Brown alleging harm from odors and insects associated with anaerobic lagoons. As of July 2019, a federal judge required the two sides to take turns picking cases to establish a typical case value for use in a negotiated settlement.", "In April 2018, a jury in federal court awarded ten plaintiffs who lived close to a hog farm, Kinlaw Farms in Bladen County, with 15,000 animals a total of $750,000 in compensatory damages and $50 million in punitive damages.{{cite web\\|url\\= https://www.porkbusiness.com/news/ag\\-policy/breaking\\-jury\\-adds\\-50m\\-damages\\-smithfield\\-nuisance\\-case \\|title\\=BREAKING: Jury Adds $50M Damages to Smithfield Nuisance Case\\|author\\=Sara Brown\\|date\\=April 26, 2018\\|work\\=Farm Journal's Pork}} The award for punitive damages was adjusted downward as mandated by North Carolina law that caps punitive damages at a level equal to three times the award for compensatory damages, or $250,000, whichever is greater.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/another\\-smithfield\\-hog\\-farm\\-found\\-guilty\\-jury \\|title\\=Another Smithfield Hog Farm Found Guilty by Jury\\|author\\=JoAnn Alumbaugh\\|date\\=July 2, 2018\\|work\\=Farm Journal's Pork}} Under this law total damages were reduced to $3\\.25 million.{{cite news \\|author1\\=Staff \\|title\\=Hog lawsuits still unresolved in appeals court \\|url\\=https://www.yourdailyjournal.com/opinion/88903/opinion\\-hog\\-lawsuits\\-still\\-unresolved\\-in\\-appeals\\-court \\|accessdate\\=26 September 2019 \\|work\\=Richmond County Daily Journal \\|publisher\\=Champion Media \\|date\\=24 September 2019}}", "In July 2018, two plaintiffs, who were neighbors of a Smithfield operation in Duplin County, were awarded a $25 million verdict.{{cite news \\|last\\=Tamarov \\|first\\=Maxim \\|date\\=16 December 2018 \\|title\\=Dixon: Hog farmers win battle, not war\\|url\\=https://www.jdnews.com/news/20181216/dixon\\-hog\\-farmers\\-win\\-battle\\-not\\-war\\|work\\=The Daily News \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2019}}{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Curliss: If it can happen to Joey Carter, it can happen to anyone \\|url\\=https://www.nationalhogfarmer.com/agenda/curliss\\-if\\-it\\-can\\-happen\\-joey\\-carter\\-it\\-can\\-happen\\-anyone \\|work\\=National Hog Farmer \\|date\\=17 January 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=26 July 2019}}", "Immediately after this verdict, 1,000 to 1,600 people attended a rally on a Duplin County farm to support farmers in their struggle against nuisance suits. North Carolina's lieutenant governor, speaker of the house, agriculture commissioner, and a state legislator attended.{{cite news \\|last1\\=King \\|first1\\=Donna \\|title\\=Residents file petition in support of farming neighbors \\|url\\=https://nsjonline.com/article/2018/07/residents\\-file\\-petition\\-in\\-support\\-of\\-farming\\-neighbors/ \\|accessdate\\=24 October 2019 \\|work\\=\\[\\[North State Journal]] \\|publisher\\=North State Media LLC \\|date\\=13 July 2018}}", "In December 2018, eight plaintiffs who live near a contract farm in Sampson County won a verdict against Smithfield Foods. Four plaintiffs received $100 in compensatory damages. Two won $1,000 in compensatory damages. One received $25,000 in compensatory damages. One elderly female plaintiff who lived close to the farm and grew up nearby was awarded $75,000 in compensatory damages. A judge ruled that the plaintiffs did not provide enough evidence to justify the award of punitive damages. Before and during the trial, many residents of the area planted yard signs that read, \"Stand for hog farmers.\"{{cite news \\|author\\= \\|title\\=Judge rules no punishing Smithfield Foods in hog farm nuisance case \\|url\\=https://www.wral.com/judge\\-rules\\-no\\-punishing\\-smithfield\\-foods\\-in\\-hog\\-farm\\-nuisance\\-case/18060672/ \\|work\\=WRAL.com \\|date\\=13 December 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2019}}", "Farm trade groups and sympathetic politicians have openly complained that these suits endanger their industry. In 2018 North Carolina changed its right\\-to\\-farm law to further protect farmers from frivolous lawsuits.{{cite news \\|author1\\=A.P. Dillon \\|title\\=Documentary examines Smithfield hog farm nuisance trials \\|url\\=https://nsjonline.com/article/2022/09/documentary\\-examines\\-smithfield\\-hog\\-farm\\-nuisance\\-trials/ \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[North State Journal]] \\|date\\=29 September 2022 \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=legislators passed the Farm Act of 2018 to protect the state’s farmers from nuisance lawsuits}} The language of the law was substantially altered to more narrowly and clearly define what qualifies as a nuisance while limiting when plaintiffs may be awarded punitive damages.", "United States District Court Judge Earl Britt lifted his gag order on September 3, 2018\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/judge\\-lifts\\-gag\\-order\\-north\\-carolina\\-nuisance\\-suits \\|title\\=Judge Lifts Gag Order in North Carolina Nuisance Suits\\|author\\=National Pork Producers Council\\|date\\=September 3, 2018\\|work\\=Farm Journal's Pork}}", "The jurors were not allowed to visit the farms in question or the areas around them in all of these cases.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.porkbusiness.com/article/pig\\-farmer\\-joey\\-carter\\-was\\-blindsided\\-it\\-could\\-happen\\-you\\|title\\=Pig Farmer Joey Carter was Blindsided \\- It Could Happen to You\\|author\\=JoAnn Alumbaugh\\|date\\=September 6, 2018\\|work\\=Farm Journal's Pork}}", "The cases presided over by Judge Earl Britt have ended with different verdicts than those heard by Judge David Faber.", "#### Bifurcation of compensatory and punitive damages", "Smithfield moved to bifurcate the issues of its liability for compensatory damages and its liability for punitive damages. This motion was granted on October 24, 2018, by Senior United States District Judge David A. Faber.[Bifurcation decision by Judge David A. Faber (24 October 2018\\)](https://cases.justia.com/federal/district-courts/north-carolina/ncedce/7:2014cv00185/138555/184/0.pdf?ts=1540456123) Research shows that bifurcating trials in this manner creates more uniform verdicts for compensatory damages and decreased the chance of juries awarding extremely high judgments for compensatory damages. Bifurcation also results in lower awards for compensatory damages in cases of involving minor or less severe injuries while resulting in higher awards for in cases where injuries are severe. Jurors report they feel they use evidence more appropriately in bifurcated trials.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Law and Human Behavior\\|date\\=2006\\|volume\\=30\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=11\\-30\\|title\\=Separating compensatory and punitive damage award decisions by trial bifurcation\\|last\\=Adams \\|first\\=Christine M. Shea\\|last2\\=Bourgeois \\|first2\\=Martin J.\\|PMID\\=16729206\\|DOI\\=10\\.1007/s10979\\-006\\-9001\\-8}}", "As of September 24, 2019, jurors in the cases mentioned above have awarded a total of $549,772,400 in damages. These damages have been reduced to $97\\.9 million in accordance with North Carolina's laws limiting punitive damages.", "### Legislation", "The state legislature passed the North Carolina Farm Act of 2018 to help reduce the exposure of farmers to unreasonable litigation and high punitive damage awards. Governor Roy Cooper vetoed the act, but the legislature overrode his veto. The new law does not apply to lawsuits that have already been filed.", "### Virginia", "In February 1978, Virginia's State Water Control Board sought civil penalties against Smithfield for failing to make improvements to mitigate wastewater discharge into the [Pagan River](/wiki/Pagan_River \"Pagan River\") in a timely manner. In June of that year, the state attorney general accepted an out\\-of\\-court settlement that included a $25,000 payment.{{cite news\\|author1\\=Staff\\|title\\=Timeline {{!}} The history of Smithfield Foods\\|url\\=https://www.pilotonline.com/business/article\\_a2a34b25\\-aeb2\\-5d29\\-ab26\\-54094bb62bfd.html\\|accessdate\\=31 October 2019\\|work\\=The Virginian\\-Pilot\\|date\\=29 May 2013}}", "In 1985, a federal judge in Richmond fined a Smithfield subsidiary about $1\\.2 million in a [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act \"Clean Water Act\") suit filed by the [Chesapeake Bay Foundation](/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay_Foundation \"Chesapeake Bay Foundation\") and the [Natural Resources Defense Council](/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council \"Natural Resources Defense Council\").", "" ]
Athletics --------- The Carteret High School Ramblers[Carteret High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/carteret-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. compete in the [Greater Middlesex Conference](/wiki/Greater_Middlesex_Conference "Greater Middlesex Conference"), which is comprised of public and private high schools located in the Middlesex County area and operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association") (NJSIAA).[League \& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed October 20, 2020\. With 770 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group III for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 761 to 1,058 students in that grade range.[NJSIAA General Public School Classifications 2019–2020](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/general-classifications-2018-2020.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. The football team competes in Division 3 of the [Big Central Football Conference](/wiki/Big_Central_Football_Conference "Big Central Football Conference"), which includes 60 public and private high schools in [Hunterdon](/wiki/Hunterdon_County%2C_New_Jersey "Hunterdon County, New Jersey"), Middlesex, [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset_County%2C_New_Jersey "Somerset County, New Jersey"), [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey "Union County, New Jersey") and [Warren](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_New_Jersey "Warren County, New Jersey") counties, which are broken down into 10 divisions by size and location.Kinney, Mike. ["Big Central revises 2020 football schedule for its shortened inaugural season"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2020/08/big-central-revises-2020-football-schedule-for-its-shortened-inaugural-season.html), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com"), August 12, 2020\. Accessed April 18, 2021\. "The newly formed Big Central Football Conference has released a revised 2020 schedule for its inaugural season.... the BCFC is comprised of schools from Middlesex, Union, Somerset, Hunterdon and Warren counties." The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group III North for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 700 to 884 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated September 2024\. Accessed September 1, 2024\. School colors are royal blue and white. Sports offered include softball, bowling (men and women), track and field spring (men and women), soccer (men and women), basketball (men and women), football, tennis (women), wrestling (men) and baseball (men). The boys' basketball team won the Group III state championship in 1932 vs. [Weehawken High School](/wiki/Weehawken_High_School "Weehawken High School") by a final score of 28\-27Staff. ["Trenton's Quintet Wins Jersey Title; Beats South Side of Newark, 36 to 30, to Take Class A High School Honors. Carteret Class B Victor; Downs Woodrow Wilson of Weehawken, 28 to 27 \-\- Class A Prep Crown to St. Benedict's."](https://www.nytimes.com/1932/03/20/archives/trentons-quintet-wins-jersey-title-beats-south-side-of-newark-36-to.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, March 20, 1932\. Accessed October 28, 2015\. and the Group II title in 1934 with a 42–38 victory over [Ramsey High School](/wiki/Ramsey_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Ramsey High School (New Jersey)") in the tournament final.Staff. ["Trenton High Five Keeps State Title; Halts Union Hill, 29\-19, to Score Third Year in Row in New Jersey Tourney."](https://www.nytimes.com/1934/03/18/archives/trenton-high-five-keeps-state-title-halts-union-hill-2919-to-score.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, March 18, 1934\. Accessed October 28, 2015\. "Carteret conquered Ramsey, 42\-28, for the Group 2 high school title."[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\. The boys track team won the indoor track Group III state championship in 1973 and the Group II title in 1987\.[*Boys Winter Track and Field Championship History: 1922\-2023*](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Boys%20Indoor%20Track%20%26%20Field_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated November 2023\. Accessed February 1, 2024\. The boys track team won the Group III spring / outdoor track state championship in 1973\.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Boys](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed September 1, 2021\. The football team won the NJSIAA state sectional championships in Central Jersey Group III in 1976 and in Central Jersey Group II in 1992, 1996, 2007 and 2012\.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed January 1, 2022\. The 1976 team won the Central Jersey Group III sectional title in front of a hometown crowd of 4,500 with a 29–22 win against [Long Branch High School](/wiki/Long_Branch_High_School "Long Branch High School") in the championship game.["Schoolboy Halfback Breaks New Jersey Scoring Record"](https://www.nytimes.com/1976/12/05/archives/schoolboy-halfback-breaks-new-jersey-scoring-record.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")*, December 5, 1976\. Accessed December 26, 2020\. "Carteret, beaten twice the last two years in playoff games, finally broke through and took the Central Jersey Group 3 championship, beating Long Branch, 29\-22, before 4,500 in Carteret."Amsel, Michael. ["Branchers Run Out of Time. Carteret Wins Title, 29\-22"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/67295602/carteret-defeats-long-branch-for-1976/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press "Asbury Park Press")*, December 5, 1976\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Frank Glazier will tell you that his Long Branch High School football team just ran out of time in it quest for the Central Jersey Group III championship. Carteret Coach Jim Gilrain will tell you that the only thing Long Branch ran out of yesterday was ways to contain his methodical Rambler offense. And the record books will tell you simply that on Dec. 4 at Walter Oberholt Field, Carteret topped Long Branch, 29\-22, for its first NJSIAA Playoff championship." In 1992, the team became the first in program history to finish the season with no ties or losses, ending the season 11\-0 after winning the Central Jersey Group II title with a 14–0 win against [Princeton High School](/wiki/Princeton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 "Princeton High School (New Jersey)"), one of the team's five shutouts that season; the 1991 team earned consideration from the *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")* as one of "the best in GMC history".Tufaro, Greg. ["Which football team is the best in GMC history?"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/football/2018/08/13/which-school-has-best-football-team-gmc-history/983561002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News "Courier News")*, August 15, 2018\. Accessed November 20, 2020\. "Carteret 1992 (Central Group II) According to the research of former colleague and venerable sports writer John Haley, the 1992 Ramblers were the first to finish undefeated and untied at Carteret, whose program commenced 67 years earlier under Sally McCarthy, a female head coach.... The defense allowed a total of 50 points and registered five shutouts including a 14\-0 blanking of Princeton in the sectional final." The 2007 football team won the Central Jersey, Group II state sectional title by a score a 20–14 over [Rumson\-Fair Haven High School](/wiki/Rumson-Fair_Haven_High_School "Rumson-Fair Haven High School") in the tournament championship game played at [Rutgers Stadium](/wiki/Rutgers_Stadium "Rutgers Stadium"); The win was Carteret's fourth sectional title, and its first since 1996\.McKenzie, Doug. ["Late drive by Bulldogs falls short in title game; Carteret hangs on to win CJ Group II, 20\-14"](https://archive.centraljersey.com/2007/12/06/late-drive-by-bulldogs-falls-short-in-title-game-2/), Central Jersey Archives, December 6, 2007\. Accessed November 12, 2020\. "However, all the confidence they had for their senior quarterback wasn’t quite enough to bring RFH its first state championship, as the Bulldogs dropped a heartbreaking 20\-14 ballgame to Carteret to finish the year 9\-3\." The 2012 football team went undefeated at 12\-0 and were crowned Central Jersey Group II champions as well, defeating [Weequahic High School](/wiki/Weequahic_High_School "Weequahic High School") by the score of 13–12 in the championship game played at [Metlife Stadium](/wiki/Metlife_Stadium "Metlife Stadium").Moretti, Mike. ["Lewin's TD lifts Carteret past Rumson"](http://www.nj.com/starledger/stories/index.ssf?/base/sports-1/1196660450294840.xml&coll=1), *[The Star\-Ledger](/wiki/The_Star-Ledger "The Star-Ledger")*, December 3, 2007\. Accessed December 3, 2007\. "But with senior tailback Byron Lewin picking up 143 yards on 22 carries and scoring the winning touchdown with 2:18 to go, Carteret defeated Rumson, 20\-14, in the NJSIAA/Gatorade Central Jersey, Group 2 championship game before 4,000 at Rutgers Stadium in Piscataway. It was Carteret's first state title since 1996 and fourth in six final appearances."[2007 Football \- Central, Group II](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=246272&tclass=Central%2C%20Group%20II), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed December 3, 2007\. Dating back to 1927, Carteret has had a Thanksgiving Day football rivalry with [Perth Amboy High School](/wiki/Perth_Amboy_High_School "Perth Amboy High School") that was listed at 8th on [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com")'s 2017 list "Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football". Perth Amboy lead the rivalry with a 46\-42\-2 overall record as of 2017\.Stypulkoski, Matt. ["Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/article/ranking-njs-31-best-high-school-football-rivalries/), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com "NJ.com"), October 27, 2017, updated May 15, 2019\. Accessed December 1, 2020\. "8\-Carteret vs. Perth Amboy... That's how bitter the longest\-running Thanksgiving Day rivalry in Middlesex County is, with these two schools separated by a little more than seven miles having played since 1927\. All\-time series: Perth Amboy leads 46\-42\-2" The boys track team won the indoor relay championship in Group II in 1987\.[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed December 1, 2020\. The 1990 baseball team finished the season with a record of 21\-2 after coming back to defeat [Hanover Park High School](/wiki/Hanover_Park_High_School "Hanover Park High School") and win the Group II state championship by a score of 13–7 in nine innings in the tournament final.[Baseball Championship History: 1959–2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-02/Baseball.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"), updated June 2024\. Accessed September 1, 2024\.Seidman, Howard R. ["Hanover Park loses in ninth; Twelve walks lead to defeat as Carteret wins Group II title"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/254980629/), *[Daily Record](/wiki/Daily_Record_%28New_Jersey%29 "Daily Record (New Jersey)")*, June 3, 1990\. Accessed January 27, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "After taking a 6\-2 lead into the sixth inning, Hanover Park High School went nine innings with Carteret before falling 13\-7 in the Group II state baseball championship at Princeton University. The Hornets were done in by giving up 12 walks including six in the sixth which allowed the Ramblers to take the lead, 7\-6\.... Carteret, 21\-2, was limited to just two hits going into the ninth inning and ended up with six." The boys bowling team won the overall state championship in 2005 with a pinfall of 2,988, which was 29 pins more than [Bordentown Regional High School](/wiki/Bordentown_Regional_High_School "Bordentown Regional High School") in second place.[History of NJSIAA Boys Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-07/22%20Bowling.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed August 1, 2022\.Tufaro, Greg. ["Carteret wins state title; Ramblers earn boys championship, Woodbridge girls finish second"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/314930798/), *[Home News Tribune](/wiki/Home_News_Tribune "Home News Tribune")*, February 24, 2005\. Accessed April 25, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com "Newspapers.com"). "Although his team hadn't won a tournament all season and didn't even finish first in its division, Carteret High School boys bowling coach Charlie Simon always knew his squad had the potential to be the best in the state. The Ramblers, who saved their best for last, proved Simon right, winning the school's first ever NJSIAA Championship with a three\-game pinfall of 2,988 at Carolier Lanes yesterday.... They moved from fifth to third place in the second game and had to overcome Bordentown and Linden to win the team title. The Ramblers edged runner\-up Bordentown by 29 pins." The girls bowling team won the Group II state championship in 2008\.[History of NJSIAA Girls Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-bowling_0_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association "New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association"). Accessed November 20, 2020\.
[ "Athletics\n---------", "The Carteret High School Ramblers[Carteret High School](https://www.njsiaa.org/schools/carteret-high-school), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. compete in the [Greater Middlesex Conference](/wiki/Greater_Middlesex_Conference \"Greater Middlesex Conference\"), which is comprised of public and private high schools located in the Middlesex County area and operates under the supervision of the [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\") (NJSIAA).[League \\& Conference Officers/Affiliated Schools 2020\\-2021](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-10/2020-2021-lc-officers-schools.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed October 20, 2020\\. With 770 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group III for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 761 to 1,058 students in that grade range.[NJSIAA General Public School Classifications 2019–2020](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/general-classifications-2018-2020.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\. The football team competes in Division 3 of the [Big Central Football Conference](/wiki/Big_Central_Football_Conference \"Big Central Football Conference\"), which includes 60 public and private high schools in [Hunterdon](/wiki/Hunterdon_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Hunterdon County, New Jersey\"), Middlesex, [Somerset](/wiki/Somerset_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Somerset County, New Jersey\"), [Union](/wiki/Union_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Union County, New Jersey\") and [Warren](/wiki/Warren_County%2C_New_Jersey \"Warren County, New Jersey\") counties, which are broken down into 10 divisions by size and location.Kinney, Mike. [\"Big Central revises 2020 football schedule for its shortened inaugural season\"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2020/08/big-central-revises-2020-football-schedule-for-its-shortened-inaugural-season.html), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\"), August 12, 2020\\. Accessed April 18, 2021\\. \"The newly formed Big Central Football Conference has released a revised 2020 schedule for its inaugural season.... the BCFC is comprised of schools from Middlesex, Union, Somerset, Hunterdon and Warren counties.\" The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group III North for football for 2024–2026, which included schools with 700 to 884 students.[NJSIAA Football Public School Classifications 2024–2026](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-08/football-2024-2026.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated September 2024\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\.", "School colors are royal blue and white. Sports offered include softball, bowling (men and women), track and field spring (men and women), soccer (men and women), basketball (men and women), football, tennis (women), wrestling (men) and baseball (men).", "The boys' basketball team won the Group III state championship in 1932 vs. [Weehawken High School](/wiki/Weehawken_High_School \"Weehawken High School\") by a final score of 28\\-27Staff. [\"Trenton's Quintet Wins Jersey Title; Beats South Side of Newark, 36 to 30, to Take Class A High School Honors. Carteret Class B Victor; Downs Woodrow Wilson of Weehawken, 28 to 27 \\-\\- Class A Prep Crown to St. Benedict's.\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1932/03/20/archives/trentons-quintet-wins-jersey-title-beats-south-side-of-newark-36-to.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, March 20, 1932\\. Accessed October 28, 2015\\. and the Group II title in 1934 with a 42–38 victory over [Ramsey High School](/wiki/Ramsey_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Ramsey High School (New Jersey)\") in the tournament final.Staff. [\"Trenton High Five Keeps State Title; Halts Union Hill, 29\\-19, to Score Third Year in Row in New Jersey Tourney.\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1934/03/18/archives/trenton-high-five-keeps-state-title-halts-union-hill-2919-to-score.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, March 18, 1934\\. Accessed October 28, 2015\\. \"Carteret conquered Ramsey, 42\\-28, for the Group 2 high school title.\"[NJSIAA Boys Basketball Championship History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/2020-basketball-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\.", "The boys track team won the indoor track Group III state championship in 1973 and the Group II title in 1987\\.[*Boys Winter Track and Field Championship History: 1922\\-2023*](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Boys%20Indoor%20Track%20%26%20Field_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated November 2023\\. Accessed February 1, 2024\\.", "The boys track team won the Group III spring / outdoor track state championship in 1973\\.[NJSIAA Spring Track Summary of Group Titles Boys](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-08/21-history.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed September 1, 2021\\.", "The football team won the NJSIAA state sectional championships in Central Jersey Group III in 1976 and in Central Jersey Group II in 1992, 1996, 2007 and 2012\\.[NJSIAA Football History](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2021-12/21-football.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed January 1, 2022\\. The 1976 team won the Central Jersey Group III sectional title in front of a hometown crowd of 4,500 with a 29–22 win against [Long Branch High School](/wiki/Long_Branch_High_School \"Long Branch High School\") in the championship game.[\"Schoolboy Halfback Breaks New Jersey Scoring Record\"](https://www.nytimes.com/1976/12/05/archives/schoolboy-halfback-breaks-new-jersey-scoring-record.html), *[The New York Times](/wiki/The_New_York_Times \"The New York Times\")*, December 5, 1976\\. Accessed December 26, 2020\\. \"Carteret, beaten twice the last two years in playoff games, finally broke through and took the Central Jersey Group 3 championship, beating Long Branch, 29\\-22, before 4,500 in Carteret.\"Amsel, Michael. [\"Branchers Run Out of Time. Carteret Wins Title, 29\\-22\"](https://www.newspapers.com/clip/67295602/carteret-defeats-long-branch-for-1976/), *[Asbury Park Press](/wiki/Asbury_Park_Press \"Asbury Park Press\")*, December 5, 1976\\. Accessed January 9, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Frank Glazier will tell you that his Long Branch High School football team just ran out of time in it quest for the Central Jersey Group III championship. Carteret Coach Jim Gilrain will tell you that the only thing Long Branch ran out of yesterday was ways to contain his methodical Rambler offense. And the record books will tell you simply that on Dec. 4 at Walter Oberholt Field, Carteret topped Long Branch, 29\\-22, for its first NJSIAA Playoff championship.\" In 1992, the team became the first in program history to finish the season with no ties or losses, ending the season 11\\-0 after winning the Central Jersey Group II title with a 14–0 win against [Princeton High School](/wiki/Princeton_High_School_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Princeton High School (New Jersey)\"), one of the team's five shutouts that season; the 1991 team earned consideration from the *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")* as one of \"the best in GMC history\".Tufaro, Greg. [\"Which football team is the best in GMC history?\"](https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/sports/high-school/football/2018/08/13/which-school-has-best-football-team-gmc-history/983561002/), *[Courier News](/wiki/Courier_News \"Courier News\")*, August 15, 2018\\. Accessed November 20, 2020\\. \"Carteret 1992 (Central Group II) According to the research of former colleague and venerable sports writer John Haley, the 1992 Ramblers were the first to finish undefeated and untied at Carteret, whose program commenced 67 years earlier under Sally McCarthy, a female head coach.... The defense allowed a total of 50 points and registered five shutouts including a 14\\-0 blanking of Princeton in the sectional final.\" The 2007 football team won the Central Jersey, Group II state sectional title by a score a 20–14 over [Rumson\\-Fair Haven High School](/wiki/Rumson-Fair_Haven_High_School \"Rumson-Fair Haven High School\") in the tournament championship game played at [Rutgers Stadium](/wiki/Rutgers_Stadium \"Rutgers Stadium\"); The win was Carteret's fourth sectional title, and its first since 1996\\.McKenzie, Doug. [\"Late drive by Bulldogs falls short in title game; Carteret hangs on to win CJ Group II, 20\\-14\"](https://archive.centraljersey.com/2007/12/06/late-drive-by-bulldogs-falls-short-in-title-game-2/), Central Jersey Archives, December 6, 2007\\. Accessed November 12, 2020\\. \"However, all the confidence they had for their senior quarterback wasn’t quite enough to bring RFH its first state championship, as the Bulldogs dropped a heartbreaking 20\\-14 ballgame to Carteret to finish the year 9\\-3\\.\" The 2012 football team went undefeated at 12\\-0 and were crowned Central Jersey Group II champions as well, defeating [Weequahic High School](/wiki/Weequahic_High_School \"Weequahic High School\") by the score of 13–12 in the championship game played at [Metlife Stadium](/wiki/Metlife_Stadium \"Metlife Stadium\").Moretti, Mike. [\"Lewin's TD lifts Carteret past Rumson\"](http://www.nj.com/starledger/stories/index.ssf?/base/sports-1/1196660450294840.xml&coll=1), *[The Star\\-Ledger](/wiki/The_Star-Ledger \"The Star-Ledger\")*, December 3, 2007\\. Accessed December 3, 2007\\. \"But with senior tailback Byron Lewin picking up 143 yards on 22 carries and scoring the winning touchdown with 2:18 to go, Carteret defeated Rumson, 20\\-14, in the NJSIAA/Gatorade Central Jersey, Group 2 championship game before 4,000 at Rutgers Stadium in Piscataway. It was Carteret's first state title since 1996 and fourth in six final appearances.\"[2007 Football \\- Central, Group II](http://www.bracketmaker.com/tmenu.cfm?tid=246272&tclass=Central%2C%20Group%20II), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed December 3, 2007\\. Dating back to 1927, Carteret has had a Thanksgiving Day football rivalry with [Perth Amboy High School](/wiki/Perth_Amboy_High_School \"Perth Amboy High School\") that was listed at 8th on [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\")'s 2017 list \"Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football\". Perth Amboy lead the rivalry with a 46\\-42\\-2 overall record as of 2017\\.Stypulkoski, Matt. [\"Ranking the 31 fiercest rivalries in N.J. HS football\"](https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/article/ranking-njs-31-best-high-school-football-rivalries/), NJ Advance Media for [NJ.com](/wiki/NJ.com \"NJ.com\"), October 27, 2017, updated May 15, 2019\\. Accessed December 1, 2020\\. \"8\\-Carteret vs. Perth Amboy... That's how bitter the longest\\-running Thanksgiving Day rivalry in Middlesex County is, with these two schools separated by a little more than seven miles having played since 1927\\. All\\-time series: Perth Amboy leads 46\\-42\\-2\"", "The boys track team won the indoor relay championship in Group II in 1987\\.[History of the NJSIAA Indoor Relay Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-12/20-relay-history_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed December 1, 2020\\.", "The 1990 baseball team finished the season with a record of 21\\-2 after coming back to defeat [Hanover Park High School](/wiki/Hanover_Park_High_School \"Hanover Park High School\") and win the Group II state championship by a score of 13–7 in nine innings in the tournament final.[Baseball Championship History: 1959–2024](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2024-02/Baseball.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"), updated June 2024\\. Accessed September 1, 2024\\.Seidman, Howard R. [\"Hanover Park loses in ninth; Twelve walks lead to defeat as Carteret wins Group II title\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/254980629/), *[Daily Record](/wiki/Daily_Record_%28New_Jersey%29 \"Daily Record (New Jersey)\")*, June 3, 1990\\. Accessed January 27, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"After taking a 6\\-2 lead into the sixth inning, Hanover Park High School went nine innings with Carteret before falling 13\\-7 in the Group II state baseball championship at Princeton University. The Hornets were done in by giving up 12 walks including six in the sixth which allowed the Ramblers to take the lead, 7\\-6\\.... Carteret, 21\\-2, was limited to just two hits going into the ninth inning and ended up with six.\"", "The boys bowling team won the overall state championship in 2005 with a pinfall of 2,988, which was 29 pins more than [Bordentown Regional High School](/wiki/Bordentown_Regional_High_School \"Bordentown Regional High School\") in second place.[History of NJSIAA Boys Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2022-07/22%20Bowling.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed August 1, 2022\\.Tufaro, Greg. [\"Carteret wins state title; Ramblers earn boys championship, Woodbridge girls finish second\"](https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/314930798/), *[Home News Tribune](/wiki/Home_News_Tribune \"Home News Tribune\")*, February 24, 2005\\. Accessed April 25, 2021, via [Newspapers.com](/wiki/Newspapers.com \"Newspapers.com\"). \"Although his team hadn't won a tournament all season and didn't even finish first in its division, Carteret High School boys bowling coach Charlie Simon always knew his squad had the potential to be the best in the state. The Ramblers, who saved their best for last, proved Simon right, winning the school's first ever NJSIAA Championship with a three\\-game pinfall of 2,988 at Carolier Lanes yesterday.... They moved from fifth to third place in the second game and had to overcome Bordentown and Linden to win the team title. The Ramblers edged runner\\-up Bordentown by 29 pins.\"", "The girls bowling team won the Group II state championship in 2008\\.[History of NJSIAA Girls Bowling Championships](https://www.njsiaa.org/sites/default/files/documents/2020-11/20-bowling_0_0.pdf), [New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association](/wiki/New_Jersey_State_Interscholastic_Athletic_Association \"New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association\"). Accessed November 20, 2020\\.", "" ]
Sixteenth century and the Rough Wooing -------------------------------------- In August 1515 [Regent Albany](/wiki/John_Stewart%2C_Duke_of_Albany "John Stewart, Duke of Albany") imprisoned members of the Hume family at [Dunfermline](/wiki/Dunfermline "Dunfermline"), with Adam Tinmo, the Constable of Hume Castle. At this time, Scotland's Governor Regent Albany was planning to bring an army against the Hume family on the Scottish borders. Albany captured Hume Castle, but according to a report by [Cardinal Wolsey](/wiki/Cardinal_Wolsey "Cardinal Wolsey")'s chaplain, William Frankelayn, Chancellor of Durham, [Lord Hume](/wiki/Alexander_Home%2C_3rd_Lord_Home "Alexander Home, 3rd Lord Home"), [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Chamberlain_of_Scotland "Chamberlain of Scotland"), retook the castle on 26 August 1515, and kept Albany's captain, [Lord Fleming](/wiki/John_Fleming%2C_2nd_Lord_Fleming "John Fleming, 2nd Lord Fleming")'s uncle, prisoner. Lord Hume then [slighted](/wiki/Slighting "Slighting") his own castle, razed the walls, "and dammed the well for ever more."*Letters \& Papers of Henry VIII*, vol. 2 (London, 1864\), no. 861\. Before the advent of [artillery](/wiki/Artillery "Artillery"), Hume castle was considered almost impregnable. However it was captured in 1547 during the "[Rough Wooing](/wiki/Rough_Wooing "Rough Wooing")", by the [Lord Protector Somerset](/wiki/Lord_Protector_Somerset "Lord Protector Somerset"). The Scottish ruler, [Regent Arran](/wiki/Regent_Arran "Regent Arran"), had sent 12 [gunners](/wiki/Arquebus "Arquebus") to defend the castle in August 1547\.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\), 100\. [George Home, 4th Lord Home](/wiki/George_Home%2C_4th_Lord_Home "George Home, 4th Lord Home"), was injured at the [Battle of Pinkie](/wiki/Battle_of_Pinkie "Battle of Pinkie") and his son Alexander captured. After stout resistance by [Mariotta (or Marion) Haliburton, Lady Home](/wiki/Mariotta_Haliburton "Mariotta Haliburton"), the castle fell and an English garrison was installed. According to an English account, the castle was rendered by the negotiation of Lady Home after the English army encamped nearby at [the Hirsel](/wiki/The_Hirsel "The Hirsel") or Hare Craig. Although English artillery was placed to commence bombardment, no shot was fired by either side. [Somerset Herald](/wiki/Somerset_Herald "Somerset Herald") conveyed Lady Home's instructions to the reluctant garrison who would have preferred Lord Home's word as a warrant for their surrender.[Patten, William](/wiki/William_Patten_%28historian%29 "William Patten (historian)"), *The Expedition into Scotland, 1547* (London, 1548\): A. F. Pollard, *Tudor Tracts* (Constable, 1903\), pp. 142\-145\. ### Baron Dudley holds the castle for England [Sir Edward Sutton](/wiki/Edward_Sutton%2C_4th_Baron_Dudley "Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley"), a cousin of the [Earl of Warwick](/wiki/John_Dudley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland "John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland"), was made Captain of Hume, and received the keys from Andrew Home, [Commendator of Jedburgh and Restennet](/wiki/Abbot_of_Jedburgh "Abbot of Jedburgh"), on Thursday 22 September 1547\. There were seventy\-eight Scots within, and Edward Sutton found guns including; 2 [batard culverins](/wiki/Culverin "Culverin"); a [saker](/wiki/Saker_%28cannon%29 "Saker (cannon)"); 3 [brass falconets](/wiki/Falconet_%28cannon%29 "Falconet (cannon)"); and eight other iron guns. More guns were brought to hold the castle, and an English [inventory of December 1547](/wiki/Inventory_of_Henry_VIII_of_England "Inventory of Henry VIII of England") lists 21 cannons including 4 [fowlers](/wiki/Veuglaire "Veuglaire"), and 40 [hand\-guns](/wiki/Arquebus "Arquebus").[David Starkey](/wiki/David_Starkey "David Starkey"), *The Inventory of Henry VIII*, vol. 1 (Society of Antiquaries, 1998\), p. 143\. Minor strengthening work was carried out by the English, on the advice of the military engineer William Ridgeway, but only £734 was spent, the local stone was unsuitable and limestone at [Roxburgh](/wiki/Roxburgh "Roxburgh") too far away.[Howard Colvin](/wiki/Howard_Colvin "Howard Colvin"), *The History of the King's Works*, vol. 4 part 2 (HMSO, 1982\), 699, 706, citing PRO SP15/2 f.81, SP10/15/11\. Mariotta, Lady Home, complained to the Duke of Somerset on 2 November 1547 that she had, "been very sore examined for the rendering of Hume", and accused of taking money. She thought it marvellous that anyone could think she could keep the "sober barmkin" of Hume against the English army, when all the nobles of Scotland could not keep the field.*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898\), p. 36 no. 75\. Hume Castle was nearly lost in February 1548, when Captain Pelham travelled to [Warkworth Castle](/wiki/Warkworth_Castle "Warkworth Castle") to collect pay for the Spanish mercenary garrison. The soldiers planned to rob him and change sides. Loyal members of the garrison fired the beacon and Sir John Ellerker's men arrested the would\-be deserters. One was killed escaping, and [Grey of Wilton](/wiki/William_Grey%2C_13th_Baron_Grey_de_Wilton "William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton") planned to hang six of them, but the two leaders escaped into Scotland.*Calendar of State Papers Scotland*, vol. 1 (1898\), 76\-7, 101: *Calendar of State Papers Spain*, vol. 9 (London, 1912\), 260\. ### Lord Home recaptures the castle After the death of his father, captive in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London "Tower of London"), the young [Alexander, 5th Lord Home](/wiki/Alexander_Home%2C_5th_Lord_Home "Alexander Home, 5th Lord Home"), with the help of his brother Andrew the Commendator, recaptured the castle in December 1548\. The first man in was Tulloch, a servant of the laird of Buccleuch.[Annie Cameron](/wiki/Annie_Cameron "Annie Cameron"), *Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine* (Edinburgh, 1927\), pp. 280\-281, 283, 288, Tulloch was killed while firing the gate of [Ferniehirst Castle](/wiki/Ferniehirst_Castle "Ferniehirst Castle") in February 1549\. Edward Sutton was blamed for losing the castle by negligence to a night assault. [Jean de Beaugué](/wiki/Jean_de_Beaugu%C3%A9 "Jean de Beaugué"), a French soldier gave an account of the re\-capture. He said that an inside\-man let in seven Scots, and at night an eighth man climbed in. These then overwhelmed the garrison. In Jean's account the man who climbed the wall was a Home, aged 60\.Jean de Beaugué, *History of the Campaigns of 1548 and 1549* (Edinburgh, 1707\), pp. 77\-82\. Sutton was taken to [Spynie Palace](/wiki/Spynie_Palace "Spynie Palace"),*HMC Longleat: Seymour Papers*, IV (London, 1968\), p. 109\. and was still a prisoner at the end of the war, when the [Earl of Shrewsbury](/wiki/Francis_Talbot%2C_5th_Earl_of_Shrewsbury "Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury") was asked to organise his release by the exchange of French hostages.John Roche Dasent, *Acts of the Privy Council*, vol. 2 (London: HMSO, 1890\), p. 421\. Mariotta, Lady Home, sent the news to [Mary of Guise](/wiki/Mary_of_Guise "Mary of Guise") on 28 December 1548 from Edinburgh. [Regent Arran](/wiki/Regent_Arran "Regent Arran") thanked John Hume of Cowdenknowes for his service recovering the castle. The English unsuccessfully attempted to recapture Hume in February 1549\.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\), 264, 285\. Lady Home was once again installed in the castle in March 1549 and complained to Mary of Guise in March 1549 of the behaviour of the French and Spanish garrison obtaining credit from the villagers.Annie I. Cameron, *Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine* (SHS, 1927\), pp. 280\-281, 283, 296\-297\. When the English abandoned their fort at [Lauder](/wiki/Thirlestane_Castle "Thirlestane Castle") the guns there were dragged by oxen to Hume Castle.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\), pp. 421, 423\. Mary of Guise ordered the people of Sherriffdom of Berwick and Lauderdale to provide 320 oxen to remove the guns from Hume in February 1558\. The cannons were taken to the fort at [Eyemouth](/wiki/Eyemouth "Eyemouth").Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland, vol. 10 (Edinburgh, 1913\), pp. lxxi, 333\-334\. The castle was again besieged in April 1570, during the [Marian Civil War](/wiki/Marian_Civil_War "Marian Civil War"), by the [Earl of Sussex](/wiki/Thomas_Radclyffe%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Sussex "Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex") during his raid into Scotland. The defenders capitulated within twelve hours, in awe of his superior numbers and the firepower of "three battery pieces and two [sakers](/wiki/Saker_%28cannon%29 "Saker (cannon)")" brought from [Wark Castle](/wiki/Wark_on_Tweed_Castle "Wark on Tweed Castle").[Edmund Lodge](/wiki/Edmund_Lodge "Edmund Lodge"), *Illustrations of British History*, vol. 3 (London, 1791\), p. 43\. [Regent Morton](/wiki/Regent_Morton "Regent Morton") gave money to Agnes Gray, Lady Home, in the 1570s to keep the castle garrisoned for [James VI](/wiki/James_VI "James VI").*HMC 12th report appendix part VIII, Earl of Home* (London, 1891\), p. 100\. ### Downfall The 17th century saw the demise of Hume Castle as a habitable fortress. The Earls of Home had already established another seat at [Dunglass Castle](/wiki/Dunglass_Castle%2C_East_Lothian "Dunglass Castle, East Lothian") and, by 1611, at [The Hirsel](/wiki/The_Hirsel "The Hirsel"). Hume Castle finally succumbed to the forces of [Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell "Oliver Cromwell") in 1650 during the [Wars of the Three Kingdoms](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms "Wars of the Three Kingdoms"). [James, 3rd Earl of Home](/wiki/James_Home%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Home "James Home, 3rd Earl of Home") was a prominent member of the [Kirk Party](/wiki/Kirk_Party "Kirk Party"). After Cromwell's successful investiture of [Edinburgh Castle](/wiki/Edinburgh_Castle "Edinburgh Castle"), he sent [Colonel George Fenwick](/wiki/George_Fenwick_%28Parliamentarian%29 "George Fenwick (Parliamentarian)") with two regiments to besiege the Earl's Castle. Catherine Morrison, Lady Wedderburn, paid £6 to bring cannon to defend Hume.*HMC Home of Wedderburn* (London, 1902\), p. 102\. The governor of the castle, [Colonel John Cockburn](/wiki/John_Cockburn_%28Scottish_officer%29 "John Cockburn (Scottish officer)"),Cockburn, Sir Robert, and Harry A. Cockburn, *The Records of the Cockburn Family*(London: [T. N. Foulis](/wiki/T._N._Foulis "T. N. Foulis"), 1913\). engaged in witty repartee with the [Roundheads](/wiki/Roundheads "Roundheads"), but refused to deliver the castle. He claimed that he had no idea who Cromwell was and that the castle stood on a rock. He sent a note to Fenwick with the following doggerel: "I, Will of the Wastle Am King of my castle All the dogs in the town Shall gare gang me down!"{{cite web \|url\=http://humecastle.org/castle\-history/ \|title\=Castle History \|publisher\=Hume Castle Preservation Trust \|access\-date\=4 May 2017}} However once the bombardment began, it became clear that there was no option but submission. Fenwick's troops entered the castle, and accepted Cockburn's surrender. Cockburn and his men were given quarter for life only. They retreated and Fenwick [slighted](/wiki/Slighting "Slighting") the fortification.{{Canmore\|num\=58561\|desc\=Hume Castle\|fewer\-links\=yes\|access\-date\=4 May 2017}} ### Resurrection [thumb\|250px\|Crenellation at Hume](/wiki/File:Hume_Battlements.JPG "Hume Battlements.JPG") In the early 18th century, Hume and its environs came into the possession of the [Earls of Marchmont](/wiki/Lord_Polwarth "Lord Polwarth"), wealthier and more influential cadets of the main line of the family.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2022}} The Castle at this point was level with the ground that it was built upon. At some point before his death in 1794, Hugh Hume\-Campbell, 3rd Earl of Marchmont, 3rd Lord Polwarth, restored the castle as a [folly](/wiki/Folly "Folly"), from the waste left from its destruction, on the original foundations of its [curtain wall](/wiki/Curtain_wall_%28fortification%29 "Curtain wall (fortification)"). He adorned the wall tops with enormous [crenellations](/wiki/Crenellations "Crenellations") that are more picturesque than practical. ### The Great Alarm In light of its function as a mediæval early warning system, the castle was used again as a beacon during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"). In 1804, on the night of 31 January, a sergeant of the Berwickshire Volunteers in charge of the beacon mistook charcoal burners' fires on nearby [Dirrington Great Law](/wiki/Dirrington_Great_Law "Dirrington Great Law") for a warning. Lighting the beacon at Hume Castle, he set in train the lighting of all the Borders beacons to the West, and 3,000 volunteers turned out in what became known as 'The Great Alarm'. Again, during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") it functioned as a lookout post, and was also to act as a base for resistance in the event of a German invasion.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2022}} ### Today The castle is still seen as the spiritual home of the many Homes and Humes in Scotland and abroad. The castle was bought by the state in 1929, and in 1985 a restoration programme was undertaken by the [Berwickshire Civic Society](/wiki/Berwickshire_Civic_Society "Berwickshire Civic Society") funded by the [Scottish Office](/wiki/Scottish_Office "Scottish Office"). It re\-opened to the public in 1992\. In 2006 the Civic Society handed over the castle to a charitable trust run by the Clan Home Association, under the auspices of [Historic Scotland](/wiki/Historic_Scotland "Historic Scotland"), to maintain its preservation in the future.{{cite web \|url\=http://humecastle.org/ \|title\=Welcome to the Hume Castle Preservation Trust \|publisher\=Hume Castle Preservation Trust \|access\-date\=4 May 2017}}
[ "Sixteenth century and the Rough Wooing\n--------------------------------------", "In August 1515 [Regent Albany](/wiki/John_Stewart%2C_Duke_of_Albany \"John Stewart, Duke of Albany\") imprisoned members of the Hume family at [Dunfermline](/wiki/Dunfermline \"Dunfermline\"), with Adam Tinmo, the Constable of Hume Castle. At this time, Scotland's Governor Regent Albany was planning to bring an army against the Hume family on the Scottish borders. Albany captured Hume Castle, but according to a report by [Cardinal Wolsey](/wiki/Cardinal_Wolsey \"Cardinal Wolsey\")'s chaplain, William Frankelayn, Chancellor of Durham, [Lord Hume](/wiki/Alexander_Home%2C_3rd_Lord_Home \"Alexander Home, 3rd Lord Home\"), [Lord Chamberlain](/wiki/Chamberlain_of_Scotland \"Chamberlain of Scotland\"), retook the castle on 26 August 1515, and kept Albany's captain, [Lord Fleming](/wiki/John_Fleming%2C_2nd_Lord_Fleming \"John Fleming, 2nd Lord Fleming\")'s uncle, prisoner. Lord Hume then [slighted](/wiki/Slighting \"Slighting\") his own castle, razed the walls, \"and dammed the well for ever more.\"*Letters \\& Papers of Henry VIII*, vol. 2 (London, 1864\\), no. 861\\.", "Before the advent of [artillery](/wiki/Artillery \"Artillery\"), Hume castle was considered almost impregnable. However it was captured in 1547 during the \"[Rough Wooing](/wiki/Rough_Wooing \"Rough Wooing\")\", by the [Lord Protector Somerset](/wiki/Lord_Protector_Somerset \"Lord Protector Somerset\"). The Scottish ruler, [Regent Arran](/wiki/Regent_Arran \"Regent Arran\"), had sent 12 [gunners](/wiki/Arquebus \"Arquebus\") to defend the castle in August 1547\\.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\\), 100\\. [George Home, 4th Lord Home](/wiki/George_Home%2C_4th_Lord_Home \"George Home, 4th Lord Home\"), was injured at the [Battle of Pinkie](/wiki/Battle_of_Pinkie \"Battle of Pinkie\") and his son Alexander captured. After stout resistance by [Mariotta (or Marion) Haliburton, Lady Home](/wiki/Mariotta_Haliburton \"Mariotta Haliburton\"), the castle fell and an English garrison was installed. According to an English account, the castle was rendered by the negotiation of Lady Home after the English army encamped nearby at [the Hirsel](/wiki/The_Hirsel \"The Hirsel\") or Hare Craig. Although English artillery was placed to commence bombardment, no shot was fired by either side. [Somerset Herald](/wiki/Somerset_Herald \"Somerset Herald\") conveyed Lady Home's instructions to the reluctant garrison who would have preferred Lord Home's word as a warrant for their surrender.[Patten, William](/wiki/William_Patten_%28historian%29 \"William Patten (historian)\"), *The Expedition into Scotland, 1547* (London, 1548\\): A. F. Pollard, *Tudor Tracts* (Constable, 1903\\), pp. 142\\-145\\.", "### Baron Dudley holds the castle for England", "[Sir Edward Sutton](/wiki/Edward_Sutton%2C_4th_Baron_Dudley \"Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley\"), a cousin of the [Earl of Warwick](/wiki/John_Dudley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Northumberland \"John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland\"), was made Captain of Hume, and received the keys from Andrew Home, [Commendator of Jedburgh and Restennet](/wiki/Abbot_of_Jedburgh \"Abbot of Jedburgh\"), on Thursday 22 September 1547\\. There were seventy\\-eight Scots within, and Edward Sutton found guns including; 2 [batard culverins](/wiki/Culverin \"Culverin\"); a [saker](/wiki/Saker_%28cannon%29 \"Saker (cannon)\"); 3 [brass falconets](/wiki/Falconet_%28cannon%29 \"Falconet (cannon)\"); and eight other iron guns. More guns were brought to hold the castle, and an English [inventory of December 1547](/wiki/Inventory_of_Henry_VIII_of_England \"Inventory of Henry VIII of England\") lists 21 cannons including 4 [fowlers](/wiki/Veuglaire \"Veuglaire\"), and 40 [hand\\-guns](/wiki/Arquebus \"Arquebus\").[David Starkey](/wiki/David_Starkey \"David Starkey\"), *The Inventory of Henry VIII*, vol. 1 (Society of Antiquaries, 1998\\), p. 143\\. Minor strengthening work was carried out by the English, on the advice of the military engineer William Ridgeway, but only £734 was spent, the local stone was unsuitable and limestone at [Roxburgh](/wiki/Roxburgh \"Roxburgh\") too far away.[Howard Colvin](/wiki/Howard_Colvin \"Howard Colvin\"), *The History of the King's Works*, vol. 4 part 2 (HMSO, 1982\\), 699, 706, citing PRO SP15/2 f.81, SP10/15/11\\.", "Mariotta, Lady Home, complained to the Duke of Somerset on 2 November 1547 that she had, \"been very sore examined for the rendering of Hume\", and accused of taking money. She thought it marvellous that anyone could think she could keep the \"sober barmkin\" of Hume against the English army, when all the nobles of Scotland could not keep the field.*Calendar State Papers Scotland*, vol. 1 (Edinburgh, 1898\\), p. 36 no. 75\\. Hume Castle was nearly lost in February 1548, when Captain Pelham travelled to [Warkworth Castle](/wiki/Warkworth_Castle \"Warkworth Castle\") to collect pay for the Spanish mercenary garrison. The soldiers planned to rob him and change sides. Loyal members of the garrison fired the beacon and Sir John Ellerker's men arrested the would\\-be deserters. One was killed escaping, and [Grey of Wilton](/wiki/William_Grey%2C_13th_Baron_Grey_de_Wilton \"William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton\") planned to hang six of them, but the two leaders escaped into Scotland.*Calendar of State Papers Scotland*, vol. 1 (1898\\), 76\\-7, 101: *Calendar of State Papers Spain*, vol. 9 (London, 1912\\), 260\\.", "### Lord Home recaptures the castle", "After the death of his father, captive in the [Tower of London](/wiki/Tower_of_London \"Tower of London\"), the young [Alexander, 5th Lord Home](/wiki/Alexander_Home%2C_5th_Lord_Home \"Alexander Home, 5th Lord Home\"), with the help of his brother Andrew the Commendator, recaptured the castle in December 1548\\. The first man in was Tulloch, a servant of the laird of Buccleuch.[Annie Cameron](/wiki/Annie_Cameron \"Annie Cameron\"), *Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine* (Edinburgh, 1927\\), pp. 280\\-281, 283, 288, Tulloch was killed while firing the gate of [Ferniehirst Castle](/wiki/Ferniehirst_Castle \"Ferniehirst Castle\") in February 1549\\. Edward Sutton was blamed for losing the castle by negligence to a night assault. [Jean de Beaugué](/wiki/Jean_de_Beaugu%C3%A9 \"Jean de Beaugué\"), a French soldier gave an account of the re\\-capture. He said that an inside\\-man let in seven Scots, and at night an eighth man climbed in. These then overwhelmed the garrison. In Jean's account the man who climbed the wall was a Home, aged 60\\.Jean de Beaugué, *History of the Campaigns of 1548 and 1549* (Edinburgh, 1707\\), pp. 77\\-82\\. Sutton was taken to [Spynie Palace](/wiki/Spynie_Palace \"Spynie Palace\"),*HMC Longleat: Seymour Papers*, IV (London, 1968\\), p. 109\\. and was still a prisoner at the end of the war, when the [Earl of Shrewsbury](/wiki/Francis_Talbot%2C_5th_Earl_of_Shrewsbury \"Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury\") was asked to organise his release by the exchange of French hostages.John Roche Dasent, *Acts of the Privy Council*, vol. 2 (London: HMSO, 1890\\), p. 421\\.", "Mariotta, Lady Home, sent the news to [Mary of Guise](/wiki/Mary_of_Guise \"Mary of Guise\") on 28 December 1548 from Edinburgh. [Regent Arran](/wiki/Regent_Arran \"Regent Arran\") thanked John Hume of Cowdenknowes for his service recovering the castle. The English unsuccessfully attempted to recapture Hume in February 1549\\.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\\), 264, 285\\. Lady Home was once again installed in the castle in March 1549 and complained to Mary of Guise in March 1549 of the behaviour of the French and Spanish garrison obtaining credit from the villagers.Annie I. Cameron, *Scottish Correspondence of Mary of Lorraine* (SHS, 1927\\), pp. 280\\-281, 283, 296\\-297\\. When the English abandoned their fort at [Lauder](/wiki/Thirlestane_Castle \"Thirlestane Castle\") the guns there were dragged by oxen to Hume Castle.*Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland*, vol. 9 (Edinburgh, 1911\\), pp. 421, 423\\.", "Mary of Guise ordered the people of Sherriffdom of Berwick and Lauderdale to provide 320 oxen to remove the guns from Hume in February 1558\\. The cannons were taken to the fort at [Eyemouth](/wiki/Eyemouth \"Eyemouth\").Accounts of the Treasurer of Scotland, vol. 10 (Edinburgh, 1913\\), pp. lxxi, 333\\-334\\. The castle was again besieged in April 1570, during the [Marian Civil War](/wiki/Marian_Civil_War \"Marian Civil War\"), by the [Earl of Sussex](/wiki/Thomas_Radclyffe%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Sussex \"Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex\") during his raid into Scotland. The defenders capitulated within twelve hours, in awe of his superior numbers and the firepower of \"three battery pieces and two [sakers](/wiki/Saker_%28cannon%29 \"Saker (cannon)\")\" brought from [Wark Castle](/wiki/Wark_on_Tweed_Castle \"Wark on Tweed Castle\").[Edmund Lodge](/wiki/Edmund_Lodge \"Edmund Lodge\"), *Illustrations of British History*, vol. 3 (London, 1791\\), p. 43\\. [Regent Morton](/wiki/Regent_Morton \"Regent Morton\") gave money to Agnes Gray, Lady Home, in the 1570s to keep the castle garrisoned for [James VI](/wiki/James_VI \"James VI\").*HMC 12th report appendix part VIII, Earl of Home* (London, 1891\\), p. 100\\.", "### Downfall", "The 17th century saw the demise of Hume Castle as a habitable fortress. The Earls of Home had already established another seat at [Dunglass Castle](/wiki/Dunglass_Castle%2C_East_Lothian \"Dunglass Castle, East Lothian\") and, by 1611, at [The Hirsel](/wiki/The_Hirsel \"The Hirsel\"). Hume Castle finally succumbed to the forces of [Cromwell](/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell \"Oliver Cromwell\") in 1650 during the [Wars of the Three Kingdoms](/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms \"Wars of the Three Kingdoms\"). [James, 3rd Earl of Home](/wiki/James_Home%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Home \"James Home, 3rd Earl of Home\") was a prominent member of the [Kirk Party](/wiki/Kirk_Party \"Kirk Party\"). After Cromwell's successful investiture of [Edinburgh Castle](/wiki/Edinburgh_Castle \"Edinburgh Castle\"), he sent [Colonel George Fenwick](/wiki/George_Fenwick_%28Parliamentarian%29 \"George Fenwick (Parliamentarian)\") with two regiments to besiege the Earl's Castle. Catherine Morrison, Lady Wedderburn, paid £6 to bring cannon to defend Hume.*HMC Home of Wedderburn* (London, 1902\\), p. 102\\. The governor of the castle, [Colonel John Cockburn](/wiki/John_Cockburn_%28Scottish_officer%29 \"John Cockburn (Scottish officer)\"),Cockburn, Sir Robert, and Harry A. Cockburn, *The Records of the Cockburn Family*(London: [T. N. Foulis](/wiki/T._N._Foulis \"T. N. Foulis\"), 1913\\). engaged in witty repartee with the [Roundheads](/wiki/Roundheads \"Roundheads\"), but refused to deliver the castle. He claimed that he had no idea who Cromwell was and that the castle stood on a rock. He sent a note to Fenwick with the following doggerel: \n\"I, Will of the Wastle\nAm King of my castle\nAll the dogs in the town \nShall gare gang me down!\"{{cite web \\|url\\=http://humecastle.org/castle\\-history/ \\|title\\=Castle History \\|publisher\\=Hume Castle Preservation Trust \\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2017}}", "However once the bombardment began, it became clear that there was no option but submission. Fenwick's troops entered the castle, and accepted Cockburn's surrender. Cockburn and his men were given quarter for life only. They retreated and Fenwick [slighted](/wiki/Slighting \"Slighting\") the fortification.{{Canmore\\|num\\=58561\\|desc\\=Hume Castle\\|fewer\\-links\\=yes\\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2017}}", "### Resurrection", "[thumb\\|250px\\|Crenellation at Hume](/wiki/File:Hume_Battlements.JPG \"Hume Battlements.JPG\")\nIn the early 18th century, Hume and its environs came into the possession of the [Earls of Marchmont](/wiki/Lord_Polwarth \"Lord Polwarth\"), wealthier and more influential cadets of the main line of the family.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}} The Castle at this point was level with the ground that it was built upon. \nAt some point before his death in 1794, Hugh Hume\\-Campbell, 3rd Earl of Marchmont, 3rd Lord Polwarth, restored the castle as a [folly](/wiki/Folly \"Folly\"), from the waste left from its destruction, on the original foundations of its [curtain wall](/wiki/Curtain_wall_%28fortification%29 \"Curtain wall (fortification)\"). He adorned the wall tops with enormous [crenellations](/wiki/Crenellations \"Crenellations\") that are more picturesque than practical.", "### The Great Alarm", "In light of its function as a mediæval early warning system, the castle was used again as a beacon during the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"). In 1804, on the night of 31 January, a sergeant of the Berwickshire Volunteers in charge of the beacon mistook charcoal burners' fires on nearby [Dirrington Great Law](/wiki/Dirrington_Great_Law \"Dirrington Great Law\") for a warning. Lighting the beacon at Hume Castle, he set in train the lighting of all the Borders beacons to the West, and 3,000 volunteers turned out in what became known as 'The Great Alarm'.", "Again, during the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") it functioned as a lookout post, and was also to act as a base for resistance in the event of a German invasion.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2022}}", "### Today", "The castle is still seen as the spiritual home of the many Homes and Humes in Scotland and abroad. The castle was bought by the state in 1929, and in 1985 a restoration programme was undertaken by the [Berwickshire Civic Society](/wiki/Berwickshire_Civic_Society \"Berwickshire Civic Society\") funded by the [Scottish Office](/wiki/Scottish_Office \"Scottish Office\"). It re\\-opened to the public in 1992\\. \nIn 2006 the Civic Society handed over the castle to a charitable trust run by the Clan Home Association, under the auspices of [Historic Scotland](/wiki/Historic_Scotland \"Historic Scotland\"), to maintain its preservation in the future.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://humecastle.org/ \\|title\\=Welcome to the Hume Castle Preservation Trust \\|publisher\\=Hume Castle Preservation Trust \\|access\\-date\\=4 May 2017}}", "" ]
History ------- The bowl was founded in 1990 by [Raycom](/wiki/Raycom "Raycom"){{cite news\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Qv3gy101wnAC\&pg\=PA171\|title\=The Making of a Blockbuster: How Wayne Huizenga Built a Sports and Entertainment Empire from Trash, Grit, and Videotape\|access\-date\=2008\-01\-01\|publisher\=Wiley\|year\=1997\|isbn\=978\-0\-471\-15903\-2 }} and was originally played at [Joe Robbie Stadium](/wiki/Joe_Robbie_Stadium "Joe Robbie Stadium") outside the city of [Miami](/wiki/Miami "Miami"). It was formed as the **Sunshine Football Classic**, but due to corporate title sponsorships, was never contested under this name, nor even referred to as such except during brief intervals between corporate sponsors. During its Miami existence, it successively went by the names **Blockbuster Bowl** (three editions), **CarQuest Bowl** (five editions), and the **MicronPC Bowl** (three editions). In 2001, the bowl changed hands, and was relocated to Orlando. The bowl was played three times as the **Tangerine Bowl**, a historical moniker that was the original title of the [Citrus Bowl](/wiki/Citrus_Bowl "Citrus Bowl"). [Foot Locker](/wiki/Foot_Locker "Foot Locker"), the parent company of [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports "Champs Sports"), purchased naming rights in 2004, naming it the **Champs Sports Bowl**, under which eight games were played. In early 2012, naming rights were bought by [Russell Athletic](/wiki/Russell_Athletic_%28brand%29 "Russell Athletic (brand)");{{cite web\|url\=https://russellathleticbowl.com/history/\|title\=Russell Athletic Bowl History\|work\=RussellAthleticBowl.com\|access\-date\=28 December 2016\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229170458/https://russellathleticbowl.com/history/\|archive\-date\=29 December 2016\|url\-status\=dead}} five games were played as the **Russell Athletic Bowl**. In early 2017, [Camping World](/wiki/Camping_World "Camping World") became the title sponsor of the game through 2019;{{cite web\|url\=http://campingworldbowl.com/2017/04/11/camping\-world\-signs\-on\-as\-title\-sponsor\-of\-orlando\-bowl/ \|title\=CAMPING WORLD SIGNS ON AS TITLE SPONSOR OF ORLANDO BOWL \|website\=campingworldbowl.com \|date\=April 11, 2017 \|access\-date\=December 24, 2017}}{{cite web \|url\=http://campingworldbowl.com/about/ \|title\=About \|website\=campingworldbowl.com \|date\=2017 \|access\-date\=December 24, 2017}} three editions were staged as the **Camping World Bowl**, concluding with the 30th playing of the bowl. In May 2020, [Kellogg's](/wiki/Kellogg%27s "Kellogg's") signed on as the new sponsor of the game, naming the game the **Cheez\-It Bowl**,{{efn\|name\=cheezit}} after the company's [brand of snack crackers](/wiki/Cheez-It "Cheez-It").{{cite web \|url\=https://cheezitbowl.com/2020/05/26/cheez\-it\-bowl\-heads\-to\-orlando\-to\-join\-florida\-citrus\-sports\-beginning\-with\-2020\-season/ \|title\=Cheez\-It® Heads To Orlando To Join Florida Citrus Sports Beginning With 2020 Season \|website\=cheezitbowl.com \|date\=May 27, 2020 \|access\-date\=May 27, 2020 \|archive\-date\=September 28, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928110452/https://cheezitbowl.com/2020/05/26/cheez\-it\-bowl\-heads\-to\-orlando\-to\-join\-florida\-citrus\-sports\-beginning\-with\-2020\-season/ \|url\-status\=dead }} In May 2023, it was announced that the [Pop\-Tarts](/wiki/Pop-Tarts "Pop-Tarts") brand of Kellogg's would be featured in the new name for the bowl, the **Pop\-Tarts Bowl**.{{cite press release \|url\=https://newsroom.kelloggcompany.com/2023\-05\-31\-POP\-TARTS\-R\-INTERCEPTS\-COLLEGE\-FOOTBALL\-FANDOM\-WITH\-FIRST\-EVER\-POP\-TARTS\-BOWL \|title\=Pop\-Tarts® Intercepts College Football Fandom With First\-Ever Pop\-Tarts Bowl \|agency\=\[\[PR Newswire]] \|website\=kelloggcompany.com \|date\=May 31, 2023}} In October 2023, Kellogg's split into two entities, with the non\-cereal part (which owns Pop\-Tarts) taking the new name "Kellanova".{{Cite news \|last1\=Oguh \|first1\=Chibuike \|last2\=Vanaik \|first2\=Granth \|date\=October 2, 2023 \|title\=Kellanova, WK Kellogg shares slump on first day after spinoff \|url\=https://www.reuters.com/business/retail\-consumer/kellanova\-wk\-kellogg\-shares\-slump\-first\-day\-after\-spinoff\-2023\-10\-02/ \|work\=Reuters}} The new trophy for the bowl was unveiled in December and features two slots for Pop\-Tarts atop a metallic football. The mascot, named "Strawberry", is a large anthropomorphic Pop\-Tart that was deemed the "first\-ever edible mascot";{{cite magazine \|last\=Rasmussen \|first\=Karl \|date\=December 28, 2023 \|title\=Pop\-Tarts Bowl Unveiled New Mascot Using Giant Toaster at Midfield \|url\=https://www.si.com/college/2023/12/28/pop\-tarts\-bowl\-mascot\-giant\-toaster \|magazine\=Sports Illustrated \|accessdate\=December 30, 2023}} it was lowered into a giant toaster and presented for players to eat after the game, having been replaced by an edible replica.{{cite news \|last\=Chery \|first\=Samantha \|date\=December 29, 2023 \|title\=How Strawberry, the Pop\-Tarts Bowl mascot, took over the internet \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/12/29/pop\-tarts\-bowl\-mascot/ \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]] \|accessdate\=December 30, 2023}}{{cite news \|last\=Evans \|first\=Jace \|date\=December 28, 2023 \|title\=Kansas State celebrates Pop\-Tarts Bowl win by eating Pop\-Tarts mascot \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2023/12/28/pop\-tarts\-bowl\-mascot\-eaten\-kansas\-state\-nc\-state/72053400007/ \|work\=USA Today \|accessdate\=December 30, 2023}} ### Miami The bowl arose from a desire to hold a second bowl game in the Miami area. It was to be an accompaniment to the traditional [Orange Bowl](/wiki/Orange_Bowl "Orange Bowl"), showcasing the [brand new stadium](/wiki/Sun_Life_Stadium "Sun Life Stadium") in the area that was built in 1987\. The Orange Bowl game was still being played in the aging [old stadium](/wiki/Miami_Orange_Bowl "Miami Orange Bowl"), whereas this new game would be played in the new stadium. [Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins "Miami Dolphins") owner [Wayne Huizenga](/wiki/Wayne_Huizenga "Wayne Huizenga") quickly joined forces with bowl organizers and brought in [Blockbuster Video](/wiki/Blockbuster_Inc. "Blockbuster Inc."), which he owned, as title sponsor. The inaugural game, played on December 28, 1990, pitted [Florida State](/wiki/Florida_State_Seminoles_football "Florida State Seminoles football") and [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State_Nittany_Lions_football "Penn State Nittany Lions football"), and two legendary coaches, [Bobby Bowden](/wiki/Bobby_Bowden "Bobby Bowden") versus [Joe Paterno](/wiki/Joe_Paterno "Joe Paterno") in front of over 74,000 at Joe Robbie Stadium. Subsequent games were unable to match the success of the first, even though the bowl was moved to the more prestigious New Year's Day slot in 1993\. In 1994, [CarQuest Auto Parts](/wiki/Carquest "Carquest") became the title sponsor after Huizenga sold Blockbuster Video to [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%281952%E2%80%932006%29 "Viacom (1952–2006)"). The New Year's Day experiment was short lived as the organizers of the more established Orange Bowl received permission to move their game into [Joe Robbie Stadium](/wiki/Joe_Robbie_Stadium "Joe Robbie Stadium") beginning in 1996\. That bumped the Carquest Bowl back to the less\-desirable December date. After the 2000 playing, Florida Citrus Sports took over the game and moved it to Orlando. Before gaining Blockbuster Entertainment as the corporate sponsor for the inaugural event, the game was tentatively referred to as the Sunshine Classic. ### Orlando [277x277px\|Camping World Stadium in 2015\|alt\=Camping World Stadium in 2015\.\|thumb](/wiki/File:Citrus_Bowl_Orlando_City.jpg "Citrus Bowl Orlando City.jpg") From 2006 to 2010, the bowl matched teams from the [Atlantic Coast Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Coast_Conference "Atlantic Coast Conference") (ACC) and the [Big Ten Conference](/wiki/Big_Ten_Conference "Big Ten Conference"). Under the terms of a television deal signed with [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN "ESPN") in 2006, the bowl was to be held after [Christmas Day](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") from 2006 onward, and be shown on ESPN in [prime time](/wiki/Prime_time "Prime time"). The change was made to move the game from the less\-desirable pre\-Christmas date utilized from 2001 to 2004\. From 2005 to 2009, the stadium faced challenges in preparing the stadium for two bowl games in less than one week (the Citrus Bowl is traditionally held New Year's Day). This was also in part due to the Florida high school football championship games being held at the stadium shortly before the bowls. In 2009, rainy weather turned the stadium's grass field into a muddy, sloppy, quagmire for both bowl games. In 2010, the stadium switched to artificial turf, facilitating the quick turnaround necessary. In 2009, the bowl announced that the [Big East](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_%281979%E2%80%932013%29 "Big East Conference (1979–2013)") was to be one of the tie\-in conferences for four years starting in 2010, with the bowl having the option of selecting [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football "Notre Dame Fighting Irish football") once during the four years. In October 2009, the bowl announced that they had extended their agreement with the ACC for the same term. The game would match the third pick from the ACC against the second selection from the Big East. The previous agreement had matched the 4th pick from the ACC against the 4th or 5th pick from the Big Ten.{{cite news \|last\=Adelson \|first\=Andrea \|title\=College football: ACC improves deal with Champs Sports Bowl; will send No. 3 team to Orlando beginning in 2010 \|website\=OrlandoSentinel.com \|url\=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/orl\-college\-football\-champs\-bowl\-acc\-100709,0,12816\.story \|date\=October 7, 2009 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009001116/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/orl\-college\-football\-champs\-bowl\-acc\-100709,0,12816\.story \|archive\-date\=October 9, 2009 \|via\=\[\[Wayback Machine]]}} ACC and Big East teams subsequently met in the 2010 through 2013 games, except for 2011 when Notre Dame was selected (as permitted in the agreement with the Big East) and in 2013 when the [Louisville Cardinals](/wiki/Louisville_Cardinals_football "Louisville Cardinals football") of the [American Athletic Conference](/wiki/American_Athletic_Conference "American Athletic Conference") were selected ("The American" became the football successor to the Big East in 2013\). Since 2014, the game features the second pick from the ACC after the [New Year's Six](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff "College Football Playoff") bowls make their picks—usually the losing team from the [ACC Football Championship Game](/wiki/ACC_Football_Championship_Game "ACC Football Championship Game"), or one of the division runners\-up—against the third pick from the Big 12\.
[ "History\n-------", "The bowl was founded in 1990 by [Raycom](/wiki/Raycom \"Raycom\"){{cite news\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Qv3gy101wnAC\\&pg\\=PA171\\|title\\=The Making of a Blockbuster: How Wayne Huizenga Built a Sports and Entertainment Empire from Trash, Grit, and Videotape\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-01\\-01\\|publisher\\=Wiley\\|year\\=1997\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-471\\-15903\\-2 }} and was originally played at [Joe Robbie Stadium](/wiki/Joe_Robbie_Stadium \"Joe Robbie Stadium\") outside the city of [Miami](/wiki/Miami \"Miami\"). It was formed as the **Sunshine Football Classic**, but due to corporate title sponsorships, was never contested under this name, nor even referred to as such except during brief intervals between corporate sponsors. During its Miami existence, it successively went by the names **Blockbuster Bowl** (three editions), **CarQuest Bowl** (five editions), and the **MicronPC Bowl** (three editions).", "In 2001, the bowl changed hands, and was relocated to Orlando. The bowl was played three times as the **Tangerine Bowl**, a historical moniker that was the original title of the [Citrus Bowl](/wiki/Citrus_Bowl \"Citrus Bowl\"). [Foot Locker](/wiki/Foot_Locker \"Foot Locker\"), the parent company of [Champs Sports](/wiki/Champs_Sports \"Champs Sports\"), purchased naming rights in 2004, naming it the **Champs Sports Bowl**, under which eight games were played. In early 2012, naming rights were bought by [Russell Athletic](/wiki/Russell_Athletic_%28brand%29 \"Russell Athletic (brand)\");{{cite web\\|url\\=https://russellathleticbowl.com/history/\\|title\\=Russell Athletic Bowl History\\|work\\=RussellAthleticBowl.com\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2016\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229170458/https://russellathleticbowl.com/history/\\|archive\\-date\\=29 December 2016\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} five games were played as the **Russell Athletic Bowl**. In early 2017, [Camping World](/wiki/Camping_World \"Camping World\") became the title sponsor of the game through 2019;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://campingworldbowl.com/2017/04/11/camping\\-world\\-signs\\-on\\-as\\-title\\-sponsor\\-of\\-orlando\\-bowl/ \\|title\\=CAMPING WORLD SIGNS ON AS TITLE SPONSOR OF ORLANDO BOWL \\|website\\=campingworldbowl.com \\|date\\=April 11, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2017}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://campingworldbowl.com/about/ \\|title\\=About \\|website\\=campingworldbowl.com \\|date\\=2017 \\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2017}} three editions were staged as the **Camping World Bowl**, concluding with the 30th playing of the bowl. In May 2020, [Kellogg's](/wiki/Kellogg%27s \"Kellogg's\") signed on as the new sponsor of the game, naming the game the **Cheez\\-It Bowl**,{{efn\\|name\\=cheezit}} after the company's [brand of snack crackers](/wiki/Cheez-It \"Cheez-It\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://cheezitbowl.com/2020/05/26/cheez\\-it\\-bowl\\-heads\\-to\\-orlando\\-to\\-join\\-florida\\-citrus\\-sports\\-beginning\\-with\\-2020\\-season/ \\|title\\=Cheez\\-It® Heads To Orlando To Join Florida Citrus Sports Beginning With 2020 Season \\|website\\=cheezitbowl.com \\|date\\=May 27, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=May 27, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 28, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928110452/https://cheezitbowl.com/2020/05/26/cheez\\-it\\-bowl\\-heads\\-to\\-orlando\\-to\\-join\\-florida\\-citrus\\-sports\\-beginning\\-with\\-2020\\-season/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "In May 2023, it was announced that the [Pop\\-Tarts](/wiki/Pop-Tarts \"Pop-Tarts\") brand of Kellogg's would be featured in the new name for the bowl, the **Pop\\-Tarts Bowl**.{{cite press release \\|url\\=https://newsroom.kelloggcompany.com/2023\\-05\\-31\\-POP\\-TARTS\\-R\\-INTERCEPTS\\-COLLEGE\\-FOOTBALL\\-FANDOM\\-WITH\\-FIRST\\-EVER\\-POP\\-TARTS\\-BOWL \\|title\\=Pop\\-Tarts® Intercepts College Football Fandom With First\\-Ever Pop\\-Tarts Bowl \\|agency\\=\\[\\[PR Newswire]] \\|website\\=kelloggcompany.com \\|date\\=May 31, 2023}} In October 2023, Kellogg's split into two entities, with the non\\-cereal part (which owns Pop\\-Tarts) taking the new name \"Kellanova\".{{Cite news \\|last1\\=Oguh \\|first1\\=Chibuike \\|last2\\=Vanaik \\|first2\\=Granth \\|date\\=October 2, 2023 \\|title\\=Kellanova, WK Kellogg shares slump on first day after spinoff \\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/business/retail\\-consumer/kellanova\\-wk\\-kellogg\\-shares\\-slump\\-first\\-day\\-after\\-spinoff\\-2023\\-10\\-02/ \\|work\\=Reuters}} The new trophy for the bowl was unveiled in December and features two slots for Pop\\-Tarts atop a metallic football. The mascot, named \"Strawberry\", is a large anthropomorphic Pop\\-Tart that was deemed the \"first\\-ever edible mascot\";{{cite magazine \\|last\\=Rasmussen \\|first\\=Karl \\|date\\=December 28, 2023 \\|title\\=Pop\\-Tarts Bowl Unveiled New Mascot Using Giant Toaster at Midfield \\|url\\=https://www.si.com/college/2023/12/28/pop\\-tarts\\-bowl\\-mascot\\-giant\\-toaster \\|magazine\\=Sports Illustrated \\|accessdate\\=December 30, 2023}} it was lowered into a giant toaster and presented for players to eat after the game, having been replaced by an edible replica.{{cite news \\|last\\=Chery \\|first\\=Samantha \\|date\\=December 29, 2023 \\|title\\=How Strawberry, the Pop\\-Tarts Bowl mascot, took over the internet \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/12/29/pop\\-tarts\\-bowl\\-mascot/ \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]] \\|accessdate\\=December 30, 2023}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Evans \\|first\\=Jace \\|date\\=December 28, 2023 \\|title\\=Kansas State celebrates Pop\\-Tarts Bowl win by eating Pop\\-Tarts mascot \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2023/12/28/pop\\-tarts\\-bowl\\-mascot\\-eaten\\-kansas\\-state\\-nc\\-state/72053400007/ \\|work\\=USA Today \\|accessdate\\=December 30, 2023}}", "### Miami", "The bowl arose from a desire to hold a second bowl game in the Miami area. It was to be an accompaniment to the traditional [Orange Bowl](/wiki/Orange_Bowl \"Orange Bowl\"), showcasing the [brand new stadium](/wiki/Sun_Life_Stadium \"Sun Life Stadium\") in the area that was built in 1987\\. The Orange Bowl game was still being played in the aging [old stadium](/wiki/Miami_Orange_Bowl \"Miami Orange Bowl\"), whereas this new game would be played in the new stadium.", "[Miami Dolphins](/wiki/Miami_Dolphins \"Miami Dolphins\") owner [Wayne Huizenga](/wiki/Wayne_Huizenga \"Wayne Huizenga\") quickly joined forces with bowl organizers and brought in [Blockbuster Video](/wiki/Blockbuster_Inc. \"Blockbuster Inc.\"), which he owned, as title sponsor. The inaugural game, played on December 28, 1990, pitted [Florida State](/wiki/Florida_State_Seminoles_football \"Florida State Seminoles football\") and [Penn State](/wiki/Penn_State_Nittany_Lions_football \"Penn State Nittany Lions football\"), and two legendary coaches, [Bobby Bowden](/wiki/Bobby_Bowden \"Bobby Bowden\") versus [Joe Paterno](/wiki/Joe_Paterno \"Joe Paterno\") in front of over 74,000 at Joe Robbie Stadium. Subsequent games were unable to match the success of the first, even though the bowl was moved to the more prestigious New Year's Day slot in 1993\\.", "In 1994, [CarQuest Auto Parts](/wiki/Carquest \"Carquest\") became the title sponsor after Huizenga sold Blockbuster Video to [Viacom](/wiki/Viacom_%281952%E2%80%932006%29 \"Viacom (1952–2006)\"). The New Year's Day experiment was short lived as the organizers of the more established Orange Bowl received permission to move their game into [Joe Robbie Stadium](/wiki/Joe_Robbie_Stadium \"Joe Robbie Stadium\") beginning in 1996\\. That bumped the Carquest Bowl back to the less\\-desirable December date. After the 2000 playing, Florida Citrus Sports took over the game and moved it to Orlando.", "Before gaining Blockbuster Entertainment as the corporate sponsor for the inaugural event, the game was tentatively referred to as the Sunshine Classic.", "### Orlando", "[277x277px\\|Camping World Stadium in 2015\\|alt\\=Camping World Stadium in 2015\\.\\|thumb](/wiki/File:Citrus_Bowl_Orlando_City.jpg \"Citrus Bowl Orlando City.jpg\")\nFrom 2006 to 2010, the bowl matched teams from the [Atlantic Coast Conference](/wiki/Atlantic_Coast_Conference \"Atlantic Coast Conference\") (ACC) and the [Big Ten Conference](/wiki/Big_Ten_Conference \"Big Ten Conference\"). Under the terms of a television deal signed with [ESPN](/wiki/ESPN \"ESPN\") in 2006, the bowl was to be held after [Christmas Day](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") from 2006 onward, and be shown on ESPN in [prime time](/wiki/Prime_time \"Prime time\"). The change was made to move the game from the less\\-desirable pre\\-Christmas date utilized from 2001 to 2004\\.", "From 2005 to 2009, the stadium faced challenges in preparing the stadium for two bowl games in less than one week (the Citrus Bowl is traditionally held New Year's Day). This was also in part due to the Florida high school football championship games being held at the stadium shortly before the bowls. In 2009, rainy weather turned the stadium's grass field into a muddy, sloppy, quagmire for both bowl games. In 2010, the stadium switched to artificial turf, facilitating the quick turnaround necessary.", "In 2009, the bowl announced that the [Big East](/wiki/Big_East_Conference_%281979%E2%80%932013%29 \"Big East Conference (1979–2013)\") was to be one of the tie\\-in conferences for four years starting in 2010, with the bowl having the option of selecting [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish football\") once during the four years. In October 2009, the bowl announced that they had extended their agreement with the ACC for the same term. The game would match the third pick from the ACC against the second selection from the Big East. The previous agreement had matched the 4th pick from the ACC against the 4th or 5th pick from the Big Ten.{{cite news \\|last\\=Adelson \\|first\\=Andrea \\|title\\=College football: ACC improves deal with Champs Sports Bowl; will send No. 3 team to Orlando beginning in 2010 \\|website\\=OrlandoSentinel.com \\|url\\=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/orl\\-college\\-football\\-champs\\-bowl\\-acc\\-100709,0,12816\\.story \\|date\\=October 7, 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091009001116/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/orl\\-college\\-football\\-champs\\-bowl\\-acc\\-100709,0,12816\\.story \\|archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2009 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Wayback Machine]]}} ACC and Big East teams subsequently met in the 2010 through 2013 games, except for 2011 when Notre Dame was selected (as permitted in the agreement with the Big East) and in 2013 when the [Louisville Cardinals](/wiki/Louisville_Cardinals_football \"Louisville Cardinals football\") of the [American Athletic Conference](/wiki/American_Athletic_Conference \"American Athletic Conference\") were selected (\"The American\" became the football successor to the Big East in 2013\\).", "Since 2014, the game features the second pick from the ACC after the [New Year's Six](/wiki/College_Football_Playoff \"College Football Playoff\") bowls make their picks—usually the losing team from the [ACC Football Championship Game](/wiki/ACC_Football_Championship_Game \"ACC Football Championship Game\"), or one of the division runners\\-up—against the third pick from the Big 12\\.", "" ]
Format \#2 ---------- On February 11 (just over a month after the series began), the format was completely overhauled with many mini\-games undergoing rule changes to fit the new format and others retired. The champion no longer played the mini games, with the two challengers playing for the right to meet him/her in the final round. Three mini\-games were played. The first two mini\-games were worth one point, the last one was worth two, and both challengers got to keep whatever they managed to win in the mini\-games. The one with the most points after three games won the game and advanced to the Challenge Round. If there was a tie after three games, a tiebreaker question was read; the first one to buzz in with the right answer won the game. ### Mini Games (Format \#2\) Six mini\-games were used in this new format. Unlike the old format, the same two lineups were used for every episode, alternating each day. #### Lineup \#1 * "**Game 1: As Time Goes By**": The format was the same as described above, but instead of trying to guess the year that each picture was taken, a higher/lower format was used. One player gave a guess of which year each photo was taken, and the other had to decide if the actual year was earlier or later. The actual year was then revealed, and if the second player guessed correctly he/she earned a spin on the Money Clock. Otherwise the first player received the spin. The Money Clock now displayed monetary values of $100, $300, and $1,000 (the smallest space among the three) as well as one that awarded nothing. As before, the contestants watched the pointer spin before turning away and hitting the plunger to stop it. Both contestants kept any money won during the round, with the one that made the most money winning the game and a point. * "**Game 2: Tube Game**": The Tube Game was revised for the new format. Now, Davidson asked questions about television series airing on the three major networks in a certain year. The object was to be the first to reach five points, with the winner receiving a prize. * "**Game 3: Jukebox Game**": Debuting after the change in format, the Jukebox Game was a music\-centric quiz. Four jukeboxes were shown, each emblazoned with a different year from a certain decade. A song is played, and two possible artists are given. Buzzing in with the right artist won the right to match the song with the year it was released. If they got a match, they got a point. If they missed, their opponent got one chance to pick the right one and steal the point. The jukebox with the right answer was eliminated from play regardless. If all the jukeboxes were eliminated, then the contestants just had to identify the song's artist to get the point, without having to match the song to a year. First to three points won the game and a prize. #### Lineup \#2 * "**Game 1: On The Button**" – An event was given, and one player guessed what year the event happened in. Getting it exactly right won a point for that player. If they guessed wrong, Davidson would say whether the event happened before or after that year, and the other contestant had a chance to guess. This continued until one player got three points, winning the game and a prize. This game used the same set as "Sweet Sixteen". * "**Game 2: 3 In A Row**" – Just like before, each square of a tic\-tac\-toe board had a different year from the same decade. Three spaces in a row were marked with stars; these made up the "Magic 3 In A Row". One player was given two events. The contestant picked an event from the two choices, and the year it happened in lit up. A new event takes the selected one's place, and the other contestant picked one. Picking a space in the Magic 3 In A Row won $100, which the contestant kept win or lose. The contestant who lit up the third space in the Magic 3 In A Row won the game and a prize. * "**Game 3: Main Event**" – As before, a base year was given along with five categories. The game begins with a pot of $200\. The contestants alternate picking categories, each one having one question with two possible answers. Each correct answer adds $200 to the pot. After all the categories were played, clues to a “Main Event” were revealed one at a time. The first person to buzz in and correctly guess the Main Event won the game and the pot. ### Challenge Round The Challenge Round was played in the same way as the Time Capsule round from the previous format, except with two players and a different name. The winner from the first half of the show and the returning champion competed to see which one of them would be advancing to the bonus round. As before, the closest one to the actual year, high or low, won the championship.
[ "Format \\#2\n----------", "On February 11 (just over a month after the series began), the format was completely overhauled with many mini\\-games undergoing rule changes to fit the new format and others retired. The champion no longer played the mini games, with the two challengers playing for the right to meet him/her in the final round.", "Three mini\\-games were played. The first two mini\\-games were worth one point, the last one was worth two, and both challengers got to keep whatever they managed to win in the mini\\-games. The one with the most points after three games won the game and advanced to the Challenge Round. If there was a tie after three games, a tiebreaker question was read; the first one to buzz in with the right answer won the game.", "### Mini Games (Format \\#2\\)", "Six mini\\-games were used in this new format. Unlike the old format, the same two lineups were used for every episode, alternating each day.", "#### Lineup \\#1", "* \"**Game 1: As Time Goes By**\": The format was the same as described above, but instead of trying to guess the year that each picture was taken, a higher/lower format was used. One player gave a guess of which year each photo was taken, and the other had to decide if the actual year was earlier or later. The actual year was then revealed, and if the second player guessed correctly he/she earned a spin on the Money Clock. Otherwise the first player received the spin. The Money Clock now displayed monetary values of $100, $300, and $1,000 (the smallest space among the three) as well as one that awarded nothing. As before, the contestants watched the pointer spin before turning away and hitting the plunger to stop it. Both contestants kept any money won during the round, with the one that made the most money winning the game and a point.\n* \"**Game 2: Tube Game**\": The Tube Game was revised for the new format. Now, Davidson asked questions about television series airing on the three major networks in a certain year. The object was to be the first to reach five points, with the winner receiving a prize.\n* \"**Game 3: Jukebox Game**\": Debuting after the change in format, the Jukebox Game was a music\\-centric quiz. Four jukeboxes were shown, each emblazoned with a different year from a certain decade. A song is played, and two possible artists are given. Buzzing in with the right artist won the right to match the song with the year it was released. If they got a match, they got a point. If they missed, their opponent got one chance to pick the right one and steal the point. The jukebox with the right answer was eliminated from play regardless. If all the jukeboxes were eliminated, then the contestants just had to identify the song's artist to get the point, without having to match the song to a year. First to three points won the game and a prize.", "#### Lineup \\#2", "* \"**Game 1: On The Button**\" – An event was given, and one player guessed what year the event happened in. Getting it exactly right won a point for that player. If they guessed wrong, Davidson would say whether the event happened before or after that year, and the other contestant had a chance to guess. This continued until one player got three points, winning the game and a prize. This game used the same set as \"Sweet Sixteen\".\n* \"**Game 2: 3 In A Row**\" – Just like before, each square of a tic\\-tac\\-toe board had a different year from the same decade. Three spaces in a row were marked with stars; these made up the \"Magic 3 In A Row\". One player was given two events. The contestant picked an event from the two choices, and the year it happened in lit up. A new event takes the selected one's place, and the other contestant picked one. Picking a space in the Magic 3 In A Row won $100, which the contestant kept win or lose. The contestant who lit up the third space in the Magic 3 In A Row won the game and a prize.\n* \"**Game 3: Main Event**\" – As before, a base year was given along with five categories. The game begins with a pot of $200\\. The contestants alternate picking categories, each one having one question with two possible answers. Each correct answer adds $200 to the pot. After all the categories were played, clues to a “Main Event” were revealed one at a time. The first person to buzz in and correctly guess the Main Event won the game and the pot.", "### Challenge Round", "The Challenge Round was played in the same way as the Time Capsule round from the previous format, except with two players and a different name.", "The winner from the first half of the show and the returning champion competed to see which one of them would be advancing to the bonus round. As before, the closest one to the actual year, high or low, won the championship.", "" ]
The company ----------- Indiana Botanic Gardens is a privately owned, family\-run business that operates within the vitamin and herbal supplement industry. The Indiana Botanic Gardens have had a history in the [Northwest Indiana](/wiki/Northwest_Indiana "Northwest Indiana") region for nearly 100 years. Its history can be read about in botanical and herbal publications, as well as literature pertaining to the history of the Calumet Region. The Indiana Botanic Gardens were founded in 1910 by horticulturalist and herbalist Joseph Meyer (1878–1950\) in a small cottage in the rear of his home in Hammond, Indiana. Initially called the Indiana Herb Gardens, the business barely covered living expenses for the large Meyer family, which eventually consisted of seven sons and one daughter. Joseph Meyer's elder sons helped their father to grow the business by gathering herbs from the nearby fields. The family packed boxes, filled orders, fed the printing press, and folded circulars during the day. The daily workload for the Meyer's often bled into their evenings where they put catalogs together by binding them with needles and thread. Once the company began to sustain itself, it moved from Meyer's cottage to a larger building off of Calumet Avenue in Hammond, Indiana. Due in part to his roots as a printer, Joseph E. Meyer published a 400\-page book in 1918 entitled, *The Herbalist*. Seven years later, [The Herbalist Almanac](/wiki/The_Herbalist_Almanac "The Herbalist Almanac"), an annual publication, was produced in 1925\. The Herbalist Almanac was a booklet contains listings of the herbs and roots that the company sold, recipes, Indian weather forecasts, treatments for common ailments, popular songs of the day, and advice on farming issues. In 1979, after fifty\-four years of publication, The Herbalist Almanac was retired. Vintage copies of The Herbalist Almanac are still around, some dating back to the 1950s, and can be purchased online through book shops and [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay"). There are many collectors and agricultural, botanical, and gardening enthusiasts that have copies. Colleges and universities still study and use the almanack for educational purposes in many horticulture classes. The University of Florida also contributed to the preservation effort and has a number of the almanacks ranging from 1929 to 1971 in their rare book collection. A copy of The Herbalist can be found in the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian "Smithsonian") Institution Library. Later, in 1925, Meyer purchased a wild tract of land on the [Little Calumet River](/wiki/Little_Calumet_River "Little Calumet River"). The land held a profusion of [medicinal plants](/wiki/Medicinal_plants "Medicinal plants"), shrubbery, and virgin forest. One year later, in 1926, this fertile ground would become home to the newly named Indiana Botanic Gardens. The offices and warehouse were now housed in a {{convert\|36000\|sqft\|m2\|adj\=on}} English gabled building. The grounds and gardens covered {{convert\|10\|acre\|m2}} and were filled with beautiful landscaping and architecture. The property also featured a mill where all of the botanicals were manufactured. The mansion still stands today under Meyer Family ownership and is used seasonally by Hluska Enterprises Inc, as a tenant. During the summer, it is a retail fireworks outlet (Good Times Fireworks) and in the fall it is the site of the famous Reaper's Realm Haunted House. As of December 2023, this English (Tudor) style gabled mansion is in danger of demolition, as the City of Hammond has recently expanded their Hammond Gateways Redevelopment Allocation Area to include this and adjacent sites. This will depend upon the ability for future private developer proposals to either rehabilitate and reuse the building or to raze it. During the next few years, Meyer travelled to all parts of North America to gather material and information on native plants and their uses. He received mail on an international scale from [universities](/wiki/Universities "Universities"), libraries, [botanists](/wiki/Botanist "Botanist"), and people from all ranks of life. In 1932, he travelled to Europe to seek rare herbals. In Joseph Meyer's time, self\-treatment with herbs was commonly practiced and often necessary due to economic conditions or the scarcity of professional medical help. Meyer devoted his life to providing herbs to people, and many grateful customers sent letters and recipes extolling the benefits. *The Old Herb Doctor* was compiled from this information to let other customers know how other customers had used herbs and the good results they had obtained from them. The business has been handed down from generation to generation on to his grandson David Meyer, who is still part of the organization, along with great\-grandson Tim Cleland, current president of the company. In 1990, the company moved into a more modern facility in nearby [Hobart, Indiana](/wiki/Hobart%2C_Indiana "Hobart, Indiana"). Although no longer a grower of herbs, Indiana Botanic Gardens sells vitamins, essential oils, teas, beauty care products, and other nutritional supplements in addition to being a distributor of bulk herbals. The Hobart location has a retail store that contains the majority of the Botanic Choice line and also sells wholesale products. The bulk of the business continues to be derived from mail order catalogue sales. However, with the re\-launch of their website in May 2008, the Indiana Botanic Gardens have been focusing on expanding their online operations. * The old IBG building is still standing in Hammond, IN off of I\-80/94\. For those individuals that are familiar with the area, Reaper's Realm Haunted Mansion is housed in the building Joseph Meyer built in 1926\. * In 1998, the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives "United States House of Representatives") paid a tribute[Congressional Record of Rep. Peter Visclosky's Tribute to Joseph Meyer](http://bulk.resource.org/gpo.gov/record/1998/1998_E00290.pdf){{dead link\|date\=July 2016 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} to Joseph Meyer for being an upstanding citizen within his community. * The Indiana Botanic Gardens has a growing list of health articles covering a wide array of topics from exercise, to male concerns, to detoxification.
[ "The company\n-----------", "Indiana Botanic Gardens is a privately owned, family\\-run business that operates within the vitamin and herbal supplement industry. The Indiana Botanic Gardens have had a history in the [Northwest Indiana](/wiki/Northwest_Indiana \"Northwest Indiana\") region for nearly 100 years. Its history can be read about in botanical and herbal publications, as well as literature pertaining to the history of the Calumet Region. The Indiana Botanic Gardens were founded in 1910 by horticulturalist and herbalist Joseph Meyer (1878–1950\\) in a small cottage in the rear of his home in Hammond, Indiana.", "Initially called the Indiana Herb Gardens, the business barely covered living expenses for the large Meyer family, which eventually consisted of seven sons and one daughter. Joseph Meyer's elder sons helped their father to grow the business by gathering herbs from the nearby fields. The family packed boxes, filled orders, fed the printing press, and folded circulars during the day. The daily workload for the Meyer's often bled into their evenings where they put catalogs together by binding them with needles and thread.", "Once the company began to sustain itself, it moved from Meyer's cottage to a larger building off of Calumet Avenue in Hammond, Indiana. Due in part to his roots as a printer, Joseph E. Meyer published a 400\\-page book in 1918 entitled, *The Herbalist*. Seven years later, [The Herbalist Almanac](/wiki/The_Herbalist_Almanac \"The Herbalist Almanac\"), an annual publication, was produced in 1925\\. The Herbalist Almanac was a booklet contains listings of the herbs and roots that the company sold, recipes, Indian weather forecasts, treatments for common ailments, popular songs of the day, and advice on farming issues. In 1979, after fifty\\-four years of publication, The Herbalist Almanac was retired. Vintage copies of The Herbalist Almanac are still around, some dating back to the 1950s, and can be purchased online through book shops and [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\"). There are many collectors and agricultural, botanical, and gardening enthusiasts that have copies. Colleges and universities still study and use the almanack for educational purposes in many horticulture classes. The University of Florida also contributed to the preservation effort and has a number of the almanacks ranging from 1929 to 1971 in their rare book collection. A copy of The Herbalist can be found in the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian \"Smithsonian\") Institution Library.", "Later, in 1925, Meyer purchased a wild tract of land on the [Little Calumet River](/wiki/Little_Calumet_River \"Little Calumet River\"). The land held a profusion of [medicinal plants](/wiki/Medicinal_plants \"Medicinal plants\"), shrubbery, and virgin forest. One year later, in 1926, this fertile ground would become home to the newly named Indiana Botanic Gardens. The offices and warehouse were now housed in a {{convert\\|36000\\|sqft\\|m2\\|adj\\=on}} English gabled building. The grounds and gardens covered {{convert\\|10\\|acre\\|m2}} and were filled with beautiful landscaping and architecture. The property also featured a mill where all of the botanicals were manufactured.", "The mansion still stands today under Meyer Family ownership and is used seasonally by Hluska Enterprises Inc, as a tenant. During the summer, it is a retail fireworks outlet (Good Times Fireworks) and in the fall it is the site of the famous Reaper's Realm Haunted House. As of December 2023, this English (Tudor) style gabled mansion is in danger of demolition, as the City of Hammond has recently expanded their Hammond Gateways Redevelopment Allocation Area to include this and adjacent sites. This will depend upon the ability for future private developer proposals to either rehabilitate and reuse the building or to raze it.", "During the next few years, Meyer travelled to all parts of North America to gather material and information on native plants and their uses. He received mail on an international scale from [universities](/wiki/Universities \"Universities\"), libraries, [botanists](/wiki/Botanist \"Botanist\"), and people from all ranks of life. In 1932, he travelled to Europe to seek rare herbals. In Joseph Meyer's time, self\\-treatment with herbs was commonly practiced and often necessary due to economic conditions or the scarcity of professional medical help. Meyer devoted his life to providing herbs to people, and many grateful customers sent letters and recipes extolling the benefits. *The Old Herb Doctor* was compiled from this information to let other customers know how other customers had used herbs and the good results they had obtained from them.", "The business has been handed down from generation to generation on to his grandson David Meyer, who is still part of the organization, along with great\\-grandson Tim Cleland, current president of the company. In 1990, the company moved into a more modern facility in nearby [Hobart, Indiana](/wiki/Hobart%2C_Indiana \"Hobart, Indiana\"). Although no longer a grower of herbs, Indiana Botanic Gardens sells vitamins, essential oils, teas, beauty care products, and other nutritional supplements in addition to being a distributor of bulk herbals. The Hobart location has a retail store that contains the majority of the Botanic Choice line and also sells wholesale products. The bulk of the business continues to be derived from mail order catalogue sales. However, with the re\\-launch of their website in May 2008, the Indiana Botanic Gardens have been focusing on expanding their online operations.", "* The old IBG building is still standing in Hammond, IN off of I\\-80/94\\. For those individuals that are familiar with the area, Reaper's Realm Haunted Mansion is housed in the building Joseph Meyer built in 1926\\.\n* In 1998, the [United States House of Representatives](/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives \"United States House of Representatives\") paid a tribute[Congressional Record of Rep. Peter Visclosky's Tribute to Joseph Meyer](http://bulk.resource.org/gpo.gov/record/1998/1998_E00290.pdf){{dead link\\|date\\=July 2016 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} to Joseph Meyer for being an upstanding citizen within his community.\n* The Indiana Botanic Gardens has a growing list of health articles covering a wide array of topics from exercise, to male concerns, to detoxification." ]
History ------- ### Origins Until the 1960s the largest and most influential organization to the left of the Democratic Party within the United States was the [Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Communist_Party%2C_USA "Communist Party, USA") (CPUSA), which achieved peak influence during [the Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression "The Great Depression") and [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), before declining in the post war years due to a number of factors, including state\-repression ([McCarthyism](/wiki/McCarthyism "McCarthyism"), the [Smith Act](/wiki/Smith_Act "Smith Act"), the [Rosenberg Trial](/wiki/Rosenberg_Trial "Rosenberg Trial"), etc.), as well as internal ideological schisms within the party. Members were often disillusioned by the party\-leadership's official subordination to the USSR ideologically, with the party defending the numerous controversial actions by the Soviet state. This would be a key moment in the Marxist movement in the United States and the world, with numerous ranking party members leaving the organization due to Krushchev's perceived [revisionism](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 "Revisionism (Marxism)") in pursuing the policy of [peaceful coexistence](/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence "Peaceful coexistence") with the Capitalist West, which was perceived as a fundamental departure from the revolutionary socialism and anti\-imperialist elements of Marxism–Leninism. The New Communist Movement was influenced by world events of the time, specifically the Cuban Revolution of 1959, [the Chinese Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution "Cultural Revolution"), The French May\-Day Uprising, and the Black Power Movement.{{cite web \|title\=The New Communist Movement: The Early Groups, 1969\-1974 \|url\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\-1/ \|website\=www.marxists.org \|access\-date\=7 September 2019}} Many of the early participants in the NCM were former members of the New Left student organization [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society "Students for a Democratic Society"). The NCM emerged from numerous distinct movements in the United States during the late 1960s, with historian Max Elbaum, identifying [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party"), [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society "Students for a Democratic Society"), and the [Progressive Labor Party](/wiki/Progressive_Labor_Party_%28United_States%29 "Progressive Labor Party (United States)").{{Cite book\|title\=Revolution in the Air\|url\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Elbaum\|first\=Max\|publisher\=Verso\|year\=2002\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n36 59]–90\|isbn\=9781859846179}} ### Revolutionary Union / Revolutionary Communist Party {{main\|Bay Area Revolutionary Union}} One of the most prominent groups of the New Communist Movement was the Bay Area Revolutionary Union (later, shortened to Revolutionary Union), formed by activists led by [Bob Avakian](/wiki/Bob_Avakian "Bob Avakian") which gained most of its membership from the [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society "Students for a Democratic Society"). Its [anti\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism "Anti-revisionism") line emphasized the Black liberation struggle and the liberation of colonized peoples within and outside the United States.{{Cite book\|title\=Heavy Radicals: The FBI's War on America's Maoists\|last1\=Leonard\|first1\=Aaron J.\|last2\=Gallagher\|first2\=Conor A.\|publisher\=Zero Books\|year\=2014\|location\=Winchester\|pages\=10–34}}{{Cite book\|title\=Revolution in the Air\|url\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Elbaum\|first\=Max\|publisher\=Verso\|year\=2002\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n54 95]–99\|isbn\=9781859846179}} They became active in the [Vietnam Veterans Against the War](/wiki/Vietnam_Veterans_Against_the_War "Vietnam Veterans Against the War") after it opened its membership to non\-veteransAndrew E. Hunt. *The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War*, New York University Press, 1999, p. 188 and temporarily gained control when the national office voted to expel non RU chapters and members and voted to integrate into the Revolutionary Union although non Marxist members of the VVAW filed and won a lawsuit prohibiting the RU dominated group from using the VVAW name, logos and materials.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vvaw.org/about/vvawai.php\|title\=VVAW Official Website – Court Order\|access\-date\=2007\-03\-22}} Deep animosity still exists between the two organizations. In September 1975 the RU officially voted to dissolve and reestablish itself into the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA "Revolutionary Communist Party, USA").{{Cite book\|title\=Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals turn to Lenin, Che and Mao\|url\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\|url\-access\=limited\|last\=Elbaum\|first\=Max\|publisher\=Verso Books\|year\=2002\|location\=London\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n105 191]–193\|isbn\=9781859846179\|quote\=It \[the RU] convened a congress in September 1975 that formally disbanded RU and founded the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP)...}} ### October League The Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)'s predecessor organization, the October League (Marxist–Leninist), was founded in 1971 by several local groups, many of which had grown out of the radical student organization [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society_%281960_organization%29 "Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)") when SDS split apart in 1969\. [Michael Klonsky](/wiki/Michael_Klonsky "Michael Klonsky"), who had been a national leader in SDS in the late 1960s, was the main leader of the CP(M\-L). The October League came out of the [Revolutionary Youth Movement II](/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Movement_II "Revolutionary Youth Movement II") grouping in the SDS split. During the early 1970s the OL took positions that were at odds with most of the US Left, including opposition to [gay liberation](/wiki/Gay_Liberation "Gay Liberation") and support of the [Shah of Iran](/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi "Mohammad Reza Pahlavi"), whose regime they saw as a bulwark against Soviet [social\-imperialism](/wiki/Social-imperialism "Social-imperialism"). The OL established influence within some of the established [civil rights organizations](/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights "Civil and political rights"), including the [Southern Christian Leadership Conference](/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference "Southern Christian Leadership Conference") and the [Southern Conference Educational Fund](/wiki/Southern_Conference_Educational_Fund "Southern Conference Educational Fund"), which had been under the influence of the Moscow\-oriented [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA").{{cn\|date\=January 2024}} In late 1975 they organized a "National Fight Back Conference," which drew 1,000 participants and was attended by representatives of the [August 29th Movement](/wiki/August_29th_Movement "August 29th Movement"), the [Congress of Afrikan People](/wiki/Congress_of_Afrikan_People "Congress of Afrikan People") and the [Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee of San Francisco](/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Organizing_Committee_of_San_Francisco "Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee of San Francisco"). They also had a youth group called the Communist Youth Organization. ### Greensboro massacre {{Main\|Greensboro massacre}} On November 3, 1979, four members of the [Communist Workers' Party](/wiki/Communist_Workers%27_Party_%28United_States%29 "Communist Workers' Party (United States)") (CWP) and a male protester were killed by members of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan "Ku Klux Klan") and the [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party "American Nazi Party") (ANP) during a *Death to the Klan* march, organized by the CWP. The event had been preceded by inflammatory rhetoric from both sides. The CWP had originally come to Greensboro to support [workers' rights](/wiki/Labor_rights "Labor rights") activism among mostly [black](/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans") textile industry workers in the area. The march was a part of that larger effort. The Greensboro city police department had an informant within the KKK and ANP group who notified them that the Klan was prepared for armed violence. ### Rainbow Coalition The [Rainbow Coalition](/wiki/Rainbow_Coalition_%28Fred_Hampton%29 "Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)") was a multicultural movement founded April 4, 1969 in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois "Illinois") by [Fred Hampton](/wiki/Fred_Hampton "Fred Hampton") of the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party"), along with William "Preacherman" Fesperman of the [Young Patriots Organization](/wiki/Young_Patriots_Organization "Young Patriots Organization") and [Jose Cha Cha Jimenez](/wiki/Jose_Cha_Cha_Jimenez "Jose Cha Cha Jimenez") founder of the [Young Lords](/wiki/Young_Lords "Young Lords"). It was the first of several 20th century [Black](/wiki/Black_people "Black people")\-led organizations to use the "rainbow coalition" concept. ### 1970s and 1980s As one of its last initiatives, SDS had begun to leave its campus base and organize in [working\-class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") neighborhoods. Radical militant groups such as [Weather Underground](/wiki/Weather_Underground "Weather Underground") are recognized as participants in the movement. Some former members subsequently developed local organizations that continued the trend, and they attempted to find theoretical backing for their work in the writings of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin"), [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong") and [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin"). [Maoism](/wiki/Maoism "Maoism") was then highly regarded as more actively revolutionary than the brand of communism supported by the post\-Stalin [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") (*see* [New Left: New Left in the United States](/wiki/New_Left%23New_Left_in_the_United_States "New Left#New Left in the United States")). As a result, most NCM organizations referred to their ideology as Marxism–Leninism\-Mao Zedong Thought and rejected what they saw as the devolution of socialism in the contemporary Soviet Union. Similar to the New Left's general direction in the late 1960s, these new organizations rejected the post\-1956 [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") as [revisionist](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism "Marxist revisionism"), or anti\-revolutionary, and also rejected [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism "Trotskyism") and the [Socialist Workers Party](/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_%28United_States%29 "Socialist Workers Party (United States)") for its theoretical opposition to Maoism. The groups, formed of ex\-students, attempted to establish links with the working class through finding work in factories and heavy industry, but they also tended toward [Third\-worldism](/wiki/Third-worldism "Third-worldism"), supporting National Liberation Fronts of various kinds, including the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party") (then on the decline), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution"), and the [National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam](/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Vietnam "National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam"). The New Communist Movement organizations supported national [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") for most ethnic groups, especially blacks and those of Latino origin, in the United States. These organizations addressed problems of [sexism](/wiki/Sexism "Sexism") and [racism](/wiki/Racism "Racism"), partly by voicing adamant support for self\-determination and [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics "Identity politics"), and felt that they were dealing with problems they were of the opinion had not been addressed in the groups of the 1960s. However, different NCM groups came to this similar conclusion via quite different routes. In its early years, NCM organisations formed a loose\-knit tendency in United States [leftist](/wiki/Leftist "Leftist") politics, but never coalesced into a single organization. As time went on, the organizations became extremely competitive and increasingly denounced one another. Points of distinction were frequently founded on the attitude taken toward the [successors of Mao](/wiki/Gang_of_Four_%28China%29 "Gang of Four (China)") and international disputes between the Soviet Union and China regarding such developments as the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War "Angolan Civil War"). The [Revolutionary Union](/wiki/Revolutionary_Union "Revolutionary Union") organized the founding congress of the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA "Revolutionary Communist Party, USA") in 1975\. The [October League](/wiki/October_League "October League") organized the founding congress of the [Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29_%28United_States%29 "Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (United States)") in 1977\. During this period a few other new communist movement organizations also formed new [communist parties](/wiki/Communist_parties "Communist parties").{{cite book \|last1\=Elbaum \|first1\=Max \|title\=Revolution in the Air \|url\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba \|url\-access\=limited \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Verso \|location\=London \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n57 102]–103 \|edition\=Hardcover \|chapter\=Chapter 4: A New Communist Movement Takes Shape \|isbn\=978\-1\-85984\-617\-9 \|quote\=Mike Clonsky and other RYM II leaders in Los Angeles formed the October League collective ..."}} Unlike the majority of NCM groups, the [Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement](/wiki/Dodge_Revolutionary_Union_Movement "Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement") (DRUM), which evolved into the League of Revolutionary Black Workers (LRBW), was formed by factory workers rather than student activists. The [AFL–CIO](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO "AFL–CIO") leadership supported the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") and sought to avoid strikes, but union workers saw through this and independently organized a series of [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes "Wildcat strikes"). Radical [Marxist](/wiki/Marxist "Marxist") and other [African\-American](/wiki/African-American "African-American") auto workers subsequently formed DRUM. From 1968 to 1971 DRUM and the league acted as a [dual union](/wiki/Dual_union "Dual union"), with black leadership, within the [United Auto Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers "United Auto Workers"). In the late 1970s a group labeled the [May 19th Communist Organization](/wiki/May_19th_Communist_Organization "May 19th Communist Organization") was created, going on a bombing campaign. In 1979, after the publishing of Enver Hoxha's Imperialism and the Revolution and other criticisms of Maoism from Albania, some groups renounced Maoism in favour of an ["orthodox Marxist–Leninist"](/wiki/Hoxhaism "Hoxhaism") line similar to that of the Albanian communists. Many of these groups such as the Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee and Sunrise Collective formed together in a joint statement against the end of Chinese aid to Albania. The U.S. Marxist–Leninist Party, previously the Central Organization of U.S. Marxist\-Leninists, would become the primary recognized vanguard party in the United States supported by Albania, although Albanian aid to the American communists was minimal due to fears of CIA infiltration. Other groups such as the Red Dawn Organization and Pacific Collective (Marxist–Leninist) would meet with similarly pro\-Albania groups in the 1979 in an attempt to unite and form a single communist party.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\-5/index.htm\|title\=The New Communist Movement: Crises, Splits and More New Parties, 1977–1980}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Origins", "Until the 1960s the largest and most influential organization to the left of the Democratic Party within the United States was the [Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Communist_Party%2C_USA \"Communist Party, USA\") (CPUSA), which achieved peak influence during [the Great Depression](/wiki/The_Great_Depression \"The Great Depression\") and [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), before declining in the post war years due to a number of factors, including state\\-repression ([McCarthyism](/wiki/McCarthyism \"McCarthyism\"), the [Smith Act](/wiki/Smith_Act \"Smith Act\"), the [Rosenberg Trial](/wiki/Rosenberg_Trial \"Rosenberg Trial\"), etc.), as well as internal ideological schisms within the party. Members were often disillusioned by the party\\-leadership's official subordination to the USSR ideologically, with the party defending the numerous controversial actions by the Soviet state.", "This would be a key moment in the Marxist movement in the United States and the world, with numerous ranking party members leaving the organization due to Krushchev's perceived [revisionism](/wiki/Revisionism_%28Marxism%29 \"Revisionism (Marxism)\") in pursuing the policy of [peaceful coexistence](/wiki/Peaceful_coexistence \"Peaceful coexistence\") with the Capitalist West, which was perceived as a fundamental departure from the revolutionary socialism and anti\\-imperialist elements of Marxism–Leninism. The New Communist Movement was influenced by world events of the time, specifically the Cuban Revolution of 1959, [the Chinese Cultural Revolution](/wiki/Cultural_Revolution \"Cultural Revolution\"), The French May\\-Day Uprising, and the Black Power Movement.{{cite web \\|title\\=The New Communist Movement: The Early Groups, 1969\\-1974 \\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\\-1/ \\|website\\=www.marxists.org \\|access\\-date\\=7 September 2019}} Many of the early participants in the NCM were former members of the New Left student organization [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society \"Students for a Democratic Society\"). The NCM emerged from numerous distinct movements in the United States during the late 1960s, with historian Max Elbaum, identifying [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\"), [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society \"Students for a Democratic Society\"), and the [Progressive Labor Party](/wiki/Progressive_Labor_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Progressive Labor Party (United States)\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Revolution in the Air\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Elbaum\\|first\\=Max\\|publisher\\=Verso\\|year\\=2002\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n36 59]–90\\|isbn\\=9781859846179}}", "### Revolutionary Union / Revolutionary Communist Party", "{{main\\|Bay Area Revolutionary Union}}", "One of the most prominent groups of the New Communist Movement was the Bay Area Revolutionary Union (later, shortened to Revolutionary Union), formed by activists led by [Bob Avakian](/wiki/Bob_Avakian \"Bob Avakian\") which gained most of its membership from the [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society \"Students for a Democratic Society\"). Its [anti\\-revisionist](/wiki/Anti-revisionism \"Anti-revisionism\") line emphasized the Black liberation struggle and the liberation of colonized peoples within and outside the United States.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Heavy Radicals: The FBI's War on America's Maoists\\|last1\\=Leonard\\|first1\\=Aaron J.\\|last2\\=Gallagher\\|first2\\=Conor A.\\|publisher\\=Zero Books\\|year\\=2014\\|location\\=Winchester\\|pages\\=10–34}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=Revolution in the Air\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Elbaum\\|first\\=Max\\|publisher\\=Verso\\|year\\=2002\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n54 95]–99\\|isbn\\=9781859846179}} They became active in the [Vietnam Veterans Against the War](/wiki/Vietnam_Veterans_Against_the_War \"Vietnam Veterans Against the War\") after it opened its membership to non\\-veteransAndrew E. Hunt. *The Turning: A History of Vietnam Veterans Against the War*, New York University Press, 1999, p. 188 and temporarily gained control when the national office voted to expel non RU chapters and members and voted to integrate into the Revolutionary Union although non Marxist members of the VVAW filed and won a lawsuit prohibiting the RU dominated group from using the VVAW name, logos and materials.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vvaw.org/about/vvawai.php\\|title\\=VVAW Official Website – Court Order\\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-03\\-22}} Deep animosity still exists between the two organizations. In September 1975 the RU officially voted to dissolve and reestablish itself into the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA \"Revolutionary Communist Party, USA\").{{Cite book\\|title\\=Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals turn to Lenin, Che and Mao\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba\\|url\\-access\\=limited\\|last\\=Elbaum\\|first\\=Max\\|publisher\\=Verso Books\\|year\\=2002\\|location\\=London\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n105 191]–193\\|isbn\\=9781859846179\\|quote\\=It \\[the RU] convened a congress in September 1975 that formally disbanded RU and founded the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP)...}}", "### October League", "The Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)'s predecessor organization, the October League (Marxist–Leninist), was founded in 1971 by several local groups, many of which had grown out of the radical student organization [Students for a Democratic Society](/wiki/Students_for_a_Democratic_Society_%281960_organization%29 \"Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)\") when SDS split apart in 1969\\. [Michael Klonsky](/wiki/Michael_Klonsky \"Michael Klonsky\"), who had been a national leader in SDS in the late 1960s, was the main leader of the CP(M\\-L).", "The October League came out of the [Revolutionary Youth Movement II](/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Movement_II \"Revolutionary Youth Movement II\") grouping in the SDS split. During the early 1970s the OL took positions that were at odds with most of the US Left, including opposition to [gay liberation](/wiki/Gay_Liberation \"Gay Liberation\") and support of the [Shah of Iran](/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi \"Mohammad Reza Pahlavi\"), whose regime they saw as a bulwark against Soviet [social\\-imperialism](/wiki/Social-imperialism \"Social-imperialism\").", "The OL established influence within some of the established [civil rights organizations](/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights \"Civil and political rights\"), including the [Southern Christian Leadership Conference](/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference \"Southern Christian Leadership Conference\") and the [Southern Conference Educational Fund](/wiki/Southern_Conference_Educational_Fund \"Southern Conference Educational Fund\"), which had been under the influence of the Moscow\\-oriented [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\").{{cn\\|date\\=January 2024}}", "In late 1975 they organized a \"National Fight Back Conference,\" which drew 1,000 participants and was attended by representatives of the [August 29th Movement](/wiki/August_29th_Movement \"August 29th Movement\"), the [Congress of Afrikan People](/wiki/Congress_of_Afrikan_People \"Congress of Afrikan People\") and the [Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee of San Francisco](/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist_Organizing_Committee_of_San_Francisco \"Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee of San Francisco\"). They also had a youth group called the Communist Youth Organization.", "### Greensboro massacre", "{{Main\\|Greensboro massacre}}\nOn November 3, 1979, four members of the [Communist Workers' Party](/wiki/Communist_Workers%27_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Communist Workers' Party (United States)\") (CWP) and a male protester were killed by members of the [Ku Klux Klan](/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan \"Ku Klux Klan\") and the [American Nazi Party](/wiki/American_Nazi_Party \"American Nazi Party\") (ANP) during a *Death to the Klan* march, organized by the CWP. The event had been preceded by inflammatory rhetoric from both sides. The CWP had originally come to Greensboro to support [workers' rights](/wiki/Labor_rights \"Labor rights\") activism among mostly [black](/wiki/African_Americans \"African Americans\") textile industry workers in the area. The march was a part of that larger effort. The Greensboro city police department had an informant within the KKK and ANP group who notified them that the Klan was prepared for armed violence.", "### Rainbow Coalition", "The [Rainbow Coalition](/wiki/Rainbow_Coalition_%28Fred_Hampton%29 \"Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)\") was a multicultural movement founded April 4, 1969 in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\"), [Illinois](/wiki/Illinois \"Illinois\") by [Fred Hampton](/wiki/Fred_Hampton \"Fred Hampton\") of the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\"), along with William \"Preacherman\" Fesperman of the [Young Patriots Organization](/wiki/Young_Patriots_Organization \"Young Patriots Organization\") and [Jose Cha Cha Jimenez](/wiki/Jose_Cha_Cha_Jimenez \"Jose Cha Cha Jimenez\") founder of the [Young Lords](/wiki/Young_Lords \"Young Lords\"). It was the first of several 20th century [Black](/wiki/Black_people \"Black people\")\\-led organizations to use the \"rainbow coalition\" concept.", "### 1970s and 1980s", "As one of its last initiatives, SDS had begun to leave its campus base and organize in [working\\-class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") neighborhoods. Radical militant groups such as [Weather Underground](/wiki/Weather_Underground \"Weather Underground\") are recognized as participants in the movement. Some former members subsequently developed local organizations that continued the trend, and they attempted to find theoretical backing for their work in the writings of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\"), [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\") and [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\"). [Maoism](/wiki/Maoism \"Maoism\") was then highly regarded as more actively revolutionary than the brand of communism supported by the post\\-Stalin [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") (*see* [New Left: New Left in the United States](/wiki/New_Left%23New_Left_in_the_United_States \"New Left#New Left in the United States\")). As a result, most NCM organizations referred to their ideology as Marxism–Leninism\\-Mao Zedong Thought and rejected what they saw as the devolution of socialism in the contemporary Soviet Union.", "Similar to the New Left's general direction in the late 1960s, these new organizations rejected the post\\-1956 [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") as [revisionist](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism \"Marxist revisionism\"), or anti\\-revolutionary, and also rejected [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism \"Trotskyism\") and the [Socialist Workers Party](/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Socialist Workers Party (United States)\") for its theoretical opposition to Maoism.", "The groups, formed of ex\\-students, attempted to establish links with the working class through finding work in factories and heavy industry, but they also tended toward [Third\\-worldism](/wiki/Third-worldism \"Third-worldism\"), supporting National Liberation Fronts of various kinds, including the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\") (then on the decline), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\"), and the [National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam](/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Vietnam \"National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam\"). The New Communist Movement organizations supported national [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") for most ethnic groups, especially blacks and those of Latino origin, in the United States. These organizations addressed problems of [sexism](/wiki/Sexism \"Sexism\") and [racism](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\"), partly by voicing adamant support for self\\-determination and [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics \"Identity politics\"), and felt that they were dealing with problems they were of the opinion had not been addressed in the groups of the 1960s. However, different NCM groups came to this similar conclusion via quite different routes.", "In its early years, NCM organisations formed a loose\\-knit tendency in United States [leftist](/wiki/Leftist \"Leftist\") politics, but never coalesced into a single organization. As time went on, the organizations became extremely competitive and increasingly denounced one another. Points of distinction were frequently founded on the attitude taken toward the [successors of Mao](/wiki/Gang_of_Four_%28China%29 \"Gang of Four (China)\") and international disputes between the Soviet Union and China regarding such developments as the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War \"Angolan Civil War\"). The [Revolutionary Union](/wiki/Revolutionary_Union \"Revolutionary Union\") organized the founding congress of the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA \"Revolutionary Communist Party, USA\") in 1975\\.", "The [October League](/wiki/October_League \"October League\") organized the founding congress of the [Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29_%28United_States%29 \"Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (United States)\") in 1977\\. During this period a few other new communist movement organizations also formed new [communist parties](/wiki/Communist_parties \"Communist parties\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Elbaum \\|first1\\=Max \\|title\\=Revolution in the Air \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Verso \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n57 102]–103 \\|edition\\=Hardcover \\|chapter\\=Chapter 4: A New Communist Movement Takes Shape \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85984\\-617\\-9 \\|quote\\=Mike Clonsky and other RYM II leaders in Los Angeles formed the October League collective ...\"}}", "Unlike the majority of NCM groups, the [Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement](/wiki/Dodge_Revolutionary_Union_Movement \"Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement\") (DRUM), which evolved into the League of Revolutionary Black Workers (LRBW), was formed by factory workers rather than student activists. The [AFL–CIO](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO \"AFL–CIO\") leadership supported the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") and sought to avoid strikes, but union workers saw through this and independently organized a series of [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes \"Wildcat strikes\"). Radical [Marxist](/wiki/Marxist \"Marxist\") and other [African\\-American](/wiki/African-American \"African-American\") auto workers subsequently formed DRUM. From 1968 to 1971 DRUM and the league acted as a [dual union](/wiki/Dual_union \"Dual union\"), with black leadership, within the [United Auto Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers \"United Auto Workers\"). In the late 1970s a group labeled the [May 19th Communist Organization](/wiki/May_19th_Communist_Organization \"May 19th Communist Organization\") was created, going on a bombing campaign.", "In 1979, after the publishing of Enver Hoxha's Imperialism and the Revolution and other criticisms of Maoism from Albania, some groups renounced Maoism in favour of an [\"orthodox Marxist–Leninist\"](/wiki/Hoxhaism \"Hoxhaism\") line similar to that of the Albanian communists. Many of these groups such as the Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee and Sunrise Collective formed together in a joint statement against the end of Chinese aid to Albania. The U.S. Marxist–Leninist Party, previously the Central Organization of U.S. Marxist\\-Leninists, would become the primary recognized vanguard party in the United States supported by Albania, although Albanian aid to the American communists was minimal due to fears of CIA infiltration. Other groups such as the Red Dawn Organization and Pacific Collective (Marxist–Leninist) would meet with similarly pro\\-Albania groups in the 1979 in an attempt to unite and form a single communist party.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\\-5/index.htm\\|title\\=The New Communist Movement: Crises, Splits and More New Parties, 1977–1980}}", "" ]
### 1970s and 1980s As one of its last initiatives, SDS had begun to leave its campus base and organize in [working\-class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class") neighborhoods. Radical militant groups such as [Weather Underground](/wiki/Weather_Underground "Weather Underground") are recognized as participants in the movement. Some former members subsequently developed local organizations that continued the trend, and they attempted to find theoretical backing for their work in the writings of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin"), [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong "Mao Zedong") and [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin"). [Maoism](/wiki/Maoism "Maoism") was then highly regarded as more actively revolutionary than the brand of communism supported by the post\-Stalin [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") (*see* [New Left: New Left in the United States](/wiki/New_Left%23New_Left_in_the_United_States "New Left#New Left in the United States")). As a result, most NCM organizations referred to their ideology as Marxism–Leninism\-Mao Zedong Thought and rejected what they saw as the devolution of socialism in the contemporary Soviet Union. Similar to the New Left's general direction in the late 1960s, these new organizations rejected the post\-1956 [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA "Communist Party USA") as [revisionist](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism "Marxist revisionism"), or anti\-revolutionary, and also rejected [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism "Trotskyism") and the [Socialist Workers Party](/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_%28United_States%29 "Socialist Workers Party (United States)") for its theoretical opposition to Maoism. The groups, formed of ex\-students, attempted to establish links with the working class through finding work in factories and heavy industry, but they also tended toward [Third\-worldism](/wiki/Third-worldism "Third-worldism"), supporting National Liberation Fronts of various kinds, including the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party "Black Panther Party") (then on the decline), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution "Cuban Revolution"), and the [National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam](/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Vietnam "National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam"). The New Communist Movement organizations supported national [self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination") for most ethnic groups, especially blacks and those of Latino origin, in the United States. These organizations addressed problems of [sexism](/wiki/Sexism "Sexism") and [racism](/wiki/Racism "Racism"), partly by voicing adamant support for self\-determination and [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics "Identity politics"), and felt that they were dealing with problems they were of the opinion had not been addressed in the groups of the 1960s. However, different NCM groups came to this similar conclusion via quite different routes. In its early years, NCM organisations formed a loose\-knit tendency in United States [leftist](/wiki/Leftist "Leftist") politics, but never coalesced into a single organization. As time went on, the organizations became extremely competitive and increasingly denounced one another. Points of distinction were frequently founded on the attitude taken toward the [successors of Mao](/wiki/Gang_of_Four_%28China%29 "Gang of Four (China)") and international disputes between the Soviet Union and China regarding such developments as the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War "Angolan Civil War"). The [Revolutionary Union](/wiki/Revolutionary_Union "Revolutionary Union") organized the founding congress of the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA "Revolutionary Communist Party, USA") in 1975\. The [October League](/wiki/October_League "October League") organized the founding congress of the [Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29_%28United_States%29 "Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (United States)") in 1977\. During this period a few other new communist movement organizations also formed new [communist parties](/wiki/Communist_parties "Communist parties").{{cite book \|last1\=Elbaum \|first1\=Max \|title\=Revolution in the Air \|url\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba \|url\-access\=limited \|date\=2002 \|publisher\=Verso \|location\=London \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n57 102]–103 \|edition\=Hardcover \|chapter\=Chapter 4: A New Communist Movement Takes Shape \|isbn\=978\-1\-85984\-617\-9 \|quote\=Mike Clonsky and other RYM II leaders in Los Angeles formed the October League collective ..."}} Unlike the majority of NCM groups, the [Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement](/wiki/Dodge_Revolutionary_Union_Movement "Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement") (DRUM), which evolved into the League of Revolutionary Black Workers (LRBW), was formed by factory workers rather than student activists. The [AFL–CIO](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO "AFL–CIO") leadership supported the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") and sought to avoid strikes, but union workers saw through this and independently organized a series of [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes "Wildcat strikes"). Radical [Marxist](/wiki/Marxist "Marxist") and other [African\-American](/wiki/African-American "African-American") auto workers subsequently formed DRUM. From 1968 to 1971 DRUM and the league acted as a [dual union](/wiki/Dual_union "Dual union"), with black leadership, within the [United Auto Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers "United Auto Workers"). In the late 1970s a group labeled the [May 19th Communist Organization](/wiki/May_19th_Communist_Organization "May 19th Communist Organization") was created, going on a bombing campaign. In 1979, after the publishing of Enver Hoxha's Imperialism and the Revolution and other criticisms of Maoism from Albania, some groups renounced Maoism in favour of an ["orthodox Marxist–Leninist"](/wiki/Hoxhaism "Hoxhaism") line similar to that of the Albanian communists. Many of these groups such as the Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee and Sunrise Collective formed together in a joint statement against the end of Chinese aid to Albania. The U.S. Marxist–Leninist Party, previously the Central Organization of U.S. Marxist\-Leninists, would become the primary recognized vanguard party in the United States supported by Albania, although Albanian aid to the American communists was minimal due to fears of CIA infiltration. Other groups such as the Red Dawn Organization and Pacific Collective (Marxist–Leninist) would meet with similarly pro\-Albania groups in the 1979 in an attempt to unite and form a single communist party.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\-5/index.htm\|title\=The New Communist Movement: Crises, Splits and More New Parties, 1977–1980}}
[ "### 1970s and 1980s", "As one of its last initiatives, SDS had begun to leave its campus base and organize in [working\\-class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\") neighborhoods. Radical militant groups such as [Weather Underground](/wiki/Weather_Underground \"Weather Underground\") are recognized as participants in the movement. Some former members subsequently developed local organizations that continued the trend, and they attempted to find theoretical backing for their work in the writings of [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\"), [Mao Zedong](/wiki/Mao_Zedong \"Mao Zedong\") and [Joseph Stalin](/wiki/Joseph_Stalin \"Joseph Stalin\"). [Maoism](/wiki/Maoism \"Maoism\") was then highly regarded as more actively revolutionary than the brand of communism supported by the post\\-Stalin [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") (*see* [New Left: New Left in the United States](/wiki/New_Left%23New_Left_in_the_United_States \"New Left#New Left in the United States\")). As a result, most NCM organizations referred to their ideology as Marxism–Leninism\\-Mao Zedong Thought and rejected what they saw as the devolution of socialism in the contemporary Soviet Union.", "Similar to the New Left's general direction in the late 1960s, these new organizations rejected the post\\-1956 [Communist Party USA](/wiki/Communist_Party_USA \"Communist Party USA\") as [revisionist](/wiki/Marxist_revisionism \"Marxist revisionism\"), or anti\\-revolutionary, and also rejected [Trotskyism](/wiki/Trotskyism \"Trotskyism\") and the [Socialist Workers Party](/wiki/Socialist_Workers_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Socialist Workers Party (United States)\") for its theoretical opposition to Maoism.", "The groups, formed of ex\\-students, attempted to establish links with the working class through finding work in factories and heavy industry, but they also tended toward [Third\\-worldism](/wiki/Third-worldism \"Third-worldism\"), supporting National Liberation Fronts of various kinds, including the [Black Panther Party](/wiki/Black_Panther_Party \"Black Panther Party\") (then on the decline), the [Cuban Revolution](/wiki/Cuban_Revolution \"Cuban Revolution\"), and the [National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam](/wiki/National_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Vietnam \"National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam\"). The New Communist Movement organizations supported national [self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\") for most ethnic groups, especially blacks and those of Latino origin, in the United States. These organizations addressed problems of [sexism](/wiki/Sexism \"Sexism\") and [racism](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\"), partly by voicing adamant support for self\\-determination and [identity politics](/wiki/Identity_politics \"Identity politics\"), and felt that they were dealing with problems they were of the opinion had not been addressed in the groups of the 1960s. However, different NCM groups came to this similar conclusion via quite different routes.", "In its early years, NCM organisations formed a loose\\-knit tendency in United States [leftist](/wiki/Leftist \"Leftist\") politics, but never coalesced into a single organization. As time went on, the organizations became extremely competitive and increasingly denounced one another. Points of distinction were frequently founded on the attitude taken toward the [successors of Mao](/wiki/Gang_of_Four_%28China%29 \"Gang of Four (China)\") and international disputes between the Soviet Union and China regarding such developments as the [Angolan Civil War](/wiki/Angolan_Civil_War \"Angolan Civil War\"). The [Revolutionary Union](/wiki/Revolutionary_Union \"Revolutionary Union\") organized the founding congress of the [Revolutionary Communist Party, USA](/wiki/Revolutionary_Communist_Party%2C_USA \"Revolutionary Communist Party, USA\") in 1975\\.", "The [October League](/wiki/October_League \"October League\") organized the founding congress of the [Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist%29_%28United_States%29 \"Communist Party (Marxist–Leninist) (United States)\") in 1977\\. During this period a few other new communist movement organizations also formed new [communist parties](/wiki/Communist_parties \"Communist parties\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Elbaum \\|first1\\=Max \\|title\\=Revolution in the Air \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|date\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=Verso \\|location\\=London \\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/revolutionairsix00elba/page/n57 102]–103 \\|edition\\=Hardcover \\|chapter\\=Chapter 4: A New Communist Movement Takes Shape \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-85984\\-617\\-9 \\|quote\\=Mike Clonsky and other RYM II leaders in Los Angeles formed the October League collective ...\"}}", "Unlike the majority of NCM groups, the [Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement](/wiki/Dodge_Revolutionary_Union_Movement \"Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement\") (DRUM), which evolved into the League of Revolutionary Black Workers (LRBW), was formed by factory workers rather than student activists. The [AFL–CIO](/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO \"AFL–CIO\") leadership supported the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") and sought to avoid strikes, but union workers saw through this and independently organized a series of [wildcat strikes](/wiki/Wildcat_strikes \"Wildcat strikes\"). Radical [Marxist](/wiki/Marxist \"Marxist\") and other [African\\-American](/wiki/African-American \"African-American\") auto workers subsequently formed DRUM. From 1968 to 1971 DRUM and the league acted as a [dual union](/wiki/Dual_union \"Dual union\"), with black leadership, within the [United Auto Workers](/wiki/United_Auto_Workers \"United Auto Workers\"). In the late 1970s a group labeled the [May 19th Communist Organization](/wiki/May_19th_Communist_Organization \"May 19th Communist Organization\") was created, going on a bombing campaign.", "In 1979, after the publishing of Enver Hoxha's Imperialism and the Revolution and other criticisms of Maoism from Albania, some groups renounced Maoism in favour of an [\"orthodox Marxist–Leninist\"](/wiki/Hoxhaism \"Hoxhaism\") line similar to that of the Albanian communists. Many of these groups such as the Marxist–Leninist Organizing Committee and Sunrise Collective formed together in a joint statement against the end of Chinese aid to Albania. The U.S. Marxist–Leninist Party, previously the Central Organization of U.S. Marxist\\-Leninists, would become the primary recognized vanguard party in the United States supported by Albania, although Albanian aid to the American communists was minimal due to fears of CIA infiltration. Other groups such as the Red Dawn Organization and Pacific Collective (Marxist–Leninist) would meet with similarly pro\\-Albania groups in the 1979 in an attempt to unite and form a single communist party.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.marxists.org/history/erol/ncm\\-5/index.htm\\|title\\=The New Communist Movement: Crises, Splits and More New Parties, 1977–1980}}", "" ]
History of Fort Pitt -------------------- {{See also\|Saskatchewan River fur trade}} Fort Pitt (1829–1890\) was a prairie trading post of the HBC on the North Saskatchewan River about {{convert\|16\|km}} east of the present\-day Alberta border. It was on the north bank of the river on a flat above a bluff. It traded mainly in pemmican and buffalo robes with the Blackfoot, Cree, and some Métis. There was a fair amount of agriculture and horse\-rearing. It was named after Thomas Pitt, a member of the HBC governing board from 1810 to 1832\. ### Bison and the establishment of Fort Pitt [thumb\|left\|Bison](/wiki/File:Canadian_Bison.JPG "Canadian Bison.JPG") In 1690, [Henry Kelsey](/wiki/Henry_Kelsey "Henry Kelsey") from the HBC became the first European to walk the [prairies](/wiki/Prairie "Prairie") of [Rupert's Land](/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land "Rupert's Land") and see the abundance of bison. For thousands of years dating back to the Western Archaic and the Avonlea Periods, [First Nations](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada "First Nations in Canada") have stalked, hunted, and followed the migration of bison along the prairies.{{Cite book\|title\=A World We Have lost\|last\=Waiser\|first\=Bill\|publisher\=Fifth House\|year\=2016\|isbn\=978\-1\-927083\-39\-0\|location\=Markham Ontario\|pages\=67, 279}} Prior to European contact with North America, the bison was the most numerous of all grazing animals. Estimates of their numbers are only speculative, but may have ranged from 30,000,000 to 75,000,000\.{{Cite journal\|last\=Arthun\|first\=Dave\|date\=1982\|title\=The North American Bison\|jstor\=3900451\|journal\=Rangelands\|volume\=4\|issue\=3\|pages\=123–125}} By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the production of pemmican on the plains had become an industrial\-scale operation. For many years, prairie bison also provided pelts, hides, and other food. In the early 1800s, various fur\-trading companies began strategically placing numerous trading posts on the maze of northern waterways. The Saskatchewan River provided access to the south\-western area of Rupert's Land and to the [Sturgeon\-Weir River](/wiki/Sturgeon-Weir_River "Sturgeon-Weir River"), which led to the [Churchill River](/wiki/Churchill_River_%28Hudson_Bay%29 "Churchill River (Hudson Bay)"). These vast water highways spanned the future province from east to west.{{Cite book\|title\=Saskatchewan A New History\|last\=Waiser\|first\=Bill\|publisher\=Fifth House\|year\=2005\|isbn\=978\-1\-894856\-43\-0\|location\=Calgary Alberta\|pages\=26}} In 1830, Fort Pitt was established on the North Saskatchewan River by the HBC in what was at its time known as the heart of buffalo country. The fort was built by Chief Factor John Rowand to meet the provisions necessary for the HBC, such as buffalo meat, hides, and pemmican. The fort was established in September 1829 by HBC company clerk Patrick Small, the son of [North West Company](/wiki/North_West_Company "North West Company") (NWC) partner Patrick Small, the brother\-in\-law of [David Thompson](/wiki/David_Thompson_%28explorer%29 "David Thompson (explorer)") and [John MacDonald](/wiki/John_MacDonald_of_Garth "John MacDonald of Garth") and the son\-in\-law of David Hughes.{{cite book\|last1\=Fromhold\|first1\=Joachim\|title\=Alberta History Jasper National Park: 10,000 Years of Indian History Part 2 – 1750 to 1850\|publisher\=lulu.com\|page\=175\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Jal7AwAAQBAJ\|access\-date\=7 November 2015\|isbn\=9781105144004\|year\=2012}}{{cite book\|last1\=Brown\|first1\=Wayne\|title\=Sam Steele and the Northwest Rebellion the trail of 1885\|date\=2013\|publisher\=Heritage House\|location\=Victoria, BC\|isbn\=978\-1\-927527\-24\-5\|page\=44\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=IhXYuj3nJZwC\&q\=%22patrick\+small%22\+fort\+pitt\&pg\=PA44\|access\-date\=7 November 2015}} During the first winter Small and his men lived in tents, and building was not completed until spring 1831\. It was closed in 1832 for fear of attack by surrounding [Cree](/wiki/Cree "Cree") and [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot "Blackfoot"), though it reopened in fall 1833\.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2016}} In 1843, John Rowand, the son of John Rowand of [Fort Edmonton](/wiki/Fort_Edmonton "Fort Edmonton"), became master. In 1854, the elder Rowand, on his way to retirement, visited his son. While attempting to break up a fight between two [voyageurs](/wiki/Voyageurs "Voyageurs"), he had a heart attack and died.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2016}} Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane "Paul Kane") visited the fort in 1848\. #### Depletion of bison In 1873, the bison market came to an abrupt end when Fort Pitt, once one of the most reliable sources of provisions in the [Saskatchewan District](/wiki/History_of_the_Northwest_Territories "History of the Northwest Territories"), all but collapsed. The demands of numerous HBC and NWC trading companies along Saskatchewan waterways in the 1800s significantly depleted the once well established bison population. With completion of the US [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad "Union Pacific Railroad") in 1869, between 1868 and 1881 an estimated 31,000,000 bison were killed, mostly as a result of trade in bison hide and sport hunting in the United States.{{Cite book\|title\=Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Indigenous Life\|last\=Daschuk\|first\=James\|publisher\=University of Regina Press\|year\=2019\|isbn\=9780889776227\|location\=Regina, Saskatchewan\|pages\=65}} Despite every exertion being made by the officer in charge of the post, who sent staff to follow up and traffic wherever Indians or buffalo could be found, parties returned from the South Branch territories empty handed. After the bison were gone, almost five\-sixths of the provisions brought to the post had to come from the hands of independent parties who were forced to travel staggering distances to obtain such resources. Purchases of these crucial resources soon became "a heavy expense" on the post. Meanwhile, the rest of the upper Saskatchewan posts were still able to meet the demands of the HBC.{{Cite journal\|last\=Colpitts\|first\=George\|date\=2012\|title\=Provisioning the HBC: Market Economies in the British Buffalo Commons in the Early Nineteenth Century\|jstor\=westhistquar.43\.2\.0179\|journal\=Western Historical Quarterly\|volume\=43\|issue\=2\|pages\=179–203\|doi\=10\.2307/westhistquar.43\.2\.0179}} The economic and social impact the depletion of bison left on Indigenous tribes was devastating. ##### Impact on Indigenous peoples After the disappearance of bison in the lands surrounding Fort Pitt, Indigenous peoples attempted agriculture to provide food for their families. Their initial farming attempts failed because when choosing reserve land, chiefs had shown a decided preference for rolling, heavily wooded terrain that was better suited for traditional pursuits such as hunting and gathering than raising crops. Government authorities attributed this sorry outcome to "Indian idleness" rather than environmental circumstances. The agricultural aid promised in treaties such as implements, animals, and seeds was also slow in coming and inadequate. The government of Canada expected the Indian adoption of agriculture to be an overnight success on the [Indian reserves](/wiki/Indian_reserve "Indian reserve") and was more concerned with saving money than providing necessary assistance. As the trade and resources dwindled surrounding Fort Pitt, the federal government came to resent its existing treaty obligations. In particular, they came to resent the cost of feeding starving Indians and balked at assuming additional duties. Many even questioned why money should be spent on keeping a dying race alive. Canadian government officials adopted a "submit or starve" technique in an attempt to force Indigenous people into forfeiting rights, signing treaties, and moving onto reserves. [Big Bear](/wiki/Big_Bear "Big Bear") resisted signing the treaty, then moved his band onto a reserve near Fort Pitt. ### Smallpox The emergence of [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox "Smallpox") had devastating consequences on Fort Pitt and the surrounding area. The plague of illness further taxed the already diminished recourses at Fort Pitt. The depletion of the buffalo, a fundamental food source, paired with lack of knowledge surrounding the smallpox virus directly correlated to the 100 Cree lives lost in 1869\-1870\. The 100 dead Cree was the second\-highest death toll due to smallpox of any recorded Cree population during this time. While these are recorded numbers some estimates are provided that the smallpox virus may have claimed the lives of half of all Cree. Some sources estimate upwards of 10,000 deaths were caused by the virus.{{Cite book\|title\=Mission Among the Buffalo\|last\=Nix\|first\=James\|publisher\=The Ryerson Press; First edition\|year\=1960}} "More than 100 infected Cree, forbidden from entering the fort, died outside the stockade. The dead laid{{sic}} for days until hungry wolves came from the forest and fought over the rotting bodies. Some sick Natives thought that if they could give the sickness back to the Canadians at Fort Pitt{{snd}} where it had come from{{snd}} they could stop the suffering themselves. So they hung around the fort, put their scarred faces against the pump handles and spat on the door knobs."{{Cite book\|title\=Fort Pitt to Fort William\|last\=Patemen\|first\=John\|publisher\=Pateran Press\|year\=2013\|location\=Thunder Bay, Ontario\|pages\=16}} While smallpox had devastating effects on the population surrounding Fort Pitt its effects failed to penetrate the walls of the fort to any great extent. The *[Journal of the American Medical Association](/wiki/JAMA "JAMA")* states that as few as three people were infected inside the fort itself. The author of the article said "I can only attribute this to the fact that Mr. John Sinclair had taken precaution early in the previous summer to vaccinate all of the persons residing there."{{Cite journal\|last\=Hamilton M.D., LL.D.\|first\=John\|date\=January–June 1897\|title\=Smallpox Among the unprotected Aborigines of Canada\|url\=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id\=8\-k5AQAAMAAJ\&printsec\=frontcover\&output\=reader\&pg\=GBS.PA67\|journal\=The Journal of the American Medical Association\|volume\=28\|pages\=922}} Fort Pitt provided hope to the many infected making the journey to seek aid at the fort. Many Cree set up temporary settlements in the surrounding area in hopes that the fort would be able to provide aid to the ill. The large congregation of Cree surrounding Fort Pitt may have been one of the reasons that accounts of death due to smallpox were so high in the surrounding areas. ### Tension with the Blackfoot As the relationship between Fort Pitt and the Cree began to grow, so did the tension between the Members of Fort Pitt and the Blackfoot. The Blackfoot's deemed any allies of the Cree to be enemies of the Blackfoot and thus open to exploitation and attack. "The Blackfoot considered the Hudson's Bay Company to be in league with the Cree, so their relationship with the traders became tenuous. In 1863 the Blackfoot began to raid Fort Pitt itself."{{Cite book\|title\=Big Bear the End of Freedom\|last\=Dempsey\|first\=Hugh\|publisher\=Douglas \& McIntyre Ltd\|year\=2006\|location\=Regina Saskatchewan\|pages\=26, 79}} The fact that "Many Crees had intermarried with Hudson's Bay Company employees and were so friendly with them that the Blackfoot began to see the traders as their enemies as well."{{Cite book\|title\=Big Bear The End Of Freedom\|last\=Dempsey\|first\=Hugh\|publisher\=Douglas \& McIntyre Ltd\|year\=2006\|location\=Regina Saskatchewan\|pages\=68}} Increased trading with the Woods and Plains Cree created fear amongst the HBC traders at Fort Pitt. The HBC worried that trading with the Cree would open the Cree as well as Fort Pitt itself up to raids by the Blackfoot. "The arrival of the Cree caused fear at the post that they would attract Blackfoot raiders and a possible attack on the post. Fort Pitt at the time was understaffed, both staff and the local Métis being away hunting on the plains or with the boat brigade."{{Cite book\|title\=The Western Cree Maski Pitons Band (Maskeptoon, Broken arm) Of the Plains Cree\|last\=Fromhold\|first\=Joachim\|publisher\=First Nations Publishing\|year\=1860\|location\=Canada\|pages\=428}} The Blackfoot made many attempts to intercept trading parties en route to the fort, as well as making raid attempts on the fort itself. ### Big Bear [thumb\|Big Bear at Fort Pitt](/wiki/File:Big_Bear_at_Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan%2C_in_1884.jpg "Big Bear at Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan, in 1884.jpg") Big Bear's presence and position within the Plains Cree was a defining factor in the relationship that Fort Pitt shared with the Cree nation. Big Bear was often described as an advocate for the peaceful negotiations between the Indigenous populations and the European settlers. Big Bear's presence in the area would have helped facilitate a less hostile environment, and would have been a significant factor in how the Plains Cree acted during the [rebellion of 1885](/wiki/North-West_Rebellion "North-West Rebellion"). "Despite their impoverished state and stinging sense of disillusionment and betrayal, Indians had made a solemn vow during the treaty negotiations to live in peace and were not prepared to break this pledge and plunge the region into war. Instead Big Bear and other senior Cree chiefs patiently sought a peaceful resolution to their grievances."{{Cite book\|title\=Saskatchewan A New History\|last\=Waiser\|first\=Bill\|publisher\=Fifth House\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-1\-894856\-43\-0\|location\=Calgary Alberta\|pages\=165, 166}} The compassion that Big Bear showed for the value of human life is made evident by treatment of the HBC members at Fort Pitt during the Cree takeover in 1885\. "The absorption of the people of Fort Pitt into the camp, and of other people gathered from the surrounding countryside suggest that Big Bear and the other Woods Cree leaders saw this as essential in order to protect those whose lives might be in danger. Their goal was to keep them out of harm's way, not do harm to them. The great number of 'captives' or 'prisoners' had opted for the protection of the Cree camp upon the advice of aboriginal friends or leaders. This was difficult for the general non\-Aboriginal public to comprehend."{{Cite book\|title\=Challenging Frontiers the Canadian West\|last\=Felske, Rasporich\|first\=Lorry, Beverly\|publisher\=University of Calgary Press\|year\=2004\|isbn\=978\-1\-55238\-140\-3\|location\=Calgary Alberta\|pages\=78, 79, 80}} Many Fort Pitt inhabitants were so comfortable with the relationship between them and the Cree they would walk uncontested into the Cree camps even after the hostilities that took place at the fort. Big Bear and 14 band members stood trial in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan "Regina, Saskatchewan") for their participation in the events of 1885 including the capturing of Fort Pitt. Even though Big Bear not only did not participate in the violence but was an advocate against it, he was still accused of treason for not abandoning the Plains Cree at the onset of the violence. He was ultimately convicted of treason and served three years at the [Stony Mountain Penitentiary](/wiki/Stony_Mountain_Penitentiary "Stony Mountain Penitentiary"). ### Chief Sweet Grass Even though Big Bear was a more powerful and recognized leader within the Crees and Saskatchewan area, Chief [Sweet Grass](/wiki/Sweet_Grass_%28Cree_chief%29 "Sweet Grass (Cree chief)") played a large role in the securing of Treaty 6, as well as a leading role in dealing with the government. Due to Big Bear's predisposed bad reputation with McDougall, [Alexander Morris](/wiki/Alexander_Morris_%28politician%29 "Alexander Morris (politician)") had arrived to begin negotiations with a predetermined favouritism towards Chief Sweet Grass. Despite Chief Sweet Grass's holding only 25 lodges compared to Big Bear's 65, Sweet Grass was still seen as desirable because of the government belief in his ability to sway his fellow council members into signing.{{cite book\|last1\=Quan\|first1\=Holly\|title\=Native chiefs and famous Métis: Leadership and bravery in the Canadian West\|date\=2009\|publisher\=Heritage House\|location\=Surrey, BC.}} To try to secure his people's safety and well\-being moving forward with the treaty, Chief Sweet Grass addressed the governors present as such: {{blockquote\|text\="When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper. It is for that reason I give you my hand."{{cite journal\|title\=Treaty Research Report \- Treaty 6 (1876\)\|url\=https://www.aadnc\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\|website\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\|date\=2008\-11\-03\|last1\=Branch\|first1\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}}}} Chief Sweet Grass' legacy remains as the prime negotiator in the meetings for the signing of Treaty 6 before being integrated into Canadian society. Sweet Grass converted to Christianity in 1870,{{cite book\|last1\=Milloy\|first1\=John\|title\=The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy, and, War, 1790\-1870\|date\=1988\|publisher\=University of Manitoba Pres.\|page\=116}} being baptized into Catholicism with the name Abraham.{{cite web\|last1\=Turner\|first1\=Allan\|title\=WIKASKOKISEYIN, ABRAHAM\|url\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/wikaskokiseyin\_abraham\_10E.html\|website\=Dictionary of Canadian Biography\|publisher\=University of Toronto}} He later was shot dead by his brother, using the pistol given to him for signing the treaty.{{cite book\|last1\=Cuthand\|first1\=Doug\|title\=Askiwina: A Cree World\|url\=https://archive.org/details/askiwinacreeworl0000cuth\|url\-access\=registration\|date\=2007\|publisher\=Coteau Books\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/askiwinacreeworl0000cuth/page/43 43]\|isbn\=9781550503456 }} The Sweet Grass Reserve is established in [Battleford, Saskatchewan](/wiki/Battleford%2C_Saskatchewan "Battleford, Saskatchewan"). ### Treaty 6 {{main\|Treaty 6}} Before the introduction of Treaty 6 into land stretching into what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta, several numbered treaties had appeared as the Canadian government pushed west to open the land for settlers. Due to a lack of provincial boundaries set in place before several of the numbered treaties existing, there is an overlap in treaty / provincial lines.{{cite book\|last1\=Frideres\|first1\=J.S.\|title\=Native People's in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts\|date\=1993\|publisher\=Prentice\-Hall Canada\|page\=69}} As situations got worse in Manitoba for the Métis and other Indigenous populations, they headed further west to salvage what they could of the diminishing buffalo population. In turn, as they settled in the [District of Saskatchewan](/wiki/District_of_Saskatchewan "District of Saskatchewan"), it put even greater pressure on the population there. Therefore, this left the Indigenous people of Fort Pitt, and other surrounding areas, no other options other than to seek an agreement with the Canadian government in the form of a treaty to protect their interests.{{cite journal\|title\=Treaty Research Report \- Treaty 6 (1876\)\|url\=https://www.aadnc\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\|website\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\|date\=2008\-11\-03\|last1\=Branch\|first1\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}} The main inhabitants of the land at the time consisted of Cree, with some Assiniboine, Saulteaux, and Chipewyan, although the main intention of the treaty was focused on the Cree people. Treaty 6 was noted as one of the only treaties in which provisions such as medical treatment as well as relief in case of national disease or famine.{{cite book\|last1\=Frideres\|first1\=J.S.\|title\=Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts\|date\=1993\|publisher\=Prentice Hall Canada\|page\=72}} Despite Chief Big Bear's resentment towards the signing of the treaty, due to his belief that it was unfair towards its people, it went on to be signed without him. The negotiations began on 5 September 1876\. In exchange for their land, they were given horses, wagons, farming equipment, as well as the promise of aid mentioned above.{{cite book\|last1\=Pateman\|first1\=John\|title\=Fort Pitt to Fort William\|date\=2014\|publisher\=Pateran Press\|page\=74}} During the initial negotiations, Morris and company had declared that the people of Fort Pitt will be given the same treaty terms presented at Fort Carlton. After Morris was given permission to establish the terms of the treaty to the Indigenous council, they met in council to debate and discuss the rest of the day. Days after initial negotiations had begun, the commissioners arrived to gather the final decision.{{cite journal\|title\=Treaty Research Report \- Treaty 6 (1876\)\|url\=https://www.aadnc\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\|website\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\|date\=2008\-11\-03\|last1\=Branch\|first1\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}} Cree Chief Sweet Grass came forward from the council to accept the terms given to them by the government, but also a plea to keep the Indigenous population alive and prosperous, stating "When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper."(Ibid., 1873, No. 23, Morris to Howe, 13 December 1872\) The treaty had consisted of annual cash payments to chiefs and their band members, ranging from $5 to $25, reserve lands, schools on the reserves, as well as farming equipment and tools such as wagons, horses, livestock, twine, and ammunition.{{cite encyclopedia\|author\=Michelle Filice\|url\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/treaty\-6\|title\=Treaty 6\|encyclopedia\=\[\[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]\|access\-date\=9 September 2019}} ### Wandering Spirit [Wandering Spirit](/wiki/Wandering_Spirit_%28Cree_leader%29 "Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)") was a war chief in the Plains Cree under the leadership of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit's personality and ideals varied from Big Bear in many ways, he was more susceptible to the use of violence instead of the peaceful negotiations preferred by Big Bear. Wandering Spirit "had initiated the killing of nine White and half\-breed men on 2 April at Frog Lake." This act of defiance against Big Bear and his peaceful negotiations was a turning point in the Plains Cree's history. The war chiefs soon took control of the Plains Cree "ending Big Bear's peaceful ten\-year struggle to obtain better conditions for his people."{{Cite book\|title\=Historic SASKATCHEWAN\|last\=Fieguth Christensen\|first\=Menno Deanna\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=1986\|location\=Toronto\|pages\=49, 50}} One of Wandering Spirit's first movements after the [Frog Lake Massacre](/wiki/Frog_Lake_Massacre "Frog Lake Massacre") was to proceed south\-east to the HBC trading post at Fort Pitt, where Wandering Spirit demanded the post be surrendered by the [North\-West Mounted Police](/wiki/North-West_Mounted_Police "North-West Mounted Police") (NWMP) guarding it. In return for a peaceful surrender the NWMP were allowed to leave unharmed. Wandering Spirit gave the employees of HBC and their families the choice of leaving with the police or surrendering to the Cree. All of the HBC employees chose to surrender instead of leave Fort Pitt with the police. Wandering Spirit ordered his men to raid the fort, filling wagons full of food clothes and supplies. The Cree then returned to Frog Lake with 44 hostages from Fort Pitt. Most of the hostages were placed under the control of the Woods Cree at [Frog Lake](/wiki/Frog_Lake%2C_Alberta "Frog Lake, Alberta"). In May 1885, Fort Pitt was once again visited by Wandering Spirit and Big Bear's Cree. By this time, the Cree Camp had grown to an estimated 300 men, 700 women and children, as well as containing hostages, dogs, and horses. The Cree once again took the resources form the fort, this time departing to [Frenchman Butte](/wiki/Frenchman_Butte "Frenchman Butte"). Upon the departure the Cree set fire to many of the buildings at Fort Pitt. This was one of the most aggressive and destructive actions that were directed directly at Fort Pitt itself. While Wandering Spirit showed more aggression than Big Bear he often still tried to avoid violence. The fact that he gave the option of surrender and departure to the NWMP at Fort Pitt emphasized that while he was not opposed to violence it was not his desired outcome. There is some debate about whether the release of the NWMP was Wandering Spirit's idea or due to the intervention of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit was not opposed to the presence of the HBC in the North\-West Territories; however, he strongly opposed the government. The police force at Fort Pitt was his target in May 1885, not the many traders and their families who worked for the HBC. Hostilities were never expressed towards the traders or their families, and they were welcomed into the Cree camps.{{Cite book\|title\=A User's Guide to Saskatchewan Parks\|last\=Clancy\|first\=Michael, Anna\|publisher\=University of Regina\|year\=2006\|isbn\=978\-0\-88977\-198\-7\|location\=Regina Saskatchewan\|pages\=241, 242}} Wandering Spirit eventually surrendered with other members of the Cree at Fort Pitt, where he and other Cree were accused of their crimes and murders of 1885\. ### Francis Jeffery Dickens In 1883, 25 NWMP were sent to Fort Pitt under the command of [Francis Dickens](/wiki/Francis_Dickens "Francis Dickens"), the son of the novelist [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens "Charles Dickens"). Dickens arrived "Several days late and was met by a large camp of Indians, many of them dissatisfied because they had not received their promised agriculture equipment." At this time, Fort Pitt was seeing an increase in the number of dissatisfied Plains Cree in the surrounding area. The lack of resources and growing tensions throughout the prairies were influential factors in the 1885 rebellion. Soon after the violence broke out at [Duck Lake](/wiki/Battle_of_Duck_Lake "Battle of Duck Lake"), John Rae requested that Dickens track and ensure that Big Bear's Cree had remained in the Fort Pitt area. There was a growing fear that an increasing number of Cree would join the Métis and pose an even greater threat.{{Cite book\|title\=Lesser Expectations: Charles Dickens' in North America\|last\=Parsons\|first\=Vic\|publisher\=Friesen Press\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-1\-4602\-1438\-1\|location\=Victoria British Columbia\|pages\=197}}{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/dickens\_francis\_jeffrey\_11E.html\|title\=Biography Dickens Francis Jeffery\|last\=MaCleod\|first\=Roderick\|website\=Dictionary of Canadian Biography}} After losing control of Fort Pitt, Dickens and his men retreated to the safety of Battleford, effectively ending Dickens active duty with the NWMP. Dickens was employed as a justice of the peace and presided over some of the preliminary hearings for the rebels. In 1886, he left the employment of government and moved to the United States with the intentions of completing a lecture tour. Dickens died on 11 June of a suspected heart attack before the tour began. ### W.J. McLean – Fort Pitt supervisor during uprising W.J. McLean was a chief trader who was responsible for the supervision of Fort Pitt beginning in 1884\. He had previously served twenty years with the company at various locations. His wife Helen was born at [Fort Dunvegan](/wiki/Dunvegan_Provincial_Park "Dunvegan Provincial Park") and was partly of aboriginal ancestry. There were eight McLean children, and in the spring of 1885 Helen McLean was expecting another child. The three eldest McLean sisters, Amelia, Eliza, and Kitty, were all well educated, having attended school at Red River, but they could also ride, shoot, and were fluent in [Cree](/wiki/Plains_Cree_language "Plains Cree language") and [Saulteaux](/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language "Western Ojibwa language"). Following the Massacre at Frog Lake, Fort Pitt's population dramatically increased as people from surrounding districts sought protection there, some with the assistance of Aboriginal associates. There were 23 NWMP stationed at the fort under the command of Francis Dickens. These included many police members who were evacuated from Frog Lake. On 14 April, when Big Bear and his Plains Cree party assembled on the banks overlooking the fort, they specifically asked to speak to McLean, who was on friendly terms with these people and believed that he did not have to fear for himself or his family. Lengthy discussions lasted two days; however, violence broke out when the Cree thought themselves to be under attack. In statements made later, McLean never hesitated to lay the blame for this on the poor judgment of Inspector Dickens, who, the day before, sent out two NWMP and one civilian to gather information on the whereabouts of Aboriginal groups. Their sudden appearance led the Cree to believe that they were under attack. Three Crees were killed during the confrontation along with one of the NWMP members. During this event, all the inhabitants of Fort Pitt except the remaining NWMP, agreed to evacuate the fort, and become part of Big Bear's camp.{{Cite book\|title\=Two Months in the Camp of Big Bear\|last\=Gowanlock\|first\=Theresa\|publisher\=Times Office\|year\=1885\|location\=Toronto Ontario}} ### North\-West Rebellion {{Main\|Battle of Fort Pitt}} There was a great deal of unease surrounding the European settlers and the Indigenous population during the mid\-1880s. Fort Pitt was no exception. There are, however, examples given that suggest that the relationship between the European settlers, and the Cree were different than the relations of the time in other areas. There was a great deal of violence in the areas surrounding Fort Pitt; however, this was not necessarily the case within the fort itself. Many accounts of the violence state that it was a "settling of personal scores" and many of the land owners in the surrounding area were targeted due to their past relationships with the Indigenous population. This resentment and anger was not directed at the European settlers as a whole but, rather specific members of the population, as well as government. Some historians state that "many of the killings were the settling of personal scores."{{Cite book\|title\=CLEARING THE PLAINS DISEASE, POLITICS OF STARVATION, AND THE LOSS OF ABORIGINAL LIFE\|last\=Daschuk\|first\=James\|publisher\=University of Regina Press\|year\=2013\|isbn\=978\-0\-88977\-296\-0\|location\=Regina Saskatchewan\|pages\=65, 86, 96, 131, 150, 155}} They also reference situations such as Bill Waiser, where in his book *A World We Have Lost: Saskatchewan Before 1905* he provides some insight into the events at Fort Pitt. The author provides evidence that the relationship between the NWMP at Fort Pitt and the Cree was not as hostile as often thought. {{blockquote\|text\="Had the plains Cree been truly hostile and intended on waging war, they would have attacked the fort almost immediately and not given the police any time to try and fortify their position. That they waited several days confirmed that the murders were unpremeditated and that this new action was largely motivated by the need for food and previsions for their large camp."{{Cite book\|title\=A World We Have Lost Saskatchewan Before 1905\|last\=Waiser\|first\=Bill\|publisher\=Fifth House\|year\=2016\|isbn\=978\-1\-927083\-39\-0\|location\=Markham Ontario\|pages\=552, 553}}}} Daschuk also states that "police officers at Fort Pitt we spared in recognition of their humanity" further suggesting that the relationships may not have been as resentful as other areas. [thumb\|1885 rebellion](/wiki/File:Qu_Appalle_Valley_1885_Rebellion.jpg "Qu Appalle Valley 1885 Rebellion.jpg") The only loss of European life at the hands of the Cree during the capture of Fort Pitt came when the search party sent out by Dickens accidentally rode their horses through a Cree camp. The surprised Cree engaged in a brief fire fight fearing that this was an attack by the NWMP. In the attack, David Cowan was fatally wounded, and Constable Lawrence Loasby was wounded but managed to escape only to be captured a short time later. A third NWMP officer was captured but not injured. This is one of the events that influenced Dickens to initiate his retreat, leaving the fort vacant of NWMP and surrendering to the Cree's occupation of the fort with minimal resistance.{{Cite book\|title\=Honoured in Places : Remembered Mounties Across Canada\|last\=White, Hulgaard\|first\=William, John\|publisher\=Heritage House Publishing Co.\|year\=2002\|isbn\=978\-1\-894384\-39\-1\|location\=Surrey British Columbia\|pages\=210}} There were also three Cree who lost their lives in this brief battle.{{Cite book\|title\=Prairie Fire The 1885 North\-West Rebellio\|last\=Beal,Macloed\|first\=Bob,Rod\|publisher\=Hurtig Publishers\|year\=1984\|isbn\=978\-0\-88830\-262\-5\|location\=Edmonton\|pages\=205–219}} Dickens was also persuaded by the threat that the Cree may simply set the fort on fire instead of attack it. {{blockquote\|text\="The Indians told Mclean they wouldn't even need to attack the fort. They had brought 40 gallons{{efn\|{{convert\|40\|impgal\|L\|disp\=out}}}} of coal oil from Frog lake, more than enough to set the small stockade and the building it contained ablaze"''}} On 17 April 1885, the members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation effectively took control of Fort Pitt and successfully negotiated the evacuation of the NWMP. The members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation successfully maintained control of Fort Pitt until 2 July 1885 when they surrendered to the NWMP.{{Cite web\|url\=https://library.usask.ca/northwest/background/chronol.htm\|title\=The Northwest Resistance\|website\=University of Saskatchewan archives}} After the police force was dispatched from the fort the remaining men, women, and children were given the choice to either leave the fort or stay as "hostages" the majority chose to stay. By most recorded accounts, they were treated with relative dignity and respect. This further promotes the idea put forth by Waiser that this movement on Fort Pitt was not intended as an act of pure aggression, but one created out of the necessity to feed themselves and gain adequate supplies. During the second sacking of Fort Pitt on 9 April, the Cree under the orders of Wandering Spirit raided the remaining resources and set fire to the fort, destroying all but one of the service buildings.{{Cite book\|title\=Louis Riel Friebrand\|last\=Stewart\|first\=Shannon\|publisher\=XYZ publishing\|year\=2007\|location\=Montreal Quebec\|pages\=183}} On 26 May, a mounted column arrived at Fort Pitt to see the remains still smouldering in the aftermath of the Cree raid. The members of the column were "sobered by the discovery of the body of Constable David Cowan, his heart removed and placed on a nearby pole."{{Cite book\|title\=Prairie Warships: River Navigation in the Northwest Rebellion\|last\=Tolton\|first\=Gordon\|publisher\=Heritage House Publishing Co\|year\=2007\|isbn\=978\-1\-894974\-30\-1\|location\=Surrey British Columbia\|pages\=112, 113}} Fort Pitt's location and the fact that it was situated at the divergence of many trails led the column to reclaiming it setting up headquarters. The actions of the Cree warriors at Fort Pitt as well as other locations such as Frog lake during the Rebellion of 1885 were contributing factors in the government's creation of the Alberta Field Force on 20 April 1885\. The Alberta Field Force consisted of one thousand men, and was tasked with ending the rebellion and returning peace to the land. They marched unimpeded from Calgary east meeting their first significant resistance upon arrival in the Fort Pitt region. The Alberta Field Force encountered and interrupted a group of Cree performing a thirst dance, in which the Cree were searching for spiritual guidance. This was happening at the base of Frenchman Butte. This encounter and the violent outbreak afterwards would be described as "one of the most indecisive skirmishes during the tragedy of 1885\." Frenchman Butte is located {{convert\|18\|km}} north\-west of Fort Pitt, and it is a significant historical site for the role it played in the Battle of Batoche. It was at this location that the Alberta Field Force marched upon the some of Big Bear's Cree while they were participating in a thirst dance after leaving Fort Pitt. The Alberta Field Forces interruption of the thirst dance lead to the retreat of the Cree to the rifle pits throughout the plains. "Big Bear's soldiers installed themselves in deep rifle pits above the surrounding plains."{{Cite book\|title\=THE CANADIAN PRAiRIES\|last\=Friesen\|first\=Gerald\|publisher\=University of Toronto Press\|year\=1987\|location\=Canada}} The short [Battle of Frenchman's Butte](/wiki/Battle_of_Frenchman%27s_Butte "Battle of Frenchman's Butte") occurred, but soon after it began, the Canadian Militia realized that Big Bear's men had the superior tactical position, and they were forced to retreat to the safety of Fort Pitt, while Big Bear's men retreated in the opposite direction startled by the firepower of the Alberta Field Force. ### Post North\-West Rebellion history The next September, the fort was rebuilt by [Angus McKay](/wiki/Angus_McKay_%281858%E2%80%931952%29 "Angus McKay (1858–1952)"). In 1887, a branch post was built at [Onion Lake](/wiki/Onion_Lake_Cree_Nation "Onion Lake Cree Nation") about {{convert\|32\|km}} to the north\-west. In 1890, everything was moved to Onion Lake, and Fort Pitt was closed. In 1944, Fort Pitt was sold to a local rancher, Robert Henry Hougham (1889\-1960\), with the intent to cultivate the land for agricultural purposes. On the commencement of land cultivation, Hougham discovered shallow graves located in close proximity to the remains of the original fort. It is unknown at this time the specifics surrounding the remains as many of the tombstones and other identifying landmarks were destroyed during the fires and rebellion in 1885\. Hougham reconstructed one of the early structures and worked the land for 16 years until his death in 1960\. He was buried on the property near a stone cairn that had been erected at the site in 1954\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://lauriedgraham.ca/2012/08/08/fort\-pitt\-saskatchewan\-3/\|title\=Fort Pitt Saskatchewan\|last\=Laurie\|first\=Graham\|date\=2012\-08\-08\|access\-date\=27 March 2018\|archive\-date\=28 March 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328164539/https://lauriedgraham.ca/2012/08/08/fort\-pitt\-saskatchewan\-3/\|url\-status\=dead}} In 1954, Fort Pitt was designated a [national historic site of Canada](/wiki/National_historic_site_of_Canada "National historic site of Canada"). According to the Parks Canada Directory of Federal Heritage Designations, the significance of Fort Pitt to Canadian heritage is "the Hudson's Bay Company built the post to trade in buffalo hides, meat and pemmican; It was the site of the signing of Treaty No. 6 in 1876; and, it was burned during the 1885 rebellion by Big Bear's followers after the police had withdrawn to Battleford."{{fact\|date\=January 2024}}
[ "History of Fort Pitt\n--------------------", "{{See also\\|Saskatchewan River fur trade}}\nFort Pitt (1829–1890\\) was a prairie trading post of the HBC on the North Saskatchewan River about {{convert\\|16\\|km}} east of the present\\-day Alberta border. It was on the north bank of the river on a flat above a bluff. It traded mainly in pemmican and buffalo robes with the Blackfoot, Cree, and some Métis. There was a fair amount of agriculture and horse\\-rearing. It was named after Thomas Pitt, a member of the HBC governing board from 1810 to 1832\\.", "### Bison and the establishment of Fort Pitt", "[thumb\\|left\\|Bison](/wiki/File:Canadian_Bison.JPG \"Canadian Bison.JPG\")\nIn 1690, [Henry Kelsey](/wiki/Henry_Kelsey \"Henry Kelsey\") from the HBC became the first European to walk the [prairies](/wiki/Prairie \"Prairie\") of [Rupert's Land](/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land \"Rupert's Land\") and see the abundance of bison. For thousands of years dating back to the Western Archaic and the Avonlea Periods, [First Nations](/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada \"First Nations in Canada\") have stalked, hunted, and followed the migration of bison along the prairies.{{Cite book\\|title\\=A World We Have lost\\|last\\=Waiser\\|first\\=Bill\\|publisher\\=Fifth House\\|year\\=2016\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-927083\\-39\\-0\\|location\\=Markham Ontario\\|pages\\=67, 279}} Prior to European contact with North America, the bison was the most numerous of all grazing animals. Estimates of their numbers are only speculative, but may have ranged from 30,000,000 to 75,000,000\\.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Arthun\\|first\\=Dave\\|date\\=1982\\|title\\=The North American Bison\\|jstor\\=3900451\\|journal\\=Rangelands\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=123–125}} By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the production of pemmican on the plains had become an industrial\\-scale operation. For many years, prairie bison also provided pelts, hides, and other food. In the early 1800s, various fur\\-trading companies began strategically placing numerous trading posts on the maze of northern waterways. The Saskatchewan River provided access to the south\\-western area of Rupert's Land and to the [Sturgeon\\-Weir River](/wiki/Sturgeon-Weir_River \"Sturgeon-Weir River\"), which led to the [Churchill River](/wiki/Churchill_River_%28Hudson_Bay%29 \"Churchill River (Hudson Bay)\"). These vast water highways spanned the future province from east to west.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Saskatchewan A New History\\|last\\=Waiser\\|first\\=Bill\\|publisher\\=Fifth House\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-894856\\-43\\-0\\|location\\=Calgary Alberta\\|pages\\=26}} In 1830, Fort Pitt was established on the North Saskatchewan River by the HBC in what was at its time known as the heart of buffalo country. The fort was built by Chief Factor John Rowand to meet the provisions necessary for the HBC, such as buffalo meat, hides, and pemmican.", "The fort was established in September 1829 by HBC company clerk Patrick Small, the son of [North West Company](/wiki/North_West_Company \"North West Company\") (NWC) partner Patrick Small, the brother\\-in\\-law of [David Thompson](/wiki/David_Thompson_%28explorer%29 \"David Thompson (explorer)\") and [John MacDonald](/wiki/John_MacDonald_of_Garth \"John MacDonald of Garth\") and the son\\-in\\-law of David Hughes.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Fromhold\\|first1\\=Joachim\\|title\\=Alberta History Jasper National Park: 10,000 Years of Indian History Part 2 – 1750 to 1850\\|publisher\\=lulu.com\\|page\\=175\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Jal7AwAAQBAJ\\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2015\\|isbn\\=9781105144004\\|year\\=2012}}{{cite book\\|last1\\=Brown\\|first1\\=Wayne\\|title\\=Sam Steele and the Northwest Rebellion the trail of 1885\\|date\\=2013\\|publisher\\=Heritage House\\|location\\=Victoria, BC\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-927527\\-24\\-5\\|page\\=44\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=IhXYuj3nJZwC\\&q\\=%22patrick\\+small%22\\+fort\\+pitt\\&pg\\=PA44\\|access\\-date\\=7 November 2015}} During the first winter Small and his men lived in tents, and building was not completed until spring 1831\\. It was closed in 1832 for fear of attack by surrounding [Cree](/wiki/Cree \"Cree\") and [Blackfoot](/wiki/Blackfoot \"Blackfoot\"), though it reopened in fall 1833\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2016}}", "In 1843, John Rowand, the son of John Rowand of [Fort Edmonton](/wiki/Fort_Edmonton \"Fort Edmonton\"), became master. In 1854, the elder Rowand, on his way to retirement, visited his son. While attempting to break up a fight between two [voyageurs](/wiki/Voyageurs \"Voyageurs\"), he had a heart attack and died.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2016}} Artist [Paul Kane](/wiki/Paul_Kane \"Paul Kane\") visited the fort in 1848\\.", "#### Depletion of bison", "In 1873, the bison market came to an abrupt end when Fort Pitt, once one of the most reliable sources of provisions in the [Saskatchewan District](/wiki/History_of_the_Northwest_Territories \"History of the Northwest Territories\"), all but collapsed. The demands of numerous HBC and NWC trading companies along Saskatchewan waterways in the 1800s significantly depleted the once well established bison population. With completion of the US [Union Pacific Railroad](/wiki/Union_Pacific_Railroad \"Union Pacific Railroad\") in 1869, between 1868 and 1881 an estimated 31,000,000 bison were killed, mostly as a result of trade in bison hide and sport hunting in the United States.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Indigenous Life\\|last\\=Daschuk\\|first\\=James\\|publisher\\=University of Regina Press\\|year\\=2019\\|isbn\\=9780889776227\\|location\\=Regina, Saskatchewan\\|pages\\=65}} Despite every exertion being made by the officer in charge of the post, who sent staff to follow up and traffic wherever Indians or buffalo could be found, parties returned from the South Branch territories empty handed. After the bison were gone, almost five\\-sixths of the provisions brought to the post had to come from the hands of independent parties who were forced to travel staggering distances to obtain such resources. Purchases of these crucial resources soon became \"a heavy expense\" on the post. Meanwhile, the rest of the upper Saskatchewan posts were still able to meet the demands of the HBC.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Colpitts\\|first\\=George\\|date\\=2012\\|title\\=Provisioning the HBC: Market Economies in the British Buffalo Commons in the Early Nineteenth Century\\|jstor\\=westhistquar.43\\.2\\.0179\\|journal\\=Western Historical Quarterly\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=179–203\\|doi\\=10\\.2307/westhistquar.43\\.2\\.0179}} The economic and social impact the depletion of bison left on Indigenous tribes was devastating.", "##### Impact on Indigenous peoples", "After the disappearance of bison in the lands surrounding Fort Pitt, Indigenous peoples attempted agriculture to provide food for their families. Their initial farming attempts failed because when choosing reserve land, chiefs had shown a decided preference for rolling, heavily wooded terrain that was better suited for traditional pursuits such as hunting and gathering than raising crops. Government authorities attributed this sorry outcome to \"Indian idleness\" rather than environmental circumstances. The agricultural aid promised in treaties such as implements, animals, and seeds was also slow in coming and inadequate. The government of Canada expected the Indian adoption of agriculture to be an overnight success on the [Indian reserves](/wiki/Indian_reserve \"Indian reserve\") and was more concerned with saving money than providing necessary assistance. As the trade and resources dwindled surrounding Fort Pitt, the federal government came to resent its existing treaty obligations. In particular, they came to resent the cost of feeding starving Indians and balked at assuming additional duties. Many even questioned why money should be spent on keeping a dying race alive. Canadian government officials adopted a \"submit or starve\" technique in an attempt to force Indigenous people into forfeiting rights, signing treaties, and moving onto reserves. [Big Bear](/wiki/Big_Bear \"Big Bear\") resisted signing the treaty, then moved his band onto a reserve near Fort Pitt.", "### Smallpox", "The emergence of [smallpox](/wiki/Smallpox \"Smallpox\") had devastating consequences on Fort Pitt and the surrounding area. The plague of illness further taxed the already diminished recourses at Fort Pitt. The depletion of the buffalo, a fundamental food source, paired with lack of knowledge surrounding the smallpox virus directly correlated to the 100 Cree lives lost in 1869\\-1870\\. The 100 dead Cree was the second\\-highest death toll due to smallpox of any recorded Cree population during this time. While these are recorded numbers some estimates are provided that the smallpox virus may have claimed the lives of half of all Cree. Some sources estimate upwards of 10,000 deaths were caused by the virus.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Mission Among the Buffalo\\|last\\=Nix\\|first\\=James\\|publisher\\=The Ryerson Press; First edition\\|year\\=1960}} \"More than 100 infected Cree, forbidden from entering the fort, died outside the stockade. The dead laid{{sic}} for days until hungry wolves came from the forest and fought over the rotting bodies. Some sick Natives thought that if they could give the sickness back to the Canadians at Fort Pitt{{snd}} where it had come from{{snd}} they could stop the suffering themselves. So they hung around the fort, put their scarred faces against the pump handles and spat on the door knobs.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Fort Pitt to Fort William\\|last\\=Patemen\\|first\\=John\\|publisher\\=Pateran Press\\|year\\=2013\\|location\\=Thunder Bay, Ontario\\|pages\\=16}}", "While smallpox had devastating effects on the population surrounding Fort Pitt its effects failed to penetrate the walls of the fort to any great extent. The *[Journal of the American Medical Association](/wiki/JAMA \"JAMA\")* states that as few as three people were infected inside the fort itself. The author of the article said \"I can only attribute this to the fact that Mr. John Sinclair had taken precaution early in the previous summer to vaccinate all of the persons residing there.\"{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Hamilton M.D., LL.D.\\|first\\=John\\|date\\=January–June 1897\\|title\\=Smallpox Among the unprotected Aborigines of Canada\\|url\\=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id\\=8\\-k5AQAAMAAJ\\&printsec\\=frontcover\\&output\\=reader\\&pg\\=GBS.PA67\\|journal\\=The Journal of the American Medical Association\\|volume\\=28\\|pages\\=922}}", "Fort Pitt provided hope to the many infected making the journey to seek aid at the fort. Many Cree set up temporary settlements in the surrounding area in hopes that the fort would be able to provide aid to the ill. The large congregation of Cree surrounding Fort Pitt may have been one of the reasons that accounts of death due to smallpox were so high in the surrounding areas.", "### Tension with the Blackfoot", "As the relationship between Fort Pitt and the Cree began to grow, so did the tension between the Members of Fort Pitt and the Blackfoot. The Blackfoot's deemed any allies of the Cree to be enemies of the Blackfoot and thus open to exploitation and attack. \"The Blackfoot considered the Hudson's Bay Company to be in league with the Cree, so their relationship with the traders became tenuous. In 1863 the Blackfoot began to raid Fort Pitt itself.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Big Bear the End of Freedom\\|last\\=Dempsey\\|first\\=Hugh\\|publisher\\=Douglas \\& McIntyre Ltd\\|year\\=2006\\|location\\=Regina Saskatchewan\\|pages\\=26, 79}} The fact that \"Many Crees had intermarried with Hudson's Bay Company employees and were so friendly with them that the Blackfoot began to see the traders as their enemies as well.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Big Bear The End Of Freedom\\|last\\=Dempsey\\|first\\=Hugh\\|publisher\\=Douglas \\& McIntyre Ltd\\|year\\=2006\\|location\\=Regina Saskatchewan\\|pages\\=68}} Increased trading with the Woods and Plains Cree created fear amongst the HBC traders at Fort Pitt. The HBC worried that trading with the Cree would open the Cree as well as Fort Pitt itself up to raids by the Blackfoot. \"The arrival of the Cree caused fear at the post that they would attract Blackfoot raiders and a possible attack on the post. Fort Pitt at the time was understaffed, both staff and the local Métis being away hunting on the plains or with the boat brigade.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Western Cree Maski Pitons Band (Maskeptoon, Broken arm) Of the Plains Cree\\|last\\=Fromhold\\|first\\=Joachim\\|publisher\\=First Nations Publishing\\|year\\=1860\\|location\\=Canada\\|pages\\=428}} The Blackfoot made many attempts to intercept trading parties en route to the fort, as well as making raid attempts on the fort itself.", "### Big Bear", "[thumb\\|Big Bear at Fort Pitt](/wiki/File:Big_Bear_at_Fort_Pitt%2C_Saskatchewan%2C_in_1884.jpg \"Big Bear at Fort Pitt, Saskatchewan, in 1884.jpg\")\nBig Bear's presence and position within the Plains Cree was a defining factor in the relationship that Fort Pitt shared with the Cree nation. Big Bear was often described as an advocate for the peaceful negotiations between the Indigenous populations and the European settlers. Big Bear's presence in the area would have helped facilitate a less hostile environment, and would have been a significant factor in how the Plains Cree acted during the [rebellion of 1885](/wiki/North-West_Rebellion \"North-West Rebellion\"). \"Despite their impoverished state and stinging sense of disillusionment and betrayal, Indians had made a solemn vow during the treaty negotiations to live in peace and were not prepared to break this pledge and plunge the region into war. Instead Big Bear and other senior Cree chiefs patiently sought a peaceful resolution to their grievances.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Saskatchewan A New History\\|last\\=Waiser\\|first\\=Bill\\|publisher\\=Fifth House\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-894856\\-43\\-0\\|location\\=Calgary Alberta\\|pages\\=165, 166}} The compassion that Big Bear showed for the value of human life is made evident by treatment of the HBC members at Fort Pitt during the Cree takeover in 1885\\. \"The absorption of the people of Fort Pitt into the camp, and of other people gathered from the surrounding countryside suggest that Big Bear and the other Woods Cree leaders saw this as essential in order to protect those whose lives might be in danger. Their goal was to keep them out of harm's way, not do harm to them. The great number of 'captives' or 'prisoners' had opted for the protection of the Cree camp upon the advice of aboriginal friends or leaders. This was difficult for the general non\\-Aboriginal public to comprehend.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Challenging Frontiers the Canadian West\\|last\\=Felske, Rasporich\\|first\\=Lorry, Beverly\\|publisher\\=University of Calgary Press\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-55238\\-140\\-3\\|location\\=Calgary Alberta\\|pages\\=78, 79, 80}} Many Fort Pitt inhabitants were so comfortable with the relationship between them and the Cree they would walk uncontested into the Cree camps even after the hostilities that took place at the fort.", "Big Bear and 14 band members stood trial in [Regina](/wiki/Regina%2C_Saskatchewan \"Regina, Saskatchewan\") for their participation in the events of 1885 including the capturing of Fort Pitt. Even though Big Bear not only did not participate in the violence but was an advocate against it, he was still accused of treason for not abandoning the Plains Cree at the onset of the violence. He was ultimately convicted of treason and served three years at the [Stony Mountain Penitentiary](/wiki/Stony_Mountain_Penitentiary \"Stony Mountain Penitentiary\").", "### Chief Sweet Grass", "Even though Big Bear was a more powerful and recognized leader within the Crees and Saskatchewan area, Chief [Sweet Grass](/wiki/Sweet_Grass_%28Cree_chief%29 \"Sweet Grass (Cree chief)\") played a large role in the securing of Treaty 6, as well as a leading role in dealing with the government. Due to Big Bear's predisposed bad reputation with McDougall, [Alexander Morris](/wiki/Alexander_Morris_%28politician%29 \"Alexander Morris (politician)\") had arrived to begin negotiations with a predetermined favouritism towards Chief Sweet Grass. Despite Chief Sweet Grass's holding only 25 lodges compared to Big Bear's 65, Sweet Grass was still seen as desirable because of the government belief in his ability to sway his fellow council members into signing.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Quan\\|first1\\=Holly\\|title\\=Native chiefs and famous Métis: Leadership and bravery in the Canadian West\\|date\\=2009\\|publisher\\=Heritage House\\|location\\=Surrey, BC.}} To try to secure his people's safety and well\\-being moving forward with the treaty, Chief Sweet Grass addressed the governors present as such:", "{{blockquote\\|text\\=\"When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper. It is for that reason I give you my hand.\"{{cite journal\\|title\\=Treaty Research Report \\- Treaty 6 (1876\\)\\|url\\=https://www.aadnc\\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\\|website\\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-03\\|last1\\=Branch\\|first1\\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}}}}", "Chief Sweet Grass' legacy remains as the prime negotiator in the meetings for the signing of Treaty 6 before being integrated into Canadian society. Sweet Grass converted to Christianity in 1870,{{cite book\\|last1\\=Milloy\\|first1\\=John\\|title\\=The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy, and, War, 1790\\-1870\\|date\\=1988\\|publisher\\=University of Manitoba Pres.\\|page\\=116}} being baptized into Catholicism with the name Abraham.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Turner\\|first1\\=Allan\\|title\\=WIKASKOKISEYIN, ABRAHAM\\|url\\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/wikaskokiseyin\\_abraham\\_10E.html\\|website\\=Dictionary of Canadian Biography\\|publisher\\=University of Toronto}} He later was shot dead by his brother, using the pistol given to him for signing the treaty.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Cuthand\\|first1\\=Doug\\|title\\=Askiwina: A Cree World\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/askiwinacreeworl0000cuth\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|date\\=2007\\|publisher\\=Coteau Books\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/askiwinacreeworl0000cuth/page/43 43]\\|isbn\\=9781550503456 }} The Sweet Grass Reserve is established in [Battleford, Saskatchewan](/wiki/Battleford%2C_Saskatchewan \"Battleford, Saskatchewan\").", "### Treaty 6", "{{main\\|Treaty 6}}\nBefore the introduction of Treaty 6 into land stretching into what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta, several numbered treaties had appeared as the Canadian government pushed west to open the land for settlers. Due to a lack of provincial boundaries set in place before several of the numbered treaties existing, there is an overlap in treaty / provincial lines.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Frideres\\|first1\\=J.S.\\|title\\=Native People's in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Prentice\\-Hall Canada\\|page\\=69}} As situations got worse in Manitoba for the Métis and other Indigenous populations, they headed further west to salvage what they could of the diminishing buffalo population. In turn, as they settled in the [District of Saskatchewan](/wiki/District_of_Saskatchewan \"District of Saskatchewan\"), it put even greater pressure on the population there. Therefore, this left the Indigenous people of Fort Pitt, and other surrounding areas, no other options other than to seek an agreement with the Canadian government in the form of a treaty to protect their interests.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Treaty Research Report \\- Treaty 6 (1876\\)\\|url\\=https://www.aadnc\\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\\|website\\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-03\\|last1\\=Branch\\|first1\\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}} The main inhabitants of the land at the time consisted of Cree, with some Assiniboine, Saulteaux, and Chipewyan, although the main intention of the treaty was focused on the Cree people.", "Treaty 6 was noted as one of the only treaties in which provisions such as medical treatment as well as relief in case of national disease or famine.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Frideres\\|first1\\=J.S.\\|title\\=Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts\\|date\\=1993\\|publisher\\=Prentice Hall Canada\\|page\\=72}} Despite Chief Big Bear's resentment towards the signing of the treaty, due to his belief that it was unfair towards its people, it went on to be signed without him. The negotiations began on 5 September 1876\\. In exchange for their land, they were given horses, wagons, farming equipment, as well as the promise of aid mentioned above.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Pateman\\|first1\\=John\\|title\\=Fort Pitt to Fort William\\|date\\=2014\\|publisher\\=Pateran Press\\|page\\=74}} During the initial negotiations, Morris and company had declared that the people of Fort Pitt will be given the same treaty terms presented at Fort Carlton. After Morris was given permission to establish the terms of the treaty to the Indigenous council, they met in council to debate and discuss the rest of the day. Days after initial negotiations had begun, the commissioners arrived to gather the final decision.{{cite journal\\|title\\=Treaty Research Report \\- Treaty 6 (1876\\)\\|url\\=https://www.aadnc\\-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100028706/1100100028708\\|website\\=Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada\\|date\\=2008\\-11\\-03\\|last1\\=Branch\\|first1\\=Government of Canada; Indigenous Northern Affairs Canada; Communications}} Cree Chief Sweet Grass came forward from the council to accept the terms given to them by the government, but also a plea to keep the Indigenous population alive and prosperous, stating \"When I hold your hand and touch your heart, let us be as one; use your utmost to help me and help my children so that they may prosper.\"(Ibid., 1873, No. 23, Morris to Howe, 13 December 1872\\) The treaty had consisted of annual cash payments to chiefs and their band members, ranging from $5 to $25, reserve lands, schools on the reserves, as well as farming equipment and tools such as wagons, horses, livestock, twine, and ammunition.{{cite encyclopedia\\|author\\=Michelle Filice\\|url\\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/treaty\\-6\\|title\\=Treaty 6\\|encyclopedia\\=\\[\\[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]\\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2019}}", "### Wandering Spirit", "[Wandering Spirit](/wiki/Wandering_Spirit_%28Cree_leader%29 \"Wandering Spirit (Cree leader)\") was a war chief in the Plains Cree under the leadership of Big Bear. Wandering Spirit's personality and ideals varied from Big Bear in many ways, he was more susceptible to the use of violence instead of the peaceful negotiations preferred by Big Bear. Wandering Spirit \"had initiated the killing of nine White and half\\-breed men on 2 April at Frog Lake.\" This act of defiance against Big Bear and his peaceful negotiations was a turning point in the Plains Cree's history. The war chiefs soon took control of the Plains Cree \"ending Big Bear's peaceful ten\\-year struggle to obtain better conditions for his people.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Historic SASKATCHEWAN\\|last\\=Fieguth Christensen\\|first\\=Menno Deanna\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=1986\\|location\\=Toronto\\|pages\\=49, 50}} One of Wandering Spirit's first movements after the [Frog Lake Massacre](/wiki/Frog_Lake_Massacre \"Frog Lake Massacre\") was to proceed south\\-east to the HBC trading post at Fort Pitt, where Wandering Spirit demanded the post be surrendered by the [North\\-West Mounted Police](/wiki/North-West_Mounted_Police \"North-West Mounted Police\") (NWMP) guarding it. In return for a peaceful surrender the NWMP were allowed to leave unharmed. Wandering Spirit gave the employees of HBC and their families the choice of leaving with the police or surrendering to the Cree. All of the HBC employees chose to surrender instead of leave Fort Pitt with the police. Wandering Spirit ordered his men to raid the fort, filling wagons full of food clothes and supplies. The Cree then returned to Frog Lake with 44 hostages from Fort Pitt. Most of the hostages were placed under the control of the Woods Cree at [Frog Lake](/wiki/Frog_Lake%2C_Alberta \"Frog Lake, Alberta\").", "In May 1885, Fort Pitt was once again visited by Wandering Spirit and Big Bear's Cree. By this time, the Cree Camp had grown to an estimated 300 men, 700 women and children, as well as containing hostages, dogs, and horses. The Cree once again took the resources form the fort, this time departing to [Frenchman Butte](/wiki/Frenchman_Butte \"Frenchman Butte\"). Upon the departure the Cree set fire to many of the buildings at Fort Pitt. This was one of the most aggressive and destructive actions that were directed directly at Fort Pitt itself.", "While Wandering Spirit showed more aggression than Big Bear he often still tried to avoid violence. The fact that he gave the option of surrender and departure to the NWMP at Fort Pitt emphasized that while he was not opposed to violence it was not his desired outcome. There is some debate about whether the release of the NWMP was Wandering Spirit's idea or due to the intervention of Big Bear.", "Wandering Spirit was not opposed to the presence of the HBC in the North\\-West Territories; however, he strongly opposed the government. The police force at Fort Pitt was his target in May 1885, not the many traders and their families who worked for the HBC. Hostilities were never expressed towards the traders or their families, and they were welcomed into the Cree camps.{{Cite book\\|title\\=A User's Guide to Saskatchewan Parks\\|last\\=Clancy\\|first\\=Michael, Anna\\|publisher\\=University of Regina\\|year\\=2006\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88977\\-198\\-7\\|location\\=Regina Saskatchewan\\|pages\\=241, 242}}", "Wandering Spirit eventually surrendered with other members of the Cree at Fort Pitt, where he and other Cree were accused of their crimes and murders of 1885\\.", "### Francis Jeffery Dickens", "In 1883, 25 NWMP were sent to Fort Pitt under the command of [Francis Dickens](/wiki/Francis_Dickens \"Francis Dickens\"), the son of the novelist [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\"). Dickens arrived \"Several days late and was met by a large camp of Indians, many of them dissatisfied because they had not received their promised agriculture equipment.\" At this time, Fort Pitt was seeing an increase in the number of dissatisfied Plains Cree in the surrounding area. The lack of resources and growing tensions throughout the prairies were influential factors in the 1885 rebellion. Soon after the violence broke out at [Duck Lake](/wiki/Battle_of_Duck_Lake \"Battle of Duck Lake\"), John Rae requested that Dickens track and ensure that Big Bear's Cree had remained in the Fort Pitt area. There was a growing fear that an increasing number of Cree would join the Métis and pose an even greater threat.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Lesser Expectations: Charles Dickens' in North America\\|last\\=Parsons\\|first\\=Vic\\|publisher\\=Friesen Press\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4602\\-1438\\-1\\|location\\=Victoria British Columbia\\|pages\\=197}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/dickens\\_francis\\_jeffrey\\_11E.html\\|title\\=Biography Dickens Francis Jeffery\\|last\\=MaCleod\\|first\\=Roderick\\|website\\=Dictionary of Canadian Biography}}", "After losing control of Fort Pitt, Dickens and his men retreated to the safety of Battleford, effectively ending Dickens active duty with the NWMP. Dickens was employed as a justice of the peace and presided over some of the preliminary hearings for the rebels. In 1886, he left the employment of government and moved to the United States with the intentions of completing a lecture tour. Dickens died on 11 June of a suspected heart attack before the tour began.", "### W.J. McLean – Fort Pitt supervisor during uprising", "W.J. McLean was a chief trader who was responsible for the supervision of Fort Pitt beginning in 1884\\. He had previously served twenty years with the company at various locations. His wife Helen was born at [Fort Dunvegan](/wiki/Dunvegan_Provincial_Park \"Dunvegan Provincial Park\") and was partly of aboriginal ancestry. There were eight McLean children, and in the spring of 1885 Helen McLean was expecting another child. The three eldest McLean sisters, Amelia, Eliza, and Kitty, were all well educated, having attended school at Red River, but they could also ride, shoot, and were fluent in [Cree](/wiki/Plains_Cree_language \"Plains Cree language\") and [Saulteaux](/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language \"Western Ojibwa language\"). Following the Massacre at Frog Lake, Fort Pitt's population dramatically increased as people from surrounding districts sought protection there, some with the assistance of Aboriginal associates. There were 23 NWMP stationed at the fort under the command of Francis Dickens. These included many police members who were evacuated from Frog Lake. On 14 April, when Big Bear and his Plains Cree party assembled on the banks overlooking the fort, they specifically asked to speak to McLean, who was on friendly terms with these people and believed that he did not have to fear for himself or his family. Lengthy discussions lasted two days; however, violence broke out when the Cree thought themselves to be under attack. In statements made later, McLean never hesitated to lay the blame for this on the poor judgment of Inspector Dickens, who, the day before, sent out two NWMP and one civilian to gather information on the whereabouts of Aboriginal groups. Their sudden appearance led the Cree to believe that they were under attack. Three Crees were killed during the confrontation along with one of the NWMP members. During this event, all the inhabitants of Fort Pitt except the remaining NWMP, agreed to evacuate the fort, and become part of Big Bear's camp.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Two Months in the Camp of Big Bear\\|last\\=Gowanlock\\|first\\=Theresa\\|publisher\\=Times Office\\|year\\=1885\\|location\\=Toronto Ontario}}", "### North\\-West Rebellion", "{{Main\\|Battle of Fort Pitt}}\nThere was a great deal of unease surrounding the European settlers and the Indigenous population during the mid\\-1880s. Fort Pitt was no exception. There are, however, examples given that suggest that the relationship between the European settlers, and the Cree were different than the relations of the time in other areas. There was a great deal of violence in the areas surrounding Fort Pitt; however, this was not necessarily the case within the fort itself. Many accounts of the violence state that it was a \"settling of personal scores\" and many of the land owners in the surrounding area were targeted due to their past relationships with the Indigenous population. This resentment and anger was not directed at the European settlers as a whole but, rather specific members of the population, as well as government. Some historians state that \"many of the killings were the settling of personal scores.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=CLEARING THE PLAINS DISEASE, POLITICS OF STARVATION, AND THE LOSS OF ABORIGINAL LIFE\\|last\\=Daschuk\\|first\\=James\\|publisher\\=University of Regina Press\\|year\\=2013\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88977\\-296\\-0\\|location\\=Regina Saskatchewan\\|pages\\=65, 86, 96, 131, 150, 155}} They also reference situations such as Bill Waiser, where in his book *A World We Have Lost: Saskatchewan Before 1905* he provides some insight into the events at Fort Pitt. The author provides evidence that the relationship between the NWMP at Fort Pitt and the Cree was not as hostile as often thought.", "{{blockquote\\|text\\=\"Had the plains Cree been truly hostile and intended on waging war, they would have attacked the fort almost immediately and not given the police any time to try and fortify their position. That they waited several days confirmed that the murders were unpremeditated and that this new action was largely motivated by the need for food and previsions for their large camp.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=A World We Have Lost Saskatchewan Before 1905\\|last\\=Waiser\\|first\\=Bill\\|publisher\\=Fifth House\\|year\\=2016\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-927083\\-39\\-0\\|location\\=Markham Ontario\\|pages\\=552, 553}}}}", "Daschuk also states that \"police officers at Fort Pitt we spared in recognition of their humanity\" further suggesting that the relationships may not have been as resentful as other areas.\n[thumb\\|1885 rebellion](/wiki/File:Qu_Appalle_Valley_1885_Rebellion.jpg \"Qu Appalle Valley 1885 Rebellion.jpg\")\nThe only loss of European life at the hands of the Cree during the capture of Fort Pitt came when the search party sent out by Dickens accidentally rode their horses through a Cree camp. The surprised Cree engaged in a brief fire fight fearing that this was an attack by the NWMP. In the attack, David Cowan was fatally wounded, and Constable Lawrence Loasby was wounded but managed to escape only to be captured a short time later. A third NWMP officer was captured but not injured. This is one of the events that influenced Dickens to initiate his retreat, leaving the fort vacant of NWMP and surrendering to the Cree's occupation of the fort with minimal resistance.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Honoured in Places : Remembered Mounties Across Canada\\|last\\=White, Hulgaard\\|first\\=William, John\\|publisher\\=Heritage House Publishing Co.\\|year\\=2002\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-894384\\-39\\-1\\|location\\=Surrey British Columbia\\|pages\\=210}} There were also three Cree who lost their lives in this brief battle.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Prairie Fire The 1885 North\\-West Rebellio\\|last\\=Beal,Macloed\\|first\\=Bob,Rod\\|publisher\\=Hurtig Publishers\\|year\\=1984\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-88830\\-262\\-5\\|location\\=Edmonton\\|pages\\=205–219}}", "Dickens was also persuaded by the threat that the Cree may simply set the fort on fire instead of attack it.", "{{blockquote\\|text\\=\"The Indians told Mclean they wouldn't even need to attack the fort. They had brought 40 gallons{{efn\\|{{convert\\|40\\|impgal\\|L\\|disp\\=out}}}} of coal oil from Frog lake, more than enough to set the small stockade and the building it contained ablaze\"''}}", "On 17 April 1885, the members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation effectively took control of Fort Pitt and successfully negotiated the evacuation of the NWMP. The members of the Mistahimaskwa Cree Nation successfully maintained control of Fort Pitt until 2 July 1885 when they surrendered to the NWMP.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://library.usask.ca/northwest/background/chronol.htm\\|title\\=The Northwest Resistance\\|website\\=University of Saskatchewan archives}}", "After the police force was dispatched from the fort the remaining men, women, and children were given the choice to either leave the fort or stay as \"hostages\" the majority chose to stay. By most recorded accounts, they were treated with relative dignity and respect. This further promotes the idea put forth by Waiser that this movement on Fort Pitt was not intended as an act of pure aggression, but one created out of the necessity to feed themselves and gain adequate supplies.", "During the second sacking of Fort Pitt on 9 April, the Cree under the orders of Wandering Spirit raided the remaining resources and set fire to the fort, destroying all but one of the service buildings.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Louis Riel Friebrand\\|last\\=Stewart\\|first\\=Shannon\\|publisher\\=XYZ publishing\\|year\\=2007\\|location\\=Montreal Quebec\\|pages\\=183}}", "On 26 May, a mounted column arrived at Fort Pitt to see the remains still smouldering in the aftermath of the Cree raid. The members of the column were \"sobered by the discovery of the body of Constable David Cowan, his heart removed and placed on a nearby pole.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=Prairie Warships: River Navigation in the Northwest Rebellion\\|last\\=Tolton\\|first\\=Gordon\\|publisher\\=Heritage House Publishing Co\\|year\\=2007\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-894974\\-30\\-1\\|location\\=Surrey British Columbia\\|pages\\=112, 113}} Fort Pitt's location and the fact that it was situated at the divergence of many trails led the column to reclaiming it setting up headquarters.", "The actions of the Cree warriors at Fort Pitt as well as other locations such as Frog lake during the Rebellion of 1885 were contributing factors in the government's creation of the Alberta Field Force on 20 April 1885\\. The Alberta Field Force consisted of one thousand men, and was tasked with ending the rebellion and returning peace to the land. They marched unimpeded from Calgary east meeting their first significant resistance upon arrival in the Fort Pitt region. The Alberta Field Force encountered and interrupted a group of Cree performing a thirst dance, in which the Cree were searching for spiritual guidance. This was happening at the base of Frenchman Butte. This encounter and the violent outbreak afterwards would be described as \"one of the most indecisive skirmishes during the tragedy of 1885\\.\"", "Frenchman Butte is located {{convert\\|18\\|km}} north\\-west of Fort Pitt, and it is a significant historical site for the role it played in the Battle of Batoche. It was at this location that the Alberta Field Force marched upon the some of Big Bear's Cree while they were participating in a thirst dance after leaving Fort Pitt. The Alberta Field Forces interruption of the thirst dance lead to the retreat of the Cree to the rifle pits throughout the plains. \"Big Bear's soldiers installed themselves in deep rifle pits above the surrounding plains.\"{{Cite book\\|title\\=THE CANADIAN PRAiRIES\\|last\\=Friesen\\|first\\=Gerald\\|publisher\\=University of Toronto Press\\|year\\=1987\\|location\\=Canada}} The short [Battle of Frenchman's Butte](/wiki/Battle_of_Frenchman%27s_Butte \"Battle of Frenchman's Butte\") occurred, but soon after it began, the Canadian Militia realized that Big Bear's men had the superior tactical position, and they were forced to retreat to the safety of Fort Pitt, while Big Bear's men retreated in the opposite direction startled by the firepower of the Alberta Field Force.", "### Post North\\-West Rebellion history", "The next September, the fort was rebuilt by [Angus McKay](/wiki/Angus_McKay_%281858%E2%80%931952%29 \"Angus McKay (1858–1952)\"). In 1887, a branch post was built at [Onion Lake](/wiki/Onion_Lake_Cree_Nation \"Onion Lake Cree Nation\") about {{convert\\|32\\|km}} to the north\\-west. In 1890, everything was moved to Onion Lake, and Fort Pitt was closed.", "In 1944, Fort Pitt was sold to a local rancher, Robert Henry Hougham (1889\\-1960\\), with the intent to cultivate the land for agricultural purposes. On the commencement of land cultivation, Hougham discovered shallow graves located in close proximity to the remains of the original fort. It is unknown at this time the specifics surrounding the remains as many of the tombstones and other identifying landmarks were destroyed during the fires and rebellion in 1885\\. Hougham reconstructed one of the early structures and worked the land for 16 years until his death in 1960\\. He was buried on the property near a stone cairn that had been erected at the site in 1954\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://lauriedgraham.ca/2012/08/08/fort\\-pitt\\-saskatchewan\\-3/\\|title\\=Fort Pitt Saskatchewan\\|last\\=Laurie\\|first\\=Graham\\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-08\\|access\\-date\\=27 March 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=28 March 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328164539/https://lauriedgraham.ca/2012/08/08/fort\\-pitt\\-saskatchewan\\-3/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "In 1954, Fort Pitt was designated a [national historic site of Canada](/wiki/National_historic_site_of_Canada \"National historic site of Canada\"). According to the Parks Canada Directory of Federal Heritage Designations, the significance of Fort Pitt to Canadian heritage is \"the Hudson's Bay Company built the post to trade in buffalo hides, meat and pemmican; It was the site of the signing of Treaty No. 6 in 1876; and, it was burned during the 1885 rebellion by Big Bear's followers after the police had withdrawn to Battleford.\"{{fact\\|date\\=January 2024}}", "" ]
Route description ----------------- ### Macon\-Bibb County [left\|thumb\|I\-16 in [Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park](/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park "Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park")](/wiki/File:17_36_105_Interstate16.jpg "17 36 105 Interstate16.jpg") I\-16 begins at an [interchange](/wiki/Interchange_%28road%29 "Interchange (road)") with [I\-75](/wiki/Interstate_75_in_Georgia "Interstate 75 in Georgia")/[SR 540](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_540 "Georgia State Route 540"), just northwest of downtown Macon, in [Bibb County](/wiki/Bibb_County%2C_Georgia "Bibb County, Georgia"). Here, it begins a [concurrency](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 "Concurrency (road)") with SR 540\. The Interstate and SR 540 proceed southeast, traveling just east of the downtown area. They cross over the [Ocmulgee River](/wiki/Ocmulgee_River "Ocmulgee River") and then have an interchange with [US 23](/wiki/U.S._Route_23_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 23 in Georgia")/[US 129](/wiki/U.S._Route_129_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 129 in Georgia")/[SR 49](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_49 "Georgia State Route 49") (Spring Street/North Avenue). Then, they have a partial interchange with [SR 22](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_22 "Georgia State Route 22") (2nd Street) that is only accessible from the westbound lanes. Almost immediately is an interchange with [US 80](/wiki/U.S._Route_80_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 80 in Georgia")/[SR 87](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_87 "Georgia State Route 87") (Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard/Coliseum Drive). At this intersection, SR 540 departs the concurrency to the north\-northeast. Within the eastern part of this interchange, the highway travels under a [railroad bridge](/wiki/Railroad_bridge "Railroad bridge") that carries [railroad tracks](/wiki/Railroad_tracks "Railroad tracks") of [Norfolk Southern Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_Southern_Railway "Norfolk Southern Railway"). In the east\-central part of Macon, I\-16 travels through [Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park](/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park "Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park") but without direct access. Visitors need to first exit at the US 80/SR 87 exit. On the southern edge of the national monument, it crosses over [Walnut Creek](/wiki/Walnut_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River%29 "Walnut Creek (Ocmulgee River)"). It then travels on a bridge over some railroad tracks of [CSX](/wiki/CSX_Transportation "CSX Transportation") and Boggy Branch. After leaving Macon, I\-16 curves to the south\-southeast and has an interchange with US 23/[U.S. Route 129 Alternate](/wiki/U.S._Route_129_Alternate_%28Hawkinsville-Macon%2C_Georgia%29 "U.S. Route 129 Alternate (Hawkinsville-Macon, Georgia)") (US 129 Alt.)/SR 87 (Ocmulgee East Boulevard). In the interchange, the highway crosses over [Swift Creek](/wiki/Swift_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River%29 "Swift Creek (Ocmulgee River)"). It crosses over Stone Creek before entering [Twiggs County](/wiki/Twiggs_County%2C_Georgia "Twiggs County, Georgia").{{Google maps\|url\=https://www.google.com/maps/dir/32\.8590152,\-83\.6425294/32\.0746781,\-81\.0983089/@32\.5490316,\-83\.49162,8z/am\=t/data\=!3m1!4b1!4m2!4m1!3e0 \|title\=Overview map of I\-16 \|access\-date\=December 21, 2016}} ### Twiggs, Bleckley, and Laurens counties I\-16 curves back to the southeast and has an interchange with Sgoda Road. It crosses over Flat Creek and then has an interchange with Jeffersonville and Bullard roads. It curves to the east\-southeast and crosses over [Savage](/wiki/Savage_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River_tributary%29 "Savage Creek (Ocmulgee River tributary)") and Turvin creeks. It then curves back to the southeast. The highway has an interchange with [SR 96](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_96 "Georgia State Route 96"). Almost immediately, it crosses over Richland Creek. It then has an interchange with [SR 358](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_358 "Georgia State Route 358"). I\-16 curves to the east\-southeast and enters [Bleckley County](/wiki/Bleckley_County%2C_Georgia "Bleckley County, Georgia") just before it has an interchange with [SR 112](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_112 "Georgia State Route 112") just south of [Allentown](/wiki/Allentown%2C_Georgia "Allentown, Georgia"). It then crosses over Rocky Creek just before entering [Laurens County](/wiki/Laurens_County%2C_Georgia "Laurens County, Georgia"). The Interstate curves back to the southeast and crosses under [SR 278](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_278 "Georgia State Route 278") before it travels south of [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose%2C_Georgia "Montrose, Georgia"). It crosses over Bay Branch just before an interchange with [SR 26](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_26 "Georgia State Route 26"). It then enters the southwestern part of [Dudley](/wiki/Dudley%2C_Georgia "Dudley, Georgia"). There, it has an interchange with [SR 338](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_338 "Georgia State Route 338"). I\-16 curves back to the east\-southeast and crosses over Little Rocky Creek just before a [rest area](/wiki/Rest_area "Rest area"). Just to the west\-northwest of a crossing of [Turkey Creek](/wiki/Turkey_Creek_%28Oconee_River_tributary%29 "Turkey Creek (Oconee River tributary)"), the westbound lanes have a rest area. These two rest areas are the only ones along the entire length of I\-16\.{{cite web\|title\=Rest Areas\|url\=http://www.dot.ga.gov/InvestSmart/Pages/RestAreas.aspx\|access\-date\=August 30, 2015\|publisher\=Georgia Department of Transportation\|archive\-date\=September 14, 2015\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914183215/http://www.dot.ga.gov/InvestSmart/Pages/RestAreas.aspx\|url\-status\=dead}} On the southwestern edge of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin%2C_Georgia "Dublin, Georgia"), the highway has an interchange with [SR 257](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_257 "Georgia State Route 257"). On the southern edge of the city are interchanges with [US 319](/wiki/U.S._Route_319_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 319 in Georgia")/[US 441](/wiki/U.S._Route_441_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 441 in Georgia")/[SR 31](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_31 "Georgia State Route 31") and [SR 19](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_19 "Georgia State Route 19") (Martin Luther King Jr. Drive). It then crosses over the [Oconee River](/wiki/Oconee_River "Oconee River"). It has an interchange with [SR 199](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_199 "Georgia State Route 199") (Old River Road) just before a crossing of Pughes Creek. Southeast of that is a crossing of Red Hill Creek. Just south of [Rockledge](/wiki/Rockledge%2C_Georgia "Rockledge, Georgia"), the highway crosses over Mercer Creek. On the eastern edge of the creek, it enters [Treutlen County](/wiki/Treutlen_County%2C_Georgia "Treutlen County, Georgia"). ### Treutlen County I\-16 curves to the east\-northeast and crosses over some railroad tracks of CSX before an interchange with [SR 29](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_29 "Georgia State Route 29"). It immediately curves back to the east\-southeast. It crosses over Red Bluff Creek. Then is an interchange with [SR 15](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_15 "Georgia State Route 15")/[SR 78](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_78 "Georgia State Route 78"). The highway travels south of Sand Hill Lake before curving to the east\-northeast. It crosses over Pendleton Creek and travels under a bridge that carries [SR 86](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_86 "Georgia State Route 86"). Then, it begins to curve to the southeast. It has an interchange with [US 221](/wiki/U.S._Route_221_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 221 in Georgia")/[SR 56](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_56 "Georgia State Route 56"). It crosses over Reedy Creek and curves to the east\-southeast. It has an interchange with [SR 297](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_297 "Georgia State Route 297"). At the overpass for SR 297, the highway enters [Emanuel County](/wiki/Emanuel_County%2C_Georgia "Emanuel County, Georgia"). ### Emanuel County After the SR 297 interchange, I\-16 heads more to the southeast. It curves to a nearly due east direction and crosses over the [Ohoopee River](/wiki/Ohoopee_River "Ohoopee River"). Just after crossing over some railroad tracks of Norfolk Southern Railway, it enters the [city limits](/wiki/City_limits "City limits") of [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Georgia "Oak Park, Georgia"). It curves to the southeast and has an interchange with [US 1](/wiki/U.S._Route_1_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 1 in Georgia")/[SR 4](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_4 "Georgia State Route 4")/[SR 46](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_46 "Georgia State Route 46"). After this interchange, the highway begins to parallel SR 46\. It curves to the east\-southeast and crosses over Jacks Creek. Then, it enters [Candler County](/wiki/Candler_County%2C_Georgia "Candler County, Georgia"). ### Candler County I\-16 has an interchange with [SR 57](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_57 "Georgia State Route 57") (Aline Road). It crosses over Wolfe Creek and then heads to the east\-northeast. It crosses over the [Canoochee River](/wiki/Canoochee_River "Canoochee River") and curves to a nearly due east direction. It crosses over Sams Creek before entering [Metter](/wiki/Metter%2C_Georgia "Metter, Georgia"). As soon as it enters Metter, it passes the Metter Municipal Airport. Right after the airport is an interchange with [SR 23](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_23 "Georgia State Route 23")/[SR 121](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_121 "Georgia State Route 121"). On the southeastern edge of Metter, I\-16 travels under a bridge that carries [SR 129](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_129 "Georgia State Route 129"). It crosses over 15 Mile Creek and then curves to the southeast. It crosses over Tenmile Creek and has an interchange with Pulaski–Excelsior Road just before entering [Bulloch County](/wiki/Bulloch_County%2C_Georgia "Bulloch County, Georgia"). ### Bulloch County The Interstate curves to the east\-southeast and has an interchange with [US 25](/wiki/U.S._Route_25_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 25 in Georgia")/[US 301](/wiki/U.S._Route_301_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 301 in Georgia")/[SR 73](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_73 "Georgia State Route 73") and [SR 555](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_555 "Georgia State Route 555") ([Savannah River Parkway](/wiki/Savannah_River_Parkway "Savannah River Parkway")). Then, it crosses over Lotts and Little Lotts creeks. It then travels northeast of Nevils. It briefly curves to the east\-southeast, where it has an interchange with [SR 67](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_67 "Georgia State Route 67"), and then curves back to the southeast. It crosses over DeLoach Branch and then curves to the east\-southeast. It crosses over Luke Branch and then Boggy Branch before curving to a nearly due east direction. It has an interchange with Ash Branch Church Road. After a crossing of Ash Branch, the highway curves to the east\-southeast. It has an interchange with [SR 119](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_119 "Georgia State Route 119") just before entering [Bryan County](/wiki/Bryan_County%2C_Georgia "Bryan County, Georgia"). ### Bryan, Effingham, and Chatham counties [200px\|left\|thumb\|Northbound I\-95 at the interchange with I\-16 near Savannah](/wiki/File:95-junction-16.JPG "95-junction-16.JPG") [thumb\|End of I\-16 east in downtown Savannah](/wiki/File:Georgia_I16eb_End.jpg "Georgia I16eb End.jpg") Almost immediately, the highway crosses over [Black Creek](/wiki/Black_Creek_%28Savannah_River_tributary%29 "Black Creek (Savannah River tributary)"). It then curves to the southeast and has an interchange with [US 280](/wiki/U.S._Route_280_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 280 in Georgia")/[SR 30](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_30 "Georgia State Route 30") southwest of [Blitchton](/wiki/Blitchton%2C_Georgia "Blitchton, Georgia"). It crosses over some railroad tracks of Georgia Central Railway and then crosses over the [Ogeechee River](/wiki/Ogeechee_River "Ogeechee River"), which marks the [Effingham County](/wiki/Effingham_County%2C_Georgia "Effingham County, Georgia") line. It has an interchange with Old River Road south of [Meldrim](/wiki/Meldrim%2C_Georgia "Meldrim, Georgia") and then enters [Chatham County](/wiki/Chatham_County%2C_Georgia "Chatham County, Georgia"). The first city in the county that I\-16 enters is [Bloomingdale](/wiki/Bloomingdale%2C_Georgia "Bloomingdale, Georgia"). There, it has an interchange with the southern terminus of [SR 17 Conn.](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_17_Connector "Georgia State Route 17 Connector") ([Jimmy DeLoach Parkway](/wiki/Jimmy_DeLoach_Parkway "Jimmy DeLoach Parkway")). It crosses over the [Little Ogeechee River](/wiki/Little_Ogeechee_River_%28Chatham_County%29 "Little Ogeechee River (Chatham County)"). It very briefly travels along the Bloomingdale–[Pooler](/wiki/Pooler%2C_Georgia "Pooler, Georgia") city line before entering Pooler proper. It has an interchange with Pooler Parkway. It crosses over the [Savannah–Ogeechee Canal](/wiki/Savannah%E2%80%93Ogeechee_Canal "Savannah–Ogeechee Canal") just before an interchange with [I\-95](/wiki/Interstate_95_in_Georgia "Interstate 95 in Georgia"). Here, I\-16 begins traveling along the southern edge of the city limits of Pooler. Right after the I\-95 interchange, the highway crosses over the Hardin Canal. At an interchange with [SR 307](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_307 "Georgia State Route 307") (Dean Forest Road), I\-16 begins traveling along the [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia "Savannah, Georgia")–[Garden City](/wiki/Garden_City%2C_Georgia "Garden City, Georgia") line. It briefly enters the city limits of Savannah before traveling along the Savannah–Garden City line again. It has an interchange with the Chatham Parkway. It then reenters Savannah and curves to the east\-southeast. It crosses over some railroad tracks of CSX just before an interchange with [I\-516](/wiki/Interstate_516 "Interstate 516")/[US 17](/wiki/U.S._Route_17_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 17 in Georgia")/[US 80](/wiki/U.S._Route_80_in_Georgia "U.S. Route 80 in Georgia")/[SR 21](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_21 "Georgia State Route 21")/[SR 25](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_25 "Georgia State Route 25")/[SR 26](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_26 "Georgia State Route 26") (W.F. Lynes Parkway). Here, US 17 begins a [concurrency](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 "Concurrency (road)") with I\-16\. It crosses over the Springfield Canal just before a partial interchange with the former eastern terminus of [SR 204](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_204 "Georgia State Route 204") (West 37th Street). This interchange is only accessible from the eastbound lanes. I\-16/US 17 curves to the northeast. At the next interchange, US 17 splits off, where [State Route 404 Spur](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_404_Spur "Georgia State Route 404 Spur") (SR 404 Spur) begins. This interchange also provides access to Gwinnett Street. The highway has an interchange with [Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Boulevard_%28Savannah%29 "Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard (Savannah)"). The westbound access for this highway is at the eastern terminus. I\-16 curves to the north\-northeast and reaches its eastern terminus, an interchange with Montgomery Street in downtown Savannah. The construction of this interrupted sections of Berrien Street, West [Jones Street](/wiki/Jones_Street_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 "Jones Street (Savannah, Georgia)"), and West Charlton Street.{{cite book \|url \= https://www.thempc.org/docs/lit/CoreMpo/Studies/I16/2015/Report.pdf \|title \= I\-16 Interchange Modification Report \|publisher \= Chatham County–Savannah Metropolitan Planning Commission \|author \= Jacobs \|date \= December 2015 \|page \= 2 }}{{cite web \|author \= Google \|url \= https://www.google.com/maps/@32\.0739489,\-81\.0990398,3a,75y,105\.55h,90t/data\=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1s9JS34ozRhiPK14kQT2xaLA!2e0!7i16384!8i8192 \|title \= West Jones Street \|work \= \[\[Google Street View]] \|date \= January 2019 \|access\-date \= March 21, 2021 }} ### Miscellaneous notes I\-16 serves as a [hurricane evacuation route](/wiki/Hurricane_evacuation_route "Hurricane evacuation route") for Savannah and other coastal areas. The road is designed for [contraflow](/wiki/Contraflow_lane_reversal "Contraflow lane reversal") travel with [railroad](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad")\-type gates to block most [entrance](/wiki/Entrance_ramp "Entrance ramp") and [exit ramps](/wiki/Exit_ramp "Exit ramp") for the normally eastbound lanes. During hurricane evacuation, I\-16 is converted into westbound traffic from Savannah to west of US 441 in Dublin (exit 51\), a total of {{Convert\|125\|mi\|km}}.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.511ga.org/static/hurricane\-oneway.html\|title\=Contra\-Flow Lanes: I\-16 One\-Way Driving Guides\|website\=www.511ga.org\|access\-date\=August 13, 2019\|archive\-date\=August 13, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813193626/http://www.511ga.org/static/hurricane\-oneway.html\|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Route description\n-----------------", "### Macon\\-Bibb County", "[left\\|thumb\\|I\\-16 in [Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park](/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park \"Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park\")](/wiki/File:17_36_105_Interstate16.jpg \"17 36 105 Interstate16.jpg\")\nI\\-16 begins at an [interchange](/wiki/Interchange_%28road%29 \"Interchange (road)\") with [I\\-75](/wiki/Interstate_75_in_Georgia \"Interstate 75 in Georgia\")/[SR 540](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_540 \"Georgia State Route 540\"), just northwest of downtown Macon, in [Bibb County](/wiki/Bibb_County%2C_Georgia \"Bibb County, Georgia\"). Here, it begins a [concurrency](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 \"Concurrency (road)\") with SR 540\\. The Interstate and SR 540 proceed southeast, traveling just east of the downtown area. They cross over the [Ocmulgee River](/wiki/Ocmulgee_River \"Ocmulgee River\") and then have an interchange with [US 23](/wiki/U.S._Route_23_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 23 in Georgia\")/[US 129](/wiki/U.S._Route_129_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 129 in Georgia\")/[SR 49](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_49 \"Georgia State Route 49\") (Spring Street/North Avenue). Then, they have a partial interchange with [SR 22](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_22 \"Georgia State Route 22\") (2nd Street) that is only accessible from the westbound lanes. Almost immediately is an interchange with [US 80](/wiki/U.S._Route_80_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 80 in Georgia\")/[SR 87](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_87 \"Georgia State Route 87\") (Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard/Coliseum Drive). At this intersection, SR 540 departs the concurrency to the north\\-northeast. Within the eastern part of this interchange, the highway travels under a [railroad bridge](/wiki/Railroad_bridge \"Railroad bridge\") that carries [railroad tracks](/wiki/Railroad_tracks \"Railroad tracks\") of [Norfolk Southern Railway](/wiki/Norfolk_Southern_Railway \"Norfolk Southern Railway\"). In the east\\-central part of Macon, I\\-16 travels through [Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park](/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park \"Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park\") but without direct access. Visitors need to first exit at the US 80/SR 87 exit. On the southern edge of the national monument, it crosses over [Walnut Creek](/wiki/Walnut_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River%29 \"Walnut Creek (Ocmulgee River)\"). It then travels on a bridge over some railroad tracks of [CSX](/wiki/CSX_Transportation \"CSX Transportation\") and Boggy Branch. After leaving Macon, I\\-16 curves to the south\\-southeast and has an interchange with US 23/[U.S. Route 129 Alternate](/wiki/U.S._Route_129_Alternate_%28Hawkinsville-Macon%2C_Georgia%29 \"U.S. Route 129 Alternate (Hawkinsville-Macon, Georgia)\") (US 129 Alt.)/SR 87 (Ocmulgee East Boulevard). In the interchange, the highway crosses over [Swift Creek](/wiki/Swift_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River%29 \"Swift Creek (Ocmulgee River)\"). It crosses over Stone Creek before entering [Twiggs County](/wiki/Twiggs_County%2C_Georgia \"Twiggs County, Georgia\").{{Google maps\\|url\\=https://www.google.com/maps/dir/32\\.8590152,\\-83\\.6425294/32\\.0746781,\\-81\\.0983089/@32\\.5490316,\\-83\\.49162,8z/am\\=t/data\\=!3m1!4b1!4m2!4m1!3e0 \\|title\\=Overview map of I\\-16 \\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2016}}", "### Twiggs, Bleckley, and Laurens counties", "I\\-16 curves back to the southeast and has an interchange with Sgoda Road. It crosses over Flat Creek and then has an interchange with Jeffersonville and Bullard roads. It curves to the east\\-southeast and crosses over [Savage](/wiki/Savage_Creek_%28Ocmulgee_River_tributary%29 \"Savage Creek (Ocmulgee River tributary)\") and Turvin creeks. It then curves back to the southeast. The highway has an interchange with [SR 96](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_96 \"Georgia State Route 96\"). Almost immediately, it crosses over Richland Creek. It then has an interchange with [SR 358](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_358 \"Georgia State Route 358\"). I\\-16 curves to the east\\-southeast and enters [Bleckley County](/wiki/Bleckley_County%2C_Georgia \"Bleckley County, Georgia\") just before it has an interchange with [SR 112](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_112 \"Georgia State Route 112\") just south of [Allentown](/wiki/Allentown%2C_Georgia \"Allentown, Georgia\"). It then crosses over Rocky Creek just before entering [Laurens County](/wiki/Laurens_County%2C_Georgia \"Laurens County, Georgia\"). The Interstate curves back to the southeast and crosses under [SR 278](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_278 \"Georgia State Route 278\") before it travels south of [Montrose](/wiki/Montrose%2C_Georgia \"Montrose, Georgia\"). It crosses over Bay Branch just before an interchange with [SR 26](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_26 \"Georgia State Route 26\"). It then enters the southwestern part of [Dudley](/wiki/Dudley%2C_Georgia \"Dudley, Georgia\"). There, it has an interchange with [SR 338](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_338 \"Georgia State Route 338\"). I\\-16 curves back to the east\\-southeast and crosses over Little Rocky Creek just before a [rest area](/wiki/Rest_area \"Rest area\"). Just to the west\\-northwest of a crossing of [Turkey Creek](/wiki/Turkey_Creek_%28Oconee_River_tributary%29 \"Turkey Creek (Oconee River tributary)\"), the westbound lanes have a rest area. These two rest areas are the only ones along the entire length of I\\-16\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Rest Areas\\|url\\=http://www.dot.ga.gov/InvestSmart/Pages/RestAreas.aspx\\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2015\\|publisher\\=Georgia Department of Transportation\\|archive\\-date\\=September 14, 2015\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914183215/http://www.dot.ga.gov/InvestSmart/Pages/RestAreas.aspx\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} On the southwestern edge of [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin%2C_Georgia \"Dublin, Georgia\"), the highway has an interchange with [SR 257](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_257 \"Georgia State Route 257\"). On the southern edge of the city are interchanges with [US 319](/wiki/U.S._Route_319_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 319 in Georgia\")/[US 441](/wiki/U.S._Route_441_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 441 in Georgia\")/[SR 31](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_31 \"Georgia State Route 31\") and [SR 19](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_19 \"Georgia State Route 19\") (Martin Luther King Jr. Drive). It then crosses over the [Oconee River](/wiki/Oconee_River \"Oconee River\"). It has an interchange with [SR 199](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_199 \"Georgia State Route 199\") (Old River Road) just before a crossing of Pughes Creek. Southeast of that is a crossing of Red Hill Creek. Just south of [Rockledge](/wiki/Rockledge%2C_Georgia \"Rockledge, Georgia\"), the highway crosses over Mercer Creek. On the eastern edge of the creek, it enters [Treutlen County](/wiki/Treutlen_County%2C_Georgia \"Treutlen County, Georgia\").", "### Treutlen County", "I\\-16 curves to the east\\-northeast and crosses over some railroad tracks of CSX before an interchange with [SR 29](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_29 \"Georgia State Route 29\"). It immediately curves back to the east\\-southeast. It crosses over Red Bluff Creek. Then is an interchange with [SR 15](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_15 \"Georgia State Route 15\")/[SR 78](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_78 \"Georgia State Route 78\"). The highway travels south of Sand Hill Lake before curving to the east\\-northeast. It crosses over Pendleton Creek and travels under a bridge that carries [SR 86](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_86 \"Georgia State Route 86\"). Then, it begins to curve to the southeast. It has an interchange with [US 221](/wiki/U.S._Route_221_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 221 in Georgia\")/[SR 56](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_56 \"Georgia State Route 56\"). It crosses over Reedy Creek and curves to the east\\-southeast. It has an interchange with [SR 297](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_297 \"Georgia State Route 297\"). At the overpass for SR 297, the highway enters [Emanuel County](/wiki/Emanuel_County%2C_Georgia \"Emanuel County, Georgia\").", "### Emanuel County", "After the SR 297 interchange, I\\-16 heads more to the southeast. It curves to a nearly due east direction and crosses over the [Ohoopee River](/wiki/Ohoopee_River \"Ohoopee River\"). Just after crossing over some railroad tracks of Norfolk Southern Railway, it enters the [city limits](/wiki/City_limits \"City limits\") of [Oak Park](/wiki/Oak_Park%2C_Georgia \"Oak Park, Georgia\"). It curves to the southeast and has an interchange with [US 1](/wiki/U.S._Route_1_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 1 in Georgia\")/[SR 4](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_4 \"Georgia State Route 4\")/[SR 46](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_46 \"Georgia State Route 46\"). After this interchange, the highway begins to parallel SR 46\\. It curves to the east\\-southeast and crosses over Jacks Creek. Then, it enters [Candler County](/wiki/Candler_County%2C_Georgia \"Candler County, Georgia\").", "### Candler County", "I\\-16 has an interchange with [SR 57](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_57 \"Georgia State Route 57\") (Aline Road). It crosses over Wolfe Creek and then heads to the east\\-northeast. It crosses over the [Canoochee River](/wiki/Canoochee_River \"Canoochee River\") and curves to a nearly due east direction. It crosses over Sams Creek before entering [Metter](/wiki/Metter%2C_Georgia \"Metter, Georgia\"). As soon as it enters Metter, it passes the Metter Municipal Airport. Right after the airport is an interchange with [SR 23](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_23 \"Georgia State Route 23\")/[SR 121](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_121 \"Georgia State Route 121\"). On the southeastern edge of Metter, I\\-16 travels under a bridge that carries [SR 129](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_129 \"Georgia State Route 129\"). It crosses over 15 Mile Creek and then curves to the southeast. It crosses over Tenmile Creek and has an interchange with Pulaski–Excelsior Road just before entering [Bulloch County](/wiki/Bulloch_County%2C_Georgia \"Bulloch County, Georgia\").", "### Bulloch County", "The Interstate curves to the east\\-southeast and has an interchange with [US 25](/wiki/U.S._Route_25_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 25 in Georgia\")/[US 301](/wiki/U.S._Route_301_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 301 in Georgia\")/[SR 73](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_73 \"Georgia State Route 73\") and [SR 555](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_555 \"Georgia State Route 555\") ([Savannah River Parkway](/wiki/Savannah_River_Parkway \"Savannah River Parkway\")). Then, it crosses over Lotts and Little Lotts creeks. It then travels northeast of Nevils. It briefly curves to the east\\-southeast, where it has an interchange with [SR 67](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_67 \"Georgia State Route 67\"), and then curves back to the southeast. It crosses over DeLoach Branch and then curves to the east\\-southeast. It crosses over Luke Branch and then Boggy Branch before curving to a nearly due east direction. It has an interchange with Ash Branch Church Road. After a crossing of Ash Branch, the highway curves to the east\\-southeast. It has an interchange with [SR 119](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_119 \"Georgia State Route 119\") just before entering [Bryan County](/wiki/Bryan_County%2C_Georgia \"Bryan County, Georgia\").", "### Bryan, Effingham, and Chatham counties", "[200px\\|left\\|thumb\\|Northbound I\\-95 at the interchange with I\\-16 near Savannah](/wiki/File:95-junction-16.JPG \"95-junction-16.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|End of I\\-16 east in downtown Savannah](/wiki/File:Georgia_I16eb_End.jpg \"Georgia I16eb End.jpg\")\nAlmost immediately, the highway crosses over [Black Creek](/wiki/Black_Creek_%28Savannah_River_tributary%29 \"Black Creek (Savannah River tributary)\"). It then curves to the southeast and has an interchange with [US 280](/wiki/U.S._Route_280_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 280 in Georgia\")/[SR 30](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_30 \"Georgia State Route 30\") southwest of [Blitchton](/wiki/Blitchton%2C_Georgia \"Blitchton, Georgia\"). It crosses over some railroad tracks of Georgia Central Railway and then crosses over the [Ogeechee River](/wiki/Ogeechee_River \"Ogeechee River\"), which marks the [Effingham County](/wiki/Effingham_County%2C_Georgia \"Effingham County, Georgia\") line. It has an interchange with Old River Road south of [Meldrim](/wiki/Meldrim%2C_Georgia \"Meldrim, Georgia\") and then enters [Chatham County](/wiki/Chatham_County%2C_Georgia \"Chatham County, Georgia\"). The first city in the county that I\\-16 enters is [Bloomingdale](/wiki/Bloomingdale%2C_Georgia \"Bloomingdale, Georgia\"). There, it has an interchange with the southern terminus of [SR 17 Conn.](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_17_Connector \"Georgia State Route 17 Connector\") ([Jimmy DeLoach Parkway](/wiki/Jimmy_DeLoach_Parkway \"Jimmy DeLoach Parkway\")). It crosses over the [Little Ogeechee River](/wiki/Little_Ogeechee_River_%28Chatham_County%29 \"Little Ogeechee River (Chatham County)\"). It very briefly travels along the Bloomingdale–[Pooler](/wiki/Pooler%2C_Georgia \"Pooler, Georgia\") city line before entering Pooler proper. It has an interchange with Pooler Parkway. It crosses over the [Savannah–Ogeechee Canal](/wiki/Savannah%E2%80%93Ogeechee_Canal \"Savannah–Ogeechee Canal\") just before an interchange with [I\\-95](/wiki/Interstate_95_in_Georgia \"Interstate 95 in Georgia\"). Here, I\\-16 begins traveling along the southern edge of the city limits of Pooler. Right after the I\\-95 interchange, the highway crosses over the Hardin Canal. At an interchange with [SR 307](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_307 \"Georgia State Route 307\") (Dean Forest Road), I\\-16 begins traveling along the [Savannah](/wiki/Savannah%2C_Georgia \"Savannah, Georgia\")–[Garden City](/wiki/Garden_City%2C_Georgia \"Garden City, Georgia\") line. It briefly enters the city limits of Savannah before traveling along the Savannah–Garden City line again. It has an interchange with the Chatham Parkway. It then reenters Savannah and curves to the east\\-southeast. It crosses over some railroad tracks of CSX just before an interchange with [I\\-516](/wiki/Interstate_516 \"Interstate 516\")/[US 17](/wiki/U.S._Route_17_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 17 in Georgia\")/[US 80](/wiki/U.S._Route_80_in_Georgia \"U.S. Route 80 in Georgia\")/[SR 21](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_21 \"Georgia State Route 21\")/[SR 25](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_25 \"Georgia State Route 25\")/[SR 26](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_26 \"Georgia State Route 26\") (W.F. Lynes Parkway). Here, US 17 begins a [concurrency](/wiki/Concurrency_%28road%29 \"Concurrency (road)\") with I\\-16\\. It crosses over the Springfield Canal just before a partial interchange with the former eastern terminus of [SR 204](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_204 \"Georgia State Route 204\") (West 37th Street). This interchange is only accessible from the eastbound lanes. I\\-16/US 17 curves to the northeast. At the next interchange, US 17 splits off, where [State Route 404 Spur](/wiki/Georgia_State_Route_404_Spur \"Georgia State Route 404 Spur\") (SR 404 Spur) begins. This interchange also provides access to Gwinnett Street. The highway has an interchange with [Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard](/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Boulevard_%28Savannah%29 \"Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard (Savannah)\"). The westbound access for this highway is at the eastern terminus. I\\-16 curves to the north\\-northeast and reaches its eastern terminus, an interchange with Montgomery Street in downtown Savannah. The construction of this interrupted sections of Berrien Street, West [Jones Street](/wiki/Jones_Street_%28Savannah%2C_Georgia%29 \"Jones Street (Savannah, Georgia)\"), and West Charlton Street.{{cite book \\|url \\= https://www.thempc.org/docs/lit/CoreMpo/Studies/I16/2015/Report.pdf \\|title \\= I\\-16 Interchange Modification Report \\|publisher \\= Chatham County–Savannah Metropolitan Planning Commission \\|author \\= Jacobs \\|date \\= December 2015 \\|page \\= 2 }}{{cite web \\|author \\= Google \\|url \\= https://www.google.com/maps/@32\\.0739489,\\-81\\.0990398,3a,75y,105\\.55h,90t/data\\=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1s9JS34ozRhiPK14kQT2xaLA!2e0!7i16384!8i8192 \\|title \\= West Jones Street \\|work \\= \\[\\[Google Street View]] \\|date \\= January 2019 \\|access\\-date \\= March 21, 2021 }}", "### Miscellaneous notes", "I\\-16 serves as a [hurricane evacuation route](/wiki/Hurricane_evacuation_route \"Hurricane evacuation route\") for Savannah and other coastal areas. The road is designed for [contraflow](/wiki/Contraflow_lane_reversal \"Contraflow lane reversal\") travel with [railroad](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\")\\-type gates to block most [entrance](/wiki/Entrance_ramp \"Entrance ramp\") and [exit ramps](/wiki/Exit_ramp \"Exit ramp\") for the normally eastbound lanes. During hurricane evacuation, I\\-16 is converted into westbound traffic from Savannah to west of US 441 in Dublin (exit 51\\), a total of {{Convert\\|125\\|mi\\|km}}.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.511ga.org/static/hurricane\\-oneway.html\\|title\\=Contra\\-Flow Lanes: I\\-16 One\\-Way Driving Guides\\|website\\=www.511ga.org\\|access\\-date\\=August 13, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=August 13, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813193626/http://www.511ga.org/static/hurricane\\-oneway.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
Today ----- Aberdeen has its own pre\-school, which was founded in 1977\. The town contains two schools: the Aberdeen Public School, catering from kindergarten to Grade 6; and St. Joseph's High School, a Catholic co\-educational high school catering for Grades 7 through to 12\. Aberdeen has two churches – St Thomas's Catholic Church, and St Mark's Anglican Church. It once had a third church, St Paul's Uniting Church, which has now been turned into an art gallery called the Artemis Gallery. St Joseph's Aberdeen High School is located next to St Thomas's Catholic Church.[St Joseph's Aberdeen School Website](http://www.abrdn.mn.catholic.edu.au) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718171355/http://www.abrdn.mn.catholic.edu.au/ \|date\=July 18, 2008 }} The town has a local rugby league team, the [Aberdeen Tigers](/wiki/Aberdeen_Tigers "Aberdeen Tigers"). Aberdeen is on the [Main North railway line](/wiki/Main_North_railway_line%2C_New_South_Wales "Main North railway line, New South Wales"), and is serviced by a daily XPLorer long\-distance service in each direction between [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") and [Armidale](/wiki/Armidale%2C_New_South_Wales "Armidale, New South Wales"), as well as two/three local services in each direction between [Scone](/wiki/Scone%2C_New_South_Wales "Scone, New South Wales") and [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_New_South_Wales "Newcastle, New South Wales"). For travellers, there are two main areas for accommodation in the town: the Aberdeen Motel, which is on the southern edge of the town; and the Segenhoe Inn, which is situated towards the northern end of town. The Commercial Hotel is also available for budget accommodation.
[ "Today\n-----", "Aberdeen has its own pre\\-school, which was founded in 1977\\. The town contains two schools: the Aberdeen Public School, catering from kindergarten to Grade 6; and St. Joseph's High School, a Catholic co\\-educational high school catering for Grades 7 through to 12\\.", "Aberdeen has two churches – St Thomas's Catholic Church, and St Mark's Anglican Church. It once had a third church, St Paul's Uniting Church, which has now been turned into an art gallery called the Artemis Gallery.", "St Joseph's Aberdeen High School is located next to St Thomas's Catholic Church.[St Joseph's Aberdeen School Website](http://www.abrdn.mn.catholic.edu.au) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718171355/http://www.abrdn.mn.catholic.edu.au/ \\|date\\=July 18, 2008 }}", "The town has a local rugby league team, the [Aberdeen Tigers](/wiki/Aberdeen_Tigers \"Aberdeen Tigers\").", "Aberdeen is on the [Main North railway line](/wiki/Main_North_railway_line%2C_New_South_Wales \"Main North railway line, New South Wales\"), and is serviced by a daily XPLorer long\\-distance service in each direction between [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") and [Armidale](/wiki/Armidale%2C_New_South_Wales \"Armidale, New South Wales\"), as well as two/three local services in each direction between [Scone](/wiki/Scone%2C_New_South_Wales \"Scone, New South Wales\") and [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle%2C_New_South_Wales \"Newcastle, New South Wales\").", "For travellers, there are two main areas for accommodation in the town: the Aberdeen Motel, which is on the southern edge of the town; and the Segenhoe Inn, which is situated towards the northern end of town. The Commercial Hotel is also available for budget accommodation.", "" ]
Current status -------------- ### Current flora and fauna [left\|thumb\|This Barred Owl was photographed in the North Creek Wetlands by UWB / Cascadia College Facilities Services.](/wiki/File:Barred_owl_restoration.jpg "Barred owl restoration.jpg") Five distinct vegetation communities make up the ecological mosaic of the wetland today. These communities include (i) [Evergreen forest types](/wiki/Evergreen_forest "Evergreen forest") (ii) Floodplain and [riparian forest](/wiki/Riparian_forest "Riparian forest") types (iii) Floodplain Scrub\-Shrub types (iv) [Emergent marsh types](/wiki/Marsh "Marsh") and (v) The microdepression community. Formal and informal monitoring suggests that the abundance and diversity of animal species is increasing. Some common wetland species seen today include the Beaver (*[Castor canadensis](/wiki/North_American_beaver "North American beaver")*), River Otter (*[Lutra canadensis](/wiki/North_American_river_otter "North American river otter")*). [Chinook](/wiki/Chinook_salmon "Chinook salmon"), [Coho](/wiki/Coho_salmon "Coho salmon"), [Sockeye](/wiki/Sockeye_salmon "Sockeye salmon") and [Kokanee](/wiki/Sockeye_salmon "Sockeye salmon") salmon species have been observed, as well as Trout and Bass species. The wetland also hosts a variety of reptiles and amphibians, including the Pacific treefrog (*[Pseudacris regilla](/wiki/Pacific_tree_frog "Pacific tree frog")*), Red\-legged frog (*[Rana aurora](/wiki/Northern_red-legged_frog "Northern red-legged frog")*), Bullfrog (*[Rana catesbeiana](/wiki/American_bullfrog "American bullfrog")*), Common garter snake (*[Thamnophis sirtalis](/wiki/Common_Garter_Snake "Common Garter Snake")*), and the Northwestern garter snake (*[Thamnophis ordinoides](/wiki/Northwestern_garter_snake "Northwestern garter snake")*). Bird species are also prevalent in the wetland restoration, common species include Great blue heron (*[Ardea Herodias](/wiki/Great_blue_heron "Great blue heron")*), Canada goose (*[Branta Canadensis](/wiki/Canada_goose "Canada goose")*), Mallard duck (*[Anas platyrhynchos](/wiki/Mallard "Mallard")*), Osprey (*[Pandion haliaetus](/wiki/Osprey "Osprey")*), Red\-tailed hawk (*[Buteo jamaincensis](/wiki/Red-tailed_hawk "Red-tailed hawk")*), and the American crow (*[Corvus brachyrhynchos](/wiki/American_crow "American crow")*). ### Maintenance and management Maintenance in the early years of the restoration project involved invasive species removal, trail maintenance, and thinning of brush. Because of the continuous input of invasive plant seeds, as well as the activity of beavers that opens up portions of the site, on\-going invasive species removal is still necessary.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2017}} To assess whether or not the wetland was reaching its various targets, monitoring plans as permitted by the [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act "Clean Water Act") were designed. This monitoring also is used as a contingency measure. If unforeseen events impact the restoration function, those events can be measured and accounted for. Because the UWB Wetland Restoration Project is isolated in an urbanized area, the manual planting of later succession species is required to develop the ecosystem succession through time.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2017}} The site design incorporated various ‘environmental features’ including small\-scale topographic variation and woody debris (WD) to enhance site diversity. UWB has committed to maintain this biological diversity as site conditions change. According to the university, hydrological changes in North Creek will be managed, “only to the degree that we \[UWB] need to do so in order to protect infrastructure”. ### Education [thumb\|300x300px\|The Wetland boardwalk, photographed by Warren Gold, provides a space for viewing wetland wildlife and North Creek.](/wiki/File:Wetland_boardwalk.jpg "Wetland boardwalk.jpg") Because the Wetland Restoration Project at UWB was one of the largest floodplain restorations in the region, it is an educational resource to researchers and teachers. Over 30 classes, from the CUSP (Center for University Studies and Programs), Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, and [STEM](/wiki/Science%2C_Technology%2C_Engineering%2C_and_Mathematics "Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics") (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) Programs at UWB visit the campus wetlands. Research projects have studied bats, crows, stream invertebrates, beaver\-plant interaction, and others. Professional education, such as wetland mitigation regulation, is also taught in the wetland, using this restoration as a very successful example. The continued research in the UWB Wetland Restoration Project will afford a basis of information for future research in ecological restoration.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.bothell.washington.edu/wetlands/visit/research\-guide\|title\=Researcher Guide to Conducting Studies \- Visit the Wetlands \- The North Creek Wetlands \- UW Bothell\|website\=www.bothell.washington.edu\|access\-date\=2016\-03\-15}} Research in the wetlands allows for the continual monitoring of the restoration growth. UWB encourages students, staff, and other scientists to research the restoration as long as it involves a minimal impact to the wetland ecosystems. Low\-impact, [observational studies](/wiki/Observational_study "Observational study") are encouraged in the wetlands, but experimental proposals will be carefully considered, especially the potential impacts of the research. Some research projects that have been conducted in the wetland include: 1. The behavioral study of bats 2. Survey of terrestrial insects 3. Stream macroinvertebrates as measures of stream health in North Creek 4. The impacts of beaver activity on canopy development 5. The impacts of tent caterpillar outbreaks on the pace and trajectory of ecological restoration 6. Water quality of floodplain depressions thorough time and space – and links to the water quality of North Creek **Water quality** [Fecal Coliform Bacteria](/wiki/Fecal_coliform "Fecal coliform") (FCB), including *[E.](/wiki/Escherichia_coli "Escherichia coli")* [coli](/wiki/Escherichia_coli "Escherichia coli"), in North Creek tributaries has been monitored by the City of Bothell. In 2010, the City developed a ‘Bacteria Pollution Control Plan’ which involving picking up pet waste in effort to reduce Fecal Coliform Bacteria in [surface waters](/wiki/Surface_water "Surface water"). A study conducted later concluded that the source of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in North Creek tributaries is diffuse, or spread out. FCB that originates from sources within the wetland, such as waterfowl, are considered to be the ‘background’ levels and according to The DOE, “will not be addressed by water cleanup activities associated with \[TMDL]”. ### Challenges Both [point and non\-point pollution](/wiki/Point_source_pollution "Point source pollution") affects North Creek. [Combined Sewer Overflow events](/wiki/Combined_sewer_overflow "Combined sewer overflow") influence Fecal Coliform Bacteria and E. coli concentrations in North Creek. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits are issued to deal with known point sources, while non\-point sources including poor land management, leaky septic systems, exist undealt with. Urban stormwater likely contains FCB from pet waste as well. The high levels of FCB in North Creek limit its use for recreation, while low dissolved oxygen levels negatively affect salmonid spawning.
[ "Current status\n--------------", "### Current flora and fauna", "[left\\|thumb\\|This Barred Owl was photographed in the North Creek Wetlands by UWB / Cascadia College Facilities Services.](/wiki/File:Barred_owl_restoration.jpg \"Barred owl restoration.jpg\")\nFive distinct vegetation communities make up the ecological mosaic of the wetland today. These communities include (i) [Evergreen forest types](/wiki/Evergreen_forest \"Evergreen forest\") (ii) Floodplain and [riparian forest](/wiki/Riparian_forest \"Riparian forest\") types (iii) Floodplain Scrub\\-Shrub types (iv) [Emergent marsh types](/wiki/Marsh \"Marsh\") and (v) The microdepression community.", "Formal and informal monitoring suggests that the abundance and diversity of animal species is increasing. Some common wetland species seen today include the Beaver (*[Castor canadensis](/wiki/North_American_beaver \"North American beaver\")*), River Otter (*[Lutra canadensis](/wiki/North_American_river_otter \"North American river otter\")*). [Chinook](/wiki/Chinook_salmon \"Chinook salmon\"), [Coho](/wiki/Coho_salmon \"Coho salmon\"), [Sockeye](/wiki/Sockeye_salmon \"Sockeye salmon\") and [Kokanee](/wiki/Sockeye_salmon \"Sockeye salmon\") salmon species have been observed, as well as Trout and Bass species. The wetland also hosts a variety of reptiles and amphibians, including the Pacific treefrog (*[Pseudacris regilla](/wiki/Pacific_tree_frog \"Pacific tree frog\")*), Red\\-legged frog (*[Rana aurora](/wiki/Northern_red-legged_frog \"Northern red-legged frog\")*), Bullfrog (*[Rana catesbeiana](/wiki/American_bullfrog \"American bullfrog\")*), Common garter snake (*[Thamnophis sirtalis](/wiki/Common_Garter_Snake \"Common Garter Snake\")*), and the Northwestern garter snake (*[Thamnophis ordinoides](/wiki/Northwestern_garter_snake \"Northwestern garter snake\")*).", "Bird species are also prevalent in the wetland restoration, common species include Great blue heron (*[Ardea Herodias](/wiki/Great_blue_heron \"Great blue heron\")*), Canada goose (*[Branta Canadensis](/wiki/Canada_goose \"Canada goose\")*), Mallard duck (*[Anas platyrhynchos](/wiki/Mallard \"Mallard\")*), Osprey (*[Pandion haliaetus](/wiki/Osprey \"Osprey\")*), Red\\-tailed hawk (*[Buteo jamaincensis](/wiki/Red-tailed_hawk \"Red-tailed hawk\")*), and the American crow (*[Corvus brachyrhynchos](/wiki/American_crow \"American crow\")*).", "### Maintenance and management", "Maintenance in the early years of the restoration project involved invasive species removal, trail maintenance, and thinning of brush. Because of the continuous input of invasive plant seeds, as well as the activity of beavers that opens up portions of the site, on\\-going invasive species removal is still necessary.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}}", "To assess whether or not the wetland was reaching its various targets, monitoring plans as permitted by the [Clean Water Act](/wiki/Clean_Water_Act \"Clean Water Act\") were designed. This monitoring also is used as a contingency measure. If unforeseen events impact the restoration function, those events can be measured and accounted for.", "Because the UWB Wetland Restoration Project is isolated in an urbanized area, the manual planting of later succession species is required to develop the ecosystem succession through time.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2017}}", "The site design incorporated various ‘environmental features’ including small\\-scale topographic variation and woody debris (WD) to enhance site diversity. UWB has committed to maintain this biological diversity as site conditions change. According to the university, hydrological changes in North Creek will be managed, “only to the degree that we \\[UWB] need to do so in order to protect infrastructure”.", "### Education", "[thumb\\|300x300px\\|The Wetland boardwalk, photographed by Warren Gold, provides a space for viewing wetland wildlife and North Creek.](/wiki/File:Wetland_boardwalk.jpg \"Wetland boardwalk.jpg\")\nBecause the Wetland Restoration Project at UWB was one of the largest floodplain restorations in the region, it is an educational resource to researchers and teachers. Over 30 classes, from the CUSP (Center for University Studies and Programs), Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, and [STEM](/wiki/Science%2C_Technology%2C_Engineering%2C_and_Mathematics \"Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics\") (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) Programs at UWB visit the campus wetlands. Research projects have studied bats, crows, stream invertebrates, beaver\\-plant interaction, and others. Professional education, such as wetland mitigation regulation, is also taught in the wetland, using this restoration as a very successful example. The continued research in the UWB Wetland Restoration Project will afford a basis of information for future research in ecological restoration.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.bothell.washington.edu/wetlands/visit/research\\-guide\\|title\\=Researcher Guide to Conducting Studies \\- Visit the Wetlands \\- The North Creek Wetlands \\- UW Bothell\\|website\\=www.bothell.washington.edu\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-15}}", "Research in the wetlands allows for the continual monitoring of the restoration growth. UWB encourages students, staff, and other scientists to research the restoration as long as it involves a minimal impact to the wetland ecosystems. Low\\-impact, [observational studies](/wiki/Observational_study \"Observational study\") are encouraged in the wetlands, but experimental proposals will be carefully considered, especially the potential impacts of the research. Some research projects that have been conducted in the wetland include:\n1. The behavioral study of bats\n2. Survey of terrestrial insects\n3. Stream macroinvertebrates as measures of stream health in North Creek\n4. The impacts of beaver activity on canopy development\n5. The impacts of tent caterpillar outbreaks on the pace and trajectory of ecological restoration\n6. Water quality of floodplain depressions thorough time and space – and links to the water quality of North Creek \n**Water quality**", "[Fecal Coliform Bacteria](/wiki/Fecal_coliform \"Fecal coliform\") (FCB), including *[E.](/wiki/Escherichia_coli \"Escherichia coli\")* [coli](/wiki/Escherichia_coli \"Escherichia coli\"), in North Creek tributaries has been monitored by the City of Bothell. In 2010, the City developed a ‘Bacteria Pollution Control Plan’ which involving picking up pet waste in effort to reduce Fecal Coliform Bacteria in [surface waters](/wiki/Surface_water \"Surface water\"). A study conducted later concluded that the source of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in North Creek tributaries is diffuse, or spread out. FCB that originates from sources within the wetland, such as waterfowl, are considered to be the ‘background’ levels and according to The DOE, “will not be addressed by water cleanup activities associated with \\[TMDL]”.", "### Challenges", "Both [point and non\\-point pollution](/wiki/Point_source_pollution \"Point source pollution\") affects North Creek. [Combined Sewer Overflow events](/wiki/Combined_sewer_overflow \"Combined sewer overflow\") influence Fecal Coliform Bacteria and E. coli concentrations in North Creek. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits are issued to deal with known point sources, while non\\-point sources including poor land management, leaky septic systems, exist undealt with. Urban stormwater likely contains FCB from pet waste as well. The high levels of FCB in North Creek limit its use for recreation, while low dissolved oxygen levels negatively affect salmonid spawning.", "" ]
Karaga festival locations ------------------------- ### Hoskote Karaga [Hoskote](/wiki/Hoskote "Hoskote") Karaga Mahotsava is an annual festival in Hoskote, which is celebrated in the month of April or May. The festivities start 11 days before [Buddha Purnima](/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday "Buddha's Birthday"). It is the Traditional Festival of VahniKula Kshathriya or [Thigalas](/wiki/Thigala "Thigala"). ### Narasapura Karaga [Narasapura](/wiki/Narasapuram "Narasapuram") Karagamahotsava festival in Narasapura is celebrated in either March, April or May. Narasapura karaga is very famous festival in [Kolar](/wiki/Kolar_district "Kolar district") district. The Karaga festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community, who largely reside in the town of Narasapura. They have been performing this festival since a hundred years. The Sri Dharmaraya Swamy temple situated in Narasapura town attracts thousands of devotees on the occasion of Karaga. The festival starts 11 days before the full moon every year, starting with Dwajarohana and ending with grand Sapthakalasha Karaga festivities. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga and the Hoovina Karaga. The Hasi Karaga happens two days prior to the Hoovina Karaga. Pallakki (palaquins) of all deities in the town go around the village streets. In the honour of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession usually starts at midnight and visits all the houses of Narasapura. The Narasapura Karaga attracts about 30000 to 40000 people from nearby villages and towns.The streets and houses are decorated with colorful lights, and [Rangoli](/wiki/Rangoli "Rangoli") is drawn in front of houses to welcome the Karaga procession. ### Varthur Karaga [Varthur](/wiki/Varthur "Varthur") Karaga festival is celebrated in the month of February (in the week of [Rathasapthami](/wiki/Ratha_Saptami "Ratha Saptami")). In the name of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession usually starts at 12:30 AM. After coming out of Sri Dharamaraya Swamy temple, the Karaga goes to the mosque of Varthur. After visiting the mosque, the Karaga starts to visits all the houses of Varthur, especially those of Kshatriyas. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga, in the evening of Rathasapthami which is devoted to Sri Chennaraya Swamy, and the main Hoovina Karaga (made of Jasmine flowers), which occurs two days later. The Sri Chennaraya Swamy Chariot is pulled by a crowd of devotees for a round through the village. The festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community who reside in Varthur and the surrounding villages. They have been performing this festival for more than a hundred years. The Karaga attracts more than 50000 people from nearby villages and towns, with the Sri Dharmaraya Swamy temple at Varthur seeing thousands of devotees.The town glitters with lights and floral decorations, and prasada in the form of rice and other foods is distributed. The festival is famous in East Bengaluru. ### Ramagondanahalli Karaga Karaga festival in [Ramagondanahalli](/wiki/Ramagondanahalli "Ramagondanahalli") is celebrated in the month of March (on [Holi](/wiki/Holi "Holi")). In the name of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession starts usually at midnight and visits all the houses of Ramagondanahalli, Varthur Kodi. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga, two days prior to the main Hoovina Karaga. The chariot is pulled by villagers around the village. The festival is started 11 days before a full moon day every year by pulling chariot and ends with the grand Karaga festival. The Karaga festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community who largely resides in Ramagondanahalli. Sri Dharmaraya swamy temple situated in Ramagondanahalli town attracts thousands of devotees on the occasion of Karaga. Ramagondanahalli Karaga attracts about 25,000 to 30,000 people from nearby villages and towns. The streets and houses of Ramagondanahalli are decorated with serial lights and rangoli is drawn in front of all the houses of Ramagondanahalli and Kodi Villages to welcome Karaga to their houses. The festival is famous in East Bengaluru. ### Rajakallahalli Karaga The Karaga festival in Rajakallahalli starts every year exactly on the auspicious day of Sri Rama Navami and Hasi Karaga is held on the next day. The festival is performed primarily by the Vahinikula Kshatriya community, with all other communities of the village joining in to help.The festival has been celebrated from more than 30 years. As part of festivities, the village is decorated grandly with lights and flowers. The previous carrier of Karaga in Rajakallahalli was the famous Sri Poojari Nagarajappa, a recipient of the [Rajyotsava Prashasti](/wiki/Rajyotsava_Prashasti "Rajyotsava Prashasti"). However, he has stopped participating due to age related issues. The Karaga starts with Gajapata on the first day, followed by Hasi Karaga, Deepagalu \& Kalyanothsava, Huvina Karaga, Pothuraju Gaavu and finally concludes with Vasantothsava. ### Bangarpet Karaga **Bengaluru Karaga** [<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore_Karaga>](/wiki/Bangalore_Karaga "Bangalore Karaga") **Doopanahalli / [Indiranagar](/wiki/Indiranagar%2C_Bangalore "Indiranagar, Bangalore") Karaga** Is an annual festival celebrated in one of the prime location of Bangalore, [Indiranagar](/wiki/Indiranagar%2C_Bangalore "Indiranagar, Bangalore"), primarily by the Vahnikula Kshatriya community. Based on their heritage story, they built temples to Draupadi and Dharmaraya (another name for Yudhishthira, the eldest of the five Pandava brothers in the Mahabharata). Adishakti Draupadi is the community Deity of the Vahnikula Kshatriyas, one of the foremost communities in Karanataka state. The Karaga festival is generally led by the Vahnikula Kshatriyas. Karaga is one of the many traditions of worshiping Adisakti Draupadi Devi. Karaga pooja and festivals have been celebrated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka since ages.
[ "Karaga festival locations\n-------------------------", "### Hoskote Karaga", "[Hoskote](/wiki/Hoskote \"Hoskote\") Karaga Mahotsava is an annual festival in Hoskote, which is celebrated in the month of April or May. The festivities start 11 days before [Buddha Purnima](/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday \"Buddha's Birthday\"). It is the Traditional Festival of VahniKula Kshathriya or [Thigalas](/wiki/Thigala \"Thigala\").", "### Narasapura Karaga", "[Narasapura](/wiki/Narasapuram \"Narasapuram\") Karagamahotsava festival in Narasapura is celebrated in either March, April or May. Narasapura karaga is very famous festival in [Kolar](/wiki/Kolar_district \"Kolar district\") district. The Karaga festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community, who largely reside in the town of Narasapura. They have been performing this festival since a hundred years.", "The Sri Dharmaraya Swamy temple situated in Narasapura town attracts thousands of devotees on the occasion of Karaga. The festival starts 11 days before the full moon every year, starting with Dwajarohana and ending with grand Sapthakalasha Karaga festivities. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga and the Hoovina Karaga. The Hasi Karaga happens two days prior to the Hoovina Karaga. Pallakki (palaquins) of all deities in the town go around the village streets. In the honour of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession usually starts at midnight and visits all the houses of Narasapura.", "The Narasapura Karaga attracts about 30000 to 40000 people from nearby villages and towns.The streets and houses are decorated with colorful lights, and [Rangoli](/wiki/Rangoli \"Rangoli\") is drawn in front of houses to welcome the Karaga procession.", "### Varthur Karaga", "[Varthur](/wiki/Varthur \"Varthur\") Karaga festival is celebrated in the month of February (in the week of [Rathasapthami](/wiki/Ratha_Saptami \"Ratha Saptami\")). In the name of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession usually starts at 12:30 AM. After coming out of Sri Dharamaraya Swamy temple, the Karaga goes to the mosque of Varthur. After visiting the mosque, the Karaga starts to visits all the houses of Varthur, especially those of Kshatriyas. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga, in the evening of Rathasapthami which is devoted to Sri Chennaraya Swamy, and the main Hoovina Karaga (made of Jasmine flowers), which occurs two days later. The Sri Chennaraya Swamy Chariot is pulled by a crowd of devotees for a round through the village. The festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community who reside in Varthur and the surrounding villages. They have been performing this festival for more than a hundred years. The Karaga attracts more than 50000 people from nearby villages and towns, with the Sri Dharmaraya Swamy temple at Varthur seeing thousands of devotees.The town glitters with lights and floral decorations, and prasada in the form of rice and other foods is distributed. The festival is famous in East Bengaluru.", "### Ramagondanahalli Karaga", "Karaga festival in [Ramagondanahalli](/wiki/Ramagondanahalli \"Ramagondanahalli\") is celebrated in the month of March (on [Holi](/wiki/Holi \"Holi\")). In the name of Draupadi and Dharmaraya Swamy, the procession starts usually at midnight and visits all the houses of Ramagondanahalli, Varthur Kodi. There are two kinds of Karaga: Hasi Karaga, two days prior to the main Hoovina Karaga. The chariot is pulled by villagers around the village. The festival is started 11 days before a full moon day every year by pulling chariot and ends with the grand Karaga festival. The Karaga festival is a traditional function of the Vahnikula Kshatriya community who largely resides in Ramagondanahalli. Sri Dharmaraya swamy temple situated in Ramagondanahalli town attracts thousands of devotees on the occasion of Karaga. Ramagondanahalli Karaga attracts about 25,000 to 30,000 people from nearby villages and towns. The streets and houses of Ramagondanahalli are decorated with serial lights and rangoli is drawn in front of all the houses of Ramagondanahalli and Kodi Villages to welcome Karaga to their houses. The festival is famous in East Bengaluru.", "### Rajakallahalli Karaga", "The Karaga festival in Rajakallahalli starts every year exactly on the auspicious day of Sri Rama Navami and Hasi Karaga is held on the next day. The festival is performed primarily by the Vahinikula Kshatriya community, with all other communities of the village joining in to help.The festival has been celebrated from more than 30 years. As part of festivities, the village is decorated grandly with lights and flowers. The previous carrier of Karaga in Rajakallahalli was the famous Sri Poojari Nagarajappa, a recipient of the [Rajyotsava Prashasti](/wiki/Rajyotsava_Prashasti \"Rajyotsava Prashasti\"). However, he has stopped participating due to age related issues.", "The Karaga starts with Gajapata on the first day, followed by Hasi Karaga, Deepagalu \\& Kalyanothsava, Huvina Karaga, Pothuraju Gaavu and finally concludes with Vasantothsava.", "### Bangarpet Karaga", "", "**Bengaluru Karaga**", "[<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore_Karaga>](/wiki/Bangalore_Karaga \"Bangalore Karaga\")", "", "**Doopanahalli / [Indiranagar](/wiki/Indiranagar%2C_Bangalore \"Indiranagar, Bangalore\") Karaga**", "Is an annual festival celebrated in one of the prime location of Bangalore, [Indiranagar](/wiki/Indiranagar%2C_Bangalore \"Indiranagar, Bangalore\"), primarily by the Vahnikula Kshatriya community. Based on their heritage story, they built temples to Draupadi and Dharmaraya (another name for Yudhishthira, the eldest of the five Pandava brothers in the Mahabharata). Adishakti Draupadi is the community Deity of the Vahnikula Kshatriyas, one of the foremost communities in Karanataka state. The Karaga festival is generally led by the Vahnikula Kshatriyas. Karaga is one of the many traditions of worshiping Adisakti Draupadi Devi. Karaga pooja and festivals have been celebrated in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka since ages.", "" ]
History ------- {{Unreferenced section\|date\=March 2023}} {{See also\|List of North Dakota Fighting Hawks football seasons}} ### Charles A. "Jack" West era [thumb\|North Dakota football player depicted on a Murad card, 1910](/wiki/File:North_dakota_football_card_murad.jpg "North dakota football card murad.jpg") The University of North Dakota football program experienced moderate success from its inception in 1894\. In the first 33 years of the program, the Flickertails won 109 games against just 87 losses, and had three undefeated seasons in 1896, 1899, and 1903\. But it was in 1928 when Charles A. "Jack" West arrived on campus in Grand Forks that would transform North Dakota into one of the most successful college football programs in the nation. West came to UND from [South Dakota State](/wiki/South_Dakota_State_Jackrabbits_football "South Dakota State Jackrabbits football"), where he spent 9 successful seasons that included 3 NCC championships. West immediately turned around what was at the time a mediocre football program at UND, winning NCC titles in his first four seasons at the helm. Over the course of 15 seasons, West amassed a record of 89–35–6, won a total of 8 NCC Championships, and retired as the winningest coach in North Dakota history, a distinction he would hold for 57 years. North Dakota experienced just three losing seasons during West's 15 years as head coach, and won 9 games in a season on three occasions. West did not coach the team in 1942, and the university did not field a team during the [war](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") years of 1943 and 1944\. His final season was 1945\. It was during this era in 1930 that the university adopted the nickname Fighting Sioux for all of its sports teams. West also served as athletic director for North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1975\. ### Marv "Whitey" Helling era Following Jack West's 15\-year tenure as leader of the Fighting Sioux football, the program compiled a record of just 44–44 over the next eleven seasons and did not win an NCC title in that time frame. [Marv "Whitey" Helling](/wiki/Marvin_C._Helling "Marvin C. Helling") would change the fortunes of North Dakota and usher in a new era of success for the university. Arriving in 1957, Helling's squad captured the NCC Championship in his second season in 1958, the program's first in 16 seasons. Helling's teams continued to improve as he built his program, reaching its peak from 1964 to 1966\. Those three seasons produced a record of 25–4, two NCC Championships, and two Bowl appearances. The 1964 team won Helling's second NCC title behind and 8–1 record. In 1965, the team went 9–1 and played in the [Mineral Water Bowl](/wiki/Mineral_Water_Bowl "Mineral Water Bowl") where they soundly defeated [Northern Illinois](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_Huskies_football "Northern Illinois Huskies football"). The only blemish that season came at the hands of their arch rival, the [North Dakota State Bison](/wiki/North_Dakota_State_Bison_football "North Dakota State Bison football"). A 6–3 loss at [Dacotah Field](/wiki/Dacotah_Field "Dacotah Field") in [Fargo](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota "Fargo, North Dakota") dashed the national championship hopes for the Fighting Sioux. North Dakota State went on to win the national championship that year. Helling's 1966 team gave him his third NCC championship. They were invited to play in the [Pecan Bowl](/wiki/Pecan_Bowl "Pecan Bowl"), one of four [bowl games](/wiki/Bowl_game "Bowl game") used at the time by the NCAA to determine the College Division National Champion. They defeated [Parsons College](/wiki/Parsons_College "Parsons College") in the game which was on national television as the NCAA's "Game of the Week" and finished the season with an 8–2 record and a No. 5 ranking in the final [AP Poll](/wiki/AP_poll "AP poll"). Four players from the 1966 team would sign contracts with NFL teams. Helling would coach one more season at North Dakota in 1967\. In 11 seasons as head coach, he compiled a record of 60–35–3\. Helling was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1988\. ### Jerry Olson era Jerry Olson took over the reins of Fighting Sioux football in 1968\. After suffering through 3 subpar seasons from 1967 through 1969 that saw the program produce just 11 wins against 21 losses, Olson got the team back on track to its winning ways in 1970, the first of six consecutive winning seasons. The 1971 season produced the first of 4 NCC Championships for Olson. The 1972 season under Olson may very well be considered the high water mark for North Dakota Football. The average margin of victory for the Sioux that season was over 27 points. The eventual NCC Champs defeated traditionally strong opponents such as [Montana](/wiki/Montana_Grizzlies_football "Montana Grizzlies football"), [Montana State](/wiki/Montana_State_Bobcats_football "Montana State Bobcats football"), [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota_Coyotes_football "South Dakota Coyotes football"), South Dakota State, and [Northern Iowa](/wiki/Northern_Iowa_Panthers_football "Northern Iowa Panthers football") in dominating fashion as well as adding a victory over [UNLV](/wiki/UNLV_Rebels_football "UNLV Rebels football") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas "Las Vegas"). The lone defeat that season came at home, a 5\-point loss to hated rival, the North Dakota State Bison. This loss would prove very costly to the Sioux. After the regular season, UND was invited to play in the [Camellia Bowl](/wiki/Camellia_Bowl_%281961%E2%80%931980%29 "Camellia Bowl (1961–1980)"), one of four regional bowl games that the NCAA used to determine the College Division National Champion. Entering the game carrying the No. 3 ranking, the Fighting Sioux would meet undefeated and No. 1 ranked [Cal Poly](/wiki/Cal_Poly_Mustangs_football "Cal Poly Mustangs football"). North Dakota would win the game by a rather convincing 17 points, upsetting the favored Mustangs and bolstering their hopes of being awarded the programs first national title. However, the loss to NDSU proved too much to overcome as the pollsters crowned undefeated [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Fightin%27_Blue_Hens_football "Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football") as College Division National Champions for the second straight year. For the second time in 7 seasons, a regular season loss to rival NDSU cost the Fighting Sioux a national title. They finished the 1972 campaign ranked No. 2 in the AP Poll. Olson would coach 5 more seasons at North Dakota, adding two more conference titles in 1974 and 1975\. With a record of 9–0, the 1975 team was the first UND squad to qualify for the newly created [Division II Playoff](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_Football_Championship "NCAA Division II Football Championship") tournament that replaced the Bowl and polling process of the College Division. North Dakota entered postseason play as the No. 1 ranked team in the nation. They played host to unranked [Livingston](/wiki/West_Alabama_Tigers_football "West Alabama Tigers football") in the quarterfinals of the playoff where the heavily favored Fighting Sioux were stunned and handed their only loss of the season. Jerry Olson compiled a record of 54–39–4 in 10 seasons at North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1981\. ### 1980s The decade that followed the Jerry Olson era was one of mixed results. Olson's assistant [Gene Murphy](/wiki/Gene_Murphy_%28American_football%2C_born_1939%29 "Gene Murphy (American football, born 1939)") took over and coached the team in 1978 and 1979\. Murphy's 1979 team qualified for the Division II playoffs, but fell in the quarterfinals to [Mississippi College](/wiki/Mississippi_College_Choctaws_football "Mississippi College Choctaws football") finishing the season with a 10–2 record. In 1980, Pat Behrns took over as head coach. Although he amassed a record of 36–27 in six seasons leading the program, North Dakota never qualified for the playoffs nor did they win a conference title under Behrns' direction. Following a dreadful 3–8 season in 1985 that culminated in a 49–0 loss to arch rival NDSU Bison, Behrns resigned as head coach of North Dakota. [Roger Thomas](/wiki/Roger_Thomas_%28American_football_coach%29 "Roger Thomas (American football coach)") was hired to replace him prior to the 1986 season. To add insult to what was already a forgettable decade in the annals of UND football history that yielded no conference titles and no playoff berths, 1980 marked the last time that the Sioux would defeat the rival NDSU Bison until 1993, twelve consecutive meetings. ### Roger Thomas era Roger Thomas took control of the North Dakota football program prior to the 1986 season. He was previously an assistant in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League") and at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_football "Minnesota Golden Gophers football"), as well as serving as offensive coordinator on Gene Murphy's staff at North Dakota in 1978 and 1979\. Thomas took on the challenge of restoring UND's football program to national prominence. Thomas' approach was slow and methodical. In his first six seasons UND went 38–33–1, finally breaking the playoff drought in 1992 and beginning a string of four consecutive playoff appearances. Thomas' teams seem to steadily improve each year. 1993 proved to be North Dakota's breakout season under Thomas, returning the program to national relevance. UND Defensive Coordinator [Dale Lennon](/wiki/Dale_Lennon "Dale Lennon") had installed a very aggressive [3–4 base defense](/wiki/3%E2%80%934_defense "3–4 defense") explicitly designed to thwart the veer offense that was employed by arch rival and national power, the North Dakota State Bison. When the two foes met in 1993, the Fighting Sioux defeated the Bison for the first time since 1980, in a 22–21 thriller, that would prove to turn the balance of power in the North Central Conference for the rest of its existence. The program won the first of three consecutive NCC titles in 1993\. North Dakota qualified for the playoffs and advanced all the way to the semifinals before falling to [IUP](/wiki/IUP_Crimson_Hawks_football "IUP Crimson Hawks football") and finishing the season 10–3\. 1994 produced another conference championship and another playoff berth for Thomas' squad. As icing on the cake, UND was pitted against NDSU in the 2nd round of the playoffs and were victorious over the Bison for the second time in the same season. North Dakota again advanced to the semifinals before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/North_Alabama_Lions_football "North Alabama Lions football") and finishing the season with a record of 10–3\. The 1995 season resulted in Thomas' third straight conference championship and fourth straight playoff berth. For the second straight season, UND and NDSU would square off against each other in the playoffs. This time it was NDSU that avenged their loss just two weeks prior to North Dakota. The Bison blasted the Sioux 41–10, ending their season. UND finished 1995 with a 9–2 record. Thomas would coach the Fighting Sioux for three more years, qualifying for the playoffs once more in 1998\. He stepped down after that season to accept the role of athletic director for the university. Roger Thomas retired after 13 seasons as North Dakota's all\-time winningest coach, with a record of 90–49–2\. ### Dale Lennon era After Roger Thomas stepped away from the football field and accepted the position of Athletics Director at North Dakota, he did not have to look far to find his replacement on the sidelines. Longtime Thomas assistant and UND Alum, Dale Lennon was hired as head coach in 1999\. Although Lennon had been head coach at the [University of Mary](/wiki/University_of_Mary "University of Mary") the prior two seasons, the coaching transition was virtually seamless since Lennon had spent nine seasons as an assistant under Roger Thomas helping to build North Dakota into the national power that they had become. The Fighting Sioux hit the ground running under Lennon in 1999\. They captured the NCC title and secured a berth to the playoffs for the second straight season. No. 9 ranked North Dakota travelled to [Northwest Missouri State](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_Bearcats_football "Northwest Missouri State Bearcats football") where they fell in overtime, ending Lennon's first season with a 9–2 record. In 2000, North Dakota went 8–3 in the regular season but were left out of the playoffs. The 2001 season proved to be a magical one for UND. The football program moved into a new state of the art $80 million indoor stadium, the [Alerus Center](/wiki/Alerus_Center "Alerus Center"). They breezed through the regular season with just one overtime loss to [Nebraska\-Omaha](/wiki/Nebraska%E2%80%93Omaha_Mavericks_football "Nebraska–Omaha Mavericks football") on the back of a relentless, swarming defense that gave up just 12 points per game in that season. After capturing the NCC Championship, No. 4 ranked North Dakota reeled of three straight playoff wins in the friendly confines of their new home in front of raucous and deafening crowds. They earned a trip to the national championship game in [Florence, Alabama](/wiki/Florence%2C_Alabama "Florence, Alabama"), where they would face No. 2 ranked [Grand Valley State](/wiki/Grand_Valley_State_Lakers_football "Grand Valley State Lakers football") who were led by future [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football "Notre Dame Fighting Irish football") head coach [Brian Kelly](/wiki/Brian_Kelly_%28American_football_coach%29 "Brian Kelly (American football coach)"). The game had mostly been a defensive battle throughout. Grand Valley had scored with 2:46 to play in the 4th quarter to take 14–10 lead. UND started its next possession, which would simply be known as "The Drive" to North Dakota fans, on their own 20\-yard line. After 8 plays, the Sioux found themselves at their own 41\-yard line facing a 4th\-and\-4\. On the ensuing play, QB Kelby Klosterman hit WR Luke Schleusner on a short underneath route. Schleusner broke a tackle and broke the play for a 58\-yard gain all the way down to the 1 yard line. UND punched it into the endzone on the next play to take the lead with 29 seconds left in the game, securing North Dakota with the national championship. The team had high hopes heading into 2002 season, but injuries derailed any chances of a repeat title, and instead resulted in a 5–6 record which is the only losing season during Lennon's tenure as head coach. The 2003 version of the Fighting Sioux returned to their dominating form. They had just one loss in the regular season and entered the playoffs as the 7th ranked team in the country. They again hosted and won three straight postseason games in the Alerus Center en route to another berth in the national championship game in Florence, Alabama. They would face the same opponent, No. 4 ranked Grand Valley State. The game had a familiar feel to it. It was low scoring and North Dakota trailed late in the game. QB John Bowenkamp had driven the Sioux 58 yards deep in to GVSU territory on a quest for a potential game tying TD, but was intercepted in the red zone giving the Lakers the victory. UND finished the season with a 12–2 mark. The 2003 season marked the first year in a string of five consecutive playoff seasons for North Dakota. North Dakota met Grand Valley in the playoffs every season from 2003 to 2007, winning just once in 2004 when they advanced to the semifinals. GVSU won 3 national championships during those years. In 2006, Lennon's Division II squad would upset No. 3 ranked Northern Iowa who were a Division I\-AA power in a dramatic come from behind win. In 2007, UND routed Division I\-AA [Southern Utah](/wiki/Southern_Utah_Thunderbirds_football "Southern Utah Thunderbirds football"). Lennon stepped down at North Dakota after the 2007 season to become head coach at DI\-AA power [Southern Illinois](/wiki/Southern_Illinois_Salukis_football "Southern Illinois Salukis football"). North Dakota won 4 NCC titles, made 7 playoff appearances, and won a national championship with Lennon at the helm. He left with a record 91–23, surpassing his mentor Roger Thomas, as the all\-time winningest coach in school history. ### Division I transition/Great West Conference era [275px\|thumb\|The North Dakota football team lines up on defense before the snap during a game against [Northwestern State](/wiki/Northwestern_State_Demons_football "Northwestern State Demons football") in 2010](/wiki/File:Community_shows_appreciation_towards_servicemembers_%28100925-F-4880S-844%29.jpg "Community shows appreciation towards servicemembers (100925-F-4880S-844).jpg") North Dakota elevated all of its athletic programs to the Division I level in 2008\. They would join the Great West Conference, which also included South Dakota, Southern Utah, [UC Davis](/wiki/UC_Davis_Aggies_football "UC Davis Aggies football"), and Cal Poly. [Chris Mussman](/wiki/Chris_Mussman "Chris Mussman") was named the 25th head coach at UND in January 2008\. Mussman had been an assistant under Dale Lennon for 9 years, the previous 7 as offensive coordinator, and had been a part of the 2001 National Championship staff. Due to the rules of the division reclassification, North Dakota would not be eligible for post season play until the 2012 season. The Fighting Hawks did not find immediate success at their new level of play. Their first three years produced mixed results at best. The program did achieve winning seasons in both 2008 and 2009, but much of the schedule consisted of Division II, Division III, and NAIA teams that UND was expected to defeat easily; however, they often struggled. In 2009, defending NAIA National Champion [University of Sioux Falls](/wiki/2009_Sioux_Falls_Cougars_football_team "2009 Sioux Falls Cougars football team") came to Grand Forks and stunned the Alerus Center crowd by soundly defeating North Dakota. In 2010, Mussman's squad limped through the season to finish with a record of 3–8, the first losing season for the UND program in 21 years. The 2011 season saw a reversal of fortune for Mussman's Fighting Hawks. UND went 8–3 for the season en route to capturing its first Division I Conference championship and finished with a No. 23 ranking in the national poll. 2011 would be the program's final year of play in the Great West Conference, as the Big Sky Conference would absorb all of the Great West football teams, with the exclusion of South Dakota who moved to the Missouri Valley Football Conference at the start of the 2012 season. ### Big Sky Conference era The university's athletic teams moved to the Big Sky Conference for the 2012 season. North Dakota went 8–14 in its first two Big Sky seasons, and were generally not competitive against league powers [Eastern Washington](/wiki/Eastern_Washington_Eagles_football "Eastern Washington Eagles football"), Montana, and Montana State. Chris Mussman's contract was terminated after the 2013 season. During his tenure as head coach he compiled a record 31–34, the first time in over 60 years that a coach left UND without a winning record. [Bubba Schweigert](/wiki/Bubba_Schweigert "Bubba Schweigert") was named as head coach on Christmas Eve in 2013\. Schweigert was an assistant at UND for 15 seasons first under Roger Thomas, then for Dale Lennon. He was the defensive coordinator for the 2001 National Championship team and the 2003 Runner\-up team. Prior to taking the head job at North Dakota, he was the defensive coordinator for Dale Lennon's Southern Illinois team. Schweigert's UND squad finished his first season in 2014 with a 5–7 record. In the 2015 campaign saw improvement under Schweigert beginning with the program's first ever win over an FBS program when they stunned [Wyoming](/wiki/2015_Wyoming_Cowboys_football_team "2015 Wyoming Cowboys football team") in [Laramie, Wyoming](/wiki/Laramie%2C_Wyoming "Laramie, Wyoming") to open the season. The team improved to 7–4 overall and 5–3 against Big Sky Conference opponents, narrowly missing out on a bid to the NCAA FCS playoffs. The following season, in 2016, Schweigert's program continued to improve. The Fighting Hawks won their first Big Sky Championship, finishing undefeated (8–0\) in Big Sky play en route to securing the program's first berth into the Division I FCS Playoffs. They bowed out of the playoff field via a narrow 27–24 loss to [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Spiders_football "Richmond Spiders football"), ending the season with an overall record of 9–3\. The final polls placed North Dakota at No. 12 in the nation, its highest ranking of the Division I era. The Fighting Hawks entered the 2017 season ranked No. 10 and were pre\-season favorites to repeat as Big Sky Champions. However, an injury\-plagued season that saw as many as 14 starters out of the lineup at one point forced the team to limp to a disappointing 3–8 finish. The 2017 season marked North Dakota's final season of competition in the Big Sky Conference. On January 26, 2017, it was announced that UND would move its football program to the [Missouri Valley Football Conference](/wiki/Missouri_Valley_Football_Conference "Missouri Valley Football Conference"), starting with the 2020 season. The Fighting Hawks will officially be an FCS Independent team during the 2018 and 2019 seasons. During those years, they will still participate in a scheduling alliance with the Big Sky Conference and will play 8 Big Sky teams each season. However, they will not be eligible to win the Big Sky Conference's automatic berth in the FCS Playoffs. ### Missouri Valley era [275px\|thumb\|The North Dakota football team lines up on offense before the snap during a game against [Indiana State](/wiki/Indiana_State_Sycamores_football "Indiana State Sycamores football") in 2023](/wiki/File:UND_Hawks_and_ISU_Sycamores_honor_Military_Appreciation_Day_%288098000%29.jpg "UND Hawks and ISU Sycamores honor Military Appreciation Day (8098000).jpg") In the first season in the Missouri Valley Football Conference the Fighting Hawks went 4–1\. The team shared a 3\-way tie in winning the conference.
[ "History\n-------", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=March 2023}}\n{{See also\\|List of North Dakota Fighting Hawks football seasons}}", "### Charles A. \"Jack\" West era", "[thumb\\|North Dakota football player depicted on a Murad card, 1910](/wiki/File:North_dakota_football_card_murad.jpg \"North dakota football card murad.jpg\")\nThe University of North Dakota football program experienced moderate success from its inception in 1894\\. In the first 33 years of the program, the Flickertails won 109 games against just 87 losses, and had three undefeated seasons in 1896, 1899, and 1903\\. But it was in 1928 when Charles A. \"Jack\" West arrived on campus in Grand Forks that would transform North Dakota into one of the most successful college football programs in the nation. West came to UND from [South Dakota State](/wiki/South_Dakota_State_Jackrabbits_football \"South Dakota State Jackrabbits football\"), where he spent 9 successful seasons that included 3 NCC championships. West immediately turned around what was at the time a mediocre football program at UND, winning NCC titles in his first four seasons at the helm.", "Over the course of 15 seasons, West amassed a record of 89–35–6, won a total of 8 NCC Championships, and retired as the winningest coach in North Dakota history, a distinction he would hold for 57 years. North Dakota experienced just three losing seasons during West's 15 years as head coach, and won 9 games in a season on three occasions. West did not coach the team in 1942, and the university did not field a team during the [war](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") years of 1943 and 1944\\. His final season was 1945\\. It was during this era in 1930 that the university adopted the nickname Fighting Sioux for all of its sports teams. West also served as athletic director for North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1975\\.", "### Marv \"Whitey\" Helling era", "Following Jack West's 15\\-year tenure as leader of the Fighting Sioux football, the program compiled a record of just 44–44 over the next eleven seasons and did not win an NCC title in that time frame. [Marv \"Whitey\" Helling](/wiki/Marvin_C._Helling \"Marvin C. Helling\") would change the fortunes of North Dakota and usher in a new era of success for the university. Arriving in 1957, Helling's squad captured the NCC Championship in his second season in 1958, the program's first in 16 seasons. Helling's teams continued to improve as he built his program, reaching its peak from 1964 to 1966\\. Those three seasons produced a record of 25–4, two NCC Championships, and two Bowl appearances. The 1964 team won Helling's second NCC title behind and 8–1 record. In 1965, the team went 9–1 and played in the [Mineral Water Bowl](/wiki/Mineral_Water_Bowl \"Mineral Water Bowl\") where they soundly defeated [Northern Illinois](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_Huskies_football \"Northern Illinois Huskies football\"). The only blemish that season came at the hands of their arch rival, the [North Dakota State Bison](/wiki/North_Dakota_State_Bison_football \"North Dakota State Bison football\"). A 6–3 loss at [Dacotah Field](/wiki/Dacotah_Field \"Dacotah Field\") in [Fargo](/wiki/Fargo%2C_North_Dakota \"Fargo, North Dakota\") dashed the national championship hopes for the Fighting Sioux. North Dakota State went on to win the national championship that year. Helling's 1966 team gave him his third NCC championship. They were invited to play in the [Pecan Bowl](/wiki/Pecan_Bowl \"Pecan Bowl\"), one of four [bowl games](/wiki/Bowl_game \"Bowl game\") used at the time by the NCAA to determine the College Division National Champion. They defeated [Parsons College](/wiki/Parsons_College \"Parsons College\") in the game which was on national television as the NCAA's \"Game of the Week\" and finished the season with an 8–2 record and a No. 5 ranking in the final [AP Poll](/wiki/AP_poll \"AP poll\"). Four players from the 1966 team would sign contracts with NFL teams. Helling would coach one more season at North Dakota in 1967\\. In 11 seasons as head coach, he compiled a record of 60–35–3\\. Helling was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1988\\.", "### Jerry Olson era", "Jerry Olson took over the reins of Fighting Sioux football in 1968\\. After suffering through 3 subpar seasons from 1967 through 1969 that saw the program produce just 11 wins against 21 losses, Olson got the team back on track to its winning ways in 1970, the first of six consecutive winning seasons. The 1971 season produced the first of 4 NCC Championships for Olson. The 1972 season under Olson may very well be considered the high water mark for North Dakota Football. The average margin of victory for the Sioux that season was over 27 points. The eventual NCC Champs defeated traditionally strong opponents such as [Montana](/wiki/Montana_Grizzlies_football \"Montana Grizzlies football\"), [Montana State](/wiki/Montana_State_Bobcats_football \"Montana State Bobcats football\"), [South Dakota](/wiki/South_Dakota_Coyotes_football \"South Dakota Coyotes football\"), South Dakota State, and [Northern Iowa](/wiki/Northern_Iowa_Panthers_football \"Northern Iowa Panthers football\") in dominating fashion as well as adding a victory over [UNLV](/wiki/UNLV_Rebels_football \"UNLV Rebels football\") in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas \"Las Vegas\"). The lone defeat that season came at home, a 5\\-point loss to hated rival, the North Dakota State Bison. This loss would prove very costly to the Sioux. After the regular season, UND was invited to play in the [Camellia Bowl](/wiki/Camellia_Bowl_%281961%E2%80%931980%29 \"Camellia Bowl (1961–1980)\"), one of four regional bowl games that the NCAA used to determine the College Division National Champion. Entering the game carrying the No. 3 ranking, the Fighting Sioux would meet undefeated and No. 1 ranked [Cal Poly](/wiki/Cal_Poly_Mustangs_football \"Cal Poly Mustangs football\"). North Dakota would win the game by a rather convincing 17 points, upsetting the favored Mustangs and bolstering their hopes of being awarded the programs first national title. However, the loss to NDSU proved too much to overcome as the pollsters crowned undefeated [Delaware](/wiki/Delaware_Fightin%27_Blue_Hens_football \"Delaware Fightin' Blue Hens football\") as College Division National Champions for the second straight year. For the second time in 7 seasons, a regular season loss to rival NDSU cost the Fighting Sioux a national title. They finished the 1972 campaign ranked No. 2 in the AP Poll. Olson would coach 5 more seasons at North Dakota, adding two more conference titles in 1974 and 1975\\. With a record of 9–0, the 1975 team was the first UND squad to qualify for the newly created [Division II Playoff](/wiki/NCAA_Division_II_Football_Championship \"NCAA Division II Football Championship\") tournament that replaced the Bowl and polling process of the College Division. North Dakota entered postseason play as the No. 1 ranked team in the nation. They played host to unranked [Livingston](/wiki/West_Alabama_Tigers_football \"West Alabama Tigers football\") in the quarterfinals of the playoff where the heavily favored Fighting Sioux were stunned and handed their only loss of the season. Jerry Olson compiled a record of 54–39–4 in 10 seasons at North Dakota and was inducted into the UND Hall of Fame in 1981\\.", "### 1980s", "The decade that followed the Jerry Olson era was one of mixed results. Olson's assistant [Gene Murphy](/wiki/Gene_Murphy_%28American_football%2C_born_1939%29 \"Gene Murphy (American football, born 1939)\") took over and coached the team in 1978 and 1979\\. Murphy's 1979 team qualified for the Division II playoffs, but fell in the quarterfinals to [Mississippi College](/wiki/Mississippi_College_Choctaws_football \"Mississippi College Choctaws football\") finishing the season with a 10–2 record. In 1980, Pat Behrns took over as head coach. Although he amassed a record of 36–27 in six seasons leading the program, North Dakota never qualified for the playoffs nor did they win a conference title under Behrns' direction. Following a dreadful 3–8 season in 1985 that culminated in a 49–0 loss to arch rival NDSU Bison, Behrns resigned as head coach of North Dakota. [Roger Thomas](/wiki/Roger_Thomas_%28American_football_coach%29 \"Roger Thomas (American football coach)\") was hired to replace him prior to the 1986 season. To add insult to what was already a forgettable decade in the annals of UND football history that yielded no conference titles and no playoff berths, 1980 marked the last time that the Sioux would defeat the rival NDSU Bison until 1993, twelve consecutive meetings.", "### Roger Thomas era", "Roger Thomas took control of the North Dakota football program prior to the 1986 season. He was previously an assistant in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\") and at the [University of Minnesota](/wiki/Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_football \"Minnesota Golden Gophers football\"), as well as serving as offensive coordinator on Gene Murphy's staff at North Dakota in 1978 and 1979\\. Thomas took on the challenge of restoring UND's football program to national prominence. Thomas' approach was slow and methodical. In his first six seasons UND went 38–33–1, finally breaking the playoff drought in 1992 and beginning a string of four consecutive playoff appearances. Thomas' teams seem to steadily improve each year. 1993 proved to be North Dakota's breakout season under Thomas, returning the program to national relevance. UND Defensive Coordinator [Dale Lennon](/wiki/Dale_Lennon \"Dale Lennon\") had installed a very aggressive [3–4 base defense](/wiki/3%E2%80%934_defense \"3–4 defense\") explicitly designed to thwart the veer offense that was employed by arch rival and national power, the North Dakota State Bison. When the two foes met in 1993, the Fighting Sioux defeated the Bison for the first time since 1980, in a 22–21 thriller, that would prove to turn the balance of power in the North Central Conference for the rest of its existence. The program won the first of three consecutive NCC titles in 1993\\. North Dakota qualified for the playoffs and advanced all the way to the semifinals before falling to [IUP](/wiki/IUP_Crimson_Hawks_football \"IUP Crimson Hawks football\") and finishing the season 10–3\\. 1994 produced another conference championship and another playoff berth for Thomas' squad. As icing on the cake, UND was pitted against NDSU in the 2nd round of the playoffs and were victorious over the Bison for the second time in the same season. North Dakota again advanced to the semifinals before falling to [North Alabama](/wiki/North_Alabama_Lions_football \"North Alabama Lions football\") and finishing the season with a record of 10–3\\. The 1995 season resulted in Thomas' third straight conference championship and fourth straight playoff berth. For the second straight season, UND and NDSU would square off against each other in the playoffs. This time it was NDSU that avenged their loss just two weeks prior to North Dakota. The Bison blasted the Sioux 41–10, ending their season. UND finished 1995 with a 9–2 record. Thomas would coach the Fighting Sioux for three more years, qualifying for the playoffs once more in 1998\\. He stepped down after that season to accept the role of athletic director for the university. Roger Thomas retired after 13 seasons as North Dakota's all\\-time winningest coach, with a record of 90–49–2\\.", "### Dale Lennon era", "After Roger Thomas stepped away from the football field and accepted the position of Athletics Director at North Dakota, he did not have to look far to find his replacement on the sidelines. Longtime Thomas assistant and UND Alum, Dale Lennon was hired as head coach in 1999\\. Although Lennon had been head coach at the [University of Mary](/wiki/University_of_Mary \"University of Mary\") the prior two seasons, the coaching transition was virtually seamless since Lennon had spent nine seasons as an assistant under Roger Thomas helping to build North Dakota into the national power that they had become. The Fighting Sioux hit the ground running under Lennon in 1999\\. They captured the NCC title and secured a berth to the playoffs for the second straight season. No. 9 ranked North Dakota travelled to [Northwest Missouri State](/wiki/Northwest_Missouri_State_Bearcats_football \"Northwest Missouri State Bearcats football\") where they fell in overtime, ending Lennon's first season with a 9–2 record. In 2000, North Dakota went 8–3 in the regular season but were left out of the playoffs. The 2001 season proved to be a magical one for UND. The football program moved into a new state of the art $80 million indoor stadium, the [Alerus Center](/wiki/Alerus_Center \"Alerus Center\"). They breezed through the regular season with just one overtime loss to [Nebraska\\-Omaha](/wiki/Nebraska%E2%80%93Omaha_Mavericks_football \"Nebraska–Omaha Mavericks football\") on the back of a relentless, swarming defense that gave up just 12 points per game in that season. After capturing the NCC Championship, No. 4 ranked North Dakota reeled of three straight playoff wins in the friendly confines of their new home in front of raucous and deafening crowds. They earned a trip to the national championship game in [Florence, Alabama](/wiki/Florence%2C_Alabama \"Florence, Alabama\"), where they would face No. 2 ranked [Grand Valley State](/wiki/Grand_Valley_State_Lakers_football \"Grand Valley State Lakers football\") who were led by future [Notre Dame](/wiki/Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football \"Notre Dame Fighting Irish football\") head coach [Brian Kelly](/wiki/Brian_Kelly_%28American_football_coach%29 \"Brian Kelly (American football coach)\"). The game had mostly been a defensive battle throughout. Grand Valley had scored with 2:46 to play in the 4th quarter to take 14–10 lead. UND started its next possession, which would simply be known as \"The Drive\" to North Dakota fans, on their own 20\\-yard line. After 8 plays, the Sioux found themselves at their own 41\\-yard line facing a 4th\\-and\\-4\\. On the ensuing play, QB Kelby Klosterman hit WR Luke Schleusner on a short underneath route. Schleusner broke a tackle and broke the play for a 58\\-yard gain all the way down to the 1 yard line. UND punched it into the endzone on the next play to take the lead with 29 seconds left in the game, securing North Dakota with the national championship.", "The team had high hopes heading into 2002 season, but injuries derailed any chances of a repeat title, and instead resulted in a 5–6 record which is the only losing season during Lennon's tenure as head coach. The 2003 version of the Fighting Sioux returned to their dominating form. They had just one loss in the regular season and entered the playoffs as the 7th ranked team in the country. They again hosted and won three straight postseason games in the Alerus Center en route to another berth in the national championship game in Florence, Alabama. They would face the same opponent, No. 4 ranked Grand Valley State. The game had a familiar feel to it. It was low scoring and North Dakota trailed late in the game. QB John Bowenkamp had driven the Sioux 58 yards deep in to GVSU territory on a quest for a potential game tying TD, but was intercepted in the red zone giving the Lakers the victory. UND finished the season with a 12–2 mark. The 2003 season marked the first year in a string of five consecutive playoff seasons for North Dakota. North Dakota met Grand Valley in the playoffs every season from 2003 to 2007, winning just once in 2004 when they advanced to the semifinals. GVSU won 3 national championships during those years. In 2006, Lennon's Division II squad would upset No. 3 ranked Northern Iowa who were a Division I\\-AA power in a dramatic come from behind win. In 2007, UND routed Division I\\-AA [Southern Utah](/wiki/Southern_Utah_Thunderbirds_football \"Southern Utah Thunderbirds football\"). Lennon stepped down at North Dakota after the 2007 season to become head coach at DI\\-AA power [Southern Illinois](/wiki/Southern_Illinois_Salukis_football \"Southern Illinois Salukis football\"). North Dakota won 4 NCC titles, made 7 playoff appearances, and won a national championship with Lennon at the helm. He left with a record 91–23, surpassing his mentor Roger Thomas, as the all\\-time winningest coach in school history.", "### Division I transition/Great West Conference era", "[275px\\|thumb\\|The North Dakota football team lines up on defense before the snap during a game against [Northwestern State](/wiki/Northwestern_State_Demons_football \"Northwestern State Demons football\") in 2010](/wiki/File:Community_shows_appreciation_towards_servicemembers_%28100925-F-4880S-844%29.jpg \"Community shows appreciation towards servicemembers (100925-F-4880S-844).jpg\")\nNorth Dakota elevated all of its athletic programs to the Division I level in 2008\\. They would join the Great West Conference, which also included South Dakota, Southern Utah, [UC Davis](/wiki/UC_Davis_Aggies_football \"UC Davis Aggies football\"), and Cal Poly. [Chris Mussman](/wiki/Chris_Mussman \"Chris Mussman\") was named the 25th head coach at UND in January 2008\\. Mussman had been an assistant under Dale Lennon for 9 years, the previous 7 as offensive coordinator, and had been a part of the 2001 National Championship staff. Due to the rules of the division reclassification, North Dakota would not be eligible for post season play until the 2012 season. The Fighting Hawks did not find immediate success at their new level of play. Their first three years produced mixed results at best. The program did achieve winning seasons in both 2008 and 2009, but much of the schedule consisted of Division II, Division III, and NAIA teams that UND was expected to defeat easily; however, they often struggled. In 2009, defending NAIA National Champion [University of Sioux Falls](/wiki/2009_Sioux_Falls_Cougars_football_team \"2009 Sioux Falls Cougars football team\") came to Grand Forks and stunned the Alerus Center crowd by soundly defeating North Dakota. In 2010, Mussman's squad limped through the season to finish with a record of 3–8, the first losing season for the UND program in 21 years. The 2011 season saw a reversal of fortune for Mussman's Fighting Hawks. UND went 8–3 for the season en route to capturing its first Division I Conference championship and finished with a No. 23 ranking in the national poll. 2011 would be the program's final year of play in the Great West Conference, as the Big Sky Conference would absorb all of the Great West football teams, with the exclusion of South Dakota who moved to the Missouri Valley Football Conference at the start of the 2012 season.", "### Big Sky Conference era", "The university's athletic teams moved to the Big Sky Conference for the 2012 season. North Dakota went 8–14 in its first two Big Sky seasons, and were generally not competitive against league powers [Eastern Washington](/wiki/Eastern_Washington_Eagles_football \"Eastern Washington Eagles football\"), Montana, and Montana State. Chris Mussman's contract was terminated after the 2013 season. During his tenure as head coach he compiled a record 31–34, the first time in over 60 years that a coach left UND without a winning record.", "[Bubba Schweigert](/wiki/Bubba_Schweigert \"Bubba Schweigert\") was named as head coach on Christmas Eve in 2013\\. Schweigert was an assistant at UND for 15 seasons first under Roger Thomas, then for Dale Lennon. He was the defensive coordinator for the 2001 National Championship team and the 2003 Runner\\-up team. Prior to taking the head job at North Dakota, he was the defensive coordinator for Dale Lennon's Southern Illinois team. Schweigert's UND squad finished his first season in 2014 with a 5–7 record. In the 2015 campaign saw improvement under Schweigert beginning with the program's first ever win over an FBS program when they stunned [Wyoming](/wiki/2015_Wyoming_Cowboys_football_team \"2015 Wyoming Cowboys football team\") in [Laramie, Wyoming](/wiki/Laramie%2C_Wyoming \"Laramie, Wyoming\") to open the season. The team improved to 7–4 overall and 5–3 against Big Sky Conference opponents, narrowly missing out on a bid to the NCAA FCS playoffs. The following season, in 2016, Schweigert's program continued to improve. The Fighting Hawks won their first Big Sky Championship, finishing undefeated (8–0\\) in Big Sky play en route to securing the program's first berth into the Division I FCS Playoffs. They bowed out of the playoff field via a narrow 27–24 loss to [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Spiders_football \"Richmond Spiders football\"), ending the season with an overall record of 9–3\\. The final polls placed North Dakota at No. 12 in the nation, its highest ranking of the Division I era. The Fighting Hawks entered the 2017 season ranked No. 10 and were pre\\-season favorites to repeat as Big Sky Champions. However, an injury\\-plagued season that saw as many as 14 starters out of the lineup at one point forced the team to limp to a disappointing 3–8 finish.", "The 2017 season marked North Dakota's final season of competition in the Big Sky Conference. On January 26, 2017, it was announced that UND would move its football program to the [Missouri Valley Football Conference](/wiki/Missouri_Valley_Football_Conference \"Missouri Valley Football Conference\"), starting with the 2020 season. The Fighting Hawks will officially be an FCS Independent team during the 2018 and 2019 seasons. During those years, they will still participate in a scheduling alliance with the Big Sky Conference and will play 8 Big Sky teams each season. However, they will not be eligible to win the Big Sky Conference's automatic berth in the FCS Playoffs.", "### Missouri Valley era", "[275px\\|thumb\\|The North Dakota football team lines up on offense before the snap during a game against [Indiana State](/wiki/Indiana_State_Sycamores_football \"Indiana State Sycamores football\") in 2023](/wiki/File:UND_Hawks_and_ISU_Sycamores_honor_Military_Appreciation_Day_%288098000%29.jpg \"UND Hawks and ISU Sycamores honor Military Appreciation Day (8098000).jpg\")\nIn the first season in the Missouri Valley Football Conference the Fighting Hawks went 4–1\\. The team shared a 3\\-way tie in winning the conference.", "" ]
History ------- ### The 1998 election The coalition was officially formed on 27 June 1998, before the [1998 Polish local elections](/wiki/1998_Polish_local_elections "1998 Polish local elections") planned for the autumn.{{cite web \|url\=https://archiwum.rp.pl/artykul/181825\-Samorzadowakoalicja\-PSL\-UP\-i\-KPEiR.html\|title\=Samorządowa koalicja PSL, UP i KPEiR\|date\=29 June 1998\|website\=archiwum.rp.pl\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-10 \|language\=pl}} It consisted of the [Polish People's Party](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party "Polish People's Party") (PSL), the [Labour Union](/wiki/Labour_Union_%28Poland%29 "Labour Union (Poland)") (UP), [Self\-Defence of the Republic of Poland](/wiki/Self-Defence_of_the_Republic_of_Poland "Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland") (SPR) and the [National Party of Retirees and Pensioners](/wiki/National_Party_of_Retirees_and_Pensioners "National Party of Retirees and Pensioners") (KPEiR). Representatives of other formations, such as [Alliance of Democrats](/wiki/Alliance_of_Democrats_%28Poland%29 "Alliance of Democrats (Poland)"), also ran on its lists. In its manifesto, Przymierze Społeczne declared: 'Nothing will change in Poland if we do not counter the successive varieties of post\-Solidarity and post\-communist liberalism with an alliance of working people.' Labour Union leader Marek Pol indicated that the coalition aimed to represent, among others, those impoverished by capitalist transformation. Media polls at the time gave the coalition 8% support. Marek Pol argued that the formation of the coalition was necessary because the electoral law that was being prepared clearly favoured large groupings (i.e. the SLD and AWS), and according to Kalinowski of the PSL, one of the Social Alliance's main goals was to oppose the division of the political scene into post\-Communist and post\-Solidarity groupings and to establish an alternative for those who did not want to cast their votes for either the [Democratic Left Alliance](/wiki/Democratic_Left_Alliance_%28Poland%29 "Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)") or the [Solidarity Electoral Action](/wiki/Solidarity_Electoral_Action "Solidarity Electoral Action"). The agreement only concerned elections at the provincial level, but the local branches of the respective parties were advised to form similar alliances at the county and municipal levels. The coalition ran in the elections under the slogan "Together we can do it". The coalition members' conflicting stances on the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union") proved problematic for the party. In a pre\-election CBOS poll, every second PSL supporter and a third of UP supporters declared support for the coalition. Amongst the more exotic candidates of the coalition where those of Samoobrona as well as the trade union [Solidarity '80](/wiki/Solidarity_%28Polish_trade_union%29 "Solidarity (Polish trade union)"). Andrzej Lepper, the leader of Samoobrona, claimed: "There are no programme differences between us". However, the vice\-president of the PSL, Marek Sawicki, protested this statement and pointed to programmatic differences between PSL and Samoobrona, stating: "The support in the local elections of the Social Alliance candidates by the farmers' union Samoobrona does not imply the Eurosceptic views of the PSL." Marek Pol also distanced himself from Samoobrona and Lepper: "The Labour Union is aware of the controversial nature of the candidate. We discussed this during the last Social Alliancecouncil meeting. However, since his person was supported by the PSL, I understand that it takes full responsibility for the fact that Mr Lepper will implement the programme of the Social Alliance". On the electoral lists of the Social Alliance, Samoobrona presented nearly 120 candidates, mostly for the [West Pomeranian Voivodeship Sejmik](/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeship_Sejmik "West Pomeranian Voivodeship Sejmik").{{cite journal \|title\=Les manifestations paysannes polonaises de 1998\-1999: Politisation, médiatisation et personnalisation d'une mobilisation contestataire \|language\=fr \|first\=Cédric \|last\=Pellen \|journal\=Dans Politix \|year\=2009 \|volume\=22 \|issue\=86 \|issn\=0295\-2319 \|doi\=10\.3917/pox.086\.0167 \|page\=184 \|publisher\=De Boeck Supérieur}} The radically populist and aggressive style of campaigning of Samoobrona, known for its at times violent agrarian protests and trade union strikes, provided a great contrast to the moderate, well\-established Polish People's Party as well as the social\-democratic, "civil" Labour Union. However, both parties defended the presence of Samoobrona and its leader Andrzej Lepper in the coalition, arguing that it is preferable "that the participants of the radical agricultural protests get on the road to democratic procedures as soon as possible. Admittedly, he \[Lepper] will not be an easy partner, but it is better to discuss with him in the assembly than on a blocked roadway".{{cite journal \|title\=Andrzej Lepper \- chłopski przywódca charyzmatyczny? Wizerunek medialny przewodniczącego „Samoobrony” \|language\=pl \|journal\=Etnografia Polska \|volume\=45 \|issue\=1\-2 \|year\=2001 \|issn\=0071\-1861 \|first\=Mirosława \|last\=Drozd\-Piasecka \|pages\=54\-55}} Nevertheless, political magazine [Polityka](/wiki/Polityka "Polityka") noted that Labour Union had been more supportive of agricultural protests as well as the economic proposals of the Polish People's Party and Samoobrona rather than its fellow social\-democratic Democratic Left Alliance, thus acquiring a populist, agrarian image on its own.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.polityka.pl/archiwumpolityki/1815018,1,mniejszy\-brat.read \|title\=Mniejszy brat \|language\=pl \|website\=\[\[Polityka]] \|date\=9 February 2002 \|first\=Mariusz \|last\=Janicki}} According to 1998 statistics, 450,000 fewer votes were cast for the Social Alliance than in the [1997 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/1997_Polish_parliamentary_election "1997 Polish parliamentary election") for the PSL, UP and the KPEiR combined.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.polityka.pl/archiwumpolityki/1818428,1,ciasto\-czteropartyjne.read\|author\=\[\[:pl:Janina Paradowska\|Janina Paradowska]]\|title\=Ciasto czteropartyjne\|language\=pl\|website\=polityka.pl\|date\=19 December 1998\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-10}} The press emphasised that it was mainly PSL that benefited from the coalition, while for the Labour Union, participation in the electoral bloc meant defeat. The coalition won a total of 4583 councillor seats out of a total of 63,765\.Józef Ryszard Szaflik, *Dzieje partii i stronnictw chłopskich w Europie. W podzielonej Europie*, Akademia Humanistyczna im. Aleksandra Gieysztora, Pułtusk 2007, p. 505 It won 89 provincial assembly councillor seats out of a total of 855\.[Dziś](/wiki/Dzi%C5%9B "Dziś"), nr 1, 2007, p. 147Halina Lisicka (red.), *System polityczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Praca zbiorowa*, Biuro Doradztwa Ekologicznego, Warszawa 2001, p. 55 The Alliance won seats in all sejmiks; these were won mainly by representatives of the PSL. [Andrzej Lepper](/wiki/Andrzej_Lepper "Andrzej Lepper") was elected to the regional assembly of Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeship from the PS list.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.wprost.pl/tygodnik/4191/prawo\-leppera.html\|language\=pl \|author1\=Maciej Łuczak \|author2\=Ryszard Kamiński \|author3\=Jacek Szczęsny\|title\=Prawo Leppera\|website\=wprost.pl\|date\=16 May 1999\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-10}} In the assembly elections, the coalition came third behind AWS and SLD (and slightly ahead of UW) with a total of 12\.04% of the vote. PS recorded the highest support, above 20%, in the Lubelskie and Świętokrzyskie voivodeships. ### Aftermath After the elections, the PS declared an equal distance from AWS and SLD, claiming that it would not decide top\-down who would be its coalition partner in local government.{{cite web\|url\=https://archiwum.rp.pl/artykul/199311\-Rowny\-dystans\-do\-AWS\-i\-SLD.html\|title\=Równy dystans do AWS i SLD\|date\=31 October 1998\|website\=archiwum.rp.pl\|language\=pl\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-10}} However, in most assemblies the Alliance entered into a coalition with the SLD. The coalition established cooperation in nine provinces with the social\-democratic SLD and in one province with the conservative AWS. The coalition, although it achieved moderate success, was criticised by PSL politicians from the national\-radical wing. Disappointment was expressed by the Labour Union, which argued against deepening cooperation with the PSL. Social Alliance was an unprecedented case of the PSL working together with much more radical Self\-Defence, and there was speculation at the time about the possibility of a permanent alliance being formed on its basis, which in the long term could lead to the full unification of political structures representing Polish farmers and the rural population. However, this proposal failed as both parties started strongly competing with each other. In this situation, cooperation was limited to undertaking successive joint initiatives aimed at bringing together and working out common positions by the three largest agricultural trade unions; in June 1998, it was agreed that ZZR "Samoobrona" together with KZRKiOR and NSZZ "Solidarność" RI would work out a common position on the terms of Poland's accession to the European Union. The coalition is credited with contributing to Samoobrona's rise to relevance in the [2001 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2001_Polish_parliamentary_election "2001 Polish parliamentary election"). Samoobrona was a radical far\-left agrarian socialist and Catholic socialist force that became a refugee for dissident wings of [Polish United Workers' Party](/wiki/Polish_United_Workers%27_Party "Polish United Workers' Party"), such as [national communists](/wiki/National_Communism "National Communism") and also Maoists, with Polish Maoist groups being supportive of the party. Shortly before the [2001 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2001_Polish_parliamentary_election "2001 Polish parliamentary election"), there emerged a project of a "Workers' and Peasants' Alliance" combining Samoobrona and the Polish Socialist Party of [Piotr Ikonowicz](/wiki/Piotr_Ikonowicz "Piotr Ikonowicz"). More significantly, Samoobrona then gained informal support from the SLD, keen to weaken the PSL, which allowed Samoobrona to play the role of an informal SLD coalition partner in the Sejm and, after the 2002 local elections, also in the provincial assemblies. Although Lepper continued his lavish criticism on SLD politicians, he distinguished the liberal wing associated with Kwasniewski from the democratic socialist group headed by Miller and Oleksy. This allowed Samoobrona to attract a sizable group of left\-wing activists, both at the central and local level. After 2001, Lepper went as far as announcing that Samoobrona would become the only party of the socialist left in Poland. The formation of Social Alliance and successful performance deepened ties between Samoobrona and the Polish People's Party, and led to their cooperation until the mid\-2000s. Both parties coordinated their actions against the centre\-right government of [Jerzy Buzek](/wiki/Jerzy_Buzek "Jerzy Buzek") (1997\-2001\). While Samoobrona organized roadblocks and massive farmer protests, the Polish People's Party used its Sejm presence to harshly criticize the cabinet and legitimatize the actions of Samoobrona.{{cite journal \|last\=Grabowski \|first\=Krzysztof \|date\=16 August 1998 \|language\=pl \|url\=https://www.wprost.pl/tygodnik/6494/rewolwerowiec.html \|title\=Rewolwerowiec. Benefis Andrzeja Leppera \|journal\=\[\[Wprost]] \|issue\=33 \|page\=23}} After Samoobrona entered the Sejm for the first time in 2001, both the left\-wing and right\-wing blocs found cooperation with Samoobrona attractive. However, the party cast its lot with the left\-wing camp. After a coalition cabinet of the social\-democratic Left Democratic Alliance and Polish People's Party was formed, Samoobrona entered a [confidence and supply](/wiki/Confidence_and_supply "Confidence and supply") agreement with it, displaying its post\-communist alignment by supporting the cabinet's proposals to significantly limit the Lustration Act (which excluded former communist public servants from public offices), defund the anti\-communist [Institute of National Remembrance](/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance "Institute of National Remembrance"), and preserve the special privileges for the officers of the Communist Poland. This informal cooperation of Samoobrona with fellow left\-wing parties was called "Self\-Defence of Democratic Left” ({{lang\-pl\|Samoobrona Lewicy Demokratycznej}}) by the media.{{cite book \|title\=Populist Political Parties in East\-Central Europe \|author1\=Vlastimil Havlik \|author2\=Anete Pinkova \|year\=2012 \|isbn\=978\-8021061057 \|publisher\=Masaryk University Press \|page\=182}} Social Alliance was considered a failed project for Labour Union, despite the satisfactory performance of the alliance. In December 1998, the Labour Union lost nine prominent politicians who deserted the party, who claimed that the Labour Union wants to compete with the Polish Socialist Party and abandoned its unique identity in favor of a "few parliamentary mandates". After the coalition, the party gradually abandoned its unique identity as an "outsider" laborist and socialist party in favor of approaching the post\-communist SLD and moving closer towards it positions, such as pro\-Europeanism. This prompted many left\-wing nationalist members to leave the party, together with more radical members who protested forming a coalition with Democratic Left Alliance over its approval of privatization and capitalist reforms.{{cite book \|title\=Partie lewicy i centrolewicy w polskim systemie partyjnym: Aktywność SLD, PSL i UP na polskiej scenie politycznej \|first\=Dominik \|last\=Sieklucki \|language\=pl \|year\=2007 \|isbn\=978\-83\-233\-2241\-2 \|location\=Kraków \|publisher\=Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego \|page\=86}}
[ "History\n-------", "### The 1998 election", "The coalition was officially formed on 27 June 1998, before the [1998 Polish local elections](/wiki/1998_Polish_local_elections \"1998 Polish local elections\") planned for the autumn.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://archiwum.rp.pl/artykul/181825\\-Samorzadowakoalicja\\-PSL\\-UP\\-i\\-KPEiR.html\\|title\\=Samorządowa koalicja PSL, UP i KPEiR\\|date\\=29 June 1998\\|website\\=archiwum.rp.pl\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-10 \\|language\\=pl}} It consisted of the [Polish People's Party](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Party \"Polish People's Party\") (PSL), the [Labour Union](/wiki/Labour_Union_%28Poland%29 \"Labour Union (Poland)\") (UP), [Self\\-Defence of the Republic of Poland](/wiki/Self-Defence_of_the_Republic_of_Poland \"Self-Defence of the Republic of Poland\") (SPR) and the [National Party of Retirees and Pensioners](/wiki/National_Party_of_Retirees_and_Pensioners \"National Party of Retirees and Pensioners\") (KPEiR). Representatives of other formations, such as [Alliance of Democrats](/wiki/Alliance_of_Democrats_%28Poland%29 \"Alliance of Democrats (Poland)\"), also ran on its lists. In its manifesto, Przymierze Społeczne declared: 'Nothing will change in Poland if we do not counter the successive varieties of post\\-Solidarity and post\\-communist liberalism with an alliance of working people.' Labour Union leader Marek Pol indicated that the coalition aimed to represent, among others, those impoverished by capitalist transformation. Media polls at the time gave the coalition 8% support.", "Marek Pol argued that the formation of the coalition was necessary because the electoral law that was being prepared clearly favoured large groupings (i.e. the SLD and AWS), and according to Kalinowski of the PSL, one of the Social Alliance's main goals was to oppose the division of the political scene into post\\-Communist and post\\-Solidarity groupings and to establish an alternative for those who did not want to cast their votes for either the [Democratic Left Alliance](/wiki/Democratic_Left_Alliance_%28Poland%29 \"Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)\") or the [Solidarity Electoral Action](/wiki/Solidarity_Electoral_Action \"Solidarity Electoral Action\"). The agreement only concerned elections at the provincial level, but the local branches of the respective parties were advised to form similar alliances at the county and municipal levels. The coalition ran in the elections under the slogan \"Together we can do it\". The coalition members' conflicting stances on the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\") proved problematic for the party.", "In a pre\\-election CBOS poll, every second PSL supporter and a third of UP supporters declared support for the coalition. Amongst the more exotic candidates of the coalition where those of Samoobrona as well as the trade union [Solidarity '80](/wiki/Solidarity_%28Polish_trade_union%29 \"Solidarity (Polish trade union)\"). Andrzej Lepper, the leader of Samoobrona, claimed: \"There are no programme differences between us\". However, the vice\\-president of the PSL, Marek Sawicki, protested this statement and pointed to programmatic differences between PSL and Samoobrona, stating: \"The support in the local elections of the Social Alliance candidates by the farmers' union Samoobrona does not imply the Eurosceptic views of the PSL.\" Marek Pol also distanced himself from Samoobrona and Lepper: \"The Labour Union is aware of the controversial nature of the candidate. We discussed this during the last Social Alliancecouncil meeting. However, since his person was supported by the PSL, I understand that it takes full responsibility for the fact that Mr Lepper will implement the programme of the Social Alliance\".", "On the electoral lists of the Social Alliance, Samoobrona presented nearly 120 candidates, mostly for the [West Pomeranian Voivodeship Sejmik](/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodeship_Sejmik \"West Pomeranian Voivodeship Sejmik\").{{cite journal \\|title\\=Les manifestations paysannes polonaises de 1998\\-1999: Politisation, médiatisation et personnalisation d'une mobilisation contestataire \\|language\\=fr \\|first\\=Cédric \\|last\\=Pellen \\|journal\\=Dans Politix \\|year\\=2009 \\|volume\\=22 \\|issue\\=86 \\|issn\\=0295\\-2319 \\|doi\\=10\\.3917/pox.086\\.0167 \\|page\\=184 \\|publisher\\=De Boeck Supérieur}} The radically populist and aggressive style of campaigning of Samoobrona, known for its at times violent agrarian protests and trade union strikes, provided a great contrast to the moderate, well\\-established Polish People's Party as well as the social\\-democratic, \"civil\" Labour Union. However, both parties defended the presence of Samoobrona and its leader Andrzej Lepper in the coalition, arguing that it is preferable \"that the participants of the radical agricultural protests get on the road to democratic procedures as soon as possible. Admittedly, he \\[Lepper] will not be an easy partner, but it is better to discuss with him in the assembly than on a blocked roadway\".{{cite journal \\|title\\=Andrzej Lepper \\- chłopski przywódca charyzmatyczny? Wizerunek medialny przewodniczącego „Samoobrony” \\|language\\=pl \\|journal\\=Etnografia Polska \\|volume\\=45 \\|issue\\=1\\-2 \\|year\\=2001 \\|issn\\=0071\\-1861 \\|first\\=Mirosława \\|last\\=Drozd\\-Piasecka \\|pages\\=54\\-55}} Nevertheless, political magazine [Polityka](/wiki/Polityka \"Polityka\") noted that Labour Union had been more supportive of agricultural protests as well as the economic proposals of the Polish People's Party and Samoobrona rather than its fellow social\\-democratic Democratic Left Alliance, thus acquiring a populist, agrarian image on its own.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.polityka.pl/archiwumpolityki/1815018,1,mniejszy\\-brat.read \\|title\\=Mniejszy brat \\|language\\=pl \\|website\\=\\[\\[Polityka]] \\|date\\=9 February 2002 \\|first\\=Mariusz \\|last\\=Janicki}}", "According to 1998 statistics, 450,000 fewer votes were cast for the Social Alliance than in the [1997 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/1997_Polish_parliamentary_election \"1997 Polish parliamentary election\") for the PSL, UP and the KPEiR combined.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.polityka.pl/archiwumpolityki/1818428,1,ciasto\\-czteropartyjne.read\\|author\\=\\[\\[:pl:Janina Paradowska\\|Janina Paradowska]]\\|title\\=Ciasto czteropartyjne\\|language\\=pl\\|website\\=polityka.pl\\|date\\=19 December 1998\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-10}} The press emphasised that it was mainly PSL that benefited from the coalition, while for the Labour Union, participation in the electoral bloc meant defeat. The coalition won a total of 4583 councillor seats out of a total of 63,765\\.Józef Ryszard Szaflik, *Dzieje partii i stronnictw chłopskich w Europie. W podzielonej Europie*, Akademia Humanistyczna im. Aleksandra Gieysztora, Pułtusk 2007, p. 505 It won 89 provincial assembly councillor seats out of a total of 855\\.[Dziś](/wiki/Dzi%C5%9B \"Dziś\"), nr 1, 2007, p. 147Halina Lisicka (red.), *System polityczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Praca zbiorowa*, Biuro Doradztwa Ekologicznego, Warszawa 2001, p. 55 The Alliance won seats in all sejmiks; these were won mainly by representatives of the PSL. [Andrzej Lepper](/wiki/Andrzej_Lepper \"Andrzej Lepper\") was elected to the regional assembly of Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeship from the PS list.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.wprost.pl/tygodnik/4191/prawo\\-leppera.html\\|language\\=pl \\|author1\\=Maciej Łuczak \\|author2\\=Ryszard Kamiński \\|author3\\=Jacek Szczęsny\\|title\\=Prawo Leppera\\|website\\=wprost.pl\\|date\\=16 May 1999\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-10}} In the assembly elections, the coalition came third behind AWS and SLD (and slightly ahead of UW) with a total of 12\\.04% of the vote. PS recorded the highest support, above 20%, in the Lubelskie and Świętokrzyskie voivodeships.", "### Aftermath", "After the elections, the PS declared an equal distance from AWS and SLD, claiming that it would not decide top\\-down who would be its coalition partner in local government.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://archiwum.rp.pl/artykul/199311\\-Rowny\\-dystans\\-do\\-AWS\\-i\\-SLD.html\\|title\\=Równy dystans do AWS i SLD\\|date\\=31 October 1998\\|website\\=archiwum.rp.pl\\|language\\=pl\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-10}} However, in most assemblies the Alliance entered into a coalition with the SLD. The coalition established cooperation in nine provinces with the social\\-democratic SLD and in one province with the conservative AWS. The coalition, although it achieved moderate success, was criticised by PSL politicians from the national\\-radical wing. Disappointment was expressed by the Labour Union, which argued against deepening cooperation with the PSL.", "Social Alliance was an unprecedented case of the PSL working together with much more radical Self\\-Defence, and there was speculation at the time about the possibility of a permanent alliance being formed on its basis, which in the long term could lead to the full unification of political structures representing Polish farmers and the rural population. However, this proposal failed as both parties started strongly competing with each other. In this situation, cooperation was limited to undertaking successive joint initiatives aimed at bringing together and working out common positions by the three largest agricultural trade unions; in June 1998, it was agreed that ZZR \"Samoobrona\" together with KZRKiOR and NSZZ \"Solidarność\" RI would work out a common position on the terms of Poland's accession to the European Union.", "The coalition is credited with contributing to Samoobrona's rise to relevance in the [2001 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2001_Polish_parliamentary_election \"2001 Polish parliamentary election\"). Samoobrona was a radical far\\-left agrarian socialist and Catholic socialist force that became a refugee for dissident wings of [Polish United Workers' Party](/wiki/Polish_United_Workers%27_Party \"Polish United Workers' Party\"), such as [national communists](/wiki/National_Communism \"National Communism\") and also Maoists, with Polish Maoist groups being supportive of the party. Shortly before the [2001 Polish parliamentary election](/wiki/2001_Polish_parliamentary_election \"2001 Polish parliamentary election\"), there emerged a project of a \"Workers' and Peasants' Alliance\" combining Samoobrona and the Polish Socialist Party of [Piotr Ikonowicz](/wiki/Piotr_Ikonowicz \"Piotr Ikonowicz\"). More significantly, Samoobrona then gained informal support from the SLD, keen to weaken the PSL, which allowed Samoobrona to play the role of an informal SLD coalition partner in the Sejm and, after the 2002 local elections, also in the provincial assemblies. Although Lepper continued his lavish criticism on SLD politicians, he distinguished the liberal wing associated with Kwasniewski from the democratic socialist group headed by Miller and Oleksy. This allowed Samoobrona to attract a sizable group of left\\-wing activists, both at the central and local level. After 2001, Lepper went as far as announcing that Samoobrona would become the only party of the socialist left in Poland.", "The formation of Social Alliance and successful performance deepened ties between Samoobrona and the Polish People's Party, and led to their cooperation until the mid\\-2000s. Both parties coordinated their actions against the centre\\-right government of [Jerzy Buzek](/wiki/Jerzy_Buzek \"Jerzy Buzek\") (1997\\-2001\\). While Samoobrona organized roadblocks and massive farmer protests, the Polish People's Party used its Sejm presence to harshly criticize the cabinet and legitimatize the actions of Samoobrona.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Grabowski \\|first\\=Krzysztof \\|date\\=16 August 1998 \\|language\\=pl \\|url\\=https://www.wprost.pl/tygodnik/6494/rewolwerowiec.html \\|title\\=Rewolwerowiec. Benefis Andrzeja Leppera \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Wprost]] \\|issue\\=33 \\|page\\=23}} After Samoobrona entered the Sejm for the first time in 2001, both the left\\-wing and right\\-wing blocs found cooperation with Samoobrona attractive. However, the party cast its lot with the left\\-wing camp. After a coalition cabinet of the social\\-democratic Left Democratic Alliance and Polish People's Party was formed, Samoobrona entered a [confidence and supply](/wiki/Confidence_and_supply \"Confidence and supply\") agreement with it, displaying its post\\-communist alignment by supporting the cabinet's proposals to significantly limit the Lustration Act (which excluded former communist public servants from public offices), defund the anti\\-communist [Institute of National Remembrance](/wiki/Institute_of_National_Remembrance \"Institute of National Remembrance\"), and preserve the special privileges for the officers of the Communist Poland. This informal cooperation of Samoobrona with fellow left\\-wing parties was called \"Self\\-Defence of Democratic Left” ({{lang\\-pl\\|Samoobrona Lewicy Demokratycznej}}) by the media.{{cite book \\|title\\=Populist Political Parties in East\\-Central Europe \\|author1\\=Vlastimil Havlik \\|author2\\=Anete Pinkova \\|year\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=978\\-8021061057 \\|publisher\\=Masaryk University Press \\|page\\=182}}", "Social Alliance was considered a failed project for Labour Union, despite the satisfactory performance of the alliance. In December 1998, the Labour Union lost nine prominent politicians who deserted the party, who claimed that the Labour Union wants to compete with the Polish Socialist Party and abandoned its unique identity in favor of a \"few parliamentary mandates\". After the coalition, the party gradually abandoned its unique identity as an \"outsider\" laborist and socialist party in favor of approaching the post\\-communist SLD and moving closer towards it positions, such as pro\\-Europeanism. This prompted many left\\-wing nationalist members to leave the party, together with more radical members who protested forming a coalition with Democratic Left Alliance over its approval of privatization and capitalist reforms.{{cite book \\|title\\=Partie lewicy i centrolewicy w polskim systemie partyjnym: Aktywność SLD, PSL i UP na polskiej scenie politycznej \\|first\\=Dominik \\|last\\=Sieklucki \\|language\\=pl \\|year\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=978\\-83\\-233\\-2241\\-2 \\|location\\=Kraków \\|publisher\\=Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego \\|page\\=86}}", "" ]
Gameplay -------- *Drawn to Life: SpongeBob SquarePants Edition* is at its core a [2D platforming](/wiki/Platform_game "Platform game") game, and one that's fairly similar to *Drawn to Life*. At the beginning of the game, the player draws a hero with the DS touchscreen to play as for the rest of the game. Throughout the game, the player is assigned to draw a variety of platforms and other objects that are required to beat the level, which are indicated when the player finds a blank easel within the level, or are sometimes assigned right away. The custom hero has basic maneuverability compared to most games. They are given the ability to jump, ground pound, and attack or "karate chop", similarly seen in the show. These moves are used to do things like break crates, push buttons, and attack enemies. Along with the hero's basic moves, there are also the addition of [power\-ups](/wiki/Power-up "Power-up"), ranging from basic weapons to defend against enemies and bosses, or gear for getting through previously inaccessible areas. Just like the other objects that are drawn in this game, power\-ups are drawn by the player as well. The hero is given a set number of [hit points](/wiki/Health_%28gaming%29 "Health (gaming)"), which can be upgraded to a maximum of seven depending on how far the player is in the game. If all are lost, it will result in losing a [life](/wiki/Life_%28gaming%29 "Life (gaming)"), and moving back to the last [checkpoint](/wiki/Checkpoint_%28video_gaming%29 "Checkpoint (video gaming)") they touched. If the player loses all their lives, they are sent back to the game's [hub world](/wiki/Overworld "Overworld"). The game also gives the player a partner system, where they are given the choice to tag along with SpongeBob, Patrick, or Squidward, each with their own special ability that benefits the hero. Once an ability is used once, it can't be used again for several seconds. SpongeBob's ability generates a square shield for the hero, Patrick hurls himself forward and stuns enemies in a straight line, and Squidward stuns enemies around the hero by playing his clarinet in a certain radius. An icon in the top right of the screen is a visual indicator of the partner the player chose, which changes expressions depending on if enemies are close by, or if they're burned out from using their ability. Occasionally, levels feature crates with either SpongeBob, Patrick, or Squidward's face on it, which require their ability to break open. Similar to *Drawn to Life*, inside each level are filled with black goo. Each location covered in goo is where enemies spawn, and it can be erased by rubbing the touch screen, as can the enemies once they're stunned. Unlike *Drawn to Life*, however, once the player erases an enemy, they have the ability to draw modified versions of enemies and turn them into friends or allies. The hidden three villagers in cages are also featured in this game as well, but rather than having to rescue all of them in order to beat the level, the player only needs to rescue at least one to earn a key to activate the victory display at the end of the level. The game features a few secrets in each level, which along with the rescues and goo, are required to one\-hundred percent complete the level. The game has a hub world that the player goes to once a level is cleared or lost. When the hero enters the hub world for the first time, they are commanded to draw their own house along with a bed to go inside, which is used to [save](/wiki/Saved_game "Saved game") the game. The inside of the house is fully customizable, where [furniture](/wiki/Furniture "Furniture") drawn by the player can be placed anywhere inside the house. Furniture is acquired by talking to the villagers the player rescued in other levels. Other villagers that have been rescued have the player drawing houses and other amenities around the village. Certain pieces of furniture that are obtained unlock a hidden feature in the game, the record player unlocks the [sound test](/wiki/Sound_test "Sound test"), for example.{{Cite AV media\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=r77YnMD2GXI\|title\=Drawn to Life: Spongebob Squarepants Edition \- Episode 15\|publisher\=Masterstarman}} The Krusty Krab can also be found in the hub world, functioning as this game's shop. Gold collected in levels can be used to purchase power\-ups that are stored away in the player's inventory, which can be taken out for later. The shop also features [color palettes](/wiki/Palette_%28painting%29 "Palette (painting)") for the creation tool, and colorless templates of certain characters, as well as lessons on how to draw certain characters. The main game consists of four worlds: Bikini Bottom, The Jungle, The Deep Sea, and Outer Space. At the end of each world are bosses that function differently from *Drawn to Life's*. After hitting them a few times, they become stunned and require the player to erase them by rubbing the touchscreen until their health reaches zero. There's an optional fifth world that is available once the main game is clear, called "Notebook Land". This world only consists of two levels; one level is one of the longest and most difficult levels in the game, and the other is a boss fight with Doodle Squidward, which shares the same appearance as the drawing of Squidward Patrick had drawn in "Frankendoodle". The game features over 20 different levels, and reportedly contains a hidden 2\-player [versus mode](/wiki/Multiplayer_video_game "Multiplayer video game"), although a few evidences of this mode in action is shown in other media, due to its obscurity. The game's main menu also has a ["Cheat Entry"](/wiki/Cheating_in_video_games "Cheating in video games") where the player can input hidden cheat codes. Most of the other cheat codes don't benefit the player all that substantially, and just unlock certain drawings on the [title screen](/wiki/Glossary_of_video_game_terms%23Title_screen "Glossary of video game terms#Title screen"), but one cheat code grants the player the maximum amount of gold obtainable in the game, and another cheat code performs a [soft reset](/wiki/Reboot "Reboot").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ign.com/wikis/nds\-cheats/Drawn\_to\_Life:\_SpongeBob\_SquarePants\_Edition\_Cheats\|title\=Drawn to Life: SpongeBob SquarePants Edition Cheats\|website\=IGN website\|date\=13 March 2017 \|access\-date\=2019\-07\-23\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723045938/https://www.ign.com/wikis/nds\-cheats/Drawn\_to\_Life:\_SpongeBob\_SquarePants\_Edition\_Cheats\|archive\-date\=2019\-07\-23\|url\-status\=live}}
[ "Gameplay\n--------", "*Drawn to Life: SpongeBob SquarePants Edition* is at its core a [2D platforming](/wiki/Platform_game \"Platform game\") game, and one that's fairly similar to *Drawn to Life*. At the beginning of the game, the player draws a hero with the DS touchscreen to play as for the rest of the game. Throughout the game, the player is assigned to draw a variety of platforms and other objects that are required to beat the level, which are indicated when the player finds a blank easel within the level, or are sometimes assigned right away. The custom hero has basic maneuverability compared to most games. They are given the ability to jump, ground pound, and attack or \"karate chop\", similarly seen in the show. These moves are used to do things like break crates, push buttons, and attack enemies.", "Along with the hero's basic moves, there are also the addition of [power\\-ups](/wiki/Power-up \"Power-up\"), ranging from basic weapons to defend against enemies and bosses, or gear for getting through previously inaccessible areas. Just like the other objects that are drawn in this game, power\\-ups are drawn by the player as well. The hero is given a set number of [hit points](/wiki/Health_%28gaming%29 \"Health (gaming)\"), which can be upgraded to a maximum of seven depending on how far the player is in the game. If all are lost, it will result in losing a [life](/wiki/Life_%28gaming%29 \"Life (gaming)\"), and moving back to the last [checkpoint](/wiki/Checkpoint_%28video_gaming%29 \"Checkpoint (video gaming)\") they touched. If the player loses all their lives, they are sent back to the game's [hub world](/wiki/Overworld \"Overworld\").", "The game also gives the player a partner system, where they are given the choice to tag along with SpongeBob, Patrick, or Squidward, each with their own special ability that benefits the hero. Once an ability is used once, it can't be used again for several seconds. SpongeBob's ability generates a square shield for the hero, Patrick hurls himself forward and stuns enemies in a straight line, and Squidward stuns enemies around the hero by playing his clarinet in a certain radius. An icon in the top right of the screen is a visual indicator of the partner the player chose, which changes expressions depending on if enemies are close by, or if they're burned out from using their ability. Occasionally, levels feature crates with either SpongeBob, Patrick, or Squidward's face on it, which require their ability to break open.", "Similar to *Drawn to Life*, inside each level are filled with black goo. Each location covered in goo is where enemies spawn, and it can be erased by rubbing the touch screen, as can the enemies once they're stunned. Unlike *Drawn to Life*, however, once the player erases an enemy, they have the ability to draw modified versions of enemies and turn them into friends or allies. The hidden three villagers in cages are also featured in this game as well, but rather than having to rescue all of them in order to beat the level, the player only needs to rescue at least one to earn a key to activate the victory display at the end of the level. The game features a few secrets in each level, which along with the rescues and goo, are required to one\\-hundred percent complete the level.", "The game has a hub world that the player goes to once a level is cleared or lost. When the hero enters the hub world for the first time, they are commanded to draw their own house along with a bed to go inside, which is used to [save](/wiki/Saved_game \"Saved game\") the game. The inside of the house is fully customizable, where [furniture](/wiki/Furniture \"Furniture\") drawn by the player can be placed anywhere inside the house. Furniture is acquired by talking to the villagers the player rescued in other levels. Other villagers that have been rescued have the player drawing houses and other amenities around the village. Certain pieces of furniture that are obtained unlock a hidden feature in the game, the record player unlocks the [sound test](/wiki/Sound_test \"Sound test\"), for example.{{Cite AV media\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=r77YnMD2GXI\\|title\\=Drawn to Life: Spongebob Squarepants Edition \\- Episode 15\\|publisher\\=Masterstarman}}", "The Krusty Krab can also be found in the hub world, functioning as this game's shop. Gold collected in levels can be used to purchase power\\-ups that are stored away in the player's inventory, which can be taken out for later. The shop also features [color palettes](/wiki/Palette_%28painting%29 \"Palette (painting)\") for the creation tool, and colorless templates of certain characters, as well as lessons on how to draw certain characters.", "The main game consists of four worlds: Bikini Bottom, The Jungle, The Deep Sea, and Outer Space. At the end of each world are bosses that function differently from *Drawn to Life's*. After hitting them a few times, they become stunned and require the player to erase them by rubbing the touchscreen until their health reaches zero. There's an optional fifth world that is available once the main game is clear, called \"Notebook Land\". This world only consists of two levels; one level is one of the longest and most difficult levels in the game, and the other is a boss fight with Doodle Squidward, which shares the same appearance as the drawing of Squidward Patrick had drawn in \"Frankendoodle\".", "The game features over 20 different levels, and reportedly contains a hidden 2\\-player [versus mode](/wiki/Multiplayer_video_game \"Multiplayer video game\"), although a few evidences of this mode in action is shown in other media, due to its obscurity. The game's main menu also has a [\"Cheat Entry\"](/wiki/Cheating_in_video_games \"Cheating in video games\") where the player can input hidden cheat codes. Most of the other cheat codes don't benefit the player all that substantially, and just unlock certain drawings on the [title screen](/wiki/Glossary_of_video_game_terms%23Title_screen \"Glossary of video game terms#Title screen\"), but one cheat code grants the player the maximum amount of gold obtainable in the game, and another cheat code performs a [soft reset](/wiki/Reboot \"Reboot\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ign.com/wikis/nds\\-cheats/Drawn\\_to\\_Life:\\_SpongeBob\\_SquarePants\\_Edition\\_Cheats\\|title\\=Drawn to Life: SpongeBob SquarePants Edition Cheats\\|website\\=IGN website\\|date\\=13 March 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723045938/https://www.ign.com/wikis/nds\\-cheats/Drawn\\_to\\_Life:\\_SpongeBob\\_SquarePants\\_Edition\\_Cheats\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-23\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Summary ------- *We’re Gonna Die* begins with Young Jean Lee telling a story on stage with her band along with her. She shares tragic stories from her life so that others who are in pain can know they are not the only ones. “...and that's the type of thing I want to share with you tonight. Just some really sort of ordinary comforting things that have somehow managed to make me feel a little better when I was in that really lonely isolated place. And I’m sharing them with you in the hopes that they might help you feel less lonely when you’re in pain.” (Family Reunion) ### Uncle John As a child, Lee’s Uncle John was “...the most isolated person I ever knew.” (Uncle John) One day Lee hid under his bed while he brushed his teeth and planned to scare him by grabbing his ankles. When Uncle John walked in he sat down at a desk and started muttering to himself, “I’m a piece shit. I’m shit” over and over again. As he was saying this to himself he started crying. He did this until he eventually fell asleep. Lee then snuck out of his room and thought to herself, “Is this how Uncle John falls asleep every night?”(Uncle John). Lee then goes on to talk about a “public mask” that people wear to hide the pain. And when you’re hiding your pain you’re all alone while doing it. ### Emily \& Jenny This story is about her friends when she was six. Her two friends Emily and Jenny both had bikes and Lee would chase after them until she couldn’t anymore then walk back until they came back around. They would do this all the time for fun. One day they decided to teach Lee how to ride a bike and she ended up bleeding from all her joints. Although she was covered in blood she was still determined to learn how to ride the bike. Eventually she got it. About a year later a new girl moved into the neighborhood and joined their friend group. It got to the point where they would hang out with the new girl without inviting Lee. One day at school during recess Lee came up to them and they all ran away from her, making it very clear that she was not supposed to chase after them. This is the moment she realized that they weren’t her friends anymore. That night she couldn't sleep. This was the first time in her life where she felt this type of way. Her mom came into her room to check on her and what she said to Lee was conveyed through the song, “Lullaby for the Miserable”. The song was saying how even though you’re sad or you’re feeling down you’ll eventually fall asleep and that you’re not the only one. ### Family Reunion In this story Lee talks about romance. She says that she never found romance until after she had graduated college. When she had started getting her life together she met this guy named Henry. Henry was this amazing guy who Lee was really looking forward to showing him off to her family at this family reunion. During the family reunion she had overheard her mother talking, “...I heard my mother tell my aunt how she could never feel the same way about me as she felt about my sister.”(Family Reunion). Later that night she told Henry what happened but he is an only child so he could never really understand. As Lee lay in bed she told herself something that she tells everyone listening in the form of the song, “I Still Have You”. The song is about her still having her boyfriend and her boyfriend still having her and if either one of them dies first the other will be lonely. ### Henry This story starts with Lee saying that Henry had dumped her. Before Henry had moved out, Lee said that she was going to a friend's house because it would be too painful to watch him move all his stuff. She had also asked him to rearrange all the furniture so that she didn’t have to see all the empty spots of where his stuff used to be. When she came back to her house the furniture had been perfectly rearranged. When she had noticed that half of the books from the bookshelf, they were Henry’s, were missing she had realized that she now lived alone. The song, “No Comfort For The Lonely” starts playing after the story ends. The song is about how the lonely will never hear any words of comfort. The song shows how she was lost in despair after the break up but the second half of the song shows that she is finally getting over it. ### White Hair Lee finds her first white hair and she had never really thought about getting older and losing her looks, etc. It all hit her at once and she had a freak out and went to her mom for help. She says how her next song will be an impersonation of her mom doing an impersonation of her grandmother. The song is called, “When You Get Old”. Lee sings about how getting old is awful and you’re going to want to die. “When you get old all your friends will die and you will be a burden to the world.”(When You Get Old) ### Father Lee’s father was diagnosed with advanced stage lung cancer and only had a year and a half to live. He was a very healthy person and survived chemotherapy for three years while working. One day the father went to the doctor and they said there was this miracle drug that only less than two percent of people have the genetics to take, and it will save her father’s life. Where they had the trial to test if he has the genetic mutation was a six hour long drive. Her father was not in the best health to travel but they made the trip anyway. The test took two full days and then they had to wait a month to get the results back. When the test results came back it was positive. He was part of that two percent. They had gone back to the clinic that was six hours away, but when they got there they told them that the blood sample wasn’t large enough. They needed to retake the sample and wait another month for the results so that they could release the medication. The only concern was that they didn’t think he would live that long. They asked a doctor to just give them the medication but legally he could not because it wasn’t guaranteed that it would work on him. All the doctor could do was put a rush on the medication. As they waited they stayed at a hotel and her father’s condition worsened. He was barely able to breathe, even with an oxygen tank. Eventually he had to be hospitalized to keep him stable. This is when Lee shows up. One night while Lee slept at the hospital her father woke up in a panic trying to rip out the tube that was down his throat, feeding him oxygen. This kept happening throughout the night. The nurses say it is because when you’re sedated you wake up not knowing anything or what’s going on so you panic. Lee had a terrible thought that her father did know what was going on and he was trying to take the tube out of his mouth so that he could say something. They couldn’t do anything but keep the cycle going because if they gave him more sedatives he would die and if they took the tube out of his throat he would die. The next morning the blood sample came back confirming her father’s genetic mutation, but he passed away that afternoon. Lee was enraged by this situation and by what happened with her father. She wasn’t eating and couldn’t sleep. When someone tried to help her she would just get even more angry, until she got a letter from her friend Beth. ### Beth This story starts off with Lee telling us about her friend Beth before she gets to the letter. Beth was a married woman with kids. She had found out that her husband had been sleeping with many other women ever since they had started dating. He claims that all of them were purely just for sex and that he only truly loved her. Except now he had found someone new that he loved and was going to leave Beth and the children to go be with this other person. Lee had helped Beth through that trauma. When Beth heard about what had happened with her father she wrote a letter. Lee tells the listeners about the letter through the song, “Horrible Things.” The song is telling Lee that no one goes through life without having something bad happen to them. “Who do you think you are? To be immune from tragedy. What makes you so special? That you should go unscathed.”(Horrible Things). ### Conclusion Lee realizes that everyone goes through something awful and she was able to find a little bit of comfort in knowing that it’s not just her.
[ "Summary\n-------", "*We’re Gonna Die* begins with Young Jean Lee telling a story on stage with her band along with her. She shares tragic stories from her life so that others who are in pain can know they are not the only ones. “...and that's the type of thing I want to share with you tonight. Just some really sort of ordinary comforting things that have somehow managed to make me feel a little better when I was in that really lonely isolated place. And I’m sharing them with you in the hopes that they might help you feel less lonely when you’re in pain.” (Family Reunion)", "### Uncle John", "As a child, Lee’s Uncle John was “...the most isolated person I ever knew.” (Uncle John) One day Lee hid under his bed while he brushed his teeth and planned to scare him by grabbing his ankles. When Uncle John walked in he sat down at a desk and started muttering to himself, “I’m a piece shit. I’m shit” over and over again. As he was saying this to himself he started crying. He did this until he eventually fell asleep. Lee then snuck out of his room and thought to herself, “Is this how Uncle John falls asleep every night?”(Uncle John). Lee then goes on to talk about a “public mask” that people wear to hide the pain. And when you’re hiding your pain you’re all alone while doing it.", "### Emily \\& Jenny", "This story is about her friends when she was six. Her two friends Emily and Jenny both had bikes and Lee would chase after them until she couldn’t anymore then walk back until they came back around. They would do this all the time for fun. One day they decided to teach Lee how to ride a bike and she ended up bleeding from all her joints. Although she was covered in blood she was still determined to learn how to ride the bike. Eventually she got it. About a year later a new girl moved into the neighborhood and joined their friend group. It got to the point where they would hang out with the new girl without inviting Lee. One day at school during recess Lee came up to them and they all ran away from her, making it very clear that she was not supposed to chase after them. This is the moment she realized that they weren’t her friends anymore. That night she couldn't sleep. This was the first time in her life where she felt this type of way. Her mom came into her room to check on her and what she said to Lee was conveyed through the song, “Lullaby for the Miserable”. The song was saying how even though you’re sad or you’re feeling down you’ll eventually fall asleep and that you’re not the only one.", "### Family Reunion", "In this story Lee talks about romance. She says that she never found romance until after she had graduated college. When she had started getting her life together she met this guy named Henry. Henry was this amazing guy who Lee was really looking forward to showing him off to her family at this family reunion. During the family reunion she had overheard her mother talking, “...I heard my mother tell my aunt how she could never feel the same way about me as she felt about my sister.”(Family Reunion). Later that night she told Henry what happened but he is an only child so he could never really understand. As Lee lay in bed she told herself something that she tells everyone listening in the form of the song, “I Still Have You”. The song is about her still having her boyfriend and her boyfriend still having her and if either one of them dies first the other will be lonely.", "### Henry", "This story starts with Lee saying that Henry had dumped her. Before Henry had moved out, Lee said that she was going to a friend's house because it would be too painful to watch him move all his stuff. She had also asked him to rearrange all the furniture so that she didn’t have to see all the empty spots of where his stuff used to be. When she came back to her house the furniture had been perfectly rearranged. When she had noticed that half of the books from the bookshelf, they were Henry’s, were missing she had realized that she now lived alone. The song, “No Comfort For The Lonely” starts playing after the story ends. The song is about how the lonely will never hear any words of comfort. The song shows how she was lost in despair after the break up but the second half of the song shows that she is finally getting over it.", "### White Hair", "Lee finds her first white hair and she had never really thought about getting older and losing her looks, etc. It all hit her at once and she had a freak out and went to her mom for help. She says how her next song will be an impersonation of her mom doing an impersonation of her grandmother. The song is called, “When You Get Old”. Lee sings about how getting old is awful and you’re going to want to die. “When you get old all your friends will die and you will be a burden to the world.”(When You Get Old)", "### Father", "Lee’s father was diagnosed with advanced stage lung cancer and only had a year and a half to live. He was a very healthy person and survived chemotherapy for three years while working. One day the father went to the doctor and they said there was this miracle drug that only less than two percent of people have the genetics to take, and it will save her father’s life. Where they had the trial to test if he has the genetic mutation was a six hour long drive. Her father was not in the best health to travel but they made the trip anyway. The test took two full days and then they had to wait a month to get the results back. When the test results came back it was positive. He was part of that two percent. They had gone back to the clinic that was six hours away, but when they got there they told them that the blood sample wasn’t large enough. They needed to retake the sample and wait another month for the results so that they could release the medication. The only concern was that they didn’t think he would live that long. They asked a doctor to just give them the medication but legally he could not because it wasn’t guaranteed that it would work on him. All the doctor could do was put a rush on the medication. As they waited they stayed at a hotel and her father’s condition worsened. He was barely able to breathe, even with an oxygen tank. Eventually he had to be hospitalized to keep him stable. This is when Lee shows up. One night while Lee slept at the hospital her father woke up in a panic trying to rip out the tube that was down his throat, feeding him oxygen. This kept happening throughout the night. The nurses say it is because when you’re sedated you wake up not knowing anything or what’s going on so you panic. Lee had a terrible thought that her father did know what was going on and he was trying to take the tube out of his mouth so that he could say something. They couldn’t do anything but keep the cycle going because if they gave him more sedatives he would die and if they took the tube out of his throat he would die. The next morning the blood sample came back confirming her father’s genetic mutation, but he passed away that afternoon. Lee was enraged by this situation and by what happened with her father. She wasn’t eating and couldn’t sleep. When someone tried to help her she would just get even more angry, until she got a letter from her friend Beth.", "### Beth", "This story starts off with Lee telling us about her friend Beth before she gets to the letter. Beth was a married woman with kids. She had found out that her husband had been sleeping with many other women ever since they had started dating. He claims that all of them were purely just for sex and that he only truly loved her. Except now he had found someone new that he loved and was going to leave Beth and the children to go be with this other person. Lee had helped Beth through that trauma. When Beth heard about what had happened with her father she wrote a letter. Lee tells the listeners about the letter through the song, “Horrible Things.” The song is telling Lee that no one goes through life without having something bad happen to them. “Who do you think you are? To be immune from tragedy. What makes you so special? That you should go unscathed.”(Horrible Things).", "### Conclusion", "Lee realizes that everyone goes through something awful and she was able to find a little bit of comfort in knowing that it’s not just her.", "" ]
Effects on the natural environment ---------------------------------- Bangladesh is known for its vulnerability to climate change and more specifically to natural disasters. It is important to mention the fact that the location of the country is vulnerable for the presence for three powerful rivers, Asian rivers, [Brahmaputra](/wiki/Brahmaputra_River "Brahmaputra River"), [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges "Ganges") and the [Meghna](/wiki/Meghna_River "Meghna River") along with their numerous tributaries that could result massive floods.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Hossain\|first1\=Mohammad Shakhawat\|last2\=Qian\|first2\=Lu\|last3\=Arshad\|first3\=Muhammad\|last4\=Shahid\|first4\=Shamsuddin\|last5\=Fahad\|first5\=Shah\|last6\=Akhter\|first6\=Javed\|date\=2019\-01\-01\|title\=Climate change and crop farming in Bangladesh: an analysis of economic impacts\|journal\=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management\|volume\=11\|issue\=3\|pages\=424–440\|doi\=10\.1108/IJCCSM\-04\-2018\-0030\|issn\=1756\-8692\|doi\-access\=free\|bibcode\=2019IJCCS..11\..424H }} ### Temperature and weather changes {{multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| total\_width \= 300 \| image1 \= Koppen\-Geiger Map BGD present.svg \| caption1 \= \[\[Köppen climate classification]] map for Bangladesh for 1980–2016 \| image2 \= Koppen\-Geiger Map BGD future.svg \| caption2 \= 2071–2100 map under \[\[Representative Concentration Pathway\|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid\-range scenarios are currently considered more likely{{cite journal\|last1\=Hausfather\|first1\=Zeke\|last2\=Peters\|first2\=Glen\|title\=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading\|journal\=Nature\|date\=29 January 2020\|volume\=577\|issue\=7792\|pages\=618–20\|doi\=10\.1038/d41586\-020\-00177\-3\|pmid\=31996825\|bibcode\=2020Natur.577\..618H\|doi\-access\=free}}{{Cite journal \|last1\=Schuur \|first1\=Edward A.G. \|last2\=Abbott \|first2\=Benjamin W. \|last3\=Commane \|first3\=Roisin \|last4\=Ernakovich \|first4\=Jessica \|last5\=Euskirchen \|first5\=Eugenie \|last6\=Hugelius \|first6\=Gustaf \|last7\=Grosse \|first7\=Guido \|last8\=Jones \|first8\=Miriam \|last9\=Koven \|first9\=Charlie \|last10\=Leshyk \|first10\=Victor \|last11\=Lawrence \|first11\=David \|last12\=Loranty \|first12\=Michael M. \|last13\=Mauritz \|first13\=Marguerite \|last14\=Olefeldt \|first14\=David \|last15\=Natali \|first15\=Susan \|last16\=Rodenhizer \|first16\=Heidi \|last17\=Salmon \|first17\=Verity \|last18\=Schädel \|first18\=Christina \|last19\=Strauss \|first19\=Jens \|last20\=Treat \|first20\=Claire \|last21\=Turetsky \|first21\=Merritt \|year\=2022 \|title\=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic \|journal\=Annual Review of Environment and Resources \|volume\=47 \|pages\=343–371 \|doi\=10\.1146/annurev\-environ\-012220\-011847 \|quote\="Medium\-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4\.5\). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." \|doi\-access\=free }}{{Cite web \|last\=Phiddian \|first\=Ellen \|date\=5 April 2022 \|title\=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios \|url\=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer\-ipcc\-scenarios/ \|website\=\[\[Cosmos (magazine)\|Cosmos]] \|access\-date\=30 September 2023 \|quote\="The IPCC doesn’t make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. \[\[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. \[\[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2\.5 to 2\.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2\.1°C. \|archive\-date\=20 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer\-ipcc\-scenarios/ \|url\-status\=live }} }} ### Extreme weather events and natural disasters From a prehistoric age, Bangladesh has faced numerous natural disasters in every decade but due to climate change, the intensity and extremity of disasters has increased. The country experiences small to medium scale floods, cyclones, flash floods, and landslides almost every year. Between 1980 and 2008, it experienced 219 natural disasters.{{Cite web\|title\=Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)\|url\=http://www.adrc.asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode\=50⟪\=en\&Mode\=country\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-11\|website\=www.adrc.asia\|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-10\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710071931/http://www.adrc.asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode\=50⟪\=en\&Mode\=country\|url\-status\=live}} Flood is the most common form of [disaster in Bangladesh](/wiki/Floods_in_Bangladesh "Floods in Bangladesh"). The country was affected by six major floods in the 19th century and 18 floods in the 20th century. Among them, 1987, 1985 and 1998 were the most catastrophic. Major cyclones that occurred in the 20th century were in the years 1960, 1961, 1963, 1970, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1995\. The cyclone in 1991 killed an estimated 140,000 people and 10 million people lost their homes. In the recent past, the country faced two major cyclones in 2007 and 2009\. The geographic location of Bangladesh makes it highly prone to natural disasters. Situated in between the intersection of [Himalayan mountains](/wiki/Himalayas "Himalayas") in the North and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal "Bay of Bengal") in the South, the country experiences 2 completely different environmental conditions leading to long monsoons and catastrophic natural disasters. With new phenomena like climate change and the rise of sea levels, the situation is getting even worse. The country is also very low and flat, having only 10% of its land more than a meter above sea level. Being crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers, and having one of the largest river systems in the whole world (the estuarial region of [Padma](/wiki/Padma_River "Padma River"), [Meghna](/wiki/Meghna_River "Meghna River") and [Brahmaputra](/wiki/Brahmaputra_River "Brahmaputra River") rivers),{{Cite journal\|last\=Ali\|first\=Anwar\|date\=1999\-08\-27\|title\=Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh\|journal\=Climate Research\|language\=en\|volume\=12\|issue\=2–3\|pages\=109–116\|bibcode\=1999ClRes..12\..109A\|doi\=10\.3354/cr012109\|issn\=0936\-577X\|doi\-access\=free}} Bangladesh frequently experiences gigantic cyclones and floods. The Bangladesh Coastal Zone (BCZ) is highly vulnerable to tropical cyclones and subsequent storm surges, which are projected to increase in frequency and intensity in Bangladesh due to climate change.{{Cite journal \|last1\=Rubinyi \|first1\=Steven \|last2\=Verschuur \|first2\=Jasper \|last3\=Goldblatt \|first3\=Ran \|last4\=Gussenbauer \|first4\=Johannes \|last5\=Kowarik \|first5\=Alexander \|last6\=Mannix \|first6\=Jenny \|last7\=Bottoms \|first7\=Brad \|last8\=Hall \|first8\=Jim \|date\=2022 \|title\=High\-resolution synthetic population mapping for quantifying disparities in disaster impacts: An application in the Bangladesh Coastal Zone \|journal\=Frontiers in Environmental Science \|volume\=10 \|doi\=10\.3389/fenvs.2022\.1033579 \|issn\=2296\-665X \|doi\-access\=free }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg "CC-BY icon.svg") Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\.0/ \|date\=2017\-10\-16 }} The area covers 47,201 km2 with 19 districts and was home to approximately 37\.2 million in 2011 and 43\.8 million at present (2022\). The BCZ lags behind other parts of the country in socioeconomic development and struggles to cope with [natural disasters](/wiki/Natural_disaster "Natural disaster") and the gradual deterioration of the environment. Floods have a destructive power over the whole state of the country and it is directly related to the effects of climate change. As estimated by UNICEF more than 19 million children in Bangladesh will be threatened by this situation.{{Cite web \|title\=Climate change threatens lives and futures of over 19 million children in Bangladesh \|url\=https://www.unicef.org/press\-releases/climate\-change\-threatens\-lives\-and\-futures\-over\-19\-million\-children\-bangladesh \|access\-date\=2020\-11\-30 \|website\=www.unicef.org \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2020\-12\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202225833/https://www.unicef.org/press\-releases/climate\-change\-threatens\-lives\-and\-futures\-over\-19\-million\-children\-bangladesh \|url\-status\=live }} Modelling work in 2022 showed only a very small *poverty exposure bias* (which is when poorer populations may suffer disproportionately from disasters) of potentially flooded households when compared to non\-flooded households in the coastal zones. This is in contrast to some of the literature in Bangladesh that did find an exposure bias for river flooding. This could be explained from the random nature of cyclones which makes the occurrence of an exposure bias less likely, as it less dependent on long\-term structural conditions that might determine the location of a household (e.g. land prices). There was [a heatwave in 2024\.](/wiki/2024_Bangladesh_heatwave "2024 Bangladesh heatwave") ### Sea level rise [thumb\|300px\|Population density and height above sea level in Bangladesh (2010\)](/wiki/File:Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg "Urban-Rural Population and Land Area Estimates, v2, 2010 Bangladesh (13873798283).jpg") [Low\-lying coastal regions](/wiki/Regional_effects_of_global_warming%23Coastal_regions "Regional effects of global warming#Coastal regions"), such as Bangladesh, are vulnerable to [sea level rise](/wiki/Sea_level_rise "Sea level rise") (SLR){{Cite news\|url\=https://opinion.bdnews24\.com/2017/11/14/should\-bangladesh\-worry\-of\-melting\-ice\-in\-faraway\-lands/\|title\=Should Bangladesh worry of melting ice in faraway lands?\|last\=Foizee\|first\=Bahauddin\|date\=2017\-11\-14\|work\=bdnews24\.com\|type\=Opinion\|access\-date\=2020\-01\-06\|archive\-date\=2019\-12\-08\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208082722/https://opinion.bdnews24\.com/2017/11/14/should\-bangladesh\-worry\-of\-melting\-ice\-in\-faraway\-lands/\|url\-status\=live}} and the increased occurrence of intense, [extreme weather](/wiki/Extreme_weather "Extreme weather") conditions such as the [cyclones](/wiki/Cyclones "Cyclones") of 2007–2009, as well as the melting of polar ice. To address SLR in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 launched in 2018\. Challenges in the Bangladesh Coastal Zone are likely to be exacerbated by the effects of climate change and associated sea\-level rise, with 62 percent of coastal lands less than 3 m above sea level.
[ "Effects on the natural environment\n----------------------------------", "Bangladesh is known for its vulnerability to climate change and more specifically to natural disasters. It is important to mention the fact that the location of the country is vulnerable for the presence for three powerful rivers, Asian rivers, [Brahmaputra](/wiki/Brahmaputra_River \"Brahmaputra River\"), [Ganges](/wiki/Ganges \"Ganges\") and the [Meghna](/wiki/Meghna_River \"Meghna River\") along with their numerous tributaries that could result massive floods.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Hossain\\|first1\\=Mohammad Shakhawat\\|last2\\=Qian\\|first2\\=Lu\\|last3\\=Arshad\\|first3\\=Muhammad\\|last4\\=Shahid\\|first4\\=Shamsuddin\\|last5\\=Fahad\\|first5\\=Shah\\|last6\\=Akhter\\|first6\\=Javed\\|date\\=2019\\-01\\-01\\|title\\=Climate change and crop farming in Bangladesh: an analysis of economic impacts\\|journal\\=International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=424–440\\|doi\\=10\\.1108/IJCCSM\\-04\\-2018\\-0030\\|issn\\=1756\\-8692\\|doi\\-access\\=free\\|bibcode\\=2019IJCCS..11\\..424H }}", "### Temperature and weather changes", "{{multiple image\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| direction \\= vertical\n\\| total\\_width \\= 300\n\\| image1 \\= Koppen\\-Geiger Map BGD present.svg\n\\| caption1 \\= \\[\\[Köppen climate classification]] map for Bangladesh for 1980–2016\n\\| image2 \\= Koppen\\-Geiger Map BGD future.svg\n\\| caption2 \\= 2071–2100 map under \\[\\[Representative Concentration Pathway\\|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid\\-range scenarios are currently considered more likely{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Hausfather\\|first1\\=Zeke\\|last2\\=Peters\\|first2\\=Glen\\|title\\=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading\\|journal\\=Nature\\|date\\=29 January 2020\\|volume\\=577\\|issue\\=7792\\|pages\\=618–20\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/d41586\\-020\\-00177\\-3\\|pmid\\=31996825\\|bibcode\\=2020Natur.577\\..618H\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Schuur \\|first1\\=Edward A.G. \\|last2\\=Abbott \\|first2\\=Benjamin W. \\|last3\\=Commane \\|first3\\=Roisin \\|last4\\=Ernakovich \\|first4\\=Jessica \\|last5\\=Euskirchen \\|first5\\=Eugenie \\|last6\\=Hugelius \\|first6\\=Gustaf \\|last7\\=Grosse \\|first7\\=Guido \\|last8\\=Jones \\|first8\\=Miriam \\|last9\\=Koven \\|first9\\=Charlie \\|last10\\=Leshyk \\|first10\\=Victor \\|last11\\=Lawrence \\|first11\\=David \\|last12\\=Loranty \\|first12\\=Michael M. \\|last13\\=Mauritz \\|first13\\=Marguerite \\|last14\\=Olefeldt \\|first14\\=David \\|last15\\=Natali \\|first15\\=Susan \\|last16\\=Rodenhizer \\|first16\\=Heidi \\|last17\\=Salmon \\|first17\\=Verity \\|last18\\=Schädel \\|first18\\=Christina \\|last19\\=Strauss \\|first19\\=Jens \\|last20\\=Treat \\|first20\\=Claire \\|last21\\=Turetsky \\|first21\\=Merritt \\|year\\=2022 \\|title\\=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic \\|journal\\=Annual Review of Environment and Resources \\|volume\\=47 \\|pages\\=343–371 \\|doi\\=10\\.1146/annurev\\-environ\\-012220\\-011847 \\|quote\\=\"Medium\\-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4\\.5\\). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement...\" \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Phiddian \\|first\\=Ellen \\|date\\=5 April 2022 \\|title\\=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios \\|url\\=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer\\-ipcc\\-scenarios/ \\|website\\=\\[\\[Cosmos (magazine)\\|Cosmos]] \\|access\\-date\\=30 September 2023 \\|quote\\=\"The IPCC doesn’t make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. \\[\\[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. \\[\\[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2\\.5 to 2\\.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2\\.1°C. \\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer\\-ipcc\\-scenarios/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n}}", "### Extreme weather events and natural disasters", "From a prehistoric age, Bangladesh has faced numerous natural disasters in every decade but due to climate change, the intensity and extremity of disasters has increased. The country experiences small to medium scale floods, cyclones, flash floods, and landslides almost every year. Between 1980 and 2008, it experienced 219 natural disasters.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC)\\|url\\=http://www.adrc.asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode\\=50⟪\\=en\\&Mode\\=country\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-11\\|website\\=www.adrc.asia\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-10\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710071931/http://www.adrc.asia/nationinformation.php?NationCode\\=50⟪\\=en\\&Mode\\=country\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Flood is the most common form of [disaster in Bangladesh](/wiki/Floods_in_Bangladesh \"Floods in Bangladesh\"). The country was affected by six major floods in the 19th century and 18 floods in the 20th century. Among them, 1987, 1985 and 1998 were the most catastrophic. Major cyclones that occurred in the 20th century were in the years 1960, 1961, 1963, 1970, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1995\\. The cyclone in 1991 killed an estimated 140,000 people and 10 million people lost their homes. In the recent past, the country faced two major cyclones in 2007 and 2009\\.", "The geographic location of Bangladesh makes it highly prone to natural disasters. Situated in between the intersection of [Himalayan mountains](/wiki/Himalayas \"Himalayas\") in the North and the [Bay of Bengal](/wiki/Bay_of_Bengal \"Bay of Bengal\") in the South, the country experiences 2 completely different environmental conditions leading to long monsoons and catastrophic natural disasters. With new phenomena like climate change and the rise of sea levels, the situation is getting even worse. The country is also very low and flat, having only 10% of its land more than a meter above sea level. Being crisscrossed by hundreds of rivers, and having one of the largest river systems in the whole world (the estuarial region of [Padma](/wiki/Padma_River \"Padma River\"), [Meghna](/wiki/Meghna_River \"Meghna River\") and [Brahmaputra](/wiki/Brahmaputra_River \"Brahmaputra River\") rivers),{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ali\\|first\\=Anwar\\|date\\=1999\\-08\\-27\\|title\\=Climate change impacts and adaptation assessment in Bangladesh\\|journal\\=Climate Research\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=2–3\\|pages\\=109–116\\|bibcode\\=1999ClRes..12\\..109A\\|doi\\=10\\.3354/cr012109\\|issn\\=0936\\-577X\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Bangladesh frequently experiences gigantic cyclones and floods.", "The Bangladesh Coastal Zone (BCZ) is highly vulnerable to tropical cyclones and subsequent storm surges, which are projected to increase in frequency and intensity in Bangladesh due to climate change.{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Rubinyi \\|first1\\=Steven \\|last2\\=Verschuur \\|first2\\=Jasper \\|last3\\=Goldblatt \\|first3\\=Ran \\|last4\\=Gussenbauer \\|first4\\=Johannes \\|last5\\=Kowarik \\|first5\\=Alexander \\|last6\\=Mannix \\|first6\\=Jenny \\|last7\\=Bottoms \\|first7\\=Brad \\|last8\\=Hall \\|first8\\=Jim \\|date\\=2022 \\|title\\=High\\-resolution synthetic population mapping for quantifying disparities in disaster impacts: An application in the Bangladesh Coastal Zone \\|journal\\=Frontiers in Environmental Science \\|volume\\=10 \\|doi\\=10\\.3389/fenvs.2022\\.1033579 \\|issn\\=2296\\-665X \\|doi\\-access\\=free }} [50px](/wiki/File:CC-BY_icon.svg \"CC-BY icon.svg\") Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4\\.0 International License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4\\.0/ \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-16 }} The area covers 47,201 km2 with 19 districts and was home to approximately 37\\.2 million in 2011 and 43\\.8 million at present (2022\\). The BCZ lags behind other parts of the country in socioeconomic development and struggles to cope with [natural disasters](/wiki/Natural_disaster \"Natural disaster\") and the gradual deterioration of the environment.", "Floods have a destructive power over the whole state of the country and it is directly related to the effects of climate change. As estimated by UNICEF more than 19 million children in Bangladesh will be threatened by this situation.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Climate change threatens lives and futures of over 19 million children in Bangladesh \\|url\\=https://www.unicef.org/press\\-releases/climate\\-change\\-threatens\\-lives\\-and\\-futures\\-over\\-19\\-million\\-children\\-bangladesh \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-11\\-30 \\|website\\=www.unicef.org \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-12\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202225833/https://www.unicef.org/press\\-releases/climate\\-change\\-threatens\\-lives\\-and\\-futures\\-over\\-19\\-million\\-children\\-bangladesh \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Modelling work in 2022 showed only a very small *poverty exposure bias* (which is when poorer populations may suffer disproportionately from disasters) of potentially flooded households when compared to non\\-flooded households in the coastal zones. This is in contrast to some of the literature in Bangladesh that did find an exposure bias for river flooding. This could be explained from the random nature of cyclones which makes the occurrence of an exposure bias less likely, as it less dependent on long\\-term structural conditions that might determine the location of a household (e.g. land prices).", "There was [a heatwave in 2024\\.](/wiki/2024_Bangladesh_heatwave \"2024 Bangladesh heatwave\")", "### Sea level rise", "[thumb\\|300px\\|Population density and height above sea level in Bangladesh (2010\\)](/wiki/File:Urban-Rural_Population_and_Land_Area_Estimates%2C_v2%2C_2010_Bangladesh_%2813873798283%29.jpg \"Urban-Rural Population and Land Area Estimates, v2, 2010 Bangladesh (13873798283).jpg\")\n[Low\\-lying coastal regions](/wiki/Regional_effects_of_global_warming%23Coastal_regions \"Regional effects of global warming#Coastal regions\"), such as Bangladesh, are vulnerable to [sea level rise](/wiki/Sea_level_rise \"Sea level rise\") (SLR){{Cite news\\|url\\=https://opinion.bdnews24\\.com/2017/11/14/should\\-bangladesh\\-worry\\-of\\-melting\\-ice\\-in\\-faraway\\-lands/\\|title\\=Should Bangladesh worry of melting ice in faraway lands?\\|last\\=Foizee\\|first\\=Bahauddin\\|date\\=2017\\-11\\-14\\|work\\=bdnews24\\.com\\|type\\=Opinion\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-01\\-06\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-08\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208082722/https://opinion.bdnews24\\.com/2017/11/14/should\\-bangladesh\\-worry\\-of\\-melting\\-ice\\-in\\-faraway\\-lands/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the increased occurrence of intense, [extreme weather](/wiki/Extreme_weather \"Extreme weather\") conditions such as the [cyclones](/wiki/Cyclones \"Cyclones\") of 2007–2009, as well as the melting of polar ice. To address SLR in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 launched in 2018\\.", "Challenges in the Bangladesh Coastal Zone are likely to be exacerbated by the effects of climate change and associated sea\\-level rise, with 62 percent of coastal lands less than 3 m above sea level.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- ### Early career and 1960s Kan Mukai was born in [Dairen](/wiki/Dairen "Dairen"), [Manchukuo](/wiki/Manchukuo "Manchukuo") (modern [Dalian](/wiki/Dalian "Dalian"), [China](/wiki/China "China")) on October 16, 1937\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kinejun.jp/people/id/89247\|script\-title\=ja:向井寛( 監督／脚本／企画／構成／製作 )\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-01\|language\=Japanese\|publisher\=\[\[Kinema Junpo]]\|archive\-date\=2011\-10\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007221656/http://www.kinejun.jp/people/id/89247\|url\-status\=dead}} He studied [economics](/wiki/Economics "Economics") at [Kyushu University](/wiki/Kyushu_University "Kyushu University"), but dropped out to pursue a career in film. In 1959 he began his apprenticeship, serving as [assistant director](/wiki/Assistant_director "Assistant director") to Kiyoshi Saeki, [Tadashi Imai](/wiki/Tadashi_Imai "Tadashi Imai") and Isao Yoshida.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/profile.html\|title\=向井 寛 プロフィール (Mukai Kan Profile)\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-02\|publisher\=Mukai Productions\|language\=Japanese\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603112427/http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/profile.html\|archive\-date\=2013\-06\-03\|url\-status\=dead}} He also worked as a cinematographer on projects for various studios, mostly for educational, children's and industrial films. During this early period in his career he honed his craft and became known as a top cinematographer.Weisser, p. 152\. Mukai made his debut as a director in 1962 with {{nihongo\|''Two Boys''\|二人の少年}}, an educational film.{{cite web\|url\=http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/\~p\-g/history/history.htm\|title\=Pink Films History\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-01\|language\=Japanese\|publisher\=P.G. Web Site\|archive\-date\=2012\-08\-05\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120805205210/http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/\~p\-g/history/history.htm\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite book \|last\=Sharp\|first\=Jasper\|title\=Behind the Pink Curtain: The Complete History of Japanese Sex Cinema\|page\= 51\|year\=2008\|publisher\=FAB Press\|location\=Guildford\|isbn\=978\-1\-903254\-54\-7}} Wanting to direct, but lacking the educational requirements necessary to be hired as a director at a major studio, in 1965, Mukai moved into the lucrative new *pink film* genre. That year he founded Mukai Productions and, with financial backing from Nihon Cinema, directed his first *pink* feature, {{nihongo\|''Flesh''\|肉\|Niku}}, which was distributed by [Kokuei](/wiki/Kokuei "Kokuei").Weisser, p. 113, 152\. Though the film was a plotless series of scenes in the life of a prostitute, Mukai's technical skill impressed early *pink* audiences and critics, and he quickly became a major name in the genre. Comparing him to the major *pink* director of the 1960s, a critic for *[Kinema Junpo](/wiki/Kinema_Junpo "Kinema Junpo")* wrote, "Hiroshi Mukai is the only genre director who could rival [Kōji Wakamatsu](/wiki/K%C5%8Dji_Wakamatsu "Kōji Wakamatsu")."Weisser, p. 105\. *Flesh* received international distribution, and was released in Germany on May 14, 1965 as *Nacktes Fleisch*.Sharp, p. 178\. *[The Bite](/wiki/The_Bite "The Bite")* (1966\) was another early Mukai film shown overseas, playing in the U.S. soon after its Japanese release, and in Britain, under the title *Bait*, in 1967\.Sharp, 180\.{{cite book\|last\=Krafsur\|first\=Richard P.\|title\=\[\[The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures\|American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures, The]]; Feature Films 1961\-70\|year\=1976\|publisher\=\[\[R.R. Bowker\|R.R. Bowker Company]]\|location\=New York \& London\|isbn\=0\-8352\-0440\-5\|chapter\=THE BITE (Japan) F6\.0425\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/americanfilminst00kraf/page/94 94]}}{{cite web \|url\=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/199434\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911054607/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/199434\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=2009\-09\-11\|title\=ESA\|accessdate\=2009\-03\-08\|publisher\=\[\[British Film Institute]]}} It was released on DVD in the U.S. in 2008\.{{cite web\|url\=http://10kbullets.com/reviews/b/the\-bite/\|title\=The Bite\|accessdate\=2009\-03\-08\|publisher\=10kbullets.com\|archive\-date\=2009\-03\-05\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305154720/http://10kbullets.com/reviews/b/the\-bite/\|url\-status\=dead}} According to some sources, Mukai's *[Sexy Partners](/wiki/Sexy_Partners "Sexy Partners")* (1967\) was the first S\&M film. It was the first to use the subject as its primary theme.Weisser, p. 257\-258\. "Some Japanese source books list this film as the first S\&M sex movie, while other references insist either *Birth Control Revolution*, *Trap Of Lust* or *Memoirs Of A Modern Female Doctor* (all 1967\) has that dubious distinction. Regardless, whether it was actually the first isn't important, but it's fair to say *Lustful Companions* was certainly the earliest pinku eiga to deal with sadism/masochism as the predominant theme." He worked with his wife, actress [Takako Uchida](/wiki/Takako_Uchida "Takako Uchida"), in several of his early films such as *Nightly Pleasure* (*Yoru No Yorokobi*, 1967\), *Stories of Adultery* (*Aru Mittsu*, 1967\), and *Spring of Ecstasy* (*Kokotsu No Izumi*, 1968\). *Stories of Adultery* was a three\-part omnibus film, with other two segments directed by [Kōji Wakamatsu](/wiki/K%C5%8Dji_Wakamatsu "Kōji Wakamatsu") and [Shin'ya Yamamoto (director)](/wiki/Shin%27ya_Yamamoto_%28director%29 "Shin'ya Yamamoto (director)").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.citwf.com/film20841\.htm\|title\=ARU MITTSU\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-04\|publisher\=\[\[Complete Index to World Film]]}} Mukai's section was titled *Beauty and Ugliness* (*Bi To Shu*). Takako Uchida later starred in [Nikkatsu](/wiki/Nikkatsu "Nikkatsu")'s big\-budget pre\-*Roman Porno* venture into the *pink* arena, *Story Of Heresy In Meiji Era* (1968\).Weisser, p. 398\. Mukai gave future first Nikkatsu *Roman Porno* star, [Kazuko Shirakawa](/wiki/Kazuko_Shirakawa "Kazuko Shirakawa"), her film debut with the 1967 film *Girls' Dormitory*.Sharp, p. 131\. Until that studio's reorganization in 1967, Mukai's films were released principally through Kanto Films.Weisser, p. 210\.Weisser, p. 440\. In 1968, Mukai founded his own studio, and {{nihongo\|''Shameful Technique''\|恥かしい技巧\|Hazukashii Giko\|extra\=1967}}, was the first film released by Mukai Studios.Weisser, p. 387\. Mukai often employed gimmick\-like elements in his films or their publicity to create audiences for his films. His *[Blue Film: Estimation](/wiki/Blue_Film:Estimation "Estimation")* (1968\) benefitted from a publicity campaign emphasizing that mainstream actress Mitsugu Fujii was starring in this *pink film*. The whisper\-campaign behind *Flesh 2* (1969\)—sequel to Mukai's debut film—focused on a sex scene between a Korean girl and a black U.S. G.I., and *Japan Virgin Rape* (1970\) had the first lady of Indonesia in its cast. *[Blue Film Woman](/wiki/Blue_Film_Woman "Blue Film Woman")* was an early all\-color *pink film*, and Jasper Sharp writes that Mukai's use of color in this film appears to be "making up for lost time", and that the film is a "highly stylised piece."Sharp, p. 62\. In 1969, Mukai's film {{nihongo\|''Forbidden Techniques''\|禁じられたテクニック}} (1966\) was released in Italy under the title *Naomi*. The film was banned due to obscenity, but scored a triumph in a showing at [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University "Waseda University")'s [Okuma Auditorium](/wiki/Waseda_University%23%C5%8Ckuma_Auditorium "Waseda University#Ōkuma Auditorium"). ### 1970s and later Throughout his career Mukai was known for working in both action and sex genres, and in the 1970s, Mukai made several films in both genres, and with the two genres mixed for the [Toei Company](/wiki/Toei_Company "Toei Company").Weisser, p. 40, 210\. *[Deep Throat in Tokyo](/wiki/Deep_Throat_in_Tokyo "Deep Throat in Tokyo")*, directed for Toei in 1975, is his best\-known film.Weisser, p. 197\. Comparing Mukai's film to the original *[Deep Throat](/wiki/Deep_Throat_%28film%29 "Deep Throat (film)")* (U.S., 1972\), Jasper Sharp writes that Mukai's film, a softcore, "airbrushed fantasy" with a higher budget and, in [Kumi Taguchi](/wiki/Kumi_Taguchi_%28actress%29 "Kumi Taguchi (actress)"), a more attractive leading lady, is "a world apart from the more crude and direct approach taken by its revolutionary American model." Nevertheless, Sharp judges that Mukai's softcore film is more offensive than the hardcore original because of its more reactionary approach to sex.Sharp, pp. 184\-185\. In 1979, after the closing of his original Mukai Productions, Mukai started {{nihongo\|Shishi Productions\|獅子プロダクション}}. The name "Shishi", meaning "Lion", was a pun on "4x4", indicating Mukai's ambition to foster the careers of 16 young directors.Sharp, p. 52\. As producer, Mukai had an influence on the careers of the {{nihongo\|"Four Heavenly Kings of Pink" or "Four Devils"\|ピンク四天王\|Pinku shitennō}} group of directors who came to prominence in the 1980s. [Hisayasu Satō](/wiki/Hisayasu_Sat%C5%8D "Hisayasu Satō") began working in the film industry through Shishi Productions in 1981, and had his directing debut there with {{nihongo\|''Mad Love! Lolita Poaching''\|激愛！ロリータ密猟\|Gekiai! Lolita Mitsuro}} (1985\). He continued working with Mukai throughout the decade.Sharp, pp. 250, 265\. [Takahisa Zeze](/wiki/Takahisa_Zeze "Takahisa Zeze") also gained his first film experience at Shishi, working as a screenwriter, and assistant directing for Satō.Weisser, p. 487\. Through Shishi Productions Mukai gave Academy\-Award\-winning director [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita "Yōjirō Takita") his first work in the film industry.{{cite news \|title\= 滝田監督が壇上で喜び爆発／アカデミー賞\|url\= http://www.nikkansports.com/entertainment/cinema/news/p\-et\-tp1\-20090224\-464213\.html\|work\= \[\[Nikkan Sports]] \|date\= 2009\-02\-24\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-01\|quote\=昨年亡くなった向井寛監督に師事し、ピンク映画から始まった監督人生は (...a student of director Kan Mukai, who passed away last year, his \[Takita's] life as a director began with pink film...)}} In June 1982 Mukai re\-formed Mukai Productions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/company.html\|publisher\=Mukai Productions\|language\=Japanese\|script\-title\=ja:株式会社 向井プロダクション\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020805075230/http://www2\.kuruma.org/mukai/company.html\|archive\-date\=2002\-08\-05\|url\-status\=dead\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-02\|quote\=設 立 １９８２年６月}} As a production company, Mukai's films were distributed by other studios, including Nikkatsu, which used these films to supplement their *Roman porno* series triple\-bills. During the 1980s, when rape\-themed films were popular, Mukai produced some of Nikkatsu's most extreme examples of the genre, including the *Subway Serial Rape* series (1985–1988\).Sharp, p. 235\. Mukai produced celebrated *Roman porno* director [Tatsumi Kumashiro](/wiki/Tatsumi_Kumashiro "Tatsumi Kumashiro")'s final film, {{nihongo\|''Immoral: Indecent Relations''\|インモラル･淫らな関係\|Immoral: Midarana Kankei}} (1995\). In his later works as director Mukai moved into non\-*pink* mainstream subjects. His *Going West* (1997\) was what the director called, "Japan's first granny road movie".Sharp, p. 340\. He directed a sequel to *Going West* entitled *Hometown* in 1999\. Other films of this final, mainstream period in Mukai's career include *Last Dance* (2001\) and *School Reunion* (2004\). After battling liver cancer for two years, Mukai died on June 11, 2008\.{{cite news \|script\-title\=ja:映画監督の向井寛さん死去…肝不全、７０歳\|url\= http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\-n1\.htm\|work\= \[\[Sankei Sports]] \|date\= 2008\-06\-13\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-08\| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615173441/http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\-n1\.htm\|archivedate\=2008\-06\-15\|language\=Japanese}} [Alt URL](http://d.hatena.ne.jp/HALTAN/20080612/p2){{cite news \|title\= Director Kan Mukai passes away\|url\= http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\-n1\.htm\|work\= \[\[Sankei Sports]] \|date\= 2008\-06\-13\|accessdate\=2009\-08\-08\| archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615173441/http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\-n1\.htm\|archivedate\=2008\-06\-15}} [Alt URL](http://www.tokyograph.com/news/id-3368) (English translation)
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "### Early career and 1960s", "Kan Mukai was born in [Dairen](/wiki/Dairen \"Dairen\"), [Manchukuo](/wiki/Manchukuo \"Manchukuo\") (modern [Dalian](/wiki/Dalian \"Dalian\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\")) on October 16, 1937\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kinejun.jp/people/id/89247\\|script\\-title\\=ja:向井寛( 監督／脚本／企画／構成／製作 )\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-01\\|language\\=Japanese\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Kinema Junpo]]\\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-10\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007221656/http://www.kinejun.jp/people/id/89247\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He studied [economics](/wiki/Economics \"Economics\") at [Kyushu University](/wiki/Kyushu_University \"Kyushu University\"), but dropped out to pursue a career in film. In 1959 he began his apprenticeship, serving as [assistant director](/wiki/Assistant_director \"Assistant director\") to Kiyoshi Saeki, [Tadashi Imai](/wiki/Tadashi_Imai \"Tadashi Imai\") and Isao Yoshida.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/profile.html\\|title\\=向井 寛 プロフィール (Mukai Kan Profile)\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-02\\|publisher\\=Mukai Productions\\|language\\=Japanese\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603112427/http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/profile.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-06\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} He also worked as a cinematographer on projects for various studios, mostly for educational, children's and industrial films. During this early period in his career he honed his craft and became known as a top cinematographer.Weisser, p. 152\\.", "Mukai made his debut as a director in 1962 with {{nihongo\\|''Two Boys''\\|二人の少年}}, an educational film.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/\\~p\\-g/history/history.htm\\|title\\=Pink Films History\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-01\\|language\\=Japanese\\|publisher\\=P.G. Web Site\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120805205210/http://www2u.biglobe.ne.jp/\\~p\\-g/history/history.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite book \\|last\\=Sharp\\|first\\=Jasper\\|title\\=Behind the Pink Curtain: The Complete History of Japanese Sex Cinema\\|page\\= 51\\|year\\=2008\\|publisher\\=FAB Press\\|location\\=Guildford\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-903254\\-54\\-7}} Wanting to direct, but lacking the educational requirements necessary to be hired as a director at a major studio, in 1965, Mukai moved into the lucrative new *pink film* genre. That year he founded Mukai Productions and, with financial backing from Nihon Cinema, directed his first *pink* feature, {{nihongo\\|''Flesh''\\|肉\\|Niku}}, which was distributed by [Kokuei](/wiki/Kokuei \"Kokuei\").Weisser, p. 113, 152\\. Though the film was a plotless series of scenes in the life of a prostitute, Mukai's technical skill impressed early *pink* audiences and critics, and he quickly became a major name in the genre. Comparing him to the major *pink* director of the 1960s, a critic for *[Kinema Junpo](/wiki/Kinema_Junpo \"Kinema Junpo\")* wrote, \"Hiroshi Mukai is the only genre director who could rival [Kōji Wakamatsu](/wiki/K%C5%8Dji_Wakamatsu \"Kōji Wakamatsu\").\"Weisser, p. 105\\. *Flesh* received international distribution, and was released in Germany on May 14, 1965 as *Nacktes Fleisch*.Sharp, p. 178\\. *[The Bite](/wiki/The_Bite \"The Bite\")* (1966\\) was another early Mukai film shown overseas, playing in the U.S. soon after its Japanese release, and in Britain, under the title *Bait*, in 1967\\.Sharp, 180\\.{{cite book\\|last\\=Krafsur\\|first\\=Richard P.\\|title\\=\\[\\[The American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures\\|American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures, The]]; Feature Films 1961\\-70\\|year\\=1976\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[R.R. Bowker\\|R.R. Bowker Company]]\\|location\\=New York \\& London\\|isbn\\=0\\-8352\\-0440\\-5\\|chapter\\=THE BITE (Japan) F6\\.0425\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/americanfilminst00kraf/page/94 94]}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/199434\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911054607/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/199434\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-09\\-11\\|title\\=ESA\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-03\\-08\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[British Film Institute]]}} It was released on DVD in the U.S. in 2008\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://10kbullets.com/reviews/b/the\\-bite/\\|title\\=The Bite\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-03\\-08\\|publisher\\=10kbullets.com\\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-03\\-05\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305154720/http://10kbullets.com/reviews/b/the\\-bite/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "According to some sources, Mukai's *[Sexy Partners](/wiki/Sexy_Partners \"Sexy Partners\")* (1967\\) was the first S\\&M film. It was the first to use the subject as its primary theme.Weisser, p. 257\\-258\\. \"Some Japanese source books list this film as the first S\\&M sex movie, while other references insist either *Birth Control Revolution*, *Trap Of Lust* or *Memoirs Of A Modern Female Doctor* (all 1967\\) has that dubious distinction. Regardless, whether it was actually the first isn't important, but it's fair to say *Lustful Companions* was certainly the earliest pinku eiga to deal with sadism/masochism as the predominant theme.\" He worked with his wife, actress [Takako Uchida](/wiki/Takako_Uchida \"Takako Uchida\"), in several of his early films such as *Nightly Pleasure* (*Yoru No Yorokobi*, 1967\\), *Stories of Adultery* (*Aru Mittsu*, 1967\\), and *Spring of Ecstasy* (*Kokotsu No Izumi*, 1968\\). *Stories of Adultery* was a three\\-part omnibus film, with other two segments directed by [Kōji Wakamatsu](/wiki/K%C5%8Dji_Wakamatsu \"Kōji Wakamatsu\") and [Shin'ya Yamamoto (director)](/wiki/Shin%27ya_Yamamoto_%28director%29 \"Shin'ya Yamamoto (director)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.citwf.com/film20841\\.htm\\|title\\=ARU MITTSU\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-04\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Complete Index to World Film]]}} Mukai's section was titled *Beauty and Ugliness* (*Bi To Shu*). Takako Uchida later starred in [Nikkatsu](/wiki/Nikkatsu \"Nikkatsu\")'s big\\-budget pre\\-*Roman Porno* venture into the *pink* arena, *Story Of Heresy In Meiji Era* (1968\\).Weisser, p. 398\\. Mukai gave future first Nikkatsu *Roman Porno* star, [Kazuko Shirakawa](/wiki/Kazuko_Shirakawa \"Kazuko Shirakawa\"), her film debut with the 1967 film *Girls' Dormitory*.Sharp, p. 131\\. Until that studio's reorganization in 1967, Mukai's films were released principally through Kanto Films.Weisser, p. 210\\.Weisser, p. 440\\. In 1968, Mukai founded his own studio, and {{nihongo\\|''Shameful Technique''\\|恥かしい技巧\\|Hazukashii Giko\\|extra\\=1967}}, was the first film released by Mukai Studios.Weisser, p. 387\\.", "Mukai often employed gimmick\\-like elements in his films or their publicity to create audiences for his films. His *[Blue Film: Estimation](/wiki/Blue_Film:Estimation \"Estimation\")* (1968\\) benefitted from a publicity campaign emphasizing that mainstream actress Mitsugu Fujii was starring in this *pink film*. The whisper\\-campaign behind *Flesh 2* (1969\\)—sequel to Mukai's debut film—focused on a sex scene between a Korean girl and a black U.S. G.I., and *Japan Virgin Rape* (1970\\) had the first lady of Indonesia in its cast. *[Blue Film Woman](/wiki/Blue_Film_Woman \"Blue Film Woman\")* was an early all\\-color *pink film*, and Jasper Sharp writes that Mukai's use of color in this film appears to be \"making up for lost time\", and that the film is a \"highly stylised piece.\"Sharp, p. 62\\. In 1969, Mukai's film {{nihongo\\|''Forbidden Techniques''\\|禁じられたテクニック}} (1966\\) was released in Italy under the title *Naomi*. The film was banned due to obscenity, but scored a triumph in a showing at [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University \"Waseda University\")'s [Okuma Auditorium](/wiki/Waseda_University%23%C5%8Ckuma_Auditorium \"Waseda University#Ōkuma Auditorium\").", "### 1970s and later", "Throughout his career Mukai was known for working in both action and sex genres, and in the 1970s, Mukai made several films in both genres, and with the two genres mixed for the [Toei Company](/wiki/Toei_Company \"Toei Company\").Weisser, p. 40, 210\\. *[Deep Throat in Tokyo](/wiki/Deep_Throat_in_Tokyo \"Deep Throat in Tokyo\")*, directed for Toei in 1975, is his best\\-known film.Weisser, p. 197\\. Comparing Mukai's film to the original *[Deep Throat](/wiki/Deep_Throat_%28film%29 \"Deep Throat (film)\")* (U.S., 1972\\), Jasper Sharp writes that Mukai's film, a softcore, \"airbrushed fantasy\" with a higher budget and, in [Kumi Taguchi](/wiki/Kumi_Taguchi_%28actress%29 \"Kumi Taguchi (actress)\"), a more attractive leading lady, is \"a world apart from the more crude and direct approach taken by its revolutionary American model.\" Nevertheless, Sharp judges that Mukai's softcore film is more offensive than the hardcore original because of its more reactionary approach to sex.Sharp, pp. 184\\-185\\.", "In 1979, after the closing of his original Mukai Productions, Mukai started {{nihongo\\|Shishi Productions\\|獅子プロダクション}}. The name \"Shishi\", meaning \"Lion\", was a pun on \"4x4\", indicating Mukai's ambition to foster the careers of 16 young directors.Sharp, p. 52\\. As producer, Mukai had an influence on the careers of the {{nihongo\\|\"Four Heavenly Kings of Pink\" or \"Four Devils\"\\|ピンク四天王\\|Pinku shitennō}} group of directors who came to prominence in the 1980s. [Hisayasu Satō](/wiki/Hisayasu_Sat%C5%8D \"Hisayasu Satō\") began working in the film industry through Shishi Productions in 1981, and had his directing debut there with {{nihongo\\|''Mad Love! Lolita Poaching''\\|激愛！ロリータ密猟\\|Gekiai! Lolita Mitsuro}} (1985\\). He continued working with Mukai throughout the decade.Sharp, pp. 250, 265\\. [Takahisa Zeze](/wiki/Takahisa_Zeze \"Takahisa Zeze\") also gained his first film experience at Shishi, working as a screenwriter, and assistant directing for Satō.Weisser, p. 487\\. Through Shishi Productions Mukai gave Academy\\-Award\\-winning director [Yōjirō Takita](/wiki/Y%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Takita \"Yōjirō Takita\") his first work in the film industry.{{cite news \\|title\\= 滝田監督が壇上で喜び爆発／アカデミー賞\\|url\\= http://www.nikkansports.com/entertainment/cinema/news/p\\-et\\-tp1\\-20090224\\-464213\\.html\\|work\\= \\[\\[Nikkan Sports]] \\|date\\= 2009\\-02\\-24\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-01\\|quote\\=昨年亡くなった向井寛監督に師事し、ピンク映画から始まった監督人生は (...a student of director Kan Mukai, who passed away last year, his \\[Takita's] life as a director began with pink film...)}}", "In June 1982 Mukai re\\-formed Mukai Productions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.kuruma.org/mukai/company.html\\|publisher\\=Mukai Productions\\|language\\=Japanese\\|script\\-title\\=ja:株式会社 向井プロダクション\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020805075230/http://www2\\.kuruma.org/mukai/company.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-08\\-05\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-02\\|quote\\=設 立 １９８２年６月}} As a production company, Mukai's films were distributed by other studios, including Nikkatsu, which used these films to supplement their *Roman porno* series triple\\-bills. During the 1980s, when rape\\-themed films were popular, Mukai produced some of Nikkatsu's most extreme examples of the genre, including the *Subway Serial Rape* series (1985–1988\\).Sharp, p. 235\\. Mukai produced celebrated *Roman porno* director [Tatsumi Kumashiro](/wiki/Tatsumi_Kumashiro \"Tatsumi Kumashiro\")'s final film, {{nihongo\\|''Immoral: Indecent Relations''\\|インモラル･淫らな関係\\|Immoral: Midarana Kankei}} (1995\\).", "In his later works as director Mukai moved into non\\-*pink* mainstream subjects. His *Going West* (1997\\) was what the director called, \"Japan's first granny road movie\".Sharp, p. 340\\. He directed a sequel to *Going West* entitled *Hometown* in 1999\\. Other films of this final, mainstream period in Mukai's career include *Last Dance* (2001\\) and *School Reunion* (2004\\). After battling liver cancer for two years, Mukai died on June 11, 2008\\.{{cite news \\|script\\-title\\=ja:映画監督の向井寛さん死去…肝不全、７０歳\\|url\\= http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\\-n1\\.htm\\|work\\= \\[\\[Sankei Sports]] \\|date\\= 2008\\-06\\-13\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-08\\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615173441/http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\\-n1\\.htm\\|archivedate\\=2008\\-06\\-15\\|language\\=Japanese}} [Alt URL](http://d.hatena.ne.jp/HALTAN/20080612/p2){{cite news \\|title\\= Director Kan Mukai passes away\\|url\\= http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\\-n1\\.htm\\|work\\= \\[\\[Sankei Sports]] \\|date\\= 2008\\-06\\-13\\|accessdate\\=2009\\-08\\-08\\| archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615173441/http://www.sanspo.com/geino/news/080612/gnj0806120501001\\-n1\\.htm\\|archivedate\\=2008\\-06\\-15}} [Alt URL](http://www.tokyograph.com/news/id-3368) (English translation)", "" ]
Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age rock art --------------------------------------------- ### Atlantic European rock art {{Expand section\|date\=October 2012}} Various different forms of late prehistoric rock art have been found in [Atlantic Europe](/wiki/Atlantic_Europe "Atlantic Europe"), the coastal region that extends from the [Strait of Gibraltar](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar "Strait of Gibraltar") up to the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles "British Isles").[Bradley 1998](/wiki/%23Bra98 "#Bra98"). p. 130\.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). pp. 493–494\. The term Atlantic rock art was popularised in the 1990s by archaeologist Richard Bradley. The art is characterised by abstract geometric motifs, most notably the [cup\-and\-ring](/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark "Cup and ring mark") motifs. The art can be found in Portugal, Spain, France, [Britain, and Ireland](/wiki/Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age_rock_art_in_the_British_Isles "Neolithic and Bronze Age rock art in the British Isles"). Although the art is characterised by abstract motifs it is sometimes found alongside figurative carvings, such as those at [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)") in North western Spain and a discovery made in Argyll in Scotland in 2020\. The carvings associated with the tradition of Atlantic rock art in Europe are often found in rural settings, in open\-air landscapes and occur on boulders and outcrops. Many of these panels remain in situ, however some smaller more portable examples have been moved to museums for safe keeping. The abstract nature of many of these carvings provide us with very little information of their purpose in prehistory. However, this art form has become the topic of several excavations and studies throughout Europe in recent years. Many of these studies consider a landscape approach.Valdez Tullet 2019 The associated motifs consist of cup\-marks ( circular man\-made depressions) often surrounded by one or more concentric rings that regularly feature an extending radial groove. Another common motif is the rosette motif which consists of a circular pattern of cup\-marks. There is evidence for regional variation amongst this tradition. Many archaeologists and scholars have theorised on the purpose of the art but given its mostly abstract nature and little direct context for its presence on rock surfaces, it is difficult to form a conclusive explanation for it. A widely considered theory is that the art marks routeways and boundaries within prehistoric societies. Perhaps the most well\-known landscape of Atlantic rock art in Europe is that of Galicia in north\-western Spain at the Campo Lameiro archaeological park. The majority of the carvings are situated in the Valley of the River Lérez. Over a span of 21\.8 hectares hundreds of carvings can be found on the surface of rock panels in various clusters throughout the park. Along with the abstract/ geometric motifs, zoomorphs and anthropomorphs can be seen and many of these combinations form visual representations of hunting scenes. There are over 6000 examples of Atlantic art in the UK and of these over 2000 can be found in Scotland with the highest concentration found in Kilmartin Glenn, Argyll. Northern England is host to several rock art landscapes most notably in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. In recent years many conservation and recording initiatives have been undertaken in this region by archaeologists at the University of Newcastle. In Ireland the Atlantic rock art appears in clusters throughout the country, the most significant of those occur in counties Fermanagh/Donegal, Wicklow/Carlow, Louth/Monaghan, and Cork, with the highest concentration occurring in [County Kerry](/wiki/County_Kerry "County Kerry") on the [Dingle](/wiki/Dingle_Peninsula "Dingle Peninsula") and [Iveragh Peninsulas](/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula "Iveragh Peninsula"). During the Early Bronze Age, which lasted from *circa* 2300 through to *c*.1500 BCE, various depictions of weaponry were engraved onto rock surfaces across Atlantic Europe. ### Northern European rock art {{Expand section\|date\=October 2012}} There are hundreds of rock art sites that represent variations of figures, traditions and chronological differences in Northern Europe. Cave paintings, rock paintings and especially open air sites are found on the continent, the British isles and all over the Scandinavian peninsula as well as in Finland and Russia. Perhaps the most famous site is the [Rock carvings at Alta](/wiki/Rock_carvings_at_Alta "Rock carvings at Alta") in the north of Norway with the largest collection of hunter gatherer rock art in northern Europe. ### Alpine rock art [thumb\|250px\|right\|Engraved deer\-hunting scene at [Valcamonica](/wiki/Valcamonica "Valcamonica").](/wiki/File:Scena_di_caccia_al_cervo_-_Seradina_R_12_-_Capo_di_Ponte_%28Foto_Luca_Giarelli%29.jpg "Scena di caccia al cervo - Seradina R 12 - Capo di Ponte (Foto Luca Giarelli).jpg") Rock art engraved on open surfaces, rather than inside shelters or caves, was also produced in the mountainous [Alpine region](/wiki/Alps "Alps") during later prehistory.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). p. 503\. Found predominantly in the southern part of the Alps, in modern\-day Italy and France, few examples of rock art have been identified from the northern slopes of the region, in what is now Switzerland and Germany.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). p. 504\. Many engravings have been found in the region, along with a few rock paintings (as at Abri Faravel[Walsh et al. 2016](/wiki/%23Wal16 "#Wal16")), and as such, scholars in rock art studies have divided the known collection into between 20 and 30 "regions" of Alpine rock art, the number depending upon how neighbouring occurrences are grouped. These petroglyphs were usually carved with a fine\-line technique which meant that they are only a few millimetres thick, and were typically produced on metamorphic rocks, sandstones and schists which are found sporadically across the Alpine chain, rather than on the more common calcareous rocks from which the mountains are geologically formed. Like with most rock art across the world, there are no physical\-science methods yet available with which to accurately date the Alpine images, and instead archaeologists have relied on a relative chronology by comparing the pictures with artefacts that have been more securely dated.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). p. 505\. [thumb\|250px\|*Le sorcier*](/wiki/File:Sorciermerveilles.jpg "Sorciermerveilles.jpg") The two most prominent concentrations of rock art in the Alps are found at [Mont Bégo](/wiki/Mont_B%C3%A9go "Mont Bégo") in France and the valleys of Valcamonica and Valtellina in Italy, both of which far outnumber other areas for the amount of art that they contain.[Arca 2004](/wiki/%23Arc04 "#Arc04"). p. 319\. At Mount Bego, in southwest France, near the Italian border, over 30,000 illustrated figures have been discovered in the valleys and outliers surrounding the mountain, situated on the high\-altitude slopes far above the agricultural land. Archaeologists have dated to the images to the Copper and Bronze Ages, between 2500 and 1700 BCE, because many of the figures are depicted holding daggers and halberds which are stylistically consistent with this period. Similarly, many of the images depict oxen and ploughshares, meaning that they must have been produced following the adoption of agriculture during the Neolithic. It is believed that they all date from the same period, because they are all stylistically consistent and are in a similar state of preservation.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). pp. 504–505, 507–510\. At Valcamonica and Valtellina, two lengthy neighbouring valleys in the south\-centre of the Alps, archaeologists have estimated the existence of around 300,000 figures, with depictions or humans and other animals, footprints, steep\-roofed buildings, wheeled carts, boats and a large number of geometric shapes, lines, spirals and crosses. Although a few of the images found in Valtellina have been tentatively suggested to be post\-glacial in date due to the Palaeolithic animal style they depict, the overwhelming majority of artworks are considered to be late prehistoric. Some of the motifs, such as those of humans in an *orant* posture with arms upraised in prayer or adoration, have been considered Neolithic, with others being attributed to the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, the latter being the most numerous. Some of the illustrations have been dated to the historic period, having been produced by the local [Camuni](/wiki/Camuni "Camuni") people who lived within the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"), and subsequently also from the Medieval period.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 "#Bra01"). pp. 504–505, 510–513\.
[ "Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age rock art\n---------------------------------------------", "### Atlantic European rock art", "{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2012}}\nVarious different forms of late prehistoric rock art have been found in [Atlantic Europe](/wiki/Atlantic_Europe \"Atlantic Europe\"), the coastal region that extends from the [Strait of Gibraltar](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar \"Strait of Gibraltar\") up to the [British Isles](/wiki/British_Isles \"British Isles\").[Bradley 1998](/wiki/%23Bra98 \"#Bra98\"). p. 130\\.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). pp. 493–494\\. The term Atlantic rock art was popularised in the 1990s by archaeologist Richard Bradley. The art is characterised by abstract geometric motifs, most notably the [cup\\-and\\-ring](/wiki/Cup_and_ring_mark \"Cup and ring mark\") motifs. The art can be found in Portugal, Spain, France, [Britain, and Ireland](/wiki/Neolithic_and_Bronze_Age_rock_art_in_the_British_Isles \"Neolithic and Bronze Age rock art in the British Isles\"). Although the art is characterised by abstract motifs it is sometimes found alongside figurative carvings, such as those at [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\") in North western Spain and a discovery made in Argyll in Scotland in 2020\\. The carvings associated with the tradition of Atlantic rock art in Europe are often found in rural settings, in open\\-air landscapes and occur on boulders and outcrops. Many of these panels remain in situ, however some smaller more portable examples have been moved to museums for safe keeping. The abstract nature of many of these carvings provide us with very little information of their purpose in prehistory. However, this art form has become the topic of several excavations and studies throughout Europe in recent years. Many of these studies consider a landscape approach.Valdez Tullet 2019 The associated motifs consist of cup\\-marks ( circular man\\-made depressions) often surrounded by one or more concentric rings that regularly feature an extending radial groove. Another common motif is the rosette motif which consists of a circular pattern of cup\\-marks. There is evidence for regional variation amongst this tradition. \n Many archaeologists and scholars have theorised on the purpose of the art but given its mostly abstract nature and little direct context for its presence on rock surfaces, it is difficult to form a conclusive explanation for it. A widely considered theory is that the art marks routeways and boundaries within prehistoric societies. \nPerhaps the most well\\-known landscape of Atlantic rock art in Europe is that of Galicia in north\\-western Spain at the Campo Lameiro archaeological park. The majority of the carvings are situated in the Valley of the River Lérez. Over a span of 21\\.8 hectares hundreds of carvings can be found on the surface of rock panels in various clusters throughout the park. Along with the abstract/ geometric motifs, zoomorphs and anthropomorphs can be seen and many of these combinations form visual representations of hunting scenes.", "There are over 6000 examples of Atlantic art in the UK and of these over 2000 can be found in Scotland with the highest concentration found in Kilmartin Glenn, Argyll. Northern England is host to several rock art landscapes most notably in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. In recent years many conservation and recording initiatives have been undertaken in this region by archaeologists at the University of Newcastle.", "In Ireland the Atlantic rock art appears in clusters throughout the country, the most significant of those occur in counties Fermanagh/Donegal, Wicklow/Carlow, Louth/Monaghan, and Cork, with the highest concentration occurring in [County Kerry](/wiki/County_Kerry \"County Kerry\") on the [Dingle](/wiki/Dingle_Peninsula \"Dingle Peninsula\") and [Iveragh Peninsulas](/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula \"Iveragh Peninsula\").", "During the Early Bronze Age, which lasted from *circa* 2300 through to *c*.1500 BCE, various depictions of weaponry were engraved onto rock surfaces across Atlantic Europe.", "### Northern European rock art", "{{Expand section\\|date\\=October 2012}}\nThere are hundreds of rock art sites that represent variations of figures, traditions and chronological differences in Northern Europe. Cave paintings, rock paintings and especially open air sites are found on the continent, the British isles and all over the Scandinavian peninsula as well as in Finland and Russia. Perhaps the most famous site is the [Rock carvings at Alta](/wiki/Rock_carvings_at_Alta \"Rock carvings at Alta\") in the north of Norway with the largest collection of hunter gatherer rock art in northern Europe.", "### Alpine rock art", "[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Engraved deer\\-hunting scene at [Valcamonica](/wiki/Valcamonica \"Valcamonica\").](/wiki/File:Scena_di_caccia_al_cervo_-_Seradina_R_12_-_Capo_di_Ponte_%28Foto_Luca_Giarelli%29.jpg \"Scena di caccia al cervo - Seradina R 12 - Capo di Ponte (Foto Luca Giarelli).jpg\")\nRock art engraved on open surfaces, rather than inside shelters or caves, was also produced in the mountainous [Alpine region](/wiki/Alps \"Alps\") during later prehistory.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). p. 503\\. Found predominantly in the southern part of the Alps, in modern\\-day Italy and France, few examples of rock art have been identified from the northern slopes of the region, in what is now Switzerland and Germany.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). p. 504\\. Many engravings have been found in the region, along with a few rock paintings (as at Abri Faravel[Walsh et al. 2016](/wiki/%23Wal16 \"#Wal16\")), and as such, scholars in rock art studies have divided the known collection into between 20 and 30 \"regions\" of Alpine rock art, the number depending upon how neighbouring occurrences are grouped. These petroglyphs were usually carved with a fine\\-line technique which meant that they are only a few millimetres thick, and were typically produced on metamorphic rocks, sandstones and schists which are found sporadically across the Alpine chain, rather than on the more common calcareous rocks from which the mountains are geologically formed.", "Like with most rock art across the world, there are no physical\\-science methods yet available with which to accurately date the Alpine images, and instead archaeologists have relied on a relative chronology by comparing the pictures with artefacts that have been more securely dated.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). p. 505\\.\n[thumb\\|250px\\|*Le sorcier*](/wiki/File:Sorciermerveilles.jpg \"Sorciermerveilles.jpg\")", "The two most prominent concentrations of rock art in the Alps are found at [Mont Bégo](/wiki/Mont_B%C3%A9go \"Mont Bégo\") in France and the valleys of Valcamonica and Valtellina in Italy, both of which far outnumber other areas for the amount of art that they contain.[Arca 2004](/wiki/%23Arc04 \"#Arc04\"). p. 319\\. At Mount Bego, in southwest France, near the Italian border, over 30,000 illustrated figures have been discovered in the valleys and outliers surrounding the mountain, situated on the high\\-altitude slopes far above the agricultural land. Archaeologists have dated to the images to the Copper and Bronze Ages, between 2500 and 1700 BCE, because many of the figures are depicted holding daggers and halberds which are stylistically consistent with this period. Similarly, many of the images depict oxen and ploughshares, meaning that they must have been produced following the adoption of agriculture during the Neolithic. It is believed that they all date from the same period, because they are all stylistically consistent and are in a similar state of preservation.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). pp. 504–505, 507–510\\.", "At Valcamonica and Valtellina, two lengthy neighbouring valleys in the south\\-centre of the Alps, archaeologists have estimated the existence of around 300,000 figures, with depictions or humans and other animals, footprints, steep\\-roofed buildings, wheeled carts, boats and a large number of geometric shapes, lines, spirals and crosses. Although a few of the images found in Valtellina have been tentatively suggested to be post\\-glacial in date due to the Palaeolithic animal style they depict, the overwhelming majority of artworks are considered to be late prehistoric. Some of the motifs, such as those of humans in an *orant* posture with arms upraised in prayer or adoration, have been considered Neolithic, with others being attributed to the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, the latter being the most numerous. Some of the illustrations have been dated to the historic period, having been produced by the local [Camuni](/wiki/Camuni \"Camuni\") people who lived within the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\"), and subsequently also from the Medieval period.[Bradley, Chippindale and Helskog 2001](/wiki/%23Bra01 \"#Bra01\"). pp. 504–505, 510–513\\.", "" ]
Electoral performance --------------------- | \+ Election results of M. K. Stalin contesting as DMK candidate | | --- | | Election | Constituency | Result | Vote % | Majority % | | [1984 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1984_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Lost}} | 47\.94 | 2\.50 | | [1989 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1989_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Won}} | 50\.59 | 20\.54 | | [1991 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1991_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Lost}} | 39\.19 | 17\.31 | | [1996 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1996_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Won}} | 69\.72 | 46\.76 | | [2001 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2001_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Won}} | 51\.41 | 7\.62 | | [2006 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2006_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") | {{Won}} | 46\.0 | 2\.28 | | [2011 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2011_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Kolathur (state assembly constituency)") | {{Won}} | 47\.7 | 1\.92 | | [2016 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2016_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Kolathur (state assembly constituency)") | {{Won}} | 54\.3 | 22\.42 | | [2021 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2021_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election "2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Kolathur (state assembly constituency)") | {{Won}} | 60\.86 | 40\.59 | | Stalin contested the Assembly polls unsuccessfully from [Thousand Lights constituency](/wiki/Thousand_Lights_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Thousand Lights (state assembly constituency)") in Chennai. In 1989 Stalin contested Assembly polls from Thousand Lights constituency again, and won.{{cite web \| url\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/stalin\-files\-nomination\-papers\-set\-to\-become\-dmk\-president/articleshow/65551094\.cms \| title\=Stalin files nomination papers, set to become DMK president \| publisher\=\[\[The Economic Times]] \| date\=26 August 2018 \| access\-date\=9 April 2021 \| archive\-date\=22 January 2021 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122182945/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/stalin\-files\-nomination\-papers\-set\-to\-become\-dmk\-president/articleshow/65551094\.cms \| url\-status\=live }} The DMK government got dismissed in 1991 before completing its full five\-year term. In 1991, he contested for the third time from the same Assembly constituency, but lost to [K. A. Krishnaswamy](/wiki/K._A._Krishnaswamy "K. A. Krishnaswamy") of the AIADMK. Again in 1996, Stalin won the election as an MLA from the Thousand Lights constituency. In 2003, Stalin became Deputy General Secretary of the DMK. In 2011 Stalin changed his constituency for the first time in his political career, moving from Thousand Lights to [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Kolathur (state assembly constituency)") constituency on the outskirts of Chennai city. ### Mayor of Chennai Stalin became the city's first directly elected mayor in 1996\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/citylifestyle/interview01\.asp \|title\=Towards Singara Chennai \- Interview with the Mayor \- www.chennaibest.com \|access\-date\=18 November 2006 \|archive\-date\=13 March 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313074247/http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/citylifestyle/interview01\.asp \|url\-status\=dead }} He coined a pet project called *Singara Chennai* (Beautiful Chennai), lauded for improving Chennai's infrastructure. His efforts in improving city infrastructure earned him the title of *Managara Thanthai* (father of the city).{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-04\-05\|title\=Tamil Nadu elections: Can MK Stalin finally break away from Karunanidhi's shadow?\|url\=https://www.financialexpress.com/india\-news/tamil\-nadu\-elections\-2021\-can\-mk\-stalin\-finally\-break\-away\-from\-karunanidhis\-shadow/2227274/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|website\=The Financial Express\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=27 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927195236/https://www.financialexpress.com/india\-news/tamil\-nadu\-elections\-2021\-can\-mk\-stalin\-finally\-break\-away\-from\-karunanidhis\-shadow/2227274/\|url\-status\=live}} During his tenure as mayor, Stalin modernized the garbage disposal system of [the city of Chennai](/wiki/Greater_Chennai_Corporation "Greater Chennai Corporation") by giving priority to cleaning works. He implemented integrated development projects such as health, public construction and schools. He solved the congestion of the city of Chennai by building huge flyovers.{{cite news\|title\=M K Stalin: From a gritty teenage campaigner to mature DMK boss\|work\=The Economic Times\|url\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/m\-k\-stalin\-from\-a\-gritty\-teenage\-campaigner\-to\-mature\-dmk\-boss/articleshow/65580876\.cms?from\=mdr\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|archive\-date\=13 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913175401/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\-and\-nation/m\-k\-stalin\-from\-a\-gritty\-teenage\-campaigner\-to\-mature\-dmk\-boss/articleshow/65580876\.cms?from\=mdr\|url\-status\=live}} During his first tenure, 9 major flyovers and 49 short bridges were built. He also improved the standard of Corporation Schools to be on par with private schools.{{cite news\|last\=Kolappan\|first\=B.\|date\=2018\-08\-28\|title\=An administrator with a good track record\|language\=en\-IN\|work\=The Hindu\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/an\-administrator\-witha\-good\-track\-record/article24795862\.ece\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|issn\=0971\-751X\|archive\-date\=13 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913173826/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/an\-administrator\-witha\-good\-track\-record/article24795862\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} In addition, parks and fountains were set up at 18 major junctions. 81 parks were cleaned and properly maintained.{{Cite news\|last\=Raman\|first\=A. Ragu\|title\=Time to revive call for Singara Chennai\|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/time\-to\-revive\-call\-for\-singara\-chennai/articleshow/82698902\.cms\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|website\=The Times of India\|date\=17 May 2021\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=14 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914040800/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/time\-to\-revive\-call\-for\-singara\-chennai/articleshow/82698902\.cms\|url\-status\=live}} Saplings were planted at the Chennai [Marina](/wiki/Marina_Beach "Marina Beach"), the second largest beach in the world. The slaughterhouse at [Perambur](/wiki/Perambur "Perambur") have been modernized to avoid polluting the environment. During his tenure, it was decided to build flyovers on 10 congested roads before the end of his term. ₹95 crores have been allocated for the construction of flyovers. However, 30% of the funds were left over when the flyovers were opened according to him.{{Cite web\|title\=The case of the flyovers\|url\=https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover\-story/article30251255\.ece\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|website\=Frontline\|date\=6 July 2001\|language\=en\|archive\-date\=13 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913185035/https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover\-story/article30251255\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} He was re\-elected Mayor for the 2nd time in 2001\.{{cite web\| url \= http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/23tn.htm\| title \= rediff.com: Stalin re\-elected mayor of Madras\| access\-date \= 18 November 2006\| archive\-date \= 14 May 2011\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514071644/http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/23tn.htm\| url\-status \= live}} However, the then Chief Minister [J. Jayalalithaa](/wiki/J._Jayalalithaa "J. Jayalalithaa") enacted the Tamil Nadu Municipal Laws (Amendment) Act, in 2002, which prevents a person from holding two elected posts in the government. This law was applied retroactively to Stalin's case (he was an elected [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights "Thousand Lights") MLA) in a move widely seen as aimed at removing him as Chennai's mayor.{{Cite web \|url\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/articleshow?art\_Id\=13690000 \|title\=Mayor's office slips out of Stalin's hand\-Cities\-The Times of India \|website\=\[\[The Times of India]] \|access\-date\=18 November 2006 \|archive\-date\=10 September 2004 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040910222547/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/articleshow?art\_Id\=13690000 \|url\-status\=live }} However, the [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court "Madras High Court") struck down the law stating that legislative bodies were not "prevented" from making laws affecting the "substantive rights" of persons retrospectively. However, the court held that under Madras (now Chennai) City Municipal Corporation Act, 1919, a person cannot be mayor for two consecutive terms, though unlike Stalin, earlier mayors were not directly elected. MK Stalin did not appeal in the Supreme Court.[The Telegraph \- Calcutta: Nation](https://web.archive.org/web/20030101200629/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1020907/asp/nation/story_1176318.asp) ### Minister In the 2006 Assembly Elections, the DMK regained control of the state assembly. Stalin became the Minister for Rural Development and Local Administration in the [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu "Government of Tamil Nadu") and retained this office throughout his term. During his tenure, he was instrumental in the extensive spread of Women Self\-Help Groups across the State by establishing 1,75,493 Women SHGs. He also established various comprehensive drinking water projects such as Hogenakkal and Ramanathapuram water schemes.{{Cite web\|title\=Reaching the top, one step at a time \-\- Stalin style\|url\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\-nadu/2021/may/07/reaching\-the\-top\-one\-step\-at\-a\-time\-stalin\-style\-2299391\.html\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-13\|website\=The New Indian Express\|date\=7 May 2021 \|archive\-date\=13 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913180440/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\-nadu/2021/may/07/reaching\-the\-top\-one\-step\-at\-a\-time\-stalin\-style\-2299391\.html\|url\-status\=live}} In 2008, he became treasurer of DMK. ### Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu On 29 May 2009, Stalin was nominated as Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu by Governor [Surjit Singh Barnala](/wiki/Surjit_Singh_Barnala "Surjit Singh Barnala").{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid\=1\&theme\=\&usrsess\=1\&id\=256056\|title\=Stalin named JP deputy CM\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040331200719/http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid\=1\|archive\-date\=31 March 2004\|url\-status\=dead\|access\-date\=31 May 2009}} He was first Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. ### Opposition leader During the 2016 Assembly election, Stalin went on a statewide tour titled *Namakku Naame* to appeal to the youth. Stalin won the [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 "Kolathur (state assembly constituency)") constituency and was appointed as the opposition leader.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk\-sees\-namakku\-naame\-as\-a\-vain\-exercise/article7839682\.ece\|title\=AIADMK sees 'Namakku Naame' as a vain exercise\|last\=Ramakrishnan\|first\=Deepa H.\|date\=2015\-11\-04\|work\=The Hindu\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-11\|language\=en\-IN\|issn\=0971\-751X\|archive\-date\=26 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025648/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk\-sees\-namakku\-naame\-as\-a\-vain\-exercise/article7839682\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} In 2017, Stalin went on another *Namakku Naame* tour.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/stalin\-plans\-another\-namakku\-naame\-tour/article19891275\.ece\|title\=Stalin plans another 'Namakku Naame' tour\|date\=2017\-10\-20\|work\=The Hindu\|access\-date\=2019\-08\-11\|language\=en\-IN\|issn\=0971\-751X\|archive\-date\=26 March 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025700/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/stalin\-plans\-another\-namakku\-naame\-tour/article19891275\.ece\|url\-status\=live}} In 2018, his father Karunanidhi died, leaving Stalin the president of the DMK. [thumb\|right\|250px\| M. K. Stalin and Sedapatti Muthiah in 2018](/wiki/File:M.K._Stalin_and_Sedapatti_Muthiah.jpg "M.K. Stalin and Sedapatti Muthiah.jpg") ### Secular Progressive Alliance (2019 general election – present) Stalin formed the [Secular Progressive Alliance](/wiki/Secular_Progressive_Alliance "Secular Progressive Alliance") in Tamil Nadu and led the alliance in 2019 general election in the state.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.business\-standard.com/article/pti\-stories/secular\-progressive\-alliance\-will\-romp\-home\-in\-lok\-sabha\-polls\-119033100605\_1\.html\|title\=Secular Progressive Alliance will romp home in Lok Sabha polls\|agency\=Press Trust of India\|date\=2019\-03\-31\|work\=Business Standard India\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-29\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160114/https://www.business\-standard.com/article/pti\-stories/secular\-progressive\-alliance\-will\-romp\-home\-in\-lok\-sabha\-polls\-119033100605\_1\.html\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ndtv.com/tamil\-nadu\-news/lok\-sabha\-elections\-2019\-dmk\-alliance\-announces\-constituencies\-calls\-it\-secular\-progressive\-alliance\-2008378\|title\=DMK Alliance Announces Constituencies, Calls It Secular Progressive Alliance\|website\=NDTV.com\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-29\|archive\-date\=11 August 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811221116/https://www.ndtv.com/tamil\-nadu\-news/lok\-sabha\-elections\-2019\-dmk\-alliance\-announces\-constituencies\-calls\-it\-secular\-progressive\-alliance\-2008378\|url\-status\=live}} The Secular Progressive Alliance won 39 out of 40 Parliament seats, and 12 out of 21 in the Assembly by\-election, with 52% of the vote. It was his first victory since taking charge as DMK President.{{Cite web\|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/stalin\-wins\-big\-but\-gains\-little/articleshow/69472678\.cms\|title\=M K Stalin wins big but gains little in Tamil Nadu\|date\=May 24, 2019\|first\=D.\|last\=Govardan\|website\=The Times of India\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-29\|archive\-date\=1 March 2020\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301133828/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/stalin\-wins\-big\-but\-gains\-little/articleshow/69472678\.cms\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/election\-results\-2019\-mk\-stalin\-on\-dmk\-victory\-in\-tamil\-nadu\-amazed\-north\-united\-south\-astounded\-ind\-2046617\|title\="Amazed North, United South, Astounded India": MK Stalin On DMK Poll Wins\|website\=NDTV.com\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-29\|archive\-date\=24 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224174019/https://www.ndtv.com/india\-news/election\-results\-2019\-mk\-stalin\-on\-dmk\-victory\-in\-tamil\-nadu\-amazed\-north\-united\-south\-astounded\-ind\-2046617\|url\-status\=live}} ### Ondrinaivom Vaa The COVID\-19 pandemic and the consequences of the lockdown inflicted immense misery and suffering on people of Tamil Nadu in 2020\. Stalin and members from the DMK party undertook relief measures across Tamil Nadu from Day 1 to help those in need of basic essentials.{{Cite web \|author\=B. Sivakumar \|date\=May 30, 2020 \|title\=DMK's Ondrinaivom Vaa initiative has benefited more than one crore people, Stalin says {{!}} Chennai News – Times of India \|url\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/dmks\-ondrinaivom\-vaa\-initiative\-has\-benefited\-more\-than\-one\-crore\-people\-stalin\-says/articleshow/76108022\.cms \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-11 \|website\=The Times of India \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=11 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113651/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/dmks\-ondrinaivom\-vaa\-initiative\-has\-benefited\-more\-than\-one\-crore\-people\-stalin\-says/articleshow/76108022\.cms \|url\-status\=live }} Owing to the scale of the suffering in the State, Stalin called upon his cadres and ministers to come together as one, and Ondrinaivom Vaa was born out of this vision. The campaign was officially launched on 20 April 2020 where he set up a helpline as a single point of contact for anyone in need in Tamil Nadu.{{Cite news \|date\=2020\-04\-20 \|title\=Stalin launches helpline, website \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/stalin\-launches\-helpline\-website/article31392242\.ece \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-11 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=11 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113650/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/stalin\-launches\-helpline\-website/article31392242\.ece \|url\-status\=live }} The Helpline received over 18 lakh calls in 40 days, and the cadres, ministers efficiently tended to the requests to ensure timely delivery of services. Stalin through 'Ondrinaivom Vaa' also launched the campaign 'Feed the Poor' where NGO partners in collaboration with the Kitchen partners served over 28 lakh cooked meals.{{Cite web \|title\='What did Opposition do?': Here are some notable efforts by Congress, Left, other parties to help people during the pandemic \|url\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2020/jun/10/what\-did\-opposition\-do\-here\-are\-some\-notable\-efforts\-by\-congress\-left\-other\-parties\-to\-help\-pe\-102891\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-11 \|website\=The New Indian Express \|date\=10 June 2020 \|archive\-date\=11 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113650/https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2020/jun/10/what\-did\-opposition\-do\-here\-are\-some\-notable\-efforts\-by\-congress\-left\-other\-parties\-to\-help\-pe\-102891\.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite news \|last\=Rohit \|first\=T. k \|date\=2020\-06\-10 \|title\=Anbazhagan: An organiser who minced no words \|language\=en\-IN \|work\=The Hindu \|url\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/anbazhagan\-an\-organiser\-who\-minced\-no\-words/article31799736\.ece \|access\-date\=2022\-10\-11 \|issn\=0971\-751X \|archive\-date\=11 October 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113651/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\-nadu/anbazhagan\-an\-organiser\-who\-minced\-no\-words/article31799736\.ece \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "Electoral performance\n---------------------", "", "| \\+ Election results of M. K. Stalin contesting as DMK candidate |\n| --- |\n| Election | Constituency | Result | Vote % | Majority % |\n| [1984 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1984_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1984 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Lost}} | 47\\.94 | 2\\.50 |\n| [1989 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1989_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1989 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Won}} | 50\\.59 | 20\\.54 |\n| [1991 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1991_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1991 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Lost}} | 39\\.19 | 17\\.31 |\n| [1996 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/1996_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"1996 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Won}} | 69\\.72 | 46\\.76 |\n| [2001 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2001_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Won}} | 51\\.41 | 7\\.62 |\n| [2006 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2006_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2006 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") | {{Won}} | 46\\.0 | 2\\.28 |\n| [2011 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2011_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Kolathur (state assembly constituency)\") | {{Won}} | 47\\.7 | 1\\.92 |\n| [2016 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2016_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Kolathur (state assembly constituency)\") | {{Won}} | 54\\.3 | 22\\.42 |\n| [2021 Tamil Nadu Assembly election](/wiki/2021_Tamil_Nadu_Legislative_Assembly_election \"2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election\") | [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Kolathur (state assembly constituency)\") | {{Won}} | 60\\.86 | 40\\.59 |\n|", "Stalin contested the Assembly polls unsuccessfully from [Thousand Lights constituency](/wiki/Thousand_Lights_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Thousand Lights (state assembly constituency)\") in Chennai. In 1989 Stalin contested Assembly polls from Thousand Lights constituency again, and won.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/stalin\\-files\\-nomination\\-papers\\-set\\-to\\-become\\-dmk\\-president/articleshow/65551094\\.cms \\| title\\=Stalin files nomination papers, set to become DMK president \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[The Economic Times]] \\| date\\=26 August 2018 \\| access\\-date\\=9 April 2021 \\| archive\\-date\\=22 January 2021 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122182945/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/stalin\\-files\\-nomination\\-papers\\-set\\-to\\-become\\-dmk\\-president/articleshow/65551094\\.cms \\| url\\-status\\=live }} The DMK government got dismissed in 1991 before completing its full five\\-year term. In 1991, he contested for the third time from the same Assembly constituency, but lost to [K. A. Krishnaswamy](/wiki/K._A._Krishnaswamy \"K. A. Krishnaswamy\") of the AIADMK. Again in 1996, Stalin won the election as an MLA from the Thousand Lights constituency.", "In 2003, Stalin became Deputy General Secretary of the DMK.\nIn 2011 Stalin changed his constituency for the first time in his political career, moving from Thousand Lights to [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Kolathur (state assembly constituency)\") constituency on the outskirts of Chennai city.", "### Mayor of Chennai", "Stalin became the city's first directly elected mayor in 1996\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/citylifestyle/interview01\\.asp \\|title\\=Towards Singara Chennai \\- Interview with the Mayor \\- www.chennaibest.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2006 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313074247/http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/citylifestyle/interview01\\.asp \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} He coined a pet project called *Singara Chennai* (Beautiful Chennai), lauded for improving Chennai's infrastructure. His efforts in improving city infrastructure earned him the title of *Managara Thanthai* (father of the city).{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-04\\-05\\|title\\=Tamil Nadu elections: Can MK Stalin finally break away from Karunanidhi's shadow?\\|url\\=https://www.financialexpress.com/india\\-news/tamil\\-nadu\\-elections\\-2021\\-can\\-mk\\-stalin\\-finally\\-break\\-away\\-from\\-karunanidhis\\-shadow/2227274/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=The Financial Express\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=27 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927195236/https://www.financialexpress.com/india\\-news/tamil\\-nadu\\-elections\\-2021\\-can\\-mk\\-stalin\\-finally\\-break\\-away\\-from\\-karunanidhis\\-shadow/2227274/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "During his tenure as mayor, Stalin modernized the garbage disposal system of [the city of Chennai](/wiki/Greater_Chennai_Corporation \"Greater Chennai Corporation\") by giving priority to cleaning works. He implemented integrated development projects such as health, public construction and schools. He solved the congestion of the city of Chennai by building huge flyovers.{{cite news\\|title\\=M K Stalin: From a gritty teenage campaigner to mature DMK boss\\|work\\=The Economic Times\\|url\\=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/m\\-k\\-stalin\\-from\\-a\\-gritty\\-teenage\\-campaigner\\-to\\-mature\\-dmk\\-boss/articleshow/65580876\\.cms?from\\=mdr\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913175401/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics\\-and\\-nation/m\\-k\\-stalin\\-from\\-a\\-gritty\\-teenage\\-campaigner\\-to\\-mature\\-dmk\\-boss/articleshow/65580876\\.cms?from\\=mdr\\|url\\-status\\=live}} During his first tenure, 9 major flyovers and 49 short bridges were built. He also improved the standard of Corporation Schools to be on par with private schools.{{cite news\\|last\\=Kolappan\\|first\\=B.\\|date\\=2018\\-08\\-28\\|title\\=An administrator with a good track record\\|language\\=en\\-IN\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/an\\-administrator\\-witha\\-good\\-track\\-record/article24795862\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|issn\\=0971\\-751X\\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913173826/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/an\\-administrator\\-witha\\-good\\-track\\-record/article24795862\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In addition, parks and fountains were set up at 18 major junctions. 81 parks were cleaned and properly maintained.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Raman\\|first\\=A. Ragu\\|title\\=Time to revive call for Singara Chennai\\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/time\\-to\\-revive\\-call\\-for\\-singara\\-chennai/articleshow/82698902\\.cms\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=The Times of India\\|date\\=17 May 2021\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=14 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914040800/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/time\\-to\\-revive\\-call\\-for\\-singara\\-chennai/articleshow/82698902\\.cms\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Saplings were planted at the Chennai [Marina](/wiki/Marina_Beach \"Marina Beach\"), the second largest beach in the world. The slaughterhouse at [Perambur](/wiki/Perambur \"Perambur\") have been modernized to avoid polluting the environment. During his tenure, it was decided to build flyovers on 10 congested roads before the end of his term. ₹95 crores have been allocated for the construction of flyovers. However, 30% of the funds were left over when the flyovers were opened according to him.{{Cite web\\|title\\=The case of the flyovers\\|url\\=https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover\\-story/article30251255\\.ece\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=Frontline\\|date\\=6 July 2001\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913185035/https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover\\-story/article30251255\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He was re\\-elected Mayor for the 2nd time in 2001\\.{{cite web\\| url \\= http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/23tn.htm\\| title \\= rediff.com: Stalin re\\-elected mayor of Madras\\| access\\-date \\= 18 November 2006\\| archive\\-date \\= 14 May 2011\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514071644/http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/oct/23tn.htm\\| url\\-status \\= live}}", "However, the then Chief Minister [J. Jayalalithaa](/wiki/J._Jayalalithaa \"J. Jayalalithaa\") enacted the Tamil Nadu Municipal Laws (Amendment) Act, in 2002, which prevents a person from holding two elected posts in the government. This law was applied retroactively to Stalin's case (he was an elected [Thousand Lights](/wiki/Thousand_Lights \"Thousand Lights\") MLA) in a move widely seen as aimed at removing him as Chennai's mayor.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/articleshow?art\\_Id\\=13690000 \\|title\\=Mayor's office slips out of Stalin's hand\\-Cities\\-The Times of India \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Times of India]] \\|access\\-date\\=18 November 2006 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 September 2004 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040910222547/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cms.dll/articleshow?art\\_Id\\=13690000 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} However, the [Madras High Court](/wiki/Madras_High_Court \"Madras High Court\") struck down the law stating that legislative bodies were not \"prevented\" from making laws affecting the \"substantive rights\" of persons retrospectively. However, the court held that under Madras (now Chennai) City Municipal Corporation Act, 1919, a person cannot be mayor for two consecutive terms, though unlike Stalin, earlier mayors were not directly elected. MK Stalin did not appeal in the Supreme Court.[The Telegraph \\- Calcutta: Nation](https://web.archive.org/web/20030101200629/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1020907/asp/nation/story_1176318.asp)", "### Minister", "In the 2006 Assembly Elections, the DMK regained control of the state assembly. Stalin became the Minister for Rural Development and Local Administration in the [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu \"Government of Tamil Nadu\") and retained this office throughout his term. During his tenure, he was instrumental in the extensive spread of Women Self\\-Help Groups across the State by establishing 1,75,493 Women SHGs. He also established various comprehensive drinking water projects such as Hogenakkal and Ramanathapuram water schemes.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Reaching the top, one step at a time \\-\\- Stalin style\\|url\\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\\-nadu/2021/may/07/reaching\\-the\\-top\\-one\\-step\\-at\\-a\\-time\\-stalin\\-style\\-2299391\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-13\\|website\\=The New Indian Express\\|date\\=7 May 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913180440/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil\\-nadu/2021/may/07/reaching\\-the\\-top\\-one\\-step\\-at\\-a\\-time\\-stalin\\-style\\-2299391\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2008, he became treasurer of DMK.", "### Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu", "On 29 May 2009, Stalin was nominated as Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu by Governor [Surjit Singh Barnala](/wiki/Surjit_Singh_Barnala \"Surjit Singh Barnala\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid\\=1\\&theme\\=\\&usrsess\\=1\\&id\\=256056\\|title\\=Stalin named JP deputy CM\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040331200719/http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid\\=1\\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2004\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2009}} He was first Deputy Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.", "### Opposition leader", "During the 2016 Assembly election, Stalin went on a statewide tour titled *Namakku Naame* to appeal to the youth. Stalin won the [Kolathur](/wiki/Kolathur_%28state_assembly_constituency%29 \"Kolathur (state assembly constituency)\") constituency and was appointed as the opposition leader.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk\\-sees\\-namakku\\-naame\\-as\\-a\\-vain\\-exercise/article7839682\\.ece\\|title\\=AIADMK sees 'Namakku Naame' as a vain exercise\\|last\\=Ramakrishnan\\|first\\=Deepa H.\\|date\\=2015\\-11\\-04\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-11\\|language\\=en\\-IN\\|issn\\=0971\\-751X\\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025648/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/aiadmk\\-sees\\-namakku\\-naame\\-as\\-a\\-vain\\-exercise/article7839682\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2017, Stalin went on another *Namakku Naame* tour.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/stalin\\-plans\\-another\\-namakku\\-naame\\-tour/article19891275\\.ece\\|title\\=Stalin plans another 'Namakku Naame' tour\\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-20\\|work\\=The Hindu\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-08\\-11\\|language\\=en\\-IN\\|issn\\=0971\\-751X\\|archive\\-date\\=26 March 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025700/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/stalin\\-plans\\-another\\-namakku\\-naame\\-tour/article19891275\\.ece\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2018, his father Karunanidhi died, leaving Stalin the president of the DMK.", "[thumb\\|right\\|250px\\| M. K. Stalin and Sedapatti Muthiah in 2018](/wiki/File:M.K._Stalin_and_Sedapatti_Muthiah.jpg \"M.K. Stalin and Sedapatti Muthiah.jpg\")", "### Secular Progressive Alliance (2019 general election – present)", "Stalin formed the [Secular Progressive Alliance](/wiki/Secular_Progressive_Alliance \"Secular Progressive Alliance\") in Tamil Nadu and led the alliance in 2019 general election in the state.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.business\\-standard.com/article/pti\\-stories/secular\\-progressive\\-alliance\\-will\\-romp\\-home\\-in\\-lok\\-sabha\\-polls\\-119033100605\\_1\\.html\\|title\\=Secular Progressive Alliance will romp home in Lok Sabha polls\\|agency\\=Press Trust of India\\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-31\\|work\\=Business Standard India\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-29\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224160114/https://www.business\\-standard.com/article/pti\\-stories/secular\\-progressive\\-alliance\\-will\\-romp\\-home\\-in\\-lok\\-sabha\\-polls\\-119033100605\\_1\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ndtv.com/tamil\\-nadu\\-news/lok\\-sabha\\-elections\\-2019\\-dmk\\-alliance\\-announces\\-constituencies\\-calls\\-it\\-secular\\-progressive\\-alliance\\-2008378\\|title\\=DMK Alliance Announces Constituencies, Calls It Secular Progressive Alliance\\|website\\=NDTV.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-29\\|archive\\-date\\=11 August 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811221116/https://www.ndtv.com/tamil\\-nadu\\-news/lok\\-sabha\\-elections\\-2019\\-dmk\\-alliance\\-announces\\-constituencies\\-calls\\-it\\-secular\\-progressive\\-alliance\\-2008378\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Secular Progressive Alliance won 39 out of 40 Parliament seats, and 12 out of 21 in the Assembly by\\-election, with 52% of the vote. It was his first victory since taking charge as DMK President.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/stalin\\-wins\\-big\\-but\\-gains\\-little/articleshow/69472678\\.cms\\|title\\=M K Stalin wins big but gains little in Tamil Nadu\\|date\\=May 24, 2019\\|first\\=D.\\|last\\=Govardan\\|website\\=The Times of India\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-29\\|archive\\-date\\=1 March 2020\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301133828/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/stalin\\-wins\\-big\\-but\\-gains\\-little/articleshow/69472678\\.cms\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/election\\-results\\-2019\\-mk\\-stalin\\-on\\-dmk\\-victory\\-in\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-amazed\\-north\\-united\\-south\\-astounded\\-ind\\-2046617\\|title\\=\"Amazed North, United South, Astounded India\": MK Stalin On DMK Poll Wins\\|website\\=NDTV.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-29\\|archive\\-date\\=24 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224174019/https://www.ndtv.com/india\\-news/election\\-results\\-2019\\-mk\\-stalin\\-on\\-dmk\\-victory\\-in\\-tamil\\-nadu\\-amazed\\-north\\-united\\-south\\-astounded\\-ind\\-2046617\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Ondrinaivom Vaa", "The COVID\\-19 pandemic and the consequences of the lockdown inflicted immense misery and suffering on people of Tamil Nadu in 2020\\. Stalin and members from the DMK party undertook relief measures across Tamil Nadu from Day 1 to help those in need of basic essentials.{{Cite web \\|author\\=B. Sivakumar \\|date\\=May 30, 2020 \\|title\\=DMK's Ondrinaivom Vaa initiative has benefited more than one crore people, Stalin says {{!}} Chennai News – Times of India \\|url\\=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/dmks\\-ondrinaivom\\-vaa\\-initiative\\-has\\-benefited\\-more\\-than\\-one\\-crore\\-people\\-stalin\\-says/articleshow/76108022\\.cms \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-11 \\|website\\=The Times of India \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113651/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/dmks\\-ondrinaivom\\-vaa\\-initiative\\-has\\-benefited\\-more\\-than\\-one\\-crore\\-people\\-stalin\\-says/articleshow/76108022\\.cms \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Owing to the scale of the suffering in the State, Stalin called upon his cadres and ministers to come together as one, and Ondrinaivom Vaa was born out of this vision. The campaign was officially launched on 20 April 2020 where he set up a helpline as a single point of contact for anyone in need in Tamil Nadu.{{Cite news \\|date\\=2020\\-04\\-20 \\|title\\=Stalin launches helpline, website \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/stalin\\-launches\\-helpline\\-website/article31392242\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-11 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113650/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/stalin\\-launches\\-helpline\\-website/article31392242\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The Helpline received over 18 lakh calls in 40 days, and the cadres, ministers efficiently tended to the requests to ensure timely delivery of services. Stalin through 'Ondrinaivom Vaa' also launched the campaign 'Feed the Poor' where NGO partners in collaboration with the Kitchen partners served over 28 lakh cooked meals.{{Cite web \\|title\\='What did Opposition do?': Here are some notable efforts by Congress, Left, other parties to help people during the pandemic \\|url\\=https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2020/jun/10/what\\-did\\-opposition\\-do\\-here\\-are\\-some\\-notable\\-efforts\\-by\\-congress\\-left\\-other\\-parties\\-to\\-help\\-pe\\-102891\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-11 \\|website\\=The New Indian Express \\|date\\=10 June 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113650/https://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/nation/2020/jun/10/what\\-did\\-opposition\\-do\\-here\\-are\\-some\\-notable\\-efforts\\-by\\-congress\\-left\\-other\\-parties\\-to\\-help\\-pe\\-102891\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rohit \\|first\\=T. k \\|date\\=2020\\-06\\-10 \\|title\\=Anbazhagan: An organiser who minced no words \\|language\\=en\\-IN \\|work\\=The Hindu \\|url\\=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/anbazhagan\\-an\\-organiser\\-who\\-minced\\-no\\-words/article31799736\\.ece \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-11 \\|issn\\=0971\\-751X \\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011113651/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil\\-nadu/anbazhagan\\-an\\-organiser\\-who\\-minced\\-no\\-words/article31799736\\.ece \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Diagnosis --------- Diagnosis of the medical condition is based on a combination of clinical presentation, physical exam, and laboratory studies. When this characteristic rash is found in a neonate, laboratory workup is prompted. Initial workup usually includes a [complete blood count](/wiki/Complete_blood_count "Complete blood count") (CBC) with differential to evaluate for underlying blood disorders. Laboratory confirmation of the cause of the blueberry muffin rash depends on the underlying illness. For example, serology positive for rubella specific antibodies, viral culture with isolated rubella, or isolation of rubella virus RNA through [polymerase chain reaction](/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction "Polymerase chain reaction") can all confirm that congenital rubella infection is the underlying cause of the blueberry muffin rash.{{Cite web\|title\=Rubella, Congenital Syndrome (CRS) 2007 Case Definition {{!}} CDC\|date\=14 April 2021 \|url\=https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case\-definitions/rubella\-congenital\-syndrome\-2007/\|access\-date\=2021\-11\-03\|language\=en\-US}} Other manifestations of congenital rubella disease can also appear in conjunction with the characteristic rash. These include congenital [glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma "Glaucoma"), [jaundice](/wiki/Jaundice "Jaundice"), [hepatosplenomegaly](/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly "Hepatosplenomegaly"), [microcephaly](/wiki/Microcephaly "Microcephaly"), [cataracts](/wiki/Cataracts "Cataracts"), or [sensorineural hearing loss](/wiki/Sensorineural_hearing_loss "Sensorineural hearing loss"). The presence of these features can further bolster the diagnosis of congenital rubella as the cause of the blueberry muffin baby. Laboratory studies for congential rubella infection should be done prior to 1 year of age as diagnosis becomes more challenging afterwards.{{Cite journal\|last\=Kimberlin\|first\=David\|title\=Red Book 2018\-2021 Report of Committee on Infectious Diseases\|journal\=Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases\|publisher\=American Academy of Pediatrics\|year\=2018\|issn\=1080\-0131\|location\=Itasca, IL\|pages\=705\|language\=English}} In the case of infection with cytomegalovirus (CMV), patients can present with associated symptoms such as deafness and [chorioretinitis](/wiki/Chorioretinitis "Chorioretinitis"). On lab studies, there may be a high anti\-cytomegalovirus antibody titer, positive CMV urine culture, and [thrombocytopenia](/wiki/Thrombocytopenia "Thrombocytopenia"). If the cause is due to hemolytic disease of the newborn or hereditary spherocytosis, the neonate will have a positive Coomb's test and unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. Malignancies such as [neuroblastoma](/wiki/Neuroblastoma "Neuroblastoma") and [acute myeloid leukemia](/wiki/Acute_myeloid_leukemia "Acute myeloid leukemia") are all rare but possible causes of a blueberry muffin baby. Most of the time, these conditions are diagnosed using [immunohistochemistry](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry "Immunohistochemistry") and [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy "Biopsy").
[ "Diagnosis\n---------", "Diagnosis of the medical condition is based on a combination of clinical presentation, physical exam, and laboratory studies. When this characteristic rash is found in a neonate, laboratory workup is prompted.", "Initial workup usually includes a [complete blood count](/wiki/Complete_blood_count \"Complete blood count\") (CBC) with differential to evaluate for underlying blood disorders. Laboratory confirmation of the cause of the blueberry muffin rash depends on the underlying illness.", "For example, serology positive for rubella specific antibodies, viral culture with isolated rubella, or isolation of rubella virus RNA through [polymerase chain reaction](/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction \"Polymerase chain reaction\") can all confirm that congenital rubella infection is the underlying cause of the blueberry muffin rash.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Rubella, Congenital Syndrome (CRS) 2007 Case Definition {{!}} CDC\\|date\\=14 April 2021 \\|url\\=https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case\\-definitions/rubella\\-congenital\\-syndrome\\-2007/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-03\\|language\\=en\\-US}} Other manifestations of congenital rubella disease can also appear in conjunction with the characteristic rash. These include congenital [glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma \"Glaucoma\"), [jaundice](/wiki/Jaundice \"Jaundice\"), [hepatosplenomegaly](/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly \"Hepatosplenomegaly\"), [microcephaly](/wiki/Microcephaly \"Microcephaly\"), [cataracts](/wiki/Cataracts \"Cataracts\"), or [sensorineural hearing loss](/wiki/Sensorineural_hearing_loss \"Sensorineural hearing loss\"). The presence of these features can further bolster the diagnosis of congenital rubella as the cause of the blueberry muffin baby. Laboratory studies for congential rubella infection should be done prior to 1 year of age as diagnosis becomes more challenging afterwards.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Kimberlin\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=Red Book 2018\\-2021 Report of Committee on Infectious Diseases\\|journal\\=Red Book: Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases\\|publisher\\=American Academy of Pediatrics\\|year\\=2018\\|issn\\=1080\\-0131\\|location\\=Itasca, IL\\|pages\\=705\\|language\\=English}}", "In the case of infection with cytomegalovirus (CMV), patients can present with associated symptoms such as deafness and [chorioretinitis](/wiki/Chorioretinitis \"Chorioretinitis\"). On lab studies, there may be a high anti\\-cytomegalovirus antibody titer, positive CMV urine culture, and [thrombocytopenia](/wiki/Thrombocytopenia \"Thrombocytopenia\").", "If the cause is due to hemolytic disease of the newborn or hereditary spherocytosis, the neonate will have a positive Coomb's test and unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia.", "Malignancies such as [neuroblastoma](/wiki/Neuroblastoma \"Neuroblastoma\") and [acute myeloid leukemia](/wiki/Acute_myeloid_leukemia \"Acute myeloid leukemia\") are all rare but possible causes of a blueberry muffin baby. Most of the time, these conditions are diagnosed using [immunohistochemistry](/wiki/Immunohistochemistry \"Immunohistochemistry\") and [biopsy](/wiki/Biopsy \"Biopsy\").", "" ]
Career ------ ### 2014 In August 2014, Foberg competed at the [Secret U.S. Classic](/wiki/U.S._Classic "U.S. Classic"), where she placed fifth in the all\-around, tied for third on [vault](/wiki/Vault_%28gymnastics%29 "Vault (gymnastics)"), tied for sixth on [uneven bars](/wiki/Uneven_bars "Uneven bars"), placed seventh on [balance beam](/wiki/Balance_beam "Balance beam"), and tied for eleventh on [floor exercise](/wiki/Floor_%28gymnastics%29 "Floor (gymnastics)"). Later that month, Foberg competed at the [U.S. National Championships](/wiki/USA_Gymnastics_National_Championships "USA Gymnastics National Championships"), where she won the all\-around title ahead of favorites [Nia Dennis](/wiki/Nia_Dennis "Nia Dennis") and [Norah Flatley](/wiki/Norah_Flatley "Norah Flatley"), as well as the uneven bars. She also placed fourth on vault, ninth on beam, and fifth on floor.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.intlgymnast.com/index.php?option\=com\_content\&view\=article\&id\=4113:foberg\-wins\-junior\-pag\-championships\&catid\=5:competition\-reports\&Itemid\=164 \|title\=Foberg Wins Junior P\&G Championships \|publisher\=International Gymnast Magazine \|accessdate\=2014\-08\-23}} On December 8, 2014, Foberg committed to the [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida "University of Florida"). Foberg enrolled a year early in the fall of 2017\. ### 2015 In March 2015, Foberg made her international debut at the [City of Jesolo Trophy](/wiki/City_of_Jesolo_Trophy "City of Jesolo Trophy"). She won gold with the U.S. junior team, gold on vault, and bronze in the all\-around. Foberg participated in the [2015 U.S. Classic](/wiki/2015_U.S._Classic "2015 U.S. Classic") in July, winning gold on balance beam with a score of 14\.650 and placing second on vault (14\.800\), third on uneven bars (14\.100, tied with [Jordan Chiles](/wiki/Jordan_Chiles "Jordan Chiles")), and third in the all\-around (57\.400\).<https://usagym.org/PDFs/Results/w_15susc_jr.pdf> {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908012235/https://usagym.org/PDFs/Results/w\_15susc\_jr.pdf \|date\=2015\-09\-08 }} {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} In August, Foberg competed at the National Championships, where she won silver medals in the all\-around, vault, uneven bars, and balance beam. ### 2016 Foberg's senior debut came at the 2016 [Secret U.S. Classic](/wiki/Secret_U.S._Classic "Secret U.S. Classic"). However, she did not compete vault, and received relatively low scores of 13\.850 on bars, 13\.200 on balance beam, and 12\.800 on floor exercise.{{Cite web\|url\=https://thegymter.net/2016/06/07/2016\-secret\-u\-s\-classic\-results/\|title \= 2016 U.S. Classic Results\|date \= 7 June 2016}} Foberg withdrew from the U.S. national championships due to a nagging ankle injury,{{Cite web\|url\=https://thegymter.net/2016\-u\-s\-championships/\|title\=2016 U.S. Championships\|date\=13 June 2016}} forgoing her chance to compete at the Olympic Trials and make the 2016 Olympic team. ### Collegiate career Foberg began studies as a student\-athlete at the University of Florida in the fall of 2017\. During the 2018 competitive gymnastics season, she contributed performances on vault and uneven bars in all but one meet, with occasional performances on balance beam and floor exercise. She performed on vault and uneven bars with the team at the [2018 NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championship](/wiki/2018_NCAA_Women%27s_Gymnastics_Championship "2018 NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championship") Finals Super Six, where University of Florida placed third.{{cite web \|url\=https://roadtonationals.com/results/teams/gymnast/2018/22/25085 \|title\=Teams \|website\=roadtonationals.com \|access\-date\=July 1, 2019}} Foberg did not compete with the team during the 2019 gymnastics season due to recovering from elbow surgery.Staff, Lauren. "Jazmyn Foberg: Off\-Season Surgery Forces New Role for 2019\." Florida Gators News. [https://floridagators.com/news/2019/1/27/gymnastics\-jazmyn\-foberg\-off\-season\-surgery\-forces\-new\-role\-for\-2019\.aspx](https://floridagators.com/news/2019/1/27/gymnastics-jazmyn-foberg-off-season-surgery-forces-new-role-for-2019.aspx) Accessed July 1, 2019\.
[ "Career\n------", "### 2014", "In August 2014, Foberg competed at the [Secret U.S. Classic](/wiki/U.S._Classic \"U.S. Classic\"), where she placed fifth in the all\\-around, tied for third on [vault](/wiki/Vault_%28gymnastics%29 \"Vault (gymnastics)\"), tied for sixth on [uneven bars](/wiki/Uneven_bars \"Uneven bars\"), placed seventh on [balance beam](/wiki/Balance_beam \"Balance beam\"), and tied for eleventh on [floor exercise](/wiki/Floor_%28gymnastics%29 \"Floor (gymnastics)\"). Later that month, Foberg competed at the [U.S. National Championships](/wiki/USA_Gymnastics_National_Championships \"USA Gymnastics National Championships\"), where she won the all\\-around title ahead of favorites [Nia Dennis](/wiki/Nia_Dennis \"Nia Dennis\") and [Norah Flatley](/wiki/Norah_Flatley \"Norah Flatley\"), as well as the uneven bars. She also placed fourth on vault, ninth on beam, and fifth on floor.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.intlgymnast.com/index.php?option\\=com\\_content\\&view\\=article\\&id\\=4113:foberg\\-wins\\-junior\\-pag\\-championships\\&catid\\=5:competition\\-reports\\&Itemid\\=164 \\|title\\=Foberg Wins Junior P\\&G Championships \\|publisher\\=International Gymnast Magazine \\|accessdate\\=2014\\-08\\-23}}", "On December 8, 2014, Foberg committed to the [University of Florida](/wiki/University_of_Florida \"University of Florida\"). Foberg enrolled a year early in the fall of 2017\\.", "### 2015", "In March 2015, Foberg made her international debut at the [City of Jesolo Trophy](/wiki/City_of_Jesolo_Trophy \"City of Jesolo Trophy\"). She won gold with the U.S. junior team, gold on vault, and bronze in the all\\-around.", "Foberg participated in the [2015 U.S. Classic](/wiki/2015_U.S._Classic \"2015 U.S. Classic\") in July, winning gold on balance beam with a score of 14\\.650 and placing second on vault (14\\.800\\), third on uneven bars (14\\.100, tied with [Jordan Chiles](/wiki/Jordan_Chiles \"Jordan Chiles\")), and third in the all\\-around (57\\.400\\).<https://usagym.org/PDFs/Results/w_15susc_jr.pdf> {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908012235/https://usagym.org/PDFs/Results/w\\_15susc\\_jr.pdf \\|date\\=2015\\-09\\-08 }} {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}}", "In August, Foberg competed at the National Championships, where she won silver medals in the all\\-around, vault, uneven bars, and balance beam.", "### 2016", "Foberg's senior debut came at the 2016 [Secret U.S. Classic](/wiki/Secret_U.S._Classic \"Secret U.S. Classic\"). However, she did not compete vault, and received relatively low scores of 13\\.850 on bars, 13\\.200 on balance beam, and 12\\.800 on floor exercise.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thegymter.net/2016/06/07/2016\\-secret\\-u\\-s\\-classic\\-results/\\|title \\= 2016 U.S. Classic Results\\|date \\= 7 June 2016}} Foberg withdrew from the U.S. national championships due to a nagging ankle injury,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://thegymter.net/2016\\-u\\-s\\-championships/\\|title\\=2016 U.S. Championships\\|date\\=13 June 2016}} forgoing her chance to compete at the Olympic Trials and make the 2016 Olympic team.", "### Collegiate career", "Foberg began studies as a student\\-athlete at the University of Florida in the fall of 2017\\. During the 2018 competitive gymnastics season, she contributed performances on vault and uneven bars in all but one meet, with occasional performances on balance beam and floor exercise. She performed on vault and uneven bars with the team at the [2018 NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championship](/wiki/2018_NCAA_Women%27s_Gymnastics_Championship \"2018 NCAA Women's Gymnastics Championship\") Finals Super Six, where University of Florida placed third.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://roadtonationals.com/results/teams/gymnast/2018/22/25085 \\|title\\=Teams \\|website\\=roadtonationals.com \\|access\\-date\\=July 1, 2019}}", "Foberg did not compete with the team during the 2019 gymnastics season due to recovering from elbow surgery.Staff, Lauren. \"Jazmyn Foberg: Off\\-Season Surgery Forces New Role for 2019\\.\" Florida Gators News. [https://floridagators.com/news/2019/1/27/gymnastics\\-jazmyn\\-foberg\\-off\\-season\\-surgery\\-forces\\-new\\-role\\-for\\-2019\\.aspx](https://floridagators.com/news/2019/1/27/gymnastics-jazmyn-foberg-off-season-surgery-forces-new-role-for-2019.aspx) Accessed July 1, 2019\\.", "" ]
Career ------ Horsfield was born in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Newcastle upon Tyne"), Northumberland, England. He joined [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. "Middlesbrough F.C.") as an apprentice – "I was in my local under eleven's side at the age of nine, and Joe Soones, the Boro scout was the first one on the scene, knocking on my door and turning up at the matches."{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.shaunkeogh.co.uk/MSS%20PDF%20Files/MSS%20126002\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218134102/http://shaunkeogh.co.uk/MSS%20PDF%20Files/MSS%20126002\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=18 February 2007 \|title\=Arthur Horsfield Interview \|access\-date\=4 February 2007 \|publisher\=MSS (Shaun Keogh) \|author\=Middlesbrough Supporters South Magazine }} – and eventually made 111 appearances for the club scoring 51 league goals and helping them win promotion to the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") in the 1966–67 season. During his time at the club he was also included in the England Youth international team. After an acrimonious period at Middlesbrough, he left the club in January 1969 after a heated exchange with the then manager [Stan Anderson](/wiki/Stan_Anderson "Stan Anderson"). > 'When I left, it stemmed from being dropped again after we got beat 0–3 at [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. "Bristol City F.C.") (January 1969\). I was really angry and lost my rag. I went into Stan's office and had a right go at him. I remember we were still 'exchanging views' after I had stormed out of his office and was on my way down the stairs! (laughs) When I'd got to the bottom he shouted out "If you don't f\*\*\*\*\*\* like it, you know what to do!" So I shouted back "yeah, well you can have it from me in writing tomorrow morning." Don't get me wrong, I did actually get on well with Stan, but I was young and feeling frustrated.' He moved to [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.") but only appeared as a substitute, being kept out of the first team by Welsh international [Wyn Davies](/wiki/Wyn_Davies "Wyn Davies"). He scored 3 times in his 9 appearances and attracted interest from that year's [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup_Final_1969 "Football League Cup Final 1969") winners [Swindon Town](/wiki/Swindon_Town_F.C. "Swindon Town F.C."). [Danny Williams](/wiki/Danny_Williams_%28footballer_born_1924%29 "Danny Williams (footballer born 1924)") signed Horsfield to the [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire "Wiltshire") club in 1969 for £17,500 (the club's record signing at the time), one of his last actions at the club. By the end of his first season he had become the club's top scorer with 22 goals.{{cite book \| title\=Swindon Town Football Club – 100 Greats\| last\=Mattick\| first\=Dick\| year\=2002\| pages\=52\| publisher\=Tempus Publishing\| location\=Stroud\| isbn\=0752427148}} He took part in Swindon Town's European cup winning games scoring a hat\-trick against [AS Roma](/wiki/AS_Roma "AS Roma") to win the [1969 Anglo\-Italian League Cup](/wiki/1969_Anglo-Italian_League_Cup "1969 Anglo-Italian League Cup") and also the winning goal against [SSC Napoli](/wiki/SSC_Napoli "SSC Napoli") to win the [1970 Anglo\-Italian Cup](/wiki/1970_Anglo-Italian_Cup "1970 Anglo-Italian Cup"). In June 1972 he moved to [Charlton Athletic](/wiki/Charlton_Athletic_F.C. "Charlton Athletic F.C.") (another record signing), here he scored 53 goals in 139 appearances. > "Danny Williams left Swindon Town soon after I joined and was replaced by Fred Ford. Then [Dave Mackay](/wiki/Dave_Mackay_%28footballer_born_1934%29 "Dave Mackay (footballer born 1934)") who was playing for Swindon Town at that time, took over and he wanted to bring in his own players. Anyway, he brought in Ray Treacy from Charlton Athletic for a club record fee. When I came back for pre\-season training he told me that he'd sold me to Charlton Athletic; I was not happy. \[...] In the end though, I really enjoyed my time at Charlton Athletic. All those appearances I made for them were consecutive you know – I never missed a match in three years." Whilst Arthur was playing at Charlton Athletic he also coached football at St. Austin's Secondary School, Highcombe, Charlton SE7\. During his time at Charlton Arthur scored one of Match of the Day's Goals of the Month. His League career came to end at [Watford](/wiki/Watford_F.C. "Watford F.C."), who he had signed for in 1975\. Again, he was upset at the nature of the signing – > In my last year at Charlton Athletic I moved to centre\-half. That year we got promoted, and then at the beginning of the following season Andy Nelson, who had taken over from Theo, phoned me and told me he had sold me to Watford. \[...] I was put under some pressure to go to Watford, and various people I spoke to advised me to ask for outrageous wages in the hope that they would knock me back. \[...] By that time, I'd got it through my mind that I wanted to be a centre half, rather than a centre forward because I was getting a bit fed up with being kicked up in the air all the time. It was then that I picked up the only bookings of my career. I was only booked about four times in my whole career, all at centre half while I was at Watford. I didn't really enjoy my time there. I was disillusioned with the way I came to be there. I thought it was wrong that I was phoned up at home to be told that I was meeting their manager the next morning – a 'thanks and goodbye' type of attitude. I dug my heels in, but because they agreed to my wage demand, I had to go." [Graham Taylor](/wiki/Graham_Taylor_%28football_manager%29 "Graham Taylor (football manager)")'s appointment as manager in 1977 caused friction between them, with Taylor requesting that all players live within 10 minutes of the ground. Horsfield, who lived in [Kent](/wiki/Kent "Kent"), had signed to Watford on the understanding that he wouldn't be asked to move home so as to not interrupt his children's schooling. Taylor eventually offered Horsfield a coaching job, which he declined – > "Taylor did ask me if I would consider taking the reserve coach job, but at the time I felt that I was too young to give up playing, as I was only 29\. It came as a shock to me at the time, but looking back, maybe it was a missed opportunity. I had taken a coaching badge at Middlesbrough when I was 17, along with Bobby Braithwaite, Eddie Connachan and Taffy Orrit, but I wasn't ready to do it full time." After being contacted by Watford chairman [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John "Elton John")'s uncle; former [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C.") cup\-finalist Roy Dwight, he transferred to [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford_F.C. "Dartford F.C.") to play in the [Southern League](/wiki/Southern_Football_League "Southern Football League"). > "Dartford had a lot of problems, and nearly went out of existence, but bounced back later. At the time though, they ended up selling the ground, and houses were built on it. I had a street, Horsfield Close, named after me." He retired in 1977 and as of 2000 he was a manager for [Parcel Force](/wiki/Parcel_Force "Parcel Force") in [Thurrock](/wiki/Thurrock "Thurrock").{{Cite web\|url\=http://archive.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/2000/5/30/244253\.html \|title\=Cup Glory in Europe \|access\-date\=4 February 2007 \|work\=\[\[Swindon Advertiser]] \|year\=2000 \|author\=Sam Wheeler \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930015343/http://archive.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/2000/5/30/244253\.html \|archive\-date\=30 September 2007 }}
[ "Career\n------", "Horsfield was born in [Newcastle upon Tyne](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\"), Northumberland, England. He joined [Middlesbrough](/wiki/Middlesbrough_F.C. \"Middlesbrough F.C.\") as an apprentice – \"I was in my local under eleven's side at the age of nine, and Joe Soones, the Boro scout was the first one on the scene, knocking on my door and turning up at the matches.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.shaunkeogh.co.uk/MSS%20PDF%20Files/MSS%20126002\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218134102/http://shaunkeogh.co.uk/MSS%20PDF%20Files/MSS%20126002\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=18 February 2007 \\|title\\=Arthur Horsfield Interview \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2007 \\|publisher\\=MSS (Shaun Keogh) \\|author\\=Middlesbrough Supporters South Magazine }} – and eventually made 111 appearances for the club scoring 51 league goals and helping them win promotion to the [Second Division](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") in the 1966–67 season. During his time at the club he was also included in the England Youth international team.", "After an acrimonious period at Middlesbrough, he left the club in January 1969 after a heated exchange with the then manager [Stan Anderson](/wiki/Stan_Anderson \"Stan Anderson\").", "", "> 'When I left, it stemmed from being dropped again after we got beat 0–3 at [Bristol City](/wiki/Bristol_City_F.C. \"Bristol City F.C.\") (January 1969\\). I was really angry and lost my rag. I went into Stan's office and had a right go at him. I remember we were still 'exchanging views' after I had stormed out of his office and was on my way down the stairs! (laughs) When I'd got to the bottom he shouted out \"If you don't f\\*\\*\\*\\*\\*\\* like it, you know what to do!\" So I shouted back \"yeah, well you can have it from me in writing tomorrow morning.\" Don't get me wrong, I did actually get on well with Stan, but I was young and feeling frustrated.'", "He moved to [Newcastle United](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\") but only appeared as a substitute, being kept out of the first team by Welsh international [Wyn Davies](/wiki/Wyn_Davies \"Wyn Davies\"). He scored 3 times in his 9 appearances and attracted interest from that year's [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup_Final_1969 \"Football League Cup Final 1969\") winners [Swindon Town](/wiki/Swindon_Town_F.C. \"Swindon Town F.C.\").", "[Danny Williams](/wiki/Danny_Williams_%28footballer_born_1924%29 \"Danny Williams (footballer born 1924)\") signed Horsfield to the [Wiltshire](/wiki/Wiltshire \"Wiltshire\") club in 1969 for £17,500 (the club's record signing at the time), one of his last actions at the club. By the end of his first season he had become the club's top scorer with 22 goals.{{cite book \\| title\\=Swindon Town Football Club – 100 Greats\\| last\\=Mattick\\| first\\=Dick\\| year\\=2002\\| pages\\=52\\| publisher\\=Tempus Publishing\\| location\\=Stroud\\| isbn\\=0752427148}}", "He took part in Swindon Town's European cup winning games scoring a hat\\-trick against [AS Roma](/wiki/AS_Roma \"AS Roma\") to win the [1969 Anglo\\-Italian League Cup](/wiki/1969_Anglo-Italian_League_Cup \"1969 Anglo-Italian League Cup\") and also the winning goal against [SSC Napoli](/wiki/SSC_Napoli \"SSC Napoli\") to win the [1970 Anglo\\-Italian Cup](/wiki/1970_Anglo-Italian_Cup \"1970 Anglo-Italian Cup\").", "In June 1972 he moved to [Charlton Athletic](/wiki/Charlton_Athletic_F.C. \"Charlton Athletic F.C.\") (another record signing), here he scored 53 goals in 139 appearances.", "", "> \"Danny Williams left Swindon Town soon after I joined and was replaced by Fred Ford. Then [Dave Mackay](/wiki/Dave_Mackay_%28footballer_born_1934%29 \"Dave Mackay (footballer born 1934)\") who was playing for Swindon Town at that time, took over and he wanted to bring in his own players. Anyway, he brought in Ray Treacy from Charlton Athletic for a club record fee. When I came back for pre\\-season training he told me that he'd sold me to Charlton Athletic; I was not happy. \\[...] In the end though, I really enjoyed my time at Charlton Athletic. All those appearances I made for them were consecutive you know – I never missed a match in three years.\"", "Whilst Arthur was playing at Charlton Athletic he also coached football at St. Austin's Secondary School, Highcombe, Charlton SE7\\.", "During his time at Charlton Arthur scored one of Match of the Day's Goals of the Month.", "His League career came to end at [Watford](/wiki/Watford_F.C. \"Watford F.C.\"), who he had signed for in 1975\\. Again, he was upset at the nature of the signing –", "", "> In my last year at Charlton Athletic I moved to centre\\-half. That year we got promoted, and then at the beginning of the following season Andy Nelson, who had taken over from Theo, phoned me and told me he had sold me to Watford. \\[...] I was put under some pressure to go to Watford, and various people I spoke to advised me to ask for outrageous wages in the hope that they would knock me back. \\[...] By that time, I'd got it through my mind that I wanted to be a centre half, rather than a centre forward because I was getting a bit fed up with being kicked up in the air all the time. It was then that I picked up the only bookings of my career. I was only booked about four times in my whole career, all at centre half while I was at Watford. I didn't really enjoy my time there. I was disillusioned with the way I came to be there. I thought it was wrong that I was phoned up at home to be told that I was meeting their manager the next morning – a 'thanks and goodbye' type of attitude. I dug my heels in, but because they agreed to my wage demand, I had to go.\"", "[Graham Taylor](/wiki/Graham_Taylor_%28football_manager%29 \"Graham Taylor (football manager)\")'s appointment as manager in 1977 caused friction between them, with Taylor requesting that all players live within 10 minutes of the ground. Horsfield, who lived in [Kent](/wiki/Kent \"Kent\"), had signed to Watford on the understanding that he wouldn't be asked to move home so as to not interrupt his children's schooling.", "Taylor eventually offered Horsfield a coaching job, which he declined –", "> \"Taylor did ask me if I would consider taking the reserve coach job, but at the time I felt that I was too young to give up playing, as I was only 29\\. It came as a shock to me at the time, but looking back, maybe it was a missed opportunity. I had taken a coaching badge at Middlesbrough when I was 17, along with Bobby Braithwaite, Eddie Connachan and Taffy Orrit, but I wasn't ready to do it full time.\"", "", "After being contacted by Watford chairman [Elton John](/wiki/Elton_John \"Elton John\")'s uncle; former [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\") cup\\-finalist Roy Dwight, he transferred to [Dartford](/wiki/Dartford_F.C. \"Dartford F.C.\") to play in the [Southern League](/wiki/Southern_Football_League \"Southern Football League\").", "", "> \"Dartford had a lot of problems, and nearly went out of existence, but bounced back later. At the time though, they ended up selling the ground, and houses were built on it. I had a street, Horsfield Close, named after me.\"", "He retired in 1977 and as of 2000 he was a manager for [Parcel Force](/wiki/Parcel_Force \"Parcel Force\") in [Thurrock](/wiki/Thurrock \"Thurrock\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://archive.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/2000/5/30/244253\\.html \\|title\\=Cup Glory in Europe \\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2007 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Swindon Advertiser]] \\|year\\=2000 \\|author\\=Sam Wheeler \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930015343/http://archive.thisiswiltshire.co.uk/2000/5/30/244253\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2007 }}", "" ]
Diaspora investment in Kosovo ----------------------------- {{Further\|Economy of Kosovo}} The Ministry for the Diaspora held a conference on “Attracting Diaspora investment in Kosovo”, recognizing the importance of the diaspora to the economy of Kosovo. The Minister for the Diaspora, Mr. Ibrahim Makolli, said that the Ministry's objectives are to identify, encourage, and support investment from the diaspora. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Trade and Industry (MTI), Mimoza Kusari – Lila, presented plans to attract investment from Kosovo's diaspora, directly relating to two agencies that operate under the MTI. At the press conference, she talked about the Business Registration Agency. The Agency will collaborate with Ministry for the Diaspora to open Business Registration Centres in Switzerland, Germany, the United States, and Turkey, to process business registrations outside Kosovo relating to Kosovar business owners. Many international representatives attended this meeting. The objective of the conferences is to promote investment and inform the Kosovo diaspora of facilities for doing business, and reforms that have been implemented in Kosovo. Business registration in Kosovo is now much easier and faster. Goods import and export procedures have been significantly reduced, a considerable number of construction licenses have been eliminated, and contract implementation has been greatly improved through laws governing enforcement procedures, notaries and the [cadastre](/wiki/Cadastre "Cadastre"). Among other progress, Minister Kusari – Lila also spoke about the conclusion of the investment protection agreement. Agreements have been signed with 12 countries: the United Kingdom, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Croatia, Japan, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Norway, France, and Montenegro. Finally, the positive impact of improved relations with the European Union on investment promotion and growth. Kosovo's remittances for 2010 were €511\.6 million. 30% of [foreign direct investment](/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment "Foreign direct investment") came from the diaspora.{{cite web\|title\=Attracting Diaspora investment in Kosovo\|url\=http://www.mti\-ks.org\|website\=Mti\-ks.org\|access\-date\=23 February 2013}} ### Direct investments Around 25% of businesses surveyed were established with partial or full support from the diaspora, through: * Cash (42\.9%) * Joint investments (11\.5%) * Support in form of vehicles, equipment, raw materials etc. (6\.5%) * Links with companies abroad (0\.7%) * Know\-how and education (3 percent) * Professional skills (4\.6%) * 9 % did not specify the type of support received * 21\.8 % gave multiple answers Only 2% of businesses were supported by International Development Agencies. Almost none were supported by National Government. ### Socio\-economic development contribution According to official statistics, Kosovo benefits from 450 \- 500 million euros in annual revenues as a result of the diaspora. Around 30 percent of households in Kosovo have access to international remittances – in form of money or goods. 49% of donors live in Germany, 24% in Switzerland. Remittances made 17\.5 percent of country's GDP in year 2000 (275 million Euros).{{cite web\|title\=Development contribution\|url\=http://diaspora\-ks.org/\|website\=Diaspora\-ks.org\|access\-date\=23 February 2013\|archive\-date\=12 January 2014\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112090610/http://diaspora\-ks.org/\|url\-status\=dead}}
[ "Diaspora investment in Kosovo\n-----------------------------", "{{Further\\|Economy of Kosovo}}\nThe Ministry for the Diaspora held a conference on “Attracting Diaspora investment in Kosovo”, recognizing the importance of the diaspora to the economy of Kosovo.", "The Minister for the Diaspora, Mr. Ibrahim Makolli, said that the Ministry's objectives are to identify, encourage, and support investment from the diaspora.", "Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Trade and Industry (MTI), Mimoza Kusari – Lila, presented plans to attract investment from Kosovo's diaspora, directly relating to two agencies that operate under the MTI. At the press conference, she talked about the Business Registration Agency. The Agency will collaborate with Ministry for the Diaspora to open Business Registration Centres in Switzerland, Germany, the United States, and Turkey, to process business registrations outside Kosovo relating to Kosovar business owners. Many international representatives attended this meeting.", "The objective of the conferences is to promote investment and inform the Kosovo diaspora of facilities for doing business, and reforms that have been implemented in Kosovo.", "Business registration in Kosovo is now much easier and faster. Goods import and export procedures have been significantly reduced, a considerable number of construction licenses have been eliminated, and contract implementation has been greatly improved through laws governing enforcement procedures, notaries and the [cadastre](/wiki/Cadastre \"Cadastre\").", "Among other progress, Minister Kusari – Lila also spoke about the conclusion of the investment protection agreement. Agreements have been signed with 12 countries: the United Kingdom, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Croatia, Japan, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Norway, France, and Montenegro. Finally, the positive impact of improved relations with the European Union on investment promotion and growth.", "Kosovo's remittances for 2010 were €511\\.6 million. 30% of [foreign direct investment](/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment \"Foreign direct investment\") came from the diaspora.{{cite web\\|title\\=Attracting Diaspora investment in Kosovo\\|url\\=http://www.mti\\-ks.org\\|website\\=Mti\\-ks.org\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2013}}", "### Direct investments", "Around 25% of businesses surveyed were established with partial or full support from the diaspora, through:\n* Cash (42\\.9%)\n* Joint investments (11\\.5%)\n* Support in form of vehicles, equipment, raw materials etc. (6\\.5%)\n* Links with companies abroad (0\\.7%)\n* Know\\-how and education (3 percent)\n* Professional skills (4\\.6%)\n* 9 % did not specify the type of support received\n* 21\\.8 % gave multiple answers\nOnly 2% of businesses were supported by International Development Agencies. Almost none were supported by National Government.", "### Socio\\-economic development contribution", "According to official statistics, Kosovo benefits from 450 \\- 500 million euros in annual revenues as a result of the diaspora. Around 30 percent of households in Kosovo have access to international remittances – in form of money or goods. 49% of donors live in Germany, 24% in Switzerland. Remittances made 17\\.5 percent of country's GDP in year 2000 (275 million Euros).{{cite web\\|title\\=Development contribution\\|url\\=http://diaspora\\-ks.org/\\|website\\=Diaspora\\-ks.org\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2013\\|archive\\-date\\=12 January 2014\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112090610/http://diaspora\\-ks.org/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
Ornithological work ------------------- [thumb\|left\|150px\|Henharrier](/wiki/File:Henharrier.jpg "Henharrier.jpg") [thumb\|left\|150px\|Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) female](/wiki/File:Marsh_harrier_%28Circus_aeruginosus%29_female.jpg "Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) female.jpg") Two years later he teamed up with the artist Donald Watson to develop the UK Hen Harrier Winter Roost Survey. The thesis for Clarke's [PhD](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy "Doctor of Philosophy") in [biological sciences](/wiki/Biology "Biology"), awarded by the [University of Liverpool](/wiki/University_of_Liverpool "University of Liverpool") in 1999, was on [bird of prey](/wiki/Bird_of_prey "Bird of prey") feeding ecology. Working for the [University of Aberdeen](/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen "University of Aberdeen"), Clarke focused on [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney "Orkney") [hen harrier](/wiki/Hen_harrier "Hen harrier") feeding. He also contributed to the controversial Joint Raptor Study Langholm Project, studying the predation of [red grouse](/wiki/Red_grouse "Red grouse") by [hen harriers](/wiki/Hen_harrier "Hen harrier") and [peregrine falcons](/wiki/Peregrine_falcon "Peregrine falcon") in southwest [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland "Scotland")'s border country. Clarke's reputation took him to [India](/wiki/India "India") to study the world's largest harrier roosts for the [Bombay Natural History Society](/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society "Bombay Natural History Society"). He subsequently worked on a project that successfully reintroduced [red kites](/wiki/Red_kite "Red kite") to several English regions. Clarke's first book, Harriers of the British Isles, appeared in 1990\. It was followed by The Marsh Harrier (1995\) and [Montagu's Harrier](/wiki/Montagu%27s_harrier "Montagu's harrier") (1996\).{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=OpCrAgAAQBAJ\&q\=roger\+geoffrey\+clarke\+ornithologist\&pg\=PA134\|title\=A Sparrowhawk's Lament: How British Breeding Birds of Prey Are Faring\|isbn\=9781400850211\|access\-date\=15 March 2015\|last1\=Cobham\|first1\=David\|date\=6 July 2014\|publisher\=Princeton University Press }} He was co\-editor of Biology and Conservation of Small Falcons in 1993 and during the final months before his early death he worked on the second edition of The Hen Harrier, adding to the first edition written by Watson. Clarke was treasurer of the [British Ornithologists' Union](/wiki/British_Ornithologists%27_Union "British Ornithologists' Union") (2000–06\). He also looked after the accounts of the [Society of Wildlife Artists](/wiki/Society_of_Wildlife_Artists "Society of Wildlife Artists") (SWLA), whose then president, Bruce Pearson, was among his friends. His collection of more than 200 works of [wildlife](/wiki/Wildlife "Wildlife") art formed part of a [SWLA](/wiki/Society_of_Wildlife_Artists "Society of Wildlife Artists") exhibition staged at the [Mall Galleries](/wiki/Mall_Galleries "Mall Galleries"), [London](/wiki/London "London") in 2007\.
[ "Ornithological work\n-------------------", "[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|Henharrier](/wiki/File:Henharrier.jpg \"Henharrier.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|150px\\|Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) female](/wiki/File:Marsh_harrier_%28Circus_aeruginosus%29_female.jpg \"Marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) female.jpg\")", "Two years later he teamed up with the artist Donald Watson to develop the UK Hen Harrier Winter Roost Survey. The thesis for Clarke's [PhD](/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy \"Doctor of Philosophy\") in [biological sciences](/wiki/Biology \"Biology\"), awarded by the [University of Liverpool](/wiki/University_of_Liverpool \"University of Liverpool\") in 1999, was on [bird of prey](/wiki/Bird_of_prey \"Bird of prey\") feeding ecology.", "Working for the [University of Aberdeen](/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen \"University of Aberdeen\"), Clarke focused on [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney \"Orkney\") [hen harrier](/wiki/Hen_harrier \"Hen harrier\") feeding. He also contributed to the controversial Joint Raptor Study Langholm Project, studying the predation of [red grouse](/wiki/Red_grouse \"Red grouse\") by [hen harriers](/wiki/Hen_harrier \"Hen harrier\") and [peregrine falcons](/wiki/Peregrine_falcon \"Peregrine falcon\") in southwest [Scotland](/wiki/Scotland \"Scotland\")'s border country.", "Clarke's reputation took him to [India](/wiki/India \"India\") to study the world's largest harrier roosts for the [Bombay Natural History Society](/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society \"Bombay Natural History Society\"). He subsequently worked on a project that successfully reintroduced [red kites](/wiki/Red_kite \"Red kite\") to several English regions.", "Clarke's first book, Harriers of the British Isles, appeared in 1990\\. It was followed by The Marsh Harrier (1995\\) and [Montagu's Harrier](/wiki/Montagu%27s_harrier \"Montagu's harrier\") (1996\\).{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=OpCrAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=roger\\+geoffrey\\+clarke\\+ornithologist\\&pg\\=PA134\\|title\\=A Sparrowhawk's Lament: How British Breeding Birds of Prey Are Faring\\|isbn\\=9781400850211\\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2015\\|last1\\=Cobham\\|first1\\=David\\|date\\=6 July 2014\\|publisher\\=Princeton University Press }} He was co\\-editor of Biology and Conservation of Small Falcons in 1993 and during the final months before his early death he worked on the second edition of The Hen Harrier, adding to the first edition written by Watson.", "Clarke was treasurer of the [British Ornithologists' Union](/wiki/British_Ornithologists%27_Union \"British Ornithologists' Union\") (2000–06\\). He also looked after the accounts of the [Society of Wildlife Artists](/wiki/Society_of_Wildlife_Artists \"Society of Wildlife Artists\") (SWLA), whose then president, Bruce Pearson, was among his friends. His collection of more than 200 works of [wildlife](/wiki/Wildlife \"Wildlife\") art formed part of a [SWLA](/wiki/Society_of_Wildlife_Artists \"Society of Wildlife Artists\") exhibition staged at the [Mall Galleries](/wiki/Mall_Galleries \"Mall Galleries\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\") in 2007\\.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Club career Mørk played for the clubs [Bækkelaget](/wiki/B%C3%A6kkelaget "Bækkelaget"), [Aalborg DH](/wiki/Aalborg_DH "Aalborg DH"), and [Njård IL](/wiki/Nj%C3%A5rd_IL "Njård IL"), and then for [Larvik HK](/wiki/Larvik_HK "Larvik HK") from 2009 to 2016\. With Larvik she won the [Norwegian League](/wiki/Eliteserien_%28women%27s_handball%29 "Eliteserien (women's handball)") and the [Norwegian Cup](/wiki/Norwegian_Women%27s_Handball_Cup "Norwegian Women's Handball Cup") five times, and won the [EHF Champions League](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "Women's EHF Champions League") in [2011](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League "2010–11 EHF Women's Champions League"). From 2016 to 2019 she played for the Hungarian club [Győri ETO KC](/wiki/Gy%C5%91ri_ETO_KC "Győri ETO KC"), winning the [Hungarian Championship](/wiki/Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 "Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)") three times, in [2016/2017](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 "2016–17 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)"), [2017/2018](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 "2017–18 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)"), and [2018/2019](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 "2018–19 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)"). She also won the EHF Champions League with Győri three times, in [2017](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2016–17 Women's EHF Champions League"), [2018](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2017–18 Women's EHF Champions League"), and [2019](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2018–19 Women's EHF Champions League"). From 2019 to 2020 she played for the Romanian club [CSM București](/wiki/CSM_Bucure%C8%99ti_%28women%27s_handball%29 "CSM București (women's handball)"), but was injured with a raptured ACL the whole season. She played for the club [Vipers Kristiansand](/wiki/Vipers_Kristiansand "Vipers Kristiansand") from 2020–2022, and won both the Norwegian League and Norwegian Cup twice with Vipers, as well as winning the EHF Champions League in [2021](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2020–21 Women's EHF Champions League") and [2022](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League "2021–22 Women's EHF Champions League"). From 2022 she started playing for the Danish club [Team Esbjerg](/wiki/Team_Esbjerg "Team Esbjerg"). ### International career Playing for the [Norwegian national team](/wiki/Norway_women%27s_national_handball_team "Norway women's national handball team"), Mørk won gold medal at the [2010 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2010_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2010 European Women's Handball Championship"), debuting as a right wing. After that Mørk had over 3 years troubling with knee injuries before making a comeback at the [2013 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2013_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2013 World Women's Handball Championship"), where Norway placed 5th. At the [2014 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2014_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2014 European Women's Handball Championship") she won another gold medal, and she also was selected all\-star right back of the championship. She won gold medal with Norway at the [2015 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2015_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2015 World Women's Handball Championship"), and was again selected all\-star right back. At the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Handball_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_tournament "Handball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament") she won bronze medal with Norway, and was top scorer of the tournament with a total of 62 goals. At the [2016 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2016_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2016 European Women's Handball Championship") in Sweden she won a gold medal with the Norwegian team, she was top scorer with 53 goals, and was selected all\-star right back. She was also top scorer at the [2017 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2017_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2017 World Women's Handball Championship") in Germany (with 66 goals), when Norway won the silver medals, after losing to [France](/wiki/France_women%27s_national_handball_team "France women's national handball team") in the final. After that Mørk had another 3 years suffering from knee injuries. She made another comeback and won another gold medal with Norway at the [2020 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2020_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2020 European Women's Handball Championship") in Denmark, and was top scorer with 52 goals. At the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Handball_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_tournament "Handball at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament") held in 2021, she was again top scorer with 62 goals, winning the bronze medal with the Norwegian team. She won gold medal with the Norwegian team at the [2021 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2021_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2021 World Women's Handball Championship"), and a gold medal at the [2022 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2022_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship "2022 European Women's Handball Championship"), where she was top scorer with 50 goals.
[ "Career\n------", "### Club career", "Mørk played for the clubs [Bækkelaget](/wiki/B%C3%A6kkelaget \"Bækkelaget\"), [Aalborg DH](/wiki/Aalborg_DH \"Aalborg DH\"), and [Njård IL](/wiki/Nj%C3%A5rd_IL \"Njård IL\"), and then for [Larvik HK](/wiki/Larvik_HK \"Larvik HK\") from 2009 to 2016\\. With Larvik she won the [Norwegian League](/wiki/Eliteserien_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"Eliteserien (women's handball)\") and the [Norwegian Cup](/wiki/Norwegian_Women%27s_Handball_Cup \"Norwegian Women's Handball Cup\") five times, and won the [EHF Champions League](/wiki/Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"Women's EHF Champions League\") in [2011](/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_EHF_Women%27s_Champions_League \"2010–11 EHF Women's Champions League\").", "From 2016 to 2019 she played for the Hungarian club [Győri ETO KC](/wiki/Gy%C5%91ri_ETO_KC \"Győri ETO KC\"), winning the [Hungarian Championship](/wiki/Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)\") three times, in [2016/2017](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"2016–17 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)\"), [2017/2018](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"2017–18 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)\"), and [2018/2019](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Nemzeti_Bajnoks%C3%A1g_I_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"2018–19 Nemzeti Bajnokság I (women's handball)\"). She also won the EHF Champions League with Győri three times, in [2017](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2016–17 Women's EHF Champions League\"), [2018](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2017–18 Women's EHF Champions League\"), and [2019](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2018–19 Women's EHF Champions League\"). From 2019 to 2020 she played for the Romanian club [CSM București](/wiki/CSM_Bucure%C8%99ti_%28women%27s_handball%29 \"CSM București (women's handball)\"), but was injured with a raptured ACL the whole season.", "She played for the club [Vipers Kristiansand](/wiki/Vipers_Kristiansand \"Vipers Kristiansand\") from 2020–2022, and won both the Norwegian League and Norwegian Cup twice with Vipers, as well as winning the EHF Champions League in [2021](/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2020–21 Women's EHF Champions League\") and [2022](/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Women%27s_EHF_Champions_League \"2021–22 Women's EHF Champions League\").", "From 2022 she started playing for the Danish club [Team Esbjerg](/wiki/Team_Esbjerg \"Team Esbjerg\").", "### International career", "Playing for the [Norwegian national team](/wiki/Norway_women%27s_national_handball_team \"Norway women's national handball team\"), Mørk won gold medal at the [2010 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2010_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2010 European Women's Handball Championship\"), debuting as a right wing. After that Mørk had over 3 years troubling with knee injuries before making a comeback at the [2013 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2013_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2013 World Women's Handball Championship\"), where Norway placed 5th.", "At the [2014 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2014_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2014 European Women's Handball Championship\") she won another gold medal, and she also was selected all\\-star right back of the championship. She won gold medal with Norway at the [2015 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2015_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2015 World Women's Handball Championship\"), and was again selected all\\-star right back. At the [2016 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Handball_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_tournament \"Handball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament\") she won bronze medal with Norway, and was top scorer of the tournament with a total of 62 goals.", "At the [2016 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2016_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2016 European Women's Handball Championship\") in Sweden she won a gold medal with the Norwegian team, she was top scorer with 53 goals, and was selected all\\-star right back. She was also top scorer at the [2017 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2017_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2017 World Women's Handball Championship\") in Germany (with 66 goals), when Norway won the silver medals, after losing to [France](/wiki/France_women%27s_national_handball_team \"France women's national handball team\") in the final. After that Mørk had another 3 years suffering from knee injuries.", "She made another comeback and won another gold medal with Norway at the [2020 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2020_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2020 European Women's Handball Championship\") in Denmark, and was top scorer with 52 goals. At the [2020 Summer Olympics](/wiki/Handball_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_tournament \"Handball at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament\") held in 2021, she was again top scorer with 62 goals, winning the bronze medal with the Norwegian team. She won gold medal with the Norwegian team at the [2021 World Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2021_World_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2021 World Women's Handball Championship\"), and a gold medal at the [2022 European Women's Handball Championship](/wiki/2022_European_Women%27s_Handball_Championship \"2022 European Women's Handball Championship\"), where she was top scorer with 50 goals.", "" ]
World War II ------------ SIS enjoyed great success in deciphering British naval codes in the Mediterranean. Among the most important successes gained by the Regia Marina's codebreakers during World War II was the message, decrypted on 5 July 1940, from [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28Royal_Navy%29 "Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)") Sir [Andrew Cunningham](/wiki/Andrew_Cunningham%2C_1st_Viscount_Cunningham_of_Hyndhope "Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope") to the [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Admiralty (United Kingdom)") announcing his imminent [sortie](/wiki/Sortie "Sortie") to attack the Sicilian coast on 9 July and listing in detail his forces.{{sfn\|Ferraro\|2010\|page\=214}} The SIS also read the British Naval Cypher No. 1 from September 1941 through January 1942\. ### The secret base aboard the *Olterra* [thumb\|*Olterra* at anchor shortly before being broken up at [Vado Ligure](/wiki/Vado_Ligure "Vado Ligure"), 1961](/wiki/File:Olterra_at_Algeciras.jpg "Olterra at Algeciras.jpg") The Italian [consulate](/wiki/Consulate "Consulate") in the Spanish port of [Algeciras](/wiki/Algeciras "Algeciras"), eight kilometres away across the bay to the west of [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar "Gibraltar"), had been a base of the SIS since 1939\. In fact, most of its clerks and officials were [covert agents](/wiki/Covert_operation "Covert operation"). The town's position, as recalled by former SIS agent Captain Venanzi, was unique. “Algeciras was a window open on Gibraltar.”{{cite journal\|last\=Pesce\|first\=Giuseppe\|year\=1996\|title\=Spie in libertà ad Algesiras: Racconto del Cap. Venanzi\|journal\=Rivista storica\|page\=32}} Until 1943, this observation point was able to communicate movements and the presence of British warships to [Supermarina](/wiki/Supermarina "Supermarina") back in Rome.{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1980\|page\=56}} On 10 June 1940, when Italy entered [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") by declaring war on France and the United Kingdom, the [Italian auxiliary ship *Olterra*](/wiki/Italian_auxiliary_ship_Olterra "Italian auxiliary ship Olterra") was scuttled by her own crew to prevent her capture by British forces from Gibraltar.{{Cite book \|last\=Zapotoczny \|first\=Walter S. \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=xXkpDwAAQBAJ\&dq\=scuttled\+Olterra\&pg\=PT129 \|title\=Decima Flottiglia MAS: The Best Commandos of the Second World War \|publisher\=Fonthill Media \|year\=2017 \|language\=en}}{{Cite book \|last\=Jones \|first\=Ian \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=6\_EWEAAAQBAJ\&dq\=scuttled\+Olterra\&pg\=PT220 \|title\=Malice Aforethought: A History of Booby Traps from the First World War to Vietnam \|publisher\=Simon and Schuster \|year\=2021 \|isbn\=978\-1\-922488\-09\-1 \|language\=en}}{{Cite book \|last\=West \|first\=Nigel \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mtvdxS\_nzTYC\&dq\=scuttled\+Olterra\&pg\=PA225 \|title\=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|year\=2010 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8108\-6760\-4 \|pages\=225 \|language\=en}} The SIS soon repurposed the interior of the *Olterra* as a base of operations for Italian frogmen of the [Decima Flottiglia MAS](/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS "Decima Flottiglia MAS"). Under the pretext of raising the ship to sell it to a Spanish owner, a team of members of the *Decima*, disguised as Italian civilian workers, took control of the [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 "Tanker (ship)"). Subsequent SLCs (*siluri a lenta corsa*, slow speed torpedoes) were shipped in multiple deliveries hidden among mechanical parts destined to the *Olterra*. Thanks to the secret base aboard the *Olterra*, the Regia Marina was able to launch various attacks and [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage "Sabotage") against British ships on the other side of the bay. Only after the [armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile"), a member of the Italian embassy in Madrid revealed the *Olterra*{{'}}s secret to [Alan Hillgarth](/wiki/Alan_Hillgarth "Alan Hillgarth"), and the ship was towed to [Cádiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz "Cádiz") for a thorough inspection by embarrassed Spanish authorities. Until then, the British in Gibraltar had no proof to link the presence of the tanker at Algeciras with the raids on their ships. In [Leon Goldsworthy](/wiki/Leon_Goldsworthy "Leon Goldsworthy")'s words: > We never found any proof of the part played by the *Olterra* in this affair. From British Naval Headquarters on Gibraltar we could see, with the naked eye, the *Olterra*’s superstructure above the exterior mole at Algeciras. The possibility that the *Olterra* might be associated in some way with the attacks of human torpedoes did not escape us, but there was never the least visible evidence to suggest the actual nature of her participation.{{sfn\|Borghese\|1995\|page\=244}} ### Operation *Pesca di beneficenza* [thumb\|*Mohawk*{{'}}s wreck lying in shallow water](/wiki/File:HMS_Mohawk%27s_wreckage.jpg "HMS Mohawk's wreckage.jpg") In the spring of 1942 SIS ex\-commander Alberto Lais planned and supervised Operation *Pesca di beneficenza* ("Lucky dip"), the recovery of British [codebooks](/wiki/Codebook "Codebook") and other secret documents from the wreck of the destroyer [HMS *Mohawk*](/wiki/HMS_Mohawk_%28F31%29 "HMS Mohawk (F31)"), sunk in shallow water off the [Kerkennah Islands](/wiki/Kerkennah_Islands "Kerkennah Islands") during the [battle of the Tarigo Convoy](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tarigo_Convoy "Battle of the Tarigo Convoy").{{sfn\|Ferraro\|2010\|page\=555}} Two Italian officers, Mario De Monte and Eliseo Porta, disguised as [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman "Fisherman") managed to recover the British Naval Signal book and various top\-secret documents from the wreck, but they weren't able to recover the Naval Cipher, which was hidden behind a [bulkhead](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 "Bulkhead (partition)") bent by the water pressure.{{sfn\|Ferraro\|2010\|pages\=214\-215}} [Francesco De Robertis](/wiki/Francesco_De_Robertis "Francesco De Robertis")' 1954 movie *[Uomini ombra](/wiki/Uomini_ombra "Uomini ombra")*, starring [Giorgio Albertazzi](/wiki/Giorgio_Albertazzi "Giorgio Albertazzi") and [Paolo Stoppa](/wiki/Paolo_Stoppa "Paolo Stoppa"), is based on De Monte's Memoirs. ### Intra\-Axis co\-operation In 1932, Servizio Informazioni Segrete made contact with [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") [B\-Dienst](/wiki/B-Dienst "B-Dienst") to ask for help with intelligence sharing, with B\-Dienst explicitly wanting French naval intercepts from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean "Mediterranean") and a relationship was established in Spring 1933\. In April 1933, German [cryptanalyst](/wiki/Cryptanalysis "Cryptanalysis") [Wilhelm Tranow](/wiki/Wilhelm_Tranow "Wilhelm Tranow") and others traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome") to exchange material through the German naval attaché. But the relationship soured due to Italy's role in the [Stresa Front](/wiki/Stresa_Front "Stresa Front") agreement. In 1936, the Italian Regia Marina made a further attempt, when both [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") and [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") required cooperation between the military intelligence agencies of both nations, but B\-Dienst was not part of this agreement until 1936\.{{cite journal \|last\=Faulkner \|first\=Marcus \|date\=1 August 2010 \|title\=The Kriegsmarine, Signals Intelligence and the Development of the B\-Dienst Before the Second World War \|journal\=Intelligence and National Security \|volume\=25 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=537–540 \|doi\=10\.1080/02684527\.2010\.537030 \|s2cid\=154666062}} During World War II, SIS and B\-Dienst were linked by a [teleprinter](/wiki/Teleprinter "Teleprinter") and exchanged material, mostly intercepts. The two organizations shared a daily intelligence summary. As the war went on, however, relations between [Fascist Italy](/wiki/Fascist_Italy_%281922%E2%80%931943%29 "Fascist Italy (1922–1943)") and Nazi Germany became strained and Germans and Italians came to distrust each other. By January 1942 the two services had begun withholding information from each other. The Germans were particularly distrustful of Admiral Franco Maugeri, the head of the SIS. [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring "Albert Kesselring") even accused Maugeri for passing secrets to the Allies, and being responsible for the loss of lives.{{cite book \|last\=Sangster \|first\=Andrew \|title\=Field\-Marshal Kesselring: Great Commander or War Criminal? \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=978\-1443876766 \|page\=76}} ### *Operation C3* [thumb\|Italian bombing of the Grand Harbour, Malta](/wiki/File:Italian_bombing_of_the_Grand_Harbor%2C_Malta.jpg "Italian bombing of the Grand Harbor, Malta.jpg") Servizio Informazioni Segrete played a key role in planning the aborted invasion of [Malta](/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta "Crown Colony of Malta") (*[Operazione C3](/wiki/Operation_Herkules "Operation Herkules")*). Early in the war the SIS had recognized that Malta was the keystone of the British Mediterranean defenses. According to the head of the SIS, Admiral Maugeri, its loss would have meant that Gibraltar and [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria "Alexandria") would be cut off from each other, the lifeline sliced in two, the [Strait](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar "Strait of Gibraltar") and [Suez](/wiki/Suez "Suez") blocked out completely.{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1948\|page\=78}} Maugeri was harshly opposed by the Italian Air Ministry, that, following [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet "Giulio Douhet")'s theories of total annihilation, insisted they could knock Malta out of the war with [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing "Strategic bombing") and at small cost in lives or [matériel](/wiki/Materiel "Materiel").{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1948\|page\=78}} At first the Air Ministry was backed by Mussolini, who decreed that Malta be blitzed out of business. The aerial campaign started out well. But as the raids continued Axis losses mounted. In February 1942 Italian losses in warships and merchant shipping in the Sicilian Passage (between [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily") and the coast of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa "North Africa")) reached alarming proportions. At one of the daily meetings of Supermarina, Maugeri stated his ideas on the subject: unless Malta was invested Italians would have no chance in the Mediterranean, its convoys would be decimated, and the whole [North African campaign](/wiki/North_African_campaign "North African campaign") compromised.{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1948\|page\=79}} Within a few days a detailed plan was born from it. The Italian Navy was to be responsible for the over\-all operation; it was to provide transport, warship escort and cover for the landings from the sea. The Army was to provide the invasion troops and their supplies. The aerial phase of the action was to be placed in the hands of the Germans who would work with Italian Air Force. The [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe "Luftwaffe") was to be charged with furnishing air cover during the landings and with dropping [paratroopers](/wiki/Paratrooper "Paratrooper"). If approved, the invasion was planned for the end of July or the beginning of August, at the latest.{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1948\|page\=79}} It was to be preceded by an intensive two\-month softening up by Italian [bombers](/wiki/Bomber "Bomber"). Supermarina passed it on to the Joint General Staff, headed by General [Ugo Cavallero](/wiki/Ugo_Cavallero "Ugo Cavallero"), who also approved it. Finally the plan was approved at a meeting between [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") and [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini "Benito Mussolini") from 29 to 30 April 1942\. Like the Chief of Staff of Italian Comando Supremo, Field Marshal Ugo Cavallero, Admiral Maugeri maintained that Malta should have been a priority over the [conquest of Egypt](/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign "Western Desert campaign"); his opinion was shared by [Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring "Albert Kesselring") and [Rintelen](/wiki/Enno_von_Rintelen "Enno von Rintelen").{{cite book \|last\=Sangster \|first\=Andrew \|title\=Field\-Marshal Kesselring: Great Commander or War Criminal? \|publisher\=\[\[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=978\-1443876766 \|pages\=79–81}} Hitler, however, gradually grew sceptical of plans for a landing, and *[Generaloberst](/wiki/Generaloberst "Generaloberst")* [Alfred Jodl](/wiki/Alfred_Jodl "Alfred Jodl"), Chief of the Operations Staff of the *[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht")* supported him in this, because he had little faith in Italian military capabilities. Jodl informed Kesselring that, once the intensified air assault on the island had ended, the bulk of the Luftwaffe's aircraft would have to be transferred to other areas, so the main burden of the air attacks would fall largely on the Italian air force. The Wehrmacht's contribution to the landing operation could amount to no more than 1\-2 paratroop regiments plus [torpedo boats](/wiki/Torpedo_boat "Torpedo boat") and [minesweepers](/wiki/Minesweeper "Minesweeper"). It was soon clear that Italians could have counted on only minimal German assistance and would have to bear the brunt of the operation. Despite Kesselring's and [Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel "Erwin Rommel")'s pressures, the plan was eventually cancelled. In a diary entry from August 17, 1941, Maugeri expressed his frustration for the lack of collaboration between Germans and Italians in the [Mediterranean Theatre](/wiki/Mediterranean_Theatre_%28World_War_II%29 "Mediterranean Theatre (World War II)"): {{blockquote\|To have elected the conquest of Egypt—not yet accomplished and God only knows if it will ever be—instead of the all\-essential objective of capturing Malta. Those damned Germans! \[...] Our ideas, doubtless more intelligent than theirs, are considered by them simply as the expression of our lack of willpower. Stupid Germans!{{sfn\|Maugeri\|1948\|page\=83}}}}
[ "World War II\n------------", "SIS enjoyed great success in deciphering British naval codes in the Mediterranean. Among the most important successes gained by the Regia Marina's codebreakers during World War II was the message, decrypted on 5 July 1940, from [Admiral of the Fleet](/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_%28Royal_Navy%29 \"Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)\") Sir [Andrew Cunningham](/wiki/Andrew_Cunningham%2C_1st_Viscount_Cunningham_of_Hyndhope \"Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope\") to the [Admiralty](/wiki/Admiralty_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Admiralty (United Kingdom)\") announcing his imminent [sortie](/wiki/Sortie \"Sortie\") to attack the Sicilian coast on 9 July and listing in detail his forces.{{sfn\\|Ferraro\\|2010\\|page\\=214}} The SIS also read the British Naval Cypher No. 1 from September 1941 through January 1942\\.", "### The secret base aboard the *Olterra*", "[thumb\\|*Olterra* at anchor shortly before being broken up at [Vado Ligure](/wiki/Vado_Ligure \"Vado Ligure\"), 1961](/wiki/File:Olterra_at_Algeciras.jpg \"Olterra at Algeciras.jpg\")\nThe Italian [consulate](/wiki/Consulate \"Consulate\") in the Spanish port of [Algeciras](/wiki/Algeciras \"Algeciras\"), eight kilometres away across the bay to the west of [Gibraltar](/wiki/Gibraltar \"Gibraltar\"), had been a base of the SIS since 1939\\. In fact, most of its clerks and officials were [covert agents](/wiki/Covert_operation \"Covert operation\"). The town's position, as recalled by former SIS agent Captain Venanzi, was unique. “Algeciras was a window open on Gibraltar.”{{cite journal\\|last\\=Pesce\\|first\\=Giuseppe\\|year\\=1996\\|title\\=Spie in libertà ad Algesiras: Racconto del Cap. Venanzi\\|journal\\=Rivista storica\\|page\\=32}} Until 1943, this observation point was able to communicate movements and the presence of British warships to [Supermarina](/wiki/Supermarina \"Supermarina\") back in Rome.{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1980\\|page\\=56}}", "On 10 June 1940, when Italy entered [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") by declaring war on France and the United Kingdom, the [Italian auxiliary ship *Olterra*](/wiki/Italian_auxiliary_ship_Olterra \"Italian auxiliary ship Olterra\") was scuttled by her own crew to prevent her capture by British forces from Gibraltar.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Zapotoczny \\|first\\=Walter S. \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=xXkpDwAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=scuttled\\+Olterra\\&pg\\=PT129 \\|title\\=Decima Flottiglia MAS: The Best Commandos of the Second World War \\|publisher\\=Fonthill Media \\|year\\=2017 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Ian \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=6\\_EWEAAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=scuttled\\+Olterra\\&pg\\=PT220 \\|title\\=Malice Aforethought: A History of Booby Traps from the First World War to Vietnam \\|publisher\\=Simon and Schuster \\|year\\=2021 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-922488\\-09\\-1 \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite book \\|last\\=West \\|first\\=Nigel \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mtvdxS\\_nzTYC\\&dq\\=scuttled\\+Olterra\\&pg\\=PA225 \\|title\\=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|year\\=2010 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8108\\-6760\\-4 \\|pages\\=225 \\|language\\=en}} The SIS soon repurposed the interior of the *Olterra* as a base of operations for Italian frogmen of the [Decima Flottiglia MAS](/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS \"Decima Flottiglia MAS\").", "Under the pretext of raising the ship to sell it to a Spanish owner, a team of members of the *Decima*, disguised as Italian civilian workers, took control of the [tanker](/wiki/Tanker_%28ship%29 \"Tanker (ship)\"). Subsequent SLCs (*siluri a lenta corsa*, slow speed torpedoes) were shipped in multiple deliveries hidden among mechanical parts destined to the *Olterra*.", "Thanks to the secret base aboard the *Olterra*, the Regia Marina was able to launch various attacks and [sabotage](/wiki/Sabotage \"Sabotage\") against British ships on the other side of the bay. Only after the [armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\"), a member of the Italian embassy in Madrid revealed the *Olterra*{{'}}s secret to [Alan Hillgarth](/wiki/Alan_Hillgarth \"Alan Hillgarth\"), and the ship was towed to [Cádiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz \"Cádiz\") for a thorough inspection by embarrassed Spanish authorities. Until then, the British in Gibraltar had no proof to link the presence of the tanker at Algeciras with the raids on their ships. In [Leon Goldsworthy](/wiki/Leon_Goldsworthy \"Leon Goldsworthy\")'s words:\n> We never found any proof of the part played by the *Olterra* in this affair. From British Naval Headquarters on Gibraltar we could see, with the naked eye, the *Olterra*’s superstructure above the exterior mole at Algeciras. The possibility that the *Olterra* might be associated in some way with the attacks of human torpedoes did not escape us, but there was never the least visible evidence to suggest the actual nature of her participation.{{sfn\\|Borghese\\|1995\\|page\\=244}}", "", "### Operation *Pesca di beneficenza*", "[thumb\\|*Mohawk*{{'}}s wreck lying in shallow water](/wiki/File:HMS_Mohawk%27s_wreckage.jpg \"HMS Mohawk's wreckage.jpg\")\nIn the spring of 1942 SIS ex\\-commander Alberto Lais planned and supervised Operation *Pesca di beneficenza* (\"Lucky dip\"), the recovery of British [codebooks](/wiki/Codebook \"Codebook\") and other secret documents from the wreck of the destroyer [HMS *Mohawk*](/wiki/HMS_Mohawk_%28F31%29 \"HMS Mohawk (F31)\"), sunk in shallow water off the [Kerkennah Islands](/wiki/Kerkennah_Islands \"Kerkennah Islands\") during the [battle of the Tarigo Convoy](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tarigo_Convoy \"Battle of the Tarigo Convoy\").{{sfn\\|Ferraro\\|2010\\|page\\=555}} Two Italian officers, Mario De Monte and Eliseo Porta, disguised as [fishermen](/wiki/Fisherman \"Fisherman\") managed to recover the British Naval Signal book and various top\\-secret documents from the wreck, but they weren't able to recover the Naval Cipher, which was hidden behind a [bulkhead](/wiki/Bulkhead_%28partition%29 \"Bulkhead (partition)\") bent by the water pressure.{{sfn\\|Ferraro\\|2010\\|pages\\=214\\-215}} [Francesco De Robertis](/wiki/Francesco_De_Robertis \"Francesco De Robertis\")' 1954 movie *[Uomini ombra](/wiki/Uomini_ombra \"Uomini ombra\")*, starring [Giorgio Albertazzi](/wiki/Giorgio_Albertazzi \"Giorgio Albertazzi\") and [Paolo Stoppa](/wiki/Paolo_Stoppa \"Paolo Stoppa\"), is based on De Monte's Memoirs.", "### Intra\\-Axis co\\-operation", "In 1932, Servizio Informazioni Segrete made contact with [German](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") [B\\-Dienst](/wiki/B-Dienst \"B-Dienst\") to ask for help with intelligence sharing, with B\\-Dienst explicitly wanting French naval intercepts from the [Mediterranean](/wiki/Mediterranean \"Mediterranean\") and a relationship was established in Spring 1933\\. In April 1933, German [cryptanalyst](/wiki/Cryptanalysis \"Cryptanalysis\") [Wilhelm Tranow](/wiki/Wilhelm_Tranow \"Wilhelm Tranow\") and others traveled to [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\") to exchange material through the German naval attaché. But the relationship soured due to Italy's role in the [Stresa Front](/wiki/Stresa_Front \"Stresa Front\") agreement. In 1936, the Italian Regia Marina made a further attempt, when both [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") and [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") required cooperation between the military intelligence agencies of both nations, but B\\-Dienst was not part of this agreement until 1936\\.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Faulkner \\|first\\=Marcus \\|date\\=1 August 2010 \\|title\\=The Kriegsmarine, Signals Intelligence and the Development of the B\\-Dienst Before the Second World War \\|journal\\=Intelligence and National Security \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=537–540 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/02684527\\.2010\\.537030 \\|s2cid\\=154666062}}", "During World War II, SIS and B\\-Dienst were linked by a [teleprinter](/wiki/Teleprinter \"Teleprinter\") and exchanged material, mostly intercepts. The two organizations shared a daily intelligence summary. As the war went on, however, relations between [Fascist Italy](/wiki/Fascist_Italy_%281922%E2%80%931943%29 \"Fascist Italy (1922–1943)\") and Nazi Germany became strained and Germans and Italians came to distrust each other. By January 1942 the two services had begun withholding information from each other. The Germans were particularly distrustful of Admiral Franco Maugeri, the head of the SIS. [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring \"Albert Kesselring\") even accused Maugeri for passing secrets to the Allies, and being responsible for the loss of lives.{{cite book \\|last\\=Sangster \\|first\\=Andrew \\|title\\=Field\\-Marshal Kesselring: Great Commander or War Criminal? \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1443876766 \\|page\\=76}}", "### *Operation C3*", "[thumb\\|Italian bombing of the Grand Harbour, Malta](/wiki/File:Italian_bombing_of_the_Grand_Harbor%2C_Malta.jpg \"Italian bombing of the Grand Harbor, Malta.jpg\")\nServizio Informazioni Segrete played a key role in planning the aborted invasion of [Malta](/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta \"Crown Colony of Malta\") (*[Operazione C3](/wiki/Operation_Herkules \"Operation Herkules\")*).", "Early in the war the SIS had recognized that Malta was the keystone of the British Mediterranean defenses. According to the head of the SIS, Admiral Maugeri, its loss would have meant that Gibraltar and [Alexandria](/wiki/Alexandria \"Alexandria\") would be cut off from each other, the lifeline sliced in two, the [Strait](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar \"Strait of Gibraltar\") and [Suez](/wiki/Suez \"Suez\") blocked out completely.{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1948\\|page\\=78}} Maugeri was harshly opposed by the Italian Air Ministry, that, following [Giulio Douhet](/wiki/Giulio_Douhet \"Giulio Douhet\")'s theories of total annihilation, insisted they could knock Malta out of the war with [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing \"Strategic bombing\") and at small cost in lives or [matériel](/wiki/Materiel \"Materiel\").{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1948\\|page\\=78}} At first the Air Ministry was backed by Mussolini, who decreed that Malta be blitzed out of business. The aerial campaign started out well. But as the raids continued Axis losses mounted. In February 1942 Italian losses in warships and merchant shipping in the Sicilian Passage (between [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\") and the coast of [North Africa](/wiki/North_Africa \"North Africa\")) reached alarming proportions.", "At one of the daily meetings of Supermarina, Maugeri stated his ideas on the subject: unless Malta was invested Italians would have no chance in the Mediterranean, its convoys would be decimated, and the whole [North African campaign](/wiki/North_African_campaign \"North African campaign\") compromised.{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1948\\|page\\=79}} Within a few days a detailed plan was born from it. The Italian Navy was to be responsible for the over\\-all operation; it was to provide transport, warship escort and cover for the landings from the sea. The Army was to provide the invasion troops and their supplies. The aerial phase of the action was to be placed in the hands of the Germans who would work with Italian Air Force. The [Luftwaffe](/wiki/Luftwaffe \"Luftwaffe\") was to be charged with furnishing air cover during the landings and with dropping [paratroopers](/wiki/Paratrooper \"Paratrooper\"). If approved, the invasion was planned for the end of July or the beginning of August, at the latest.{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1948\\|page\\=79}} It was to be preceded by an intensive two\\-month softening up by Italian [bombers](/wiki/Bomber \"Bomber\"). Supermarina passed it on to the Joint General Staff, headed by General [Ugo Cavallero](/wiki/Ugo_Cavallero \"Ugo Cavallero\"), who also approved it. Finally the plan was approved at a meeting between [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") and [Benito Mussolini](/wiki/Benito_Mussolini \"Benito Mussolini\") from 29 to 30 April 1942\\.", "Like the Chief of Staff of Italian Comando Supremo, Field Marshal Ugo Cavallero, Admiral Maugeri maintained that Malta should have been a priority over the [conquest of Egypt](/wiki/Western_Desert_campaign \"Western Desert campaign\"); his opinion was shared by [Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring \"Albert Kesselring\") and [Rintelen](/wiki/Enno_von_Rintelen \"Enno von Rintelen\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Sangster \\|first\\=Andrew \\|title\\=Field\\-Marshal Kesselring: Great Commander or War Criminal? \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1443876766 \\|pages\\=79–81}} Hitler, however, gradually grew sceptical of plans for a landing, and *[Generaloberst](/wiki/Generaloberst \"Generaloberst\")* [Alfred Jodl](/wiki/Alfred_Jodl \"Alfred Jodl\"), Chief of the Operations Staff of the *[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht](/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Wehrmacht \"Oberkommando der Wehrmacht\")* supported him in this, because he had little faith in Italian military capabilities.", "Jodl informed Kesselring that, once the intensified air assault on the island had ended, the bulk of the Luftwaffe's aircraft would have to be transferred to other areas, so the main burden of the air attacks would fall largely on the Italian air force. The Wehrmacht's contribution to the landing operation could amount to no more than 1\\-2 paratroop regiments plus [torpedo boats](/wiki/Torpedo_boat \"Torpedo boat\") and [minesweepers](/wiki/Minesweeper \"Minesweeper\"). It was soon clear that Italians could have counted on only minimal German assistance and would have to bear the brunt of the operation. Despite Kesselring's and [Rommel](/wiki/Erwin_Rommel \"Erwin Rommel\")'s pressures, the plan was eventually cancelled.", "In a diary entry from August 17, 1941, Maugeri expressed his frustration for the lack of collaboration between Germans and Italians in the [Mediterranean Theatre](/wiki/Mediterranean_Theatre_%28World_War_II%29 \"Mediterranean Theatre (World War II)\"):", "{{blockquote\\|To have elected the conquest of Egypt—not yet accomplished and God only knows if it will ever be—instead of the all\\-essential objective of capturing Malta. Those damned Germans! \\[...] Our ideas, doubtless more intelligent than theirs, are considered by them simply as the expression of our lack of willpower. Stupid Germans!{{sfn\\|Maugeri\\|1948\\|page\\=83}}}}", "" ]
Background ---------- "Sold American" was written in 1938 by Miller and MacGregor, the pianist in the Glenn Miller Orchestra. The title was recorded on May 23, 1938 on Brunswick and again on June 27, 1939 for RCA Victor. A 78 was released in 1938 as Brunswick 8173, mx 22974\-1, with "Dipper Mouth Blues".Flower, p. 14 In 1939, a new recording was released as a Bluebird 78 A\-side, 10352A, with "Pagan Love Song". Glenn Miller arranged both songs. The song features a chant by the orchestra repeated twice at the beginning and twice at the ending: "Sold! American!" The music starts off in the style and tempo of a [pavane](/wiki/Pavane "Pavane"). The title is based on an [American Tobacco Company](/wiki/American_Tobacco_Company "American Tobacco Company") (ATC) radio ad jingle of the 1930s for [Lucky Strike](/wiki/Lucky_Strike "Lucky Strike") cigarettes, featuring a tobacco auctioneer chant delivered by North Carolina tobacco auctioneer [Lee Aubrey "Speed" Riggs](/wiki/Lee_Aubrey_%22Speed%22_Riggs "Lee Aubrey "), which ended with the phrase, "Sold, American!", stressing that American only purchased the highest quality tobacco for its cigarettes. The jingle achieved national exposure through ATC's sponsorship of *[Your Hit Parade](/wiki/Your_Hit_Parade "Your Hit Parade")*, a weekly radio show that featured a countdown of the top national hits. Glenn Miller was sponsored by Chesterfield cigarettes in 1939, owned by the [Liggett and Myers Tobacco Company](/wiki/Liggett_Group "Liggett Group"). Their slogan was: "They satisfy!" There was a conflict of interest. Being sponsored by Chesterfield, Miller could not promote a competing brand, Lucky Strike. This restricted the performances of the song. Miller had used the opening musical motif in his arrangement of the 1934 recording of "I Hate Myself (For Being Mean To You)" by [The Boswell Sisters](/wiki/The_Boswell_Sisters "The Boswell Sisters"). He also used the motif in his arrangement of the [Ray Noble](/wiki/Ray_Noble "Ray Noble") recording of "Big Chief De Sota" and his 1935 arrangement of "You're O.K." by the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers "Dorsey Brothers") on [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records"). The song was performed live by Glenn Miller on March 8, 1939, and broadcast on the radio from a remote at the Meadowbrook Ballroom in Cedar Grove, New Jersey.Flower, p. 49 "Sold American" was released as a single in the UK paired with "Moon Love" on the HMV label as BD5854\. The 1938 recording, Matrix number B 22974\-1, was also released as Vocalion 4449, Okeh 4449, Brunswick 81677 in Germany, Columbia DO\-2783 in Australia, Philips B 21543 in Australia, on Lucky 60514 in Japan, and was reissued by [Biltmore Records](/wiki/Biltmore_Records "Biltmore Records") as 1108 in the 1949\-1951 period. In the 1950s, Epic Records re\-released the Brunswick 78 in the U.S. as part of a 10" yellow label album entitled *The Glenn Miller Band* as LN 1101\. This song is different from the 1973 [Kinky Friedman](/wiki/Kinky_Friedman "Kinky Friedman") song of the same name, which featured on the eponymous album on Vanguard.
[ "Background\n----------", "\"Sold American\" was written in 1938 by Miller and MacGregor, the pianist in the Glenn Miller Orchestra. The title was recorded on May 23, 1938 on Brunswick and again on June 27, 1939 for RCA Victor. A 78 was released in 1938 as Brunswick 8173, mx 22974\\-1, with \"Dipper Mouth Blues\".Flower, p. 14 In 1939, a new recording was released as a Bluebird 78 A\\-side, 10352A, with \"Pagan Love Song\". Glenn Miller arranged both songs.", "The song features a chant by the orchestra repeated twice at the beginning and twice at the ending: \"Sold! American!\" The music starts off in the style and tempo of a [pavane](/wiki/Pavane \"Pavane\").", "The title is based on an [American Tobacco Company](/wiki/American_Tobacco_Company \"American Tobacco Company\") (ATC) radio ad jingle of the 1930s for [Lucky Strike](/wiki/Lucky_Strike \"Lucky Strike\") cigarettes, featuring a tobacco auctioneer chant delivered by North Carolina tobacco auctioneer [Lee Aubrey \"Speed\" Riggs](/wiki/Lee_Aubrey_%22Speed%22_Riggs \"Lee Aubrey \"), which ended with the phrase, \"Sold, American!\", stressing that American only purchased the highest quality tobacco for its cigarettes. The jingle achieved national exposure through ATC's sponsorship of *[Your Hit Parade](/wiki/Your_Hit_Parade \"Your Hit Parade\")*, a weekly radio show that featured a countdown of the top national hits.", "Glenn Miller was sponsored by Chesterfield cigarettes in 1939, owned by the [Liggett and Myers Tobacco Company](/wiki/Liggett_Group \"Liggett Group\"). Their slogan was: \"They satisfy!\" There was a conflict of interest. Being sponsored by Chesterfield, Miller could not promote a competing brand, Lucky Strike. This restricted the performances of the song.", "Miller had used the opening musical motif in his arrangement of the 1934 recording of \"I Hate Myself (For Being Mean To You)\" by [The Boswell Sisters](/wiki/The_Boswell_Sisters \"The Boswell Sisters\"). He also used the motif in his arrangement of the [Ray Noble](/wiki/Ray_Noble \"Ray Noble\") recording of \"Big Chief De Sota\" and his 1935 arrangement of \"You're O.K.\" by the [Dorsey Brothers](/wiki/Dorsey_Brothers \"Dorsey Brothers\") on [Decca Records](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\").", "The song was performed live by Glenn Miller on March 8, 1939, and broadcast on the radio from a remote at the Meadowbrook Ballroom in Cedar Grove, New Jersey.Flower, p. 49 \"Sold American\" was released as a single in the UK paired with \"Moon Love\" on the HMV label as BD5854\\. The 1938 recording, Matrix number B 22974\\-1, was also released as Vocalion 4449, Okeh 4449, Brunswick 81677 in Germany, Columbia DO\\-2783 in Australia, Philips B 21543 in Australia, on Lucky 60514 in Japan, and was reissued by [Biltmore Records](/wiki/Biltmore_Records \"Biltmore Records\") as 1108 in the 1949\\-1951 period. In the 1950s, Epic Records re\\-released the Brunswick 78 in the U.S. as part of a 10\" yellow label album entitled *The Glenn Miller Band* as LN 1101\\.", "This song is different from the 1973 [Kinky Friedman](/wiki/Kinky_Friedman \"Kinky Friedman\") song of the same name, which featured on the eponymous album on Vanguard.", "" ]
Plot ---- Rose Da Silva and her husband Christopher are disturbed by their adopted daughter [Sharon](/wiki/Heather_Mason "Heather Mason")'s constant sleepwalking and nightmares about Silent Hill, a town in [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia "West Virginia") that was abandoned in the 1970s due to a massive [coal seam fire](/wiki/Coal_seam_fire "Coal seam fire"). Desperate for a solution, Rose takes Sharon on a trip to Silent Hill to find answers. Her erratic behavior concerns police officer [Cybil Bennett](/wiki/Cybil_Bennett "Cybil Bennett") when they encounter her at a gas station en route. As they enter Silent Hill, a girl steps out into the road, causing Rose to crash and black out. She awakens in the fog\-shrouded dimension of Silent Hill, and realizes that Sharon is missing. Searching the town for Sharon, Rose pursues the girl she encountered prior to the crash, who resembles Sharon. At various points, the town suddenly transitions into a nightmarish world inhabited by inhuman monsters, including the fearsome [Pyramid Head](/wiki/Pyramid_Head "Pyramid Head"). Cybil encounters and tries to arrest Rose, but while attempting to bring her to the local station, they realize they are trapped, all roads out of town ending in a mysterious cliff. Rose encounters many other inhuman creatures and learns of [Alessa Gillespie](/wiki/Alessa_Gillespie "Alessa Gillespie"), a young girl burned as a witch by the Brethren, the town's fanatical [Manichean](/wiki/Manichean "Manichean") cult. Her mother [Dahlia](/wiki/List_of_Silent_Hill_series_characters%23Dahlia_Gillespie "List of Silent Hill series characters#Dahlia Gillespie") wanders the streets as an outcast, guilt\-ridden over her negligence that led to Alessa's suffering. In the real world, Christopher searches the abandoned town with policeman Thomas Gucci, but they find nothing: the town appears to them simply as a dilapidated, abandoned place devoid of fog or creatures. Gucci later reveals he lived in Silent Hill and saved Alessa from the fire. He encourages Christopher to end his futile search. In the Silent Hill dimension, Rose encounters the girl again, revealed to be an aspect of Alessa. When the town transitions into the dark dimension, Rose, Cybil, and Anna, a Brethren member, flee to an old church, but Pyramid Head catches and skins Anna alive. Brethren members lead Rose and Cybil to a hospital, claiming the demon that has taken Sharon is in the basement. Upon noticing an image of Sharon in Rose's locket, Christabella, the [high priestess](/wiki/High_priest "High priest") of the Brethren, identifies Sharon as a likeness of Alessa. She decries the two women as witches and orders her Brethren to stop them. Cybil holds them off while Rose descends into the basement, but is quickly subdued and captured. Rose explores the basement but is barricaded by a group of disfigured nurses. She sneaks past them and enters Alessa's room. In a flashback, it is revealed that Alessa was stigmatized by the townspeople for being [born out of wedlock](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 "Legitimacy (family law)"). Christabella convinced Dahlia to "purify" Alessa after Alessa was raped by the school janitor. Christabella [immolated](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning") Alessa during a ritual in 1974, but Dahlia alerted Gucci. The pair arrived too late, and the ritual went awry, igniting the coal seam fire. Hospitalized and in excruciating pain, Alessa's rage split her soul apart, one half manifesting as the dark entity responsible for the shifting dimensions of Silent Hill. Her remaining innocence manifested as Sharon, who was taken to the real world to be adopted. Desperate to find Sharon, Rose allows Dark Alessa's spirit into her body, allowing it access to the church. Sharon, despite being protected by Dahlia, is captured by the Brethren. In the church, Christabella burns Cybil as a witch and plans to do the same to Sharon. Rose confronts Christabella, denouncing her as a murderer before Christabella stabs Rose in the heart. Alessa emerges from the blood flowing from the wound as a disfigured being bound to a hospital bed, and tears Christabella and her followers apart with razor wire. Rose rescues Sharon, and Sharon and Alessa/Dark Alessa reunite into one body. Rose and Alessa leave the town and return home. Upon arriving, they discover they are still in the foggy dimension, separated from reality. Meanwhile, Christopher awakens alone in the real world and discovers that the front door has mysteriously opened.
[ "Plot\n----", "Rose Da Silva and her husband Christopher are disturbed by their adopted daughter [Sharon](/wiki/Heather_Mason \"Heather Mason\")'s constant sleepwalking and nightmares about Silent Hill, a town in [West Virginia](/wiki/West_Virginia \"West Virginia\") that was abandoned in the 1970s due to a massive [coal seam fire](/wiki/Coal_seam_fire \"Coal seam fire\"). Desperate for a solution, Rose takes Sharon on a trip to Silent Hill to find answers. Her erratic behavior concerns police officer [Cybil Bennett](/wiki/Cybil_Bennett \"Cybil Bennett\") when they encounter her at a gas station en route. As they enter Silent Hill, a girl steps out into the road, causing Rose to crash and black out. She awakens in the fog\\-shrouded dimension of Silent Hill, and realizes that Sharon is missing.", "Searching the town for Sharon, Rose pursues the girl she encountered prior to the crash, who resembles Sharon. At various points, the town suddenly transitions into a nightmarish world inhabited by inhuman monsters, including the fearsome [Pyramid Head](/wiki/Pyramid_Head \"Pyramid Head\"). Cybil encounters and tries to arrest Rose, but while attempting to bring her to the local station, they realize they are trapped, all roads out of town ending in a mysterious cliff. Rose encounters many other inhuman creatures and learns of [Alessa Gillespie](/wiki/Alessa_Gillespie \"Alessa Gillespie\"), a young girl burned as a witch by the Brethren, the town's fanatical [Manichean](/wiki/Manichean \"Manichean\") cult. Her mother [Dahlia](/wiki/List_of_Silent_Hill_series_characters%23Dahlia_Gillespie \"List of Silent Hill series characters#Dahlia Gillespie\") wanders the streets as an outcast, guilt\\-ridden over her negligence that led to Alessa's suffering. In the real world, Christopher searches the abandoned town with policeman Thomas Gucci, but they find nothing: the town appears to them simply as a dilapidated, abandoned place devoid of fog or creatures. Gucci later reveals he lived in Silent Hill and saved Alessa from the fire. He encourages Christopher to end his futile search.", "In the Silent Hill dimension, Rose encounters the girl again, revealed to be an aspect of Alessa. When the town transitions into the dark dimension, Rose, Cybil, and Anna, a Brethren member, flee to an old church, but Pyramid Head catches and skins Anna alive. Brethren members lead Rose and Cybil to a hospital, claiming the demon that has taken Sharon is in the basement. Upon noticing an image of Sharon in Rose's locket, Christabella, the [high priestess](/wiki/High_priest \"High priest\") of the Brethren, identifies Sharon as a likeness of Alessa. She decries the two women as witches and orders her Brethren to stop them. Cybil holds them off while Rose descends into the basement, but is quickly subdued and captured.", "Rose explores the basement but is barricaded by a group of disfigured nurses. She sneaks past them and enters Alessa's room. In a flashback, it is revealed that Alessa was stigmatized by the townspeople for being [born out of wedlock](/wiki/Legitimacy_%28family_law%29 \"Legitimacy (family law)\"). Christabella convinced Dahlia to \"purify\" Alessa after Alessa was raped by the school janitor. Christabella [immolated](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\") Alessa during a ritual in 1974, but Dahlia alerted Gucci. The pair arrived too late, and the ritual went awry, igniting the coal seam fire. Hospitalized and in excruciating pain, Alessa's rage split her soul apart, one half manifesting as the dark entity responsible for the shifting dimensions of Silent Hill. Her remaining innocence manifested as Sharon, who was taken to the real world to be adopted. Desperate to find Sharon, Rose allows Dark Alessa's spirit into her body, allowing it access to the church. Sharon, despite being protected by Dahlia, is captured by the Brethren.", "In the church, Christabella burns Cybil as a witch and plans to do the same to Sharon. Rose confronts Christabella, denouncing her as a murderer before Christabella stabs Rose in the heart. Alessa emerges from the blood flowing from the wound as a disfigured being bound to a hospital bed, and tears Christabella and her followers apart with razor wire. Rose rescues Sharon, and Sharon and Alessa/Dark Alessa reunite into one body. Rose and Alessa leave the town and return home. Upon arriving, they discover they are still in the foggy dimension, separated from reality. Meanwhile, Christopher awakens alone in the real world and discovers that the front door has mysteriously opened.", "" ]
Production ---------- ### Development [left\|thumb\|Christophe Gans (pictured here in 2010\) claimed that he had created a new type of horror film.](/wiki/File:Christophe_Gans_2010.JPG "Christophe Gans 2010.JPG") The idea of the film adaptation of *[Silent Hill](/wiki/Silent_Hill_%28video_game%29 "Silent Hill (video game)")* (1999\) was voiced by director Christophe Gans for the first time to producer [Samuel Hadida](/wiki/Samuel_Hadida "Samuel Hadida") during the filming of the film *[Brotherhood of the Wolf](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_the_Wolf "Brotherhood of the Wolf")* (2001\).{{cite video\|people\=Chris Sikorowski\|year\=2006\|title\=Path of Darkness: Making 'Silent Hill'\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=JRYriQ5Cc0Q\| archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/JRYriQ5Cc0Q\| archive\-date\=2021\-11\-17 \| url\-status\=live\|format\=\[\[VOB]]\|medium\=2 DVD\|publisher\=Sony Pictures}}{{cbignore}} Hadida, knowing the game's rich visual aesthetics, believed that eerie storytelling matched Gans' encyclopedic knowledge of cinematography. Gans became acquainted with the video game series approximately six years before the release of his film, and initially wanted to adapt [the second game](/wiki/Silent_Hill_2 "Silent Hill 2") (2001\) since it was the most "emotional" of all four and the most beloved by fans. He compared it to the [myth of Orpheus](/wiki/Orpheus_and_Eurydice "Orpheus and Eurydice"), who descended into the underworld after [Eurydice](/wiki/Eurydice "Eurydice"). However, he said that *Silent Hill 2* was not the "real *Silent Hill*": there was no mythology, and the city only played the role of a backdrop for the unfolding story. As a result, he realized that it was impossible to film an adaptation of the second game without saying a word about the origin of the city.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\=6605116\&publicUserId\=1002415\|title\=Silent Hill Movie Interview: The Director's Cut\|author\=Shane Bettenhausen\|date\=January 23, 2006\|publisher\=\[\[1UP.com]]\|access\-date\=2012\-04\-03\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060308202111/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\=6605116\&publicUserId\=1002415\|archive\-date\=2006\-03\-08}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/12/15/avary\-talks\-silent\-hill\|title\=Avary Talks Silent Hill\|author\=IGN FilmForce\|date\=December 15, 2004\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415112200/http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/12/15/avary\-talks\-silent\-hill\|archive\-date\=2013\-04\-15\|url\-status\=live}} According to Gans, the first game captivated him with its extraordinary plot: it was so "completely unique" and "absolutely frightening" that it was worthy to become the basis for a real film. Many of his entourage were surprised at the opinion that a banal video game can scare someone. To this, the director replied that *Silent Hill* was one of the scariest experiences he ever had. He called it "an experiment with a unique and independent world, which is both beautiful and terrible at the same time". Even before the release of *Silent Hill 2*, Gans sent "a ton of letters" to copyright holders, but received no response. He presented his vision of the film and how important the games are to him in a 37\-minute video with Japanese subtitles, which was shown at a meeting of the [Konami](/wiki/Konami "Konami") board of directors. Representatives of the company realized that Gans was the only one among the major studios fighting for the right to film adaptation who understood the essence of the game,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|title\=О фильме. История проекта\|publisher\=Silenthillmovie.ru\|access\-date\=2012\-07\-27\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|url\-status\=live}}[Tom Cruise](/wiki/Tom_Cruise "Tom Cruise"), [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures "Paramount Pictures"), [Miramax](/wiki/Miramax "Miramax"), and [Sam Raimi](/wiki/Sam_Raimi "Sam Raimi")'s managers were also interested in obtaining the film rights.{{Cite journal\|author \= Valery Korneev \|title\= Сайлент Хилл на широком экране \|journal\= Country of Games \|location\= Moscow \|year\= 2006 \|publisher\= Technomir \|pages \= 178–181 \|language\=ru}}{{full citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} and the director received the filming rights after two months,{{cite web\| last \= Douglas\| first \= Edward.\| date \= April 20, 2006\| url \= http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\=14165\| title \= Exclusive: Director Christophe Gans \| work \= ComingSoon\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016002858/http://comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\=14165\|archive\-date\=2006\-10\-16}} which he sought for a total of five years.{{Cite web\|url\=https://theweek.com/articles/449289/how\-hollywood\-make\-truly\-great\-video\-game\-movie\|title\=How Hollywood can make a truly great video game movie\|date\=March 17, 2014\|website\=theweek.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-07\|archive\-date\=December 7, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207093838/https://theweek.com/articles/449289/how\-hollywood\-make\-truly\-great\-video\-game\-movie\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.timeout.ru/journal/feature/1826/2/\|title\=Лучшие и худшие экранизации видеоигр\|date\=December 2, 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Time Out (magazine)\|Time Out]] Moscow. No. 47\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-19\|language\=ru\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020055300/http://www.timeout.ru/journal/feature/1826/2\|archive\-date\=2008\-10\-20\|url\-status\=live\|trans\-title\=The best and worst video game adaptations}}{{Cite journal \|author \= Boris Ivanov \|language\=ru \|title\= Кинопремьера. Сайлент Хилл 2\. Возвращение в ад \|type\= magazine \|journal\= Total DVD \|location\= Moscow \|year\= 2012 \|publisher\= \[\[Gameland]] \|volume\= 11\|number\= 139\|pages \= 24–29}}{{cite web\|url\=http://kotaku.com/5955050/silent\-hill\-revelation\-3d\-the\-kotaku\-movie\-review\|title\=Silent Hill: Revelation 3D: The Kotaku Movie Review\|author\=Matt Hawkins.\|date\=October 25, 2012\|publisher\=\[\[Kotaku]]\|access\-date\=2012\-12\-29\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127092751/http://kotaku.com/5955050/silent\-hill\-revelation\-3d\-the\-kotaku\-movie\-review\|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-27\|url\-status\=live}} The publishers insisted that the project retain the original plot and setting. Gans had not previously directed any game adaptations, and stated that the process is completely unlike anything else. According to him, in projects of this type, the most important challenge is to bring the background story in the game to the foreground. Hadida said that "*Silent Hill* is something outside of cinema." He believed that the game was so popular because everyone felt something unique when playing it, and the film only enhances that feeling. The creators have also said that the film is a tribute to the horror genre. Gans considered his film to be halfway between science fiction, [Clive Barker](/wiki/Clive_Barker "Clive Barker")'s books, and [hardcore horror](/wiki/Hardcore_horror "Hardcore horror").{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}} ### Writing [thumb\|Roger Avary wrote the script word by word while playing the game.](/wiki/File:Avary%2C_Roger_%282007%29.jpg "Avary, Roger (2007).jpg") When the decision was made to adapt *Silent Hill*, Gans and Hadida phoned screenwriter [Roger Avary](/wiki/Roger_Avary "Roger Avary"). They outlined their plans and offered to write a script. "It's not so easy", Avary said, "when you're going to film something, especially a game, you need to be ready to take everything apart, and then put it together in a new way. The only thing that remains of the original material is the main idea, the concept, which all your actions are subordinated to." It was decided to combine in\-game monsters with creatures invented by the film crew. Gans tried to stick as close to the original source as possible, while Avary saw it as his main task to convey the spirit of the game; he kept some storylines, and tried to combine the rest of the elements into new compositions. Thus, the director was more faithful to the creator's intention, and the screenwriter preferred to interpret the original material broadly.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.edge\-online.co.uk/archives/2005/09/roger\_avary\_tal.php\|title\=Interview with Roger Avary\|date\=September 2009\|publisher\=\[\[Edge (magazine)\|Edge Online]]\|access\-date\=2012\-10\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015200538/http://www.edge\-online.com/\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-15\|url\-status\=live}} Since Gans had already formed the concept of the future plot of the film, he sent the screenwriter several discs with "atmospheric" videosAmong others, *[The City of the Dead](/wiki/The_City_of_the_Dead_%28film%29 "The City of the Dead (film)")* was recorded on these discs. to point Avary's work in the right direction, as well as the developments compiled by himself and [Nicolas Boukhrief](/wiki/Nicolas_Boukhrief "Nicolas Boukhrief"). They were written in French, but the scriptwriter was required to translate them into English, write dialogues and change a few conceptual factors. Avary did not limit himself to acquaintance with the presented film library and personally went through all entries of the game series. All changes made by Avary were translated into Christophe's native language. A rough draft of the work was ready by October 2004\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/10/19/avary\-on\-silent\-hill\-2\|title\=Avary on Silent Hill\|author\=Brian Linder.\|date\=October 19, 2004\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513090521/https://www.ign.com/articles/2004/10/19/avary\-on\-silent\-hill\-2\|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-13\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\| last \= Gans\| first \= Christophe\| date \= March 10, 2006\| url \= http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/\| title \= Silent Hill – Notes from the director Christophe Gans – "On Preserving and Contributing to the Mythology of the Games, On Interpreting Silent Hill's Monsters"\| work \= Sony Pictures}}{{dead link\|date\=January 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Nevertheless, due to the complete absence of male characters, the script was rejected by the producers; only after the script was modified to include [Sean Bean](/wiki/Sean_Bean "Sean Bean")'s character and subplot was it approved.{{cite web\|author\=Kevin Prin.\|date\=December 22, 2006\|url\=http://www.dvdrama.com/news\-18185\-interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\.php\|title\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \[page 1]\|format\=php\|publisher\=Excessif.com\|access\-date\=2009\-08\-10\|language\=fr\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209190508/http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\-cinema/news\-dossier/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-1\-4967610\-760\.html\|archive\-date\=2012\-02\-09\|url\-status\=live}} Avary recalled that as soon as they received the "stupid note from the studio", Gans got angry. Yet, later they realized that this storyline can be made interesting and emphasize the peculiarities of the perception of reality. As a result, the plot became a combination of the first game with separate elements of the second and third. Gans elaborated: "We weren't trying to put all three games into a two\-hour production, this is an adaptation of the first *Silent Hill*. However, there are so many interesting details \[in the following installments] that it was impossible to resist." Roger Avary regularly received letters from fans, whom he called "crazy". He saved some messages, the senders of which claimed that only they can write the script, and if Roger does not cope with his task, then he will be found and killed. Avary believed these threats were very real. Fans sent him their own versions of scripts to his mailbox, but Avary, saying that "it all smacks of delirium", deleted them without reading.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ag.ru/news/22\-09\-2004\#14040\|title\=Экранизируя Silent Hill\|author\=Владимир Горячев.\|date\=September 22, 2004\|website\=www.ag.ru\|access\-date\=2012\-10\-14\|language\=ru\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413003428/http://www.ag.ru/news/22\-09\-2004\#14040\|archive\-date\=2013\-04\-13\|url\-status\=dead}} Avary used the town of [Centralia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Centralia%2C_Pennsylvania "Centralia, Pennsylvania") as a prototype for the town of Silent Hill;{{cite web\|url\=http://silenthill.ugo.com/features/realsilenthill/default.asp\|title\=The Real Silent Hill\|publisher\=\[\[UGO]]\|access\-date\=2010\-04\-13\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413153435/http://silenthill.ugo.com/features/realsilenthill/default.asp\|archive\-date\=April 13, 2009}} he commented that as a child, his father, who was a mining engineer, used to tell him stories about Centralia, where coal deposits from the local mine caught fire and released toxic gases into the town, as well as creating [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkholes "Sinkholes") when the abandoned mineshafts and coal seams began to collapse. This forced the town to evacuate forever. Avary was fascinated since childhood by the idea that fires underneath the town would be burning for such a long time. The film acquired its working title in honor of the city — *Centralia*. Samuel Hadida tried to approach the writing of the script with the same feelings that arose during the gameplay of Silent Hill. The script also required the creation of a logical splicing between the various levels so that a person not familiar with the game could easily understand what was happening on the screen. The creators were guided by the impressions of the fans, who suggested what impressed them more, what kept them in suspense, which characters seemed the most effective. At the heart of the plot, there is the search for a daughter, which leads the main character. Roger liked long dialogues, while Christophe preferred to shorten them as much as possible. In the end, they managed to achieve balance. Actions accounted for 30 pages, in which Rose explores the world of Silent Hill. There were long debates over the ending. For the ending, Avary wanted to use the theme of forgiveness, while Gans wanted to see a darker ending, the key message of which would be revenge. As a result, Avary gave up as he was convinced by the director's logical arguments. After taking the script, [Radha Mitchell](/wiki/Radha_Mitchell "Radha Mitchell") read only 10 pages of text.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gametrailers.com/videos/prbfvi/silent\-hill\-\-movie\-\-featurette\|title\=Silent Hill (Movie). Featurette\|date\=April 21, 2006\|publisher\=\[\[GameTrailers]]\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-23\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303111423/http://www.gametrailers.com/videos/prbfvi/silent\-hill\-\-movie\-\-featurette\|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-03\|url\-status\=live}} She was alone in her apartment and, by her own admission, she felt uncomfortable with fear. She finished reading it only a week later in the light of the sun, and said: "That's what attracted me to the piece as well because it was definitely a page\-turner and it freaked me out". Sean Bean also found the plot scary. In contrast to these impressions, [Laurie Holden](/wiki/Laurie_Holden "Laurie Holden") liked the script – she deemed it spectacular, complex, multi\-level with wonderful themes and therefore interesting to work with. [Deborah Kara Unger](/wiki/Deborah_Kara_Unger "Deborah Kara Unger") called it "*[Alice in Wonderland](/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland")* meets *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno "Dante's Inferno")*". ### Concept [left\|thumb\|The [heroines](/wiki/Heroine "Heroine") of the film are Rose Da Silva (left) and Cybil Bennett (right).](/wiki/File:Silent_Hill_%282006%29_screenshot.png "Silent Hill (2006) screenshot.png") An integral part of the [*Silent Hill* universe](/wiki/Silent_Hill "Silent Hill") is the reality and unreality of the city. Silent Hill exists simultaneously in four different variations: the city of the 1970s, Silent Hill in the present, Silent Hill in the fog, and Silent Hill in the darkness. Two of the above measurements are based on temporal changes – one represents the city of thirty years ago and is used only in flashbacks, the other displays the current state of the city to which Christopher goes in search of his wife and daughter. The two remaining dimensions include a foggy day in which Rose searches for her daughter, symbolizing [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory "Purgatory"), and a gloomy day, consisting of enveloping darkness, which is the embodiment of [Hell](/wiki/Hell "Hell"). Gans reported that in his work he tried to discover new dimensions of space and time in [metaphysical](/wiki/Metaphysics "Metaphysics") and [mystical](/wiki/Mystical "Mystical") aspects.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\-hill\-director\-interview\-exclusive\-image?page\=3\|title\=Silent Hill: Director Interview \& Exclusive Image (page 3\)\|author\=Jeff Otto.\|date\=March 10, 2006\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530163723/http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\-hill\-director\-interview\-exclusive\-image?page\=3\|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-30\|url\-status\=live}} He stated, "We're not trying to explain everything, as I prefer people to find meaning in this story themselves. It is much more pleasant to enjoy the understatement. It's kind of a playful invitation to be smart".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|title\=О фильме. О съёмках\|work\=Официальный российский сайт фильма\|publisher\=Silenthillmovie.ru\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-09\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|url\-status\=live}} According to executive producer Andrew Mason, *Silent Hill* is a story of what happens in the moments between death and fate. The film talks about people who deny their own fate and therefore fall into the trap of [alternate dimensions](/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction "Parallel universes in fiction"). It "deals with the terror of loneliness, the fear of the dark, the fear of taking responsibility for your own evil side, and the fear of your own fate". The game created a sense of constant threat, while the film "seeks to reproduce that experience for a wider audience". The film's [leitmotif](/wiki/Leitmotif "Leitmotif") is motherhood, faith and persecution, presented at a symbolic level. Motherhood represents a form of the [virgin birth](/wiki/Virgin_birth_of_Jesus "Virgin birth of Jesus"). In addition to Rose, the key characters in the themes of the [dramatic structure](/wiki/Dramatic_structure "Dramatic structure") are the childless Cybil, Dahlia, and Christabella; the latter of whom lost her child, believing that abandoning motherhood is a blessing for society. Gans stated that motherhood in the film is about "[Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception "Immaculate Conception") — motherhood achieved in the noblest way." By the time *Silent Hill* comes to its denouement, which takes place in the sanctuary of the sect, the film turns into a cautionary tale warning against [religious fanaticism](/wiki/Religious_fanaticism "Religious fanaticism"). The director noted that [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism "Monotheism") religions constantly attacked the idea of femininity, but the film, at the same time, is not moralizing.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|title\=О фильме. Адаптация игры\|work\=Официальный российский сайт фильма\|publisher\=Silenthillmovie.ru\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-05\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=July 17, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\|url\-status\=live}} Gans described the concept of the town's connection to the child Alessa and the cult: "It's a town of people trapped in dark dreams, and she inflicts onto the town what those people did to her body. That is, to me, the meaning of the darkness. The appearance of the town is corrupted in the way that her own flesh was wounded."{{cite web\| last \= Bettenhausen\| first \= Shane\| date \= February 23, 2006\| url \= http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\=6605116\&publicUserId\=1002415\| title \= Silent Hill Movie Interview: The Director's Cut\| work \= 1UP\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120927032245/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\=6605116\&publicUserId\=1002415\| archive\-date \= September 27, 2012\| df \= mdy\-all}} He furthers expands on Alessa's connection to the alternate reality seen in the film, saying that the alternate reality is "in \[Alessa's] head".{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} "It's interesting because the town itself mirrors this fractured psychology—different dimensions, different doubles of the same person." In speaking about the creatures in *Silent Hill*, Gans said that "these monsters are \[damned], with the poetic direction of the term: they are a little like the Japanese phantoms, i.e. residues of forgotten feelings as strong as hatred or \[guilt]." "The monsters in the game are not really monsters, but rather a mockery of human beings. The real monsters are the people, the cultists who tortured Alessa. When I approached the film, I knew that it was impossible to represent the monsters as simply beasts that jump on you." ### Influences The appearance of the games in the series was largely influenced by [Adrian Lyne](/wiki/Adrian_Lyne "Adrian Lyne")'s film *[Jacob's Ladder](/wiki/Jacob%27s_Ladder_%281990_film%29 "Jacob's Ladder (1990 film)")* (1990\), especially the subway and hospital scenes. Gans believed that the film crew was able to create a unique piece that did not rely on the style of Lyne's film. Gans' film adaptation is not an imitation of Lyne's film, as *Silent Hill* has long evolved into a completely separate phenomenon that exists on its own. The film was influenced by the work of [Sergio Leone](/wiki/Sergio_Leone "Sergio Leone") and [David Lean](/wiki/David_Lean "David Lean"): the city of the seventies was created under the inspiration of the films *[Lawrence of Arabia](/wiki/Lawrence_of_Arabia_%28film%29 "Lawrence of Arabia (film)")* (1962\) and *[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly](/wiki/The_Good%2C_the_Bad_and_the_Ugly "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly")* (1966\), and in general, it was filmed under the influence of various works ranging from a book of pictures about [Chernobyl](/wiki/Chernobyl "Chernobyl") to *[The Matrix](/wiki/The_Matrix "The Matrix")*.{{Cite journal \|author \= Benjamin Rozovas. \|editor\= \|format\= \|url\= \|title\= Silent Hill: Silence de Mort \|type\= Журнал \|orig\-year\= \| agency \= \|edition\= Score \|location\= Франция \|date\= \|year\= \|publisher\= \|volume\= \|issue\= \|number\= \|pages \= 39–59 \|series\= \|isbn \= \|issn \= \|doi \= \|bibcode \= \|arxiv \= \|pmid \= \|language\= fr \|quote\= }} In the film, Gans paid homage to the works of [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD "Salvador Dalí"), [Hans Bellmer](/wiki/Hans_Bellmer "Hans Bellmer"), [Francis Bacon](/wiki/Francis_Bacon_%28artist%29 "Francis Bacon (artist)"), [Jean Cocteau](/wiki/Jean_Cocteau "Jean Cocteau"), [Alberto Giacometti](/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti "Alberto Giacometti"), [Clive Barker](/wiki/Clive_Barker "Clive Barker"), [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft "H. P. Lovecraft"), [David Cronenberg](/wiki/David_Cronenberg "David Cronenberg") and [Michael Mann](/wiki/Michael_Mann "Michael Mann").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\-cinema/news\-dossier/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-8\-4967617\-760\.html\|title\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \[page 8]\|author\=Kevin Prin.\|date\=December 22, 2006\|publisher\=Excessif.com\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-22\|language\=fr\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20240526071600/https://www.webcitation.org/6B8cwR36d?url\=http://lci.tf1\.fr/cinema/news/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-8\-4967617\.html\|archive\-date\=2024\-05\-26\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\-hill\-director\-interview\-exclusive\-image?page\=2\|title\=Silent Hill: Director Interview \& Exclusive Image\|author\=Jeff Otto\|date\=March 10, 2006\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530161733/http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\-hill\-director\-interview\-exclusive\-image?page\=2\|archive\-date\=2015\-05\-30\|url\-status\=live}} According to the director's initial idea, six [Pyramid Heads](/wiki/Pyramid_Head "Pyramid Head") were to be present inside the church in the film's denouement, slaughtering the cult members with various weapons, which was supposed to be an allusion to the events of *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno "Dante's Inferno")*. When budgetary and time constraints prevented this ending from being filmed, Gans created the new ending in which Alessa kills cultists with barbed wire – this sequence was inspired by the [anime](/wiki/Anime "Anime") *[Urotsukidōji](/wiki/Urotsukid%C5%8Dji "Urotsukidōji")*.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-7\-4967616\-760\.html\|title\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \[page 7]\|author\=Kevin Prin.\|date\=December 22, 2006\|publisher\=Excessif.com\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-22\|language\=fr\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802232333/http://lci.tf1\.fr/cinema/news/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-7\-4967616\.html\|archive\-date\=2014\-08\-02\|url\-status\=dead}} In one of the scenes, Rose tries to remember how to get to the hospital room, and, studying the map, says: "down, down, left, right, left, right". Valery Korneev considered this scene a reference to the [Konami Code](/wiki/Konami_Code "Konami Code"), describing it as a barely noticeable curtsey towards the adult gamer audience. The ringtone on Rose's phone matches that of [Solid Snake](/wiki/Solid_Snake "Solid Snake") every time he receives a coded message.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}} The director drew parallels between Avary's script and episodes of *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone_%281959_TV_series%29 "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)")* (1959–1964\).{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}} Based on the film, a literary adaptation of the same name was written in Japanese by Paula Edgewood and Osamu Makino.{{cite book\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/674951239\|title\=サイレントヒル /\|date\=2006\|publisher\=Worldcat.org\|oclc\=674951239\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-29\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021080933/http://www.worldcat.org/title/sairento\-hiru/oclc/674951239\|archive\-date\=2017\-10\-21\|url\-status\=live}} ### Characters and casting The director noted that in the game, each character is very emotional and vulnerable, but at the same time the characters were called flat and schematic. After they were put on paper, Gans realized that the result was a failure. The actors represented more expansive and complex personas, so many of the characters were revamped.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.silenthillmemories.net/creators/interviews/2005\.07\.18\_gans\_about\_en.htm\|title\=Interview with Christophe Gans (About) – Silent Hill Memories\|website\=www.silenthillmemories.net\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-12\-07\|archive\-date\=November 2, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102122254/http://www.silenthillmemories.net/creators/interviews/2005\.07\.18\_gans\_about\_en.htm\|url\-status\=live}} The filmmakers wanted all the characters in the film to appear gray and murky, as if they were in different dimensions simultaneously. When selecting actors, Christophe paid attention to those people who worked in independent cinema, as they brought a "different quality". The protagonist of the original video game is a man named [Harry Mason](/wiki/Harry_Mason_%28Silent_Hill%29 "Harry Mason (Silent Hill)"). The director of the film made a significant departure from the original source and replaced the main character with a woman, Rose Da Silva. Cristophe and the writers suddenly realized that they were working "with a completely feminine world". Gans explained that if you look closely at the game and do not take into account the appearance, you can see that the characters behave more like women than like men. They are worried about the child, they are very sensitive and often cry – all this is stereotypical for mother characters. "The whole movie is about motherhood", the director said.{{cite web\|date\=2006\|url\=http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/2006/03/on\_harry\_mason.php\|title\=On Harry Mason, the WonderCon Footage, and Capturing the Horror of the Game\|format\=php\|access\-date\=2006\-04\-21\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305203640/http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/2006/03/on\_harry\_mason.php\|archive\-date\=2008\-03\-05\|url\-status\=live}} He believed that in any sinister story there must be a "saving grace". This change, despite the fact that Gans himself is a fan of the media franchise, did not bother him in the least "because the game is a game, and the film is a film". The creators spent a lot of time and effort to find an actress for the role of Rose, sophisticated and defenseless, who had the right amount of sensitivity in her character. They needed an actress with a vulnerable image, full of determination. The audience had to worry about Rose and at the same time admire her ability to get out of various difficult situations with honor. [Milla Jovovich](/wiki/Milla_Jovovich "Milla Jovovich") and [Meg Ryan](/wiki/Meg_Ryan "Meg Ryan") auditioned for the role,{{cite web\|url\=http://www.lki.ru/text.php?id\=4820\|title\=Централия — прообраз Silent Hill\|author\=Геннадий Сапрыкин.\|date\=January 2009\|work\=Lki.ru\|publisher\=\[\[Лучшие компьютерные игры]], №1 (86\)\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-07\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=January 20, 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120075713/http://www.lki.ru/text.php?id\=4820\|url\-status\=live}} but in the end the choice fell on Australian [Radha Mitchell](/wiki/Radha_Mitchell "Radha Mitchell"), previously known for her roles in 2004 films such as [Woody Allen](/wiki/Woody_Allen "Woody Allen")'s *[Melinda and Melinda](/wiki/Melinda_and_Melinda "Melinda and Melinda")*, [Tony Scott](/wiki/Tony_Scott "Tony Scott")'s *[Man on Fire](/wiki/Man_on_Fire_%282004_film%29 "Man on Fire (2004 film)")*, and [Marc Forster](/wiki/Marc_Forster "Marc Forster")'s *[Finding Neverland](/wiki/Finding_Neverland_%28film%29 "Finding Neverland (film)")*. Mitchell herself became interested in the project mainly because of Gans' personality – she was deeply impressed by his previous film, *[Brotherhood of the Wolf](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_the_Wolf "Brotherhood of the Wolf")*.{{cite web\|author\=Jeff Otto.\|date\=February 23, 2006\|url\=http://movies.ign.com/articles/691/691007p1\.html\|title\=Silent Hill Set Visit\|work\=\[\[IGN]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207223935/http://movies.ign.com/articles/691/691007p1\.html\|archive\-date\=2006\-12\-07\|access\-date\=2009\-08\-10\|url\-status\=live}} The executive producer of the film, Andrew Mason, noted that Mitchell had the freshness, energy and joy of life necessary for the main character, who will lead the audience through a terrible world. Gans characterized Mitchell as a sophisticated and elegant sixties\-style actress, reminiscent of [Grace Kelly](/wiki/Grace_Kelly "Grace Kelly") and [Mia Farrow](/wiki/Mia_Farrow "Mia Farrow").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/site/html/prodnotes.html\|title\=Silent Hill – Production Notes\|work\=\[\[Sony]]\|publisher\=\[\[Sony]]pictures.com\|access\-date\=2012\-08\-06\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009191103/http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/site/html/prodnotes.html\|archive\-date\=2012\-10\-09\|url\-status\=dead}} Radha said that during the filming, she had to run a lot around the set and shout "Sharon" in 50 different ways.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.compleatseanbean.com/silenthill\-press6\.html\|title\=Silent Hill – Interviews from the set\|author\=Staci Wilson.\|date\=July 18, 2005\|publisher\=\[\[About.com]]\|access\-date\=2012\-10\-12\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215175356/http://compleatseanbean.com/silenthill\-press6\.html\|archive\-date\=2010\-12\-15\|url\-status\=live}} Also during the filming process, her attitude towards the character changed. She stated that there is something [feminist](/wiki/Feminism "Feminism") in the concept of the film, since all female characters are in some kind of fantasy world, while men are only in reality. For the main character, about a hundred costumes were created, each of which was slightly darker than the previous one. In the beginning, Rose is dressed in a very light dress, and in the end – in a blood red, which symbolizes her evolution.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2021}} {{Multiple image\|align\=center\|direction\=horizontal\|total\_width\=920px\|image1\=Sean Bean 2005\.jpg\|image2\=Laurie Holden 2011\.jpg\|image3\=RadhaMitchell09TIFF.jpg\|image4\=Jodelle Ferland 2, 2011\.jpg\|image5\=Kim Coates by Gage Skidmore.jpg\|image6\=Roberto Campanella.jpg\|image7\=Deborah Kara Unger in Sep 2009\.jpg\|image8\=Alice Krige 2006\.jpg\|footer\=''Silent Hill'' cast: Sean Bean, Laurie Holden, Radha Mitchell, Jodelle Ferland, Kim Coates, Roberto Campanella, Deborah Kara Unger, and Alice Krige\|borderstyle\=none\|color\=CCCCCC}} Ten\-year\-old [Jodelle Ferland](/wiki/Jodelle_Ferland "Jodelle Ferland") played three roles at once – her character exists in the *Silent Hill* universe in several incarnations: Sharon is the embodiment of "all the best" that was in the [immolated](/wiki/Death_by_burning "Death by burning") Alessa, the suffering Alessa and the demonic Dark Alessa. The filmmakers intended to cast three different girls for these roles, but, nevertheless, a young actress was found capable of portraying these roles at the same time. Gans saw Ferland as "the ideal actress", drawing attention to her performance in the *[Kingdom Hospital](/wiki/Kingdom_Hospital "Kingdom Hospital")* miniseries and [Terry Gilliam](/wiki/Terry_Gilliam "Terry Gilliam")'s *[Tideland](/wiki/Tideland_%28film%29 "Tideland (film)")*. After Jodelle made her audition statement "I've always wanted to play the devil", and the director watched 15 hours of footage featuring the actress, she was approved for the role.{{cite web\| last \= Ferry\| first \= IIan\| date \= April 2, 2006\| url \= http://www.ecranlarge.com/interview\-282\.php\| title \= Master Class Silent Hill (French)\| work \= Ecranlarge\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20061007185326/http://www.ecranlarge.com/interview\-282\.php\| archive\-date \= October 7, 2006\| df \= mdy\-all}} Ferland, who had 26 acting credits at the time, reported that she has already played several girls similar to her character from the film: "I usually get creepy roles, like Dark Alessa".{{Cite journal\|author\=Денис Данилов.\|title\=Туман\|trans\-title\=Fog\|edition\=Total DVD\|location\=Moscow\|date\=May 2006\|volume\=\|number\=5 (63, н. в.)\|pages\=1–8\|language\=ru}} Gans supported Ferland's performances with "a combination of charm and gentle direction". The role of [Sean Bean](/wiki/Sean_Bean "Sean Bean"), who plays Rose's husband, [Kim Coates](/wiki/Kim_Coates "Kim Coates"), who plays the police officer Gucci, and all the related storylines were missing from the initial script. They were introduced after the producers familiarized themselves with the initial version of the script and a note sent to the director about the need to introduce male characters into the film.{{refn\|According to another version, the role of Christopher was present in the original version of the script, appearing at the beginning and end of the film, therefore much less attention was paid to it than in the final version.{{cite web\| last \= Prin\| first \= Kevin\| date \= December 22, 2006\| url \= http://www.dvdrama.com/news.php?18185\| title \= INTERVIEW: CHRISTOPHE GANS (SILENT HILL) PARTIE 1 (French)\| work \= DVDRama\| access\-date \= January 3, 2007\| archive\-date \= January 12, 2007\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20070112172007/http://www.dvdrama.com/news.php?18185\| url\-status \= live}}\|group\=A}} Sean Bean was the only one of all the actors in the lead roles who did not even try to play the game – he just saw the game packaging.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/09/09/bean\-on\-silent\-hill\-treasure\-2\|title\=Bean on Silent Hill, Treasure 2\|author\=Jeff Otto.\|date\=September 9, 2005\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|access\-date\=2012\-09\-24\|language\=en\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415112152/http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/09/09/bean\-on\-silent\-hill\-treasure\-2\|archive\-date\=2013\-04\-15\|url\-status\=live}} He described his character as someone who is constantly between despair and determination to see the case through. Christopher tries to get to the bottom of it, no matter what it costs him. He is a successful businessman and a loving husband who senses the presence of evil. There is a certain nostalgia in his relationship with Rose. The actor for the role of Christopher was selected as the last one. The character was named after the director. The prototype of Christopher was the game's protagonist Harry Mason. Coates considered *Silent Hill* to be the strangest film he had ever starred in. His character officer Gucci's name is briefly mentioned in one of the notes found in the game – in it, he is described as a narcotics officer who suddenly dies of a heart attack.{{cite video game\|title\=Silent Hill\|developer\=Konami (Team Silent)\|publisher\=Konami\|date\=January 31, 1999\|platform\=PlayStation\|quote\=Officer Gucci, Newspaper article: Coroner Seals called. Officer Gucci unlikely to be murdered. He apparently died naturally. But, medical records show Officer Gucci had no prior symptoms of heart disease… Investigation stalled. "PTV" dealers still at large. Suspicious deaths continue. Like the anti\-drug mayor, a narcotics officer dies of a sudden heart failure of unknown origin.}} [left\|thumb\|175px\|Deborah Kara Unger compared her character to [Cassandra](/wiki/Cassandra "Cassandra").](/wiki/File:Cassandra1.jpeg "Cassandra1.jpeg") The character of [Cybil Bennett](/wiki/Cybil_Bennett "Cybil Bennett"), a brave, bold, and fearless police officer, is portrayed by [Laurie Holden](/wiki/Laurie_Holden "Laurie Holden"). The team behind the film were looking for an actress who would evoke sympathy from the audience when she sacrifices her own life to save Rose and Sharon. In the game, Cybil can also die a violent death – the parasite\-infected police officer is killed by Harry Mason.{{refn\|There is an option to save Cybil, but the main storyline of ''Silent Hill'' and ''Silent Hill 3'' involves her death.{{cite book \|title\=Silent Hill 3 公式完全攻略ガイド/失われた記憶 サイレントヒル・クロニクル \|publisher\=NTT Publishing Co., Ltd \|language\=ja \|place\=Japan \|isbn\=4\-7571\-8145\-0 \|pages\=28–29 \|chapter\=Silent Hill ending analysis \|date\=July 31, 2003}}\|group\=A}} Holden tried to play *Silent Hill* at the request of the director, but did not progress beyond the main character's first encounter with Cybil at the café.{{refn\|Practically the beginning of the game.\|group\=A}} According to Holden, there is something of a [lone wolf](/wiki/wiktionary:Lone_wolf "Lone wolf") in Cybil. The character bears a scar in her soul from her devoutly religious mother who passed away when Cybil was 13 years old, which is why she rejects religion and remains lonely. Afterward, Bennett finds her calling: to serve and protect. She wants to be like a mother to the children she saves. Holden stated that at that time, it was the "coolest" action role she had ever played. She noted that the character has a kind heart: "She is very strong but is very misunderstood." In order to resemble the character more, Holden's long hair was cut. Gans cast Holden after seeing her in *[The Majestic](/wiki/The_Majestic_%28film%29 "The Majestic (film)")*, stating, "in *The Majestic*, she was beautifully feminine and I cast her so I could show her other side, make her strong and sleek."{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.deviantart.com/kulovers09/journal/Silent\-Hill\-film\-Cast\-232846407\|title\=Silent Hill (film) Cast by kulovers09 on DeviantArt\|website\=www.deviantart.com\|date\=May 7, 2009 \|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-03\-25\|archive\-date\=August 17, 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817015038/https://www.deviantart.com/kulovers09/journal/Silent\-Hill\-film\-Cast\-232846407\|url\-status\=live}} [Dahlia Gillespie](/wiki/Dahlia_Gillespie "Dahlia Gillespie"), played by [Deborah Kara Unger](/wiki/Deborah_Kara_Unger "Deborah Kara Unger"), was taken from the original game but underwent significant reworking. In the game, Dahlia is portrayed as a mysterious occult fanatic who attempts to summon God by burning her own daughter,{{cite book \|title\=Silent Hill 3 公式完全攻略ガイド/失われた記憶 サイレントヒル・クロニクル \|publisher\=NTT Publishing Co., Ltd \|language\=ja \|location\=Japan \| isbn\=4\-7571\-8145\-0 \|pages\=25 \|chapter\=Silent Hill character commentary \|date\=July 31, 2003}} while in the film, those qualities are transferred to another character named Christabella.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.3dnews.ru/editorial/igrovaya\_ekranizatsiya\_silent\_hill\_kogda\_holmi\_molchat\|title\=Игровая экранизация: Silent Hill — когда холмы молчат\|author\=Ivan Vasiliev\|date\=January 22, 2010\|work\=3dnews.ru\|publisher\=3DNews Daily Digital Digest\|accessdate\=2012\-04\-01\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=2015\-10\-09\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009024150/http://www.3dnews.ru/editorial/igrovaya\_ekranizatsiya\_silent\_hill\_kogda\_holmi\_molchat\|url\-status\=live}} Unger stated that she immensely enjoyed playing this role, believing that the portrayal of Dahlia is closely aligned with the profound essence of the game. She did not progress further than the beginning of the video game but relied on materials she found on websites, including character analyses. Unger described her character as a crazy, slightly enigmatic prophet who gains wisdom through suffering, and compared her to [Cassandra](/wiki/Cassandra "Cassandra") and [John Proctor](/wiki/John_Proctor_%28Salem_witch_trials%29 "John Proctor (Salem witch trials)") from the play *[The Crucible](/wiki/The_Crucible "The Crucible")*. She immediately accepted the role, which was specifically written for her, even without reading the script. She later referred to her work as an extraordinary psychological journey. Mason stated that Deborah's character had to reach extremes and appear slightly peculiar. Mitchell believed that Unger added a lot to her character, making her appear more realistic. Played by [Alice Krige](/wiki/Alice_Krige "Alice Krige"), Christabella is a cultist and the main antagonist of the film. The character's name is taken from the *Silent Hill: Dying Inside* comic, where it belonged to a girl who is killed by fanatics. Christabella's portrayal incorporates some traits from Dahlia Gillespie and [Claudia Wolf](/wiki/Claudia_Wolf "Claudia Wolf") from *[Silent Hill 3](/wiki/Silent_Hill_3 "Silent Hill 3")*. In contrast to Rose, the antagonist combines elegance and violence. Initially, Alice Krige did not like the script. The actress asked: "What is this? Is this sort of [science\-fiction/horror](/wiki/Sci-fi_horror "Sci-fi horror")?" Krige was unaware that it was based on a video game. She expressed concern regarding the linguistic intricacies associated with the character, finding her impactful dialogue challenging to accurately portray. To prepare for her role, Krige read the book *The End of Days* by [Erna Paris](/wiki/Erna_Paris "Erna Paris"), a book about tyranny during the [Spanish Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition "Spanish Inquisition"). Mitchell noted that the actress was very different from her character: "Alice is incredibly playful, sweet, and generous. She's got this enthusiasm and the imagination of a child". The producers stated that Krige was able to breathe life into a toy\-like character that could easily stumble and become a caricature. The director approved her casting based on her performances in the films *[Institute Benjamenta](/wiki/Institute_Benjamenta "Institute Benjamenta")*, *[Twilight of the Ice Nymphs](/wiki/Twilight_of_the_Ice_Nymphs "Twilight of the Ice Nymphs")*, and *[Star Trek: First Contact](/wiki/Star_Trek:First_Contact "First Contact")*. ### Filming [right\|thumb\|200px\|[Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka "Akira Yamaoka") directly participated in the production of the film.](/wiki/File:Akira_Yamaoka_-_Game_Developers_Conference_2010_-_Day_3_%282%29.jpg "Akira Yamaoka - Game Developers Conference 2010 - Day 3 (2).jpg") [Principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography "Principal photography") commenced on April 25, 2005, and ended three months later on July 22\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.darkhorizons.com/news/2151/silent\-hill\-begins\-production\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130121082832/http://www.darkhorizons.com/news/2151/silent\-hill\-begins\-production\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=January 21, 2013\|title\=Silent Hill Begins Production\|last\=Franklin\|first\=Garth\|publisher\=Dark Horizons\|date\=April 29, 2005\|access\-date\=August 30, 2012}} It took place in various locations in Canada, including [Brantford](/wiki/Brantford%2C_Ontario "Brantford, Ontario"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario "Hamilton, Ontario"), and [Brampton](/wiki/Brampton%2C_Ontario "Brampton, Ontario") in Ontario; [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg "Winnipeg") in Manitoba; [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_New_Brunswick "St. George, New Brunswick") in New Brunswick, as well as on soundstages in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") and on location in [Alma College](/wiki/Alma_College_%28St._Thomas%2C_Ontario%29 "Alma College (St. Thomas, Ontario)").{{Cite web \|title\=10 Movies Filmed at Canadian Historic Places \|url\=https://nationaltrustcanada.ca/online\-stories/10\-movies\-filmed\-at\-canadian\-historic\-places \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-14 \|website\=National Trust for Canada \|language\=en\-US}}{{Cite web \|last\=Fleischer \|first\=David \|date\=February 8, 2012 \|title\=Reel Toronto: Silent Hill \|url\=https://torontoist.com/2012/02/reel\-toronto\-silent\-hill/ \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-14 \|website\=Torontoist}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.almacollege.20m.com/photopages/silentHill.htm\|title\=Silent Hill. Movie Production Stills\|publisher\=Alma College\|accessdate\=2012\-08\-07\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20080531105338/http://www.almacollege.20m.com/photopages/silentHill.htm\|archivedate\=2008\-05\-31\|url\-status\=live}} The developers of the series [Team Silent](/wiki/Team_Silent "Team Silent") oversaw the entire production process of the film and collaborated closely with the production team, approving or rejecting decisions made by the director, screenwriter, and artists. As a result, the city's appearance was recreated with attention to the smallest details, down to errors in English names of the stores. The filming was done using a crane camera. The technology itself was improved to accurately simulate the operation of the virtual camera from the game. Mitchell had to tap into her own subconscious to enhance realism, inducing feelings of anxiety and pain in herself to subsequently embody those emotions during the filming. She admitted that encounters with the unknown were somewhat surreal. To depict fear, she asked the production designer to increase the volume of the sound made by the approaching monster through a microphone. This helped make her acting more interactive, rather than simply reacting to lines. The varying weather conditions, ranging from freezing cold to extreme heat, did not have a negative impact on the actors' performances.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.movies.about.co/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\.htm\|title\=Radha Mitchell Talks About Silent Hill\|author\=Fred Topel\|publisher\=Movies.about.com\|accessdate\=2012\-10\-12\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509175556/http://movies.about.com/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\.htm\|archivedate\=2006\-05\-09\|url\-status\=dead}} After delivering the film for Film editing to the studio, Gans expected to receive at least 10 pages of notes regarding the film's required editing. However, contrary to his expectations, the only comment was about the Australian accent of Mitchell and the English accent of Bean, which were too noticeable in three scenes of the film. According to him, the producers were shocked as they had never seen anything like it before. The next step was passing the censorship. Samuel Hadida was concerned about several scenes, especially the death of Cybil and the barbed wire killing of Christabella, as well as Anna's flaying. The director said, "I wanted to create an unforgettable scene that shows a person being burned alive on a stake. I wanted to avoid using a mannequin \[instead of the actress]." In the end, the committee provided documents marked as "Acceptable". This decision was supported by three reasons: the entire story takes place in a fictional world, the plot revolves around a woman trying to save her daughter, and the film hardly uses firearms. Subsequently, the film was banned for children under 15 in England and children under 12 in France.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\-cinema/news\-dossier/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-5\-4967614\-760\.html\|title\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \[page 5]\|author\=Kevin Prin.\|date\=December 22, 2006\|publisher\=Excessif.com\|accessdate\=2012\-08\-22\|language\=fr\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213011/http://lci.tf1\.fr/cinema/news/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-5\-4967614\.html\|archivedate\=2016\-03\-07\|url\-status\=dead}} All work on the film was completed 10 days before its release in US theaters. *Silent Hill* contains 756 special effects shots. In total, $4 million was spent on them. The effects were produced by [BUF Compagnie](/wiki/BUF_Compagnie "BUF Compagnie"), Mr. X Inc., and [C.O.R.E. Digital Pictures](/wiki/C.O.R.E. "C.O.R.E.") studios. American studio [Sony Pictures](/wiki/Sony_Pictures "Sony Pictures") bought the distribution rights for $14 million for the United States and Latin America to be released under its [TriStar Pictures](/wiki/TriStar_Pictures "TriStar Pictures") [genre film](/wiki/Film_genre "Film genre") subsidiary.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\=14210 \|title\=ComingSoon.net \|publisher\=ComingSoon.net \|access\-date\=2013\-04\-22 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626122808/http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\=14210 \|archive\-date\=June 26, 2008 \|url\-status\=dead }} On December 5, 2005, TriStar announced a competition to create the best poster, targeting fans of the series. Anyone could download several photos from the official website, WelcomeToSilentHill.com, and use them as a basis to create the final image. All competition entries were posted on the Internet on January 4, 2006, and a voting process took place. On January 17, specialists from the company selected 5 out of 50 works. On January 20, the finalists were announced, and two days later, the final version of the poster was chosen.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/12/05/silent\-hill\-movie\-poster\|title\=Silent Hill Movie Poster\|author\=IGN FilmForce.\|date\=December 5, 2005\|publisher\=\[\[IGN]]\|accessdate\=2012\-09\-24\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130126051315/http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/12/05/silent\-hill\-movie\-poster\|archivedate\=2013\-01\-26\|url\-status\=live}} The Japanese trailer of the film is voiced by Joe Romersa.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.game\-ost.ru/composers.php?action\=info\&composer\_id\=407\|title\=Джо Ромерса\|author\=Небритый Пася.\|date\=February 2008\|publisher\=Game\-OST\|accessdate\=2014\-01\-26\|language\=ru\|archive\-date\=2014\-02\-01\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201225250/http://www.game\-ost.ru/composers.php?action\=info\&composer\_id\=407\|url\-status\=live}} The composers of the film are [Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka "Akira Yamaoka") and [Jeff Danna](/wiki/Jeff_Danna "Jeff Danna").{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} The music for the film is borrowed from the soundtracks of the first four games in the series.{{cite magazine\|author\=Sergey Tsilyurik\|title\=Аналитика. Спец. История Silent Hill\|trans\-title\=Analytics. Specialist. History of Silent Hill\|edition\=\[\[Country of Games]]\|location\=Moscow\|publisher\=Gameland\|date\=August 2009\|volume\=15 \|issue\=288\|pages\=46–53\|language\=ru}} The only track that does not belong to these albums is [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash "Johnny Cash")'s composition of "[Ring of Fire](/wiki/Ring_of_Fire_%28song%29 "Ring of Fire (song)")".{{citation needed\|date\=May 2024}} Yamaoka mostly kept his own melodies intact as he wanted to maintain similarities to the game adaptation.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131689/heavens\_night\_an\_interview\_with\_.php?page\=1\|title\=Heaven's Night: An Interview With Akira Yamaoka\|author\=Brandon Sheffield.\|date\=December 24, 2007\|publisher\=\[\[Gamasutra]]\|accessdate\=2012\-08\-21\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130124053550/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131689/heavens\_night\_an\_interview\_with\_.php?page\=1\|archivedate\=2013\-01\-24\|url\-status\=live}} The soundtrack, which included vocal tracks, was not released as a standalone release.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.relyonhorror.com/latest\-news/silent\-hill\-revelation\-3d\-ost\-up\-for\-preorder/\|title\=Silent Hill Revalation 3D OST up for preorder\|author\=CJ Melendez.\|date\=October 25, 2012\|publisher\=Relyonhorror.com\|accessdate\=2012\-12\-29\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130201034914/http://www.relyonhorror.com/latest\-news/silent\-hill\-revelation\-3d\-ost\-up\-for\-preorder/\|archivedate\=2013\-02\-01\|url\-status\=live}} ### Technical aspects The film in total lasts 127 minutes. According to information from several publications, there allegedly existed a director's cut of the film that was three and a half hours long, but it was shortened by over 90 minutes at the insistence of the producers, as distributors did not want to deal with a horror film of such length. Gans also worked on creating a "censored" version of the film, which lasts less than 80 minutes. However, according to him, it will never be shown to the public. The director had no control over the release of the film outside of the home region. He referred to the DVD version of the film released in America as "pitiful", citing the catastrophic quality of [compression](/wiki/Data_compression "Data compression"). He spent eight days optimizing the [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 "Rendering (computer graphics)") and [color grading](/wiki/Color_grading "Color grading") for the release in the second region.{{verify source\|date\=May 2024\|reason\=Speculative fix for undefined reference}} In an interview, the director stated that the only scene that didn't make it into the final version of the film was a brief conversation sequence involving Christabella in a church with two strangers. However, he also noted the presence of another "unfinished" fragment—the meeting of Anna originally featured her being attacked by an [Armless Man](/wiki/Silent_Hill_2 "Silent Hill 2") near the hotel, during which she is saved by Cybil and Rose and the wounded creature crawls under a car to disappear into a manhole. Due to budget concerns, choreographer Roberto Campanella was sent home for the day, and the director was not satisfied with the footage. To rectify this, the scene was simplified and rewritten without the monster.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\-cinema/news\-dossier/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-6\-4967615\-760\.html\|title\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \[page 6]\|author\=Kevin Prin.\|date\=December 22, 2006\|publisher\=Excessif.com\|accessdate\=2012\-08\-21\|language\=fr\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20130122135200/http://lci.tf1\.fr/cinema/news/interview\-christophe\-gans\-silent\-hill\-partie\-1\-page\-6\-4967615\.html\|archivedate\=2013\-01\-22\|url\-status\=dead}} Mitchell stated that after the completion of principal photography, the opening scene of the film was also reshot.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.movies.about.co/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\_2\.htm\|title\=Radha Mitchell Talks About Silent Hill (page 2\)\|author\=Fred Topel.\|publisher\=Movies.about.com\|accessdate\=2012\-10\-12\|language\=en\|archiveurl\=https://archive.today/20240526074733/https://www.webcitation.org/6BSECWDtB?url\=movies.about.com/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\_2\.htm\|archivedate\=2024\-05\-26\|url\-status\=dead}} The film was shot in the [Super 35](/wiki/Super_35 "Super 35") film format, except the scenes with the darkness, which were filmed in [high\-definition video](/wiki/High-definition_video "High-definition video"), because of its ability to cleanly capture light and digitally manipulate it in post\-production.{{cite web\| last \= Wilson\| first \= Stacy\| date \= July 17, 2005\| url \= http://horror.about.com/od/movierelated/a/int\_sh\_gans.htm\| title \= "Silent Hill" Interview with director Christophe Gans\| work \= About\| url\-status \= dead\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20060912090529/http://horror.about.com/od/movierelated/a/int\_sh\_gans.htm\| archive\-date \= September 12, 2006\| df \= mdy\-all}} The film contains around 107 different sets{{cite web\| last \= Thorpe\| first \= Valarie\| date \= July 17, 2005\| url \= http://www.reallyscary.com/setvisit\_silenthill.asp\| title \= Really Scary Visits the Set of Silent Hill\| work \= Really Scary\| access\-date \= October 10, 2006\| archive\-date \= February 1, 2013\| archive\-url \= https://archive.today/20130201173751/http://www.reallyscary.com/setvisit\_silenthill.asp\| url\-status \= live}} specifically used to represent the different versions of the town. The bipedal creatures in the film were played by professional actors or dancers covered in [latex](/wiki/Latex "Latex") and [prosthetic makeup](/wiki/Prosthetic_makeup "Prosthetic makeup"). After filming, over 619 visual effects shots were used in the film,{{cite web\| last \= Bielik\| first \= Alain\| date \= April 21, 2006\| url \= https://www.awn.com/vfxworld/silent\-hill\-nothing\-quiet\-about\-these\-horrifying\-vfx\| title \= Silent Hill: Nothing Quiet About These Horrifying VFX\| work \= VFXWorld\| access\-date \= February 15, 2021\| archive\-date \= May 9, 2021\| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210509034321/https://www.awn.com/vfxworld/silent\-hill\-nothing\-quiet\-about\-these\-horrifying\-vfx\| url\-status \= live}} with the most prominent uses being the fog that drenches the town, the transitions to darkness, and the insects that surround Pyramid Head. Rotoscoping was used to add the fog and ash effects to shots including live\-action actors, and the film made extensive use of [set extensions](/wiki/Set_extension "Set extension") as backdrops.{{cite web \|last1\=Lachance \|first1\=Alain \|title\=Living a Nightmare {{!}} Computer Graphics World \|url\=https://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2006/Volume\-29\-Issue\-6\-June\-2006\-/Living\-a\-Nightmare.aspx \|website\=www.cgw.com \|access\-date\=February 15, 2021 \|archive\-date\=May 19, 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519024601/https://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2006/Volume\-29\-Issue\-6\-June\-2006\-/Living\-a\-Nightmare.aspx \|url\-status\=live }} To maintain the feel of the games, Gans had the sound designer of the original *[Silent Hill](/wiki/Silent_Hill_%28video_game%29 "Silent Hill (video game)")*, [Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka "Akira Yamaoka"), flown to the set several times.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3281/heavens\_night\_an\_interview\_with\_.php?page\=2 \|title\=Interview with Akira Yamaoka \|publisher\=Gamasutra.com \|date\=December 24, 2007 \|access\-date\=2013\-09\-07 \|archive\-date\=December 28, 2007 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228111121/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3281/heavens\_night\_an\_interview\_with\_.php?page\=2 \|url\-status\=live }} Additionally, Gans had a 40\-inch television brought onto the set, to which he attached a [PlayStation 2](/wiki/PlayStation_2 "PlayStation 2"); Gans then played the original *Silent Hill* on the system so that the actors and cinematographers could see how Gans wanted to emulate various camera angles and movements.
[ "Production\n----------", "### Development", "[left\\|thumb\\|Christophe Gans (pictured here in 2010\\) claimed that he had created a new type of horror film.](/wiki/File:Christophe_Gans_2010.JPG \"Christophe Gans 2010.JPG\")", "The idea of the film adaptation of *[Silent Hill](/wiki/Silent_Hill_%28video_game%29 \"Silent Hill (video game)\")* (1999\\) was voiced by director Christophe Gans for the first time to producer [Samuel Hadida](/wiki/Samuel_Hadida \"Samuel Hadida\") during the filming of the film *[Brotherhood of the Wolf](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_the_Wolf \"Brotherhood of the Wolf\")* (2001\\).{{cite video\\|people\\=Chris Sikorowski\\|year\\=2006\\|title\\=Path of Darkness: Making 'Silent Hill'\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=JRYriQ5Cc0Q\\| archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/JRYriQ5Cc0Q\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-11\\-17 \\| url\\-status\\=live\\|format\\=\\[\\[VOB]]\\|medium\\=2 DVD\\|publisher\\=Sony Pictures}}{{cbignore}} Hadida, knowing the game's rich visual aesthetics, believed that eerie storytelling matched Gans' encyclopedic knowledge of cinematography. Gans became acquainted with the video game series approximately six years before the release of his film, and initially wanted to adapt [the second game](/wiki/Silent_Hill_2 \"Silent Hill 2\") (2001\\) since it was the most \"emotional\" of all four and the most beloved by fans. He compared it to the [myth of Orpheus](/wiki/Orpheus_and_Eurydice \"Orpheus and Eurydice\"), who descended into the underworld after [Eurydice](/wiki/Eurydice \"Eurydice\"). However, he said that *Silent Hill 2* was not the \"real *Silent Hill*\": there was no mythology, and the city only played the role of a backdrop for the unfolding story. As a result, he realized that it was impossible to film an adaptation of the second game without saying a word about the origin of the city.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\\=6605116\\&publicUserId\\=1002415\\|title\\=Silent Hill Movie Interview: The Director's Cut\\|author\\=Shane Bettenhausen\\|date\\=January 23, 2006\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[1UP.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-04\\-03\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060308202111/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\\=6605116\\&publicUserId\\=1002415\\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-03\\-08}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/12/15/avary\\-talks\\-silent\\-hill\\|title\\=Avary Talks Silent Hill\\|author\\=IGN FilmForce\\|date\\=December 15, 2004\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415112200/http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/12/15/avary\\-talks\\-silent\\-hill\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "According to Gans, the first game captivated him with its extraordinary plot: it was so \"completely unique\" and \"absolutely frightening\" that it was worthy to become the basis for a real film. Many of his entourage were surprised at the opinion that a banal video game can scare someone. To this, the director replied that *Silent Hill* was one of the scariest experiences he ever had. He called it \"an experiment with a unique and independent world, which is both beautiful and terrible at the same time\". Even before the release of *Silent Hill 2*, Gans sent \"a ton of letters\" to copyright holders, but received no response. He presented his vision of the film and how important the games are to him in a 37\\-minute video with Japanese subtitles, which was shown at a meeting of the [Konami](/wiki/Konami \"Konami\") board of directors. Representatives of the company realized that Gans was the only one among the major studios fighting for the right to film adaptation who understood the essence of the game,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|title\\=О фильме. История проекта\\|publisher\\=Silenthillmovie.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-07\\-27\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}[Tom Cruise](/wiki/Tom_Cruise \"Tom Cruise\"), [Paramount Pictures](/wiki/Paramount_Pictures \"Paramount Pictures\"), [Miramax](/wiki/Miramax \"Miramax\"), and [Sam Raimi](/wiki/Sam_Raimi \"Sam Raimi\")'s managers were also interested in obtaining the film rights.{{Cite journal\\|author \\= Valery Korneev \\|title\\= Сайлент Хилл на широком экране \\|journal\\= Country of Games \\|location\\= Moscow \\|year\\= 2006 \\|publisher\\= Technomir \\|pages \\= 178–181 \\|language\\=ru}}{{full citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} and the director received the filming rights after two months,{{cite web\\| last \\= Douglas\\| first \\= Edward.\\| date \\= April 20, 2006\\| url \\= http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\\=14165\\| title \\= Exclusive: Director Christophe Gans \\| work \\= ComingSoon\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016002858/http://comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\\=14165\\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-10\\-16}} which he sought for a total of five years.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://theweek.com/articles/449289/how\\-hollywood\\-make\\-truly\\-great\\-video\\-game\\-movie\\|title\\=How Hollywood can make a truly great video game movie\\|date\\=March 17, 2014\\|website\\=theweek.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=December 7, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207093838/https://theweek.com/articles/449289/how\\-hollywood\\-make\\-truly\\-great\\-video\\-game\\-movie\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.timeout.ru/journal/feature/1826/2/\\|title\\=Лучшие и худшие экранизации видеоигр\\|date\\=December 2, 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Time Out (magazine)\\|Time Out]] Moscow. No. 47\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-19\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020055300/http://www.timeout.ru/journal/feature/1826/2\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-10\\-20\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|trans\\-title\\=The best and worst video game adaptations}}{{Cite journal \\|author \\= Boris Ivanov \\|language\\=ru \\|title\\= Кинопремьера. Сайлент Хилл 2\\. Возвращение в ад \\|type\\= magazine \\|journal\\= Total DVD \\|location\\= Moscow \\|year\\= 2012 \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Gameland]] \\|volume\\= 11\\|number\\= 139\\|pages \\= 24–29}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://kotaku.com/5955050/silent\\-hill\\-revelation\\-3d\\-the\\-kotaku\\-movie\\-review\\|title\\=Silent Hill: Revelation 3D: The Kotaku Movie Review\\|author\\=Matt Hawkins.\\|date\\=October 25, 2012\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Kotaku]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-29\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127092751/http://kotaku.com/5955050/silent\\-hill\\-revelation\\-3d\\-the\\-kotaku\\-movie\\-review\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-27\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The publishers insisted that the project retain the original plot and setting.", "Gans had not previously directed any game adaptations, and stated that the process is completely unlike anything else. According to him, in projects of this type, the most important challenge is to bring the background story in the game to the foreground. Hadida said that \"*Silent Hill* is something outside of cinema.\" He believed that the game was so popular because everyone felt something unique when playing it, and the film only enhances that feeling. The creators have also said that the film is a tribute to the horror genre. Gans considered his film to be halfway between science fiction, [Clive Barker](/wiki/Clive_Barker \"Clive Barker\")'s books, and [hardcore horror](/wiki/Hardcore_horror \"Hardcore horror\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "### Writing", "[thumb\\|Roger Avary wrote the script word by word while playing the game.](/wiki/File:Avary%2C_Roger_%282007%29.jpg \"Avary, Roger (2007).jpg\")", "When the decision was made to adapt *Silent Hill*, Gans and Hadida phoned screenwriter [Roger Avary](/wiki/Roger_Avary \"Roger Avary\"). They outlined their plans and offered to write a script. \"It's not so easy\", Avary said, \"when you're going to film something, especially a game, you need to be ready to take everything apart, and then put it together in a new way. The only thing that remains of the original material is the main idea, the concept, which all your actions are subordinated to.\" It was decided to combine in\\-game monsters with creatures invented by the film crew. Gans tried to stick as close to the original source as possible, while Avary saw it as his main task to convey the spirit of the game; he kept some storylines, and tried to combine the rest of the elements into new compositions. Thus, the director was more faithful to the creator's intention, and the screenwriter preferred to interpret the original material broadly.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.edge\\-online.co.uk/archives/2005/09/roger\\_avary\\_tal.php\\|title\\=Interview with Roger Avary\\|date\\=September 2009\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Edge (magazine)\\|Edge Online]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015200538/http://www.edge\\-online.com/\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Since Gans had already formed the concept of the future plot of the film, he sent the screenwriter several discs with \"atmospheric\" videosAmong others, *[The City of the Dead](/wiki/The_City_of_the_Dead_%28film%29 \"The City of the Dead (film)\")* was recorded on these discs. to point Avary's work in the right direction, as well as the developments compiled by himself and [Nicolas Boukhrief](/wiki/Nicolas_Boukhrief \"Nicolas Boukhrief\"). They were written in French, but the scriptwriter was required to translate them into English, write dialogues and change a few conceptual factors. Avary did not limit himself to acquaintance with the presented film library and personally went through all entries of the game series. All changes made by Avary were translated into Christophe's native language. A rough draft of the work was ready by October 2004\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2004/10/19/avary\\-on\\-silent\\-hill\\-2\\|title\\=Avary on Silent Hill\\|author\\=Brian Linder.\\|date\\=October 19, 2004\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513090521/https://www.ign.com/articles/2004/10/19/avary\\-on\\-silent\\-hill\\-2\\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-13\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\| last \\= Gans\\| first \\= Christophe\\| date \\= March 10, 2006\\| url \\= http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/\\| title \\= Silent Hill – Notes from the director Christophe Gans – \"On Preserving and Contributing to the Mythology of the Games, On Interpreting Silent Hill's Monsters\"\\| work \\= Sony Pictures}}{{dead link\\|date\\=January 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Nevertheless, due to the complete absence of male characters, the script was rejected by the producers; only after the script was modified to include [Sean Bean](/wiki/Sean_Bean \"Sean Bean\")'s character and subplot was it approved.{{cite web\\|author\\=Kevin Prin.\\|date\\=December 22, 2006\\|url\\=http://www.dvdrama.com/news\\-18185\\-interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\.php\\|title\\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \\[page 1]\\|format\\=php\\|publisher\\=Excessif.com\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-10\\|language\\=fr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209190508/http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\\-cinema/news\\-dossier/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-1\\-4967610\\-760\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Avary recalled that as soon as they received the \"stupid note from the studio\", Gans got angry. Yet, later they realized that this storyline can be made interesting and emphasize the peculiarities of the perception of reality. As a result, the plot became a combination of the first game with separate elements of the second and third. Gans elaborated: \"We weren't trying to put all three games into a two\\-hour production, this is an adaptation of the first *Silent Hill*. However, there are so many interesting details \\[in the following installments] that it was impossible to resist.\"", "Roger Avary regularly received letters from fans, whom he called \"crazy\". He saved some messages, the senders of which claimed that only they can write the script, and if Roger does not cope with his task, then he will be found and killed. Avary believed these threats were very real. Fans sent him their own versions of scripts to his mailbox, but Avary, saying that \"it all smacks of delirium\", deleted them without reading.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ag.ru/news/22\\-09\\-2004\\#14040\\|title\\=Экранизируя Silent Hill\\|author\\=Владимир Горячев.\\|date\\=September 22, 2004\\|website\\=www.ag.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-14\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413003428/http://www.ag.ru/news/22\\-09\\-2004\\#14040\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-13\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Avary used the town of [Centralia, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Centralia%2C_Pennsylvania \"Centralia, Pennsylvania\") as a prototype for the town of Silent Hill;{{cite web\\|url\\=http://silenthill.ugo.com/features/realsilenthill/default.asp\\|title\\=The Real Silent Hill\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[UGO]]\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-04\\-13\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413153435/http://silenthill.ugo.com/features/realsilenthill/default.asp\\|archive\\-date\\=April 13, 2009}} he commented that as a child, his father, who was a mining engineer, used to tell him stories about Centralia, where coal deposits from the local mine caught fire and released toxic gases into the town, as well as creating [sinkholes](/wiki/Sinkholes \"Sinkholes\") when the abandoned mineshafts and coal seams began to collapse. This forced the town to evacuate forever. Avary was fascinated since childhood by the idea that fires underneath the town would be burning for such a long time. The film acquired its working title in honor of the city — *Centralia*.", "Samuel Hadida tried to approach the writing of the script with the same feelings that arose during the gameplay of Silent Hill. The script also required the creation of a logical splicing between the various levels so that a person not familiar with the game could easily understand what was happening on the screen. The creators were guided by the impressions of the fans, who suggested what impressed them more, what kept them in suspense, which characters seemed the most effective. At the heart of the plot, there is the search for a daughter, which leads the main character. Roger liked long dialogues, while Christophe preferred to shorten them as much as possible. In the end, they managed to achieve balance. Actions accounted for 30 pages, in which Rose explores the world of Silent Hill. There were long debates over the ending. For the ending, Avary wanted to use the theme of forgiveness, while Gans wanted to see a darker ending, the key message of which would be revenge. As a result, Avary gave up as he was convinced by the director's logical arguments.", "After taking the script, [Radha Mitchell](/wiki/Radha_Mitchell \"Radha Mitchell\") read only 10 pages of text.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gametrailers.com/videos/prbfvi/silent\\-hill\\-\\-movie\\-\\-featurette\\|title\\=Silent Hill (Movie). Featurette\\|date\\=April 21, 2006\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[GameTrailers]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-23\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303111423/http://www.gametrailers.com/videos/prbfvi/silent\\-hill\\-\\-movie\\-\\-featurette\\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-03\\|url\\-status\\=live}} She was alone in her apartment and, by her own admission, she felt uncomfortable with fear. She finished reading it only a week later in the light of the sun, and said: \"That's what attracted me to the piece as well because it was definitely a page\\-turner and it freaked me out\". Sean Bean also found the plot scary. In contrast to these impressions, [Laurie Holden](/wiki/Laurie_Holden \"Laurie Holden\") liked the script – she deemed it spectacular, complex, multi\\-level with wonderful themes and therefore interesting to work with. [Deborah Kara Unger](/wiki/Deborah_Kara_Unger \"Deborah Kara Unger\") called it \"*[Alice in Wonderland](/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\")* meets *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno \"Dante's Inferno\")*\".", "### Concept", "[left\\|thumb\\|The [heroines](/wiki/Heroine \"Heroine\") of the film are Rose Da Silva (left) and Cybil Bennett (right).](/wiki/File:Silent_Hill_%282006%29_screenshot.png \"Silent Hill (2006) screenshot.png\")", "An integral part of the [*Silent Hill* universe](/wiki/Silent_Hill \"Silent Hill\") is the reality and unreality of the city. Silent Hill exists simultaneously in four different variations: the city of the 1970s, Silent Hill in the present, Silent Hill in the fog, and Silent Hill in the darkness. Two of the above measurements are based on temporal changes – one represents the city of thirty years ago and is used only in flashbacks, the other displays the current state of the city to which Christopher goes in search of his wife and daughter. The two remaining dimensions include a foggy day in which Rose searches for her daughter, symbolizing [purgatory](/wiki/Purgatory \"Purgatory\"), and a gloomy day, consisting of enveloping darkness, which is the embodiment of [Hell](/wiki/Hell \"Hell\"). Gans reported that in his work he tried to discover new dimensions of space and time in [metaphysical](/wiki/Metaphysics \"Metaphysics\") and [mystical](/wiki/Mystical \"Mystical\") aspects.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\\-hill\\-director\\-interview\\-exclusive\\-image?page\\=3\\|title\\=Silent Hill: Director Interview \\& Exclusive Image (page 3\\)\\|author\\=Jeff Otto.\\|date\\=March 10, 2006\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530163723/http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\\-hill\\-director\\-interview\\-exclusive\\-image?page\\=3\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He stated, \"We're not trying to explain everything, as I prefer people to find meaning in this story themselves. It is much more pleasant to enjoy the understatement. It's kind of a playful invitation to be smart\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|title\\=О фильме. О съёмках\\|work\\=Официальный российский сайт фильма\\|publisher\\=Silenthillmovie.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-09\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "According to executive producer Andrew Mason, *Silent Hill* is a story of what happens in the moments between death and fate. The film talks about people who deny their own fate and therefore fall into the trap of [alternate dimensions](/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction \"Parallel universes in fiction\"). It \"deals with the terror of loneliness, the fear of the dark, the fear of taking responsibility for your own evil side, and the fear of your own fate\". The game created a sense of constant threat, while the film \"seeks to reproduce that experience for a wider audience\".", "The film's [leitmotif](/wiki/Leitmotif \"Leitmotif\") is motherhood, faith and persecution, presented at a symbolic level. Motherhood represents a form of the [virgin birth](/wiki/Virgin_birth_of_Jesus \"Virgin birth of Jesus\"). In addition to Rose, the key characters in the themes of the [dramatic structure](/wiki/Dramatic_structure \"Dramatic structure\") are the childless Cybil, Dahlia, and Christabella; the latter of whom lost her child, believing that abandoning motherhood is a blessing for society. Gans stated that motherhood in the film is about \"[Immaculate Conception](/wiki/Immaculate_Conception \"Immaculate Conception\") — motherhood achieved in the noblest way.\" By the time *Silent Hill* comes to its denouement, which takes place in the sanctuary of the sect, the film turns into a cautionary tale warning against [religious fanaticism](/wiki/Religious_fanaticism \"Religious fanaticism\"). The director noted that [monotheistic](/wiki/Monotheism \"Monotheism\") religions constantly attacked the idea of femininity, but the film, at the same time, is not moralizing.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|title\\=О фильме. Адаптация игры\\|work\\=Официальный российский сайт фильма\\|publisher\\=Silenthillmovie.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-05\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=July 17, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717054708/http://www.silenthillmovie.ru/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Gans described the concept of the town's connection to the child Alessa and the cult: \"It's a town of people trapped in dark dreams, and she inflicts onto the town what those people did to her body. That is, to me, the meaning of the darkness. The appearance of the town is corrupted in the way that her own flesh was wounded.\"{{cite web\\| last \\= Bettenhausen\\| first \\= Shane\\| date \\= February 23, 2006\\| url \\= http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\\=6605116\\&publicUserId\\=1002415\\| title \\= Silent Hill Movie Interview: The Director's Cut\\| work \\= 1UP\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120927032245/http://www.1up.com/do/blogEntry?bId\\=6605116\\&publicUserId\\=1002415\\| archive\\-date \\= September 27, 2012\\| df \\= mdy\\-all}} He furthers expands on Alessa's connection to the alternate reality seen in the film, saying that the alternate reality is \"in \\[Alessa's] head\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} \"It's interesting because the town itself mirrors this fractured psychology—different dimensions, different doubles of the same person.\" In speaking about the creatures in *Silent Hill*, Gans said that \"these monsters are \\[damned], with the poetic direction of the term: they are a little like the Japanese phantoms, i.e. residues of forgotten feelings as strong as hatred or \\[guilt].\" \"The monsters in the game are not really monsters, but rather a mockery of human beings. The real monsters are the people, the cultists who tortured Alessa. When I approached the film, I knew that it was impossible to represent the monsters as simply beasts that jump on you.\"", "### Influences", "The appearance of the games in the series was largely influenced by [Adrian Lyne](/wiki/Adrian_Lyne \"Adrian Lyne\")'s film *[Jacob's Ladder](/wiki/Jacob%27s_Ladder_%281990_film%29 \"Jacob's Ladder (1990 film)\")* (1990\\), especially the subway and hospital scenes. Gans believed that the film crew was able to create a unique piece that did not rely on the style of Lyne's film. Gans' film adaptation is not an imitation of Lyne's film, as *Silent Hill* has long evolved into a completely separate phenomenon that exists on its own. The film was influenced by the work of [Sergio Leone](/wiki/Sergio_Leone \"Sergio Leone\") and [David Lean](/wiki/David_Lean \"David Lean\"): the city of the seventies was created under the inspiration of the films *[Lawrence of Arabia](/wiki/Lawrence_of_Arabia_%28film%29 \"Lawrence of Arabia (film)\")* (1962\\) and *[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly](/wiki/The_Good%2C_the_Bad_and_the_Ugly \"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\")* (1966\\), and in general, it was filmed under the influence of various works ranging from a book of pictures about [Chernobyl](/wiki/Chernobyl \"Chernobyl\") to *[The Matrix](/wiki/The_Matrix \"The Matrix\")*.{{Cite journal \\|author \\= Benjamin Rozovas. \\|editor\\= \\|format\\= \\|url\\= \\|title\\= Silent Hill: Silence de Mort \\|type\\= Журнал \\|orig\\-year\\= \\| agency \\= \\|edition\\= Score \\|location\\= Франция \\|date\\= \\|year\\= \\|publisher\\= \\|volume\\= \\|issue\\= \\|number\\= \\|pages \\= 39–59 \\|series\\= \\|isbn \\= \\|issn \\= \\|doi \\= \\|bibcode \\= \\|arxiv \\= \\|pmid \\= \\|language\\= fr \\|quote\\= }} In the film, Gans paid homage to the works of [Salvador Dalí](/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD \"Salvador Dalí\"), [Hans Bellmer](/wiki/Hans_Bellmer \"Hans Bellmer\"), [Francis Bacon](/wiki/Francis_Bacon_%28artist%29 \"Francis Bacon (artist)\"), [Jean Cocteau](/wiki/Jean_Cocteau \"Jean Cocteau\"), [Alberto Giacometti](/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti \"Alberto Giacometti\"), [Clive Barker](/wiki/Clive_Barker \"Clive Barker\"), [H. P. Lovecraft](/wiki/H._P._Lovecraft \"H. P. Lovecraft\"), [David Cronenberg](/wiki/David_Cronenberg \"David Cronenberg\") and [Michael Mann](/wiki/Michael_Mann \"Michael Mann\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\\-cinema/news\\-dossier/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-8\\-4967617\\-760\\.html\\|title\\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \\[page 8]\\|author\\=Kevin Prin.\\|date\\=December 22, 2006\\|publisher\\=Excessif.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-22\\|language\\=fr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20240526071600/https://www.webcitation.org/6B8cwR36d?url\\=http://lci.tf1\\.fr/cinema/news/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-8\\-4967617\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\\-hill\\-director\\-interview\\-exclusive\\-image?page\\=2\\|title\\=Silent Hill: Director Interview \\& Exclusive Image\\|author\\=Jeff Otto\\|date\\=March 10, 2006\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530161733/http://www.ign.com/articles/2006/03/10/silent\\-hill\\-director\\-interview\\-exclusive\\-image?page\\=2\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-05\\-30\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "According to the director's initial idea, six [Pyramid Heads](/wiki/Pyramid_Head \"Pyramid Head\") were to be present inside the church in the film's denouement, slaughtering the cult members with various weapons, which was supposed to be an allusion to the events of *[Dante's Inferno](/wiki/Dante%27s_Inferno \"Dante's Inferno\")*. When budgetary and time constraints prevented this ending from being filmed, Gans created the new ending in which Alessa kills cultists with barbed wire – this sequence was inspired by the [anime](/wiki/Anime \"Anime\") *[Urotsukidōji](/wiki/Urotsukid%C5%8Dji \"Urotsukidōji\")*.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-7\\-4967616\\-760\\.html\\|title\\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \\[page 7]\\|author\\=Kevin Prin.\\|date\\=December 22, 2006\\|publisher\\=Excessif.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-22\\|language\\=fr\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802232333/http://lci.tf1\\.fr/cinema/news/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-7\\-4967616\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-08\\-02\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} In one of the scenes, Rose tries to remember how to get to the hospital room, and, studying the map, says: \"down, down, left, right, left, right\". Valery Korneev considered this scene a reference to the [Konami Code](/wiki/Konami_Code \"Konami Code\"), describing it as a barely noticeable curtsey towards the adult gamer audience. The ringtone on Rose's phone matches that of [Solid Snake](/wiki/Solid_Snake \"Solid Snake\") every time he receives a coded message.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}} The director drew parallels between Avary's script and episodes of *[The Twilight Zone](/wiki/The_Twilight_Zone_%281959_TV_series%29 \"The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)\")* (1959–1964\\).{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}} Based on the film, a literary adaptation of the same name was written in Japanese by Paula Edgewood and Osamu Makino.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/674951239\\|title\\=サイレントヒル /\\|date\\=2006\\|publisher\\=Worldcat.org\\|oclc\\=674951239\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-29\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021080933/http://www.worldcat.org/title/sairento\\-hiru/oclc/674951239\\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-10\\-21\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Characters and casting", "The director noted that in the game, each character is very emotional and vulnerable, but at the same time the characters were called flat and schematic. After they were put on paper, Gans realized that the result was a failure. The actors represented more expansive and complex personas, so many of the characters were revamped.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.silenthillmemories.net/creators/interviews/2005\\.07\\.18\\_gans\\_about\\_en.htm\\|title\\=Interview with Christophe Gans (About) – Silent Hill Memories\\|website\\=www.silenthillmemories.net\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-12\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=November 2, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102122254/http://www.silenthillmemories.net/creators/interviews/2005\\.07\\.18\\_gans\\_about\\_en.htm\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The filmmakers wanted all the characters in the film to appear gray and murky, as if they were in different dimensions simultaneously. When selecting actors, Christophe paid attention to those people who worked in independent cinema, as they brought a \"different quality\".", "The protagonist of the original video game is a man named [Harry Mason](/wiki/Harry_Mason_%28Silent_Hill%29 \"Harry Mason (Silent Hill)\"). The director of the film made a significant departure from the original source and replaced the main character with a woman, Rose Da Silva. Cristophe and the writers suddenly realized that they were working \"with a completely feminine world\". Gans explained that if you look closely at the game and do not take into account the appearance, you can see that the characters behave more like women than like men. They are worried about the child, they are very sensitive and often cry – all this is stereotypical for mother characters. \"The whole movie is about motherhood\", the director said.{{cite web\\|date\\=2006\\|url\\=http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/2006/03/on\\_harry\\_mason.php\\|title\\=On Harry Mason, the WonderCon Footage, and Capturing the Horror of the Game\\|format\\=php\\|access\\-date\\=2006\\-04\\-21\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305203640/http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/productiondiary/archives/2006/03/on\\_harry\\_mason.php\\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-05\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He believed that in any sinister story there must be a \"saving grace\". This change, despite the fact that Gans himself is a fan of the media franchise, did not bother him in the least \"because the game is a game, and the film is a film\".", "The creators spent a lot of time and effort to find an actress for the role of Rose, sophisticated and defenseless, who had the right amount of sensitivity in her character. They needed an actress with a vulnerable image, full of determination. The audience had to worry about Rose and at the same time admire her ability to get out of various difficult situations with honor. [Milla Jovovich](/wiki/Milla_Jovovich \"Milla Jovovich\") and [Meg Ryan](/wiki/Meg_Ryan \"Meg Ryan\") auditioned for the role,{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.lki.ru/text.php?id\\=4820\\|title\\=Централия — прообраз Silent Hill\\|author\\=Геннадий Сапрыкин.\\|date\\=January 2009\\|work\\=Lki.ru\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Лучшие компьютерные игры]], №1 (86\\)\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-07\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=January 20, 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120075713/http://www.lki.ru/text.php?id\\=4820\\|url\\-status\\=live}} but in the end the choice fell on Australian [Radha Mitchell](/wiki/Radha_Mitchell \"Radha Mitchell\"), previously known for her roles in 2004 films such as [Woody Allen](/wiki/Woody_Allen \"Woody Allen\")'s *[Melinda and Melinda](/wiki/Melinda_and_Melinda \"Melinda and Melinda\")*, [Tony Scott](/wiki/Tony_Scott \"Tony Scott\")'s *[Man on Fire](/wiki/Man_on_Fire_%282004_film%29 \"Man on Fire (2004 film)\")*, and [Marc Forster](/wiki/Marc_Forster \"Marc Forster\")'s *[Finding Neverland](/wiki/Finding_Neverland_%28film%29 \"Finding Neverland (film)\")*. Mitchell herself became interested in the project mainly because of Gans' personality – she was deeply impressed by his previous film, *[Brotherhood of the Wolf](/wiki/Brotherhood_of_the_Wolf \"Brotherhood of the Wolf\")*.{{cite web\\|author\\=Jeff Otto.\\|date\\=February 23, 2006\\|url\\=http://movies.ign.com/articles/691/691007p1\\.html\\|title\\=Silent Hill Set Visit\\|work\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20061207223935/http://movies.ign.com/articles/691/691007p1\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2006\\-12\\-07\\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-10\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The executive producer of the film, Andrew Mason, noted that Mitchell had the freshness, energy and joy of life necessary for the main character, who will lead the audience through a terrible world. Gans characterized Mitchell as a sophisticated and elegant sixties\\-style actress, reminiscent of [Grace Kelly](/wiki/Grace_Kelly \"Grace Kelly\") and [Mia Farrow](/wiki/Mia_Farrow \"Mia Farrow\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/site/html/prodnotes.html\\|title\\=Silent Hill – Production Notes\\|work\\=\\[\\[Sony]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Sony]]pictures.com\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-08\\-06\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009191103/http://www.sonypictures.com/movies/silenthill/site/html/prodnotes.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Radha said that during the filming, she had to run a lot around the set and shout \"Sharon\" in 50 different ways.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.compleatseanbean.com/silenthill\\-press6\\.html\\|title\\=Silent Hill – Interviews from the set\\|author\\=Staci Wilson.\\|date\\=July 18, 2005\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[About.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-10\\-12\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215175356/http://compleatseanbean.com/silenthill\\-press6\\.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Also during the filming process, her attitude towards the character changed. She stated that there is something [feminist](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\") in the concept of the film, since all female characters are in some kind of fantasy world, while men are only in reality. For the main character, about a hundred costumes were created, each of which was slightly darker than the previous one. In the beginning, Rose is dressed in a very light dress, and in the end – in a blood red, which symbolizes her evolution.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2021}}", "{{Multiple image\\|align\\=center\\|direction\\=horizontal\\|total\\_width\\=920px\\|image1\\=Sean Bean 2005\\.jpg\\|image2\\=Laurie Holden 2011\\.jpg\\|image3\\=RadhaMitchell09TIFF.jpg\\|image4\\=Jodelle Ferland 2, 2011\\.jpg\\|image5\\=Kim Coates by Gage Skidmore.jpg\\|image6\\=Roberto Campanella.jpg\\|image7\\=Deborah Kara Unger in Sep 2009\\.jpg\\|image8\\=Alice Krige 2006\\.jpg\\|footer\\=''Silent Hill'' cast: Sean Bean, Laurie Holden, Radha Mitchell, Jodelle Ferland, Kim Coates, Roberto Campanella, Deborah Kara Unger, and Alice Krige\\|borderstyle\\=none\\|color\\=CCCCCC}}", "Ten\\-year\\-old [Jodelle Ferland](/wiki/Jodelle_Ferland \"Jodelle Ferland\") played three roles at once – her character exists in the *Silent Hill* universe in several incarnations: Sharon is the embodiment of \"all the best\" that was in the [immolated](/wiki/Death_by_burning \"Death by burning\") Alessa, the suffering Alessa and the demonic Dark Alessa. The filmmakers intended to cast three different girls for these roles, but, nevertheless, a young actress was found capable of portraying these roles at the same time. Gans saw Ferland as \"the ideal actress\", drawing attention to her performance in the *[Kingdom Hospital](/wiki/Kingdom_Hospital \"Kingdom Hospital\")* miniseries and [Terry Gilliam](/wiki/Terry_Gilliam \"Terry Gilliam\")'s *[Tideland](/wiki/Tideland_%28film%29 \"Tideland (film)\")*. After Jodelle made her audition statement \"I've always wanted to play the devil\", and the director watched 15 hours of footage featuring the actress, she was approved for the role.{{cite web\\| last \\= Ferry\\| first \\= IIan\\| date \\= April 2, 2006\\| url \\= http://www.ecranlarge.com/interview\\-282\\.php\\| title \\= Master Class Silent Hill (French)\\| work \\= Ecranlarge\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20061007185326/http://www.ecranlarge.com/interview\\-282\\.php\\| archive\\-date \\= October 7, 2006\\| df \\= mdy\\-all}} Ferland, who had 26 acting credits at the time, reported that she has already played several girls similar to her character from the film: \"I usually get creepy roles, like Dark Alessa\".{{Cite journal\\|author\\=Денис Данилов.\\|title\\=Туман\\|trans\\-title\\=Fog\\|edition\\=Total DVD\\|location\\=Moscow\\|date\\=May 2006\\|volume\\=\\|number\\=5 (63, н. в.)\\|pages\\=1–8\\|language\\=ru}} Gans supported Ferland's performances with \"a combination of charm and gentle direction\".", "The role of [Sean Bean](/wiki/Sean_Bean \"Sean Bean\"), who plays Rose's husband, [Kim Coates](/wiki/Kim_Coates \"Kim Coates\"), who plays the police officer Gucci, and all the related storylines were missing from the initial script. They were introduced after the producers familiarized themselves with the initial version of the script and a note sent to the director about the need to introduce male characters into the film.{{refn\\|According to another version, the role of Christopher was present in the original version of the script, appearing at the beginning and end of the film, therefore much less attention was paid to it than in the final version.{{cite web\\| last \\= Prin\\| first \\= Kevin\\| date \\= December 22, 2006\\| url \\= http://www.dvdrama.com/news.php?18185\\| title \\= INTERVIEW: CHRISTOPHE GANS (SILENT HILL) PARTIE 1 (French)\\| work \\= DVDRama\\| access\\-date \\= January 3, 2007\\| archive\\-date \\= January 12, 2007\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20070112172007/http://www.dvdrama.com/news.php?18185\\| url\\-status \\= live}}\\|group\\=A}} Sean Bean was the only one of all the actors in the lead roles who did not even try to play the game – he just saw the game packaging.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/09/09/bean\\-on\\-silent\\-hill\\-treasure\\-2\\|title\\=Bean on Silent Hill, Treasure 2\\|author\\=Jeff Otto.\\|date\\=September 9, 2005\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|language\\=en\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415112152/http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/09/09/bean\\-on\\-silent\\-hill\\-treasure\\-2\\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-15\\|url\\-status\\=live}} He described his character as someone who is constantly between despair and determination to see the case through. Christopher tries to get to the bottom of it, no matter what it costs him. He is a successful businessman and a loving husband who senses the presence of evil. There is a certain nostalgia in his relationship with Rose. The actor for the role of Christopher was selected as the last one. The character was named after the director. The prototype of Christopher was the game's protagonist Harry Mason. Coates considered *Silent Hill* to be the strangest film he had ever starred in. His character officer Gucci's name is briefly mentioned in one of the notes found in the game – in it, he is described as a narcotics officer who suddenly dies of a heart attack.{{cite video game\\|title\\=Silent Hill\\|developer\\=Konami (Team Silent)\\|publisher\\=Konami\\|date\\=January 31, 1999\\|platform\\=PlayStation\\|quote\\=Officer Gucci, Newspaper article: Coroner Seals called. Officer Gucci unlikely to be murdered. He apparently died naturally. But, medical records show Officer Gucci had no prior symptoms of heart disease… Investigation stalled. \"PTV\" dealers still at large. Suspicious deaths continue. Like the anti\\-drug mayor, a narcotics officer dies of a sudden heart failure of unknown origin.}}", "[left\\|thumb\\|175px\\|Deborah Kara Unger compared her character to [Cassandra](/wiki/Cassandra \"Cassandra\").](/wiki/File:Cassandra1.jpeg \"Cassandra1.jpeg\")", "The character of [Cybil Bennett](/wiki/Cybil_Bennett \"Cybil Bennett\"), a brave, bold, and fearless police officer, is portrayed by [Laurie Holden](/wiki/Laurie_Holden \"Laurie Holden\"). The team behind the film were looking for an actress who would evoke sympathy from the audience when she sacrifices her own life to save Rose and Sharon. In the game, Cybil can also die a violent death – the parasite\\-infected police officer is killed by Harry Mason.{{refn\\|There is an option to save Cybil, but the main storyline of ''Silent Hill'' and ''Silent Hill 3'' involves her death.{{cite book \\|title\\=Silent Hill 3 公式完全攻略ガイド/失われた記憶 サイレントヒル・クロニクル \\|publisher\\=NTT Publishing Co., Ltd \\|language\\=ja \\|place\\=Japan \\|isbn\\=4\\-7571\\-8145\\-0 \\|pages\\=28–29 \\|chapter\\=Silent Hill ending analysis \\|date\\=July 31, 2003}}\\|group\\=A}} Holden tried to play *Silent Hill* at the request of the director, but did not progress beyond the main character's first encounter with Cybil at the café.{{refn\\|Practically the beginning of the game.\\|group\\=A}} According to Holden, there is something of a [lone wolf](/wiki/wiktionary:Lone_wolf \"Lone wolf\") in Cybil. The character bears a scar in her soul from her devoutly religious mother who passed away when Cybil was 13 years old, which is why she rejects religion and remains lonely. Afterward, Bennett finds her calling: to serve and protect. She wants to be like a mother to the children she saves. Holden stated that at that time, it was the \"coolest\" action role she had ever played. She noted that the character has a kind heart: \"She is very strong but is very misunderstood.\" In order to resemble the character more, Holden's long hair was cut. Gans cast Holden after seeing her in *[The Majestic](/wiki/The_Majestic_%28film%29 \"The Majestic (film)\")*, stating, \"in *The Majestic*, she was beautifully feminine and I cast her so I could show her other side, make her strong and sleek.\"{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.deviantart.com/kulovers09/journal/Silent\\-Hill\\-film\\-Cast\\-232846407\\|title\\=Silent Hill (film) Cast by kulovers09 on DeviantArt\\|website\\=www.deviantart.com\\|date\\=May 7, 2009 \\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-03\\-25\\|archive\\-date\\=August 17, 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817015038/https://www.deviantart.com/kulovers09/journal/Silent\\-Hill\\-film\\-Cast\\-232846407\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "[Dahlia Gillespie](/wiki/Dahlia_Gillespie \"Dahlia Gillespie\"), played by [Deborah Kara Unger](/wiki/Deborah_Kara_Unger \"Deborah Kara Unger\"), was taken from the original game but underwent significant reworking. In the game, Dahlia is portrayed as a mysterious occult fanatic who attempts to summon God by burning her own daughter,{{cite book \\|title\\=Silent Hill 3 公式完全攻略ガイド/失われた記憶 サイレントヒル・クロニクル \\|publisher\\=NTT Publishing Co., Ltd \\|language\\=ja \\|location\\=Japan \\| isbn\\=4\\-7571\\-8145\\-0 \\|pages\\=25 \\|chapter\\=Silent Hill character commentary \\|date\\=July 31, 2003}} while in the film, those qualities are transferred to another character named Christabella.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.3dnews.ru/editorial/igrovaya\\_ekranizatsiya\\_silent\\_hill\\_kogda\\_holmi\\_molchat\\|title\\=Игровая экранизация: Silent Hill — когда холмы молчат\\|author\\=Ivan Vasiliev\\|date\\=January 22, 2010\\|work\\=3dnews.ru\\|publisher\\=3DNews Daily Digital Digest\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-04\\-01\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-09\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009024150/http://www.3dnews.ru/editorial/igrovaya\\_ekranizatsiya\\_silent\\_hill\\_kogda\\_holmi\\_molchat\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Unger stated that she immensely enjoyed playing this role, believing that the portrayal of Dahlia is closely aligned with the profound essence of the game. She did not progress further than the beginning of the video game but relied on materials she found on websites, including character analyses. Unger described her character as a crazy, slightly enigmatic prophet who gains wisdom through suffering, and compared her to [Cassandra](/wiki/Cassandra \"Cassandra\") and [John Proctor](/wiki/John_Proctor_%28Salem_witch_trials%29 \"John Proctor (Salem witch trials)\") from the play *[The Crucible](/wiki/The_Crucible \"The Crucible\")*. She immediately accepted the role, which was specifically written for her, even without reading the script. She later referred to her work as an extraordinary psychological journey. Mason stated that Deborah's character had to reach extremes and appear slightly peculiar. Mitchell believed that Unger added a lot to her character, making her appear more realistic.", "Played by [Alice Krige](/wiki/Alice_Krige \"Alice Krige\"), Christabella is a cultist and the main antagonist of the film. The character's name is taken from the *Silent Hill: Dying Inside* comic, where it belonged to a girl who is killed by fanatics. Christabella's portrayal incorporates some traits from Dahlia Gillespie and [Claudia Wolf](/wiki/Claudia_Wolf \"Claudia Wolf\") from *[Silent Hill 3](/wiki/Silent_Hill_3 \"Silent Hill 3\")*. In contrast to Rose, the antagonist combines elegance and violence. Initially, Alice Krige did not like the script. The actress asked: \"What is this? Is this sort of [science\\-fiction/horror](/wiki/Sci-fi_horror \"Sci-fi horror\")?\" Krige was unaware that it was based on a video game. She expressed concern regarding the linguistic intricacies associated with the character, finding her impactful dialogue challenging to accurately portray. To prepare for her role, Krige read the book *The End of Days* by [Erna Paris](/wiki/Erna_Paris \"Erna Paris\"), a book about tyranny during the [Spanish Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition \"Spanish Inquisition\"). Mitchell noted that the actress was very different from her character: \"Alice is incredibly playful, sweet, and generous. She's got this enthusiasm and the imagination of a child\". The producers stated that Krige was able to breathe life into a toy\\-like character that could easily stumble and become a caricature. The director approved her casting based on her performances in the films *[Institute Benjamenta](/wiki/Institute_Benjamenta \"Institute Benjamenta\")*, *[Twilight of the Ice Nymphs](/wiki/Twilight_of_the_Ice_Nymphs \"Twilight of the Ice Nymphs\")*, and *[Star Trek: First Contact](/wiki/Star_Trek:First_Contact \"First Contact\")*.", "### Filming", "[right\\|thumb\\|200px\\|[Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka \"Akira Yamaoka\") directly participated in the production of the film.](/wiki/File:Akira_Yamaoka_-_Game_Developers_Conference_2010_-_Day_3_%282%29.jpg \"Akira Yamaoka - Game Developers Conference 2010 - Day 3 (2).jpg\")", "[Principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography \"Principal photography\") commenced on April 25, 2005, and ended three months later on July 22\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.darkhorizons.com/news/2151/silent\\-hill\\-begins\\-production\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130121082832/http://www.darkhorizons.com/news/2151/silent\\-hill\\-begins\\-production\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=January 21, 2013\\|title\\=Silent Hill Begins Production\\|last\\=Franklin\\|first\\=Garth\\|publisher\\=Dark Horizons\\|date\\=April 29, 2005\\|access\\-date\\=August 30, 2012}} It took place in various locations in Canada, including [Brantford](/wiki/Brantford%2C_Ontario \"Brantford, Ontario\"), [Hamilton](/wiki/Hamilton%2C_Ontario \"Hamilton, Ontario\"), and [Brampton](/wiki/Brampton%2C_Ontario \"Brampton, Ontario\") in Ontario; [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\") in Manitoba; [St. George](/wiki/St._George%2C_New_Brunswick \"St. George, New Brunswick\") in New Brunswick, as well as on soundstages in [Toronto](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") and on location in [Alma College](/wiki/Alma_College_%28St._Thomas%2C_Ontario%29 \"Alma College (St. Thomas, Ontario)\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=10 Movies Filmed at Canadian Historic Places \\|url\\=https://nationaltrustcanada.ca/online\\-stories/10\\-movies\\-filmed\\-at\\-canadian\\-historic\\-places \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=National Trust for Canada \\|language\\=en\\-US}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fleischer \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=February 8, 2012 \\|title\\=Reel Toronto: Silent Hill \\|url\\=https://torontoist.com/2012/02/reel\\-toronto\\-silent\\-hill/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-14 \\|website\\=Torontoist}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.almacollege.20m.com/photopages/silentHill.htm\\|title\\=Silent Hill. Movie Production Stills\\|publisher\\=Alma College\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-08\\-07\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20080531105338/http://www.almacollege.20m.com/photopages/silentHill.htm\\|archivedate\\=2008\\-05\\-31\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The developers of the series [Team Silent](/wiki/Team_Silent \"Team Silent\") oversaw the entire production process of the film and collaborated closely with the production team, approving or rejecting decisions made by the director, screenwriter, and artists. As a result, the city's appearance was recreated with attention to the smallest details, down to errors in English names of the stores. The filming was done using a crane camera. The technology itself was improved to accurately simulate the operation of the virtual camera from the game.", "Mitchell had to tap into her own subconscious to enhance realism, inducing feelings of anxiety and pain in herself to subsequently embody those emotions during the filming. She admitted that encounters with the unknown were somewhat surreal. To depict fear, she asked the production designer to increase the volume of the sound made by the approaching monster through a microphone. This helped make her acting more interactive, rather than simply reacting to lines. The varying weather conditions, ranging from freezing cold to extreme heat, did not have a negative impact on the actors' performances.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.movies.about.co/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\\.htm\\|title\\=Radha Mitchell Talks About Silent Hill\\|author\\=Fred Topel\\|publisher\\=Movies.about.com\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-10\\-12\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509175556/http://movies.about.com/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\\.htm\\|archivedate\\=2006\\-05\\-09\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "After delivering the film for Film editing to the studio, Gans expected to receive at least 10 pages of notes regarding the film's required editing. However, contrary to his expectations, the only comment was about the Australian accent of Mitchell and the English accent of Bean, which were too noticeable in three scenes of the film. According to him, the producers were shocked as they had never seen anything like it before. The next step was passing the censorship. Samuel Hadida was concerned about several scenes, especially the death of Cybil and the barbed wire killing of Christabella, as well as Anna's flaying. The director said, \"I wanted to create an unforgettable scene that shows a person being burned alive on a stake. I wanted to avoid using a mannequin \\[instead of the actress].\" In the end, the committee provided documents marked as \"Acceptable\". This decision was supported by three reasons: the entire story takes place in a fictional world, the plot revolves around a woman trying to save her daughter, and the film hardly uses firearms. Subsequently, the film was banned for children under 15 in England and children under 12 in France.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\\-cinema/news\\-dossier/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-5\\-4967614\\-760\\.html\\|title\\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \\[page 5]\\|author\\=Kevin Prin.\\|date\\=December 22, 2006\\|publisher\\=Excessif.com\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-08\\-22\\|language\\=fr\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307213011/http://lci.tf1\\.fr/cinema/news/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-5\\-4967614\\.html\\|archivedate\\=2016\\-03\\-07\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} All work on the film was completed 10 days before its release in US theaters. *Silent Hill* contains 756 special effects shots. In total, $4 million was spent on them. The effects were produced by [BUF Compagnie](/wiki/BUF_Compagnie \"BUF Compagnie\"), Mr. X Inc., and [C.O.R.E. Digital Pictures](/wiki/C.O.R.E. \"C.O.R.E.\") studios.", "American studio [Sony Pictures](/wiki/Sony_Pictures \"Sony Pictures\") bought the distribution rights for $14 million for the United States and Latin America to be released under its [TriStar Pictures](/wiki/TriStar_Pictures \"TriStar Pictures\") [genre film](/wiki/Film_genre \"Film genre\") subsidiary.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\\=14210 \\|title\\=ComingSoon.net \\|publisher\\=ComingSoon.net \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-04\\-22 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626122808/http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id\\=14210 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 26, 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} On December 5, 2005, TriStar announced a competition to create the best poster, targeting fans of the series. Anyone could download several photos from the official website, WelcomeToSilentHill.com, and use them as a basis to create the final image. All competition entries were posted on the Internet on January 4, 2006, and a voting process took place. On January 17, specialists from the company selected 5 out of 50 works. On January 20, the finalists were announced, and two days later, the final version of the poster was chosen.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/12/05/silent\\-hill\\-movie\\-poster\\|title\\=Silent Hill Movie Poster\\|author\\=IGN FilmForce.\\|date\\=December 5, 2005\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[IGN]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-09\\-24\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130126051315/http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/12/05/silent\\-hill\\-movie\\-poster\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-01\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Japanese trailer of the film is voiced by Joe Romersa.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.game\\-ost.ru/composers.php?action\\=info\\&composer\\_id\\=407\\|title\\=Джо Ромерса\\|author\\=Небритый Пася.\\|date\\=February 2008\\|publisher\\=Game\\-OST\\|accessdate\\=2014\\-01\\-26\\|language\\=ru\\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-02\\-01\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201225250/http://www.game\\-ost.ru/composers.php?action\\=info\\&composer\\_id\\=407\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The composers of the film are [Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka \"Akira Yamaoka\") and [Jeff Danna](/wiki/Jeff_Danna \"Jeff Danna\").{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} The music for the film is borrowed from the soundtracks of the first four games in the series.{{cite magazine\\|author\\=Sergey Tsilyurik\\|title\\=Аналитика. Спец. История Silent Hill\\|trans\\-title\\=Analytics. Specialist. History of Silent Hill\\|edition\\=\\[\\[Country of Games]]\\|location\\=Moscow\\|publisher\\=Gameland\\|date\\=August 2009\\|volume\\=15 \\|issue\\=288\\|pages\\=46–53\\|language\\=ru}} The only track that does not belong to these albums is [Johnny Cash](/wiki/Johnny_Cash \"Johnny Cash\")'s composition of \"[Ring of Fire](/wiki/Ring_of_Fire_%28song%29 \"Ring of Fire (song)\")\".{{citation needed\\|date\\=May 2024}} Yamaoka mostly kept his own melodies intact as he wanted to maintain similarities to the game adaptation.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131689/heavens\\_night\\_an\\_interview\\_with\\_.php?page\\=1\\|title\\=Heaven's Night: An Interview With Akira Yamaoka\\|author\\=Brandon Sheffield.\\|date\\=December 24, 2007\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gamasutra]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-08\\-21\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130124053550/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131689/heavens\\_night\\_an\\_interview\\_with\\_.php?page\\=1\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-01\\-24\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The soundtrack, which included vocal tracks, was not released as a standalone release.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.relyonhorror.com/latest\\-news/silent\\-hill\\-revelation\\-3d\\-ost\\-up\\-for\\-preorder/\\|title\\=Silent Hill Revalation 3D OST up for preorder\\|author\\=CJ Melendez.\\|date\\=October 25, 2012\\|publisher\\=Relyonhorror.com\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-12\\-29\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130201034914/http://www.relyonhorror.com/latest\\-news/silent\\-hill\\-revelation\\-3d\\-ost\\-up\\-for\\-preorder/\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-02\\-01\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Technical aspects", "The film in total lasts 127 minutes. According to information from several publications, there allegedly existed a director's cut of the film that was three and a half hours long, but it was shortened by over 90 minutes at the insistence of the producers, as distributors did not want to deal with a horror film of such length. Gans also worked on creating a \"censored\" version of the film, which lasts less than 80 minutes. However, according to him, it will never be shown to the public. The director had no control over the release of the film outside of the home region. He referred to the DVD version of the film released in America as \"pitiful\", citing the catastrophic quality of [compression](/wiki/Data_compression \"Data compression\"). He spent eight days optimizing the [rendering](/wiki/Rendering_%28computer_graphics%29 \"Rendering (computer graphics)\") and [color grading](/wiki/Color_grading \"Color grading\") for the release in the second region.{{verify source\\|date\\=May 2024\\|reason\\=Speculative fix for undefined reference}}", "In an interview, the director stated that the only scene that didn't make it into the final version of the film was a brief conversation sequence involving Christabella in a church with two strangers. However, he also noted the presence of another \"unfinished\" fragment—the meeting of Anna originally featured her being attacked by an [Armless Man](/wiki/Silent_Hill_2 \"Silent Hill 2\") near the hotel, during which she is saved by Cybil and Rose and the wounded creature crawls under a car to disappear into a manhole. Due to budget concerns, choreographer Roberto Campanella was sent home for the day, and the director was not satisfied with the footage. To rectify this, the scene was simplified and rewritten without the monster.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.excessif.com/cinema/actu\\-cinema/news\\-dossier/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-6\\-4967615\\-760\\.html\\|title\\=Interview: Christophe Gans (silent Hill) Partie 1 \\[page 6]\\|author\\=Kevin Prin.\\|date\\=December 22, 2006\\|publisher\\=Excessif.com\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-08\\-21\\|language\\=fr\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20130122135200/http://lci.tf1\\.fr/cinema/news/interview\\-christophe\\-gans\\-silent\\-hill\\-partie\\-1\\-page\\-6\\-4967615\\.html\\|archivedate\\=2013\\-01\\-22\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Mitchell stated that after the completion of principal photography, the opening scene of the film was also reshot.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.movies.about.co/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\\_2\\.htm\\|title\\=Radha Mitchell Talks About Silent Hill (page 2\\)\\|author\\=Fred Topel.\\|publisher\\=Movies.about.com\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-10\\-12\\|language\\=en\\|archiveurl\\=https://archive.today/20240526074733/https://www.webcitation.org/6BSECWDtB?url\\=movies.about.com/od/silenthill/a/silenthll041806\\_2\\.htm\\|archivedate\\=2024\\-05\\-26\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "The film was shot in the [Super 35](/wiki/Super_35 \"Super 35\") film format, except the scenes with the darkness, which were filmed in [high\\-definition video](/wiki/High-definition_video \"High-definition video\"), because of its ability to cleanly capture light and digitally manipulate it in post\\-production.{{cite web\\| last \\= Wilson\\| first \\= Stacy\\| date \\= July 17, 2005\\| url \\= http://horror.about.com/od/movierelated/a/int\\_sh\\_gans.htm\\| title \\= \"Silent Hill\" Interview with director Christophe Gans\\| work \\= About\\| url\\-status \\= dead\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20060912090529/http://horror.about.com/od/movierelated/a/int\\_sh\\_gans.htm\\| archive\\-date \\= September 12, 2006\\| df \\= mdy\\-all}} The film contains around 107 different sets{{cite web\\| last \\= Thorpe\\| first \\= Valarie\\| date \\= July 17, 2005\\| url \\= http://www.reallyscary.com/setvisit\\_silenthill.asp\\| title \\= Really Scary Visits the Set of Silent Hill\\| work \\= Really Scary\\| access\\-date \\= October 10, 2006\\| archive\\-date \\= February 1, 2013\\| archive\\-url \\= https://archive.today/20130201173751/http://www.reallyscary.com/setvisit\\_silenthill.asp\\| url\\-status \\= live}} specifically used to represent the different versions of the town. The bipedal creatures in the film were played by professional actors or dancers covered in [latex](/wiki/Latex \"Latex\") and [prosthetic makeup](/wiki/Prosthetic_makeup \"Prosthetic makeup\"). After filming, over 619 visual effects shots were used in the film,{{cite web\\| last \\= Bielik\\| first \\= Alain\\| date \\= April 21, 2006\\| url \\= https://www.awn.com/vfxworld/silent\\-hill\\-nothing\\-quiet\\-about\\-these\\-horrifying\\-vfx\\| title \\= Silent Hill: Nothing Quiet About These Horrifying VFX\\| work \\= VFXWorld\\| access\\-date \\= February 15, 2021\\| archive\\-date \\= May 9, 2021\\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210509034321/https://www.awn.com/vfxworld/silent\\-hill\\-nothing\\-quiet\\-about\\-these\\-horrifying\\-vfx\\| url\\-status \\= live}} with the most prominent uses being the fog that drenches the town, the transitions to darkness, and the insects that surround Pyramid Head. Rotoscoping was used to add the fog and ash effects to shots including live\\-action actors, and the film made extensive use of [set extensions](/wiki/Set_extension \"Set extension\") as backdrops.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Lachance \\|first1\\=Alain \\|title\\=Living a Nightmare {{!}} Computer Graphics World \\|url\\=https://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2006/Volume\\-29\\-Issue\\-6\\-June\\-2006\\-/Living\\-a\\-Nightmare.aspx \\|website\\=www.cgw.com \\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 19, 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519024601/https://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2006/Volume\\-29\\-Issue\\-6\\-June\\-2006\\-/Living\\-a\\-Nightmare.aspx \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "To maintain the feel of the games, Gans had the sound designer of the original *[Silent Hill](/wiki/Silent_Hill_%28video_game%29 \"Silent Hill (video game)\")*, [Akira Yamaoka](/wiki/Akira_Yamaoka \"Akira Yamaoka\"), flown to the set several times.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3281/heavens\\_night\\_an\\_interview\\_with\\_.php?page\\=2 \\|title\\=Interview with Akira Yamaoka \\|publisher\\=Gamasutra.com \\|date\\=December 24, 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-09\\-07 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 28, 2007 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228111121/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3281/heavens\\_night\\_an\\_interview\\_with\\_.php?page\\=2 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Additionally, Gans had a 40\\-inch television brought onto the set, to which he attached a [PlayStation 2](/wiki/PlayStation_2 \"PlayStation 2\"); Gans then played the original *Silent Hill* on the system so that the actors and cinematographers could see how Gans wanted to emulate various camera angles and movements.", "" ]
Definition ---------- In 1994, the US [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology "National Institute of Standards and Technology") (NIST) defined "gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) \[as] 5\.660 pounds of natural gas."{{cite book \|editor1\-first\= Tina \|editor1\-last\= Butcher \|editor2\-first\= Linda \|editor2\-last\= Crown \|editor3\-first\= Lynn \|editor3\-last\= Sebring \|editor4\-first\= Richard \|editor4\-last\= Suiter \|editor5\-first\= Juana \|editor5\-last\= Williams \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|chapter\-url\= https://www.nist.gov/pml/wmd/pubs/upload/AppendD\-08\-HB44\-FINAL.pdf \|id\= Handbook 44 \|chapter\= Appendix D: Definitions \|title\= Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices, as Adopted by the 91st National Conference on Weights and Measures 2006 \|url\= https://www.nist.gov/pml/wmd/pubs/h44\-07\.cfm \|location\= Gaithersburg, MD \|publisher\= \[\[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] \|year\= 2006 \|edition\= 2007 \|page\= D\-8 \|access\-date\= January 2, 2009 }} [Compressed natural gas](/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas "Compressed natural gas") (CNG), for example, is a gas rather than a liquid. It can be measured by its volume in [standard cubic feet](/wiki/Standard_cubic_foot "Standard cubic foot") (ft3) at [atmospheric conditions](/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure "Normal temperature and pressure"), by its weight in [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 "Pound (mass)") (lb), or by its energy content in [joules](/wiki/Joule "Joule") (J), [British thermal units](/wiki/British_thermal_unit "British thermal unit") (BTU), or [kilowatt\-hours](/wiki/Kilowatt-hour "Kilowatt-hour") (kW·h). CNG sold at filling stations in the US is priced in dollars per GGE. Using GGE as a measure to compare the stored energy of various fuels for use in an [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine%23Energy_efficiency "Internal combustion engine#Energy efficiency") is only one input for consumers, who typically are interested in the annual cost of driving a vehicle, which requires considering the amount of useful [work](/wiki/Work_%28thermodynamics%29 "Work (thermodynamics)") that can be extracted from a given fuel. This is measured by the car's overall efficiency. In the context of GGE, a real world measure of overall efficiency is the fuel economy or fuel consumption advertised by motor vehicle manufacturers. ### Efficiency and consumption {{main\|Fuel economy in automobiles}} To start, only a fraction of the stored energy of a given fuel (measured in BTU or kW\-hr) can be converted to useful work by the vehicle's engine. The measure of this is [engine efficiency](/wiki/Engine_efficiency "Engine efficiency"), often called [thermal efficiency](/wiki/Thermal_efficiency "Thermal efficiency") in the case of internal combustion engines. A [diesel cycle](/wiki/Diesel_cycle "Diesel cycle") engine can be as much as 40% to 50% efficient at converting fuel into [work](/wiki/Work_%28physics%29 "Work (physics)"),{{cite book \|doi\=10\.1533/9780857097422\.2\.225 \|author1\=Xin, Q. \|author2\=Pinzon, C.F. \|title\=Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance Towards Zero Carbon Transportation \|chapter\=9 \- Improving the environmental performance of heavy\-duty vehicles and engines: key issues and system design approaches \|isbn\=978\-0\-85709\-742\-2 \|publisher\=Woodhead Publishing Limited \|pages\=225–278 \|date\=2014}} where a typical automotive gasoline engine's efficiency is about 25% to 30%.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/nissan\-e\-power\-gasoline\-engine\-50\-percent\-thermally\-efficient/ \|title\=Nissan claims it's made a more thermally efficient gas engine, but there's a catch \|author\=Hyatt, Kyle \|date\=February 26, 2021 \|work\=Road/Show \|publisher\=CNet \|access\-date\=19 April 2022}}{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.4271/2015\-01\-1263 \|author1\=Ikeya, K. \|author2\=Takazawa, M. \|author3\=Yamada, T. \|author4\=Park, S. \|author5\=Tagishi, R. \|issn\=1946\-3936 \|title\=Thermal Efficiency Enhancement of a Gasoline Engine \|journal\=SAE International Journal of Engines \|volume\=8 \|number\=4 \|pages\=1579–1586 \|date\=2015}} In general, an engine is designed to run on a single fuel source and substituting one fuel for another may affect the thermal efficiency. Each fuel–engine combination requires adjusting the mix of air and fuel. This can be a manual adjustment using tools and test instruments or done automatically in computer\-controlled fuel injected and multi\-fuel vehicles. Forced induction for an internal combustion engine using [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger "Supercharger") or [turbocharger](/wiki/Turbocharger "Turbocharger") may also affect the optimum fuel–air mix and thermal efficiency. The overall [efficiency](/wiki/Efficiency "Efficiency") of converting a unit of fuel to useful work (rotation of the driving wheels) includes consideration of thermal efficiency along with dynamic losses that are inherent and specific to the design of a given vehicle. Thermal efficiency is affected by both [friction](/wiki/Friction "Friction") and heat losses; for internal combustion engines, some of the stored energy is lost as heat through the exhaust or cooling system. In addition, friction inside the engine happens along the cylinder walls, crankshaft rod bearings and main bearings, camshaft bearings, drive chains or gears, plus other miscellaneous and minor bearing surfaces. Other dynamic losses can be caused by friction outside the motor/engine, including loads from the generator / [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28automotive%29 "Alternator (automotive)"), power steering pump, A/C compressor, transmission, transfer case (if four\-wheel\-drive), differential(s) and universal joints, plus rolling resistance of the pneumatic tires. The vehicle's external styling affects its aerodynamic drag, which is another dynamic loss that must be considered for overall efficiency. In battery or electric vehicles, calculating the vehicle's overall efficiency of useful work begins with the charge–discharge rate of the battery pack, generally 80% to 90%. Next is the conversion of stored energy to distance traveled under power. Generally speaking, an electrical motor is far more efficient than an internal combustion engine at converting the stored [potential energy](/wiki/Potential_energy "Potential energy") into useful work; in an electric vehicle, traction motor efficiency can approach 90%, as there is minimal waste heat coming off the motor parts, and zero heat cast off by the coolant radiator and out of the exhaust. An electric motor typically has internal friction only at the main axle bearings.{{Citation needed\|date\=December 2012}} Additional losses will affect the overall efficiency, similar to a conventional internal combustion car, including rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, accessory power, climate control, and drivetrain losses. See table below translating retail electricity costs for a GGE in BTU. Overall efficiency is measured and reported, typically by government testing, through operating the vehicle in a standardized driving cycle designed to replicate typical use, while providing a consistent basis for comparison between vehicles. Cars sold in the United States are advertised by their measured overall efficiency (fuel economy) in [miles per gallon](/wiki/Miles_per_gallon "Miles per gallon") (mpg). The MPG of a given vehicle starts with the thermal efficiency of the fuel and engine, less all of the above elements of friction. The fuel consumption is an equivalent measure for cars sold outside the United States, typically measured in litres per 100 km traveled; in general, the fuel consumption and miles per gallon would be reciprocals with appropriate conversion factors, but because different countries use different driving cycles to measure fuel consumption, fuel economy and fuel consumption are not always directly comparable. ### Miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe) {{main\|Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent}} The MPGe metric was introduced in November 2010 by EPA in the [Monroney label](/wiki/Monroney_label "Monroney label") of the [Nissan Leaf](/wiki/Nissan_Leaf "Nissan Leaf") [electric car](/wiki/Electric_car "Electric car") and the [Chevrolet Volt](/wiki/Chevrolet_Volt "Chevrolet Volt") [plug\-in hybrid](/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid "Plug-in hybrid"). The ratings are based on EPA's formula, in which 33\.7 [kilowatt hours](/wiki/Kilowatt_hours "Kilowatt hours") of electricity is equivalent to one gallon of gasoline (giving a heating value of {{cvt\|33\.705\|kWh/gal\|BTU/usgal\|\-1\|disp\=out}}), and the energy consumption of each vehicle during [EPA's five standard drive cycle tests](/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobiles%23EPA_testing_procedure:2008_and_beyond "2008 and beyond") simulating varying driving conditions.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/business/23leaf.html?\_r\=1\&hpw \|title\= Nissan Says Its Electric Leaf Gets Equivalent of 99 MPG \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|first\= Nick \|last\= Bunkley \|date\= November 22, 2010 \|access\-date\= February 17, 2011}}{{cite news \|url\= http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2010/11/volt\-is\-rated\-93\-mpg\-on\-electricity\-alone\-37\-mpg\-on\-gas\-generator/1 \|title\= Volt Is Rated 93 MPG on Electricity Alone, 37 MPG on Gas Generator \|first\= Fred \|last\= Meier \|work\= \[\[USA Today]] \|date\= November 24, 2010 \|access\-date\= February 17, 2011}} All new cars and light\-duty trucks sold in the U.S. are required to have this label showing the EPA's estimate of fuel economy of the vehicle.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/ \|title\= Fuel Economy Label \|publisher\= United States Environmental Protection Agency \|date\= February 14, 2011 \|access\-date\= February 17, 2011}}
[ "Definition\n----------", "In 1994, the US [National Institute of Standards and Technology](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology \"National Institute of Standards and Technology\") (NIST) defined \"gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) \\[as] 5\\.660 pounds of natural gas.\"{{cite book \\|editor1\\-first\\= Tina \\|editor1\\-last\\= Butcher \\|editor2\\-first\\= Linda \\|editor2\\-last\\= Crown \\|editor3\\-first\\= Lynn \\|editor3\\-last\\= Sebring \\|editor4\\-first\\= Richard \\|editor4\\-last\\= Suiter \\|editor5\\-first\\= Juana \\|editor5\\-last\\= Williams \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|chapter\\-url\\= https://www.nist.gov/pml/wmd/pubs/upload/AppendD\\-08\\-HB44\\-FINAL.pdf \\|id\\= Handbook 44 \\|chapter\\= Appendix D: Definitions \\|title\\= Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices, as Adopted by the 91st National Conference on Weights and Measures 2006 \\|url\\= https://www.nist.gov/pml/wmd/pubs/h44\\-07\\.cfm \\|location\\= Gaithersburg, MD \\|publisher\\= \\[\\[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] \\|year\\= 2006 \\|edition\\= 2007 \\|page\\= D\\-8 \\|access\\-date\\= January 2, 2009 }} [Compressed natural gas](/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas \"Compressed natural gas\") (CNG), for example, is a gas rather than a liquid. It can be measured by its volume in [standard cubic feet](/wiki/Standard_cubic_foot \"Standard cubic foot\") (ft3) at [atmospheric conditions](/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure \"Normal temperature and pressure\"), by its weight in [pounds](/wiki/Pound_%28mass%29 \"Pound (mass)\") (lb), or by its energy content in [joules](/wiki/Joule \"Joule\") (J), [British thermal units](/wiki/British_thermal_unit \"British thermal unit\") (BTU), or [kilowatt\\-hours](/wiki/Kilowatt-hour \"Kilowatt-hour\") (kW·h). CNG sold at filling stations in the US is priced in dollars per GGE.", "Using GGE as a measure to compare the stored energy of various fuels for use in an [internal combustion engine](/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine%23Energy_efficiency \"Internal combustion engine#Energy efficiency\") is only one input for consumers, who typically are interested in the annual cost of driving a vehicle, which requires considering the amount of useful [work](/wiki/Work_%28thermodynamics%29 \"Work (thermodynamics)\") that can be extracted from a given fuel. This is measured by the car's overall efficiency. In the context of GGE, a real world measure of overall efficiency is the fuel economy or fuel consumption advertised by motor vehicle manufacturers.", "### Efficiency and consumption", "{{main\\|Fuel economy in automobiles}}\nTo start, only a fraction of the stored energy of a given fuel (measured in BTU or kW\\-hr) can be converted to useful work by the vehicle's engine. The measure of this is [engine efficiency](/wiki/Engine_efficiency \"Engine efficiency\"), often called [thermal efficiency](/wiki/Thermal_efficiency \"Thermal efficiency\") in the case of internal combustion engines. A [diesel cycle](/wiki/Diesel_cycle \"Diesel cycle\") engine can be as much as 40% to 50% efficient at converting fuel into [work](/wiki/Work_%28physics%29 \"Work (physics)\"),{{cite book \\|doi\\=10\\.1533/9780857097422\\.2\\.225 \\|author1\\=Xin, Q. \\|author2\\=Pinzon, C.F. \\|title\\=Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance Towards Zero Carbon Transportation \\|chapter\\=9 \\- Improving the environmental performance of heavy\\-duty vehicles and engines: key issues and system design approaches \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-85709\\-742\\-2 \\|publisher\\=Woodhead Publishing Limited \\|pages\\=225–278 \\|date\\=2014}} where a typical automotive gasoline engine's efficiency is about 25% to 30%.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/nissan\\-e\\-power\\-gasoline\\-engine\\-50\\-percent\\-thermally\\-efficient/ \\|title\\=Nissan claims it's made a more thermally efficient gas engine, but there's a catch \\|author\\=Hyatt, Kyle \\|date\\=February 26, 2021 \\|work\\=Road/Show \\|publisher\\=CNet \\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2022}}{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.4271/2015\\-01\\-1263 \\|author1\\=Ikeya, K. \\|author2\\=Takazawa, M. \\|author3\\=Yamada, T. \\|author4\\=Park, S. \\|author5\\=Tagishi, R. \\|issn\\=1946\\-3936 \\|title\\=Thermal Efficiency Enhancement of a Gasoline Engine \\|journal\\=SAE International Journal of Engines \\|volume\\=8 \\|number\\=4 \\|pages\\=1579–1586 \\|date\\=2015}}", "In general, an engine is designed to run on a single fuel source and substituting one fuel for another may affect the thermal efficiency. Each fuel–engine combination requires adjusting the mix of air and fuel. This can be a manual adjustment using tools and test instruments or done automatically in computer\\-controlled fuel injected and multi\\-fuel vehicles. Forced induction for an internal combustion engine using [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger \"Supercharger\") or [turbocharger](/wiki/Turbocharger \"Turbocharger\") may also affect the optimum fuel–air mix and thermal efficiency.", "The overall [efficiency](/wiki/Efficiency \"Efficiency\") of converting a unit of fuel to useful work (rotation of the driving wheels) includes consideration of thermal efficiency along with dynamic losses that are inherent and specific to the design of a given vehicle. Thermal efficiency is affected by both [friction](/wiki/Friction \"Friction\") and heat losses; for internal combustion engines, some of the stored energy is lost as heat through the exhaust or cooling system. In addition, friction inside the engine happens along the cylinder walls, crankshaft rod bearings and main bearings, camshaft bearings, drive chains or gears, plus other miscellaneous and minor bearing surfaces. Other dynamic losses can be caused by friction outside the motor/engine, including loads from the generator / [alternator](/wiki/Alternator_%28automotive%29 \"Alternator (automotive)\"), power steering pump, A/C compressor, transmission, transfer case (if four\\-wheel\\-drive), differential(s) and universal joints, plus rolling resistance of the pneumatic tires. The vehicle's external styling affects its aerodynamic drag, which is another dynamic loss that must be considered for overall efficiency.", "In battery or electric vehicles, calculating the vehicle's overall efficiency of useful work begins with the charge–discharge rate of the battery pack, generally 80% to 90%. Next is the conversion of stored energy to distance traveled under power. Generally speaking, an electrical motor is far more efficient than an internal combustion engine at converting the stored [potential energy](/wiki/Potential_energy \"Potential energy\") into useful work; in an electric vehicle, traction motor efficiency can approach 90%, as there is minimal waste heat coming off the motor parts, and zero heat cast off by the coolant radiator and out of the exhaust. An electric motor typically has internal friction only at the main axle bearings.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=December 2012}} Additional losses will affect the overall efficiency, similar to a conventional internal combustion car, including rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, accessory power, climate control, and drivetrain losses. See table below translating retail electricity costs for a GGE in BTU.", "Overall efficiency is measured and reported, typically by government testing, through operating the vehicle in a standardized driving cycle designed to replicate typical use, while providing a consistent basis for comparison between vehicles. Cars sold in the United States are advertised by their measured overall efficiency (fuel economy) in [miles per gallon](/wiki/Miles_per_gallon \"Miles per gallon\") (mpg). The MPG of a given vehicle starts with the thermal efficiency of the fuel and engine, less all of the above elements of friction. The fuel consumption is an equivalent measure for cars sold outside the United States, typically measured in litres per 100 km traveled; in general, the fuel consumption and miles per gallon would be reciprocals with appropriate conversion factors, but because different countries use different driving cycles to measure fuel consumption, fuel economy and fuel consumption are not always directly comparable.", "### Miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe)", "{{main\\|Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent}}", "The MPGe metric was introduced in November 2010 by EPA in the [Monroney label](/wiki/Monroney_label \"Monroney label\") of the [Nissan Leaf](/wiki/Nissan_Leaf \"Nissan Leaf\") [electric car](/wiki/Electric_car \"Electric car\") and the [Chevrolet Volt](/wiki/Chevrolet_Volt \"Chevrolet Volt\") [plug\\-in hybrid](/wiki/Plug-in_hybrid \"Plug-in hybrid\"). The ratings are based on EPA's formula, in which 33\\.7 [kilowatt hours](/wiki/Kilowatt_hours \"Kilowatt hours\") of electricity is equivalent to one gallon of gasoline (giving a heating value of {{cvt\\|33\\.705\\|kWh/gal\\|BTU/usgal\\|\\-1\\|disp\\=out}}), and the energy consumption of each vehicle during [EPA's five standard drive cycle tests](/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobiles%23EPA_testing_procedure:2008_and_beyond \"2008 and beyond\") simulating varying driving conditions.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/23/business/23leaf.html?\\_r\\=1\\&hpw \\|title\\= Nissan Says Its Electric Leaf Gets Equivalent of 99 MPG \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|first\\= Nick \\|last\\= Bunkley \\|date\\= November 22, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\= February 17, 2011}}{{cite news \\|url\\= http://content.usatoday.com/communities/driveon/post/2010/11/volt\\-is\\-rated\\-93\\-mpg\\-on\\-electricity\\-alone\\-37\\-mpg\\-on\\-gas\\-generator/1 \\|title\\= Volt Is Rated 93 MPG on Electricity Alone, 37 MPG on Gas Generator \\|first\\= Fred \\|last\\= Meier \\|work\\= \\[\\[USA Today]] \\|date\\= November 24, 2010 \\|access\\-date\\= February 17, 2011}} All new cars and light\\-duty trucks sold in the U.S. are required to have this label showing the EPA's estimate of fuel economy of the vehicle.{{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/ \\|title\\= Fuel Economy Label \\|publisher\\= United States Environmental Protection Agency \\|date\\= February 14, 2011 \\|access\\-date\\= February 17, 2011}}", "" ]
Role in genomic evolution ------------------------- [thumb\|Diagram displaying the integration of viral DNA into a host genome](/wiki/File:Integration_of_viral_DNA_into_host_genome.png "Integration of viral DNA into host genome.png") Endogenous retroviruses can play an active role in shaping genomes. Most studies in this area have focused on the genomes of humans and higher primates, but other vertebrates, such as mice and sheep, have also been studied in depth.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li J, Akagi K, Hu Y, Trivett AL, Hlynialuk CJ, Swing DA, Volfovsky N, Morgan TC, Golubeva Y, Stephens RM, Smith DE, Symer DE \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Mouse endogenous retroviruses can trigger premature transcriptional termination at a distance \| journal \= Genome Research \| volume \= 22 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= 870–884 \| date \= May 2012 \| pmid \= 22367191 \| pmc \= 3337433 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gr.130740\.111 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Spencer TE, Palmarini M \| title \= Endogenous retroviruses of sheep: a model system for understanding physiological adaptation to an evolving ruminant genome \| journal \= The Journal of Reproduction and Development \| volume \= 58 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 33–37 \| year \= 2012 \| pmid \= 22450282 \| doi \= 10\.1262/jrd.2011\-026 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Black SG, Arnaud F, Palmarini M, Spencer TE \| title \= Endogenous retroviruses in trophoblast differentiation and placental development \| journal \= American Journal of Reproductive Immunology \| volume \= 64 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 255–264 \| date \= October 2010 \| pmid \= 20528833 \| pmc \= 4198168 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1600\-0897\.2010\.00860\.x }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ryan FP \| title \= Human endogenous retroviruses in health and disease: a symbiotic perspective \| journal \= Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine \| volume \= 97 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 560–565 \| date \= December 2004 \| pmid \= 15574851 \| pmc \= 1079666 \| doi \= 10\.1177/014107680409701202 }} The long terminal repeat ([LTR](/wiki/Long_terminal_repeat "Long terminal repeat")) sequences that flank ERV genomes frequently act as alternate [promoters](/wiki/Gene_promoter "Gene promoter") and [enhancers](/wiki/Gene_enhancer "Gene enhancer"), often contributing to the [transcriptome](/wiki/Alternative_splicing "Alternative splicing") by producing tissue\-specific variants. In addition, the retroviral [proteins](/wiki/Protein "Protein") themselves have been co\-opted to serve novel host functions, particularly in reproduction and development. Recombination between homologous retroviral sequences has also contributed to gene shuffling and the generation of genetic variation. Furthermore, in the instance of potentially antagonistic effects of retroviral sequences, repressor genes have co\-evolved to combat them. About 90% of endogenous retroviruses are solo LTRs, lacking all [open reading frames](/wiki/Open_reading_frame "Open reading frame") (ORFs). Solo LTRs and LTRs associated with complete retroviral sequences have been shown to act as transcriptional elements on host genes. Their range of action is mainly by insertion into the 5' [UTRs](/wiki/Untranslated_region "Untranslated region") of protein coding genes; however, they have been known to act upon genes up to 70–100 [kb](/wiki/Base_pair%23Length_measurements "Base pair#Length measurements") away.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pi W, Zhu X, Wu M, Wang Y, Fulzele S, Eroglu A, Ling J, Tuan D \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Long\-range function of an intergenic retrotransposon \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 107 \| issue \= 29 \| pages \= 12992–12997 \| date \= July 2010 \| pmid \= 20615953 \| pmc \= 2919959 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.1004139107 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2010PNAS..10712992P }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= van de Lagemaat LN, Landry JR, Mager DL, Medstrand P \| title \= Transposable elements in mammals promote regulatory variation and diversification of genes with specialized functions \| journal \= Trends in Genetics \| volume \= 19 \| issue \= 10 \| pages \= 530–536 \| date \= October 2003 \| pmid \= 14550626 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.tig.2003\.08\.004 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Kovalskaya E, Buzdin A, Gogvadze E, Vinogradova T, Sverdlov E \| title \= Functional human endogenous retroviral LTR transcription start sites are located between the R and U5 regions \| journal \= Virology \| volume \= 346 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 373–378 \| date \= March 2006 \| pmid \= 16337666 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.virol.2005\.11\.007 \| doi\-access \= free }} The majority of these elements are inserted in the sense direction to their corresponding genes, but there has been evidence{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hata K, Okano M, Lei H, Li E \| title \= Dnmt3L cooperates with the Dnmt3 family of de novo DNA methyltransferases to establish maternal imprints in mice \| journal \= Development \| volume \= 129 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 1983–1993 \| date \= April 2002 \| pmid \= 11934864 \| doi \= 10\.1242/dev.129\.8\.1983 }} of LTRs acting in the antisense direction and as a bidirectional promoter for neighboring genes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dunn CA, Romanish MT, Gutierrez LE, van de Lagemaat LN, Mager DL \| title \= Transcription of two human genes from a bidirectional endogenous retrovirus promoter \| journal \= Gene \| volume \= 366 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 335–342 \| date \= February 2006 \| pmid \= 16288839 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.gene.2005\.09\.003 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gogvadze E, Stukacheva E, Buzdin A, Sverdlov E \| title \= Human\-specific modulation of transcriptional activity provided by endogenous retroviral insertions \| journal \= Journal of Virology \| volume \= 83 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 6098–6105 \| date \= June 2009 \| pmid \= 19339349 \| pmc \= 2687385 \| doi \= 10\.1128/JVI.00123\-09 }} In a few cases, the LTR functions as the major promoter for the gene. For example, in humans AMY1C has a complete ERV sequence in its promoter region; the associated LTR confers salivary specific expression of the digestive [enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme "Enzyme") [amylase](/wiki/Amylase "Amylase").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Ting CN, Rosenberg MP, Snow CM, Samuelson LC, Meisler MH \| title \= Endogenous retroviral sequences are required for tissue\-specific expression of a human salivary amylase gene \| journal \= Genes \& Development \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 1457–1465 \| date \= August 1992 \| pmid \= 1379564 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gad.6\.8\.1457 \| doi\-access \= free }} Also, the primary promoter for [bile acid\-CoA:amino acid N\-acyltransferase](/wiki/BAAT "BAAT") (BAAT), which codes for an enzyme that is integral in bile metabolism, is of LTR origin.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cohen CJ, Lock WM, Mager DL \| title \= Endogenous retroviral LTRs as promoters for human genes: a critical assessment \| journal \= Gene \| volume \= 448 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 105–114 \| date \= December 2009 \| pmid \= 19577618 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.gene.2009\.06\.020 }} The insertion of a solo ERV\-9 LTR may have produced a functional open reading frame, causing the rebirth of the human [immunity related GTPase gene](/wiki/IRGM "IRGM") (IRGM).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bekpen C, Marques\-Bonet T, Alkan C, Antonacci F, Leogrande MB, Ventura M, Kidd JM, Siswara P, Howard JC, Eichler EE \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Death and resurrection of the human IRGM gene \| journal \= PLOS Genetics \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= e1000403 \| date \= March 2009 \| pmid \= 19266026 \| pmc \= 2644816 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pgen.1000403 \| doi\-access \= free }} ERV insertions have also been shown to generate alternative splice sites either by direct integration into the gene, as with the human leptin hormone receptor, or driven by the expression of an upstream LTR, as with the phospholipase A\-2 like protein.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jern P, Coffin JM \| title \= Effects of retroviruses on host genome function \| journal \= Annual Review of Genetics \| volume \= 42 \| pages \= 709–732 \| year \= 2008 \| pmid \= 18694346 \| doi \= 10\.1146/annurev.genet.42\.110807\.091501 }} Most of the time, however, the LTR functions as one of many alternate promoters, often conferring tissue\-specific expression related to reproduction and development. In fact, 64% of known LTR\-promoted transcription variants are [expressed](/wiki/Gene_expression "Gene expression") in reproductive tissues.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Oliver KR, Greene WK \| title \= Mobile DNA and the TE\-Thrust hypothesis: supporting evidence from the primates \| journal \= Mobile DNA \| volume \= 2 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 8 \| date \= May 2011 \| pmid \= 21627776 \| pmc \= 3123540 \| doi \= 10\.1186/1759\-8753\-2\-8 \| doi\-access \= free }} For example, the gene CYP19 codes for [aromatase](/wiki/Aromatase "Aromatase") P450, an important enzyme for estrogen synthesis, that is normally expressed in the brain and reproductive organs of most mammals. However, in primates, an LTR\-promoted transcriptional variant confers expression to the placenta and is responsible for controlling estrogen levels during pregnancy. Furthermore, the [neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein](/wiki/NAIP_%28gene%29 "NAIP (gene)") (NAIP), normally widespread, has an LTR of the HERV\-P family acting as a promoter that confers expression to the testis and prostate.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Romanish MT, Lock WM, van de Lagemaat LN, Dunn CA, Mager DL \| title \= Repeated recruitment of LTR retrotransposons as promoters by the anti\-apoptotic locus NAIP during mammalian evolution \| journal \= PLOS Genetics \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= e10 \| date \= January 2007 \| pmid \= 17222062 \| pmc \= 1781489 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pgen.0030010 \| doi\-access \= free }} Other proteins, such as nitric oxide synthase 3 ([NOS3](/wiki/NOS3 "NOS3")), interleukin\-2 receptor B ([IL2RB](/wiki/IL2RB "IL2RB")), and another mediator of estrogen synthesis, [HSD17B1](/wiki/HSD17B1 "HSD17B1"), are also alternatively regulated by LTRs that confer placental expression, but their specific functions are not yet known.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Huh JW, Ha HS, Kim DS, Kim HS \| title \= Placenta\-restricted expression of LTR\-derived NOS3 \| journal \= Placenta \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 602–608 \| date \= July 2008 \| pmid \= 18474398 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.placenta.2008\.04\.002 }} The high degree of reproductive expression is thought to be an after effect of the method by which they were endogenized; however, this also may be due to a lack of [DNA methylation](/wiki/DNA_methylation "DNA methylation") in germ\-line tissues. The best\-characterized instance of placental protein expression comes not from an alternatively promoted host gene but from a complete co\-option of a retroviral protein. Retroviral fusogenic env proteins, which play a role in the entry of the virion into the host cell, have had an important impact on the development of the mammalian [placenta](/wiki/Placenta "Placenta"). In mammals, intact env proteins called [syncytins](/wiki/ERVWE1 "ERVWE1") are responsible for the formation and function of [syncytiotrophoblasts](/wiki/Syncytiotrophoblasts "Syncytiotrophoblasts"). These multinucleated cells are mainly responsible for maintaining nutrient exchange and separating the fetus from the mother's immune system. It has been suggested that the selection and fixation of these proteins for this function have played a critical role in the evolution of [viviparity](/wiki/Viviparity "Viviparity").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Villarreal LP, Villareal LP \| title \= On viruses, sex, and motherhood \| journal \= Journal of Virology \| volume \= 71 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 859–865 \| date \= February 1997 \| pmid \= 8995601 \| pmc \= 191132 \| doi \= 10\.1128/JVI.71\.2\.859\-865\.1997 }} In addition, the insertion of ERVs and their respective LTRs have the potential to induce chromosomal rearrangement due to recombination between viral sequences at inter\-chromosomal loci. These rearrangements have been shown to induce gene duplications and deletions that largely contribute to genome plasticity and dramatically change the dynamic of gene function.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hughes JF, Coffin JM \| title \= Evidence for genomic rearrangements mediated by human endogenous retroviruses during primate evolution \| journal \= Nature Genetics \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 487–489 \| date \= December 2001 \| pmid \= 11704760 \| doi \= 10\.1038/ng775 \| s2cid \= 20262212 }} Furthermore, retroelements in general are largely prevalent in rapidly evolving, mammal\-specific gene families whose function is largely related to the response to stress and external stimuli. In particular, both human [class I](/wiki/Class_I_MHC "Class I MHC") and [class II MHC](/wiki/Class_II_MHC "Class II MHC") genes have a high density of HERV elements as compared to other multi\-locus\-gene families. It has been shown that HERVs have contributed to the formation of extensively duplicated duplicon blocks that make up the HLA class 1 family of genes.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dawkins R, Leelayuwat C, Gaudieri S, Tay G, Hui J, Cattley S, Martinez P, Kulski J \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Genomics of the major histocompatibility complex: haplotypes, duplication, retroviruses and disease \| journal \= Immunological Reviews \| volume \= 167 \| pages \= 275–304 \| date \= February 1999 \| pmid \= 10319268 \| doi \= 10\.1111/j.1600\-065X.1999\.tb01399\.x \| s2cid \= 9924684 }} More specifically, HERVs primarily occupy regions within and between the break points between these blocks, suggesting that considerable duplication and deletions events, typically associated with unequal crossover, facilitated their formation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Doxiadis GG, de Groot N, Bontrop RE \| title \= Impact of endogenous intronic retroviruses on major histocompatibility complex class II diversity and stability \| journal \= Journal of Virology \| volume \= 82 \| issue \= 13 \| pages \= 6667–6677 \| date \= July 2008 \| pmid \= 18448532 \| pmc \= 2447082 \| doi \= 10\.1128/JVI.00097\-08 }} The generation of these blocks, inherited as immunohaplotypes, act as a protective polymorphism against a wide range of antigens that may have imbued humans with an advantage over other primates. The characteristic of [placentas](/wiki/Placenta "Placenta") being very evolutionary distinct organs between different species has been suggested to result from the [co\-option](/wiki/Co-option "Co-option") of ERV enhancers. Regulatory mutations, instead of mutations in genes that encode for [hormones](/wiki/Hormone "Hormone") and [growth factors](/wiki/Growth_factor "Growth factor"), support the known evolution of placental morphology, especially since the majority of hormone and growth factor genes are expressed in response to pregnancy, not during placental development. Researchers studied the regulatory landscape of placental development between the rat and mouse, two closely related species. This was done by mapping all regulatory elements of the rat [trophoblast](/wiki/Trophoblast "Trophoblast") [stem cells](/wiki/Stem_cell "Stem cell") (TSCs) and comparing them to their [orthologs](/wiki/Ortholog "Ortholog") in mouse TSCs. TSCs were observed because they reflect the initial cells that develop in the fetal placenta. Regardless of their tangible similarities, enhancer and repressed regions were mostly species\-specific. However, most promoter sequences were conserved between mouse and rat. In conclusion to their study, researchers proposed that ERVs influenced species\-specific placental evolution through mediation of placental growth, [immunosuppression](/wiki/Immunosuppression "Immunosuppression"), and [cell fusion](/wiki/Cell_fusion "Cell fusion").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chuong EB, Rumi MA, Soares MJ, Baker JC \| title \= Endogenous retroviruses function as species\-specific enhancer elements in the placenta \| journal \= Nature Genetics \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 325–329 \| date \= March 2013 \| pmid \= 23396136 \| pmc \= 3789077 \| doi \= 10\.1038/ng.2553 }} Another example of ERV exploiting cellular mechanisms is [p53](/wiki/P53 "P53"), a [tumor suppressor gene](/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene "Tumor suppressor gene") (TSG). DNA damage and cellular stress induces the p53 pathway, which results in cell [apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis "Apoptosis"). Using chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing, thirty\-percent of all p53\-binding sites were located within copies of a few primate\-specific ERV families. A study suggested that this benefits retroviruses because p53's mechanism provides a rapid induction of transcription, which leads to the exit of viral RNA from the host cell. Finally, the insertion of ERVs or ERV elements into genic regions of host DNA, or overexpression of their transcriptional variants, has a much higher potential to produce deleterious effects than positive ones. Their appearance into the genome has created a [coevolutionary](/wiki/Coevolution "Coevolution") dynamic that proliferated the duplication and expansion of repressor genes. The most clear\-cut example of this involves the rapid duplication and proliferation of tandem [zinc\-finger](/wiki/Zinc-finger "Zinc-finger") genes in mammal genomes. Zinc\-finger genes, particularly those that include a [KRAB domain](/wiki/KRAB_domain "KRAB domain"), exist in high copy number in vertebrate genomes, and their range of functions are limited to transcriptional roles.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Thomas JH, Schneider S \| title \= Coevolution of retroelements and tandem zinc finger genes \| journal \= Genome Research \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 1800–1812 \| date \= November 2011 \| pmid \= 21784874 \| pmc \= 3205565 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gr.121749\.111 }} It has been shown in mammals, however, that the diversification of these genes was due to multiple duplication and fixation events in response to new retroviral sequences or their endogenous copies to repress their transcription.
[ "Role in genomic evolution\n-------------------------", "[thumb\\|Diagram displaying the integration of viral DNA into a host genome](/wiki/File:Integration_of_viral_DNA_into_host_genome.png \"Integration of viral DNA into host genome.png\")", "Endogenous retroviruses can play an active role in shaping genomes. Most studies in this area have focused on the genomes of humans and higher primates, but other vertebrates, such as mice and sheep, have also been studied in depth.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li J, Akagi K, Hu Y, Trivett AL, Hlynialuk CJ, Swing DA, Volfovsky N, Morgan TC, Golubeva Y, Stephens RM, Smith DE, Symer DE \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Mouse endogenous retroviruses can trigger premature transcriptional termination at a distance \\| journal \\= Genome Research \\| volume \\= 22 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= 870–884 \\| date \\= May 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22367191 \\| pmc \\= 3337433 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gr.130740\\.111 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Spencer TE, Palmarini M \\| title \\= Endogenous retroviruses of sheep: a model system for understanding physiological adaptation to an evolving ruminant genome \\| journal \\= The Journal of Reproduction and Development \\| volume \\= 58 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 33–37 \\| year \\= 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22450282 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1262/jrd.2011\\-026 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Black SG, Arnaud F, Palmarini M, Spencer TE \\| title \\= Endogenous retroviruses in trophoblast differentiation and placental development \\| journal \\= American Journal of Reproductive Immunology \\| volume \\= 64 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 255–264 \\| date \\= October 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20528833 \\| pmc \\= 4198168 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1600\\-0897\\.2010\\.00860\\.x }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ryan FP \\| title \\= Human endogenous retroviruses in health and disease: a symbiotic perspective \\| journal \\= Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine \\| volume \\= 97 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 560–565 \\| date \\= December 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15574851 \\| pmc \\= 1079666 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1177/014107680409701202 }} The long terminal repeat ([LTR](/wiki/Long_terminal_repeat \"Long terminal repeat\")) sequences that flank ERV genomes frequently act as alternate [promoters](/wiki/Gene_promoter \"Gene promoter\") and [enhancers](/wiki/Gene_enhancer \"Gene enhancer\"), often contributing to the [transcriptome](/wiki/Alternative_splicing \"Alternative splicing\") by producing tissue\\-specific variants. In addition, the retroviral [proteins](/wiki/Protein \"Protein\") themselves have been co\\-opted to serve novel host functions, particularly in reproduction and development. Recombination between homologous retroviral sequences has also contributed to gene shuffling and the generation of genetic variation. Furthermore, in the instance of potentially antagonistic effects of retroviral sequences, repressor genes have co\\-evolved to combat them.", "About 90% of endogenous retroviruses are solo LTRs, lacking all [open reading frames](/wiki/Open_reading_frame \"Open reading frame\") (ORFs). Solo LTRs and LTRs associated with complete retroviral sequences have been shown to act as transcriptional elements on host genes. Their range of action is mainly by insertion into the 5' [UTRs](/wiki/Untranslated_region \"Untranslated region\") of protein coding genes; however, they have been known to act upon genes up to 70–100 [kb](/wiki/Base_pair%23Length_measurements \"Base pair#Length measurements\") away.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pi W, Zhu X, Wu M, Wang Y, Fulzele S, Eroglu A, Ling J, Tuan D \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Long\\-range function of an intergenic retrotransposon \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 107 \\| issue \\= 29 \\| pages \\= 12992–12997 \\| date \\= July 2010 \\| pmid \\= 20615953 \\| pmc \\= 2919959 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.1004139107 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2010PNAS..10712992P }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= van de Lagemaat LN, Landry JR, Mager DL, Medstrand P \\| title \\= Transposable elements in mammals promote regulatory variation and diversification of genes with specialized functions \\| journal \\= Trends in Genetics \\| volume \\= 19 \\| issue \\= 10 \\| pages \\= 530–536 \\| date \\= October 2003 \\| pmid \\= 14550626 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.tig.2003\\.08\\.004 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Kovalskaya E, Buzdin A, Gogvadze E, Vinogradova T, Sverdlov E \\| title \\= Functional human endogenous retroviral LTR transcription start sites are located between the R and U5 regions \\| journal \\= Virology \\| volume \\= 346 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 373–378 \\| date \\= March 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16337666 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.virol.2005\\.11\\.007 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The majority of these elements are inserted in the sense direction to their corresponding genes, but there has been evidence{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hata K, Okano M, Lei H, Li E \\| title \\= Dnmt3L cooperates with the Dnmt3 family of de novo DNA methyltransferases to establish maternal imprints in mice \\| journal \\= Development \\| volume \\= 129 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 1983–1993 \\| date \\= April 2002 \\| pmid \\= 11934864 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1242/dev.129\\.8\\.1983 }} of LTRs acting in the antisense direction and as a bidirectional promoter for neighboring genes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dunn CA, Romanish MT, Gutierrez LE, van de Lagemaat LN, Mager DL \\| title \\= Transcription of two human genes from a bidirectional endogenous retrovirus promoter \\| journal \\= Gene \\| volume \\= 366 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 335–342 \\| date \\= February 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16288839 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.gene.2005\\.09\\.003 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gogvadze E, Stukacheva E, Buzdin A, Sverdlov E \\| title \\= Human\\-specific modulation of transcriptional activity provided by endogenous retroviral insertions \\| journal \\= Journal of Virology \\| volume \\= 83 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 6098–6105 \\| date \\= June 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19339349 \\| pmc \\= 2687385 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/JVI.00123\\-09 }} In a few cases, the LTR functions as the major promoter for the gene.", "For example, in humans AMY1C has a complete ERV sequence in its promoter region; the associated LTR confers salivary specific expression of the digestive [enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme \"Enzyme\") [amylase](/wiki/Amylase \"Amylase\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Ting CN, Rosenberg MP, Snow CM, Samuelson LC, Meisler MH \\| title \\= Endogenous retroviral sequences are required for tissue\\-specific expression of a human salivary amylase gene \\| journal \\= Genes \\& Development \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 1457–1465 \\| date \\= August 1992 \\| pmid \\= 1379564 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gad.6\\.8\\.1457 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Also, the primary promoter for [bile acid\\-CoA:amino acid N\\-acyltransferase](/wiki/BAAT \"BAAT\") (BAAT), which codes for an enzyme that is integral in bile metabolism, is of LTR origin.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cohen CJ, Lock WM, Mager DL \\| title \\= Endogenous retroviral LTRs as promoters for human genes: a critical assessment \\| journal \\= Gene \\| volume \\= 448 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 105–114 \\| date \\= December 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19577618 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.gene.2009\\.06\\.020 }}", "The insertion of a solo ERV\\-9 LTR may have produced a functional open reading frame, causing the rebirth of the human [immunity related GTPase gene](/wiki/IRGM \"IRGM\") (IRGM).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bekpen C, Marques\\-Bonet T, Alkan C, Antonacci F, Leogrande MB, Ventura M, Kidd JM, Siswara P, Howard JC, Eichler EE \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Death and resurrection of the human IRGM gene \\| journal \\= PLOS Genetics \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= e1000403 \\| date \\= March 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19266026 \\| pmc \\= 2644816 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pgen.1000403 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} ERV insertions have also been shown to generate alternative splice sites either by direct integration into the gene, as with the human leptin hormone receptor, or driven by the expression of an upstream LTR, as with the phospholipase A\\-2 like protein.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jern P, Coffin JM \\| title \\= Effects of retroviruses on host genome function \\| journal \\= Annual Review of Genetics \\| volume \\= 42 \\| pages \\= 709–732 \\| year \\= 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18694346 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1146/annurev.genet.42\\.110807\\.091501 }}", "Most of the time, however, the LTR functions as one of many alternate promoters, often conferring tissue\\-specific expression related to reproduction and development. In fact, 64% of known LTR\\-promoted transcription variants are [expressed](/wiki/Gene_expression \"Gene expression\") in reproductive tissues.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Oliver KR, Greene WK \\| title \\= Mobile DNA and the TE\\-Thrust hypothesis: supporting evidence from the primates \\| journal \\= Mobile DNA \\| volume \\= 2 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 8 \\| date \\= May 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21627776 \\| pmc \\= 3123540 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/1759\\-8753\\-2\\-8 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} For example, the gene CYP19 codes for [aromatase](/wiki/Aromatase \"Aromatase\") P450, an important enzyme for estrogen synthesis, that is normally expressed in the brain and reproductive organs of most mammals. However, in primates, an LTR\\-promoted transcriptional variant confers expression to the placenta and is responsible for controlling estrogen levels during pregnancy. Furthermore, the [neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein](/wiki/NAIP_%28gene%29 \"NAIP (gene)\") (NAIP), normally widespread, has an LTR of the HERV\\-P family acting as a promoter that confers expression to the testis and prostate.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Romanish MT, Lock WM, van de Lagemaat LN, Dunn CA, Mager DL \\| title \\= Repeated recruitment of LTR retrotransposons as promoters by the anti\\-apoptotic locus NAIP during mammalian evolution \\| journal \\= PLOS Genetics \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= e10 \\| date \\= January 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17222062 \\| pmc \\= 1781489 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pgen.0030010 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Other proteins, such as nitric oxide synthase 3 ([NOS3](/wiki/NOS3 \"NOS3\")), interleukin\\-2 receptor B ([IL2RB](/wiki/IL2RB \"IL2RB\")), and another mediator of estrogen synthesis, [HSD17B1](/wiki/HSD17B1 \"HSD17B1\"), are also alternatively regulated by LTRs that confer placental expression, but their specific functions are not yet known.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Huh JW, Ha HS, Kim DS, Kim HS \\| title \\= Placenta\\-restricted expression of LTR\\-derived NOS3 \\| journal \\= Placenta \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 602–608 \\| date \\= July 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18474398 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.placenta.2008\\.04\\.002 }} The high degree of reproductive expression is thought to be an after effect of the method by which they were endogenized; however, this also may be due to a lack of [DNA methylation](/wiki/DNA_methylation \"DNA methylation\") in germ\\-line tissues.", "The best\\-characterized instance of placental protein expression comes not from an alternatively promoted host gene but from a complete co\\-option of a retroviral protein. Retroviral fusogenic env proteins, which play a role in the entry of the virion into the host cell, have had an important impact on the development of the mammalian [placenta](/wiki/Placenta \"Placenta\"). In mammals, intact env proteins called [syncytins](/wiki/ERVWE1 \"ERVWE1\") are responsible for the formation and function of [syncytiotrophoblasts](/wiki/Syncytiotrophoblasts \"Syncytiotrophoblasts\"). These multinucleated cells are mainly responsible for maintaining nutrient exchange and separating the fetus from the mother's immune system. It has been suggested that the selection and fixation of these proteins for this function have played a critical role in the evolution of [viviparity](/wiki/Viviparity \"Viviparity\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Villarreal LP, Villareal LP \\| title \\= On viruses, sex, and motherhood \\| journal \\= Journal of Virology \\| volume \\= 71 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 859–865 \\| date \\= February 1997 \\| pmid \\= 8995601 \\| pmc \\= 191132 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/JVI.71\\.2\\.859\\-865\\.1997 }}", "In addition, the insertion of ERVs and their respective LTRs have the potential to induce chromosomal rearrangement due to recombination between viral sequences at inter\\-chromosomal loci. These rearrangements have been shown to induce gene duplications and deletions that largely contribute to genome plasticity and dramatically change the dynamic of gene function.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hughes JF, Coffin JM \\| title \\= Evidence for genomic rearrangements mediated by human endogenous retroviruses during primate evolution \\| journal \\= Nature Genetics \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 487–489 \\| date \\= December 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11704760 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ng775 \\| s2cid \\= 20262212 }} Furthermore, retroelements in general are largely prevalent in rapidly evolving, mammal\\-specific gene families whose function is largely related to the response to stress and external stimuli. In particular, both human [class I](/wiki/Class_I_MHC \"Class I MHC\") and [class II MHC](/wiki/Class_II_MHC \"Class II MHC\") genes have a high density of HERV elements as compared to other multi\\-locus\\-gene families. It has been shown that HERVs have contributed to the formation of extensively duplicated duplicon blocks that make up the HLA class 1 family of genes.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dawkins R, Leelayuwat C, Gaudieri S, Tay G, Hui J, Cattley S, Martinez P, Kulski J \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Genomics of the major histocompatibility complex: haplotypes, duplication, retroviruses and disease \\| journal \\= Immunological Reviews \\| volume \\= 167 \\| pages \\= 275–304 \\| date \\= February 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10319268 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1111/j.1600\\-065X.1999\\.tb01399\\.x \\| s2cid \\= 9924684 }} More specifically, HERVs primarily occupy regions within and between the break points between these blocks, suggesting that considerable duplication and deletions events, typically associated with unequal crossover, facilitated their formation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Doxiadis GG, de Groot N, Bontrop RE \\| title \\= Impact of endogenous intronic retroviruses on major histocompatibility complex class II diversity and stability \\| journal \\= Journal of Virology \\| volume \\= 82 \\| issue \\= 13 \\| pages \\= 6667–6677 \\| date \\= July 2008 \\| pmid \\= 18448532 \\| pmc \\= 2447082 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/JVI.00097\\-08 }} The generation of these blocks, inherited as immunohaplotypes, act as a protective polymorphism against a wide range of antigens that may have imbued humans with an advantage over other primates.", "The characteristic of [placentas](/wiki/Placenta \"Placenta\") being very evolutionary distinct organs between different species has been suggested to result from the [co\\-option](/wiki/Co-option \"Co-option\") of ERV enhancers. Regulatory mutations, instead of mutations in genes that encode for [hormones](/wiki/Hormone \"Hormone\") and [growth factors](/wiki/Growth_factor \"Growth factor\"), support the known evolution of placental morphology, especially since the majority of hormone and growth factor genes are expressed in response to pregnancy, not during placental development. Researchers studied the regulatory landscape of placental development between the rat and mouse, two closely related species. This was done by mapping all regulatory elements of the rat [trophoblast](/wiki/Trophoblast \"Trophoblast\") [stem cells](/wiki/Stem_cell \"Stem cell\") (TSCs) and comparing them to their [orthologs](/wiki/Ortholog \"Ortholog\") in mouse TSCs. TSCs were observed because they reflect the initial cells that develop in the fetal placenta. Regardless of their tangible similarities, enhancer and repressed regions were mostly species\\-specific. However, most promoter sequences were conserved between mouse and rat. In conclusion to their study, researchers proposed that ERVs influenced species\\-specific placental evolution through mediation of placental growth, [immunosuppression](/wiki/Immunosuppression \"Immunosuppression\"), and [cell fusion](/wiki/Cell_fusion \"Cell fusion\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chuong EB, Rumi MA, Soares MJ, Baker JC \\| title \\= Endogenous retroviruses function as species\\-specific enhancer elements in the placenta \\| journal \\= Nature Genetics \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 325–329 \\| date \\= March 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23396136 \\| pmc \\= 3789077 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/ng.2553 }}", "Another example of ERV exploiting cellular mechanisms is [p53](/wiki/P53 \"P53\"), a [tumor suppressor gene](/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene \"Tumor suppressor gene\") (TSG). DNA damage and cellular stress induces the p53 pathway, which results in cell [apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis \"Apoptosis\"). Using chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing, thirty\\-percent of all p53\\-binding sites were located within copies of a few primate\\-specific ERV families. A study suggested that this benefits retroviruses because p53's mechanism provides a rapid induction of transcription, which leads to the exit of viral RNA from the host cell.", "Finally, the insertion of ERVs or ERV elements into genic regions of host DNA, or overexpression of their transcriptional variants, has a much higher potential to produce deleterious effects than positive ones. Their appearance into the genome has created a [coevolutionary](/wiki/Coevolution \"Coevolution\") dynamic that proliferated the duplication and expansion of repressor genes. The most clear\\-cut example of this involves the rapid duplication and proliferation of tandem [zinc\\-finger](/wiki/Zinc-finger \"Zinc-finger\") genes in mammal genomes. Zinc\\-finger genes, particularly those that include a [KRAB domain](/wiki/KRAB_domain \"KRAB domain\"), exist in high copy number in vertebrate genomes, and their range of functions are limited to transcriptional roles.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Thomas JH, Schneider S \\| title \\= Coevolution of retroelements and tandem zinc finger genes \\| journal \\= Genome Research \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 1800–1812 \\| date \\= November 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21784874 \\| pmc \\= 3205565 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gr.121749\\.111 }} It has been shown in mammals, however, that the diversification of these genes was due to multiple duplication and fixation events in response to new retroviral sequences or their endogenous copies to repress their transcription.", "" ]
Human endogenous retroviruses ----------------------------- {{redirect\|HERV\|other uses\|Herv (disambiguation)}} Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) comprise a significant part of the [human genome](/wiki/Human_genome "Human genome"), with approximately 98,000 ERV elements and fragments making up 5–8%.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Belshaw R, Pereira V, Katzourakis A, Talbot G, Paces J, Burt A, Tristem M \| title \= Long\-term reinfection of the human genome by endogenous retroviruses \| journal \= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume \= 101 \| issue \= 14 \| pages \= 4894–4899 \| date \= April 2004 \| pmid \= 15044706 \| pmc \= 387345 \| doi \= 10\.1073/pnas.0307800101 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2004PNAS..101\.4894B }} According to a study published in 2005, no HERVs capable of replication had been identified; all appeared to be defective, containing major deletions or nonsense mutations (not true for HERV\-K). This is because most HERVs are merely traces of original viruses, having first integrated millions of years ago. An analysis of HERV integrations is ongoing as part of the [100,000 Genomes Project](/wiki/100%2C000_Genomes_Project "100,000 Genomes Project").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/portfolio/integrated\-pathogens\-and\-mobile\-elements\-gecip/\|title\=Genomics England › Integrated Pathogens and Mobile Elements GeCIP Domain\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-13\|archive\-date\=2019\-10\-13\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013091539/https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/portfolio/integrated\-pathogens\-and\-mobile\-elements\-gecip/\|url\-status\=dead}} A 2023 study found HERV can become awakened from dormant states and contribute to [aging](/wiki/Senescence "Senescence") which could [be blocked](/wiki/Life_extension "Life extension") by [neutralizing antibodies](/wiki/Neutralizing_antibody "Neutralizing antibody").{{cite news \|title\=Aging and Retroviruses \|url\=https://www.science.org/content/blog\-post/aging\-and\-retroviruses \|access\-date\=17 February 2023 \|work\=Science \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=17 February 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217232037/https://www.science.org/content/blog\-post/aging\-and\-retroviruses \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite journal \|last1\=Liu \|first1\=Xiaoqian \|last2\=Liu \|first2\=Zunpeng \|last3\=Wu \|first3\=Zeming \|last4\=Ren \|first4\=Jie \|last5\=Fan \|first5\=Yanling \|last6\=Sun \|first6\=Liang \|last7\=Cao \|first7\=Gang \|last8\=Niu \|first8\=Yuyu \|last9\=Zhang \|first9\=Baohu \|last10\=Ji \|first10\=Qianzhao \|last11\=Jiang \|first11\=Xiaoyu \|last12\=Wang \|first12\=Cui \|last13\=Wang \|first13\=Qiaoran \|last14\=Ji \|first14\=Zhejun \|last15\=Li \|first15\=Lanzhu \|last16\=Esteban \|first16\=Concepcion Rodriguez \|last17\=Yan \|first17\=Kaowen \|last18\=Li \|first18\=Wei \|last19\=Cai \|first19\=Yusheng \|last20\=Wang \|first20\=Si \|last21\=Zheng \|first21\=Aihua \|last22\=Zhang \|first22\=Yong E. \|last23\=Tan \|first23\=Shengjun \|last24\=Cai \|first24\=Yingao \|last25\=Song \|first25\=Moshi \|last26\=Lu \|first26\=Falong \|last27\=Tang \|first27\=Fuchou \|last28\=Ji \|first28\=Weizhi \|last29\=Zhou \|first29\=Qi \|last30\=Belmonte \|first30\=Juan Carlos Izpisua \|last31\=Zhang \|first31\=Weiqi \|last32\=Qu \|first32\=Jing \|last33\=Liu \|first33\=Guang\-Hui \|title\=Resurrection of endogenous retroviruses during aging reinforces senescence \|journal\=Cell \|date\=19 January 2023 \|volume\=186 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=287–304\.e26 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.cell.2022\.12\.017 \|pmid\=36610399 \|s2cid\=232060038 \|language\=English \|issn\=0092\-8674 \|doi\-access\=free }} Human endogenous retroviruses were originally discovered when human genomic libraries were screened under low\-stringency conditions using either probes from animal retroviruses or by using [oligonucleotides](/wiki/Oligonucleotide "Oligonucleotide") with similarity to virus sequences. ### Classification HERVs are classified based on their homologies to animal retroviruses. Families belonging to **Class I** are similar in sequence to mammalian *[Gammaretroviruses](/wiki/Gammaretrovirus "Gammaretrovirus")* (type C) and *[Epsilonretroviruses](/wiki/Epsilonretrovirus "Epsilonretrovirus")* (Type E). Families belonging to **Class II** show homology to mammalian *[Betaretroviruses](/wiki/Betaretrovirus "Betaretrovirus")* (Type B) and *[Deltaretroviruses](/wiki/Deltaretrovirus "Deltaretrovirus")* (Type D). Families belonging to **Class III** are similar to [foamy viruses](/wiki/Spumavirus "Spumavirus"). For all classes, if homologies appear well conserved in the *gag*, *pol*, and *env* gene, they are grouped into a [superfamily](/wiki/Superfamily_%28molecular_biology%29 "Superfamily (molecular biology)"). There are more Class I families known to exist.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Vargiu L, Rodriguez\-Tomé P, Sperber GO, Cadeddu M, Grandi N, Blikstad V, Tramontano E, Blomberg J \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Classification and characterization of human endogenous retroviruses; mosaic forms are common \| journal \= Retrovirology \| volume \= 13 \| pages \= 7 \| date \= January 2016 \| pmid \= 26800882 \| pmc \= 4724089 \| doi \= 10\.1186/s12977\-015\-0232\-y \| doi\-access \= free }} The families themselves are named in a less uniform manner, with a mixture of naming based on an exogenous retrovirus, the priming tRNA ([HERV\-W](/wiki/Human_endogenous_retrovirus-W "Human endogenous retrovirus-W"), [HERV\-K](/wiki/Human_endogenous_retrovirus_K "Human endogenous retrovirus K")), or some neighboring gene (HERV\-ADP), clone number (HERV\-S71\), or some amino acid motif (HERV\-FRD). A proposed nomenclature aims to clean up the sometimes paraphyletic standards. ### Origin Sometime during human evolution, exogenous progenitors of HERV inserted themselves into germ line cells and then replicated along with the host's genes using and exploiting the host's cellular mechanisms. Because of their distinct genomic structure, HERVs were subjected to many rounds of amplification and transposition, which lead to a more widespread distribution of retroviral DNA. Nevertheless, one family of viruses has been active since the divergence of [humans](/wiki/Human "Human") and [chimpanzees](/wiki/Common_chimpanzee "Common chimpanzee"). This family, termed [HERV\-K](/wiki/HERV-K "HERV-K") (HML2\), makes up less than 1% of HERV elements but is one of the most studied. There are indications it has even been active in the past few hundred thousand years, e.g., some human individuals carry more copies of HML2 than others.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Belshaw R, Dawson AL, Woolven\-Allen J, Redding J, Burt A, Tristem M \| title \= Genomewide screening reveals high levels of insertional polymorphism in the human endogenous retrovirus family HERV\-K(HML2\): implications for present\-day activity \| journal \= Journal of Virology \| volume \= 79 \| issue \= 19 \| pages \= 12507–12514 \| date \= October 2005 \| pmid \= 16160178 \| pmc \= 1211540 \| doi \= 10\.1128/JVI.79\.19\.12507\-12514\.2005 }} Traditionally, age estimates of HERVs are performed by comparing the 5' and 3' [LTR](/wiki/Long_terminal_repeat "Long terminal repeat") of a HERV; however, this method is only relevant for full\-length HERVs. A recent method, called cross\-sectional dating,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jha AR, Pillai SK, York VA, Sharp ER, Storm EC, Wachter DJ, Martin JN, Deeks SG, Rosenberg MG, Nixon DF, Garrison KE \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Cross\-sectional dating of novel haplotypes of HERV\-K 113 and HERV\-K 115 indicate these proviruses originated in Africa before Homo sapiens \| journal \= Molecular Biology and Evolution \| volume \= 26 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 2617–2626 \| date \= November 2009 \| pmid \= 19666991 \| pmc \= 2760466 \| doi \= 10\.1093/molbev/msp180 }} uses variations within a single LTR to estimate the ages of HERV insertions. This method is more precise in estimating HERV ages and can be used for any HERV insertions. Cross\-sectional dating has been used to suggest that two members of HERV\-K (HML2\), HERV\-K106 and HERV\-K116, were active in the last 800,000 years and that HERV\-K106 may have infected modern humans 150,000 years ago.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jha AR, Nixon DF, Rosenberg MG, Martin JN, Deeks SG, Hudson RR, Garrison KE, Pillai SK \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Human endogenous retrovirus K106 (HERV\-K106\) was infectious after the emergence of anatomically modern humans \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 6 \| issue \= 5 \| pages \= e20234 \| date \= May 2011 \| pmid \= 21633511 \| pmc \= 3102101 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0020234 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2011PLoSO...620234J }} However, the absence of known infectious members of the HERV\-K (HML2\) family, and the lack of elements with a full coding potential within the published human genome sequence, suggests to some that the family is less likely to be active at present. In 2006 and 2007, researchers working independently in France and the US recreated functional versions of HERV\-K (HML2\).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lee YN, Bieniasz PD \| title \= Reconstitution of an infectious human endogenous retrovirus \| journal \= PLOS Pathogens \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= e10 \| date \= January 2007 \| pmid \= 17257061 \| pmc \= 1781480 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.ppat.0030010 \| author\-link2 \= Paul Bieniasz \| doi\-access \= free }} {{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dewannieux M, Harper F, Richaud A, Letzelter C, Ribet D, Pierron G, Heidmann T \| title \= Identification of an infectious progenitor for the multiple\-copy HERV\-K human endogenous retroelements \| journal \= Genome Research \| volume \= 16 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 1548–1556 \| date \= December 2006 \| pmid \= 17077319 \| pmc \= 1665638 \| doi \= 10\.1101/gr.5565706 }} ### Expression of HERV proteins The expression of HERV\-K, a biologically active family of HERV, produces proteins found in placenta. Furthermore, the expression of the envelope genes of [HERV\-W](/wiki/HERV-W "HERV-W") ([ERVW\-1](https://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc_data.php?hgnc_id=13525) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919043913/http://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc\_data.php?hgnc\_id\=13525 \|date\=2013\-09\-19 }}) and [HERV\-FRD](/wiki/HERV-FRD "HERV-FRD") ([ERVFRD\-1](https://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc_data.php?hgnc_id=33823) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026003119/http://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc\_data.php?hgnc\_id\=33823 \|date\=2012\-10\-26 }}) produces syncytins which are important for the generation of the [syncytiotrophoblast](/wiki/Syncytiotrophoblast "Syncytiotrophoblast") cell layer during placentogenesis by inducing cell\-cell fusion.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Morozov VA, Dao Thi VL, Denner J \| title \= The transmembrane protein of the human endogenous retrovirus\-\-K (HERV\-K) modulates cytokine release and gene expression \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= e70399 \| year \= 2013 \| pmid \= 23950929 \| pmc \= 3737193 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0070399 \| doi\-access \= free \| bibcode \= 2013PLoSO...870399M }} The [HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee](/wiki/HUGO_Gene_Nomenclature_Committee "HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee") (HGNC) approves gene symbols for transcribed human ERVs.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mayer J, Blomberg J, Seal RL \| title \= A revised nomenclature for transcribed human endogenous retroviral loci \| journal \= Mobile DNA \| volume \= 2 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 7 \| date \= May 2011 \| pmid \= 21542922 \| pmc \= 3113919 \| doi \= 10\.1186/1759\-8753\-2\-7 \| doi\-access \= free }} ### Functional impact MER41\.AIM2 is an HERV that regulates the transcription of AIM2 (Absent in Melanoma 2\) which encodes for a sensor of foreign cytosolic DNA. This acts as a binding site for AIM2, meaning that it is necessary for the transcription of AIM2\. Researchers had shown this by deleting MER41\.AIM2 in HeLa cells using CRISPR/Cas9, leading to an undetectable transcript level of AIM2 in modified HeLa cells. The control cells, which still contained the MER41\.AIM2 ERV, were observed with normal amounts of AIM2 transcript. In terms of immunity, researchers concluded that MER41\.AIM2 is necessary for an inflammatory response to infection.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chuong EB, Elde NC, Feschotte C \| title \= Regulatory evolution of innate immunity through co\-option of endogenous retroviruses \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 351 \| issue \= 6277 \| pages \= 1083–1087 \| date \= March 2016 \| pmid \= 26941318 \| pmc \= 4887275 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.aad5497 \| bibcode \= 2016Sci...351\.1083C }} ### Activation by exogenous viruses Considerable evidence indicate that HERVs can be reactivated by viral infections, such as: 1\) retroviruses – [human immunodeficiency virus type\-1](/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus_type_1 "Human immunodeficiency virus type 1") ([HIV\-1](/wiki/HIV-1 "HIV-1")), [human T\-lymphotropic virus 1](/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1 "Human T-lymphotropic virus 1") (HTLV\-1\); 2\) RNA viruses – [influenza A virus](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus "Influenza A virus"), [hepatitis C virus](/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus "Hepatitis C virus") (HCV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus\-2 ([SARSCoV\-2](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 "SARS-CoV-2")); 3\) DNA viruses – [herpes simplex virus type\-1](/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus_type_1 "Herpes simplex virus type 1") (HSV\-1\), [Epstein\-Barr virus](/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus "Epstein–Barr virus") (EBV), [human cytomegalovirus](/wiki/Human_cytomegalovirus "Human cytomegalovirus") (CMV), [Kaposi’s sarcoma\-associated herpesvirus](/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus "Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus") (KSHV) {{Cite journal \| vauthors \= Li Y, Fan T, Cui J \|date\=March 2022 \|title\=Human endogenous retroviruses in viral disease and therapy \|journal\=Clinical and Translational Discovery \|language\=en \|volume\=2 \|issue\=1 \|doi\=10\.1002/ctd2\.38 \|s2cid\=247750447 \|issn\=2768\-0622\|doi\-access\=free }} Several studies have shown that EBV is able to transactivate the expression of the normally inactive HERV\-K18 Env protein, e.g., interacting with resting [B cells](/wiki/B_cell "B cell") via [CD21](/wiki/CD21 "CD21") receptor. Further studies revealed that the mechanism of transactivation depends on the expression of the major EBV late gene transactivator, [EBNA\-2](/wiki/EBNA-2 "EBNA-2"). In\-depth analysis completed the picture identifying the EBV latent membrane protein [LMP\-2A](/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus_latent_membrane_protein_2 "Epstein–Barr virus latent membrane protein 2") as a strong candidate for the HERV\-K18 transactivation. HERV\-K18 has also been reported to have superantigen activity (i.e. polyclonal T and B cell activation regardless of the specificity of their antigen receptor). It has also been shown that in vitro binding of the EBV gp350 protein caused activation of MSRV*env* and syncytin\-1 in B\-cells, monocytes, macrophages and in astrocytes \- cells that are involved in pathogenesis of [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mameli G, Poddighe L, Mei A, Uleri E, Sotgiu S, Serra C, Manetti R, Dolei A \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Expression and activation by Epstein Barr virus of human endogenous retroviruses\-W in blood cells and astrocytes: inference for multiple sclerosis \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 7 \| issue \= 9 \| pages \= e44991 \| date \= 2012\-09\-27 \| pmid \= 23028727 \| pmc \= 3459916 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0044991 \| bibcode \= 2012PLoSO...744991M \| doi\-access \= free }} Monocytes, especially after their differentiation into macrophages, appeared to be the most responsive to EBVgp350, expressing even higher levels of HERV\-W*env* than B cells. This finding is concordant with another study, which demonstrated that during infectious mononucleosis EBV promoted the strongest activation of HERV\-W/MSRV expression in monocytes compared to other blood cell types.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mameli G, Madeddu G, Mei A, Uleri E, Poddighe L, Delogu LG, Maida I, Babudieri S, Serra C, Manetti R, Mura MS, Dolei A \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Activation of MSRV\-type endogenous retroviruses during infectious mononucleosis and Epstein\-Barr virus latency: the missing link with multiple sclerosis? \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= e78474 \| date \= 2013\-11\-13 \| pmid \= 24236019 \| pmc \= 3827255 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.pone.0078474 \| bibcode \= 2013PLoSO...878474M \| doi\-access \= free }} ### Immune response to HERVs Despite having been integrated into genomes of vertebrates for millions of years, ERVs represent an intermediate stage between exogenous viruses and the host genome; it is suggested that immunological tolerance to HERV\-derived proteins and peptides is imperfect due to the epigenetic silencing of HERV in the thymus and bone marrow, which prevents deletion of all HERV\-specific T and B cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Bannert N, Hofmann H, Block A, Hohn O \| title \= HERVs New Role in Cancer: From Accused Perpetrators to Cheerful Protectors \| journal \= Frontiers in Microbiology \| volume \= 9 \| pages \= 178 \| date \= 2018\-02\-13 \| pmid \= 29487579 \| pmc \= 5816757 \| doi \= 10\.3389/fmicb.2018\.00178 \| doi\-access \= free }} As evidence of this, immunization of non\-human primates with ERV\-derived antigens mounted robust polyfunctional [cytotoxic T cell](/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell "Cytotoxic T cell") response as well as high antibody titers. According to phylogenetic studies, among 30 HERV families existing in the human genome, [HERV\-K](/wiki/HERV-K "HERV-K") (HML\-2\) elements which integrated most recently are the most intact and biologically active forms.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Gröger V, Cynis H \| title \= Human Endogenous Retroviruses and Their Putative Role in the Development of Autoimmune Disorders Such as Multiple Sclerosis \| journal \= Frontiers in Microbiology \| volume \= 9 \| pages \= 265 \| date \= 2018\-02\-20 \| pmid \= 29515547 \| pmc \= 5826199 \| doi \= 10\.3389/fmicb.2018\.00265 \| doi\-access \= free }} HERV\-K *env* and HERV\-H *env*, considered to be a new class of tumor\-associated antigens, have been found to promote strong cytotoxic T\-cell responses in patients with various types of cancers.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rycaj K, Plummer JB, Yin B, Li M, Garza J, Radvanyi L, Ramondetta LM, Lin K, Johanning GL, Tang DG, Wang\-Johanning F \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Cytotoxicity of human endogenous retrovirus K\-specific T cells toward autologous ovarian cancer cells \| journal \= Clinical Cancer Research \| volume \= 21 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 471–483 \| date \= January 2015 \| pmid \= 25370465 \| doi \= 10\.1158/1078\-0432\.CCR\-14\-0388 \| s2cid \= 2651471 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Mullins CS, Linnebacher M \| title \= Endogenous retrovirus sequences as a novel class of tumor\-specific antigens: an example of HERV\-H env encoding strong CTL epitopes \| journal \= Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy \| volume \= 61 \| issue \= 7 \| pages \= 1093–1100 \| date \= July 2012 \| pmid \= 22187063 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s00262\-011\-1183\-3 \| pmc \= 11029769 \| s2cid \= 28485656 }} On a level of the innate immune sensing of nucleic acids, single\-stranded RNA ([ssRNA](/wiki/SsRNA "SsRNA")) and double\-stranded RNA ([dsRNA](/wiki/Dsrna "Dsrna")) derived from endogenous retroviruses are recognized by [pattern recognition receptors](/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor "Pattern recognition receptor") (PRRs). [SsRNAs](/wiki/SsRNA "SsRNA") can be sensed by [Toll\-like receptors](/wiki/Toll-like_receptor "Toll-like receptor") [TLR\-7](/wiki/TLR_7 "TLR 7") and [TLR\-8](/wiki/TLR_8 "TLR 8"), resulting in secretion of [IFN\-α](/wiki/IFN-%CE%B1 "IFN-α") by stimulated [dendritic cells](/wiki/Dendritic_cell "Dendritic cell") (DCs) and [macrophages](/wiki/Macrophage "Macrophage"), which was observed for ssRNAs derived from [HIV\-1](/wiki/HIV-1 "HIV-1").{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Alcazer V, Bonaventura P, Depil S \| title \= Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs): Shaping the Innate Immune Response in Cancers \| journal \= Cancers \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 3 \| pages \= 610 \| date \= March 2020 \| pmid \= 32155827 \| pmc \= 7139688 \| doi \= 10\.3390/cancers12030610 \| doi\-access \= free }} [DsRNAs](/wiki/Dsrna "Dsrna") might be one of the most immunogenic nucleic acid [pathogen\-associated molecular patterns](/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_pattern "Pathogen-associated molecular pattern") (PAMPs), since they are not found in cells in a normal state. HERV\-derived dsRNA can be recognized by [TLR\-3](/wiki/TLR_3 "TLR 3"), [RIG\-I](/wiki/RIG-I "RIG-I") and [MDA5](/wiki/MDA5 "MDA5"); RIG\-I and MDA5 are known to induce a [type I IFN](/wiki/Interferon_type_I "Interferon type I") response.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hurst TP, Magiorkinis G \| title \= Activation of the innate immune response by endogenous retroviruses \| journal \= The Journal of General Virology \| volume \= 96 \| issue \= Pt 6 \| pages \= 1207–1218 \| date \= June 2015 \| pmid \= 26068187 \| doi \= 10\.1099/jgv.0\.000017 \| doi\-access \= free }} When retrotranscribed into DNA, retroviruses can be sensed by cyclic GMP\-AMP [synthase\-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS\-STING) pathway](/wiki/CGAS%E2%80%93STING_cytosolic_DNA_sensing_pathway "CGAS–STING cytosolic DNA sensing pathway"), leading to the activation of [nuclear factor\-kappa B](/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB "NF-κB") (NF\-kB) and IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3\), which in turn trigger a type I IFN response. DsDNA could also be sensed by DNA\-dependent activator of IFN\-regulatory factors (DAI); DNA:RNA hybrids could be recognized by [TLR\-9](/wiki/TLR_9 "TLR 9") The recognition of nucleic acids through PRRs provides a very efficient strategy to fight against viral infections, at the same time imposing the host to a risk due to the possibility of recognizing self\-nucleic acids and promotion of autoimmunity. Not surprisingly, HERVs have been found to be associated with different autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis "Multiple sclerosis"), [amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)](/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis "Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis"), [systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)](/wiki/Lupus "Lupus"), [rheumathoid arthritis (RA)](/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis "Rheumatoid arthritis"), [Sjögren syndrome (SS)](/wiki/Sj%C3%B6gren_syndrome "Sjögren syndrome"). On a protein level, a direct interaction between TLRs and certain HERV proteins has been shown. For example, the surface unit of HERV\-W Env (also known as Multiple sclerosis\-associated retroviral element (MSRV) env) was found to bind to [TLR4](/wiki/Toll-like_receptor_4 "Toll-like receptor 4") and [CD14](/wiki/CD14 "CD14"), stimulating the production of pro\-inflammatory cytokines including [IL\-1β](/wiki/Interleukin_1_beta "Interleukin 1 beta"), [IL\-6](/wiki/Interleukin_6 "Interleukin 6"), and [TNFα](/wiki/TNF%CE%B1 "TNFα"). HERV\-W Env can trigger a maturation process in human [dendritic cells](/wiki/Dendritic_cell "Dendritic cell"), endowing them with the capacity to support a [Th1](/wiki/Th1_cell "Th1 cell")\-like type of Th cell differentiation.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Rolland A, Jouvin\-Marche E, Viret C, Faure M, Perron H, Marche PN \| title \= The envelope protein of a human endogenous retrovirus\-W family activates innate immunity through CD14/TLR4 and promotes Th1\-like responses \| journal \= Journal of Immunology \| volume \= 176 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 7636–7644 \| date \= June 2006 \| pmid \= 16751411 \| doi \= 10\.4049/jimmunol.176\.12\.7636 \| s2cid \= 24492010 \| doi\-access \= free }} Immunological studies have shown some evidence for [T cell](/wiki/T_cell "T cell") immune responses against HERVs in HIV\-infected individuals.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Garrison KE, Jones RB, Meiklejohn DA, Anwar N, Ndhlovu LC, Chapman JM, Erickson AL, Agrawal A, Spotts G, Hecht FM, Rakoff\-Nahoum S, Lenz J, Ostrowski MA, Nixon DF \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= T cell responses to human endogenous retroviruses in HIV\-1 infection \| journal \= PLOS Pathogens \| volume \= 3 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= e165 \| date \= November 2007 \| pmid \= 17997601 \| pmc \= 2065876 \| doi \= 10\.1371/journal.ppat.0030165 \| doi\-access \= free }} The hypothesis that HIV induces HERV expression in HIV\-infected cells led to the proposal that a vaccine targeting HERV antigens could specifically eliminate HIV\-infected cells. The potential advantage of this novel approach is that, by using HERV antigens as surrogate markers of HIV\-infected cells, it could circumvent the difficulty inherent in directly targeting notoriously diverse and fast\-mutating HIV antigens.
[ "Human endogenous retroviruses\n-----------------------------", "{{redirect\\|HERV\\|other uses\\|Herv (disambiguation)}}", "Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) comprise a significant part of the [human genome](/wiki/Human_genome \"Human genome\"), with approximately 98,000 ERV elements and fragments making up 5–8%.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Belshaw R, Pereira V, Katzourakis A, Talbot G, Paces J, Burt A, Tristem M \\| title \\= Long\\-term reinfection of the human genome by endogenous retroviruses \\| journal \\= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \\| volume \\= 101 \\| issue \\= 14 \\| pages \\= 4894–4899 \\| date \\= April 2004 \\| pmid \\= 15044706 \\| pmc \\= 387345 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1073/pnas.0307800101 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2004PNAS..101\\.4894B }} According to a study published in 2005, no HERVs capable of replication had been identified; all appeared to be defective, containing major deletions or nonsense mutations (not true for HERV\\-K). This is because most HERVs are merely traces of original viruses, having first integrated millions of years ago. An analysis of HERV integrations is ongoing as part of the [100,000 Genomes Project](/wiki/100%2C000_Genomes_Project \"100,000 Genomes Project\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/portfolio/integrated\\-pathogens\\-and\\-mobile\\-elements\\-gecip/\\|title\\=Genomics England › Integrated Pathogens and Mobile Elements GeCIP Domain\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-13\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013091539/https://www.genomicsengland.co.uk/portfolio/integrated\\-pathogens\\-and\\-mobile\\-elements\\-gecip/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "A 2023 study found HERV can become awakened from dormant states and contribute to [aging](/wiki/Senescence \"Senescence\") which could [be blocked](/wiki/Life_extension \"Life extension\") by [neutralizing antibodies](/wiki/Neutralizing_antibody \"Neutralizing antibody\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Aging and Retroviruses \\|url\\=https://www.science.org/content/blog\\-post/aging\\-and\\-retroviruses \\|access\\-date\\=17 February 2023 \\|work\\=Science \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=17 February 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217232037/https://www.science.org/content/blog\\-post/aging\\-and\\-retroviruses \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Liu \\|first1\\=Xiaoqian \\|last2\\=Liu \\|first2\\=Zunpeng \\|last3\\=Wu \\|first3\\=Zeming \\|last4\\=Ren \\|first4\\=Jie \\|last5\\=Fan \\|first5\\=Yanling \\|last6\\=Sun \\|first6\\=Liang \\|last7\\=Cao \\|first7\\=Gang \\|last8\\=Niu \\|first8\\=Yuyu \\|last9\\=Zhang \\|first9\\=Baohu \\|last10\\=Ji \\|first10\\=Qianzhao \\|last11\\=Jiang \\|first11\\=Xiaoyu \\|last12\\=Wang \\|first12\\=Cui \\|last13\\=Wang \\|first13\\=Qiaoran \\|last14\\=Ji \\|first14\\=Zhejun \\|last15\\=Li \\|first15\\=Lanzhu \\|last16\\=Esteban \\|first16\\=Concepcion Rodriguez \\|last17\\=Yan \\|first17\\=Kaowen \\|last18\\=Li \\|first18\\=Wei \\|last19\\=Cai \\|first19\\=Yusheng \\|last20\\=Wang \\|first20\\=Si \\|last21\\=Zheng \\|first21\\=Aihua \\|last22\\=Zhang \\|first22\\=Yong E. \\|last23\\=Tan \\|first23\\=Shengjun \\|last24\\=Cai \\|first24\\=Yingao \\|last25\\=Song \\|first25\\=Moshi \\|last26\\=Lu \\|first26\\=Falong \\|last27\\=Tang \\|first27\\=Fuchou \\|last28\\=Ji \\|first28\\=Weizhi \\|last29\\=Zhou \\|first29\\=Qi \\|last30\\=Belmonte \\|first30\\=Juan Carlos Izpisua \\|last31\\=Zhang \\|first31\\=Weiqi \\|last32\\=Qu \\|first32\\=Jing \\|last33\\=Liu \\|first33\\=Guang\\-Hui \\|title\\=Resurrection of endogenous retroviruses during aging reinforces senescence \\|journal\\=Cell \\|date\\=19 January 2023 \\|volume\\=186 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=287–304\\.e26 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.cell.2022\\.12\\.017 \\|pmid\\=36610399 \\|s2cid\\=232060038 \\|language\\=English \\|issn\\=0092\\-8674 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "Human endogenous retroviruses were originally discovered when human genomic libraries were screened under low\\-stringency conditions using either probes from animal retroviruses or by using [oligonucleotides](/wiki/Oligonucleotide \"Oligonucleotide\") with similarity to virus sequences.", "### Classification", "HERVs are classified based on their homologies to animal retroviruses. Families belonging to **Class I** are similar in sequence to mammalian *[Gammaretroviruses](/wiki/Gammaretrovirus \"Gammaretrovirus\")* (type C) and *[Epsilonretroviruses](/wiki/Epsilonretrovirus \"Epsilonretrovirus\")* (Type E). Families belonging to **Class II** show homology to mammalian *[Betaretroviruses](/wiki/Betaretrovirus \"Betaretrovirus\")* (Type B) and *[Deltaretroviruses](/wiki/Deltaretrovirus \"Deltaretrovirus\")* (Type D). Families belonging to **Class III** are similar to [foamy viruses](/wiki/Spumavirus \"Spumavirus\"). For all classes, if homologies appear well conserved in the *gag*, *pol*, and *env* gene, they are grouped into a [superfamily](/wiki/Superfamily_%28molecular_biology%29 \"Superfamily (molecular biology)\"). There are more Class I families known to exist.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Vargiu L, Rodriguez\\-Tomé P, Sperber GO, Cadeddu M, Grandi N, Blikstad V, Tramontano E, Blomberg J \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Classification and characterization of human endogenous retroviruses; mosaic forms are common \\| journal \\= Retrovirology \\| volume \\= 13 \\| pages \\= 7 \\| date \\= January 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26800882 \\| pmc \\= 4724089 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/s12977\\-015\\-0232\\-y \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The families themselves are named in a less uniform manner, with a mixture of naming based on an exogenous retrovirus, the priming tRNA ([HERV\\-W](/wiki/Human_endogenous_retrovirus-W \"Human endogenous retrovirus-W\"), [HERV\\-K](/wiki/Human_endogenous_retrovirus_K \"Human endogenous retrovirus K\")), or some neighboring gene (HERV\\-ADP), clone number (HERV\\-S71\\), or some amino acid motif (HERV\\-FRD). A proposed nomenclature aims to clean up the sometimes paraphyletic standards.", "### Origin", "Sometime during human evolution, exogenous progenitors of HERV inserted themselves into germ line cells and then replicated along with the host's genes using and exploiting the host's cellular mechanisms. Because of their distinct genomic structure, HERVs were subjected to many rounds of amplification and transposition, which lead to a more widespread distribution of retroviral DNA.", "Nevertheless, one family of viruses has been active since the divergence of [humans](/wiki/Human \"Human\") and [chimpanzees](/wiki/Common_chimpanzee \"Common chimpanzee\"). This family, termed [HERV\\-K](/wiki/HERV-K \"HERV-K\") (HML2\\), makes up less than 1% of HERV elements but is one of the most studied. There are indications it has even been active in the past few hundred thousand years, e.g., some human individuals carry more copies of HML2 than others.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Belshaw R, Dawson AL, Woolven\\-Allen J, Redding J, Burt A, Tristem M \\| title \\= Genomewide screening reveals high levels of insertional polymorphism in the human endogenous retrovirus family HERV\\-K(HML2\\): implications for present\\-day activity \\| journal \\= Journal of Virology \\| volume \\= 79 \\| issue \\= 19 \\| pages \\= 12507–12514 \\| date \\= October 2005 \\| pmid \\= 16160178 \\| pmc \\= 1211540 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/JVI.79\\.19\\.12507\\-12514\\.2005 }} Traditionally, age estimates of HERVs are performed by comparing the 5' and 3' [LTR](/wiki/Long_terminal_repeat \"Long terminal repeat\") of a HERV; however, this method is only relevant for full\\-length HERVs. A recent method, called cross\\-sectional dating,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jha AR, Pillai SK, York VA, Sharp ER, Storm EC, Wachter DJ, Martin JN, Deeks SG, Rosenberg MG, Nixon DF, Garrison KE \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Cross\\-sectional dating of novel haplotypes of HERV\\-K 113 and HERV\\-K 115 indicate these proviruses originated in Africa before Homo sapiens \\| journal \\= Molecular Biology and Evolution \\| volume \\= 26 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 2617–2626 \\| date \\= November 2009 \\| pmid \\= 19666991 \\| pmc \\= 2760466 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/molbev/msp180 }} uses variations within a single LTR to estimate the ages of HERV insertions. This method is more precise in estimating HERV ages and can be used for any HERV insertions. Cross\\-sectional dating has been used to suggest that two members of HERV\\-K (HML2\\), HERV\\-K106 and HERV\\-K116, were active in the last 800,000 years and that HERV\\-K106 may have infected modern humans 150,000 years ago.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jha AR, Nixon DF, Rosenberg MG, Martin JN, Deeks SG, Hudson RR, Garrison KE, Pillai SK \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Human endogenous retrovirus K106 (HERV\\-K106\\) was infectious after the emergence of anatomically modern humans \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 6 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| pages \\= e20234 \\| date \\= May 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21633511 \\| pmc \\= 3102101 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0020234 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2011PLoSO...620234J }} However, the absence of known infectious members of the HERV\\-K (HML2\\) family, and the lack of elements with a full coding potential within the published human genome sequence, suggests to some that the family is less likely to be active at present. In 2006 and 2007, researchers working independently in France and the US recreated functional versions of HERV\\-K (HML2\\).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lee YN, Bieniasz PD \\| title \\= Reconstitution of an infectious human endogenous retrovirus \\| journal \\= PLOS Pathogens \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= e10 \\| date \\= January 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17257061 \\| pmc \\= 1781480 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.ppat.0030010 \\| author\\-link2 \\= Paul Bieniasz \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}\n{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dewannieux M, Harper F, Richaud A, Letzelter C, Ribet D, Pierron G, Heidmann T \\| title \\= Identification of an infectious progenitor for the multiple\\-copy HERV\\-K human endogenous retroelements \\| journal \\= Genome Research \\| volume \\= 16 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 1548–1556 \\| date \\= December 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17077319 \\| pmc \\= 1665638 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1101/gr.5565706 }}", "", "### Expression of HERV proteins", "The expression of HERV\\-K, a biologically active family of HERV, produces proteins found in placenta. Furthermore, the expression of the envelope genes of [HERV\\-W](/wiki/HERV-W \"HERV-W\") ([ERVW\\-1](https://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc_data.php?hgnc_id=13525) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919043913/http://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc\\_data.php?hgnc\\_id\\=13525 \\|date\\=2013\\-09\\-19 }}) and [HERV\\-FRD](/wiki/HERV-FRD \"HERV-FRD\") ([ERVFRD\\-1](https://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc_data.php?hgnc_id=33823) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026003119/http://www.genenames.org/data/hgnc\\_data.php?hgnc\\_id\\=33823 \\|date\\=2012\\-10\\-26 }}) produces syncytins which are important for the generation of the [syncytiotrophoblast](/wiki/Syncytiotrophoblast \"Syncytiotrophoblast\") cell layer during placentogenesis by inducing cell\\-cell fusion.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Morozov VA, Dao Thi VL, Denner J \\| title \\= The transmembrane protein of the human endogenous retrovirus\\-\\-K (HERV\\-K) modulates cytokine release and gene expression \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= e70399 \\| year \\= 2013 \\| pmid \\= 23950929 \\| pmc \\= 3737193 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0070399 \\| doi\\-access \\= free \\| bibcode \\= 2013PLoSO...870399M }} The [HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee](/wiki/HUGO_Gene_Nomenclature_Committee \"HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee\") (HGNC) approves gene symbols for transcribed human ERVs.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mayer J, Blomberg J, Seal RL \\| title \\= A revised nomenclature for transcribed human endogenous retroviral loci \\| journal \\= Mobile DNA \\| volume \\= 2 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 7 \\| date \\= May 2011 \\| pmid \\= 21542922 \\| pmc \\= 3113919 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/1759\\-8753\\-2\\-7 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "### Functional impact", "MER41\\.AIM2 is an HERV that regulates the transcription of AIM2 (Absent in Melanoma 2\\) which encodes for a sensor of foreign cytosolic DNA. This acts as a binding site for AIM2, meaning that it is necessary for the transcription of AIM2\\. Researchers had shown this by deleting MER41\\.AIM2 in HeLa cells using CRISPR/Cas9, leading to an undetectable transcript level of AIM2 in modified HeLa cells. The control cells, which still contained the MER41\\.AIM2 ERV, were observed with normal amounts of AIM2 transcript. In terms of immunity, researchers concluded that MER41\\.AIM2 is necessary for an inflammatory response to infection.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chuong EB, Elde NC, Feschotte C \\| title \\= Regulatory evolution of innate immunity through co\\-option of endogenous retroviruses \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 351 \\| issue \\= 6277 \\| pages \\= 1083–1087 \\| date \\= March 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26941318 \\| pmc \\= 4887275 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.aad5497 \\| bibcode \\= 2016Sci...351\\.1083C }}", "### Activation by exogenous viruses", "Considerable evidence indicate that HERVs can be reactivated by viral infections, such as:", "1\\) retroviruses – [human immunodeficiency virus type\\-1](/wiki/Human_immunodeficiency_virus_type_1 \"Human immunodeficiency virus type 1\") ([HIV\\-1](/wiki/HIV-1 \"HIV-1\")), [human T\\-lymphotropic virus 1](/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1 \"Human T-lymphotropic virus 1\") (HTLV\\-1\\);", "2\\) RNA viruses – [influenza A virus](/wiki/Influenza_A_virus \"Influenza A virus\"), [hepatitis C virus](/wiki/Hepatitis_C_virus \"Hepatitis C virus\") (HCV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus\\-2 ([SARSCoV\\-2](/wiki/SARS-CoV-2 \"SARS-CoV-2\"));", "3\\) DNA viruses – [herpes simplex virus type\\-1](/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus_type_1 \"Herpes simplex virus type 1\") (HSV\\-1\\), [Epstein\\-Barr virus](/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus \"Epstein–Barr virus\") (EBV), [human cytomegalovirus](/wiki/Human_cytomegalovirus \"Human cytomegalovirus\") (CMV), [Kaposi’s sarcoma\\-associated herpesvirus](/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus \"Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus\") (KSHV) {{Cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li Y, Fan T, Cui J \\|date\\=March 2022 \\|title\\=Human endogenous retroviruses in viral disease and therapy \\|journal\\=Clinical and Translational Discovery \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=2 \\|issue\\=1 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/ctd2\\.38 \\|s2cid\\=247750447 \\|issn\\=2768\\-0622\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}", "Several studies have shown that EBV is able to transactivate the expression of the normally inactive HERV\\-K18 Env protein, e.g., interacting with resting [B cells](/wiki/B_cell \"B cell\") via [CD21](/wiki/CD21 \"CD21\") receptor. Further studies revealed that the mechanism of transactivation depends on the expression of the major EBV late gene transactivator, [EBNA\\-2](/wiki/EBNA-2 \"EBNA-2\"). In\\-depth analysis completed the picture identifying the EBV latent membrane protein [LMP\\-2A](/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus_latent_membrane_protein_2 \"Epstein–Barr virus latent membrane protein 2\") as a strong candidate for the HERV\\-K18 transactivation. HERV\\-K18 has also been reported to have superantigen activity (i.e. polyclonal T and B cell activation regardless of the specificity of their antigen receptor).", "It has also been shown that in vitro binding of the EBV gp350 protein caused activation of MSRV*env* and syncytin\\-1 in B\\-cells, monocytes, macrophages and in astrocytes \\- cells that are involved in pathogenesis of [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis \"Multiple sclerosis\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mameli G, Poddighe L, Mei A, Uleri E, Sotgiu S, Serra C, Manetti R, Dolei A \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Expression and activation by Epstein Barr virus of human endogenous retroviruses\\-W in blood cells and astrocytes: inference for multiple sclerosis \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 7 \\| issue \\= 9 \\| pages \\= e44991 \\| date \\= 2012\\-09\\-27 \\| pmid \\= 23028727 \\| pmc \\= 3459916 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0044991 \\| bibcode \\= 2012PLoSO...744991M \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Monocytes, especially after their differentiation into macrophages, appeared to be the most responsive to EBVgp350, expressing even higher levels of HERV\\-W*env* than B cells. This finding is concordant with another study, which demonstrated that during infectious mononucleosis EBV promoted the strongest activation of HERV\\-W/MSRV expression in monocytes compared to other blood cell types.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mameli G, Madeddu G, Mei A, Uleri E, Poddighe L, Delogu LG, Maida I, Babudieri S, Serra C, Manetti R, Mura MS, Dolei A \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Activation of MSRV\\-type endogenous retroviruses during infectious mononucleosis and Epstein\\-Barr virus latency: the missing link with multiple sclerosis? \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= e78474 \\| date \\= 2013\\-11\\-13 \\| pmid \\= 24236019 \\| pmc \\= 3827255 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.pone.0078474 \\| bibcode \\= 2013PLoSO...878474M \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "### Immune response to HERVs", "Despite having been integrated into genomes of vertebrates for millions of years, ERVs represent an intermediate stage between exogenous viruses and the host genome; it is suggested that immunological tolerance to HERV\\-derived proteins and peptides is imperfect due to the epigenetic silencing of HERV in the thymus and bone marrow, which prevents deletion of all HERV\\-specific T and B cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Bannert N, Hofmann H, Block A, Hohn O \\| title \\= HERVs New Role in Cancer: From Accused Perpetrators to Cheerful Protectors \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Microbiology \\| volume \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 178 \\| date \\= 2018\\-02\\-13 \\| pmid \\= 29487579 \\| pmc \\= 5816757 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3389/fmicb.2018\\.00178 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} As evidence of this, immunization of non\\-human primates with ERV\\-derived antigens mounted robust polyfunctional [cytotoxic T cell](/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell \"Cytotoxic T cell\") response as well as high antibody titers. According to phylogenetic studies, among 30 HERV families existing in the human genome, [HERV\\-K](/wiki/HERV-K \"HERV-K\") (HML\\-2\\) elements which integrated most recently are the most intact and biologically active forms.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Gröger V, Cynis H \\| title \\= Human Endogenous Retroviruses and Their Putative Role in the Development of Autoimmune Disorders Such as Multiple Sclerosis \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Microbiology \\| volume \\= 9 \\| pages \\= 265 \\| date \\= 2018\\-02\\-20 \\| pmid \\= 29515547 \\| pmc \\= 5826199 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3389/fmicb.2018\\.00265 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} HERV\\-K *env* and HERV\\-H *env*, considered to be a new class of tumor\\-associated antigens, have been found to promote strong cytotoxic T\\-cell responses in patients with various types of cancers.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rycaj K, Plummer JB, Yin B, Li M, Garza J, Radvanyi L, Ramondetta LM, Lin K, Johanning GL, Tang DG, Wang\\-Johanning F \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Cytotoxicity of human endogenous retrovirus K\\-specific T cells toward autologous ovarian cancer cells \\| journal \\= Clinical Cancer Research \\| volume \\= 21 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 471–483 \\| date \\= January 2015 \\| pmid \\= 25370465 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1158/1078\\-0432\\.CCR\\-14\\-0388 \\| s2cid \\= 2651471 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Mullins CS, Linnebacher M \\| title \\= Endogenous retrovirus sequences as a novel class of tumor\\-specific antigens: an example of HERV\\-H env encoding strong CTL epitopes \\| journal \\= Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy \\| volume \\= 61 \\| issue \\= 7 \\| pages \\= 1093–1100 \\| date \\= July 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22187063 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s00262\\-011\\-1183\\-3 \\| pmc \\= 11029769 \\| s2cid \\= 28485656 }}", "On a level of the innate immune sensing of nucleic acids, single\\-stranded RNA ([ssRNA](/wiki/SsRNA \"SsRNA\")) and double\\-stranded RNA ([dsRNA](/wiki/Dsrna \"Dsrna\")) derived from endogenous retroviruses are recognized by [pattern recognition receptors](/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor \"Pattern recognition receptor\") (PRRs).", "[SsRNAs](/wiki/SsRNA \"SsRNA\") can be sensed by [Toll\\-like receptors](/wiki/Toll-like_receptor \"Toll-like receptor\") [TLR\\-7](/wiki/TLR_7 \"TLR 7\") and [TLR\\-8](/wiki/TLR_8 \"TLR 8\"), resulting in secretion of [IFN\\-α](/wiki/IFN-%CE%B1 \"IFN-α\") by stimulated [dendritic cells](/wiki/Dendritic_cell \"Dendritic cell\") (DCs) and [macrophages](/wiki/Macrophage \"Macrophage\"), which was observed for ssRNAs derived from [HIV\\-1](/wiki/HIV-1 \"HIV-1\").{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Alcazer V, Bonaventura P, Depil S \\| title \\= Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs): Shaping the Innate Immune Response in Cancers \\| journal \\= Cancers \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 3 \\| pages \\= 610 \\| date \\= March 2020 \\| pmid \\= 32155827 \\| pmc \\= 7139688 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3390/cancers12030610 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "[DsRNAs](/wiki/Dsrna \"Dsrna\") might be one of the most immunogenic nucleic acid [pathogen\\-associated molecular patterns](/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_pattern \"Pathogen-associated molecular pattern\") (PAMPs), since they are not found in cells in a normal state. HERV\\-derived dsRNA can be recognized by [TLR\\-3](/wiki/TLR_3 \"TLR 3\"), [RIG\\-I](/wiki/RIG-I \"RIG-I\") and [MDA5](/wiki/MDA5 \"MDA5\"); RIG\\-I and MDA5 are known to induce a [type I IFN](/wiki/Interferon_type_I \"Interferon type I\") response.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hurst TP, Magiorkinis G \\| title \\= Activation of the innate immune response by endogenous retroviruses \\| journal \\= The Journal of General Virology \\| volume \\= 96 \\| issue \\= Pt 6 \\| pages \\= 1207–1218 \\| date \\= June 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26068187 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1099/jgv.0\\.000017 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "When retrotranscribed into DNA, retroviruses can be sensed by cyclic GMP\\-AMP [synthase\\-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS\\-STING) pathway](/wiki/CGAS%E2%80%93STING_cytosolic_DNA_sensing_pathway \"CGAS–STING cytosolic DNA sensing pathway\"), leading to the activation of [nuclear factor\\-kappa B](/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB \"NF-κB\") (NF\\-kB) and IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3\\), which in turn trigger a type I IFN response. DsDNA could also be sensed by DNA\\-dependent activator of IFN\\-regulatory factors (DAI); DNA:RNA hybrids could be recognized by [TLR\\-9](/wiki/TLR_9 \"TLR 9\")", "The recognition of nucleic acids through PRRs provides a very efficient strategy to fight against viral infections, at the same time imposing the host to a risk due to the possibility of recognizing self\\-nucleic acids and promotion of autoimmunity. Not surprisingly, HERVs have been found to be associated with different autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as [multiple sclerosis](/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis \"Multiple sclerosis\"), [amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)](/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis \"Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis\"), [systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)](/wiki/Lupus \"Lupus\"), [rheumathoid arthritis (RA)](/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis \"Rheumatoid arthritis\"), [Sjögren syndrome (SS)](/wiki/Sj%C3%B6gren_syndrome \"Sjögren syndrome\").", "On a protein level, a direct interaction between TLRs and certain HERV proteins has been shown. For example, the surface unit of HERV\\-W Env (also known as Multiple sclerosis\\-associated retroviral element (MSRV) env) was found to bind to [TLR4](/wiki/Toll-like_receptor_4 \"Toll-like receptor 4\") and [CD14](/wiki/CD14 \"CD14\"), stimulating the production of pro\\-inflammatory cytokines including [IL\\-1β](/wiki/Interleukin_1_beta \"Interleukin 1 beta\"), [IL\\-6](/wiki/Interleukin_6 \"Interleukin 6\"), and [TNFα](/wiki/TNF%CE%B1 \"TNFα\"). HERV\\-W Env can trigger a maturation process in human [dendritic cells](/wiki/Dendritic_cell \"Dendritic cell\"), endowing them with the capacity to support a [Th1](/wiki/Th1_cell \"Th1 cell\")\\-like type of Th cell differentiation.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Rolland A, Jouvin\\-Marche E, Viret C, Faure M, Perron H, Marche PN \\| title \\= The envelope protein of a human endogenous retrovirus\\-W family activates innate immunity through CD14/TLR4 and promotes Th1\\-like responses \\| journal \\= Journal of Immunology \\| volume \\= 176 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 7636–7644 \\| date \\= June 2006 \\| pmid \\= 16751411 \\| doi \\= 10\\.4049/jimmunol.176\\.12\\.7636 \\| s2cid \\= 24492010 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}", "Immunological studies have shown some evidence for [T cell](/wiki/T_cell \"T cell\") immune responses against HERVs in HIV\\-infected individuals.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Garrison KE, Jones RB, Meiklejohn DA, Anwar N, Ndhlovu LC, Chapman JM, Erickson AL, Agrawal A, Spotts G, Hecht FM, Rakoff\\-Nahoum S, Lenz J, Ostrowski MA, Nixon DF \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= T cell responses to human endogenous retroviruses in HIV\\-1 infection \\| journal \\= PLOS Pathogens \\| volume \\= 3 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= e165 \\| date \\= November 2007 \\| pmid \\= 17997601 \\| pmc \\= 2065876 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1371/journal.ppat.0030165 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} The hypothesis that HIV induces HERV expression in HIV\\-infected cells led to the proposal that a vaccine targeting HERV antigens could specifically eliminate HIV\\-infected cells. The potential advantage of this novel approach is that, by using HERV antigens as surrogate markers of HIV\\-infected cells, it could circumvent the difficulty inherent in directly targeting notoriously diverse and fast\\-mutating HIV antigens.", "" ]
History ------- ### Ancient era {{main\|Aetolian league}} {{multiple image \|align\=left \|direction\=vertical \|width\=240px \|image1\=Calydon Aetolia 2010\.JPG \|caption1\=Ruins of the ancient \[\[Calydon]] \|image2\=Etolia.png \|caption2\=The Aetolian League, \[\[3rd century B.C.]] }} Tribes known as [Curetes](/wiki/Curetes_%28tribe%29 "Curetes (tribe)") – named after the nearby mountain Kourion, or just to stand out from the Acarnanians, who were called so because they were unshorn – and [Leleges](/wiki/Leleges "Leleges") originally inhabited the country, but at an early period [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks") from [Elis](/wiki/Ancient_Elis "Ancient Elis"), led by the mythical [eponym](/wiki/Eponym "Eponym") [Aetolus](/wiki/Aetolus%2C_son_of_Endymion "Aetolus, son of Endymion"), set up colonies. [Dionysius of Halicarnassus](/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus "Dionysius of Halicarnassus") mentions that Curetes was the old name of the Aetolians and Leleges the old name of the [Locrians](/wiki/Locrians "Locrians").{{citation \|author\=Dionysius of Halicarnassus \|title\=Roman Antiquities, Book 1, 1 \|publisher\=LacusCurtius \|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius\_of\_Halicarnassus/1B\*.html}} The Aetolians took part in the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War"), under their king [Thoas](/wiki/Thoas_%28king_of_Aetoila%29 "Thoas (king of Aetoila)"). The mountain tribes of Aetolia were the Ophioneis,[John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 33\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9AVWMt1ciJoC&dq=apodotoi&pg=PA33) the Apodotoi, the Agraeis, the AperantoiJohn D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 40\. and the Eurytanians.{{Cite web \|url\=http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \|title\=Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus \- Γενικά Στοιχεία. \|access\-date\=2015\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20150403090413/http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-03 \|url\-status\=dead }} The primitive lifestyle of those tribes made an impression on ancient historians. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius") doubted their Greek heritage, while Livy reports that they spoke a language similar to the Macedonians. On the other hand, [Thucydides](/wiki/Thucydides "Thucydides") claims that Eurytanians spoke a very difficult language and ate their food completely raw. They were semi\-barbaric, warlike and predatory. They worshiped [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo") as god of tame nature and [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") as goddess of wilderness. They also worshiped [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena"), not as goddess of wisdom, but emphasizing the element of war – i.e. a goddess that was a counterbalance to the god [Ares](/wiki/Ares "Ares"). They called Apollo and Artemis "Laphrios gods," i.e. patrons of the spoils and loot of war. In addition, they worshiped Hercules, the river Achelous and Bacchus. In Thermos, an area north of Trichonis lake, there was after the 7th century a shrine of Apollo “Thermios,” which became a significant religious center during the time of the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League "Aetolian League"). The Aetolians refused to participate in the [Persian Wars](/wiki/Persian_Wars "Persian Wars"). In 426 BC, led by Aegitios, they defeated the Athenians and their allies, who had turned against Apodotia and Ophioneia under the general command of Demosthenes.Istoriai, Thoucydides pages 243\-246\. However, they failed to regain [Naupaktos](/wiki/Naupaktos "Naupaktos"), which had meanwhile been conquered by the Corinthians with the aid of the Athenians. At the end of the [Archidamian War](/wiki/Archidamian_War "Archidamian War"), the Aetolians took part as mercenaries of the Athenians in the expedition against Syracuse. Then the Achaeans occupied [Calydon](/wiki/Calydon "Calydon"), but the Aetolians recovered it in 361 BC. In 338 BC, Naupaktos was again taken by the Aetolians, with the help of Philip II. During the [Lamian War](/wiki/Lamian_War "Lamian War"), the Aetolians helped the Athenian general [Leosthenes](/wiki/Leosthenes "Leosthenes") defeat [Antipater](/wiki/Antipater "Antipater"). As a result, they came into conflict with Antipater and [Craterus](/wiki/Craterus "Craterus"), taking great risks, but were eventually saved by the disagreement between the two Macedonian generals and Perdiccas. The Acarnanians then attempted to invade their land, but the Aetolians were able to force them to flee.{{cn\|date\=April 2019}} The Aetolians set up a united league, the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League "Aetolian League"), in early times. It soon became a powerful confederation (*[sympoliteia](/wiki/Sympoliteia "Sympoliteia")*) and by c. 340 BC it became one of the leading military powers in ancient Greece.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian\-League \|title\= Aetolian League.\|publisher\= www.britannica.com \|access\-date\=2010\-09\-10\|quote\= Aetolian League, federal state or “sympolity” of Aetolia, in ancient Greece. Probably based on a looser tribal community, it was well\-enough organized to conduct negotiations with Athens in 367 BC. It became by c. 340 one of the leading military powers in Greece. Having successfully resisted invasions by Macedonia in 322 and 314–311, the league rapidly grew in strength during the ensuing period of Macedonian weakness, expanding into Delphi (centre of the Amphictyonic Council) and allying with Boeotia (c. 300\). It was mainly responsible for driving out a major Gallic invasion of Greece in 279\.}} It had originally been organized during the reign of [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon "Philip II of Macedon") by the cities of Aetolia for their mutual benefit and protection and became a formidable rival to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedon "Macedon") monarchs and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League "Achaean League"). The great courage shown by the Aetolians during the fighting against the Macedonians increased their glamour and fame, especially after winning the last [Amphictyonic](/wiki/Amphictyonic_League "Amphictyonic League") war and even more after repulsing the [Gallic invasion](/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe "Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe") under [Brennus](/wiki/Brennus_%283rd_century_BC%29 "Brennus (3rd century BC)") and rescuing the sanctuary of [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi "Delphi"). Subsequently, the Sotiria Games were established by the Aetolians, in honour of [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus "Zeus") the Saviour.John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 103 \- 104\. In 232 BC, the Illyrians under Agron attacked the Aetolians, and managed to take many prisoners and booty.Polybius 2\.3 In 229 BC, the Aetolians participated in a [naval battle off the island of Paxos](/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos "Battle of Paxos") in a coalition with [Korkyra](/wiki/Korkyra_%28polis%29 "Korkyra (polis)") and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League "Achaean League"), and were defeated by a coalition of [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians "Illyrians") and [Acarnanians](/wiki/Acarnania "Acarnania"); as a result, the Korkyreans were forced to accept an Illyrian garrison in their city, which was put under the command of Demetrius of Pharos.Polybius, [2\.10](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+2.10); Wilkes, p. 160\. The Aetolians’ power increasingly magnified with the occupation of the lands of Ozoloi, Locrians and Phocians, as well as Boeotia. They then united under the power of their League in the areas of Tegea, Mantinea, Orchomenus, Psophida and Phigaleia. Between 220 and 217 BC, the [Social War](/wiki/Social_War_%28220%E2%80%93217_BC%29 "Social War (220–217 BC)") broke out between the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. The war was first started by the Aetolians with the help of the Spartans and Eleans. Allies of the Achaeans were the Macedonians, the Boeotians, the Phocians, the Epirotes, the Acarnanians and the Messenians. The Aetolians allied with the Romans, while [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon "Philip V of Macedon") destroyed the temple of Apollo Thermios and allied with the Carthaginians. The Aetolians continued to fight on the side of the Romans even in the [Battle of Cynoscephalae](/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae "Battle of Cynoscephalae") (196 BC), ignoring the great dangers looming for Greece as a result of this alliance. The Aetolians took the side of [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great "Antiochus III the Great") against the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic"), and on the defeat of that monarch in 189 BC, they became virtually the subjects of [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). Following the conquest of the Achaeans by [Lucius Mummius Achaicus](/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus "Lucius Mummius Achaicus") in 146 BC, Aetolia became part of the Roman province of [Achaea](/wiki/Achaea_%28Roman_province%29 "Achaea (Roman province)"). When the Roman garrisons were withdrawn because of the civil wars in Rome, the Aetolians, too, began to fight each other. Following Octavius’ victory at the [Battle of Actium](/wiki/Battle_of_Actium "Battle of Actium"), the Aetolians who had sided with Antony disbanded completely. Octavius handed Calydon over to the Achaeans, who devastated it entirely and moved the statue of Artemis Laphria to [Patras](/wiki/Patras "Patras"). There were subsequent invasions by [Goths](/wiki/Goths "Goths"), [Huns](/wiki/Huns "Huns"), and [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals "Vandals") several centuries later at the end of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). Aetolia's reputation has suffered from a rather hostile treatment in the sources. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius") is considered now to have a heavy anti\-Aetolian bias due to his having relied on Aetolia's opponent [Aratus](/wiki/Aratus "Aratus") of Achaea, but mainly because of his origin in [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece "Megalopolis, Greece"), a major centre of the rival Achaean League.{{cn\|date\=April 2019}} ### Middle Ages {{see also\|Ottoman Greece}} During the Middle Ages, Aetolia was part of the Byzantine Empire and later passed to the [Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"). Aetolia was mentioned in Francisco Baltazar's Florante at Laura.{{cn\|date\=April 2019}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Ancient era", "{{main\\|Aetolian league}}\n{{multiple image \\|align\\=left \\|direction\\=vertical \\|width\\=240px\n \\|image1\\=Calydon Aetolia 2010\\.JPG \\|caption1\\=Ruins of the ancient \\[\\[Calydon]]\n \\|image2\\=Etolia.png \\|caption2\\=The Aetolian League, \\[\\[3rd century B.C.]]\n}}", "Tribes known as [Curetes](/wiki/Curetes_%28tribe%29 \"Curetes (tribe)\") – named after the nearby mountain Kourion, or just to stand out from the Acarnanians, who were called so because they were unshorn – and [Leleges](/wiki/Leleges \"Leleges\") originally inhabited the country, but at an early period [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") from [Elis](/wiki/Ancient_Elis \"Ancient Elis\"), led by the mythical [eponym](/wiki/Eponym \"Eponym\") [Aetolus](/wiki/Aetolus%2C_son_of_Endymion \"Aetolus, son of Endymion\"), set up colonies. [Dionysius of Halicarnassus](/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus \"Dionysius of Halicarnassus\") mentions that Curetes was the old name of the Aetolians and Leleges the old name of the [Locrians](/wiki/Locrians \"Locrians\").{{citation \\|author\\=Dionysius of Halicarnassus \\|title\\=Roman Antiquities, Book 1, 1 \\|publisher\\=LacusCurtius \\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius\\_of\\_Halicarnassus/1B\\*.html}} The Aetolians took part in the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\"), under their king [Thoas](/wiki/Thoas_%28king_of_Aetoila%29 \"Thoas (king of Aetoila)\").", "The mountain tribes of Aetolia were the Ophioneis,[John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 33\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9AVWMt1ciJoC&dq=apodotoi&pg=PA33) the Apodotoi, the Agraeis, the AperantoiJohn D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 40\\. and the Eurytanians.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \\|title\\=Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus \\- Γενικά Στοιχεία. \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20150403090413/http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-03 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The primitive lifestyle of those tribes made an impression on ancient historians. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\") doubted their Greek heritage, while Livy reports that they spoke a language similar to the Macedonians. On the other hand, [Thucydides](/wiki/Thucydides \"Thucydides\") claims that Eurytanians spoke a very difficult language and ate their food completely raw. They were semi\\-barbaric, warlike and predatory. They worshiped [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\") as god of tame nature and [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") as goddess of wilderness. They also worshiped [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\"), not as goddess of wisdom, but emphasizing the element of war – i.e. a goddess that was a counterbalance to the god [Ares](/wiki/Ares \"Ares\"). They called Apollo and Artemis \"Laphrios gods,\" i.e. patrons of the spoils and loot of war. In addition, they worshiped Hercules, the river Achelous and Bacchus. In Thermos, an area north of Trichonis lake, there was after the 7th century a shrine of Apollo “Thermios,” which became a significant religious center during the time of the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League \"Aetolian League\").", "The Aetolians refused to participate in the [Persian Wars](/wiki/Persian_Wars \"Persian Wars\"). In 426 BC, led by Aegitios, they defeated the Athenians and their allies, who had turned against Apodotia and Ophioneia under the general command of Demosthenes.Istoriai, Thoucydides pages 243\\-246\\. However, they failed to regain [Naupaktos](/wiki/Naupaktos \"Naupaktos\"), which had meanwhile been conquered by the Corinthians with the aid of the Athenians. At the end of the [Archidamian War](/wiki/Archidamian_War \"Archidamian War\"), the Aetolians took part as mercenaries of the Athenians in the expedition against Syracuse. Then the Achaeans occupied [Calydon](/wiki/Calydon \"Calydon\"), but the Aetolians recovered it in 361 BC. In 338 BC, Naupaktos was again taken by the Aetolians, with the help of Philip II. During the [Lamian War](/wiki/Lamian_War \"Lamian War\"), the Aetolians helped the Athenian general [Leosthenes](/wiki/Leosthenes \"Leosthenes\") defeat [Antipater](/wiki/Antipater \"Antipater\"). As a result, they came into conflict with Antipater and [Craterus](/wiki/Craterus \"Craterus\"), taking great risks, but were eventually saved by the disagreement between the two Macedonian generals and Perdiccas. The Acarnanians then attempted to invade their land, but the Aetolians were able to force them to flee.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "The Aetolians set up a united league, the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League \"Aetolian League\"), in early times. It soon became a powerful confederation (*[sympoliteia](/wiki/Sympoliteia \"Sympoliteia\")*) and by c. 340 BC it became one of the leading military powers in ancient Greece.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian\\-League \\|title\\= Aetolian League.\\|publisher\\= www.britannica.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-10\\|quote\\= Aetolian League, federal state or “sympolity” of Aetolia, in ancient Greece. Probably based on a looser tribal community, it was well\\-enough organized to conduct negotiations with Athens in 367 BC. It became by c. 340 one of the leading military powers in Greece. Having successfully resisted invasions by Macedonia in 322 and 314–311, the league rapidly grew in strength during the ensuing period of Macedonian weakness, expanding into Delphi (centre of the Amphictyonic Council) and allying with Boeotia (c. 300\\). It was mainly responsible for driving out a major Gallic invasion of Greece in 279\\.}} It had originally been organized during the reign of [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\") by the cities of Aetolia for their mutual benefit and protection and became a formidable rival to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedon \"Macedon\") monarchs and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League \"Achaean League\").", "The great courage shown by the Aetolians during the fighting against the Macedonians increased their glamour and fame, especially after winning the last [Amphictyonic](/wiki/Amphictyonic_League \"Amphictyonic League\") war and even more after repulsing the [Gallic invasion](/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe \"Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe\") under [Brennus](/wiki/Brennus_%283rd_century_BC%29 \"Brennus (3rd century BC)\") and rescuing the sanctuary of [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi \"Delphi\"). Subsequently, the Sotiria Games were established by the Aetolians, in honour of [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus \"Zeus\") the Saviour.John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 103 \\- 104\\.", "In 232 BC, the Illyrians under Agron attacked the Aetolians, and managed to take many prisoners and booty.Polybius 2\\.3", "In 229 BC, the Aetolians participated in a [naval battle off the island of Paxos](/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos \"Battle of Paxos\") in a coalition with [Korkyra](/wiki/Korkyra_%28polis%29 \"Korkyra (polis)\") and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League \"Achaean League\"), and were defeated by a coalition of [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians \"Illyrians\") and [Acarnanians](/wiki/Acarnania \"Acarnania\"); as a result, the Korkyreans were forced to accept an Illyrian garrison in their city, which was put under the command of Demetrius of Pharos.Polybius, [2\\.10](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+2.10); Wilkes, p. 160\\.", "The Aetolians’ power increasingly magnified with the occupation of the lands of Ozoloi, Locrians and Phocians, as well as Boeotia. They then united under the power of their League in the areas of Tegea, Mantinea, Orchomenus, Psophida and Phigaleia. Between 220 and 217 BC, the [Social War](/wiki/Social_War_%28220%E2%80%93217_BC%29 \"Social War (220–217 BC)\") broke out between the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. The war was first started by the Aetolians with the help of the Spartans and Eleans. Allies of the Achaeans were the Macedonians, the Boeotians, the Phocians, the Epirotes, the Acarnanians and the Messenians.", "The Aetolians allied with the Romans, while [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon \"Philip V of Macedon\") destroyed the temple of Apollo Thermios and allied with the Carthaginians. The Aetolians continued to fight on the side of the Romans even in the [Battle of Cynoscephalae](/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae \"Battle of Cynoscephalae\") (196 BC), ignoring the great dangers looming for Greece as a result of this alliance. The Aetolians took the side of [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") against the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"), and on the defeat of that monarch in 189 BC, they became virtually the subjects of [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). Following the conquest of the Achaeans by [Lucius Mummius Achaicus](/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus \"Lucius Mummius Achaicus\") in 146 BC, Aetolia became part of the Roman province of [Achaea](/wiki/Achaea_%28Roman_province%29 \"Achaea (Roman province)\"). When the Roman garrisons were withdrawn because of the civil wars in Rome, the Aetolians, too, began to fight each other. Following Octavius’ victory at the [Battle of Actium](/wiki/Battle_of_Actium \"Battle of Actium\"), the Aetolians who had sided with Antony disbanded completely. Octavius handed Calydon over to the Achaeans, who devastated it entirely and moved the statue of Artemis Laphria to [Patras](/wiki/Patras \"Patras\"). There were subsequent invasions by [Goths](/wiki/Goths \"Goths\"), [Huns](/wiki/Huns \"Huns\"), and [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals \"Vandals\") several centuries later at the end of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").", "Aetolia's reputation has suffered from a rather hostile treatment in the sources. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\") is considered now to have a heavy anti\\-Aetolian bias due to his having relied on Aetolia's opponent [Aratus](/wiki/Aratus \"Aratus\") of Achaea, but mainly because of his origin in [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece \"Megalopolis, Greece\"), a major centre of the rival Achaean League.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "### Middle Ages", "{{see also\\|Ottoman Greece}}", "During the Middle Ages, Aetolia was part of the Byzantine Empire and later passed to the [Turks](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\"). Aetolia was mentioned in Francisco Baltazar's Florante at Laura.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "" ]
### Ancient era {{main\|Aetolian league}} {{multiple image \|align\=left \|direction\=vertical \|width\=240px \|image1\=Calydon Aetolia 2010\.JPG \|caption1\=Ruins of the ancient \[\[Calydon]] \|image2\=Etolia.png \|caption2\=The Aetolian League, \[\[3rd century B.C.]] }} Tribes known as [Curetes](/wiki/Curetes_%28tribe%29 "Curetes (tribe)") – named after the nearby mountain Kourion, or just to stand out from the Acarnanians, who were called so because they were unshorn – and [Leleges](/wiki/Leleges "Leleges") originally inhabited the country, but at an early period [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks "Greeks") from [Elis](/wiki/Ancient_Elis "Ancient Elis"), led by the mythical [eponym](/wiki/Eponym "Eponym") [Aetolus](/wiki/Aetolus%2C_son_of_Endymion "Aetolus, son of Endymion"), set up colonies. [Dionysius of Halicarnassus](/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus "Dionysius of Halicarnassus") mentions that Curetes was the old name of the Aetolians and Leleges the old name of the [Locrians](/wiki/Locrians "Locrians").{{citation \|author\=Dionysius of Halicarnassus \|title\=Roman Antiquities, Book 1, 1 \|publisher\=LacusCurtius \|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius\_of\_Halicarnassus/1B\*.html}} The Aetolians took part in the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War "Trojan War"), under their king [Thoas](/wiki/Thoas_%28king_of_Aetoila%29 "Thoas (king of Aetoila)"). The mountain tribes of Aetolia were the Ophioneis,[John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 33\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9AVWMt1ciJoC&dq=apodotoi&pg=PA33) the Apodotoi, the Agraeis, the AperantoiJohn D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 40\. and the Eurytanians.{{Cite web \|url\=http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \|title\=Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus \- Γενικά Στοιχεία. \|access\-date\=2015\-04\-02 \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20150403090413/http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \|archive\-date\=2015\-04\-03 \|url\-status\=dead }} The primitive lifestyle of those tribes made an impression on ancient historians. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius") doubted their Greek heritage, while Livy reports that they spoke a language similar to the Macedonians. On the other hand, [Thucydides](/wiki/Thucydides "Thucydides") claims that Eurytanians spoke a very difficult language and ate their food completely raw. They were semi\-barbaric, warlike and predatory. They worshiped [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo "Apollo") as god of tame nature and [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis "Artemis") as goddess of wilderness. They also worshiped [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena"), not as goddess of wisdom, but emphasizing the element of war – i.e. a goddess that was a counterbalance to the god [Ares](/wiki/Ares "Ares"). They called Apollo and Artemis "Laphrios gods," i.e. patrons of the spoils and loot of war. In addition, they worshiped Hercules, the river Achelous and Bacchus. In Thermos, an area north of Trichonis lake, there was after the 7th century a shrine of Apollo “Thermios,” which became a significant religious center during the time of the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League "Aetolian League"). The Aetolians refused to participate in the [Persian Wars](/wiki/Persian_Wars "Persian Wars"). In 426 BC, led by Aegitios, they defeated the Athenians and their allies, who had turned against Apodotia and Ophioneia under the general command of Demosthenes.Istoriai, Thoucydides pages 243\-246\. However, they failed to regain [Naupaktos](/wiki/Naupaktos "Naupaktos"), which had meanwhile been conquered by the Corinthians with the aid of the Athenians. At the end of the [Archidamian War](/wiki/Archidamian_War "Archidamian War"), the Aetolians took part as mercenaries of the Athenians in the expedition against Syracuse. Then the Achaeans occupied [Calydon](/wiki/Calydon "Calydon"), but the Aetolians recovered it in 361 BC. In 338 BC, Naupaktos was again taken by the Aetolians, with the help of Philip II. During the [Lamian War](/wiki/Lamian_War "Lamian War"), the Aetolians helped the Athenian general [Leosthenes](/wiki/Leosthenes "Leosthenes") defeat [Antipater](/wiki/Antipater "Antipater"). As a result, they came into conflict with Antipater and [Craterus](/wiki/Craterus "Craterus"), taking great risks, but were eventually saved by the disagreement between the two Macedonian generals and Perdiccas. The Acarnanians then attempted to invade their land, but the Aetolians were able to force them to flee.{{cn\|date\=April 2019}} The Aetolians set up a united league, the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League "Aetolian League"), in early times. It soon became a powerful confederation (*[sympoliteia](/wiki/Sympoliteia "Sympoliteia")*) and by c. 340 BC it became one of the leading military powers in ancient Greece.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian\-League \|title\= Aetolian League.\|publisher\= www.britannica.com \|access\-date\=2010\-09\-10\|quote\= Aetolian League, federal state or “sympolity” of Aetolia, in ancient Greece. Probably based on a looser tribal community, it was well\-enough organized to conduct negotiations with Athens in 367 BC. It became by c. 340 one of the leading military powers in Greece. Having successfully resisted invasions by Macedonia in 322 and 314–311, the league rapidly grew in strength during the ensuing period of Macedonian weakness, expanding into Delphi (centre of the Amphictyonic Council) and allying with Boeotia (c. 300\). It was mainly responsible for driving out a major Gallic invasion of Greece in 279\.}} It had originally been organized during the reign of [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon "Philip II of Macedon") by the cities of Aetolia for their mutual benefit and protection and became a formidable rival to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedon "Macedon") monarchs and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League "Achaean League"). The great courage shown by the Aetolians during the fighting against the Macedonians increased their glamour and fame, especially after winning the last [Amphictyonic](/wiki/Amphictyonic_League "Amphictyonic League") war and even more after repulsing the [Gallic invasion](/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe "Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe") under [Brennus](/wiki/Brennus_%283rd_century_BC%29 "Brennus (3rd century BC)") and rescuing the sanctuary of [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi "Delphi"). Subsequently, the Sotiria Games were established by the Aetolians, in honour of [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus "Zeus") the Saviour.John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 103 \- 104\. In 232 BC, the Illyrians under Agron attacked the Aetolians, and managed to take many prisoners and booty.Polybius 2\.3 In 229 BC, the Aetolians participated in a [naval battle off the island of Paxos](/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos "Battle of Paxos") in a coalition with [Korkyra](/wiki/Korkyra_%28polis%29 "Korkyra (polis)") and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League "Achaean League"), and were defeated by a coalition of [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians "Illyrians") and [Acarnanians](/wiki/Acarnania "Acarnania"); as a result, the Korkyreans were forced to accept an Illyrian garrison in their city, which was put under the command of Demetrius of Pharos.Polybius, [2\.10](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+2.10); Wilkes, p. 160\. The Aetolians’ power increasingly magnified with the occupation of the lands of Ozoloi, Locrians and Phocians, as well as Boeotia. They then united under the power of their League in the areas of Tegea, Mantinea, Orchomenus, Psophida and Phigaleia. Between 220 and 217 BC, the [Social War](/wiki/Social_War_%28220%E2%80%93217_BC%29 "Social War (220–217 BC)") broke out between the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. The war was first started by the Aetolians with the help of the Spartans and Eleans. Allies of the Achaeans were the Macedonians, the Boeotians, the Phocians, the Epirotes, the Acarnanians and the Messenians. The Aetolians allied with the Romans, while [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon "Philip V of Macedon") destroyed the temple of Apollo Thermios and allied with the Carthaginians. The Aetolians continued to fight on the side of the Romans even in the [Battle of Cynoscephalae](/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae "Battle of Cynoscephalae") (196 BC), ignoring the great dangers looming for Greece as a result of this alliance. The Aetolians took the side of [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great "Antiochus III the Great") against the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic "Roman Republic"), and on the defeat of that monarch in 189 BC, they became virtually the subjects of [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). Following the conquest of the Achaeans by [Lucius Mummius Achaicus](/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus "Lucius Mummius Achaicus") in 146 BC, Aetolia became part of the Roman province of [Achaea](/wiki/Achaea_%28Roman_province%29 "Achaea (Roman province)"). When the Roman garrisons were withdrawn because of the civil wars in Rome, the Aetolians, too, began to fight each other. Following Octavius’ victory at the [Battle of Actium](/wiki/Battle_of_Actium "Battle of Actium"), the Aetolians who had sided with Antony disbanded completely. Octavius handed Calydon over to the Achaeans, who devastated it entirely and moved the statue of Artemis Laphria to [Patras](/wiki/Patras "Patras"). There were subsequent invasions by [Goths](/wiki/Goths "Goths"), [Huns](/wiki/Huns "Huns"), and [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals "Vandals") several centuries later at the end of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire"). Aetolia's reputation has suffered from a rather hostile treatment in the sources. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius "Polybius") is considered now to have a heavy anti\-Aetolian bias due to his having relied on Aetolia's opponent [Aratus](/wiki/Aratus "Aratus") of Achaea, but mainly because of his origin in [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece "Megalopolis, Greece"), a major centre of the rival Achaean League.{{cn\|date\=April 2019}}
[ "### Ancient era", "{{main\\|Aetolian league}}\n{{multiple image \\|align\\=left \\|direction\\=vertical \\|width\\=240px\n \\|image1\\=Calydon Aetolia 2010\\.JPG \\|caption1\\=Ruins of the ancient \\[\\[Calydon]]\n \\|image2\\=Etolia.png \\|caption2\\=The Aetolian League, \\[\\[3rd century B.C.]]\n}}", "Tribes known as [Curetes](/wiki/Curetes_%28tribe%29 \"Curetes (tribe)\") – named after the nearby mountain Kourion, or just to stand out from the Acarnanians, who were called so because they were unshorn – and [Leleges](/wiki/Leleges \"Leleges\") originally inhabited the country, but at an early period [Greeks](/wiki/Greeks \"Greeks\") from [Elis](/wiki/Ancient_Elis \"Ancient Elis\"), led by the mythical [eponym](/wiki/Eponym \"Eponym\") [Aetolus](/wiki/Aetolus%2C_son_of_Endymion \"Aetolus, son of Endymion\"), set up colonies. [Dionysius of Halicarnassus](/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus \"Dionysius of Halicarnassus\") mentions that Curetes was the old name of the Aetolians and Leleges the old name of the [Locrians](/wiki/Locrians \"Locrians\").{{citation \\|author\\=Dionysius of Halicarnassus \\|title\\=Roman Antiquities, Book 1, 1 \\|publisher\\=LacusCurtius \\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius\\_of\\_Halicarnassus/1B\\*.html}} The Aetolians took part in the [Trojan War](/wiki/Trojan_War \"Trojan War\"), under their king [Thoas](/wiki/Thoas_%28king_of_Aetoila%29 \"Thoas (king of Aetoila)\").", "The mountain tribes of Aetolia were the Ophioneis,[John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 33\\.](https://books.google.com/books?id=9AVWMt1ciJoC&dq=apodotoi&pg=PA33) the Apodotoi, the Agraeis, the AperantoiJohn D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 40\\. and the Eurytanians.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \\|title\\=Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus \\- Γενικά Στοιχεία. \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-02 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20150403090413/http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Euritanias/Genika.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2015\\-04\\-03 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The primitive lifestyle of those tribes made an impression on ancient historians. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\") doubted their Greek heritage, while Livy reports that they spoke a language similar to the Macedonians. On the other hand, [Thucydides](/wiki/Thucydides \"Thucydides\") claims that Eurytanians spoke a very difficult language and ate their food completely raw. They were semi\\-barbaric, warlike and predatory. They worshiped [Apollo](/wiki/Apollo \"Apollo\") as god of tame nature and [Artemis](/wiki/Artemis \"Artemis\") as goddess of wilderness. They also worshiped [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\"), not as goddess of wisdom, but emphasizing the element of war – i.e. a goddess that was a counterbalance to the god [Ares](/wiki/Ares \"Ares\"). They called Apollo and Artemis \"Laphrios gods,\" i.e. patrons of the spoils and loot of war. In addition, they worshiped Hercules, the river Achelous and Bacchus. In Thermos, an area north of Trichonis lake, there was after the 7th century a shrine of Apollo “Thermios,” which became a significant religious center during the time of the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League \"Aetolian League\").", "The Aetolians refused to participate in the [Persian Wars](/wiki/Persian_Wars \"Persian Wars\"). In 426 BC, led by Aegitios, they defeated the Athenians and their allies, who had turned against Apodotia and Ophioneia under the general command of Demosthenes.Istoriai, Thoucydides pages 243\\-246\\. However, they failed to regain [Naupaktos](/wiki/Naupaktos \"Naupaktos\"), which had meanwhile been conquered by the Corinthians with the aid of the Athenians. At the end of the [Archidamian War](/wiki/Archidamian_War \"Archidamian War\"), the Aetolians took part as mercenaries of the Athenians in the expedition against Syracuse. Then the Achaeans occupied [Calydon](/wiki/Calydon \"Calydon\"), but the Aetolians recovered it in 361 BC. In 338 BC, Naupaktos was again taken by the Aetolians, with the help of Philip II. During the [Lamian War](/wiki/Lamian_War \"Lamian War\"), the Aetolians helped the Athenian general [Leosthenes](/wiki/Leosthenes \"Leosthenes\") defeat [Antipater](/wiki/Antipater \"Antipater\"). As a result, they came into conflict with Antipater and [Craterus](/wiki/Craterus \"Craterus\"), taking great risks, but were eventually saved by the disagreement between the two Macedonian generals and Perdiccas. The Acarnanians then attempted to invade their land, but the Aetolians were able to force them to flee.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "The Aetolians set up a united league, the [Aetolian League](/wiki/Aetolian_League \"Aetolian League\"), in early times. It soon became a powerful confederation (*[sympoliteia](/wiki/Sympoliteia \"Sympoliteia\")*) and by c. 340 BC it became one of the leading military powers in ancient Greece.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian\\-League \\|title\\= Aetolian League.\\|publisher\\= www.britannica.com \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-10\\|quote\\= Aetolian League, federal state or “sympolity” of Aetolia, in ancient Greece. Probably based on a looser tribal community, it was well\\-enough organized to conduct negotiations with Athens in 367 BC. It became by c. 340 one of the leading military powers in Greece. Having successfully resisted invasions by Macedonia in 322 and 314–311, the league rapidly grew in strength during the ensuing period of Macedonian weakness, expanding into Delphi (centre of the Amphictyonic Council) and allying with Boeotia (c. 300\\). It was mainly responsible for driving out a major Gallic invasion of Greece in 279\\.}} It had originally been organized during the reign of [Philip II](/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon \"Philip II of Macedon\") by the cities of Aetolia for their mutual benefit and protection and became a formidable rival to the [Macedonian](/wiki/Macedon \"Macedon\") monarchs and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League \"Achaean League\").", "The great courage shown by the Aetolians during the fighting against the Macedonians increased their glamour and fame, especially after winning the last [Amphictyonic](/wiki/Amphictyonic_League \"Amphictyonic League\") war and even more after repulsing the [Gallic invasion](/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe \"Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe\") under [Brennus](/wiki/Brennus_%283rd_century_BC%29 \"Brennus (3rd century BC)\") and rescuing the sanctuary of [Delphi](/wiki/Delphi \"Delphi\"). Subsequently, the Sotiria Games were established by the Aetolians, in honour of [Zeus](/wiki/Zeus \"Zeus\") the Saviour.John D. Grainger, The League of the Aitolians, 1999, p. 103 \\- 104\\.", "In 232 BC, the Illyrians under Agron attacked the Aetolians, and managed to take many prisoners and booty.Polybius 2\\.3", "In 229 BC, the Aetolians participated in a [naval battle off the island of Paxos](/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos \"Battle of Paxos\") in a coalition with [Korkyra](/wiki/Korkyra_%28polis%29 \"Korkyra (polis)\") and the [Achaean League](/wiki/Achaean_League \"Achaean League\"), and were defeated by a coalition of [Illyrians](/wiki/Illyrians \"Illyrians\") and [Acarnanians](/wiki/Acarnania \"Acarnania\"); as a result, the Korkyreans were forced to accept an Illyrian garrison in their city, which was put under the command of Demetrius of Pharos.Polybius, [2\\.10](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+2.10); Wilkes, p. 160\\.", "The Aetolians’ power increasingly magnified with the occupation of the lands of Ozoloi, Locrians and Phocians, as well as Boeotia. They then united under the power of their League in the areas of Tegea, Mantinea, Orchomenus, Psophida and Phigaleia. Between 220 and 217 BC, the [Social War](/wiki/Social_War_%28220%E2%80%93217_BC%29 \"Social War (220–217 BC)\") broke out between the Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. The war was first started by the Aetolians with the help of the Spartans and Eleans. Allies of the Achaeans were the Macedonians, the Boeotians, the Phocians, the Epirotes, the Acarnanians and the Messenians.", "The Aetolians allied with the Romans, while [Philip V](/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon \"Philip V of Macedon\") destroyed the temple of Apollo Thermios and allied with the Carthaginians. The Aetolians continued to fight on the side of the Romans even in the [Battle of Cynoscephalae](/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae \"Battle of Cynoscephalae\") (196 BC), ignoring the great dangers looming for Greece as a result of this alliance. The Aetolians took the side of [Antiochus III](/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great \"Antiochus III the Great\") against the [Roman Republic](/wiki/Roman_Republic \"Roman Republic\"), and on the defeat of that monarch in 189 BC, they became virtually the subjects of [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). Following the conquest of the Achaeans by [Lucius Mummius Achaicus](/wiki/Lucius_Mummius_Achaicus \"Lucius Mummius Achaicus\") in 146 BC, Aetolia became part of the Roman province of [Achaea](/wiki/Achaea_%28Roman_province%29 \"Achaea (Roman province)\"). When the Roman garrisons were withdrawn because of the civil wars in Rome, the Aetolians, too, began to fight each other. Following Octavius’ victory at the [Battle of Actium](/wiki/Battle_of_Actium \"Battle of Actium\"), the Aetolians who had sided with Antony disbanded completely. Octavius handed Calydon over to the Achaeans, who devastated it entirely and moved the statue of Artemis Laphria to [Patras](/wiki/Patras \"Patras\"). There were subsequent invasions by [Goths](/wiki/Goths \"Goths\"), [Huns](/wiki/Huns \"Huns\"), and [Vandals](/wiki/Vandals \"Vandals\") several centuries later at the end of the [Roman Empire](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\").", "Aetolia's reputation has suffered from a rather hostile treatment in the sources. [Polybius](/wiki/Polybius \"Polybius\") is considered now to have a heavy anti\\-Aetolian bias due to his having relied on Aetolia's opponent [Aratus](/wiki/Aratus \"Aratus\") of Achaea, but mainly because of his origin in [Megalopolis](/wiki/Megalopolis%2C_Greece \"Megalopolis, Greece\"), a major centre of the rival Achaean League.{{cn\\|date\\=April 2019}}", "" ]
History ------- ### First steps (1975–1996\) The team was formed in 1975 by Frits van Amersfoort.{{cite web\|title\=THE HISTORY OF VAN AMERSFOORT RACING\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/history.htm\|work\=vanamersfoortracing.nl\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} They competed in such series as Formula Opel Lotus Benelux, Opel Lotus Euroseries and Dutch Formula Ford. In 1989 they reached their first major success, winning Formula Ford 1600 Netherlands championship with Marcel Albers.{{cite web\|title\=Formula Ford 1600 Netherlands 1989 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-ford\-1600\-netherlands/1989/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} In 1992 they won Formula Opel Lotus Benelux with [Jos Verstappen](/wiki/Jos_Verstappen "Jos Verstappen").{{cite web\|title\=Formula Opel Lotus Benelux 1992 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-opel\-lotus\-benelux/1992/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} ### German Formula Three Championship (1997–2002\) In 1997 the team bought their first [Formula Three](/wiki/Formula_Three "Formula Three") car with Opel engine to compete in the [1997 German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/1997_German_Formula_Three_Championship "1997 German Formula Three Championship") with [Bas Leinders](/wiki/Bas_Leinders "Bas Leinders").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/saison/saison\-1997/132\|title\=Fotos 1997 Deutsche Formel 3 Meisterschaft\|work\=formel3guide.com\|language\=de\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} The team collected three podiums and Leinders finished season seventh.{{cite web\|title\=Formula 3 Germany 1997 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/1997/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} For the next year the team expanded to two cars, keeping Leinders and signing [Christijan Albers](/wiki/Christijan_Albers "Christijan Albers"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/1998\-starter\-dm.pdf\|title\=STARTERLISTE 1998 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\-3\-MEISTERSCHAFT\|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|language\=de\|access\-date\=24 September 2016}} Both drivers won nine from 20 races, with Leinders taking the first Formula 3 championship title for the team.{{cite web\|title\=Formula 3 Germany 1998 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/1998/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} In 1999 the team raced with [Thomas Mutsch](/wiki/Thomas_Mutsch "Thomas Mutsch"), [Etienne van der Linde](/wiki/Etienne_van_der_Linde "Etienne van der Linde") and [Jacky van der Ende](/wiki/Jacky_van_der_Ende "Jacky van der Ende").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/1999\-starter\-dm.pdf\|title\=STARTERLISTE 1999 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\-3\-MEISTERSCHAFT\|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|language\=de\|access\-date\=23 September 2016}} Mutsch was the only driver who finished a race in the podium podiums. For the [next season](/wiki/2000_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2000 German Formula Three Championship") the team once again completely changed their line\-up, racing with Tom van Bavel and [Jeroen Bleekemolen](/wiki/Jeroen_Bleekemolen "Jeroen Bleekemolen").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2000\-starter\-dm.pdf\|title\=STARTERLISTE 2000 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\-3\-MEISTERSCHAFT\|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|language\=de\|access\-date\=23 September 2016}} The team did not have a consistent line\-up in [2001](/wiki/2001_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2001 German Formula Three Championship"); it was the first season for the team when none of the drivers (Marc Caldonazzi, André Fibier, [Allan Simonsen](/wiki/Allan_Simonsen_%28racing_driver%29 "Allan Simonsen (racing driver)") and Marco du Pau) scored a podium position.{{cite web\|title\=Formula 3 Germany 2001 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2001/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} The same situation repeated in [2002](/wiki/2002_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2002 German Formula Three Championship").{{cite web\|title\=Formula 3 Germany 2002 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2002/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} ### Formula Renault Netherlands (2003–2005\) After the merging of German and French Formula Three championships into the [Formula 3 Euro Series](/wiki/Formula_3_Euro_Series "Formula 3 Euro Series"), the team decided to switch to [Formula Renault 2\.0 Netherlands](/wiki/Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup "Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup") in 2003\. [Junior Strous](/wiki/Junior_Strous "Junior Strous") and [Giedo van der Garde](/wiki/Giedo_van_der_Garde "Giedo van der Garde") finished the season as runner\-up and fourth and had six and seven podiums respectively.{{cite web\|title\=Habo DaCosta Formule Renault 2003 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-renault\-20\-netherlands/2003/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} For the next season the team signed [Carlo van Dam](/wiki/Carlo_van_Dam "Carlo van Dam") and [Renger van der Zande](/wiki/Renger_van_der_Zande "Renger van der Zande"), who finished fifth and seventh respectively.{{cite web\|title\=Formule Renault 2004 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-renault\-20\-netherlands/2004/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} For the last season of the series the team retain van der Zande and signed [Récardo Bruins Choi](/wiki/R%C3%A9cardo_Bruins_Choi "Récardo Bruins Choi") with [Dominick Muermans](/wiki/Dominick_Muermans "Dominick Muermans"). It was the most successful season in the series with van der Zande claiming the drivers' title, and Bruins Choi taking the third place in the driver standings.{{cite web\|title\=Formule Renault 2005 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-renault\-20\-netherlands/2005/\|website\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database\|access\-date\=23 February 2018}} While the team took the teams' title. ### Return into the German Formula Three Championship (2006–2012\) In [2006](/wiki/2006_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2006 German Formula Three Championship") Van Amersfoort Racing returned to the German Formula Three Championship] continuing collaboration with Bruins Choi and Muermans.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2006\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2006 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=8 November 2014}} Bruins Choi took his first Formula Three podium in the series finale at [Oschersleben](/wiki/Motorsport_Arena_Oschersleben "Motorsport Arena Oschersleben"). Following the merging of the Dutch Formula Renault championship to the Formula Renault 2\.0 Northern European Cup, the team joined the new series with Dennis Swart and Gwendolyn Hertzberger, who had only episodic point\-scoring finishes. Bruins Choi was retained for the [2007](/wiki/2007_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2007 German Formula Three Championship"), while Muermans was replaced by Carlo van Dam.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} The Dutch driver dominated the season, winning eleven races. He gave the team the first drivers' F3 title since Leinders. And with the two wins of Bruins Choi it mean that the drivers of the team won 13 from 18 races.{{cite web\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2007 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2007/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} In the NEC series the team retained Swart, who was joined by [Stef Dusseldorp](/wiki/Stef_Dusseldorp "Stef Dusseldorp"). Despite missing last three rounds of the season Dusseldorp outscored more experienced teammate. For 2008 [Rahel Frey](/wiki/Rahel_Frey "Rahel Frey") and [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor "Laurens Vanthoor") joined the team.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} Vanthoor had two wins with another six podiums.{{cite web\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2008 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2008/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} Also the team expanded to compete in [2008 ADAC Formel Masters](/wiki/2008_ADAC_Formel_Masters "2008 ADAC Formel Masters") with Emma Kimiläinen. She had one podium and finished the season in the top\-ten of the driver standings.{{cite web\|title\=ADAC Formel Masters 2008 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\-formel\-masters/2008/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} Dusseldorp continued to race for the team in the Northern European Cup, while [Nigel Melker](/wiki/Nigel_Melker "Nigel Melker") joined him in the team. Dusseldorp won the first race for the team in the series. Vanthoor remained with the team in 2009, Dusseldorp was promoted from the NEC series and became Vanthoor's teammate.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} The team repeated the success of 2007, with eleven wins and a championship title for Vanthoor and two wins for Dusseldorp.{{cite news\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2009 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2009/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} In ADAC Formel Masters the team like in 2008 had only one driver Christian Wangard, who have competed in more than two thirds of the races. And like in 2008, Van Amersfoort's driver had one podium with the tenth place in the season standings.{{cite web\|title\=ADAC Formel Masters 2009 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\-formel\-masters/2009/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} It was the last year of operation in the ADAC Formel Masters for the team, as the team decided to concentrate on the German F3 Championship. In the NEC series the team was presented by Mathijs Harkema, who finished just eighteenth. In 2010 the team expanded to three cars in German F3, Dusseldorp remained with [Daniel Abt](/wiki/Daniel_Abt "Daniel Abt") and Willi Steindl were the new additions to the squad.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\=26216\&cat\=25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615002058/http://italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\=26216\&cat\=25\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=15 June 2010\|title\=Van Amersfoort a tre punte\|language\=it\|work\=ItaliaRacing.net\|publisher\=Inpagina\|date\=12 February 2010\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} Despite his Formula 3 debut Abt was more successful than Dusseldorp. With wins at Assen and Oschersleben he was a title contender till the last race when he was forced to retire due to a broken lambda sensor.{{cite news\|title\=The Oschersleben Thriller\|url\=http://www.formel3\.de/news.php?id\=1078\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=formel3\.de\|publisher\=\[\[German Formula Three Championship]]\|date\=7 October 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309180811/http://www.formel3\.de/news.php?id\=1078\|archive\-date\=9 March 2012}} Dusseldorp and Steindl were also the race winners but weren't consistent as Abt. Jeroen Mul and Liroy Stuart were the team drivers in the Northern European Cup. Mul won two races at Zandvoort and Oschersleben. [thumb\|left\|[Richie Stanaway](/wiki/Richie_Stanaway "Richie Stanaway"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/German_Formula_Three_Championship "German Formula Three Championship") race at [Hockenheimn](/wiki/Hockenheimring "Hockenheimring") in [2011](/wiki/2011_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2011 German Formula Three Championship").](/wiki/File:RichieStanaway_ATSFormel3_HH2011.JPG "RichieStanaway ATSFormel3 HH2011.JPG") The team completely changed their driver line\-up in 2011\. Richie Stanaway, Jeroen Mul and [Hannes van Asseldonk](/wiki/Hannes_van_Asseldonk "Hannes van Asseldonk") signed with the team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\-90\.aspx\|title\=06\.02\.2011 FIA Institute Academy – Driver Q\&As\|work\=\[\[FIA Institute Academy]]\|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]\|date\=6 February 2011\|access\-date\=14 February 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215091837/http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\-90\.aspx\|archive\-date\=15 February 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} Stanaway had more wins during the season in the German F3 than any driver in the Van Amersfoort Racing history, taking 13 wins from 18 races and the championship title.{{cite news\|last1\=Allen\|first1\=Peter\|title\=Kiwi making his mark in Germany: Richie Stanaway\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/kiwi\-making\-his\-mark\-in\-germany\-richie\-stanaway\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=paddockscout.com\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|date\=29 April 2011}} The team participated in the NEC series with [Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar "Dennis van de Laar") and [Meindert van Buuren](/wiki/Meindert_van_Buuren "Meindert van Buuren"). Van de Laar finished the season eighth with ten top\-ten finishes, while van Buuren was only 21st with four top\-ten finishes. [thumb\|[Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar "Dennis van de Laar"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during German Formula Three Championship race at [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "Nürburgring") in [2012](/wiki/2012_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2012 German Formula Three Championship").](/wiki/File:Formula_3_Cup_Car.jpg "Formula 3 Cup Car.jpg") For 2012 the team again reshuffled their line\-up. [Lucas Auer](/wiki/Lucas_Auer "Lucas Auer"), [René Binder](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Binder "René Binder") and Dennis van de Laar became the new drivers. Auer and Binder were the race winners, but they were beaten by [Motopark](/wiki/Motopark_Academy "Motopark Academy") driver [Jimmy Eriksson](/wiki/Jimmy_Eriksson "Jimmy Eriksson").{{cite news\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2012 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2012/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} [2012](/wiki/2012_Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup "2012 Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup") was the last season for the team in the Northern European Cup, where the team was presented by [Jeroen Slaghekke](/wiki/Jeroen_Slaghekke "Jeroen Slaghekke") and Roman Beregech. Slaghekke won the race and finished fourth in the series standings. Beregech wasn't consistent and competitive as Slaghekke, so finished only 29th. ### FIA Formula 3 European Championship (2012–2018\) After two races in [2012](/wiki/2012_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "2012 FIA Formula 3 European Championship") with Auer and van de Laar, the team moved to the [FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "FIA Formula 3 European Championship") on the full\-time basis in 2013\. They kept van de Laar and signed [Måns Grenhagen](/wiki/M%C3%A5ns_Grenhagen "Måns Grenhagen").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/mans\-grenhagen\-joins\-van\-amersfoort\-in\-european\-f3/\|title\=Mans Grenhagen joins Van Amersfoort in European F3\|last\=Khorounzhiy\|first\=Valentin\|date\=12 February 2013\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|access\-date\=13 February 2013}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/105398\|title\=Dennis van de Laar joins Formula 3 European Championship grid\|last\=O'Leary\|first\=Jamie\|date\=4 February 2013\|work\=\[\[Autosport]]\|publisher\=\[\[Haymarket Media Group\|Haymarket Publications]]\|access\-date\=4 February 2013}} The team had tough start, with just one podium finish of [Sven Müller](/wiki/Sven_M%C3%BCller_%28racing_driver%29 "Sven Müller (racing driver)"), who took Grenhagen's car for the last three rounds of the season.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/sven\-muller\-joins\-van\-amersfoort\-racing\-in\-european\-f3/\|title\=Sven Muller joins Van Amersfoort Racing in European F3\|last\=Khorounzhiy\|first\=Valentin\|date\=3 September 2013\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|access\-date\=3 September 2013}} The team remained in the German F3 with [Gustavo Menezes](/wiki/Gustavo_Menezes "Gustavo Menezes") and Jordi Weckx as their drivers.{{cite news\|url\=http://formel3\.de/en/news\-ats\-formula3/353\-gustavo\-menezes\-takes\-european\-route.html\|title\=Gustavo Menezes takes European route\|date\=11 March 2013\|work\=\[\[German Formula Three Championship]]\|publisher\=Formel\-3\-Vereinigung e.V.\|access\-date\=11 March 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=http://formel3\.de/en/season\-2013/competitors\-ats\-formula3/item/jordi\-weckx\-12\.html?category\_id\=2\|title\=JORDI WECKX. \#12\|work\=\[\[German Formula Three Championship]]\|publisher\=Formel\-3\-Vereinigung e.V.\|access\-date\=17 April 2013}} Both of them wasn't able to give the fight to Lotus drivers, who occupied the top step of the podium in the races with the full\-points distribution. [thumb\|[Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen "Max Verstappen"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "FIA Formula 3 European Championship") race at [Hockenheim](/wiki/Hockenheimring "Hockenheimring") in [2014](/wiki/2014_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "2014 FIA Formula 3 European Championship").](/wiki/File:2014_F3_HockenheimringII_Max_Verstappen_by_2eight_DSC6547.jpg "2014 F3 HockenheimringII Max Verstappen by 2eight DSC6547.jpg") 2014 was the last year of the German Formula Three Championship, Sam MacLeod and [Weiron Tan](/wiki/Weiron_Tan "Weiron Tan") were the teams' drivers.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/weiron\-tan\-enters\-german\-f3\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-racing/\|title\=Weiron Tan enters German F3 with Van Amersfoort Racing\|last\=Khorounzhiy\|first\=Valentin\|work\=PaddockScout.com\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|date\=14 February 2014\|access\-date\=14 February 2014}}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/113336\|title\=Sam MacLeod joins British Formula 3 grid with Fortec\|work\=\[\[Autosport]]\|publisher\=\[\[Haymarket Media Group\|Haymarket Publications]]\|last\=Simmons\|first\=Marcus\|date\=7 April 2014\|access\-date\=7 April 2014\|quote\=The 19\-year\-old will combine British F3 with a programme in the German F3 Cup with Van Amersfoort Racing.}} But once again they were overscored by Lotus drivers [Markus Pommer](/wiki/Markus_Pommer "Markus Pommer") and [Nabil Jeffri](/wiki/Nabil_Jeffri "Nabil Jeffri"). While in the European Championship the team signed with Gustavo Menezes, [Jules Szymkowiak](/wiki/Jules_Szymkowiak "Jules Szymkowiak") and [Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen "Max Verstappen").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.verstappen.nl/nieuws/8383\.html\|title\=Max debuteert in Europees F3 met Van Amersfoort Racing\|work\=verstappen.nl\|publisher\=Verstappen Info Page\|date\=4 March 2014\|access\-date\=4 March 2014\|language\=nl}} Verstappen, who made his [Single\-seaters](/wiki/Open_wheel_car "Open wheel car") debut in the championship, had the longest winning streak in the championship with six consecutive wins, that he scored at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps") and [Norisring](/wiki/Norisring "Norisring"). He finished the season in third place with 10 wins, one more than champion [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon "Esteban Ocon"). [thumb\|left\|[Charles Leclerc](/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_%28racing_driver%29 "Charles Leclerc (racing driver)"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during FIA Formula 3 European Championship race at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps "Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps") in [2015](/wiki/2015_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "2015 FIA Formula 3 European Championship").](/wiki/File:Charles_Leclerc%2C_Formel_3_2015.JPG "Charles Leclerc, Formel 3 2015.JPG") For 2015 the team signed [Charles Leclerc](/wiki/Charles_Leclerc "Charles Leclerc"), [Alessio Lorandi](/wiki/Alessio_Lorandi "Alessio Lorandi") and [Arjun Maini](/wiki/Arjun_Maini "Arjun Maini").{{cite news\|last1\=Hensby\|first1\=Paul\|title\=CHARLES LECLERC JOINS VAN AMERSFOORT RACING\|url\=https://www.thecheckeredflag.co.uk/2015/01/charles\-leclerc\-joins\-van\-amersfoort\-racing/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=thecheckeredflag.co.uk\|publisher\=The Checkered Flag\|date\=24 February 2018}} Leclerc was the only driver who had race wins and finished the season in top\-five of the standings. The team also expanded to the new\-for\-2015 [ADAC Formula 4](/wiki/ADAC_Formula_4 "ADAC Formula 4"). [Harrison Newey](/wiki/Harrison_Newey "Harrison Newey"), [Joey Mawson](/wiki/Joey_Mawson "Joey Mawson") and [Mick Schumacher](/wiki/Mick_Schumacher "Mick Schumacher") were the team drivers.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/harrison\-newey\-adds\-adac\-f4\-to\-his\-2015\-programme/\|title\=Harrison Newey adds ADAC F4 to his 2015 programme\|last\=David\|first\=Gruz\|date\=11 March 2015\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|access\-date\=11 March 2015}} Mawson had five race wins and finished the season third, while Schumacher had one race win and completed the top\-ten in the standings. The team completely changed their line\-up in the [2016 FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/2016_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "2016 FIA Formula 3 European Championship") with signing of [Anthoine Hubert](/wiki/Anthoine_Hubert "Anthoine Hubert"), [Callum Ilott](/wiki/Callum_Ilott "Callum Ilott"), Harrison Newey and [Pedro Piquet](/wiki/Pedro_Piquet "Pedro Piquet").{{cite news\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/anthoine\-hubert\-lands\-f3\-seat\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-racing/33628\|title\=Anthoine Hubert lands F3 seat with Van Amersfoort Racing\|last\=Allen\|first\=Peter\|date\=29 February 2016\|access\-date\=29 February 2016}} Ilott and Hubert were the only race winners for the squad. The team retained Mawson in ADAC F4, while Schumacher moved to another team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.motorsport.com/formula4/news/aussie\-prospect\-mawson\-stays\-in\-f4\-for\-2016\-679558/\|title\=Aussie prospect Mawson stays in F4 for 2016\|last\=Khorounzhiy\|first\=Valentin\|publisher\=\[\[Motorsport.com]]\|date\=15 March 2016\|access\-date\=16 March 2016\|archive\-date\=15 June 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615112001/https://www.motorsport.com/formula4/news/aussie\-prospect\-mawson\-stays\-in\-f4\-for\-2016\-679558/\|url\-status\=dead}} They had a championship battle, which was won by Mawson. But in the teams' championship Van Amersfoort Racing lost just by 4\.5 points to [Prema Powerteam](/wiki/Prema_Powerteam "Prema Powerteam"). In 2017 the team remained in the European Championship with Newey and Piquet, adding to their squad [David Beckmann](/wiki/David_Beckmann "David Beckmann") and the ADAC F4 champion Mawson.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.motorsport.com/eurof3/news/newey\-back\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-for\-second\-f3\-campaign\-877975/?s\=1\|title\=Newey back with Van Amersfoort for second F3 campaign\|last\=Simmons\|first\=Marcus\|date\=28 February 2017\|publisher\=\[\[Motorsport.com]]\|access\-date\=28 February 2017}} It was the worst season in the championship for the team as none of drivers have visited the top step of the podium and they were last in the teams standings. Their drivers for the [2017 ADAC Formula 4 Championship](/wiki/2017_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship "2017 ADAC Formula 4 Championship") were [Felipe Drugovich](/wiki/Felipe_Drugovich "Felipe Drugovich"), Kami Laliberté, Frederik Vesti and Louis Gachot.{{cite web\|title\=ADAC Formel 4 Entry list 2017\|url\=https://www.adac\-motorsport.de/adac\-formel\-4/uk/starterliste/\|website\=ww.adac\-motorsport.de\|publisher\=\[\[ADAC]]\|access\-date\=10 April 2017}} Drugovich was the title contender till the last race of the season, but lost the battle to Prema drivers [Jüri Vips](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Vips "Jüri Vips") and [Marcus Armstrong](/wiki/Marcus_Armstrong "Marcus Armstrong"). The team title was again claimed by Prema, who outscored Van Amersfoort Racing by 71 points. For the final [2018 FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/2018_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship "2018 FIA Formula 3 European Championship") campaign, the Dutch team signed with [Keyvan Andres](/wiki/Keyvan_Andres "Keyvan Andres") and [Artem Petrov](/wiki/Artem_Petrov "Artem Petrov"), with [Sophia Flörsch](/wiki/Sophia_Fl%C3%B6rsch "Sophia Flörsch") a later addition to the team.{{cite news\|last1\=Allen\|first1\=Peter\|title\=Van Amersfoort names Keyvan Andres as first 2018 European F3 driver\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/van\-amersfoort\-names\-andres\-as\-first\-2018\-european\-f3\-driver/40554\|access\-date\=8 February 2018\|work\=formulascout.com\|date\=8 February 2018}}{{cite news\|last1\=Allen\|first1\=Peter\|title\=Artem Petrov steps up to European F3 with Van Amersfoort Racing\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/artem\-petrov\-steps\-up\-to\-european\-f3\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-racing/40827\|access\-date\=20 February 2018\|work\=formulascout.com\|publisher\=Formula Scout\|date\=20 February 2018}} While in [2018 ADAC Formula 4 Championship](/wiki/2018_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship "2018 ADAC Formula 4 Championship") the squad were represented by [Joey Alders](/wiki/Joey_Alders "Joey Alders"), [Liam Lawson](/wiki/Liam_Lawson "Liam Lawson"), Lucas Alecco Roy, Frederik Vesti and Charles Weerts, with Lawson finishing runner\-up in the championship.{{cite news\|last1\=Wood\|first1\=Elliot\|title\=Van Amersfoort Racing sign Dutch karter Joey Alders for ADAC F4\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/van\-amersfoort\-racing\-sign\-dutch\-karter\-joey\-alders\-for\-adac\-f4/40658\|access\-date\=14 February 2018\|work\=formulascout.com\|publisher\=Formula Scout\|date\=13 February 2018}}{{cite news\|last1\=Wood\|first1\=Elliot\|title\=New Zealand star Liam Lawson joins VAR for ADAC F4\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/new\-zealand\-formula\-ford\-star\-liam\-lawson\-joins\-var\-for\-adac\-f4/41451\|access\-date\=16 March 2018\|work\=formulascout.com\|publisher\=Formula Scout\|date\=16 March 2018}}{{cite news\|last1\=Allen\|first1\=Peter\|title\=Zendeli and Wishofer join Schumacher at US Racing for ADAC F4\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/zendeli\-and\-wishofer\-join\-schumacher\-at\-us\-racing\-for\-adac\-f4/41631\|access\-date\=26 March 2018\|work\=formulascout.com\|publisher\=Formula Scout\|date\=26 March 2018}}{{cite news\|title\=Charles Weerts joins Van Amersfoort Racing in 2018\|url\=https://www.adac\-motorsport.de/adac\-formel\-4/uk/artikel/charles\-weerts\-joins\-van\-amersfoort\-racing\-in\-2018\-second\-season\-in\-adac\-formula\-4\-for\-the\-16\-year\-old\-belgian\-244828\|access\-date\=23 February 2018\|work\=adac\-motorsport.de\|publisher\=\[\[ADAC]]\|date\=23 February 2018}}{{cite news\|title\=Lucas Alecco Roy continuous his special route with Van Amersfoort Racing\|url\=http://www.motorautosport.nl/2018/03/13/lucas\-alecco\-roy\-continuous\-his\-special\-route\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-racing/\|access\-date\=14 March 2018\|work\=motorautosport.nl\|date\=13 March 2018}} ### Formula European Masters and Formula 4 (since 2019\) In 2019, Van Amersfoort committed to the inaugural Formula European Masters championship, reuniting with Flörsch.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.formula\-em.com/2018/12/21/already\-16\-cars\-on\-the\-2019\-entry\-list/\|title\=ALREADY 16 CARS ON THE 2019 ENTRY LIST\|date\=December 21, 2018\|access\-date\=December 26, 2018\|archive\-date\=March 27, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327123005/https://www.formula\-em.com/2018/12/21/already\-16\-cars\-on\-the\-2019\-entry\-list/\|url\-status\=dead}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formulascout.com/sophia\-floersch\-to\-continue\-in\-formula\-european\-masters\-on\-return\-from\-injury/47065\|title\=Sophia Floersch to continue in Formula European Masters on return from injury\|last\=Allen\|first\=Peter\|work\=FormulaScout\|date\=December 13, 2018\|access\-date\=December 26, 2018}} For the [ADAC Formula 4](/wiki/2019_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship "2019 ADAC Formula 4 Championship") championship, the team reunited with Roy and signed [Ido Cohen](/wiki/Ido_Cohen "Ido Cohen"), [Niklas Krütten](/wiki/Niklas_Kr%C3%BCtten "Niklas Krütten"), Sebastian Estner and [Red Bull Junior](/wiki/Red_Bull_Junior_Team "Red Bull Junior Team") Dennis Hauger.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\-fia\-formula\-4/lucas\-alecco\-roy\-returns\-to\-var\-for\-a\-dual\-f4\-program.htm\|title\=LUCAS ALECCO ROY RETURNS FOR A DUAL F4 PROGRAM\|date\=April 12, 2019\|access\-date\=April 26, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\-fia\-formula\-4/niklas\-kr\-tten\-joins\-van\-amersfoort\-racing\-for\-2019\-dual\-f4\-racing\-program.htm\|title\=NIKLAS KRÜTTEN JOINS VAR FOR 2019 DUAL RACING PROGRAM IN F4\|date\=November 29, 2018\|access\-date\=December 26, 2018}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\-fia\-formula\-4/israeli\-youngster\-ido\-cohen\-to\-compete\-for\-var\-in\-dual\-f4\-program.htm\|title\=ISRAELI YOUNGSTER IDO COHEN TO COMPETE FOR VAR IN DUAL F4 PROGRAM\|date\=January 23, 2019\|access\-date\=January 23, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\-fia\-formula\-4/fifth\-f4\-pilot\-sebastian\-estner\-returns\-for\-2019\-adac\-german\-f4\-championship.htm\|title\=FIFTH F4 PILOT: SEBASTIAN ESTNER RETURNS FOR 2019 ADAC GERMAN F4 CAMPAIGN\|date\=April 25, 2019\|access\-date\=April 26, 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\-fia\-formula\-4/norwegian\-dennis\-hauger\-signs\-up\-for\-a\-dual\-2019\-f4\-racing\-program\-with\-van\-amersfoort\-racing.htm\|title\=NORWEGIAN DENNIS HAUGER SIGNS UP FOR DUAL 2019 F4 PROGRAM\|date\=January 24, 2019\|access\-date\=January 24, 2019}} Following the cancellation of the Formula European Masters championship, Van Amersfoort entered the [inaugural](/wiki/2019_Formula_Regional_European_Championship "2019 Formula Regional European Championship") [Formula Regional European Championship](/wiki/Formula_Regional_European_Championship "Formula Regional European Championship") with Flörsch.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/fia\-f3\-european\-championship/var\-enters\-the\-fia\-fr\-european\-championship\-with\-sophia\-fl\-rsch.htm\|title\=VAR ENTERS THE FIA FR EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP WITH SOPHIA FLÖRSCH\|date\=March 27, 2019\|access\-date\=March 27, 2019\|archive\-date\=March 27, 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327113529/http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/fia\-f3\-european\-championship/var\-enters\-the\-fia\-fr\-european\-championship\-with\-sophia\-fl\-rsch.htm\|url\-status\=dead}} Hauger ended up winning the [2019 Italian F4 Championship](/wiki/2019_Italian_F4_Championship "2019 Italian F4 Championship"), 136 points in front of the nearest competitor, thereby helping Van Amersfoort to win the team championship. The [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway "Norway") driver also finished second in ADAC F4, only seven points behind [Théo Pourchaire](/wiki/Th%C3%A9o_Pourchaire "Théo Pourchaire"). ### FIA Formula 2 and Formula 3 In late 2021, it was announced VAR would replace [HWA Racelab](/wiki/HWA_Team "HWA Team") on the [FIA Formula 2](/wiki/FIA_Formula_2 "FIA Formula 2") and [FIA Formula 3](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3 "FIA Formula 3") grids from 2022 onwards.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.formula1\.com/en/latest/article.van\-amersfoort\-racing\-to\-join\-f3\-next\-season\-as\-series\-confirms\-all\-ten.8ml4cVcnSivELl3ohRGIK.html\|title\=Van Amersfoort Racing to join F3 next season as series confirms all ten teams for 2022\-2024\|date\=October 11, 2021\|accessdate\=December 13, 2021}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fiaformula2\.com/Latest/ioKPIP7ruv3BLc5qcXXHc/van\-amersfoort\-racing\-take\-over\-hwa\-racelabs\-entry\-for\-2022\|title\=Van Amersfoort Racing take over HWA RACELAB's entry for 2022\|date\=December 13, 2021\|accessdate\=December 13, 2021}}
[ "History\n-------", "### First steps (1975–1996\\)", "The team was formed in 1975 by Frits van Amersfoort.{{cite web\\|title\\=THE HISTORY OF VAN AMERSFOORT RACING\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/history.htm\\|work\\=vanamersfoortracing.nl\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} They competed in such series as Formula Opel Lotus Benelux, Opel Lotus Euroseries and Dutch Formula Ford. In 1989 they reached their first major success, winning Formula Ford 1600 Netherlands championship with Marcel Albers.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula Ford 1600 Netherlands 1989 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-ford\\-1600\\-netherlands/1989/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} In 1992 they won Formula Opel Lotus Benelux with [Jos Verstappen](/wiki/Jos_Verstappen \"Jos Verstappen\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula Opel Lotus Benelux 1992 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-opel\\-lotus\\-benelux/1992/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}}", "### German Formula Three Championship (1997–2002\\)", "In 1997 the team bought their first [Formula Three](/wiki/Formula_Three \"Formula Three\") car with Opel engine to compete in the [1997 German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/1997_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"1997 German Formula Three Championship\") with [Bas Leinders](/wiki/Bas_Leinders \"Bas Leinders\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/saison/saison\\-1997/132\\|title\\=Fotos 1997 Deutsche Formel 3 Meisterschaft\\|work\\=formel3guide.com\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} The team collected three podiums and Leinders finished season seventh.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula 3 Germany 1997 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/1997/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} For the next year the team expanded to two cars, keeping Leinders and signing [Christijan Albers](/wiki/Christijan_Albers \"Christijan Albers\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/1998\\-starter\\-dm.pdf\\|title\\=STARTERLISTE 1998 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\\-3\\-MEISTERSCHAFT\\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=24 September 2016}} Both drivers won nine from 20 races, with Leinders taking the first Formula 3 championship title for the team.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula 3 Germany 1998 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/1998/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}}", "In 1999 the team raced with [Thomas Mutsch](/wiki/Thomas_Mutsch \"Thomas Mutsch\"), [Etienne van der Linde](/wiki/Etienne_van_der_Linde \"Etienne van der Linde\") and [Jacky van der Ende](/wiki/Jacky_van_der_Ende \"Jacky van der Ende\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/1999\\-starter\\-dm.pdf\\|title\\=STARTERLISTE 1999 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\\-3\\-MEISTERSCHAFT\\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2016}} Mutsch was the only driver who finished a race in the podium podiums. For the [next season](/wiki/2000_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2000 German Formula Three Championship\") the team once again completely changed their line\\-up, racing with Tom van Bavel and [Jeroen Bleekemolen](/wiki/Jeroen_Bleekemolen \"Jeroen Bleekemolen\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2000\\-starter\\-dm.pdf\\|title\\=STARTERLISTE 2000 DEUTSCHE FORMEL\\-3\\-MEISTERSCHAFT\\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|language\\=de\\|access\\-date\\=23 September 2016}}", "The team did not have a consistent line\\-up in [2001](/wiki/2001_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2001 German Formula Three Championship\"); it was the first season for the team when none of the drivers (Marc Caldonazzi, André Fibier, [Allan Simonsen](/wiki/Allan_Simonsen_%28racing_driver%29 \"Allan Simonsen (racing driver)\") and Marco du Pau) scored a podium position.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula 3 Germany 2001 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2001/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} The same situation repeated in [2002](/wiki/2002_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2002 German Formula Three Championship\").{{cite web\\|title\\=Formula 3 Germany 2002 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2002/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}}", "### Formula Renault Netherlands (2003–2005\\)", "After the merging of German and French Formula Three championships into the [Formula 3 Euro Series](/wiki/Formula_3_Euro_Series \"Formula 3 Euro Series\"), the team decided to switch to [Formula Renault 2\\.0 Netherlands](/wiki/Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup \"Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup\") in 2003\\. [Junior Strous](/wiki/Junior_Strous \"Junior Strous\") and [Giedo van der Garde](/wiki/Giedo_van_der_Garde \"Giedo van der Garde\") finished the season as runner\\-up and fourth and had six and seven podiums respectively.{{cite web\\|title\\=Habo DaCosta Formule Renault 2003 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-renault\\-20\\-netherlands/2003/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} For the next season the team signed [Carlo van Dam](/wiki/Carlo_van_Dam \"Carlo van Dam\") and [Renger van der Zande](/wiki/Renger_van_der_Zande \"Renger van der Zande\"), who finished fifth and seventh respectively.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formule Renault 2004 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-renault\\-20\\-netherlands/2004/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} For the last season of the series the team retain van der Zande and signed [Récardo Bruins Choi](/wiki/R%C3%A9cardo_Bruins_Choi \"Récardo Bruins Choi\") with [Dominick Muermans](/wiki/Dominick_Muermans \"Dominick Muermans\"). It was the most successful season in the series with van der Zande claiming the drivers' title, and Bruins Choi taking the third place in the driver standings.{{cite web\\|title\\=Formule Renault 2005 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-renault\\-20\\-netherlands/2005/\\|website\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018}} While the team took the teams' title.", "### Return into the German Formula Three Championship (2006–2012\\)", "In [2006](/wiki/2006_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2006 German Formula Three Championship\") Van Amersfoort Racing returned to the German Formula Three Championship] continuing collaboration with Bruins Choi and Muermans.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2006\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2006 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2014}} Bruins Choi took his first Formula Three podium in the series finale at [Oschersleben](/wiki/Motorsport_Arena_Oschersleben \"Motorsport Arena Oschersleben\"). Following the merging of the Dutch Formula Renault championship to the Formula Renault 2\\.0 Northern European Cup, the team joined the new series with Dennis Swart and Gwendolyn Hertzberger, who had only episodic point\\-scoring finishes.", "Bruins Choi was retained for the [2007](/wiki/2007_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2007 German Formula Three Championship\"), while Muermans was replaced by Carlo van Dam.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} The Dutch driver dominated the season, winning eleven races. He gave the team the first drivers' F3 title since Leinders. And with the two wins of Bruins Choi it mean that the drivers of the team won 13 from 18 races.{{cite web\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2007 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2007/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} In the NEC series the team retained Swart, who was joined by [Stef Dusseldorp](/wiki/Stef_Dusseldorp \"Stef Dusseldorp\"). Despite missing last three rounds of the season Dusseldorp outscored more experienced teammate.", "For 2008 [Rahel Frey](/wiki/Rahel_Frey \"Rahel Frey\") and [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor \"Laurens Vanthoor\") joined the team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} Vanthoor had two wins with another six podiums.{{cite web\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2008 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2008/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} Also the team expanded to compete in [2008 ADAC Formel Masters](/wiki/2008_ADAC_Formel_Masters \"2008 ADAC Formel Masters\") with Emma Kimiläinen. She had one podium and finished the season in the top\\-ten of the driver standings.{{cite web\\|title\\=ADAC Formel Masters 2008 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\\-formel\\-masters/2008/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} Dusseldorp continued to race for the team in the Northern European Cup, while [Nigel Melker](/wiki/Nigel_Melker \"Nigel Melker\") joined him in the team. Dusseldorp won the first race for the team in the series.", "Vanthoor remained with the team in 2009, Dusseldorp was promoted from the NEC series and became Vanthoor's teammate.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} The team repeated the success of 2007, with eleven wins and a championship title for Vanthoor and two wins for Dusseldorp.{{cite news\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2009 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2009/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} In ADAC Formel Masters the team like in 2008 had only one driver Christian Wangard, who have competed in more than two thirds of the races. And like in 2008, Van Amersfoort's driver had one podium with the tenth place in the season standings.{{cite web\\|title\\=ADAC Formel Masters 2009 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\\-formel\\-masters/2009/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} It was the last year of operation in the ADAC Formel Masters for the team, as the team decided to concentrate on the German F3 Championship. In the NEC series the team was presented by Mathijs Harkema, who finished just eighteenth.", "In 2010 the team expanded to three cars in German F3, Dusseldorp remained with [Daniel Abt](/wiki/Daniel_Abt \"Daniel Abt\") and Willi Steindl were the new additions to the squad.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\\=26216\\&cat\\=25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615002058/http://italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\\=26216\\&cat\\=25\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=15 June 2010\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort a tre punte\\|language\\=it\\|work\\=ItaliaRacing.net\\|publisher\\=Inpagina\\|date\\=12 February 2010\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} Despite his Formula 3 debut Abt was more successful than Dusseldorp. With wins at Assen and Oschersleben he was a title contender till the last race when he was forced to retire due to a broken lambda sensor.{{cite news\\|title\\=The Oschersleben Thriller\\|url\\=http://www.formel3\\.de/news.php?id\\=1078\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=formel3\\.de\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[German Formula Three Championship]]\\|date\\=7 October 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309180811/http://www.formel3\\.de/news.php?id\\=1078\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2012}} Dusseldorp and Steindl were also the race winners but weren't consistent as Abt. Jeroen Mul and Liroy Stuart were the team drivers in the Northern European Cup. Mul won two races at Zandvoort and Oschersleben.", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Richie Stanaway](/wiki/Richie_Stanaway \"Richie Stanaway\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/German_Formula_Three_Championship \"German Formula Three Championship\") race at [Hockenheimn](/wiki/Hockenheimring \"Hockenheimring\") in [2011](/wiki/2011_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2011 German Formula Three Championship\").](/wiki/File:RichieStanaway_ATSFormel3_HH2011.JPG \"RichieStanaway ATSFormel3 HH2011.JPG\")\nThe team completely changed their driver line\\-up in 2011\\. Richie Stanaway, Jeroen Mul and [Hannes van Asseldonk](/wiki/Hannes_van_Asseldonk \"Hannes van Asseldonk\") signed with the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\\-90\\.aspx\\|title\\=06\\.02\\.2011 FIA Institute Academy – Driver Q\\&As\\|work\\=\\[\\[FIA Institute Academy]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]\\|date\\=6 February 2011\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215091837/http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\\-90\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Stanaway had more wins during the season in the German F3 than any driver in the Van Amersfoort Racing history, taking 13 wins from 18 races and the championship title.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=Kiwi making his mark in Germany: Richie Stanaway\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/kiwi\\-making\\-his\\-mark\\-in\\-germany\\-richie\\-stanaway\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=paddockscout.com\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|date\\=29 April 2011}} The team participated in the NEC series with [Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar \"Dennis van de Laar\") and [Meindert van Buuren](/wiki/Meindert_van_Buuren \"Meindert van Buuren\"). Van de Laar finished the season eighth with ten top\\-ten finishes, while van Buuren was only 21st with four top\\-ten finishes.", "[thumb\\|[Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar \"Dennis van de Laar\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during German Formula Three Championship race at [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"Nürburgring\") in [2012](/wiki/2012_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2012 German Formula Three Championship\").](/wiki/File:Formula_3_Cup_Car.jpg \"Formula 3 Cup Car.jpg\")\nFor 2012 the team again reshuffled their line\\-up. [Lucas Auer](/wiki/Lucas_Auer \"Lucas Auer\"), [René Binder](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Binder \"René Binder\") and Dennis van de Laar became the new drivers. Auer and Binder were the race winners, but they were beaten by [Motopark](/wiki/Motopark_Academy \"Motopark Academy\") driver [Jimmy Eriksson](/wiki/Jimmy_Eriksson \"Jimmy Eriksson\").{{cite news\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2012 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2012/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} [2012](/wiki/2012_Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup \"2012 Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup\") was the last season for the team in the Northern European Cup, where the team was presented by [Jeroen Slaghekke](/wiki/Jeroen_Slaghekke \"Jeroen Slaghekke\") and Roman Beregech. Slaghekke won the race and finished fourth in the series standings. Beregech wasn't consistent and competitive as Slaghekke, so finished only 29th.", "### FIA Formula 3 European Championship (2012–2018\\)", "After two races in [2012](/wiki/2012_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"2012 FIA Formula 3 European Championship\") with Auer and van de Laar, the team moved to the [FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"FIA Formula 3 European Championship\") on the full\\-time basis in 2013\\. They kept van de Laar and signed [Måns Grenhagen](/wiki/M%C3%A5ns_Grenhagen \"Måns Grenhagen\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/mans\\-grenhagen\\-joins\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-in\\-european\\-f3/\\|title\\=Mans Grenhagen joins Van Amersfoort in European F3\\|last\\=Khorounzhiy\\|first\\=Valentin\\|date\\=12 February 2013\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|access\\-date\\=13 February 2013}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/105398\\|title\\=Dennis van de Laar joins Formula 3 European Championship grid\\|last\\=O'Leary\\|first\\=Jamie\\|date\\=4 February 2013\\|work\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Haymarket Media Group\\|Haymarket Publications]]\\|access\\-date\\=4 February 2013}} The team had tough start, with just one podium finish of [Sven Müller](/wiki/Sven_M%C3%BCller_%28racing_driver%29 \"Sven Müller (racing driver)\"), who took Grenhagen's car for the last three rounds of the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/sven\\-muller\\-joins\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-in\\-european\\-f3/\\|title\\=Sven Muller joins Van Amersfoort Racing in European F3\\|last\\=Khorounzhiy\\|first\\=Valentin\\|date\\=3 September 2013\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|access\\-date\\=3 September 2013}} The team remained in the German F3 with [Gustavo Menezes](/wiki/Gustavo_Menezes \"Gustavo Menezes\") and Jordi Weckx as their drivers.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://formel3\\.de/en/news\\-ats\\-formula3/353\\-gustavo\\-menezes\\-takes\\-european\\-route.html\\|title\\=Gustavo Menezes takes European route\\|date\\=11 March 2013\\|work\\=\\[\\[German Formula Three Championship]]\\|publisher\\=Formel\\-3\\-Vereinigung e.V.\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://formel3\\.de/en/season\\-2013/competitors\\-ats\\-formula3/item/jordi\\-weckx\\-12\\.html?category\\_id\\=2\\|title\\=JORDI WECKX. \\#12\\|work\\=\\[\\[German Formula Three Championship]]\\|publisher\\=Formel\\-3\\-Vereinigung e.V.\\|access\\-date\\=17 April 2013}} Both of them wasn't able to give the fight to Lotus drivers, who occupied the top step of the podium in the races with the full\\-points distribution.", "[thumb\\|[Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen \"Max Verstappen\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"FIA Formula 3 European Championship\") race at [Hockenheim](/wiki/Hockenheimring \"Hockenheimring\") in [2014](/wiki/2014_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"2014 FIA Formula 3 European Championship\").](/wiki/File:2014_F3_HockenheimringII_Max_Verstappen_by_2eight_DSC6547.jpg \"2014 F3 HockenheimringII Max Verstappen by 2eight DSC6547.jpg\")\n2014 was the last year of the German Formula Three Championship, Sam MacLeod and [Weiron Tan](/wiki/Weiron_Tan \"Weiron Tan\") were the teams' drivers.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/weiron\\-tan\\-enters\\-german\\-f3\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing/\\|title\\=Weiron Tan enters German F3 with Van Amersfoort Racing\\|last\\=Khorounzhiy\\|first\\=Valentin\\|work\\=PaddockScout.com\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|date\\=14 February 2014\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014}}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/113336\\|title\\=Sam MacLeod joins British Formula 3 grid with Fortec\\|work\\=\\[\\[Autosport]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Haymarket Media Group\\|Haymarket Publications]]\\|last\\=Simmons\\|first\\=Marcus\\|date\\=7 April 2014\\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2014\\|quote\\=The 19\\-year\\-old will combine British F3 with a programme in the German F3 Cup with Van Amersfoort Racing.}} But once again they were overscored by Lotus drivers [Markus Pommer](/wiki/Markus_Pommer \"Markus Pommer\") and [Nabil Jeffri](/wiki/Nabil_Jeffri \"Nabil Jeffri\"). While in the European Championship the team signed with Gustavo Menezes, [Jules Szymkowiak](/wiki/Jules_Szymkowiak \"Jules Szymkowiak\") and [Max Verstappen](/wiki/Max_Verstappen \"Max Verstappen\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.verstappen.nl/nieuws/8383\\.html\\|title\\=Max debuteert in Europees F3 met Van Amersfoort Racing\\|work\\=verstappen.nl\\|publisher\\=Verstappen Info Page\\|date\\=4 March 2014\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2014\\|language\\=nl}} Verstappen, who made his [Single\\-seaters](/wiki/Open_wheel_car \"Open wheel car\") debut in the championship, had the longest winning streak in the championship with six consecutive wins, that he scored at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\") and [Norisring](/wiki/Norisring \"Norisring\"). He finished the season in third place with 10 wins, one more than champion [Esteban Ocon](/wiki/Esteban_Ocon \"Esteban Ocon\").", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Charles Leclerc](/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_%28racing_driver%29 \"Charles Leclerc (racing driver)\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during FIA Formula 3 European Championship race at [Spa](/wiki/Circuit_de_Spa-Francorchamps \"Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps\") in [2015](/wiki/2015_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"2015 FIA Formula 3 European Championship\").](/wiki/File:Charles_Leclerc%2C_Formel_3_2015.JPG \"Charles Leclerc, Formel 3 2015.JPG\")\nFor 2015 the team signed [Charles Leclerc](/wiki/Charles_Leclerc \"Charles Leclerc\"), [Alessio Lorandi](/wiki/Alessio_Lorandi \"Alessio Lorandi\") and [Arjun Maini](/wiki/Arjun_Maini \"Arjun Maini\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Hensby\\|first1\\=Paul\\|title\\=CHARLES LECLERC JOINS VAN AMERSFOORT RACING\\|url\\=https://www.thecheckeredflag.co.uk/2015/01/charles\\-leclerc\\-joins\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=thecheckeredflag.co.uk\\|publisher\\=The Checkered Flag\\|date\\=24 February 2018}} Leclerc was the only driver who had race wins and finished the season in top\\-five of the standings. The team also expanded to the new\\-for\\-2015 [ADAC Formula 4](/wiki/ADAC_Formula_4 \"ADAC Formula 4\"). [Harrison Newey](/wiki/Harrison_Newey \"Harrison Newey\"), [Joey Mawson](/wiki/Joey_Mawson \"Joey Mawson\") and [Mick Schumacher](/wiki/Mick_Schumacher \"Mick Schumacher\") were the team drivers.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/harrison\\-newey\\-adds\\-adac\\-f4\\-to\\-his\\-2015\\-programme/\\|title\\=Harrison Newey adds ADAC F4 to his 2015 programme\\|last\\=David\\|first\\=Gruz\\|date\\=11 March 2015\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|access\\-date\\=11 March 2015}} Mawson had five race wins and finished the season third, while Schumacher had one race win and completed the top\\-ten in the standings.", "The team completely changed their line\\-up in the [2016 FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/2016_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"2016 FIA Formula 3 European Championship\") with signing of [Anthoine Hubert](/wiki/Anthoine_Hubert \"Anthoine Hubert\"), [Callum Ilott](/wiki/Callum_Ilott \"Callum Ilott\"), Harrison Newey and [Pedro Piquet](/wiki/Pedro_Piquet \"Pedro Piquet\").{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/anthoine\\-hubert\\-lands\\-f3\\-seat\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing/33628\\|title\\=Anthoine Hubert lands F3 seat with Van Amersfoort Racing\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=29 February 2016\\|access\\-date\\=29 February 2016}} Ilott and Hubert were the only race winners for the squad. The team retained Mawson in ADAC F4, while Schumacher moved to another team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.motorsport.com/formula4/news/aussie\\-prospect\\-mawson\\-stays\\-in\\-f4\\-for\\-2016\\-679558/\\|title\\=Aussie prospect Mawson stays in F4 for 2016\\|last\\=Khorounzhiy\\|first\\=Valentin\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]]\\|date\\=15 March 2016\\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2016\\|archive\\-date\\=15 June 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615112001/https://www.motorsport.com/formula4/news/aussie\\-prospect\\-mawson\\-stays\\-in\\-f4\\-for\\-2016\\-679558/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} They had a championship battle, which was won by Mawson. But in the teams' championship Van Amersfoort Racing lost just by 4\\.5 points to [Prema Powerteam](/wiki/Prema_Powerteam \"Prema Powerteam\").", "In 2017 the team remained in the European Championship with Newey and Piquet, adding to their squad [David Beckmann](/wiki/David_Beckmann \"David Beckmann\") and the ADAC F4 champion Mawson.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.motorsport.com/eurof3/news/newey\\-back\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-for\\-second\\-f3\\-campaign\\-877975/?s\\=1\\|title\\=Newey back with Van Amersfoort for second F3 campaign\\|last\\=Simmons\\|first\\=Marcus\\|date\\=28 February 2017\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Motorsport.com]]\\|access\\-date\\=28 February 2017}} It was the worst season in the championship for the team as none of drivers have visited the top step of the podium and they were last in the teams standings. Their drivers for the [2017 ADAC Formula 4 Championship](/wiki/2017_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship \"2017 ADAC Formula 4 Championship\") were [Felipe Drugovich](/wiki/Felipe_Drugovich \"Felipe Drugovich\"), Kami Laliberté, Frederik Vesti and Louis Gachot.{{cite web\\|title\\=ADAC Formel 4 Entry list 2017\\|url\\=https://www.adac\\-motorsport.de/adac\\-formel\\-4/uk/starterliste/\\|website\\=ww.adac\\-motorsport.de\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ADAC]]\\|access\\-date\\=10 April 2017}} Drugovich was the title contender till the last race of the season, but lost the battle to Prema drivers [Jüri Vips](/wiki/J%C3%BCri_Vips \"Jüri Vips\") and [Marcus Armstrong](/wiki/Marcus_Armstrong \"Marcus Armstrong\"). The team title was again claimed by Prema, who outscored Van Amersfoort Racing by 71 points.", "For the final [2018 FIA Formula 3 European Championship](/wiki/2018_FIA_Formula_3_European_Championship \"2018 FIA Formula 3 European Championship\") campaign, the Dutch team signed with [Keyvan Andres](/wiki/Keyvan_Andres \"Keyvan Andres\") and [Artem Petrov](/wiki/Artem_Petrov \"Artem Petrov\"), with [Sophia Flörsch](/wiki/Sophia_Fl%C3%B6rsch \"Sophia Flörsch\") a later addition to the team.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort names Keyvan Andres as first 2018 European F3 driver\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/van\\-amersfoort\\-names\\-andres\\-as\\-first\\-2018\\-european\\-f3\\-driver/40554\\|access\\-date\\=8 February 2018\\|work\\=formulascout.com\\|date\\=8 February 2018}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=Artem Petrov steps up to European F3 with Van Amersfoort Racing\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/artem\\-petrov\\-steps\\-up\\-to\\-european\\-f3\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing/40827\\|access\\-date\\=20 February 2018\\|work\\=formulascout.com\\|publisher\\=Formula Scout\\|date\\=20 February 2018}} While in [2018 ADAC Formula 4 Championship](/wiki/2018_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship \"2018 ADAC Formula 4 Championship\") the squad were represented by [Joey Alders](/wiki/Joey_Alders \"Joey Alders\"), [Liam Lawson](/wiki/Liam_Lawson \"Liam Lawson\"), Lucas Alecco Roy, Frederik Vesti and Charles Weerts, with Lawson finishing runner\\-up in the championship.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Wood\\|first1\\=Elliot\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort Racing sign Dutch karter Joey Alders for ADAC F4\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-sign\\-dutch\\-karter\\-joey\\-alders\\-for\\-adac\\-f4/40658\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2018\\|work\\=formulascout.com\\|publisher\\=Formula Scout\\|date\\=13 February 2018}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Wood\\|first1\\=Elliot\\|title\\=New Zealand star Liam Lawson joins VAR for ADAC F4\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/new\\-zealand\\-formula\\-ford\\-star\\-liam\\-lawson\\-joins\\-var\\-for\\-adac\\-f4/41451\\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2018\\|work\\=formulascout.com\\|publisher\\=Formula Scout\\|date\\=16 March 2018}}{{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=Zendeli and Wishofer join Schumacher at US Racing for ADAC F4\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/zendeli\\-and\\-wishofer\\-join\\-schumacher\\-at\\-us\\-racing\\-for\\-adac\\-f4/41631\\|access\\-date\\=26 March 2018\\|work\\=formulascout.com\\|publisher\\=Formula Scout\\|date\\=26 March 2018}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Charles Weerts joins Van Amersfoort Racing in 2018\\|url\\=https://www.adac\\-motorsport.de/adac\\-formel\\-4/uk/artikel/charles\\-weerts\\-joins\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-in\\-2018\\-second\\-season\\-in\\-adac\\-formula\\-4\\-for\\-the\\-16\\-year\\-old\\-belgian\\-244828\\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2018\\|work\\=adac\\-motorsport.de\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[ADAC]]\\|date\\=23 February 2018}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Lucas Alecco Roy continuous his special route with Van Amersfoort Racing\\|url\\=http://www.motorautosport.nl/2018/03/13/lucas\\-alecco\\-roy\\-continuous\\-his\\-special\\-route\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing/\\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2018\\|work\\=motorautosport.nl\\|date\\=13 March 2018}}", "### Formula European Masters and Formula 4 (since 2019\\)", "In 2019, Van Amersfoort committed to the inaugural Formula European Masters championship, reuniting with Flörsch.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula\\-em.com/2018/12/21/already\\-16\\-cars\\-on\\-the\\-2019\\-entry\\-list/\\|title\\=ALREADY 16 CARS ON THE 2019 ENTRY LIST\\|date\\=December 21, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327123005/https://www.formula\\-em.com/2018/12/21/already\\-16\\-cars\\-on\\-the\\-2019\\-entry\\-list/\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formulascout.com/sophia\\-floersch\\-to\\-continue\\-in\\-formula\\-european\\-masters\\-on\\-return\\-from\\-injury/47065\\|title\\=Sophia Floersch to continue in Formula European Masters on return from injury\\|last\\=Allen\\|first\\=Peter\\|work\\=FormulaScout\\|date\\=December 13, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2018}} For the [ADAC Formula 4](/wiki/2019_ADAC_Formula_4_Championship \"2019 ADAC Formula 4 Championship\") championship, the team reunited with Roy and signed [Ido Cohen](/wiki/Ido_Cohen \"Ido Cohen\"), [Niklas Krütten](/wiki/Niklas_Kr%C3%BCtten \"Niklas Krütten\"), Sebastian Estner and [Red Bull Junior](/wiki/Red_Bull_Junior_Team \"Red Bull Junior Team\") Dennis Hauger.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\\-fia\\-formula\\-4/lucas\\-alecco\\-roy\\-returns\\-to\\-var\\-for\\-a\\-dual\\-f4\\-program.htm\\|title\\=LUCAS ALECCO ROY RETURNS FOR A DUAL F4 PROGRAM\\|date\\=April 12, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\\-fia\\-formula\\-4/niklas\\-kr\\-tten\\-joins\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-for\\-2019\\-dual\\-f4\\-racing\\-program.htm\\|title\\=NIKLAS KRÜTTEN JOINS VAR FOR 2019 DUAL RACING PROGRAM IN F4\\|date\\=November 29, 2018\\|access\\-date\\=December 26, 2018}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\\-fia\\-formula\\-4/israeli\\-youngster\\-ido\\-cohen\\-to\\-compete\\-for\\-var\\-in\\-dual\\-f4\\-program.htm\\|title\\=ISRAELI YOUNGSTER IDO COHEN TO COMPETE FOR VAR IN DUAL F4 PROGRAM\\|date\\=January 23, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=January 23, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\\-fia\\-formula\\-4/fifth\\-f4\\-pilot\\-sebastian\\-estner\\-returns\\-for\\-2019\\-adac\\-german\\-f4\\-championship.htm\\|title\\=FIFTH F4 PILOT: SEBASTIAN ESTNER RETURNS FOR 2019 ADAC GERMAN F4 CAMPAIGN\\|date\\=April 25, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=April 26, 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/adac\\-fia\\-formula\\-4/norwegian\\-dennis\\-hauger\\-signs\\-up\\-for\\-a\\-dual\\-2019\\-f4\\-racing\\-program\\-with\\-van\\-amersfoort\\-racing.htm\\|title\\=NORWEGIAN DENNIS HAUGER SIGNS UP FOR DUAL 2019 F4 PROGRAM\\|date\\=January 24, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=January 24, 2019}} Following the cancellation of the Formula European Masters championship, Van Amersfoort entered the [inaugural](/wiki/2019_Formula_Regional_European_Championship \"2019 Formula Regional European Championship\") [Formula Regional European Championship](/wiki/Formula_Regional_European_Championship \"Formula Regional European Championship\") with Flörsch.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/fia\\-f3\\-european\\-championship/var\\-enters\\-the\\-fia\\-fr\\-european\\-championship\\-with\\-sophia\\-fl\\-rsch.htm\\|title\\=VAR ENTERS THE FIA FR EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP WITH SOPHIA FLÖRSCH\\|date\\=March 27, 2019\\|access\\-date\\=March 27, 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327113529/http://www.vanamersfoortracing.nl/news/fia\\-f3\\-european\\-championship/var\\-enters\\-the\\-fia\\-fr\\-european\\-championship\\-with\\-sophia\\-fl\\-rsch.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} Hauger ended up winning the [2019 Italian F4 Championship](/wiki/2019_Italian_F4_Championship \"2019 Italian F4 Championship\"), 136 points in front of the nearest competitor, thereby helping Van Amersfoort to win the team championship. The [Norwegian](/wiki/Norway \"Norway\") driver also finished second in ADAC F4, only seven points behind [Théo Pourchaire](/wiki/Th%C3%A9o_Pourchaire \"Théo Pourchaire\").", "### FIA Formula 2 and Formula 3", "In late 2021, it was announced VAR would replace [HWA Racelab](/wiki/HWA_Team \"HWA Team\") on the [FIA Formula 2](/wiki/FIA_Formula_2 \"FIA Formula 2\") and [FIA Formula 3](/wiki/FIA_Formula_3 \"FIA Formula 3\") grids from 2022 onwards.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.formula1\\.com/en/latest/article.van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-to\\-join\\-f3\\-next\\-season\\-as\\-series\\-confirms\\-all\\-ten.8ml4cVcnSivELl3ohRGIK.html\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort Racing to join F3 next season as series confirms all ten teams for 2022\\-2024\\|date\\=October 11, 2021\\|accessdate\\=December 13, 2021}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fiaformula2\\.com/Latest/ioKPIP7ruv3BLc5qcXXHc/van\\-amersfoort\\-racing\\-take\\-over\\-hwa\\-racelabs\\-entry\\-for\\-2022\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort Racing take over HWA RACELAB's entry for 2022\\|date\\=December 13, 2021\\|accessdate\\=December 13, 2021}}", "" ]
### Return into the German Formula Three Championship (2006–2012\) In [2006](/wiki/2006_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2006 German Formula Three Championship") Van Amersfoort Racing returned to the German Formula Three Championship] continuing collaboration with Bruins Choi and Muermans.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2006\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2006 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=8 November 2014}} Bruins Choi took his first Formula Three podium in the series finale at [Oschersleben](/wiki/Motorsport_Arena_Oschersleben "Motorsport Arena Oschersleben"). Following the merging of the Dutch Formula Renault championship to the Formula Renault 2\.0 Northern European Cup, the team joined the new series with Dennis Swart and Gwendolyn Hertzberger, who had only episodic point\-scoring finishes. Bruins Choi was retained for the [2007](/wiki/2007_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2007 German Formula Three Championship"), while Muermans was replaced by Carlo van Dam.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} The Dutch driver dominated the season, winning eleven races. He gave the team the first drivers' F3 title since Leinders. And with the two wins of Bruins Choi it mean that the drivers of the team won 13 from 18 races.{{cite web\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2007 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2007/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} In the NEC series the team retained Swart, who was joined by [Stef Dusseldorp](/wiki/Stef_Dusseldorp "Stef Dusseldorp"). Despite missing last three rounds of the season Dusseldorp outscored more experienced teammate. For 2008 [Rahel Frey](/wiki/Rahel_Frey "Rahel Frey") and [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor "Laurens Vanthoor") joined the team.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} Vanthoor had two wins with another six podiums.{{cite web\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2008 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2008/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} Also the team expanded to compete in [2008 ADAC Formel Masters](/wiki/2008_ADAC_Formel_Masters "2008 ADAC Formel Masters") with Emma Kimiläinen. She had one podium and finished the season in the top\-ten of the driver standings.{{cite web\|title\=ADAC Formel Masters 2008 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\-formel\-masters/2008/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} Dusseldorp continued to race for the team in the Northern European Cup, while [Nigel Melker](/wiki/Nigel_Melker "Nigel Melker") joined him in the team. Dusseldorp won the first race for the team in the series. Vanthoor remained with the team in 2009, Dusseldorp was promoted from the NEC series and became Vanthoor's teammate.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\-starter\-cup.pdf \|title\=2007 Entry List \|publisher\=formel3guide.com\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} The team repeated the success of 2007, with eleven wins and a championship title for Vanthoor and two wins for Dusseldorp.{{cite news\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2009 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2009/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} In ADAC Formel Masters the team like in 2008 had only one driver Christian Wangard, who have competed in more than two thirds of the races. And like in 2008, Van Amersfoort's driver had one podium with the tenth place in the season standings.{{cite web\|title\=ADAC Formel Masters 2009 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\-formel\-masters/2009/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} It was the last year of operation in the ADAC Formel Masters for the team, as the team decided to concentrate on the German F3 Championship. In the NEC series the team was presented by Mathijs Harkema, who finished just eighteenth. In 2010 the team expanded to three cars in German F3, Dusseldorp remained with [Daniel Abt](/wiki/Daniel_Abt "Daniel Abt") and Willi Steindl were the new additions to the squad.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\=26216\&cat\=25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615002058/http://italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\=26216\&cat\=25\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=15 June 2010\|title\=Van Amersfoort a tre punte\|language\=it\|work\=ItaliaRacing.net\|publisher\=Inpagina\|date\=12 February 2010\|access\-date\=24 February 2018}} Despite his Formula 3 debut Abt was more successful than Dusseldorp. With wins at Assen and Oschersleben he was a title contender till the last race when he was forced to retire due to a broken lambda sensor.{{cite news\|title\=The Oschersleben Thriller\|url\=http://www.formel3\.de/news.php?id\=1078\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=formel3\.de\|publisher\=\[\[German Formula Three Championship]]\|date\=7 October 2010\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309180811/http://www.formel3\.de/news.php?id\=1078\|archive\-date\=9 March 2012}} Dusseldorp and Steindl were also the race winners but weren't consistent as Abt. Jeroen Mul and Liroy Stuart were the team drivers in the Northern European Cup. Mul won two races at Zandvoort and Oschersleben. [thumb\|left\|[Richie Stanaway](/wiki/Richie_Stanaway "Richie Stanaway"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/German_Formula_Three_Championship "German Formula Three Championship") race at [Hockenheimn](/wiki/Hockenheimring "Hockenheimring") in [2011](/wiki/2011_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2011 German Formula Three Championship").](/wiki/File:RichieStanaway_ATSFormel3_HH2011.JPG "RichieStanaway ATSFormel3 HH2011.JPG") The team completely changed their driver line\-up in 2011\. Richie Stanaway, Jeroen Mul and [Hannes van Asseldonk](/wiki/Hannes_van_Asseldonk "Hannes van Asseldonk") signed with the team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\-90\.aspx\|title\=06\.02\.2011 FIA Institute Academy – Driver Q\&As\|work\=\[\[FIA Institute Academy]]\|publisher\=\[\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]\|date\=6 February 2011\|access\-date\=14 February 2011\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215091837/http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\-90\.aspx\|archive\-date\=15 February 2011\|url\-status\=dead\|df\=dmy\-all}} Stanaway had more wins during the season in the German F3 than any driver in the Van Amersfoort Racing history, taking 13 wins from 18 races and the championship title.{{cite news\|last1\=Allen\|first1\=Peter\|title\=Kiwi making his mark in Germany: Richie Stanaway\|url\=http://www.paddockscout.com/kiwi\-making\-his\-mark\-in\-germany\-richie\-stanaway\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=paddockscout.com\|publisher\=Paddock Scout\|date\=29 April 2011}} The team participated in the NEC series with [Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar "Dennis van de Laar") and [Meindert van Buuren](/wiki/Meindert_van_Buuren "Meindert van Buuren"). Van de Laar finished the season eighth with ten top\-ten finishes, while van Buuren was only 21st with four top\-ten finishes. [thumb\|[Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar "Dennis van de Laar"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during German Formula Three Championship race at [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring "Nürburgring") in [2012](/wiki/2012_German_Formula_Three_Championship "2012 German Formula Three Championship").](/wiki/File:Formula_3_Cup_Car.jpg "Formula 3 Cup Car.jpg") For 2012 the team again reshuffled their line\-up. [Lucas Auer](/wiki/Lucas_Auer "Lucas Auer"), [René Binder](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Binder "René Binder") and Dennis van de Laar became the new drivers. Auer and Binder were the race winners, but they were beaten by [Motopark](/wiki/Motopark_Academy "Motopark Academy") driver [Jimmy Eriksson](/wiki/Jimmy_Eriksson "Jimmy Eriksson").{{cite news\|title\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2012 standings\|url\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\-3\-germany/2012/\|access\-date\=24 February 2018\|work\=driverdb.com\|publisher\=Driver Database}} [2012](/wiki/2012_Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup "2012 Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup") was the last season for the team in the Northern European Cup, where the team was presented by [Jeroen Slaghekke](/wiki/Jeroen_Slaghekke "Jeroen Slaghekke") and Roman Beregech. Slaghekke won the race and finished fourth in the series standings. Beregech wasn't consistent and competitive as Slaghekke, so finished only 29th.
[ "### Return into the German Formula Three Championship (2006–2012\\)", "In [2006](/wiki/2006_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2006 German Formula Three Championship\") Van Amersfoort Racing returned to the German Formula Three Championship] continuing collaboration with Bruins Choi and Muermans.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2006\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2006 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2014}} Bruins Choi took his first Formula Three podium in the series finale at [Oschersleben](/wiki/Motorsport_Arena_Oschersleben \"Motorsport Arena Oschersleben\"). Following the merging of the Dutch Formula Renault championship to the Formula Renault 2\\.0 Northern European Cup, the team joined the new series with Dennis Swart and Gwendolyn Hertzberger, who had only episodic point\\-scoring finishes.", "Bruins Choi was retained for the [2007](/wiki/2007_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2007 German Formula Three Championship\"), while Muermans was replaced by Carlo van Dam.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} The Dutch driver dominated the season, winning eleven races. He gave the team the first drivers' F3 title since Leinders. And with the two wins of Bruins Choi it mean that the drivers of the team won 13 from 18 races.{{cite web\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2007 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2007/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} In the NEC series the team retained Swart, who was joined by [Stef Dusseldorp](/wiki/Stef_Dusseldorp \"Stef Dusseldorp\"). Despite missing last three rounds of the season Dusseldorp outscored more experienced teammate.", "For 2008 [Rahel Frey](/wiki/Rahel_Frey \"Rahel Frey\") and [Laurens Vanthoor](/wiki/Laurens_Vanthoor \"Laurens Vanthoor\") joined the team.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} Vanthoor had two wins with another six podiums.{{cite web\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2008 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2008/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} Also the team expanded to compete in [2008 ADAC Formel Masters](/wiki/2008_ADAC_Formel_Masters \"2008 ADAC Formel Masters\") with Emma Kimiläinen. She had one podium and finished the season in the top\\-ten of the driver standings.{{cite web\\|title\\=ADAC Formel Masters 2008 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\\-formel\\-masters/2008/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} Dusseldorp continued to race for the team in the Northern European Cup, while [Nigel Melker](/wiki/Nigel_Melker \"Nigel Melker\") joined him in the team. Dusseldorp won the first race for the team in the series.", "Vanthoor remained with the team in 2009, Dusseldorp was promoted from the NEC series and became Vanthoor's teammate.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.formel3guide.com/images/starter/2007\\-starter\\-cup.pdf \\|title\\=2007 Entry List \\|publisher\\=formel3guide.com\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} The team repeated the success of 2007, with eleven wins and a championship title for Vanthoor and two wins for Dusseldorp.{{cite news\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2009 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2009/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} In ADAC Formel Masters the team like in 2008 had only one driver Christian Wangard, who have competed in more than two thirds of the races. And like in 2008, Van Amersfoort's driver had one podium with the tenth place in the season standings.{{cite web\\|title\\=ADAC Formel Masters 2009 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/adac\\-formel\\-masters/2009/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} It was the last year of operation in the ADAC Formel Masters for the team, as the team decided to concentrate on the German F3 Championship. In the NEC series the team was presented by Mathijs Harkema, who finished just eighteenth.", "In 2010 the team expanded to three cars in German F3, Dusseldorp remained with [Daniel Abt](/wiki/Daniel_Abt \"Daniel Abt\") and Willi Steindl were the new additions to the squad.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\\=26216\\&cat\\=25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615002058/http://italiaracing.net/notizia.asp?id\\=26216\\&cat\\=25\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=15 June 2010\\|title\\=Van Amersfoort a tre punte\\|language\\=it\\|work\\=ItaliaRacing.net\\|publisher\\=Inpagina\\|date\\=12 February 2010\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018}} Despite his Formula 3 debut Abt was more successful than Dusseldorp. With wins at Assen and Oschersleben he was a title contender till the last race when he was forced to retire due to a broken lambda sensor.{{cite news\\|title\\=The Oschersleben Thriller\\|url\\=http://www.formel3\\.de/news.php?id\\=1078\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=formel3\\.de\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[German Formula Three Championship]]\\|date\\=7 October 2010\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309180811/http://www.formel3\\.de/news.php?id\\=1078\\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2012}} Dusseldorp and Steindl were also the race winners but weren't consistent as Abt. Jeroen Mul and Liroy Stuart were the team drivers in the Northern European Cup. Mul won two races at Zandvoort and Oschersleben.", "[thumb\\|left\\|[Richie Stanaway](/wiki/Richie_Stanaway \"Richie Stanaway\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during [German Formula Three Championship](/wiki/German_Formula_Three_Championship \"German Formula Three Championship\") race at [Hockenheimn](/wiki/Hockenheimring \"Hockenheimring\") in [2011](/wiki/2011_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2011 German Formula Three Championship\").](/wiki/File:RichieStanaway_ATSFormel3_HH2011.JPG \"RichieStanaway ATSFormel3 HH2011.JPG\")\nThe team completely changed their driver line\\-up in 2011\\. Richie Stanaway, Jeroen Mul and [Hannes van Asseldonk](/wiki/Hannes_van_Asseldonk \"Hannes van Asseldonk\") signed with the team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\\-90\\.aspx\\|title\\=06\\.02\\.2011 FIA Institute Academy – Driver Q\\&As\\|work\\=\\[\\[FIA Institute Academy]]\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]\\|date\\=6 February 2011\\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215091837/http://www.fiainstitute.com/news/Pages/article\\-90\\.aspx\\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2011\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|df\\=dmy\\-all}} Stanaway had more wins during the season in the German F3 than any driver in the Van Amersfoort Racing history, taking 13 wins from 18 races and the championship title.{{cite news\\|last1\\=Allen\\|first1\\=Peter\\|title\\=Kiwi making his mark in Germany: Richie Stanaway\\|url\\=http://www.paddockscout.com/kiwi\\-making\\-his\\-mark\\-in\\-germany\\-richie\\-stanaway\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=paddockscout.com\\|publisher\\=Paddock Scout\\|date\\=29 April 2011}} The team participated in the NEC series with [Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar \"Dennis van de Laar\") and [Meindert van Buuren](/wiki/Meindert_van_Buuren \"Meindert van Buuren\"). Van de Laar finished the season eighth with ten top\\-ten finishes, while van Buuren was only 21st with four top\\-ten finishes.", "[thumb\\|[Dennis van de Laar](/wiki/Dennis_van_de_Laar \"Dennis van de Laar\"), driving for Van Amersfoort Racing during German Formula Three Championship race at [Nürburgring](/wiki/N%C3%BCrburgring \"Nürburgring\") in [2012](/wiki/2012_German_Formula_Three_Championship \"2012 German Formula Three Championship\").](/wiki/File:Formula_3_Cup_Car.jpg \"Formula 3 Cup Car.jpg\")\nFor 2012 the team again reshuffled their line\\-up. [Lucas Auer](/wiki/Lucas_Auer \"Lucas Auer\"), [René Binder](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Binder \"René Binder\") and Dennis van de Laar became the new drivers. Auer and Binder were the race winners, but they were beaten by [Motopark](/wiki/Motopark_Academy \"Motopark Academy\") driver [Jimmy Eriksson](/wiki/Jimmy_Eriksson \"Jimmy Eriksson\").{{cite news\\|title\\=ATS Formel 3 Cup 2012 standings\\|url\\=https://www.driverdb.com/championships/standings/formula\\-3\\-germany/2012/\\|access\\-date\\=24 February 2018\\|work\\=driverdb.com\\|publisher\\=Driver Database}} [2012](/wiki/2012_Formula_Renault_2.0_Northern_European_Cup \"2012 Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup\") was the last season for the team in the Northern European Cup, where the team was presented by [Jeroen Slaghekke](/wiki/Jeroen_Slaghekke \"Jeroen Slaghekke\") and Roman Beregech. Slaghekke won the race and finished fourth in the series standings. Beregech wasn't consistent and competitive as Slaghekke, so finished only 29th.", "" ]
Career ------ Born of a gardener father and a caretaker mother, Jean Lebrun grew up in the Parisian suburbs and studied in the Catholic college Notre\-Dame de la Providence at [Enghien\-les\-Bains](/wiki/Enghien-les-Bains "Enghien-les-Bains").Hélène Delye, [« Jean Lebrun, passeur d'Histoire »](http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2013/05/10/jean-lebrun_3175008_3246.html), *Le Monde*, 10 May 2013\. He pursued his higher studies at the Sorbonne, then immersed in the [May 1968 events in France](/wiki/May_1968_events_in_France "May 1968 events in France"). He devoted a master's thesis to the history of the [La Trappe Abbey](/wiki/La_Trappe_Abbey "La Trappe Abbey"), at [Rancé](/wiki/Ranc%C3%A9 "Rancé").Le Monde de l'éducation, Editions 247\-254, 1997 An agrégé of history, he abandoned teaching to engage in journalism. He collaborated at *[Combat](/wiki/Combat_%28newspaper%29 "Combat (newspaper)")*, the TV program *{{ill\|Le Jour du Seigneur\|fr}}* in the 1970s, the magazine *[Esprit](/wiki/Esprit_%28magazine%29 "Esprit (magazine)")*, whose editorial board he was a member, and *[La Croix](/wiki/La_Croix_%28newspaper%29 "La Croix (newspaper)")*, whose cultural service he co\-directed. At [France Culture](/wiki/France_Culture "France Culture"), where Jean Lebrun has spent most of his career, he produced and hosted the programs *Culture Matin* (from 1992 to 1999\) and *Pot\-au\-feu* before animating *Travaux Public*, a program broadcast from Monday to Friday from 6\.30 pm to 7\.30 pm which he periodically recorded in a "Deep France Culture" ambiance from [Blumeray](/wiki/Blumeray "Blumeray") ([Haute\-Marne](/wiki/Haute-Marne "Haute-Marne")). The program was live from the Argentinian café *El Sur* on [Boulevard Saint\-Germain](/wiki/Boulevard_Saint-Germain "Boulevard Saint-Germain") in Paris on Mondays, Tuesdays and Wednesdays, and in various French cities on Thursdays and Fridays. The recording sometimes took place at festivals or abroad. In June 2008, Jean Lebrun stopped producing the program *Travaux publics*. He then worked until February 2011 as program advisor to the director of the France Culture channel. Lebrun replaced {{ill\|Patrice Gélinet\|fr}}, producer of *{{ill\|Deux mille ans d'Histoire\|fr}}* on [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter "France Inter"), with *{{ill\|La Marche de l'Histoire\|fr}}* on 28 February 2011\. He is the author of *Journaliste en campagne* (October 2006\) and *Le Journalisme en chantier : chronique d'un artisan**[« Jean Lebrun, artisan\-journaliste »](http://www.nonfiction.fr/article-1783-jean_lebrun_artisan_journaliste.htm)*, critique de [Jean\-Marie Borzeix](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Borzeix "Jean-Marie Borzeix"), former director of France Culture, published by [Nonfiction](/wiki/Nonfiction "Nonfiction"). (October 2008\), both published by the publishing house {{ill\|Bleu autour\|fr}}. In 2014, he was awarded the [prix Goncourt de la Biographie](/wiki/Prix_Goncourt_de_la_Biographie "Prix Goncourt de la Biographie") for *Notre Chanel*, published by Bleu autour,["Le Goncourt de la biographie à Jean Lebrun pour “Notre Chanel”"](http://www.lepoint.fr/culture/le-goncourt-de-la-biographie-a-jean-lebrun-pour-notre-chanel-03-06-2014-1830604_3.php), *lepoint.fr*, 3 June 2014\. A biographical work on the fashion designer undertaken years earlier with his companion Bernard Costa (died of AIDS in 1990\). He joined the editorial board of *{{ill\|La Quinzaine littéraire\|fr}}* in 2015\. Jean Lebrun was awarded the [Prix Richelieu](/wiki/Prix_Richelieu "Prix Richelieu") in 1997\.
[ "Career\n------", "Born of a gardener father and a caretaker mother, Jean Lebrun grew up in the Parisian suburbs and studied in the Catholic college Notre\\-Dame de la Providence at [Enghien\\-les\\-Bains](/wiki/Enghien-les-Bains \"Enghien-les-Bains\").Hélène Delye, [« Jean Lebrun, passeur d'Histoire »](http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2013/05/10/jean-lebrun_3175008_3246.html), *Le Monde*, 10 May 2013\\. He pursued his higher studies at the Sorbonne, then immersed in the [May 1968 events in France](/wiki/May_1968_events_in_France \"May 1968 events in France\"). He devoted a master's thesis to the history of the [La Trappe Abbey](/wiki/La_Trappe_Abbey \"La Trappe Abbey\"), at [Rancé](/wiki/Ranc%C3%A9 \"Rancé\").Le Monde de l'éducation, Editions 247\\-254, 1997 An agrégé of history, he abandoned teaching to engage in journalism. He collaborated at *[Combat](/wiki/Combat_%28newspaper%29 \"Combat (newspaper)\")*, the TV program *{{ill\\|Le Jour du Seigneur\\|fr}}* in the 1970s, the magazine *[Esprit](/wiki/Esprit_%28magazine%29 \"Esprit (magazine)\")*, whose editorial board he was a member, and *[La Croix](/wiki/La_Croix_%28newspaper%29 \"La Croix (newspaper)\")*, whose cultural service he co\\-directed.", "At [France Culture](/wiki/France_Culture \"France Culture\"), where Jean Lebrun has spent most of his career, he produced and hosted the programs *Culture Matin* (from 1992 to 1999\\) and *Pot\\-au\\-feu* before animating *Travaux Public*, a program broadcast from Monday to Friday from 6\\.30 pm to 7\\.30 pm which he periodically recorded in a \"Deep France Culture\" ambiance from [Blumeray](/wiki/Blumeray \"Blumeray\") ([Haute\\-Marne](/wiki/Haute-Marne \"Haute-Marne\")). The program was live from the Argentinian café *El Sur* on [Boulevard Saint\\-Germain](/wiki/Boulevard_Saint-Germain \"Boulevard Saint-Germain\") in Paris on Mondays, Tuesdays and Wednesdays, and in various French cities on Thursdays and Fridays. The recording sometimes took place at festivals or abroad. In June 2008, Jean Lebrun stopped producing the program *Travaux publics*. He then worked until February 2011 as program advisor to the director of the France Culture channel.", "Lebrun replaced {{ill\\|Patrice Gélinet\\|fr}}, producer of *{{ill\\|Deux mille ans d'Histoire\\|fr}}* on [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter \"France Inter\"), with *{{ill\\|La Marche de l'Histoire\\|fr}}* on 28 February 2011\\.", "He is the author of *Journaliste en campagne* (October 2006\\) and *Le Journalisme en chantier : chronique d'un artisan**[« Jean Lebrun, artisan\\-journaliste »](http://www.nonfiction.fr/article-1783-jean_lebrun_artisan_journaliste.htm)*, critique de [Jean\\-Marie Borzeix](/wiki/Jean-Marie_Borzeix \"Jean-Marie Borzeix\"), former director of France Culture, published by [Nonfiction](/wiki/Nonfiction \"Nonfiction\"). (October 2008\\), both published by the publishing house {{ill\\|Bleu autour\\|fr}}.", "In 2014, he was awarded the [prix Goncourt de la Biographie](/wiki/Prix_Goncourt_de_la_Biographie \"Prix Goncourt de la Biographie\") for *Notre Chanel*, published by Bleu autour,[\"Le Goncourt de la biographie à Jean Lebrun pour “Notre Chanel”\"](http://www.lepoint.fr/culture/le-goncourt-de-la-biographie-a-jean-lebrun-pour-notre-chanel-03-06-2014-1830604_3.php), *lepoint.fr*, 3 June 2014\\. A biographical work on the fashion designer undertaken years earlier with his companion Bernard Costa (died of AIDS in 1990\\).", "He joined the editorial board of *{{ill\\|La Quinzaine littéraire\\|fr}}* in 2015\\.", "Jean Lebrun was awarded the [Prix Richelieu](/wiki/Prix_Richelieu \"Prix Richelieu\") in 1997\\.", "" ]
History ------- ### Napoleonic Wars From June 1809, [Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington") organized his cavalry into one, later two, cavalry [divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 "Division (military)") ([1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") and [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)")) for the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War").{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|p\=79}} These performed a purely administrative, rather than tactical, role;{{harvnb\|Haythornthwaite\|1990\|p\=103}} the normal tactical headquarters were provided by brigades commanding two, later usually three, regiments.{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|p\=75}} The cavalry brigades were named for the commanding officer, rather than numbered.{{efn\|This could be a source of confusion as brigades acquired new commanders, or they moved between brigades. For example, Fane's Brigade became \[\[George de Grey, 3rd Baron Walsingham\|De Grey's]] Brigade from 13 May 1810 when \[\[Henry Fane (British Army officer)\|Henry Fane]] went to \[\[Estremadura Province (historical)\|Estremadura]];{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|p\=80}} De Grey's Brigade was broken up 29 January 1812\.{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|p\=83}} On 20 May 1813, Fane took over \[\[Sir John Slade, 1st Baronet\|Slade's]] Brigade;{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|p\=85}} the second Fane's Brigade was unrelated to the original one although coincidentally, and to add to the potential confusion, the \[\[3rd Dragoon Guards]] served in both.{{harvnb\|Reid\|2004\|pp\=79–86}}}} For the [Hundred Days Campaign](/wiki/Hundred_Days "Hundred Days"), he numbered his British cavalry brigades in a single sequence, 1st to 7th.{{efn\|The British cavalry included five regiments of the \[\[King's German Legion]].{{cite web\|url\=http://www.napoleonic\-literature.com/Waterloo\_OB/Allied.htm \|title\=The Anglo\-Allied Army at napoleonic\-literature.com \|access\-date\=2013\-03\-21 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717034259/http://www.napoleonic\-literature.com/Waterloo\_OB/Allied.htm \|archive\-date\=17 July 2012 }}{{cite web \| url\=http://www.napolun.com/mirror/napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British\_Order\_of\_Battle\_WATERLOO.html \| title\=Wellington's Army in 1815 \| access\-date\=25 August 2014}}}} The 4th Cavalry Brigade consisted of: * [11th Light Dragoons](/wiki/11th_Hussars "11th Hussars") * [12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons](/wiki/12th_%28Prince_of_Wales%27s%29_Light_Dragoons "12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons") * [16th (Queen's) Light Dragoons](/wiki/16th_%28Queen%27s%29_Light_Dragoons "16th (Queen's) Light Dragoons") It was commanded by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General "Major General") [Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur](/wiki/Sir_John_Ormsby_Vandeleur "Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur").{{harvnb\|Smith\|1998\|p\=540}} The brigade took part in the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo"). During the battle, the 11th Light Dragoons suffered 63 casualties (12 killed, 28 wounded, 23 missing), the 12th Light Dragoons 111 (47 killed, 64 wounded) and the 16th Light Dragoons just 30 (10 killed, 20 wounded).{{harvnb\|Smith\|1998\|p\=544}} This represented a loss rate of about 15%.{{efn\|11th Light Dragoons had a strength of 442, 12th Light Dragoons 433, and 16th Light Dragoons 440\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.napolun.com/mirror/napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British\_Order\_of\_Battle\_WATERLOO.html \| title\=Battle of Waterloo \| publisher\=Napolun.com \| access\-date\=11 September 2013}} }} ### Second Boer War Following the outbreak of the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War "Second Boer War") in late 1899, a 4th Cavalry Brigade was established under the command of Major\-General [John Dickson](/wiki/John_Baillie_Ballantyne_Dickson "John Baillie Ballantyne Dickson").{{London Gazette\|issue\=27168\|page\=1260\|date\=23 February 1900}} The brigade was composed of squadrons from the [7th Dragoon Guards](/wiki/7th_Dragoon_Guards "7th Dragoon Guards"), [8th Hussars](/wiki/8th_Hussars "8th Hussars") and [17th Lancers](/wiki/17th_Lancers "17th Lancers"), with drafts from the [19th Hussars](/wiki/19th_Hussars "19th Hussars") and [1st Dragoons](/wiki/1st_Dragoons "1st Dragoons"), and was mobilized for service on 1 January 1900, leaving for [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa") the following month.{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=The War – The fourth Cavalry Brigade \|date\=1 February 1900 \|page\=10 \|issue\=36054 }} The Mounted Infantry for the brigade was 300 men strong, and was drawn from the 2nd Battalion [Leicestershire Regiment](/wiki/Leicestershire_Regiment "Leicestershire Regiment"), the 1st Battalion [Royal Berkshire Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Berkshire_Regiment "Royal Berkshire Regiment"), the 1st Battalion [Yorkshire Light Infantry](/wiki/Yorkshire_Light_Infantry "Yorkshire Light Infantry"), the 2nd Battalion [Manchester Regiment](/wiki/Manchester_Regiment "Manchester Regiment"), the 4th Battalion of the [King's Royal Rifle Corps](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps "King's Royal Rifle Corps"), and the 4th Battalion of the [Rifle Brigade](/wiki/Rifle_Brigade_%28Prince_Consort%27s_Own%29 "Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)"), with a machine\-gun section from the 2nd Battalion [Liverpool Regiment](/wiki/Liverpool_Regiment "Liverpool Regiment").{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=The War – The fourth Cavalry Brigade \|date\=7 February 1900 \|page\=8 \|issue\=36059 }} The No. 20 Field Hospital [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps "Royal Army Medical Corps") was attached to the brigade.{{Cite newspaper The Times \|title\=The War – Embarcation of Troops\|date\=19 February 1900 \|page\=12 \|issue\=36069 }} ### First World War #### Mobilization 4th Cavalry Brigade was a peacetime formation of the British Army, based in [Eastern Command](/wiki/Eastern_Command_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Eastern Command (United Kingdom)"). At the outbreak of the war, it was [headquartered](/wiki/Headquarters_%28military%29 "Headquarters (military)") at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury "Canterbury") and commanded the [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 "6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)") (at Canterbury), [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars "3rd (King's Own) Hussars") (at [Shorncliffe](/wiki/Shorncliffe_Army_Camp "Shorncliffe Army Camp")) and 4th Signal Troop, [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") (at Canterbury). A number of units were attached to the brigade: the [19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars](/wiki/19th_%28Queen_Alexandra%27s_Own_Royal%29_Hussars "19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars") at [Hounslow](/wiki/Hounslow "Hounslow"), the [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich "Woolwich")\-based [X Brigade, RHA](/wiki/X_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery") ([P](/wiki/P_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "P Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") and [R Batteries](/wiki/R_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "R Battery, Royal Horse Artillery")), [II Brigade, RHA](/wiki/II_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "II Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery") (consisting of just [C Battery](/wiki/C_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") and based at Canterbury) and [King Edward's Horse](/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Horse "King Edward's Horse") of the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 "Special Reserve (militia)") (based at [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London "Chelsea, London")).{{cite web \| url \= http://marksrussianmilitaryhistory.info/BRIT14\.html \| title \= The British Army, 1914 \| last1 \= Conrad \| first1 \= Mark \| year \= 1996 \| access\-date \= 8 August 2013}} On mobilization, the brigade was brought up to its full – three regiment – strength with the addition of the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment");{{efn\|The \[\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was formed on mobilization by taking one \[\[Squadron (army)\|squadron]] from each of the \[\[Household Cavalry]] regiments (\[\[1st Life Guards]] at \[\[Hyde Park Barracks, London\|Hyde Park]], \[\[2nd Life Guards]] at \[\[Regent's Park Barracks\|Regent's Park]] and the \[\[Royal Horse Guards]] at \[\[Windsor, Berkshire\|Windsor]]).{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=11}}}} 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance also joined{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=5}} and the attached units departed at this point.{{efn\|\[\[19th Hussars]] was split up, with squadrons attached to the \[\[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|4th]], \[\[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|5th]] and \[\[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|6th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons;{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=12}} \[\[X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\|X Brigade, RHA]] remained at Woolwich throughout the war in a training role as X (Reserve) Brigade, RHA;{{harvnb\|Clarke\|1993\|p\=59}} \[\[C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\|C Battery, RHA]] joined \[\[XIV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\|XIV Brigade]] in \[\[7th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|7th Division]] at \[\[Lyndhurst, Hampshire\|Lyndhurst]] on formation;{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=84}} and \[\[King Edward's Horse]] was later split up, with squadrons attached to the \[\[12th (Eastern) Division\|12th]], \[\[47th (1/2nd London) Division\|47th]] and \[\[48th (South Midland) Division\|48th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons.{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=15}}}} The brigade joined [The Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") along with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)"), [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and [3rd Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and moved to France in August 1914\.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=6}} #### Early actions With The Cavalry Division, the brigade took part in a number of actions during the early war of movement: the [Battle of Mons](/wiki/Battle_of_Mons "Battle of Mons") (23–24 August), the [Battle of Le Cateau](/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Cateau "Battle of Le Cateau") (26 August), the [action at Néry](/wiki/Action_at_N%C3%A9ry "Action at Néry") (1 September), the [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne "First Battle of the Marne") (6–9 September) and the [Battle of the Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne "First Battle of the Aisne") (12–15 September). The brigade was transferred to the [2nd Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") on 14 October 1914 to bring it up to the standard three brigade strength. It remained with the division on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") until the end of the war.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=10}} #### 2nd Cavalry Division In 1914, the brigade, with the division, took part in [First Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres "First Battle of Ypres"), notably the battle of Gheluvelt (29–31 October).{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=14}} On 11 November, the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment was broken up and its constituent [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28army%29 "Squadron (army)") rejoined their parent regiments. The [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars "1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars"), a [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry "Yeomanry") regiment, joined in its place.{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=26}} In 1915, the division was in action at the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle "Battle of Neuve Chapelle") (10–12 March 1915\) and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres "Second Battle of Ypres") notably the Battle of St Julien (26 April–3 May) and the Battle of Bellewaarde Ridge (24–25 May). On 28 February 1916, a [Machine Gun Squadron](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps "Machine Gun Corps") was formed from the machine gun sections of the brigade's constituent regiments.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.1914\-1918\.net/mgccav.html \| title\=Cavalry units of the Machine Gun Corps \| publisher\=The Long Long Trail \| last\=Baker \| first\=Chris \| access\-date\=7 August 2013}} 1916 saw no notable actions, but in 1917 the division saw action in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)") (First Battle of the Scarpe, 9–11 April). and the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 "Battle of Cambrai (1917)") (the Tank Attack of 20–21 November, the Capture of Bourlon Wood of 24–28 November and the German Counter\-Attack of 30 November–3 December). At other times, the brigade formed a dismounted unit and served in the trenches as a regiment under the command of the brigadier.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=11}} #### War of movement 1918 saw the return of the war of movement and the division took part in the [First Battle of the Somme](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 "First Battle of the Somme (1918)") notably the [Battle of St Quentin](/wiki/Operation_Michael%23The_Battle_of_St._Quentin_%2821_%E2%80%93_23_March_1918%29 "Operation Michael#The Battle of St. Quentin (21 – 23 March 1918)") (21–23 March), the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)") (Battle of Hazebrouck of 14–15 April), the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 "Battle of Amiens (1918)") (8–11 August) and the [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 "Second Battle of the Somme (1918)") ([Battle of Albert](/wiki/Battle_of_Albert_%281918%29 "Battle of Albert (1918)") of 21–23 August and the [Second Battle of Bapaume](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bapaume "Second Battle of Bapaume") of 31 August–3 September).{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=15}} The division was then split up with the 4th Cavalry Brigade serving with [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Third Army (United Kingdom)"). The brigade took part in the battles of the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line "Hindenburg Line"), notably the [Battle of the Canal du Nord](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Canal_du_Nord "Battle of the Canal du Nord") (27 September–1 October) and the [Pursuit to the Selle](/wiki/Pursuit_to_the_Selle "Pursuit to the Selle") (9–12 October). Its final action was to take part in the [Advance in Picardy](/wiki/Advance_in_Picardy "Advance in Picardy") (17 October–11 November) including the [Battle of the Sambre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sambre_%281918%29 "Battle of the Sambre (1918)") (4 November), still with Third Army. #### Armistice At the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany "Armistice with Germany"), the brigade had reached [Erquelinnes](/wiki/Erquelinnes "Erquelinnes") with Third Army. On 15 November, the division was re\-assembled near [Maubeuge](/wiki/Maubeuge "Maubeuge") and ordered to advance into Germany as an advance screen for Fourth Army and form part of the Occupation Force. The move began on 17 November, [Ciney](/wiki/Ciney "Ciney") and [Rochefort](/wiki/Rochefort%2C_Belgium "Rochefort, Belgium") were reached five days later. In late December, the division moved to winter quarters south and south\-east of [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge "Liège"). It remained here until 30 January 1919 when it exchanged regiments with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") and [3rd Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") then gradually moved back to England. The Division ceased to exist at midnight 31 March / 1 April 1919\. #### Order of battle [thumb\|Squadron from the [1st Life Guards](/wiki/1st_Life_Guards "1st Life Guards") August 1914, attached to the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment"), preparing to leave for France.](/wiki/File:British_cavalry_1914.jpg "British cavalry 1914.jpg") | Unit | From | To | | --- | --- | --- | | [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment") | Mobilization | 11 November 1914{{efn\|\[\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] broken up and the squadrons rejoined their parent regiments.}} | | [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 "6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)") | Mobilization | | | [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars "3rd (King's Own) Hussars") | Mobilization | | | [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars "1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars") | 11 November 1914{{efn\|\[\[1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars]] joined from \[\[2nd South Midland Mounted Brigade]] to replace the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment.}} | | | [J Battery, RHA](/wiki/J_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") | 16 September 1914{{efn\|\[\[J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\|J Battery, RHA]] joined from \[\[5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\|5th Cavalry Brigade]] and was permanently attached to 4th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=12}}}} | | | [4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers](/wiki/4th_Signal_Troop%2C_Royal_Engineers "4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers") | Mobilization | | | 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance | Mobilization | 16 October 1914{{efn\|4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance transferred to 2nd Cavalry Division when the brigade joined the division.}} | | 4th Cavalry Brigade Machine Gun Squadron, [MGC](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps "Machine Gun Corps") | 28 February 1916{{cite web \| url\=http://www.1914\-1918\.net/2cavdiv.htm \| title\=The 2nd Cavalry Division in 1914–1918 \| publisher\=The Long Long Trail \| last\=Baker \| first\=Chris \| access\-date\=8 August 2013}} | | ### Second World War The 4th Cavalry Brigade was reformed in October 1939 and took command of a composite regiment of [Household Cavalry](/wiki/Household_Cavalry "Household Cavalry") and two [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry "Yeomanry") regiments ([North Somerset Yeomanry](/wiki/North_Somerset_Yeomanry "North Somerset Yeomanry") and [Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Wiltshire_Yeomanry "Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry")).{{cite web \| url\=http://www.ordersofbattle.com/Units/UnitData?UniX\=1373 \| title\=4 Cavalry Brigade \| publisher\=ordersofbattle.com \| access\-date\=6 September 2013}} It joined the [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") when it was formed on 31 October 1939\.{{harvnb\|Joslen\|2003\|p\=33}} With the 1st Cavalry Division, the 4th Cavalry Brigade departed the United Kingdom in February 1940, transited across France, and arrived in Palestine on 20 February 1940\. It served as a garrison force under British Forces, Palestine and Trans\-Jordan. From 6 May 1941 the brigade, together with a battalion of infantry from the [Essex Regiment](/wiki/Essex_Regiment "Essex Regiment"), a mechanised regiment from the [Arab Legion](/wiki/Arab_Legion "Arab Legion") and supporting artillery was organised as *[Habforce](/wiki/Habforce "Habforce")* for operations in [Iraq](/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War "Anglo-Iraqi War") including the relief of the base at [RAF Habbaniya](/wiki/RAF_Habbaniya "RAF Habbaniya") and the occupation of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad "Baghdad"). Following this, in July 1941 it was placed under the command of [I Australian Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28Australia%29 "I Corps (Australia)") and was involved in operations against the [Vichy French](/wiki/Vichy_France "Vichy France") in [Syria](/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign "Syria–Lebanon campaign"), advancing from eastern Iraq near the [Trans\-Jordan](/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan "Emirate of Transjordan") border on [Palmyra](/wiki/Palmyra "Palmyra") to secure the [Haditha](/wiki/Haditha "Haditha") – [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon "Tripoli, Lebanon") oil pipeline.{{cite web \| url\=http://homepages.force9\.net/rothwell/trans\-jo.htm \| title\=Orders of Battle: Arab Legion \| access\-date\=25 November 2008 \| last\=Rothwell \| first\=Steve}} On 1 August 1941, the Division was converted into the [10th Armoured Division](/wiki/10th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "10th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)") and the 4th Cavalry Brigade into the [9th Armoured Brigade](/wiki/9th_Armoured_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "9th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)"). 9th Armoured Brigade would later take part in the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein "Second Battle of El Alamein") and the [Italian Campaign](/wiki/Italian_campaign_%28World_War_II%29 "Italian campaign (World War II)").{{harvnb\|Joslen\|2003\|p\=163}} #### Order of battle Unlike in the First World War, when brigade compositions rarely changed, there was considerable movement of units between the 4th, [5th](/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and [6th Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/6th_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "6th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") in the Second World War. | Unit | From | To | | --- | --- | --- | | [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment") | 13 November 1939 | 12 January 1941 | | [1st Household Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/1st_Household_Cavalry_Regiment "1st Household Cavalry Regiment"){{efn\|\[\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was redesignated \[\[1st Household Cavalry Regiment]].{{harvnb\|Bellis\|1994\|p\=10}}}} | 13 January 1941 | 31 July 1941 | | [North Somerset Yeomanry](/wiki/North_Somerset_Yeomanry "North Somerset Yeomanry") | 15 November 1939 | 21 March 1941{{efn\|North Somerset Yeomanry transferred to 5th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\|Joslen\|2003\|p\=190}}}} | | [Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Wiltshire_Yeomanry "Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry") 3 December 1939 | 2 October 1940{{efn\|name\=Wilts\|Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry transferred to, and returned from, 6th Cavalry Brigade.}} | | 8 January 1941{{efn\|name\=Wilts}} | 31 July 1941 | | [Warwickshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Warwickshire_Yeomanry "Warwickshire Yeomanry") | 22 March 1941{{efn\|Warwickshire Yeomanry transferred from 6th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\|Joslen\|2003\|p\=191}}}} | 31 July 1941 | Of the three regiments with the brigade when it was converted to an armoured formation: * the 1st Household Cavalry Regiment converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade before becoming the Reconnaissance Regiment for 10th Armoured Division.{{harvnb\|Bellis\|1994\|p\=10}} * the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade.{{harvnb\|Bellis\|1994\|p\=20}} It fought in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Italian Campaign.{{harvnb\|Mileham\|1994\|p\=117}} * the Warwickshire Yeomanry converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade. It also fought at El Alamein and throughout the Italian Campaign.{{harvnb\|Mileham\|1994\|p\=115}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Napoleonic Wars", "From June 1809, [Wellington](/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley%2C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington \"Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington\") organized his cavalry into one, later two, cavalry [divisions](/wiki/Division_%28military%29 \"Division (military)\") ([1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") and [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\")) for the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\").{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|p\\=79}} These performed a purely administrative, rather than tactical, role;{{harvnb\\|Haythornthwaite\\|1990\\|p\\=103}} the normal tactical headquarters were provided by brigades commanding two, later usually three, regiments.{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|p\\=75}} The cavalry brigades were named for the commanding officer, rather than numbered.{{efn\\|This could be a source of confusion as brigades acquired new commanders, or they moved between brigades. For example, Fane's Brigade became \\[\\[George de Grey, 3rd Baron Walsingham\\|De Grey's]] Brigade from 13 May 1810 when \\[\\[Henry Fane (British Army officer)\\|Henry Fane]] went to \\[\\[Estremadura Province (historical)\\|Estremadura]];{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|p\\=80}} De Grey's Brigade was broken up 29 January 1812\\.{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|p\\=83}} On 20 May 1813, Fane took over \\[\\[Sir John Slade, 1st Baronet\\|Slade's]] Brigade;{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|p\\=85}} the second Fane's Brigade was unrelated to the original one although coincidentally, and to add to the potential confusion, the \\[\\[3rd Dragoon Guards]] served in both.{{harvnb\\|Reid\\|2004\\|pp\\=79–86}}}} For the [Hundred Days Campaign](/wiki/Hundred_Days \"Hundred Days\"), he numbered his British cavalry brigades in a single sequence, 1st to 7th.{{efn\\|The British cavalry included five regiments of the \\[\\[King's German Legion]].{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.napoleonic\\-literature.com/Waterloo\\_OB/Allied.htm \\|title\\=The Anglo\\-Allied Army at napoleonic\\-literature.com \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-03\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717034259/http://www.napoleonic\\-literature.com/Waterloo\\_OB/Allied.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=17 July 2012 }}{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.napolun.com/mirror/napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British\\_Order\\_of\\_Battle\\_WATERLOO.html \\| title\\=Wellington's Army in 1815 \\| access\\-date\\=25 August 2014}}}} The 4th Cavalry Brigade consisted of:\n* [11th Light Dragoons](/wiki/11th_Hussars \"11th Hussars\")\n* [12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons](/wiki/12th_%28Prince_of_Wales%27s%29_Light_Dragoons \"12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons\")\n* [16th (Queen's) Light Dragoons](/wiki/16th_%28Queen%27s%29_Light_Dragoons \"16th (Queen's) Light Dragoons\")\nIt was commanded by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") [Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur](/wiki/Sir_John_Ormsby_Vandeleur \"Sir John Ormsby Vandeleur\").{{harvnb\\|Smith\\|1998\\|p\\=540}}", "The brigade took part in the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\"). During the battle, the 11th Light Dragoons suffered 63 casualties (12 killed, 28 wounded, 23 missing), the 12th Light Dragoons 111 (47 killed, 64 wounded) and the 16th Light Dragoons just 30 (10 killed, 20 wounded).{{harvnb\\|Smith\\|1998\\|p\\=544}} This represented a loss rate of about 15%.{{efn\\|11th Light Dragoons had a strength of 442, 12th Light Dragoons 433, and 16th Light Dragoons 440\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.napolun.com/mirror/napoleonistyka.atspace.com/British\\_Order\\_of\\_Battle\\_WATERLOO.html \\| title\\=Battle of Waterloo \\| publisher\\=Napolun.com \\| access\\-date\\=11 September 2013}}\n}}", "### Second Boer War", "Following the outbreak of the [Second Boer War](/wiki/Second_Boer_War \"Second Boer War\") in late 1899, a 4th Cavalry Brigade was established under the command of Major\\-General [John Dickson](/wiki/John_Baillie_Ballantyne_Dickson \"John Baillie Ballantyne Dickson\").{{London Gazette\\|issue\\=27168\\|page\\=1260\\|date\\=23 February 1900}} The brigade was composed of squadrons from the [7th Dragoon Guards](/wiki/7th_Dragoon_Guards \"7th Dragoon Guards\"), [8th Hussars](/wiki/8th_Hussars \"8th Hussars\") and [17th Lancers](/wiki/17th_Lancers \"17th Lancers\"), with drafts from the [19th Hussars](/wiki/19th_Hussars \"19th Hussars\") and [1st Dragoons](/wiki/1st_Dragoons \"1st Dragoons\"), and was mobilized for service on 1 January 1900, leaving for [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa \"South Africa\") the following month.{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=The War – The fourth Cavalry Brigade \\|date\\=1 February 1900 \\|page\\=10 \\|issue\\=36054 }} The Mounted Infantry for the brigade was 300 men strong, and was drawn from the 2nd Battalion [Leicestershire Regiment](/wiki/Leicestershire_Regiment \"Leicestershire Regiment\"), the 1st Battalion [Royal Berkshire Regiment](/wiki/Royal_Berkshire_Regiment \"Royal Berkshire Regiment\"), the 1st Battalion [Yorkshire Light Infantry](/wiki/Yorkshire_Light_Infantry \"Yorkshire Light Infantry\"), the 2nd Battalion [Manchester Regiment](/wiki/Manchester_Regiment \"Manchester Regiment\"), the 4th Battalion of the [King's Royal Rifle Corps](/wiki/King%27s_Royal_Rifle_Corps \"King's Royal Rifle Corps\"), and the 4th Battalion of the [Rifle Brigade](/wiki/Rifle_Brigade_%28Prince_Consort%27s_Own%29 \"Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own)\"), with a machine\\-gun section from the 2nd Battalion [Liverpool Regiment](/wiki/Liverpool_Regiment \"Liverpool Regiment\").{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=The War – The fourth Cavalry Brigade \\|date\\=7 February 1900 \\|page\\=8 \\|issue\\=36059 }} The No. 20 Field Hospital [Royal Army Medical Corps](/wiki/Royal_Army_Medical_Corps \"Royal Army Medical Corps\") was attached to the brigade.{{Cite newspaper The Times \\|title\\=The War – Embarcation of Troops\\|date\\=19 February 1900 \\|page\\=12 \\|issue\\=36069 }}", "### First World War", "#### Mobilization", "4th Cavalry Brigade was a peacetime formation of the British Army, based in [Eastern Command](/wiki/Eastern_Command_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Eastern Command (United Kingdom)\"). At the outbreak of the war, it was [headquartered](/wiki/Headquarters_%28military%29 \"Headquarters (military)\") at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury \"Canterbury\") and commanded the [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 \"6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)\") (at Canterbury), [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars \"3rd (King's Own) Hussars\") (at [Shorncliffe](/wiki/Shorncliffe_Army_Camp \"Shorncliffe Army Camp\")) and 4th Signal Troop, [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") (at Canterbury). A number of units were attached to the brigade: the [19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars](/wiki/19th_%28Queen_Alexandra%27s_Own_Royal%29_Hussars \"19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars\") at [Hounslow](/wiki/Hounslow \"Hounslow\"), the [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich \"Woolwich\")\\-based [X Brigade, RHA](/wiki/X_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\") ([P](/wiki/P_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"P Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") and [R Batteries](/wiki/R_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"R Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\")), [II Brigade, RHA](/wiki/II_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"II Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\") (consisting of just [C Battery](/wiki/C_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") and based at Canterbury) and [King Edward's Horse](/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Horse \"King Edward's Horse\") of the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 \"Special Reserve (militia)\") (based at [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\")).{{cite web \\| url \\= http://marksrussianmilitaryhistory.info/BRIT14\\.html \\| title \\= The British Army, 1914 \\| last1 \\= Conrad \\| first1 \\= Mark \\| year \\= 1996 \\| access\\-date \\= 8 August 2013}}", "On mobilization, the brigade was brought up to its full – three regiment – strength with the addition of the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\");{{efn\\|The \\[\\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was formed on mobilization by taking one \\[\\[Squadron (army)\\|squadron]] from each of the \\[\\[Household Cavalry]] regiments (\\[\\[1st Life Guards]] at \\[\\[Hyde Park Barracks, London\\|Hyde Park]], \\[\\[2nd Life Guards]] at \\[\\[Regent's Park Barracks\\|Regent's Park]] and the \\[\\[Royal Horse Guards]] at \\[\\[Windsor, Berkshire\\|Windsor]]).{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=11}}}} 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance also joined{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=5}} and the attached units departed at this point.{{efn\\|\\[\\[19th Hussars]] was split up, with squadrons attached to the \\[\\[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|4th]], \\[\\[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|5th]] and \\[\\[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|6th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons;{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=12}} \\[\\[X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\\|X Brigade, RHA]] remained at Woolwich throughout the war in a training role as X (Reserve) Brigade, RHA;{{harvnb\\|Clarke\\|1993\\|p\\=59}} \\[\\[C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\\|C Battery, RHA]] joined \\[\\[XIV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\\|XIV Brigade]] in \\[\\[7th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|7th Division]] at \\[\\[Lyndhurst, Hampshire\\|Lyndhurst]] on formation;{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=84}} and \\[\\[King Edward's Horse]] was later split up, with squadrons attached to the \\[\\[12th (Eastern) Division\\|12th]], \\[\\[47th (1/2nd London) Division\\|47th]] and \\[\\[48th (South Midland) Division\\|48th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons.{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=15}}}} The brigade joined [The Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") along with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\"), [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and [3rd Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and moved to France in August 1914\\.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=6}}", "#### Early actions", "With The Cavalry Division, the brigade took part in a number of actions during the early war of movement: the [Battle of Mons](/wiki/Battle_of_Mons \"Battle of Mons\") (23–24 August), the [Battle of Le Cateau](/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Cateau \"Battle of Le Cateau\") (26 August), the [action at Néry](/wiki/Action_at_N%C3%A9ry \"Action at Néry\") (1 September), the [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne \"First Battle of the Marne\") (6–9 September) and the [Battle of the Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne \"First Battle of the Aisne\") (12–15 September).", "The brigade was transferred to the [2nd Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") on 14 October 1914 to bring it up to the standard three brigade strength. It remained with the division on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") until the end of the war.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=10}}", "#### 2nd Cavalry Division", "In 1914, the brigade, with the division, took part in [First Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres \"First Battle of Ypres\"), notably the battle of Gheluvelt (29–31 October).{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=14}} On 11 November, the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment was broken up and its constituent [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28army%29 \"Squadron (army)\") rejoined their parent regiments. The [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars \"1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars\"), a [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry \"Yeomanry\") regiment, joined in its place.{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=26}}", "In 1915, the division was in action at the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle \"Battle of Neuve Chapelle\") (10–12 March 1915\\) and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres \"Second Battle of Ypres\") notably the Battle of St Julien (26 April–3 May) and the Battle of Bellewaarde Ridge (24–25 May).", "On 28 February 1916, a [Machine Gun Squadron](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps \"Machine Gun Corps\") was formed from the machine gun sections of the brigade's constituent regiments.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.1914\\-1918\\.net/mgccav.html \\| title\\=Cavalry units of the Machine Gun Corps \\| publisher\\=The Long Long Trail \\| last\\=Baker \\| first\\=Chris \\| access\\-date\\=7 August 2013}}", "1916 saw no notable actions, but in 1917 the division saw action in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\") (First Battle of the Scarpe, 9–11 April). and the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 \"Battle of Cambrai (1917)\") (the Tank Attack of 20–21 November, the Capture of Bourlon Wood of 24–28 November and the German Counter\\-Attack of 30 November–3 December). At other times, the brigade formed a dismounted unit and served in the trenches as a regiment under the command of the brigadier.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=11}}", "#### War of movement", "1918 saw the return of the war of movement and the division took part in the [First Battle of the Somme](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 \"First Battle of the Somme (1918)\") notably the [Battle of St Quentin](/wiki/Operation_Michael%23The_Battle_of_St._Quentin_%2821_%E2%80%93_23_March_1918%29 \"Operation Michael#The Battle of St. Quentin (21 – 23 March 1918)\") (21–23 March), the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)\") (Battle of Hazebrouck of 14–15 April), the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 \"Battle of Amiens (1918)\") (8–11 August) and the [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 \"Second Battle of the Somme (1918)\") ([Battle of Albert](/wiki/Battle_of_Albert_%281918%29 \"Battle of Albert (1918)\") of 21–23 August and the [Second Battle of Bapaume](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bapaume \"Second Battle of Bapaume\") of 31 August–3 September).{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=15}}", "The division was then split up with the 4th Cavalry Brigade serving with [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Third Army (United Kingdom)\"). The brigade took part in the battles of the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line \"Hindenburg Line\"), notably the [Battle of the Canal du Nord](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Canal_du_Nord \"Battle of the Canal du Nord\") (27 September–1 October) and the [Pursuit to the Selle](/wiki/Pursuit_to_the_Selle \"Pursuit to the Selle\") (9–12 October). Its final action was to take part in the [Advance in Picardy](/wiki/Advance_in_Picardy \"Advance in Picardy\") (17 October–11 November) including the [Battle of the Sambre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sambre_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Sambre (1918)\") (4 November), still with Third Army.", "#### Armistice", "At the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany \"Armistice with Germany\"), the brigade had reached [Erquelinnes](/wiki/Erquelinnes \"Erquelinnes\") with Third Army. On 15 November, the division was re\\-assembled near [Maubeuge](/wiki/Maubeuge \"Maubeuge\") and ordered to advance into Germany as an advance screen for Fourth Army and form part of the Occupation Force. The move began on 17 November, [Ciney](/wiki/Ciney \"Ciney\") and [Rochefort](/wiki/Rochefort%2C_Belgium \"Rochefort, Belgium\") were reached five days later.", "In late December, the division moved to winter quarters south and south\\-east of [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge \"Liège\"). It remained here until 30 January 1919 when it exchanged regiments with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") and [3rd Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") then gradually moved back to England. The Division ceased to exist at midnight 31 March / 1 April 1919\\.", "#### Order of battle", "[thumb\\|Squadron from the [1st Life Guards](/wiki/1st_Life_Guards \"1st Life Guards\") August 1914, attached to the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\"), preparing to leave for France.](/wiki/File:British_cavalry_1914.jpg \"British cavalry 1914.jpg\")", "| Unit | From | To |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\") | Mobilization | 11 November 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] broken up and the squadrons rejoined their parent regiments.}} |\n| [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 \"6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)\") | Mobilization | |\n| [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars \"3rd (King's Own) Hussars\") | Mobilization | |\n| [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars \"1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars\") | 11 November 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars]] joined from \\[\\[2nd South Midland Mounted Brigade]] to replace the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment.}} | |\n| [J Battery, RHA](/wiki/J_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") | 16 September 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\\|J Battery, RHA]] joined from \\[\\[5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\\|5th Cavalry Brigade]] and was permanently attached to 4th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=12}}}} | |\n| [4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers](/wiki/4th_Signal_Troop%2C_Royal_Engineers \"4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers\") | Mobilization | |\n| 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance | Mobilization | 16 October 1914{{efn\\|4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance transferred to 2nd Cavalry Division when the brigade joined the division.}} |\n| 4th Cavalry Brigade Machine Gun Squadron, [MGC](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps \"Machine Gun Corps\") | 28 February 1916{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.1914\\-1918\\.net/2cavdiv.htm \\| title\\=The 2nd Cavalry Division in 1914–1918 \\| publisher\\=The Long Long Trail \\| last\\=Baker \\| first\\=Chris \\| access\\-date\\=8 August 2013}} | |", "", "### Second World War", "The 4th Cavalry Brigade was reformed in October 1939 and took command of a composite regiment of [Household Cavalry](/wiki/Household_Cavalry \"Household Cavalry\") and two [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry \"Yeomanry\") regiments ([North Somerset Yeomanry](/wiki/North_Somerset_Yeomanry \"North Somerset Yeomanry\") and [Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Wiltshire_Yeomanry \"Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry\")).{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.ordersofbattle.com/Units/UnitData?UniX\\=1373 \\| title\\=4 Cavalry Brigade \\| publisher\\=ordersofbattle.com \\| access\\-date\\=6 September 2013}} It joined the [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") when it was formed on 31 October 1939\\.{{harvnb\\|Joslen\\|2003\\|p\\=33}}", "With the 1st Cavalry Division, the 4th Cavalry Brigade departed the United Kingdom in February 1940, transited across France, and arrived in Palestine on 20 February 1940\\. It served as a garrison force under British Forces, Palestine and Trans\\-Jordan.", "From 6 May 1941 the brigade, together with a battalion of infantry from the [Essex Regiment](/wiki/Essex_Regiment \"Essex Regiment\"), a mechanised regiment from the [Arab Legion](/wiki/Arab_Legion \"Arab Legion\") and supporting artillery was organised as *[Habforce](/wiki/Habforce \"Habforce\")* for operations in [Iraq](/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War \"Anglo-Iraqi War\") including the relief of the base at [RAF Habbaniya](/wiki/RAF_Habbaniya \"RAF Habbaniya\") and the occupation of [Baghdad](/wiki/Baghdad \"Baghdad\"). Following this, in July 1941 it was placed under the command of [I Australian Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28Australia%29 \"I Corps (Australia)\") and was involved in operations against the [Vichy French](/wiki/Vichy_France \"Vichy France\") in [Syria](/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign \"Syria–Lebanon campaign\"), advancing from eastern Iraq near the [Trans\\-Jordan](/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan \"Emirate of Transjordan\") border on [Palmyra](/wiki/Palmyra \"Palmyra\") to secure the [Haditha](/wiki/Haditha \"Haditha\") – [Tripoli](/wiki/Tripoli%2C_Lebanon \"Tripoli, Lebanon\") oil pipeline.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://homepages.force9\\.net/rothwell/trans\\-jo.htm \\| title\\=Orders of Battle: Arab Legion \\| access\\-date\\=25 November 2008 \\| last\\=Rothwell \\| first\\=Steve}}", "On 1 August 1941, the Division was converted into the [10th Armoured Division](/wiki/10th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"10th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)\") and the 4th Cavalry Brigade into the [9th Armoured Brigade](/wiki/9th_Armoured_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"9th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)\"). 9th Armoured Brigade would later take part in the [Second Battle of El Alamein](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein \"Second Battle of El Alamein\") and the [Italian Campaign](/wiki/Italian_campaign_%28World_War_II%29 \"Italian campaign (World War II)\").{{harvnb\\|Joslen\\|2003\\|p\\=163}}", "#### Order of battle", "Unlike in the First World War, when brigade compositions rarely changed, there was considerable movement of units between the 4th, [5th](/wiki/5th_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and [6th Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/6th_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"6th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") in the Second World War.", "", "| Unit | From | To |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\") | 13 November 1939 | 12 January 1941 |\n| [1st Household Cavalry Regiment](/wiki/1st_Household_Cavalry_Regiment \"1st Household Cavalry Regiment\"){{efn\\|\\[\\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was redesignated \\[\\[1st Household Cavalry Regiment]].{{harvnb\\|Bellis\\|1994\\|p\\=10}}}} | 13 January 1941 | 31 July 1941 |\n| [North Somerset Yeomanry](/wiki/North_Somerset_Yeomanry \"North Somerset Yeomanry\") | 15 November 1939 | 21 March 1941{{efn\\|North Somerset Yeomanry transferred to 5th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\\|Joslen\\|2003\\|p\\=190}}}} |\n| [Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Royal_Wiltshire_Yeomanry \"Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry\") 3 December 1939 | 2 October 1940{{efn\\|name\\=Wilts\\|Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry transferred to, and returned from, 6th Cavalry Brigade.}} |\n| 8 January 1941{{efn\\|name\\=Wilts}} | 31 July 1941 |\n| [Warwickshire Yeomanry](/wiki/Warwickshire_Yeomanry \"Warwickshire Yeomanry\") | 22 March 1941{{efn\\|Warwickshire Yeomanry transferred from 6th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\\|Joslen\\|2003\\|p\\=191}}}} | 31 July 1941 |", "Of the three regiments with the brigade when it was converted to an armoured formation:\n* the 1st Household Cavalry Regiment converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade before becoming the Reconnaissance Regiment for 10th Armoured Division.{{harvnb\\|Bellis\\|1994\\|p\\=10}}\n* the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade.{{harvnb\\|Bellis\\|1994\\|p\\=20}} It fought in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the Italian Campaign.{{harvnb\\|Mileham\\|1994\\|p\\=117}}\n* the Warwickshire Yeomanry converted into an Armoured Regiment in 9th Armoured Brigade. It also fought at El Alamein and throughout the Italian Campaign.{{harvnb\\|Mileham\\|1994\\|p\\=115}}", "" ]
### First World War #### Mobilization 4th Cavalry Brigade was a peacetime formation of the British Army, based in [Eastern Command](/wiki/Eastern_Command_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Eastern Command (United Kingdom)"). At the outbreak of the war, it was [headquartered](/wiki/Headquarters_%28military%29 "Headquarters (military)") at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury "Canterbury") and commanded the [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 "6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)") (at Canterbury), [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars "3rd (King's Own) Hussars") (at [Shorncliffe](/wiki/Shorncliffe_Army_Camp "Shorncliffe Army Camp")) and 4th Signal Troop, [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") (at Canterbury). A number of units were attached to the brigade: the [19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars](/wiki/19th_%28Queen_Alexandra%27s_Own_Royal%29_Hussars "19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars") at [Hounslow](/wiki/Hounslow "Hounslow"), the [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich "Woolwich")\-based [X Brigade, RHA](/wiki/X_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery") ([P](/wiki/P_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "P Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") and [R Batteries](/wiki/R_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "R Battery, Royal Horse Artillery")), [II Brigade, RHA](/wiki/II_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "II Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery") (consisting of just [C Battery](/wiki/C_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") and based at Canterbury) and [King Edward's Horse](/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Horse "King Edward's Horse") of the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 "Special Reserve (militia)") (based at [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London "Chelsea, London")).{{cite web \| url \= http://marksrussianmilitaryhistory.info/BRIT14\.html \| title \= The British Army, 1914 \| last1 \= Conrad \| first1 \= Mark \| year \= 1996 \| access\-date \= 8 August 2013}} On mobilization, the brigade was brought up to its full – three regiment – strength with the addition of the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment");{{efn\|The \[\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was formed on mobilization by taking one \[\[Squadron (army)\|squadron]] from each of the \[\[Household Cavalry]] regiments (\[\[1st Life Guards]] at \[\[Hyde Park Barracks, London\|Hyde Park]], \[\[2nd Life Guards]] at \[\[Regent's Park Barracks\|Regent's Park]] and the \[\[Royal Horse Guards]] at \[\[Windsor, Berkshire\|Windsor]]).{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=11}}}} 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance also joined{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=5}} and the attached units departed at this point.{{efn\|\[\[19th Hussars]] was split up, with squadrons attached to the \[\[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|4th]], \[\[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|5th]] and \[\[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|6th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons;{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=12}} \[\[X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\|X Brigade, RHA]] remained at Woolwich throughout the war in a training role as X (Reserve) Brigade, RHA;{{harvnb\|Clarke\|1993\|p\=59}} \[\[C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\|C Battery, RHA]] joined \[\[XIV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\|XIV Brigade]] in \[\[7th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\|7th Division]] at \[\[Lyndhurst, Hampshire\|Lyndhurst]] on formation;{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=84}} and \[\[King Edward's Horse]] was later split up, with squadrons attached to the \[\[12th (Eastern) Division\|12th]], \[\[47th (1/2nd London) Division\|47th]] and \[\[48th (South Midland) Division\|48th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons.{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=15}}}} The brigade joined [The Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") along with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)"), [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and [3rd Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)") and moved to France in August 1914\.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=6}} #### Early actions With The Cavalry Division, the brigade took part in a number of actions during the early war of movement: the [Battle of Mons](/wiki/Battle_of_Mons "Battle of Mons") (23–24 August), the [Battle of Le Cateau](/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Cateau "Battle of Le Cateau") (26 August), the [action at Néry](/wiki/Action_at_N%C3%A9ry "Action at Néry") (1 September), the [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne "First Battle of the Marne") (6–9 September) and the [Battle of the Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne "First Battle of the Aisne") (12–15 September). The brigade was transferred to the [2nd Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") on 14 October 1914 to bring it up to the standard three brigade strength. It remained with the division on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 "Western Front (World War I)") until the end of the war.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=10}} #### 2nd Cavalry Division In 1914, the brigade, with the division, took part in [First Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres "First Battle of Ypres"), notably the battle of Gheluvelt (29–31 October).{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=14}} On 11 November, the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment was broken up and its constituent [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28army%29 "Squadron (army)") rejoined their parent regiments. The [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars "1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars"), a [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry "Yeomanry") regiment, joined in its place.{{harvnb\|James\|1978\|p\=26}} In 1915, the division was in action at the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle "Battle of Neuve Chapelle") (10–12 March 1915\) and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres "Second Battle of Ypres") notably the Battle of St Julien (26 April–3 May) and the Battle of Bellewaarde Ridge (24–25 May). On 28 February 1916, a [Machine Gun Squadron](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps "Machine Gun Corps") was formed from the machine gun sections of the brigade's constituent regiments.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.1914\-1918\.net/mgccav.html \| title\=Cavalry units of the Machine Gun Corps \| publisher\=The Long Long Trail \| last\=Baker \| first\=Chris \| access\-date\=7 August 2013}} 1916 saw no notable actions, but in 1917 the division saw action in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 "Battle of Arras (1917)") (First Battle of the Scarpe, 9–11 April). and the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 "Battle of Cambrai (1917)") (the Tank Attack of 20–21 November, the Capture of Bourlon Wood of 24–28 November and the German Counter\-Attack of 30 November–3 December). At other times, the brigade formed a dismounted unit and served in the trenches as a regiment under the command of the brigadier.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=11}} #### War of movement 1918 saw the return of the war of movement and the division took part in the [First Battle of the Somme](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 "First Battle of the Somme (1918)") notably the [Battle of St Quentin](/wiki/Operation_Michael%23The_Battle_of_St._Quentin_%2821_%E2%80%93_23_March_1918%29 "Operation Michael#The Battle of St. Quentin (21 – 23 March 1918)") (21–23 March), the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 "Battle of the Lys (1918)") (Battle of Hazebrouck of 14–15 April), the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 "Battle of Amiens (1918)") (8–11 August) and the [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 "Second Battle of the Somme (1918)") ([Battle of Albert](/wiki/Battle_of_Albert_%281918%29 "Battle of Albert (1918)") of 21–23 August and the [Second Battle of Bapaume](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bapaume "Second Battle of Bapaume") of 31 August–3 September).{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=15}} The division was then split up with the 4th Cavalry Brigade serving with [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Third Army (United Kingdom)"). The brigade took part in the battles of the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line "Hindenburg Line"), notably the [Battle of the Canal du Nord](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Canal_du_Nord "Battle of the Canal du Nord") (27 September–1 October) and the [Pursuit to the Selle](/wiki/Pursuit_to_the_Selle "Pursuit to the Selle") (9–12 October). Its final action was to take part in the [Advance in Picardy](/wiki/Advance_in_Picardy "Advance in Picardy") (17 October–11 November) including the [Battle of the Sambre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sambre_%281918%29 "Battle of the Sambre (1918)") (4 November), still with Third Army. #### Armistice At the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany "Armistice with Germany"), the brigade had reached [Erquelinnes](/wiki/Erquelinnes "Erquelinnes") with Third Army. On 15 November, the division was re\-assembled near [Maubeuge](/wiki/Maubeuge "Maubeuge") and ordered to advance into Germany as an advance screen for Fourth Army and form part of the Occupation Force. The move began on 17 November, [Ciney](/wiki/Ciney "Ciney") and [Rochefort](/wiki/Rochefort%2C_Belgium "Rochefort, Belgium") were reached five days later. In late December, the division moved to winter quarters south and south\-east of [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge "Liège"). It remained here until 30 January 1919 when it exchanged regiments with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") and [3rd Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)") then gradually moved back to England. The Division ceased to exist at midnight 31 March / 1 April 1919\. #### Order of battle [thumb\|Squadron from the [1st Life Guards](/wiki/1st_Life_Guards "1st Life Guards") August 1914, attached to the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment"), preparing to leave for France.](/wiki/File:British_cavalry_1914.jpg "British cavalry 1914.jpg") | Unit | From | To | | --- | --- | --- | | [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment "Household Cavalry Composite Regiment") | Mobilization | 11 November 1914{{efn\|\[\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] broken up and the squadrons rejoined their parent regiments.}} | | [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 "6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)") | Mobilization | | | [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars "3rd (King's Own) Hussars") | Mobilization | | | [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars "1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars") | 11 November 1914{{efn\|\[\[1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars]] joined from \[\[2nd South Midland Mounted Brigade]] to replace the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment.}} | | | [J Battery, RHA](/wiki/J_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery "J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery") | 16 September 1914{{efn\|\[\[J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\|J Battery, RHA]] joined from \[\[5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\|5th Cavalry Brigade]] and was permanently attached to 4th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\|Becke\|1935\|p\=12}}}} | | | [4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers](/wiki/4th_Signal_Troop%2C_Royal_Engineers "4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers") | Mobilization | | | 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance | Mobilization | 16 October 1914{{efn\|4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance transferred to 2nd Cavalry Division when the brigade joined the division.}} | | 4th Cavalry Brigade Machine Gun Squadron, [MGC](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps "Machine Gun Corps") | 28 February 1916{{cite web \| url\=http://www.1914\-1918\.net/2cavdiv.htm \| title\=The 2nd Cavalry Division in 1914–1918 \| publisher\=The Long Long Trail \| last\=Baker \| first\=Chris \| access\-date\=8 August 2013}} | |
[ "### First World War", "#### Mobilization", "4th Cavalry Brigade was a peacetime formation of the British Army, based in [Eastern Command](/wiki/Eastern_Command_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Eastern Command (United Kingdom)\"). At the outbreak of the war, it was [headquartered](/wiki/Headquarters_%28military%29 \"Headquarters (military)\") at [Canterbury](/wiki/Canterbury \"Canterbury\") and commanded the [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 \"6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)\") (at Canterbury), [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars \"3rd (King's Own) Hussars\") (at [Shorncliffe](/wiki/Shorncliffe_Army_Camp \"Shorncliffe Army Camp\")) and 4th Signal Troop, [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") (at Canterbury). A number of units were attached to the brigade: the [19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars](/wiki/19th_%28Queen_Alexandra%27s_Own_Royal%29_Hussars \"19th (Queen Alexandra's Own Royal) Hussars\") at [Hounslow](/wiki/Hounslow \"Hounslow\"), the [Woolwich](/wiki/Woolwich \"Woolwich\")\\-based [X Brigade, RHA](/wiki/X_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\") ([P](/wiki/P_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"P Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") and [R Batteries](/wiki/R_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"R Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\")), [II Brigade, RHA](/wiki/II_Brigade%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"II Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\") (consisting of just [C Battery](/wiki/C_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") and based at Canterbury) and [King Edward's Horse](/wiki/King_Edward%27s_Horse \"King Edward's Horse\") of the [Special Reserve](/wiki/Special_Reserve_%28militia%29 \"Special Reserve (militia)\") (based at [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea%2C_London \"Chelsea, London\")).{{cite web \\| url \\= http://marksrussianmilitaryhistory.info/BRIT14\\.html \\| title \\= The British Army, 1914 \\| last1 \\= Conrad \\| first1 \\= Mark \\| year \\= 1996 \\| access\\-date \\= 8 August 2013}}", "On mobilization, the brigade was brought up to its full – three regiment – strength with the addition of the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\");{{efn\\|The \\[\\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] was formed on mobilization by taking one \\[\\[Squadron (army)\\|squadron]] from each of the \\[\\[Household Cavalry]] regiments (\\[\\[1st Life Guards]] at \\[\\[Hyde Park Barracks, London\\|Hyde Park]], \\[\\[2nd Life Guards]] at \\[\\[Regent's Park Barracks\\|Regent's Park]] and the \\[\\[Royal Horse Guards]] at \\[\\[Windsor, Berkshire\\|Windsor]]).{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=11}}}} 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance also joined{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=5}} and the attached units departed at this point.{{efn\\|\\[\\[19th Hussars]] was split up, with squadrons attached to the \\[\\[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|4th]], \\[\\[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|5th]] and \\[\\[6th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|6th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons;{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=12}} \\[\\[X Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\\|X Brigade, RHA]] remained at Woolwich throughout the war in a training role as X (Reserve) Brigade, RHA;{{harvnb\\|Clarke\\|1993\\|p\\=59}} \\[\\[C Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\\|C Battery, RHA]] joined \\[\\[XIV Brigade, Royal Horse Artillery\\|XIV Brigade]] in \\[\\[7th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\\|7th Division]] at \\[\\[Lyndhurst, Hampshire\\|Lyndhurst]] on formation;{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=84}} and \\[\\[King Edward's Horse]] was later split up, with squadrons attached to the \\[\\[12th (Eastern) Division\\|12th]], \\[\\[47th (1/2nd London) Division\\|47th]] and \\[\\[48th (South Midland) Division\\|48th Infantry Divisions]] as divisional cavalry squadrons.{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=15}}}} The brigade joined [The Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") along with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\"), [2nd](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and [3rd Cavalry Brigades](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Brigade_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\") and moved to France in August 1914\\.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=6}}", "#### Early actions", "With The Cavalry Division, the brigade took part in a number of actions during the early war of movement: the [Battle of Mons](/wiki/Battle_of_Mons \"Battle of Mons\") (23–24 August), the [Battle of Le Cateau](/wiki/Battle_of_Le_Cateau \"Battle of Le Cateau\") (26 August), the [action at Néry](/wiki/Action_at_N%C3%A9ry \"Action at Néry\") (1 September), the [Battle of the Marne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne \"First Battle of the Marne\") (6–9 September) and the [Battle of the Aisne](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Aisne \"First Battle of the Aisne\") (12–15 September).", "The brigade was transferred to the [2nd Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"2nd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") on 14 October 1914 to bring it up to the standard three brigade strength. It remained with the division on the [Western Front](/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Western Front (World War I)\") until the end of the war.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=10}}", "#### 2nd Cavalry Division", "In 1914, the brigade, with the division, took part in [First Battle of Ypres](/wiki/First_Battle_of_Ypres \"First Battle of Ypres\"), notably the battle of Gheluvelt (29–31 October).{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=14}} On 11 November, the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment was broken up and its constituent [squadrons](/wiki/Squadron_%28army%29 \"Squadron (army)\") rejoined their parent regiments. The [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars \"1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars\"), a [Yeomanry](/wiki/Yeomanry \"Yeomanry\") regiment, joined in its place.{{harvnb\\|James\\|1978\\|p\\=26}}", "In 1915, the division was in action at the [Battle of Neuve Chapelle](/wiki/Battle_of_Neuve_Chapelle \"Battle of Neuve Chapelle\") (10–12 March 1915\\) and the [Second Battle of Ypres](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Ypres \"Second Battle of Ypres\") notably the Battle of St Julien (26 April–3 May) and the Battle of Bellewaarde Ridge (24–25 May).", "On 28 February 1916, a [Machine Gun Squadron](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps \"Machine Gun Corps\") was formed from the machine gun sections of the brigade's constituent regiments.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.1914\\-1918\\.net/mgccav.html \\| title\\=Cavalry units of the Machine Gun Corps \\| publisher\\=The Long Long Trail \\| last\\=Baker \\| first\\=Chris \\| access\\-date\\=7 August 2013}}", "1916 saw no notable actions, but in 1917 the division saw action in the [Battle of Arras](/wiki/Battle_of_Arras_%281917%29 \"Battle of Arras (1917)\") (First Battle of the Scarpe, 9–11 April). and the [Battle of Cambrai](/wiki/Battle_of_Cambrai_%281917%29 \"Battle of Cambrai (1917)\") (the Tank Attack of 20–21 November, the Capture of Bourlon Wood of 24–28 November and the German Counter\\-Attack of 30 November–3 December). At other times, the brigade formed a dismounted unit and served in the trenches as a regiment under the command of the brigadier.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=11}}", "#### War of movement", "1918 saw the return of the war of movement and the division took part in the [First Battle of the Somme](/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 \"First Battle of the Somme (1918)\") notably the [Battle of St Quentin](/wiki/Operation_Michael%23The_Battle_of_St._Quentin_%2821_%E2%80%93_23_March_1918%29 \"Operation Michael#The Battle of St. Quentin (21 – 23 March 1918)\") (21–23 March), the [Battle of the Lys](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lys_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Lys (1918)\") (Battle of Hazebrouck of 14–15 April), the [Battle of Amiens](/wiki/Battle_of_Amiens_%281918%29 \"Battle of Amiens (1918)\") (8–11 August) and the [Second Battle of the Somme](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Somme_%281918%29 \"Second Battle of the Somme (1918)\") ([Battle of Albert](/wiki/Battle_of_Albert_%281918%29 \"Battle of Albert (1918)\") of 21–23 August and the [Second Battle of Bapaume](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bapaume \"Second Battle of Bapaume\") of 31 August–3 September).{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=15}}", "The division was then split up with the 4th Cavalry Brigade serving with [Third Army](/wiki/Third_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Third Army (United Kingdom)\"). The brigade took part in the battles of the [Hindenburg Line](/wiki/Hindenburg_Line \"Hindenburg Line\"), notably the [Battle of the Canal du Nord](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Canal_du_Nord \"Battle of the Canal du Nord\") (27 September–1 October) and the [Pursuit to the Selle](/wiki/Pursuit_to_the_Selle \"Pursuit to the Selle\") (9–12 October). Its final action was to take part in the [Advance in Picardy](/wiki/Advance_in_Picardy \"Advance in Picardy\") (17 October–11 November) including the [Battle of the Sambre](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sambre_%281918%29 \"Battle of the Sambre (1918)\") (4 November), still with Third Army.", "#### Armistice", "At the [Armistice](/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany \"Armistice with Germany\"), the brigade had reached [Erquelinnes](/wiki/Erquelinnes \"Erquelinnes\") with Third Army. On 15 November, the division was re\\-assembled near [Maubeuge](/wiki/Maubeuge \"Maubeuge\") and ordered to advance into Germany as an advance screen for Fourth Army and form part of the Occupation Force. The move began on 17 November, [Ciney](/wiki/Ciney \"Ciney\") and [Rochefort](/wiki/Rochefort%2C_Belgium \"Rochefort, Belgium\") were reached five days later.", "In late December, the division moved to winter quarters south and south\\-east of [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge \"Liège\"). It remained here until 30 January 1919 when it exchanged regiments with [1st](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") and [3rd Cavalry Divisions](/wiki/3rd_Cavalry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Cavalry Division (United Kingdom)\") then gradually moved back to England. The Division ceased to exist at midnight 31 March / 1 April 1919\\.", "#### Order of battle", "[thumb\\|Squadron from the [1st Life Guards](/wiki/1st_Life_Guards \"1st Life Guards\") August 1914, attached to the [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\"), preparing to leave for France.](/wiki/File:British_cavalry_1914.jpg \"British cavalry 1914.jpg\")", "| Unit | From | To |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Household Cavalry Composite Regiment](/wiki/Household_Cavalry_Composite_Regiment \"Household Cavalry Composite Regiment\") | Mobilization | 11 November 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[Household Cavalry Composite Regiment]] broken up and the squadrons rejoined their parent regiments.}} |\n| [6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)](/wiki/6th_Dragoon_Guards_%28Carabiniers%29 \"6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers)\") | Mobilization | |\n| [3rd (King's Own) Hussars](/wiki/3rd_%28King%27s_Own%29_Hussars \"3rd (King's Own) Hussars\") | Mobilization | |\n| [1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars](/wiki/1/1st_Queen%27s_Own_Oxfordshire_Hussars \"1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars\") | 11 November 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[1/1st Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars]] joined from \\[\\[2nd South Midland Mounted Brigade]] to replace the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment.}} | |\n| [J Battery, RHA](/wiki/J_Battery%2C_Royal_Horse_Artillery \"J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\") | 16 September 1914{{efn\\|\\[\\[J Battery, Royal Horse Artillery\\|J Battery, RHA]] joined from \\[\\[5th Cavalry Brigade (United Kingdom)\\|5th Cavalry Brigade]] and was permanently attached to 4th Cavalry Brigade.{{harvnb\\|Becke\\|1935\\|p\\=12}}}} | |\n| [4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers](/wiki/4th_Signal_Troop%2C_Royal_Engineers \"4th Signal Troop, Royal Engineers\") | Mobilization | |\n| 4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance | Mobilization | 16 October 1914{{efn\\|4th Cavalry Brigade Field Ambulance transferred to 2nd Cavalry Division when the brigade joined the division.}} |\n| 4th Cavalry Brigade Machine Gun Squadron, [MGC](/wiki/Machine_Gun_Corps \"Machine Gun Corps\") | 28 February 1916{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.1914\\-1918\\.net/2cavdiv.htm \\| title\\=The 2nd Cavalry Division in 1914–1918 \\| publisher\\=The Long Long Trail \\| last\\=Baker \\| first\\=Chris \\| access\\-date\\=8 August 2013}} | |", "", "" ]
Development ----------- Development started in 1941 under [M.A.N.](/wiki/MAN_SE "MAN SE"), which took inspiration from their [VK 30\.02](/wiki/VK_30_series "VK 30 series") design, creating an even more armored, albeit smaller, vehicle, with {{convert\|80\|mm\|abbr\=on}} sloped frontal [armor](/wiki/Vehicle_armor "Vehicle armor") (at the time the [Panther](/wiki/Panther_tank "Panther tank") prototype only had 60 mm frontal armor). As the Panther project gained importance, [Wa Prüf 6](/wiki/Waffenamt "Waffenamt") decided to remove the VK 16\.02 project from M.A.N. to help them meet deadlines for the Panther project, handing it to MIAG and [Daimler\-Benz](/wiki/Daimler-Benz "Daimler-Benz"), with the responsibility for the hull to MIAG, and the turret and armament to Daimler\-Benz. Two variants were initially being designed, a lighter one weighing 18 tons and a heavier one weighing 26 tons, but in June 1942 Hitler decided to continue development on only the heavier one, as he deemed protection from enemy [anti\-tank guns](/wiki/Anti-tank_gun "Anti-tank gun") a priority. In July 1942 MIAG presented a more refined design that was accepted into production, which was planned to start in April 1943, with plans of 20 vehicles per month starting from October 1943\. In a meeting on 13 October 1942 Hitler was informed the lighter variant design was preferred by the troops, as it would better fit the reconnaissance role, while the heavier design had too similar characteristics to the Panther, with the only difference being the smaller gun. Hitler agreed to develop only the lighter variant. The final design had a combat loaded weight of {{convert\|21\.9\|t\|abbr\=on}}. The armor was 50 mm sloped at 50 degrees on the front, 30 mm on the sides and rear, 16 mm deck and from 16 to 25 mm belly plates. The planned armament was the [5 cm Kw.K.39/1 L/60 cannon](/wiki/5_cm_KwK_39 "5 cm KwK 39"), the same that was used on late [Panzer IIIs](/wiki/Panzer_III "Panzer III"). The engine was the Maybach HL 157 rated at 550 horsepower. In order to increase cross\-country performance, the VK 1602 was fitted with 660 mm wide tracks, the same that were used on the Panther.{{cite book\|last1\=Jentz\|first1\=Thomas\|last2\=Doyle\|first2\=Hilary\|title\=Panzer Tracts 20\-2\|date\=2002\|publisher\=Panzer Tracts\|isbn\=0970840772\|page\=60}} Soon after the Leopard project would be completely discontinued. A turret similar to that of the Leopard, yet smaller with armor thinner and at lower angles, were later put on the [Sd.Kfz. 234](/wiki/Sd.Kfz._234 "Sd.Kfz. 234")/2 "Puma" armored car.
[ "Development\n-----------", "Development started in 1941 under [M.A.N.](/wiki/MAN_SE \"MAN SE\"), which took inspiration from their [VK 30\\.02](/wiki/VK_30_series \"VK 30 series\") design, creating an even more armored, albeit smaller, vehicle, with {{convert\\|80\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on}} sloped frontal [armor](/wiki/Vehicle_armor \"Vehicle armor\") (at the time the [Panther](/wiki/Panther_tank \"Panther tank\") prototype only had 60 mm frontal armor). As the Panther project gained importance, [Wa Prüf 6](/wiki/Waffenamt \"Waffenamt\") decided to remove the VK 16\\.02 project from M.A.N. to help them meet deadlines for the Panther project, handing it to MIAG and [Daimler\\-Benz](/wiki/Daimler-Benz \"Daimler-Benz\"), with the responsibility for the hull to MIAG, and the turret and armament to Daimler\\-Benz.", "Two variants were initially being designed, a lighter one weighing 18 tons and a heavier one weighing 26 tons, but in June 1942 Hitler decided to continue development on only the heavier one, as he deemed protection from enemy [anti\\-tank guns](/wiki/Anti-tank_gun \"Anti-tank gun\") a priority.", "In July 1942 MIAG presented a more refined design that was accepted into production, which was planned to start in April 1943, with plans of 20 vehicles per month starting from October 1943\\.", "In a meeting on 13 October 1942 Hitler was informed the lighter variant design was preferred by the troops, as it would better fit the reconnaissance role, while the heavier design had too similar characteristics to the Panther, with the only difference being the smaller gun. Hitler agreed to develop only the lighter variant.", "The final design had a combat loaded weight of {{convert\\|21\\.9\\|t\\|abbr\\=on}}. The armor was 50 mm sloped at 50 degrees on the front, 30 mm on the sides and rear, 16 mm deck and from 16 to 25 mm belly plates. The planned armament was the [5 cm Kw.K.39/1 L/60 cannon](/wiki/5_cm_KwK_39 \"5 cm KwK 39\"), the same that was used on late [Panzer IIIs](/wiki/Panzer_III \"Panzer III\"). The engine was the Maybach HL 157 rated at 550 horsepower. In order to increase cross\\-country performance, the VK 1602 was fitted with 660 mm wide tracks, the same that were used on the Panther.{{cite book\\|last1\\=Jentz\\|first1\\=Thomas\\|last2\\=Doyle\\|first2\\=Hilary\\|title\\=Panzer Tracts 20\\-2\\|date\\=2002\\|publisher\\=Panzer Tracts\\|isbn\\=0970840772\\|page\\=60}} Soon after the Leopard project would be completely discontinued.", "A turret similar to that of the Leopard, yet smaller with armor thinner and at lower angles, were later put on the [Sd.Kfz. 234](/wiki/Sd.Kfz._234 \"Sd.Kfz. 234\")/2 \"Puma\" armored car.", "" ]
History ------- {{For timeline}} {{More citations needed section\|date\=May 2013}} Archaeological evidence shows human presence around the confluence of the Scheldt and the Leie going back as far as the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age "Stone Age") and the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age").{{cite web \|title\=History of Gent \|url\=http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01\.htm \|access\-date\=5 May 2006 \|publisher\=gent.be \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050818043547/http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01\.htm \|archive\-date\=18 August 2005 }} Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda', is derived from the [Celtic](/wiki/Celts "Celts") word *ganda*, which means ‘[confluence](/wiki/Confluence "Confluence")’, or ‘river mouth’, referring to the [Leie](/wiki/Lys_%28river%29 "Lys (river)") river debouching into the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt "Scheldt"). Other sources connect its name with an obscure deity named [Gontia](/wiki/Gontia_%28deity%29 "Gontia (deity)").Adrian Room, [*Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EdmNngEACAAJ), McFarland, 2006, p. 144\. There are no written records of the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome") period, but archaeological research confirms that the Ghent area continued to be inhabited. When the [Franks](/wiki/Franks "Franks") invaded the Roman territories from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century, they brought their language with them, and Celtic and Latin were replaced by [Old Dutch](/wiki/Old_Dutch "Old Dutch"). ### Middle Ages [left\|thumb\|Buildings along the river [Leie](/wiki/Leie "Leie") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Ghent_hist_centrum_2.jpg "Ghent hist centrum 2.jpg") Around 650, [Saint Amand](/wiki/Saint_Amand "Saint Amand") founded two [abbeys](/wiki/Abbey "Abbey") in Ghent: [St. Peter's](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Abbey%2C_Ghent "St. Peter's Abbey, Ghent") ([Blandinium](/wiki/Blandijnberg "Blandijnberg")) and [St. Bavo's Abbey](/wiki/Saint_Bavo%27s_Abbey "Saint Bavo's Abbey"). Around 800, [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious "Louis the Pious"), son of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"), appointed [Einhard](/wiki/Einhard "Einhard"), the biographer of Charlemagne, abbot of both abbeys. The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys, and a commercial centre. However, in 851 and 879 the city was plundered by [Vikings](/wiki/Viking "Viking"). Under the protection of the [County of Flanders](/wiki/County_of_Flanders "County of Flanders") the city recovered and flourished from the 11th century, growing to become a small [city\-state](/wiki/City-state "City-state"). By the 13th century, Ghent was the biggest city in Europe north of the Alps after [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"); it was bigger than [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne "Cologne") or [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow").{{cite book\|last\=Nicholas\|first\=David\|title\=The Domestic Life of a Medieval City: Women, Children and the Family in Fourteenth Century Ghent\|pages\=1}} Up to 65,000 people lived within the city walls. The [belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent "Belfry of Ghent") and the towers of the [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent "St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent") and [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent "Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent") are just a few examples of the skyline of the period. The rivers flowed in an area where much land was periodically flooded. These rich grass 'meersen' ("[water\-meadows](/wiki/Water-meadows "Water-meadows")": a word related to the English '[marsh](/wiki/Marsh "Marsh")') were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used to make cloth. Ghent was the leading city for [cloth](/wiki/Cloth "Cloth") during the Middle Ages. The [wool industry](/wiki/Wool%23History "Wool#History"), originally established at [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges"), created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages "High Middle Ages"). The mercantile zone was so highly developed that wool had to be imported from Scotland and England, which led to Flanders' good relationship with them. However, during the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War "Hundred Years' War"), trade with England suffered significantly. Ghent was the birthplace of [John of Gaunt](/wiki/John_of_Gaunt%2C_1st_Duke_of_Lancaster "John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster"), Duke of [Lancaster](/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster "Duchy of Lancaster"). ### Early modern period The city recovered in the 15th century when Flanders was united with neighbouring provinces under the [Dukes of Burgundy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy "Duchy of Burgundy"). High taxes [led to a rebellion](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281449%E2%80%931453%29 "Revolt of Ghent (1449–1453)") and eventually to the [Battle of Gavere](/wiki/Battle_of_Gavere "Battle of Gavere") in 1453, in which Ghent suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of [Philip the Good](/wiki/Philip_the_Good "Philip the Good"). Around this time the centre of political and social importance in the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries "Low Countries") started to shift from Flanders (Bruges–Ghent) to [Brabant](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant "Duchy of Brabant") ([Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp")–[Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels")), although Ghent continued to play an important role. With Bruges, the city led two [revolts against Maximilian of Austria](/wiki/Flemish_revolts_against_Maximilian_of_Austria "Flemish revolts against Maximilian of Austria"), the first monarch of the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") to rule Flanders. [thumb\|left\|250px\|*View on the city of Ghent in 1540* by [Lucas de Heere](/wiki/Lucas_de_Heere "Lucas de Heere")](/wiki/File:Zicht_op_Gent_1540.jpg "Zicht op Gent 1540.jpg") [thumb\|15th\-century Ghent miniature of the Biblical [Joseph](/wiki/Joseph "Joseph"), showing daily life there](/wiki/File:Joseph_working_02.gif "Joseph working 02.gif") In 1500, [Juana of Castile](/wiki/Juana_of_Castile "Juana of Castile") gave birth to [Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor"), who became [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor "Holy Roman Emperor") and King of [Spain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain "Kingdom of Spain"). Although native to Ghent, he punished the city after the 1539 [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 "Revolt of Ghent (1539)") and obliged the city's nobles to walk in front of the Emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: *"strop"*) around the neck; since this incident, the people of Ghent have been called "*Stroppendragers*" (noose bearers). St. Bavo's Abbey (not to be confused with the nearby St. Bavo's Cathedral) was abolished, torn down, and replaced with a fortress for [Royal Spanish](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain "Kingdom of Spain") troops. Only a small portion of the abbey was spared demolition. [250px\|thumb\|*De Kouter in Ghent in 1763* by [Engelbert van Siclers](/wiki/Engelbert_van_Siclers "Engelbert van Siclers")](/wiki/File:Engelbert_Van_Siclers_-_De_Kouter_in_Ghent_in_1763.jpg "Engelbert Van Siclers - De Kouter in Ghent in 1763.jpg") [thumbnail\|250px\|right\|Ghent in 1775 on the [Ferraris map](/wiki/Ferraris_map "Ferraris map")](/wiki/File:Ghent%2C_Ferraris_Map%2C_1775.jpg "Ghent, Ferraris Map, 1775.jpg") The late 16th and 17th centuries brought devastation because of the [Eighty Years' War](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War "Eighty Years' War"). The war ended the role of Ghent as a centre of international importance. In 1745, the city [was captured](/wiki/Fall_of_Ghent "Fall of Ghent") by French forces during the [War of the Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession "War of the Austrian Succession") before being returned to the [Empire of Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") under the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/Habsburgs "Habsburgs") following the [Treaty of Aix\-la\-Chapelle](/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_%281748%29 "Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)") in 1748\. This part of [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders") became known as the [Austrian Netherlands](/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands "Austrian Netherlands") until the exile of the French Emperor [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte"), the end of the French Revolutionary and later [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"), and the peace treaties arrived at by the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna") in 1815\. ### 19th century [left\|thumb\|The Palace of Justice in Ghent, {{circa\|1895}}](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_%E2%80%A6trialsanderrors_-_Justitiepaleis%2C_Ghent%2C_Belgium%2C_ca._1895.jpg "Flickr - …trialsanderrors - Justitiepaleis, Ghent, Belgium, ca. 1895.jpg") In the 18th and 19th centuries, Ghent's textile industry flourished again. [Lieven Bauwens](/wiki/Lieven_Bauwens "Lieven Bauwens"), having smuggled the [industrial](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution") and factory machine plans out of England, introduced the first mechanical [weaving machine](/wiki/Weaving_machines "Weaving machines") on the [European continent](/wiki/European_continent "European continent") in 1800\. The [Treaty of Ghent](/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent "Treaty of Ghent"), negotiated here and adopted on Christmas Eve 1814, formally ended the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 "War of 1812") between Great Britain and the United States (the North American phase of the Napoleonic Wars). After the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo "Battle of Waterloo"), Ghent and [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders"), previously ruled from the House of Habsburg in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") as the Austrian Netherlands, became a part of the [United Kingdom of the Netherlands](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands "United Kingdom of the Netherlands") with the northern Dutch for 15 years. In this period, Ghent established its own [university](/wiki/Ghent_University "Ghent University") (1816\)[Ghent over the centuries: Concise history of a stubborn city](https://visit.gent.be/en/good-know/practical-information/why-ghent/ghent-over-centuries) and a [new connection to the sea](/wiki/Ghent%E2%80%93Terneuzen_Canal "Ghent–Terneuzen Canal") (1824–27\). After the [Belgian Revolution](/wiki/Belgian_Revolution "Belgian Revolution"), with the loss of port access to the sea for more than a decade, the local economy collapsed, and the first Belgian trade union originated in Ghent. In 1913 there was a [world exhibition in Ghent](/wiki/Exposition_universelle_et_internationale_%281913%29 "Exposition universelle et internationale (1913)"). As a preparation for these festivities, the [Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Sint-Pieters railway station") was completed in 1912\. ### 20th century Ghent was occupied by the Germans in both World Wars but escaped severe destruction. The life of the people and the German invaders in Ghent during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") is described by H. Wandt in "etappenleven te Gent".{{Cite web \|last\=Wandt \|first\=Heinrich \|date\=1921 \|title\=Etappenleven te Gent : kantteekeningen bij de Duitsche ineenstorting / \|url\=https://lib.ugent.be/catalog/rug01:000978952 \|access\-date\=12 July 2022 \|website\=lib.ugent.be}} In [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") the city was liberated by the British [7th "Desert Rats" Armoured Division](/wiki/7th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)") and local Belgian fighters on 6 September 1944, with the northern suburbs and the industrial area cleared over the following days by the [15th (Scottish) Infantry Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Infantry_Division "15th (Scottish) Infantry Division").
[ "History\n-------", "{{For timeline}}\n{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=May 2013}}", "Archaeological evidence shows human presence around the confluence of the Scheldt and the Leie going back as far as the [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age \"Stone Age\") and the [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\").{{cite web\n\\|title\\=History of Gent\n\\|url\\=http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01\\.htm\n\\|access\\-date\\=5 May 2006\n\\|publisher\\=gent.be\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050818043547/http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01\\.htm\n\\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2005 }}", "Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda', is derived from the [Celtic](/wiki/Celts \"Celts\") word *ganda*, which means ‘[confluence](/wiki/Confluence \"Confluence\")’, or ‘river mouth’, referring to the [Leie](/wiki/Lys_%28river%29 \"Lys (river)\") river debouching into the [Scheldt](/wiki/Scheldt \"Scheldt\"). Other sources connect its name with an obscure deity named [Gontia](/wiki/Gontia_%28deity%29 \"Gontia (deity)\").Adrian Room, [*Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EdmNngEACAAJ), McFarland, 2006, p. 144\\.", "There are no written records of the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Rome \"Ancient Rome\") period, but archaeological research confirms that the Ghent area continued to be inhabited.", "When the [Franks](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") invaded the Roman territories from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century, they brought their language with them, and Celtic and Latin were replaced by [Old Dutch](/wiki/Old_Dutch \"Old Dutch\").", "### Middle Ages", "[left\\|thumb\\|Buildings along the river [Leie](/wiki/Leie \"Leie\") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Ghent_hist_centrum_2.jpg \"Ghent hist centrum 2.jpg\")", "Around 650, [Saint Amand](/wiki/Saint_Amand \"Saint Amand\") founded two [abbeys](/wiki/Abbey \"Abbey\") in Ghent: [St. Peter's](/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Abbey%2C_Ghent \"St. Peter's Abbey, Ghent\") ([Blandinium](/wiki/Blandijnberg \"Blandijnberg\")) and [St. Bavo's Abbey](/wiki/Saint_Bavo%27s_Abbey \"Saint Bavo's Abbey\"). Around 800, [Louis the Pious](/wiki/Louis_the_Pious \"Louis the Pious\"), son of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"), appointed [Einhard](/wiki/Einhard \"Einhard\"), the biographer of Charlemagne, abbot of both abbeys. The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys, and a commercial centre. However, in 851 and 879 the city was plundered by [Vikings](/wiki/Viking \"Viking\").", "Under the protection of the [County of Flanders](/wiki/County_of_Flanders \"County of Flanders\") the city recovered and flourished from the 11th century, growing to become a small [city\\-state](/wiki/City-state \"City-state\"). By the 13th century, Ghent was the biggest city in Europe north of the Alps after [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"); it was bigger than [Cologne](/wiki/Cologne \"Cologne\") or [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\").{{cite book\\|last\\=Nicholas\\|first\\=David\\|title\\=The Domestic Life of a Medieval City: Women, Children and the Family in Fourteenth Century Ghent\\|pages\\=1}} Up to 65,000 people lived within the city walls. The [belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent \"Belfry of Ghent\") and the towers of the [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent \"St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent\") and [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent \"Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent\") are just a few examples of the skyline of the period.", "The rivers flowed in an area where much land was periodically flooded. These rich grass 'meersen' (\"[water\\-meadows](/wiki/Water-meadows \"Water-meadows\")\": a word related to the English '[marsh](/wiki/Marsh \"Marsh\")') were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used to make cloth. Ghent was the leading city for [cloth](/wiki/Cloth \"Cloth\") during the Middle Ages.", "The [wool industry](/wiki/Wool%23History \"Wool#History\"), originally established at [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\"), created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the [High Middle Ages](/wiki/High_Middle_Ages \"High Middle Ages\"). The mercantile zone was so highly developed that wool had to be imported from Scotland and England, which led to Flanders' good relationship with them. However, during the [Hundred Years' War](/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War \"Hundred Years' War\"), trade with England suffered significantly. Ghent was the birthplace of [John of Gaunt](/wiki/John_of_Gaunt%2C_1st_Duke_of_Lancaster \"John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster\"), Duke of [Lancaster](/wiki/Duchy_of_Lancaster \"Duchy of Lancaster\").", "### Early modern period", "The city recovered in the 15th century when Flanders was united with neighbouring provinces under the [Dukes of Burgundy](/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy \"Duchy of Burgundy\"). High taxes [led to a rebellion](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281449%E2%80%931453%29 \"Revolt of Ghent (1449–1453)\") and eventually to the [Battle of Gavere](/wiki/Battle_of_Gavere \"Battle of Gavere\") in 1453, in which Ghent suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of [Philip the Good](/wiki/Philip_the_Good \"Philip the Good\"). Around this time the centre of political and social importance in the [Low Countries](/wiki/Low_Countries \"Low Countries\") started to shift from Flanders (Bruges–Ghent) to [Brabant](/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant \"Duchy of Brabant\") ([Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\")–[Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\")), although Ghent continued to play an important role. With Bruges, the city led two [revolts against Maximilian of Austria](/wiki/Flemish_revolts_against_Maximilian_of_Austria \"Flemish revolts against Maximilian of Austria\"), the first monarch of the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") to rule Flanders.\n[thumb\\|left\\|250px\\|*View on the city of Ghent in 1540* by [Lucas de Heere](/wiki/Lucas_de_Heere \"Lucas de Heere\")](/wiki/File:Zicht_op_Gent_1540.jpg \"Zicht op Gent 1540.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|15th\\-century Ghent miniature of the Biblical [Joseph](/wiki/Joseph \"Joseph\"), showing daily life there](/wiki/File:Joseph_working_02.gif \"Joseph working 02.gif\")\nIn 1500, [Juana of Castile](/wiki/Juana_of_Castile \"Juana of Castile\") gave birth to [Charles V](/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\"), who became [Holy Roman Emperor](/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Holy Roman Emperor\") and King of [Spain](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain \"Kingdom of Spain\"). Although native to Ghent, he punished the city after the 1539 [Revolt of Ghent](/wiki/Revolt_of_Ghent_%281539%29 \"Revolt of Ghent (1539)\") and obliged the city's nobles to walk in front of the Emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: *\"strop\"*) around the neck; since this incident, the people of Ghent have been called \"*Stroppendragers*\" (noose bearers). St. Bavo's Abbey (not to be confused with the nearby St. Bavo's Cathedral) was abolished, torn down, and replaced with a fortress for [Royal Spanish](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain \"Kingdom of Spain\") troops. Only a small portion of the abbey was spared demolition.", "[250px\\|thumb\\|*De Kouter in Ghent in 1763* by [Engelbert van Siclers](/wiki/Engelbert_van_Siclers \"Engelbert van Siclers\")](/wiki/File:Engelbert_Van_Siclers_-_De_Kouter_in_Ghent_in_1763.jpg \"Engelbert Van Siclers - De Kouter in Ghent in 1763.jpg\")\n[thumbnail\\|250px\\|right\\|Ghent in 1775 on the [Ferraris map](/wiki/Ferraris_map \"Ferraris map\")](/wiki/File:Ghent%2C_Ferraris_Map%2C_1775.jpg \"Ghent, Ferraris Map, 1775.jpg\")", "The late 16th and 17th centuries brought devastation because of the [Eighty Years' War](/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War \"Eighty Years' War\"). The war ended the role of Ghent as a centre of international importance. In 1745, the city [was captured](/wiki/Fall_of_Ghent \"Fall of Ghent\") by French forces during the [War of the Austrian Succession](/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession \"War of the Austrian Succession\") before being returned to the [Empire of Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") under the [House of Habsburg](/wiki/Habsburgs \"Habsburgs\") following the [Treaty of Aix\\-la\\-Chapelle](/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_%281748%29 \"Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)\") in 1748\\. This part of [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\") became known as the [Austrian Netherlands](/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands \"Austrian Netherlands\") until the exile of the French Emperor [Napoleon I](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\"), the end of the French Revolutionary and later [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"), and the peace treaties arrived at by the [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\") in 1815\\.", "### 19th century", "[left\\|thumb\\|The Palace of Justice in Ghent, {{circa\\|1895}}](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_%E2%80%A6trialsanderrors_-_Justitiepaleis%2C_Ghent%2C_Belgium%2C_ca._1895.jpg \"Flickr - …trialsanderrors - Justitiepaleis, Ghent, Belgium, ca. 1895.jpg\")", "In the 18th and 19th centuries, Ghent's textile industry flourished again. [Lieven Bauwens](/wiki/Lieven_Bauwens \"Lieven Bauwens\"), having smuggled the [industrial](/wiki/Industrial_Revolution \"Industrial Revolution\") and factory machine plans out of England, introduced the first mechanical [weaving machine](/wiki/Weaving_machines \"Weaving machines\") on the [European continent](/wiki/European_continent \"European continent\") in 1800\\.", "The [Treaty of Ghent](/wiki/Treaty_of_Ghent \"Treaty of Ghent\"), negotiated here and adopted on Christmas Eve 1814, formally ended the [War of 1812](/wiki/War_of_1812 \"War of 1812\") between Great Britain and the United States (the North American phase of the Napoleonic Wars). After the [Battle of Waterloo](/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo \"Battle of Waterloo\"), Ghent and [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"), previously ruled from the House of Habsburg in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\") as the Austrian Netherlands, became a part of the [United Kingdom of the Netherlands](/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands \"United Kingdom of the Netherlands\") with the northern Dutch for 15 years. In this period, Ghent established its own [university](/wiki/Ghent_University \"Ghent University\") (1816\\)[Ghent over the centuries: Concise history of a stubborn city](https://visit.gent.be/en/good-know/practical-information/why-ghent/ghent-over-centuries) and a [new connection to the sea](/wiki/Ghent%E2%80%93Terneuzen_Canal \"Ghent–Terneuzen Canal\") (1824–27\\).", "After the [Belgian Revolution](/wiki/Belgian_Revolution \"Belgian Revolution\"), with the loss of port access to the sea for more than a decade, the local economy collapsed, and the first Belgian trade union originated in Ghent. In 1913 there was a [world exhibition in Ghent](/wiki/Exposition_universelle_et_internationale_%281913%29 \"Exposition universelle et internationale (1913)\"). As a preparation for these festivities, the [Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Sint-Pieters railway station\") was completed in 1912\\.", "### 20th century", "Ghent was occupied by the Germans in both World Wars but escaped severe destruction. The life of the people and the German invaders in Ghent during [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") is described by H. Wandt in \"etappenleven te Gent\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Wandt \\|first\\=Heinrich \\|date\\=1921 \\|title\\=Etappenleven te Gent : kantteekeningen bij de Duitsche ineenstorting / \\|url\\=https://lib.ugent.be/catalog/rug01:000978952 \\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2022 \\|website\\=lib.ugent.be}} In [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") the city was liberated by the British [7th \"Desert Rats\" Armoured Division](/wiki/7th_Armoured_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)\") and local Belgian fighters on 6 September 1944, with the northern suburbs and the industrial area cleared over the following days by the [15th (Scottish) Infantry Division](/wiki/15th_%28Scottish%29_Infantry_Division \"15th (Scottish) Infantry Division\").", "" ]
Culture and tourism ------------------- ### Architecture [thumb\|upright\|The [Belfry of Ghent](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent "Belfry of Ghent"), a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site "World Heritage Site")](/wiki/File:Belfry_of_Ghent_%28DSCF0247%2CDSCF0249%29.jpg "Belfry of Ghent (DSCF0247,DSCF0249).jpg") [thumb\|right\|The [Graslei](/wiki/Graslei "Graslei"), in the old city centre](/wiki/File:Gent%2C_de_Graslei6_foto1_2010-10-10_15.30.JPG "Gent, de Graslei6 foto1 2010-10-10 15.30.JPG") [thumb\|The {{ill\|Royal Dutch Theatre\|nl\| Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg (Gent)}}](/wiki/File:NTG_24-06-2008_11-42-13.JPG "NTG 24-06-2008 11-42-13.JPG") [thumb\|The [Gravensteen](/wiki/Gravensteen_castle "Gravensteen castle")](/wiki/File:Gent_Gravensteen_R01.jpg "Gent Gravensteen R01.jpg") [thumb\|right\|Historical centre of Ghent – from left to right: Old post office, [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent "Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent"), [Belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent "Belfry of Ghent"), and [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent "St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent")](/wiki/File:Gent%2C_de_Sint-Niklaaskerk_oeg25149%2C_en_op_de_achtergrond_het_Belfort_oeg24555_en_de_Sint-Baafskathedraal_oeg25743_IMG_0814_2021-08-15_16.54.jpg "Gent, de Sint-Niklaaskerk oeg25149, en op de achtergrond het Belfort oeg24555 en de Sint-Baafskathedraal oeg25743 IMG 0814 2021-08-15 16.54.jpg") [thumb\|Sunset over the river [Leie](/wiki/Leie "Leie") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Sunset_over_a_canal_in_Ghent%2C_Belgium.jpg "Sunset over a canal in Ghent, Belgium.jpg") Much of the city's [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") architecture remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored. Its centre is a [carfree area](/wiki/Pedestrian_zone "Pedestrian zone"). Highlights are [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent "St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent") with the *[Ghent Altarpiece](/wiki/Ghent_Altarpiece "Ghent Altarpiece")*, the [belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent "Belfry of Ghent"), the [Gravensteen castle](/wiki/Gravensteen_castle "Gravensteen castle"), and the splendid architecture along the old [Graslei](/wiki/Graslei "Graslei") harbour. Ghent has established a blend between comfort of living and history; it is not a city\-museum. The city of Ghent also houses three [béguinages](/wiki/B%C3%A9guinage "Béguinage") and numerous churches including St. Jacob's Church, [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent "Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent"), [St. Michael's Church](/wiki/Saint_Michael%27s_Church%2C_Ghent "Saint Michael's Church, Ghent") and [St. Stefanus' Church](/wiki/St._Stefanus%2C_Ghent "St. Stefanus, Ghent"). [thumb\|The well\-known *[Ghent Altarpiece](/wiki/Ghent_Altarpiece "Ghent Altarpiece")*, a 15th\-century painting by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck in [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent "St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent").](/wiki/File:Lamgods_open.jpg "Lamgods open.jpg") In the 19th century Ghent's most famous architect, [Louis Roelandt](/wiki/Louis_Roelandt "Louis Roelandt"), built the university hall Aula, the opera house, and the main courthouse. Highlights of modern architecture are the university buildings (the *[Boekentoren](/wiki/Boekentoren "Boekentoren")* or Book Tower) by [Henry Van de Velde](/wiki/Henry_Van_de_Velde "Henry Van de Velde"). There are also a few theatres from diverse periods. The beguinages, as well as the belfry and adjacent cloth hall, were recognized by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO") as [World Heritage Sites](/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites "World Heritage Sites") in 1998 and 1999\. The [Zebrastraat](/wiki/Zebrastraat "Zebrastraat"), a social experiment in which an entirely renovated site unites living, economy, and culture, can also be found in Ghent. [Campo Santo](/wiki/Campo_Santo%2C_Ghent "Campo Santo, Ghent") is a famous Catholic burial site of the nobility and artists. One of the more notable pieces of [contemporary architecture](/wiki/Contemporary_architecture "Contemporary architecture") in Ghent is [De Krook](/wiki/De_Krook "De Krook"), the new central library and media center, a collaboration between local firm Coussée and Goris and Catalan firm RCR Arquitectos. ### Museums Important museums in Ghent are the [Museum voor Schone Kunsten](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Ghent "Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent") (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by [Hieronymus Bosch](/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch "Hieronymus Bosch"), [Peter Paul Rubens](/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens "Peter Paul Rubens"), and many Flemish masters; the [SMAK](/wiki/Stedelijk_Museum_voor_Actuele_Kunst "Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst") or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including [Joseph Beuys](/wiki/Joseph_Beuys "Joseph Beuys") and [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol "Andy Warhol"); and the [Design Museum Gent](/wiki/Design_Museum_Gent "Design Museum Gent") with masterpieces of [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta "Victor Horta") and [Le Corbusier](/wiki/Le_Corbusier "Le Corbusier"). The [Huis van Alijn](/wiki/Huis_van_Alijn "Huis van Alijn") (House of the Alijn family) was originally a [beguinage](/wiki/Beguinage "Beguinage") and is now a museum for folk art where theatre and puppet shows for children are presented. The *Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel* or MIAT displays the industrial strength of Ghent with recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and original spinning and weaving machines that remain from the time when the building was a weaving mill. The [Ghent City Museum](/wiki/Ghent_City_Museum "Ghent City Museum") (Stadsmuseum, abbreviated STAM), is committed to recording and explaining the city's past and its inhabitants, and to preserving the present for future generations. ### Theatre [NTGent](/wiki/NTGent "NTGent") is the city theatre of Ghent, a public institution known for its radical productions. The theatre company's home base is in the {{ill\|Royal Dutch Theatre\|nl\| Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg (Gent)}} (Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg, or KNS), with a secondary location in the city at Minnemeers. The company also tours extensively.{{cite web \| title\=History \| website\=NTGent \| date\=28 March 2023 \| url\=https://www.ntgent.be/en/wie\-zijn\-we/geschiedenis \| access\-date\=17 March 2024 \| archive\-date\=18 March 2024 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318010947/https://www.ntgent.be/en/wie\-zijn\-we/geschiedenis \| url\-status\=dead }} ### Restaurants and culinary traditions In Ghent and other regions of [East Flanders](/wiki/East_Flanders "East Flanders"), bakeries sell a donut\-shaped bun called a "mastel" (plural "mastellen"), which is basically a bagel. "Mastellen" are also called "[Saint Hubert](/wiki/Saint_Hubert "Saint Hubert") bread", because, on the Saint's feast day, which is 3 November, the bakers bring their batches to the early Mass to be blessed. Traditionally, it was thought that blessed mastellen immunized against [rabies](/wiki/Rabies "Rabies"). Other local delicacies are the praline chocolates from local producers such as [Leonidas](/wiki/Leonidas_%28chocolate%29 "Leonidas (chocolate)"), the [cuberdons](/wiki/Cuberdon "Cuberdon") or 'neuzekes' ('noses'), cone\-shaped purple jelly\-filled candies (a four\-year feud between two local vendors made international news),{{cite web\|url\=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/belgium/articles/a\-tale\-of\-two\-cuberdon\-vendors\-the\-story\-behind\-ghents\-little\-nose\-war/\|title\=A Tale of Two Cuberdon Vendors: The Story Behind Ghent's 'Little Nose War'\|first\=Nana\|last\=Van De Poel\|date\=22 July 2017}} 'babelutten' ('babblers'), hard butterscotch\-like candy, and of course, on the more fiery side, the famous 'Tierenteyn', a hot but refined mustard that has some affinity to French 'Dijon' mustard. [Stoverij](/wiki/Carbonade_flamande "Carbonade flamande") is a classic Flemish meat stew, preferably made with a generous addition of brown ['Trappist'](/wiki/Trappist_beer "Trappist beer") (strong abbey beer) and served with French fries. '[Waterzooi](/wiki/Waterzooi "Waterzooi")' is a local stew originally made from freshwater fish caught in the rivers and creeks of Ghent, but nowadays often made with chicken instead of fish. It is usually served nouvelle\-cuisine\-style and supplemented by a large pot on the side. The city promotes a meat\-free day on Thursdays called *Donderdag Veggiedag*["Ghent's veggie day: for English speaking visitors"](http://www.vegetarisme.be/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=767) on Vegetarisme.be["Belgian city plans 'veggie' days"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm) on [BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News") (12 May 2009\). with [vegetarian](/wiki/Vegetarian "Vegetarian") food being promoted in public canteens for civil servants and elected councillors, in all city\-funded schools, and promotion of vegetarian eating options in town (through the distribution of "veggie street maps"). This campaign is linked to the recognition of the [detrimental environmental effects of meat production](/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_production%23Fossil_fuel_consumption_and_greenhouse_gas_emissions "Environmental effects of meat production#Fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions"), which the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations")' [Food and Agriculture Organization](/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization "Food and Agriculture Organization") has established to represent nearly one\-fifth of global [greenhouse gas emissions](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions "Greenhouse gas emissions"). ### Festivals and other events The city is host to some big cultural events such as the [Ghent Festival](/wiki/Gentse_Feesten "Gentse Feesten"), the [International Film Festival of Ghent](/wiki/Flanders_International_Film_Festival_Ghent "Flanders International Film Festival Ghent") (with the [World Soundtrack Awards](/wiki/World_Soundtrack_Awards "World Soundtrack Awards")) and the {{Interlanguage link\|Gent Festival van Vlaanderen\|nl}}. Also, every five years, an extensive botanical exhibition (*Gentse Floraliën*) takes place in [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo "Flanders Expo") in Ghent, attracting numerous visitors to the city. The Ghent Festival (*Gentse Feesten* in Dutch) is an annual festival that lasts for ten days. It has been held for more than 50 years (since 1969\) and is attended by about 1–1\.5 million visitors. It did not take place in 2020 and 2021 due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic in Belgium](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium "COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium"), being held again in the summer of 2022, after a two\-year break. The [Festival of Flanders](/wiki/Festival_of_Flanders "Festival of Flanders") had its 50th celebration in 2008\. In Ghent, it opens with the OdeGand City festivities that take place on the second Saturday of September. Some 50 concerts take place in diverse locations throughout the medieval [inner city](/wiki/Inner_city "Inner city") and some 250 international artists perform. Ghent co\-hosted the 2021 [World Choir Games](/wiki/World_Choir_Games "World Choir Games") together with [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.interkultur.com/newsroom/choir\-games/details/news/world\-choir\-games\-kick\-off\-in\-flanders/\|title\=World Choir Games kick off in Flanders\|website\=INTERKULTUR\|date\=15 September 2021 \|access\-date\=18 October 2021}} Organised by the [Interkultur Foundation](/wiki/Interkultur_Foundation "Interkultur Foundation"), the World Choir Games is the biggest choral competition and festival in the world. Ghent has been chosen as the 2024 [European Youth Capital](/wiki/European_Youth_Capital "European Youth Capital") by the [European Youth Forum](/wiki/European_Youth_Forum "European Youth Forum").{{cite news \|last1\=Verstichel \|first1\=Mathieu \|title\=Gent is Europese Jongerenhoofdstad in 2024: "Een volledig jaar focus op de jeugd" \|url\=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2021/11/19/gent\-wordt\-europese\-jongerenhoofdstad\-voor\-een\-jaar/ \|access\-date\=15 March 2023 \|work\=VRT \|date\=19 November 2021 \|language\=Dutch}} ### Parks The numerous parks in the city can also be considered tourist attractions. Most notably, Ghent boasts a [nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserve "Nature reserve") ([Bourgoyen\-Ossemeersen](/wiki/Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen "Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen"), {{convert\|230\|ha\|acre\|abbr\=off}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.visitgent.be/en/natuur\-en\-milieucentrum\-de\-bourgoyen \|title\=Nature Domain De Bourgoyen \| Visit Gent \|publisher\=visitgent.be\|access\-date\=18 May 2015}}) and a recreation park (Blaarmeersen, 87 hectares; 215 acres).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.inyourpocket.com/Belgium/Ghent/Sightseeing/Parks\-and\-Gardens/Blaarmeersen\-Sport\-and\-Recreation\-Park\_102502v \|title\=Blaarmeersen Sport and Recreation Park – Sightseeing in Ghent \|website\=inyourpocket.com \|access\-date\=18 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520042928/http://www.inyourpocket.com/Belgium/Ghent/Sightseeing/Parks\-and\-Gardens/Blaarmeersen\-Sport\-and\-Recreation\-Park\_102502v \|archive\-date\=20 May 2015}}
[ "Culture and tourism\n-------------------", "### Architecture", "[thumb\\|upright\\|The [Belfry of Ghent](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent \"Belfry of Ghent\"), a [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") [World Heritage Site](/wiki/World_Heritage_Site \"World Heritage Site\")](/wiki/File:Belfry_of_Ghent_%28DSCF0247%2CDSCF0249%29.jpg \"Belfry of Ghent (DSCF0247,DSCF0249).jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Graslei](/wiki/Graslei \"Graslei\"), in the old city centre](/wiki/File:Gent%2C_de_Graslei6_foto1_2010-10-10_15.30.JPG \"Gent, de Graslei6 foto1 2010-10-10 15.30.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|The {{ill\\|Royal Dutch Theatre\\|nl\\| Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg (Gent)}}](/wiki/File:NTG_24-06-2008_11-42-13.JPG \"NTG 24-06-2008 11-42-13.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|The [Gravensteen](/wiki/Gravensteen_castle \"Gravensteen castle\")](/wiki/File:Gent_Gravensteen_R01.jpg \"Gent Gravensteen R01.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Historical centre of Ghent – from left to right: Old post office, [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent \"Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent\"), [Belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent \"Belfry of Ghent\"), and [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent \"St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent\")](/wiki/File:Gent%2C_de_Sint-Niklaaskerk_oeg25149%2C_en_op_de_achtergrond_het_Belfort_oeg24555_en_de_Sint-Baafskathedraal_oeg25743_IMG_0814_2021-08-15_16.54.jpg \"Gent, de Sint-Niklaaskerk oeg25149, en op de achtergrond het Belfort oeg24555 en de Sint-Baafskathedraal oeg25743 IMG 0814 2021-08-15 16.54.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Sunset over the river [Leie](/wiki/Leie \"Leie\") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Sunset_over_a_canal_in_Ghent%2C_Belgium.jpg \"Sunset over a canal in Ghent, Belgium.jpg\") \nMuch of the city's [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") architecture remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored. Its centre is a [carfree area](/wiki/Pedestrian_zone \"Pedestrian zone\"). Highlights are [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent \"St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent\") with the *[Ghent Altarpiece](/wiki/Ghent_Altarpiece \"Ghent Altarpiece\")*, the [belfry](/wiki/Belfry_of_Ghent \"Belfry of Ghent\"), the [Gravensteen castle](/wiki/Gravensteen_castle \"Gravensteen castle\"), and the splendid architecture along the old [Graslei](/wiki/Graslei \"Graslei\") harbour. Ghent has established a blend between comfort of living and history; it is not a city\\-museum. The city of Ghent also houses three [béguinages](/wiki/B%C3%A9guinage \"Béguinage\") and numerous churches including St. Jacob's Church, [St. Nicholas' Church](/wiki/Saint_Nicholas_Church%2C_Ghent \"Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent\"), [St. Michael's Church](/wiki/Saint_Michael%27s_Church%2C_Ghent \"Saint Michael's Church, Ghent\") and [St. Stefanus' Church](/wiki/St._Stefanus%2C_Ghent \"St. Stefanus, Ghent\").\n[thumb\\|The well\\-known *[Ghent Altarpiece](/wiki/Ghent_Altarpiece \"Ghent Altarpiece\")*, a 15th\\-century painting by Hubert and Jan Van Eyck in [St. Bavo's Cathedral](/wiki/St_Bavo%27s_Cathedral%2C_Ghent \"St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent\").](/wiki/File:Lamgods_open.jpg \"Lamgods open.jpg\") \nIn the 19th century Ghent's most famous architect, [Louis Roelandt](/wiki/Louis_Roelandt \"Louis Roelandt\"), built the university hall Aula, the opera house, and the main courthouse. Highlights of modern architecture are the university buildings (the *[Boekentoren](/wiki/Boekentoren \"Boekentoren\")* or Book Tower) by [Henry Van de Velde](/wiki/Henry_Van_de_Velde \"Henry Van de Velde\"). There are also a few theatres from diverse periods.", "The beguinages, as well as the belfry and adjacent cloth hall, were recognized by [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\") as [World Heritage Sites](/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites \"World Heritage Sites\") in 1998 and 1999\\.", "The [Zebrastraat](/wiki/Zebrastraat \"Zebrastraat\"), a social experiment in which an entirely renovated site unites living, economy, and culture, can also be found in Ghent.", "[Campo Santo](/wiki/Campo_Santo%2C_Ghent \"Campo Santo, Ghent\") is a famous Catholic burial site of the nobility and artists.", "One of the more notable pieces of [contemporary architecture](/wiki/Contemporary_architecture \"Contemporary architecture\") in Ghent is [De Krook](/wiki/De_Krook \"De Krook\"), the new central library and media center, a collaboration between local firm Coussée and Goris and Catalan firm RCR Arquitectos.", "### Museums", "Important museums in Ghent are the [Museum voor Schone Kunsten](/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Ghent \"Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent\") (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by [Hieronymus Bosch](/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch \"Hieronymus Bosch\"), [Peter Paul Rubens](/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens \"Peter Paul Rubens\"), and many Flemish masters; the [SMAK](/wiki/Stedelijk_Museum_voor_Actuele_Kunst \"Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst\") or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including [Joseph Beuys](/wiki/Joseph_Beuys \"Joseph Beuys\") and [Andy Warhol](/wiki/Andy_Warhol \"Andy Warhol\"); and the [Design Museum Gent](/wiki/Design_Museum_Gent \"Design Museum Gent\") with masterpieces of [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta \"Victor Horta\") and [Le Corbusier](/wiki/Le_Corbusier \"Le Corbusier\"). The [Huis van Alijn](/wiki/Huis_van_Alijn \"Huis van Alijn\") (House of the Alijn family) was originally a [beguinage](/wiki/Beguinage \"Beguinage\") and is now a museum for folk art where theatre and puppet shows for children are presented. The *Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel* or MIAT displays the industrial strength of Ghent with recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and original spinning and weaving machines that remain from the time when the building was a weaving mill. The [Ghent City Museum](/wiki/Ghent_City_Museum \"Ghent City Museum\") (Stadsmuseum, abbreviated STAM), is committed to recording and explaining the city's past and its inhabitants, and to preserving the present for future generations.", "### Theatre", "[NTGent](/wiki/NTGent \"NTGent\") is the city theatre of Ghent, a public institution known for its radical productions. The theatre company's home base is in the {{ill\\|Royal Dutch Theatre\\|nl\\| Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg (Gent)}} (Koninklijke Nederlandse Schouwburg, or KNS), with a secondary location in the city at Minnemeers. The company also tours extensively.{{cite web \\| title\\=History \\| website\\=NTGent \\| date\\=28 March 2023 \\| url\\=https://www.ntgent.be/en/wie\\-zijn\\-we/geschiedenis \\| access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\| archive\\-date\\=18 March 2024 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318010947/https://www.ntgent.be/en/wie\\-zijn\\-we/geschiedenis \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Restaurants and culinary traditions", "In Ghent and other regions of [East Flanders](/wiki/East_Flanders \"East Flanders\"), bakeries sell a donut\\-shaped bun called a \"mastel\" (plural \"mastellen\"), which is basically a bagel. \"Mastellen\" are also called \"[Saint Hubert](/wiki/Saint_Hubert \"Saint Hubert\") bread\", because, on the Saint's feast day, which is 3 November, the bakers bring their batches to the early Mass to be blessed. Traditionally, it was thought that blessed mastellen immunized against [rabies](/wiki/Rabies \"Rabies\").", "Other local delicacies are the praline chocolates from local producers such as [Leonidas](/wiki/Leonidas_%28chocolate%29 \"Leonidas (chocolate)\"), the [cuberdons](/wiki/Cuberdon \"Cuberdon\") or 'neuzekes' ('noses'), cone\\-shaped purple jelly\\-filled candies (a four\\-year feud between two local vendors made international news),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/belgium/articles/a\\-tale\\-of\\-two\\-cuberdon\\-vendors\\-the\\-story\\-behind\\-ghents\\-little\\-nose\\-war/\\|title\\=A Tale of Two Cuberdon Vendors: The Story Behind Ghent's 'Little Nose War'\\|first\\=Nana\\|last\\=Van De Poel\\|date\\=22 July 2017}} 'babelutten' ('babblers'), hard butterscotch\\-like candy, and of course, on the more fiery side, the famous 'Tierenteyn', a hot but refined mustard that has some affinity to French 'Dijon' mustard.", "[Stoverij](/wiki/Carbonade_flamande \"Carbonade flamande\") is a classic Flemish meat stew, preferably made with a generous addition of brown ['Trappist'](/wiki/Trappist_beer \"Trappist beer\") (strong abbey beer) and served with French fries. '[Waterzooi](/wiki/Waterzooi \"Waterzooi\")' is a local stew originally made from freshwater fish caught in the rivers and creeks of Ghent, but nowadays often made with chicken instead of fish. It is usually served nouvelle\\-cuisine\\-style and supplemented by a large pot on the side.", "The city promotes a meat\\-free day on Thursdays called *Donderdag Veggiedag*[\"Ghent's veggie day: for English speaking visitors\"](http://www.vegetarisme.be/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=767) on Vegetarisme.be[\"Belgian city plans 'veggie' days\"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8046970.stm) on [BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News \"BBC News\") (12 May 2009\\). with [vegetarian](/wiki/Vegetarian \"Vegetarian\") food being promoted in public canteens for civil servants and elected councillors, in all city\\-funded schools, and promotion of vegetarian eating options in town (through the distribution of \"veggie street maps\"). This campaign is linked to the recognition of the [detrimental environmental effects of meat production](/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_production%23Fossil_fuel_consumption_and_greenhouse_gas_emissions \"Environmental effects of meat production#Fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions\"), which the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\")' [Food and Agriculture Organization](/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization \"Food and Agriculture Organization\") has established to represent nearly one\\-fifth of global [greenhouse gas emissions](/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions \"Greenhouse gas emissions\").", "### Festivals and other events", "The city is host to some big cultural events such as the [Ghent Festival](/wiki/Gentse_Feesten \"Gentse Feesten\"), the [International Film Festival of Ghent](/wiki/Flanders_International_Film_Festival_Ghent \"Flanders International Film Festival Ghent\") (with the [World Soundtrack Awards](/wiki/World_Soundtrack_Awards \"World Soundtrack Awards\")) and the {{Interlanguage link\\|Gent Festival van Vlaanderen\\|nl}}. Also, every five years, an extensive botanical exhibition (*Gentse Floraliën*) takes place in [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo \"Flanders Expo\") in Ghent, attracting numerous visitors to the city.", "The Ghent Festival (*Gentse Feesten* in Dutch) is an annual festival that lasts for ten days. It has been held for more than 50 years (since 1969\\) and is attended by about 1–1\\.5 million visitors. It did not take place in 2020 and 2021 due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic in Belgium](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Belgium \"COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium\"), being held again in the summer of 2022, after a two\\-year break.", "The [Festival of Flanders](/wiki/Festival_of_Flanders \"Festival of Flanders\") had its 50th celebration in 2008\\. In Ghent, it opens with the OdeGand City festivities that take place on the second Saturday of September. Some 50 concerts take place in diverse locations throughout the medieval [inner city](/wiki/Inner_city \"Inner city\") and some 250 international artists perform.", "Ghent co\\-hosted the 2021 [World Choir Games](/wiki/World_Choir_Games \"World Choir Games\") together with [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.interkultur.com/newsroom/choir\\-games/details/news/world\\-choir\\-games\\-kick\\-off\\-in\\-flanders/\\|title\\=World Choir Games kick off in Flanders\\|website\\=INTERKULTUR\\|date\\=15 September 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2021}} Organised by the [Interkultur Foundation](/wiki/Interkultur_Foundation \"Interkultur Foundation\"), the World Choir Games is the biggest choral competition and festival in the world.", "Ghent has been chosen as the 2024 [European Youth Capital](/wiki/European_Youth_Capital \"European Youth Capital\") by the [European Youth Forum](/wiki/European_Youth_Forum \"European Youth Forum\").{{cite news \\|last1\\=Verstichel \\|first1\\=Mathieu \\|title\\=Gent is Europese Jongerenhoofdstad in 2024: \"Een volledig jaar focus op de jeugd\" \\|url\\=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/nl/2021/11/19/gent\\-wordt\\-europese\\-jongerenhoofdstad\\-voor\\-een\\-jaar/ \\|access\\-date\\=15 March 2023 \\|work\\=VRT \\|date\\=19 November 2021 \\|language\\=Dutch}}", "### Parks", "The numerous parks in the city can also be considered tourist attractions. Most notably, Ghent boasts a [nature reserve](/wiki/Nature_reserve \"Nature reserve\") ([Bourgoyen\\-Ossemeersen](/wiki/Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen \"Bourgoyen-Ossemeersen\"), {{convert\\|230\\|ha\\|acre\\|abbr\\=off}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.visitgent.be/en/natuur\\-en\\-milieucentrum\\-de\\-bourgoyen \\|title\\=Nature Domain De Bourgoyen \\| Visit Gent \\|publisher\\=visitgent.be\\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015}}) and a recreation park (Blaarmeersen, 87 hectares; 215 acres).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.inyourpocket.com/Belgium/Ghent/Sightseeing/Parks\\-and\\-Gardens/Blaarmeersen\\-Sport\\-and\\-Recreation\\-Park\\_102502v \\|title\\=Blaarmeersen Sport and Recreation Park – Sightseeing in Ghent \\|website\\=inyourpocket.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150520042928/http://www.inyourpocket.com/Belgium/Ghent/Sightseeing/Parks\\-and\\-Gardens/Blaarmeersen\\-Sport\\-and\\-Recreation\\-Park\\_102502v \\|archive\\-date\\=20 May 2015}}", "" ]
Transport --------- As one of the largest cities in Belgium, Ghent has a highly developed transport system. ### Road [thumb\|The R4 ringroad](/wiki/File:R4_gezien_vanuit_de_Beekstraat_-_Gent.jpg "R4 gezien vanuit de Beekstraat - Gent.jpg") By car the city is accessible via two motorways: * The [E40](/wiki/European_route_E40 "European route E40") connects Ghent with [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges") and [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend "Ostend") to the west, and with [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"), [Leuven](/wiki/Leuven "Leuven") and [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge "Liège") to the east. * The [E17](/wiki/European_route_E17 "European route E17") connects Ghent with [Sint\-Niklaas](/wiki/Sint-Niklaas "Sint-Niklaas") and [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp "Antwerp") to the north, and with [Kortrijk](/wiki/Kortrijk "Kortrijk") and [Lille](/wiki/Lille "Lille") to the south. In addition, Ghent also has two ringways: * The R4 connects the outskirts of Ghent with each other and the surrounding villages, and also leads to the [E40](/wiki/European_route_E40 "European route E40") and [E17](/wiki/European_route_E17 "European route E17") roads. * The R40 connects the different downtown quarters with each other and provides access to the main avenues. ### Rail [thumb\|[Gent\-Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station"), Ghent](/wiki/File:Sint-Pietersstation.jpg "Sint-Pietersstation.jpg") Five [railway stations](/wiki/Railway_station "Railway station") can be found in the municipality of Ghent: * [Gent\-Sint\-Pieters Station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station"): an international railway station with connections to Bruges, Brussels, Antwerp, Kortrijk, other Belgian towns, and Lille. The station also offers a direct connection to [Brussels Airport](/wiki/Brussels_Airport "Brussels Airport"). * [Gent\-Dampoort Station](/wiki/Gent-Dampoort_railway_station "Gent-Dampoort railway station"): an intercity railway station with connections to Sint\-Niklaas, Antwerp, Kortrijk and [Eeklo](/wiki/Eeklo "Eeklo"). * [Gentbrugge Station](/wiki/Gentbrugge_railway_station "Gentbrugge railway station"): a regional railway station in between the two main railway stations, Sint\-Pieters and Dampoort. * Wondelgem Station: a regional railway station with connections to Eeklo once an hour. * Drongen Station: a regional railway station in the village of [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen "Drongen") with connections to [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges "Bruges") once an hour. * Gent\-Zeehaven station: a regional railway station in the port of Ghent with connections to [Gent\-Sint\-Pieters Station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station") and the town of [Terneuzen](/wiki/Terneuzen "Terneuzen") in [The Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"). ### Public transport Ghent has an extensive network of public transport lines, operated by *[De Lijn](/wiki/De_Lijn "De Lijn")*. #### Trams [thumb\|A HermeLijn [low\-floor tram](/wiki/Low-floor_tram "Low-floor tram") in Ghent](/wiki/File:HermeLijn_Korenmarkt.JPG "HermeLijn Korenmarkt.JPG") {{main\|Trams in Ghent}} Since 6/01/2024, the network contains 4 lines: | Line | Route | | **T1** | [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo "Flanders Expo") – [Gent\-Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station") – Kouter – Zuid – Gentbrugge Stelplaats | | **T2** | [Evergem](/wiki/Evergem "Evergem");– Wondelgem – Korenmarkt – Zuid – [Melle](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium "Melle, Belgium") Leeuw | | **T3** | [Zwijnaarde](/wiki/Zwijnaarde "Zwijnaarde") Bibliotheek – Gent\-Sint\-Pieters railway station – Kouter – Zuid – Moscou | | **T4** | [Gent UZ](/wiki/Ghent_University "Ghent University") – Gent\-Sint\-Pieters railway station – Rabot – Muide – [Lange Steenstraat](/wiki/Lange_Steenstraat "Lange Steenstraat") | Before 6/01/2024, the network contained 3 lines: * Line 1: [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo "Flanders Expo") – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Wondelgem – [Evergem](/wiki/Evergem "Evergem") * Line 2: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Brabantdam – Zuid – [Melle Leeuw](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium "Melle, Belgium") (fuse of line 21 and 22 as of May 2017[https://static.delijn.be/Images/LCD%20LW%20einde%20Bravoko\_tcm3\-16462\.jpg{{Dead link\|date\=August 2018 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}](https://static.delijn.be/Images/LCD%20LW%20einde%20Bravoko_tcm3-16462.jpg{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }})) * Line 4: UZ – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Muide – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Zuid – [Moscou](/wiki/Moscou_%28Ghent%29 "Moscou (Ghent)") * Line 21: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – [Melle Leeuw](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium "Melle, Belgium") (fused into line 2\) * Line 22: Kouter – Bijlokehof – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge "Gentbrugge") (fused into line 2\) #### Buses Since 6/01/2024, the city bus network contains 11 lines: * Line 5a: Nieuw Gent – Heuvelpoort \- Zuid \- Sint\-Jacobs \- Van Beverenplein \- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem "Wondelgem") Station * Line 5b: Nieuw Gent – Heuvelpoort \- Zuid \- Sint\-Jacobs \- Meulestede (*\- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem "Wondelgem") Station, not serviced until 2026 due to road works*) * Line 6: P\+R Muide – Sint\-Jacobs \- Zuid * Line 9a: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge "Gentbrugge") – [Ledeberg](/wiki/Ledeberg "Ledeberg") \- [Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Sint-Pieters railway station") \- [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent "Malem, Ghent") \- [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders "Mariakerke, East Flanders") (Kolegem) \- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem "Wondelgem") Station * Line 9b: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge "Gentbrugge") – [Ledeberg](/wiki/Ledeberg "Ledeberg") \- [Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Sint-Pieters railway station") \- [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent "Malem, Ghent") \- [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders "Mariakerke, East Flanders") (Center) \- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem "Wondelgem") Station * Line 10: [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders "Mariakerke, East Flanders") – [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent "Korenmarkt, Ghent") \- Sint\-Jacobs \- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent "Dampoort, Ghent") \- Snellaertplein * Line 11: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge "Gentbrugge") \- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent "Dampoort, Ghent") \- Sint\-Jacobs \- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent "Korenmarkt, Ghent") \- Blaarmeersen * Line 12a: Achtendries \- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent "Dampoort, Ghent") \- Sint\-Jacobs \- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent "Korenmarkt, Ghent") \- [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen "Drongen") \- Leerne * Line 12b: [Oostakker](/wiki/Oostakker "Oostakker") – [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent "Dampoort, Ghent") \- Sint\-Jacobs \- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent "Korenmarkt, Ghent") \- [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen "Drongen") Varendries * Line 16: Zuid \- Sint\-Baafskouter * Line 19: [Arteveldestadion](/wiki/Arteveldestadion "Arteveldestadion") – [Sint\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station "Sint-Pieters railway station") \- Blaarmeersen Before 6/01/2024, the city bus network contained 9 lines: [thumb\|A [Van Hool](/wiki/Van_Hool "Van Hool") [articulated bus](/wiki/Articulated_bus "Articulated bus") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Van_Hool_articulated.JPG "Van Hool articulated.JPG") * Line 3: [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke_%28East_Flanders%29 "Mariakerke (East Flanders)") – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – Gentbrugge (formerly a [trolleybus](/wiki/Trolleybus "Trolleybus") line; see picture below) * Line 5: Van Beverenplein – Sint\-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Nieuw\-Gent * Line 6: Watersportbaan – Zuid – Dampoort – Meulestede – Wondelgem – Mariakerke * Line 8: AZ Sint\-Lucas – Sint\-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Arteveldepark * Line 9: Mariakerke – [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent "Malem, Ghent") – Sint\-Pieters\-Station – Ledeberg – Gentbrugge * Line 17/18: Drongen – Malem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – [Oostakker](/wiki/Oostakker "Oostakker") * Line 38/39: Blaarmeersen – Ekkergem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – [Sint\-Amandsberg](/wiki/Sint-Amandsberg "Sint-Amandsberg") Apart from the city buses mentioned above, Ghent also has numerous regional bus lines connecting it to towns and villages across the province of East Flanders. All of these buses stop in at least one of the city's regional bus hubs at either Sint\-Pieters Station, Dampoort Station, Zuid or Rabot. International buses connecting Ghent to other European destinations are usually found at the Dampoort Station. A couple of private bus companies such as Eurolines, Megabus and Flixbus operate from the Dampoort bus hub. Buses to and from Belgium's first ([Brussels Airport](/wiki/Brussels_Airport "Brussels Airport")) and second airport ([Brussels South Charleroi Airport](/wiki/Brussels_South_Charleroi_Airport "Brussels South Charleroi Airport")) are operated by Flibco, and can be found at the rear exit of the Sint\-Pieters Station. ### Cycling Ghent has the largest designated cyclist area in Europe, with nearly {{convert\|400\|km}} of cycle paths and more than 700 one\-way streets, where bikes are allowed to go against the traffic. It also boasts Belgium's first [bicycle boulevard](/wiki/Bicycle_boulevard "Bicycle boulevard"), where cars are considered 'guests' and must stay behind cyclists.{{citation needed\|date\=June 2020}} In 2013, it began doing on\-street surveys of bicycles, adding bicycle parking racks in neighbourhoods where they were needed. In 2017, the city changed traffic circulation patterns to favour cycling. The switch was done over the course of a single weekend, changing traffic circulation on over 80 streets and 2500 road signs. It expanded the car\-free zone in the historic city center more than twofold. It also put in radial barriers to car traffic, thus shifting it onto the inner ring road.{{cite web \|title\=Ghent's history and future with cycling \|url\=https://ecf.com/news\-and\-events/news/ghents\-history\-and\-future\-cycling \|website\=ECF \|language\=en \|date\=29 August 2022}}Youtube: Streetfilms, 2 January 2020: [The Innovative Way Ghent, Belgium Removed Cars From The City](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEOA_Tcq2XA) More cyclists means a higher demand for [bicycle parking stations](/wiki/Bicycle_parking_station "Bicycle parking station"). In 2010, the plans to renovate Gent\-Sint\-Pieters railway station included 10,000 bicycle parking spots.In Dutch: Project Gent Sint\-Pieters, nieuwsbericht 9 November 2016:[2000 bijkomende fietsenstallingen](http://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/archief/nieuwsberichten/detail/2000-bijkomende-fietsenstallingen) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128025320/https://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/archief/nieuwsberichten/detail/2000\-bijkomende\-fietsenstallingen \|date\=28 January 2020 }} In 2020, several sections of the underground parking facilities have been built, and the targets have been adjusted to a total of 17,000 parking spots.In Dutch: Project Gent Sint\-Pieters: Voorstelling project, Stationsproject: [Fiets](http://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/voorstelling-project/stationsproject/fiets), site bezocht op 28 January 2020
[ "Transport\n---------", "As one of the largest cities in Belgium, Ghent has a highly developed transport system.", "### Road", "[thumb\\|The R4 ringroad](/wiki/File:R4_gezien_vanuit_de_Beekstraat_-_Gent.jpg \"R4 gezien vanuit de Beekstraat - Gent.jpg\")\nBy car the city is accessible via two motorways:\n* The [E40](/wiki/European_route_E40 \"European route E40\") connects Ghent with [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\") and [Ostend](/wiki/Ostend \"Ostend\") to the west, and with [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"), [Leuven](/wiki/Leuven \"Leuven\") and [Liège](/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge \"Liège\") to the east.\n* The [E17](/wiki/European_route_E17 \"European route E17\") connects Ghent with [Sint\\-Niklaas](/wiki/Sint-Niklaas \"Sint-Niklaas\") and [Antwerp](/wiki/Antwerp \"Antwerp\") to the north, and with [Kortrijk](/wiki/Kortrijk \"Kortrijk\") and [Lille](/wiki/Lille \"Lille\") to the south.", "In addition, Ghent also has two ringways:\n* The R4 connects the outskirts of Ghent with each other and the surrounding villages, and also leads to the [E40](/wiki/European_route_E40 \"European route E40\") and [E17](/wiki/European_route_E17 \"European route E17\") roads.\n* The R40 connects the different downtown quarters with each other and provides access to the main avenues.", "### Rail", "[thumb\\|[Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station\"), Ghent](/wiki/File:Sint-Pietersstation.jpg \"Sint-Pietersstation.jpg\")\nFive [railway stations](/wiki/Railway_station \"Railway station\") can be found in the municipality of Ghent: \n* [Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters Station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station\"): an international railway station with connections to Bruges, Brussels, Antwerp, Kortrijk, other Belgian towns, and Lille. The station also offers a direct connection to [Brussels Airport](/wiki/Brussels_Airport \"Brussels Airport\").\n* [Gent\\-Dampoort Station](/wiki/Gent-Dampoort_railway_station \"Gent-Dampoort railway station\"): an intercity railway station with connections to Sint\\-Niklaas, Antwerp, Kortrijk and [Eeklo](/wiki/Eeklo \"Eeklo\").\n* [Gentbrugge Station](/wiki/Gentbrugge_railway_station \"Gentbrugge railway station\"): a regional railway station in between the two main railway stations, Sint\\-Pieters and Dampoort.\n* Wondelgem Station: a regional railway station with connections to Eeklo once an hour.\n* Drongen Station: a regional railway station in the village of [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen \"Drongen\") with connections to [Bruges](/wiki/Bruges \"Bruges\") once an hour.\n* Gent\\-Zeehaven station: a regional railway station in the port of Ghent with connections to [Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters Station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station\") and the town of [Terneuzen](/wiki/Terneuzen \"Terneuzen\") in [The Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\").", "### Public transport", "Ghent has an extensive network of public transport lines, operated by *[De Lijn](/wiki/De_Lijn \"De Lijn\")*.", "#### Trams", "[thumb\\|A HermeLijn [low\\-floor tram](/wiki/Low-floor_tram \"Low-floor tram\") in Ghent](/wiki/File:HermeLijn_Korenmarkt.JPG \"HermeLijn Korenmarkt.JPG\")\n{{main\\|Trams in Ghent}}", "Since 6/01/2024, the network contains 4 lines:", "", "| Line | Route |\n| **T1** | [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo \"Flanders Expo\") – [Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Gent-Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Gent-Sint-Pieters railway station\") – Kouter – Zuid – Gentbrugge Stelplaats |\n| **T2** | [Evergem](/wiki/Evergem \"Evergem\");– Wondelgem – Korenmarkt – Zuid – [Melle](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium \"Melle, Belgium\") Leeuw |\n| **T3** | [Zwijnaarde](/wiki/Zwijnaarde \"Zwijnaarde\") Bibliotheek – Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters railway station – Kouter – Zuid – Moscou |\n| **T4** | [Gent UZ](/wiki/Ghent_University \"Ghent University\") – Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters railway station – Rabot – Muide – [Lange Steenstraat](/wiki/Lange_Steenstraat \"Lange Steenstraat\") |", "Before 6/01/2024, the network contained 3 lines:", "* Line 1: [Flanders Expo](/wiki/Flanders_Expo \"Flanders Expo\") – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Wondelgem – [Evergem](/wiki/Evergem \"Evergem\")\n* Line 2: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Brabantdam – Zuid – [Melle Leeuw](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium \"Melle, Belgium\") (fuse of line 21 and 22 as of May 2017[https://static.delijn.be/Images/LCD%20LW%20einde%20Bravoko\\_tcm3\\-16462\\.jpg{{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2018 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}](https://static.delijn.be/Images/LCD%20LW%20einde%20Bravoko_tcm3-16462.jpg{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}))\n* Line 4: UZ – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Muide – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Zuid – [Moscou](/wiki/Moscou_%28Ghent%29 \"Moscou (Ghent)\")\n* Line 21: Zwijnaarde Bibliotheek – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – [Melle Leeuw](/wiki/Melle%2C_Belgium \"Melle, Belgium\") (fused into line 2\\)\n* Line 22: Kouter – Bijlokehof – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Zonnestraat (city centre) – Zuid – [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge \"Gentbrugge\") (fused into line 2\\)", "#### Buses", "Since 6/01/2024, the city bus network contains 11 lines:", "* Line 5a: Nieuw Gent – Heuvelpoort \\- Zuid \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- Van Beverenplein \\- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem \"Wondelgem\") Station\n* Line 5b: Nieuw Gent – Heuvelpoort \\- Zuid \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- Meulestede (*\\- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem \"Wondelgem\") Station, not serviced until 2026 due to road works*)\n* Line 6: P\\+R Muide – Sint\\-Jacobs \\- Zuid\n* Line 9a: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge \"Gentbrugge\") – [Ledeberg](/wiki/Ledeberg \"Ledeberg\") \\- [Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Sint-Pieters railway station\") \\- [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent \"Malem, Ghent\") \\- [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders \"Mariakerke, East Flanders\") (Kolegem) \\- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem \"Wondelgem\") Station\n* Line 9b: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge \"Gentbrugge\") – [Ledeberg](/wiki/Ledeberg \"Ledeberg\") \\- [Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Sint-Pieters railway station\") \\- [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent \"Malem, Ghent\") \\- [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders \"Mariakerke, East Flanders\") (Center) \\- [Wondelgem](/wiki/Wondelgem \"Wondelgem\") Station\n* Line 10: [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke%2C_East_Flanders \"Mariakerke, East Flanders\") – [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent \"Korenmarkt, Ghent\") \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent \"Dampoort, Ghent\") \\- Snellaertplein\n* Line 11: [Gentbrugge](/wiki/Gentbrugge \"Gentbrugge\") \\- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent \"Dampoort, Ghent\") \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent \"Korenmarkt, Ghent\") \\- Blaarmeersen\n* Line 12a: Achtendries \\- [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent \"Dampoort, Ghent\") \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent \"Korenmarkt, Ghent\") \\- [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen \"Drongen\") \\- Leerne\n* Line 12b: [Oostakker](/wiki/Oostakker \"Oostakker\") – [Dampoort](/wiki/Dampoort%2C_Ghent \"Dampoort, Ghent\") \\- Sint\\-Jacobs \\- [Korenmarkt](/wiki/Korenmarkt%2C_Ghent \"Korenmarkt, Ghent\") \\- [Drongen](/wiki/Drongen \"Drongen\") Varendries\n* Line 16: Zuid \\- Sint\\-Baafskouter\n* Line 19: [Arteveldestadion](/wiki/Arteveldestadion \"Arteveldestadion\") – [Sint\\-Pieters railway station](/wiki/Sint-Pieters_railway_station \"Sint-Pieters railway station\") \\- Blaarmeersen", "Before 6/01/2024, the city bus network contained 9 lines:\n[thumb\\|A [Van Hool](/wiki/Van_Hool \"Van Hool\") [articulated bus](/wiki/Articulated_bus \"Articulated bus\") in Ghent](/wiki/File:Van_Hool_articulated.JPG \"Van Hool articulated.JPG\")\n* Line 3: [Mariakerke](/wiki/Mariakerke_%28East_Flanders%29 \"Mariakerke (East Flanders)\") – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – Gentbrugge (formerly a [trolleybus](/wiki/Trolleybus \"Trolleybus\") line; see picture below)\n* Line 5: Van Beverenplein – Sint\\-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Nieuw\\-Gent\n* Line 6: Watersportbaan – Zuid – Dampoort – Meulestede – Wondelgem – Mariakerke\n* Line 8: AZ Sint\\-Lucas – Sint\\-Jacobs (city centre) – Zuid – Heuvelpoort – Arteveldepark\n* Line 9: Mariakerke – [Malem](/wiki/Malem%2C_Ghent \"Malem, Ghent\") – Sint\\-Pieters\\-Station – Ledeberg – Gentbrugge\n* Line 17/18: Drongen – Malem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – [Oostakker](/wiki/Oostakker \"Oostakker\")\n* Line 38/39: Blaarmeersen – Ekkergem – Korenmarkt (city centre) – Dampoort – [Sint\\-Amandsberg](/wiki/Sint-Amandsberg \"Sint-Amandsberg\")", "Apart from the city buses mentioned above, Ghent also has numerous regional bus lines connecting it to towns and villages across the province of East Flanders. All of these buses stop in at least one of the city's regional bus hubs at either Sint\\-Pieters Station, Dampoort Station, Zuid or Rabot.", "International buses connecting Ghent to other European destinations are usually found at the Dampoort Station. A couple of private bus companies such as Eurolines, Megabus and Flixbus operate from the Dampoort bus hub.", "Buses to and from Belgium's first ([Brussels Airport](/wiki/Brussels_Airport \"Brussels Airport\")) and second airport ([Brussels South Charleroi Airport](/wiki/Brussels_South_Charleroi_Airport \"Brussels South Charleroi Airport\")) are operated by Flibco, and can be found at the rear exit of the Sint\\-Pieters Station.", "### Cycling", "Ghent has the largest designated cyclist area in Europe, with nearly {{convert\\|400\\|km}} of cycle paths and more than 700 one\\-way streets, where bikes are allowed to go against the traffic. It also boasts Belgium's first [bicycle boulevard](/wiki/Bicycle_boulevard \"Bicycle boulevard\"), where cars are considered 'guests' and must stay behind cyclists.{{citation needed\\|date\\=June 2020}} In 2013, it began doing on\\-street surveys of bicycles, adding bicycle parking racks in neighbourhoods where they were needed. In 2017, the city changed traffic circulation patterns to favour cycling. The switch was done over the course of a single weekend, changing traffic circulation on over 80 streets and 2500 road signs. It expanded the car\\-free zone in the historic city center more than twofold. It also put in radial barriers to car traffic, thus shifting it onto the inner ring road.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ghent's history and future with cycling \\|url\\=https://ecf.com/news\\-and\\-events/news/ghents\\-history\\-and\\-future\\-cycling \\|website\\=ECF \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=29 August 2022}}Youtube: Streetfilms, 2 January 2020: [The Innovative Way Ghent, Belgium Removed Cars From The City](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sEOA_Tcq2XA)", "More cyclists means a higher demand for [bicycle parking stations](/wiki/Bicycle_parking_station \"Bicycle parking station\"). In 2010, the plans to renovate Gent\\-Sint\\-Pieters railway station included 10,000 bicycle parking spots.In Dutch: Project Gent Sint\\-Pieters, nieuwsbericht 9 November 2016:[2000 bijkomende fietsenstallingen](http://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/archief/nieuwsberichten/detail/2000-bijkomende-fietsenstallingen) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128025320/https://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/archief/nieuwsberichten/detail/2000\\-bijkomende\\-fietsenstallingen \\|date\\=28 January 2020 }} In 2020, several sections of the underground parking facilities have been built, and the targets have been adjusted to a total of 17,000 parking spots.In Dutch: Project Gent Sint\\-Pieters: Voorstelling project, Stationsproject: [Fiets](http://www.projectgentsintpieters.be/voorstelling-project/stationsproject/fiets), site bezocht op 28 January 2020", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=left \|1890\= 268 \|1910\= 364 \|1920\= 334 \|1930\= 291 \|1940\= 307 \|1950\= 218 \|1960\= 203 \|1970\= 156 \|1980\= 148 \|1990\= 160 \|2000\= 164 \|2010\= 139 \|2020\= 96 \|estyear\= \|estimate\= \|estref\= \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=\[https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census] }} ### 2020 census The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census") counted 96 people, 47 households, and 26 families in Latham.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 442\.4 per square mile (170\.8/km{{sup\|2}}). There were 64 housing units at an average density of 294\.9 per square mile (113\.9/km{{sup\|2}}).{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\.DP1?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|last\=Bureau \|first\=US Census \|title\=Gazetteer Files \|url\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\-file.html \|access\-date\=2023\-12\-30 \|website\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 86\.46% (83\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") or [European American](/wiki/European_American "European American") (85\.42% [non\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White "Non-Hispanic White")), 0\.0% (0\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") or [African\-American](/wiki/African_American "African American"), 0\.0% (0\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native"), 0\.0% (0\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.0% (0\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian "Native Hawaiian"), 0\.0% (0\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 13\.54% (13\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans").{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P1?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race was 4\.17% (4\) of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\.P2?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Of the 47 households, 25\.5% had children under the age of 18; 38\.3% were married couples living together; 17\.0% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 34\.0% of households consisted of individuals and 21\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.8 and the average family size was 1\.9\.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1101?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 2\.1% of the population.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1501?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} 14\.6% of the population was under the age of 18, 1\.0% from 18 to 24, 18\.8% from 25 to 44, 45\.8% from 45 to 64, and 19\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 54\.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 71\.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 70\.8 males. The 2016\-2020 5\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey "American Community Survey") estimates show that males had a median income of $66,250 (\+/\- $39,944\) versus $3,926 (\+/\- $632\) for females.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S2001?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 79\.6% of families and 64\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 69\.5% of those under the age of 18 and 0\.0% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1701?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \|title\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\.S1702?q\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=2024\-01\-03 \|website\=data.census.gov}} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2012\-07\-06}} of 2010, there were 139 people, 61 households, and 36 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|556\.0\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 82 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|328\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.2% of the population. There were 61 households, of which 31\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 9\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41\.0% were non\-families. 37\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.28 and the average family size was 2\.86\. The median age in the city was 43\.3 years. 26\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20\.9% were from 25 to 44; 35\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 12\.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51\.1% male and 48\.9% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=2008\-01\-31\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 164 people, 65 households, and 41 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|682\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 81 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|337\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\.90% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.61% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), and 5\.49% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.61% of the population. There were 65 households, out of which 33\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 7\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\.4% were non\-families. 32\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.52 and the average family size was 3\.17\. In the city, the population was spread out, with 34\.1% under the age of 18, 6\.1% from 18 to 24, 30\.5% from 25 to 44, 20\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116\.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,417, and the median income for a family was $42,292\. Males had a median income of $33,750 versus $25,536 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $13,385\. About 12\.8% of families and 21\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 33\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 66\.7% of those 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\n\\|1890\\= 268\n\\|1910\\= 364\n\\|1920\\= 334\n\\|1930\\= 291\n\\|1940\\= 307\n\\|1950\\= 218\n\\|1960\\= 203\n\\|1970\\= 156\n\\|1980\\= 148\n\\|1990\\= 160\n\\|2000\\= 164\n\\|2010\\= 139\n\\|2020\\= 96\n\\|estyear\\=\n\\|estimate\\=\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=\\[https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html U.S. Decennial Census]\n}}\n### 2020 census", "The [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\") counted 96 people, 47 households, and 26 families in Latham.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: HOUSEHOLD TYPE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p16\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The population density was 442\\.4 per square mile (170\\.8/km{{sup\\|2}}). There were 64 housing units at an average density of 294\\.9 per square mile (113\\.9/km{{sup\\|2}}).{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table DP1: PROFILE OF GENERAL POPULATION AND HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020\\.DP1?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20dp1 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bureau \\|first\\=US Census \\|title\\=Gazetteer Files \\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference\\-files/2020/geo/gazetter\\-file.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-12\\-30 \\|website\\=Census.gov}} The racial makeup was 86\\.46% (83\\) [white](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") or [European American](/wiki/European_American \"European American\") (85\\.42% [non\\-Hispanic white](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_White \"Non-Hispanic White\")), 0\\.0% (0\\) [black](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") or [African\\-American](/wiki/African_American \"African American\"), 0\\.0% (0\\) [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\"), 0\\.0% (0\\) [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.0% (0\\) [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\") or [Native Hawaiian](/wiki/Native_Hawaiian \"Native Hawaiian\"), 0\\.0% (0\\) from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 13\\.54% (13\\) from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P1: RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P1?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p1\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race was 4\\.17% (4\\) of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P2: HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20p2\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}", "Of the 47 households, 25\\.5% had children under the age of 18; 38\\.3% were married couples living together; 17\\.0% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present. 34\\.0% of households consisted of individuals and 21\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.8 and the average family size was 1\\.9\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1101: HOUSEHOLDS AND FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1101?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1101%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} The percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher was estimated to be 2\\.1% of the population.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1501: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1501?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1501%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}", "14\\.6% of the population was under the age of 18, 1\\.0% from 18 to 24, 18\\.8% from 25 to 44, 45\\.8% from 45 to 64, and 19\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 54\\.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 71\\.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older, there were 70\\.8 males.", "The 2016\\-2020 5\\-year [American Community Survey](/wiki/American_Community_Survey \"American Community Survey\") estimates show that males had a median income of $66,250 (\\+/\\- $39,944\\) versus $3,926 (\\+/\\- $632\\) for females.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S2001: EARNINGS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS (IN 2020 INFLATION\\-ADJUSTED DOLLARS) \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S2001?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s2001%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}} Approximately, 79\\.6% of families and 64\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 69\\.5% of those under the age of 18 and 0\\.0% of those ages 65 or over.{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1701: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1701?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1701%20\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table S1702: POVERTY STATUS IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS OF FAMILIES \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table/ACSST5Y2020\\.S1702?q\\=Latham%20city,%20Kansas%20s1702\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-01\\-03 \\|website\\=data.census.gov}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2012\\-07\\-06}} of 2010, there were 139 people, 61 households, and 36 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|556\\.0\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 82 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|328\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 96\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.2% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.2% of the population.", "There were 61 households, of which 31\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42\\.6% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 9\\.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41\\.0% were non\\-families. 37\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.28 and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.", "The median age in the city was 43\\.3 years. 26\\.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20\\.9% were from 25 to 44; 35\\.3% were from 45 to 64; and 12\\.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51\\.1% male and 48\\.9% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-01\\-31\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 164 people, 65 households, and 41 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|682\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 81 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|337\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 93\\.90% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.61% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), and 5\\.49% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.61% of the population.", "There were 65 households, out of which 33\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 7\\.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35\\.4% were non\\-families. 32\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.52 and the average family size was 3\\.17\\.", "In the city, the population was spread out, with 34\\.1% under the age of 18, 6\\.1% from 18 to 24, 30\\.5% from 25 to 44, 20\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 105\\.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116\\.0 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $35,417, and the median income for a family was $42,292\\. Males had a median income of $33,750 versus $25,536 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $13,385\\. About 12\\.8% of families and 21\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 33\\.3% of those under the age of eighteen and 66\\.7% of those 65 or over.", "" ]
Physical characteristics ------------------------ In the [Tholen classification](/wiki/Tholen_classification "Tholen classification"), *Franziska*{{'}}s [spectral type](/wiki/Asteroid_spectral_type "Asteroid spectral type") is ambiguous. It is closest to a common [C\-type](/wiki/C-type_asteroid "C-type asteroid"), and somewhat similar to the rare and also carbonaceous [G\-type asteroids](/wiki/G-type_asteroid "G-type asteroid") (CG). The spectrum has also been labelled as "unusual" by Tholen (U). For a carbonaceous asteroid, it has a relatively high albedo *(see below)*. ### Rotation period In December 2013, a rotational [lightcurve](/wiki/Lightcurve "Lightcurve") of *Franziska* was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer [Frederick Pilcher](/wiki/Frederick_Pilcher "Frederick Pilcher") at the Organ Mesa Observatory {{Obscode\|G50}} in New Mexico. Lightcurve analysis gave a well\-defined [rotation period](/wiki/Rotation_period "Rotation period") of 16\.507 hours with a brightness variation of 0\.35 [magnitude](/wiki/Magnitude_%28astronomy%29 "Magnitude (astronomy)") ({{small\|\[\[LCDB quality code\|U\=3]]}}). The result supersedes [Richard Binzel](/wiki/Richard_P._Binzel "Richard P. Binzel")'s previously obtained lightcurve from May 1985, which gave a period of 14\.0 hours and an amplitude of 0\.53 magnitude ({{small\|\[\[LCDB quality code\|U\=2]]}}). ### Poles Two lightcurves, published in 2016, using modeled photometric data from the Lowell Photometric Database (LPD) and other sources, gave a concurring period of 16\.5044 and 16\.5045 hours, respectively. Each modeled lightcurve also determined two [spin axes](/wiki/Poles_of_astronomical_bodies "Poles of astronomical bodies") of (122\.0°, −50\.0°) and (301\.0°, −59\.0°), as well as (282\.0°, −79\.0°) and (114\.0°, −45\.0°) in [ecliptic coordinates](/wiki/Ecliptic_coordinate_system "Ecliptic coordinate system") (λ, β), respectively. ### Diameter and albedo According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite [IRAS](/wiki/IRAS "IRAS"), the Japanese [Akari satellite](/wiki/Akari_%28satellite%29 "Akari (satellite)") and the [NEOWISE](/wiki/NEOWISE "NEOWISE") mission of NASA's [Wide\-field Infrared Survey Explorer](/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer "Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer"), *Franziska* measures between 25\.261 and 28\.67 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an [albedo](/wiki/Astronomical_albedo "Astronomical albedo") between 0\.1226 and 0\.147\. The *Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link* derives an albedo of 0\.1143 and a diameter of 28\.61 kilometers based on an [absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude "Absolute magnitude") of 10\.69\.
[ "Physical characteristics\n------------------------", "In the [Tholen classification](/wiki/Tholen_classification \"Tholen classification\"), *Franziska*{{'}}s [spectral type](/wiki/Asteroid_spectral_type \"Asteroid spectral type\") is ambiguous. It is closest to a common [C\\-type](/wiki/C-type_asteroid \"C-type asteroid\"), and somewhat similar to the rare and also carbonaceous [G\\-type asteroids](/wiki/G-type_asteroid \"G-type asteroid\") (CG). The spectrum has also been labelled as \"unusual\" by Tholen (U). For a carbonaceous asteroid, it has a relatively high albedo *(see below)*.", "### Rotation period", "In December 2013, a rotational [lightcurve](/wiki/Lightcurve \"Lightcurve\") of *Franziska* was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer [Frederick Pilcher](/wiki/Frederick_Pilcher \"Frederick Pilcher\") at the Organ Mesa Observatory {{Obscode\\|G50}} in New Mexico. Lightcurve analysis gave a well\\-defined [rotation period](/wiki/Rotation_period \"Rotation period\") of 16\\.507 hours with a brightness variation of 0\\.35 [magnitude](/wiki/Magnitude_%28astronomy%29 \"Magnitude (astronomy)\") ({{small\\|\\[\\[LCDB quality code\\|U\\=3]]}}). The result supersedes [Richard Binzel](/wiki/Richard_P._Binzel \"Richard P. Binzel\")'s previously obtained lightcurve from May 1985, which gave a period of 14\\.0 hours and an amplitude of 0\\.53 magnitude ({{small\\|\\[\\[LCDB quality code\\|U\\=2]]}}).", "### Poles", "Two lightcurves, published in 2016, using modeled photometric data from the Lowell Photometric Database (LPD) and other sources, gave a concurring period of 16\\.5044 and 16\\.5045 hours, respectively. Each modeled lightcurve also determined two [spin axes](/wiki/Poles_of_astronomical_bodies \"Poles of astronomical bodies\") of (122\\.0°, −50\\.0°) and (301\\.0°, −59\\.0°), as well as (282\\.0°, −79\\.0°) and (114\\.0°, −45\\.0°) in [ecliptic coordinates](/wiki/Ecliptic_coordinate_system \"Ecliptic coordinate system\") (λ, β), respectively.", "### Diameter and albedo", "According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite [IRAS](/wiki/IRAS \"IRAS\"), the Japanese [Akari satellite](/wiki/Akari_%28satellite%29 \"Akari (satellite)\") and the [NEOWISE](/wiki/NEOWISE \"NEOWISE\") mission of NASA's [Wide\\-field Infrared Survey Explorer](/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer \"Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer\"), *Franziska* measures between 25\\.261 and 28\\.67 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an [albedo](/wiki/Astronomical_albedo \"Astronomical albedo\") between 0\\.1226 and 0\\.147\\.", "The *Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link* derives an albedo of 0\\.1143 and a diameter of 28\\.61 kilometers based on an [absolute magnitude](/wiki/Absolute_magnitude \"Absolute magnitude\") of 10\\.69\\.", "" ]
Production ---------- Screenplays were written by Ian Jones, Terry Stapleton and [Howard Griffiths](/wiki/Howard_Griffiths_%28screenwriter%29 "Howard Griffiths (screenwriter)"), who reputedly had a background in British military intelligence before emigrating. The line producer for the majority of the show's run was [Allan Trevor](/wiki/Allan_Trevor "Allan Trevor"), who also appeared occasionally as an actor. Most episodes were directed by Ted Gregory, a longtime Crawford studio director, with Jones supervising a lean and mobile film unit. The series became extremely popular rating in the top\-ten most popular programs in Australia for 1967, and had a run of 65 one\-hour episodes. It also achieved a limited number of international sales. It was produced in black and white, with interior scenes recorded on [videotape](/wiki/Videotape "Videotape") in the [GTV\-9](/wiki/GTV-9 "GTV-9") Richmond studio and outdoor scenes shot on location on [16 mm film](/wiki/16_mm_film "16 mm film"). Compared to Australian drama series of the day, the series featured an above\-average quota of location\-shot action footage, explosions and stunts. It was accompanied by a sophisticated, original jazz theme, fanfare and underscore by [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 "Reed (instrument)") player and composer [Frank Smith](/wiki/Frank_Smith_%28musician%29 "Frank Smith (musician)"). The Melbourne\-based show filmed some episodes in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney") and in the [Snowy Mountains](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains "Snowy Mountains") in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales "New South Wales"), on the [Gold Coast, Queensland](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland "Gold Coast, Queensland"), in [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia "South Australia"), and overseas in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore "Singapore"). Initially stories were serialised over three and four\-episode story arcs. Soon the decision was made to switch to stand\-alone episodes. After episode 15 episodes largely featured a self\-contained story, apart from two subsequent two\-part stories. Notably, a first season arc, "The [Prometheus](/wiki/Prometheus "Prometheus") File," was set at the high\-security [Woomera Rocket Range](/wiki/RAAF_Woomera_Range_Complex "RAAF Woomera Range Complex") and featured actual footage of the [Blue Streak](/wiki/Blue_Streak_%28missile%29 "Blue Streak (missile)") launch, with the actors even allowed access to the tallest [gantry](/wiki/Woomera_Launch_Area_5 "Woomera Launch Area 5") for the climactic fight. Kevin Sanders, a GTV\-9 news journalist and announcer, supplied the opening narration setting up the lead character and premise over the main title sequence. While the series was in early development, [President Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson "Lyndon B. Johnson") made a [tickertape motorcade](/wiki/Ticker-tape_parade "Ticker-tape parade") through Melbourne in October 1966, which was opportunistically filmed as a backdrop to establish Hunter as a special agent in the large welcome crowd at [Melbourne Town Hall](/wiki/Melbourne_Town_Hall "Melbourne Town Hall") for inserting in the first season intro.
[ "Production\n----------", "Screenplays were written by Ian Jones, Terry Stapleton and [Howard Griffiths](/wiki/Howard_Griffiths_%28screenwriter%29 \"Howard Griffiths (screenwriter)\"), who reputedly had a background in British military intelligence before emigrating. The line producer for the majority of the show's run was [Allan Trevor](/wiki/Allan_Trevor \"Allan Trevor\"), who also appeared occasionally as an actor. Most episodes were directed by Ted Gregory, a longtime Crawford studio director, with Jones supervising a lean and mobile film unit.", "The series became extremely popular rating in the top\\-ten most popular programs in Australia for 1967, and had a run of 65 one\\-hour episodes. It also achieved a limited number of international sales. It was produced in black and white, with interior scenes recorded on [videotape](/wiki/Videotape \"Videotape\") in the [GTV\\-9](/wiki/GTV-9 \"GTV-9\") Richmond studio and outdoor scenes shot on location on [16 mm film](/wiki/16_mm_film \"16 mm film\").", "Compared to Australian drama series of the day, the series featured an above\\-average quota of location\\-shot action footage, explosions and stunts. It was accompanied by a sophisticated, original jazz theme, fanfare and underscore by [reed](/wiki/Reed_%28instrument%29 \"Reed (instrument)\") player and composer [Frank Smith](/wiki/Frank_Smith_%28musician%29 \"Frank Smith (musician)\"). The Melbourne\\-based show filmed some episodes in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\") and in the [Snowy Mountains](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains \"Snowy Mountains\") in [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales \"New South Wales\"), on the [Gold Coast, Queensland](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland \"Gold Coast, Queensland\"), in [South Australia](/wiki/South_Australia \"South Australia\"), and overseas in [Singapore](/wiki/Singapore \"Singapore\").", "Initially stories were serialised over three and four\\-episode story arcs. Soon the decision was made to switch to stand\\-alone episodes. After episode 15 episodes largely featured a self\\-contained story, apart from two subsequent two\\-part stories. Notably, a first season arc, \"The [Prometheus](/wiki/Prometheus \"Prometheus\") File,\" was set at the high\\-security [Woomera Rocket Range](/wiki/RAAF_Woomera_Range_Complex \"RAAF Woomera Range Complex\") and featured actual footage of the [Blue Streak](/wiki/Blue_Streak_%28missile%29 \"Blue Streak (missile)\") launch, with the actors even allowed access to the tallest [gantry](/wiki/Woomera_Launch_Area_5 \"Woomera Launch Area 5\") for the climactic fight.", "Kevin Sanders, a GTV\\-9 news journalist and announcer, supplied the opening narration setting up the lead character and premise over the main title sequence. While the series was in early development, [President Johnson](/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson \"Lyndon B. Johnson\") made a [tickertape motorcade](/wiki/Ticker-tape_parade \"Ticker-tape parade\") through Melbourne in October 1966, which was opportunistically filmed as a backdrop to establish Hunter as a special agent in the large welcome crowd at [Melbourne Town Hall](/wiki/Melbourne_Town_Hall \"Melbourne Town Hall\") for inserting in the first season intro.", "" ]
House of Bourbon\-Carency (14th–16th centuries) ----------------------------------------------- * **John of Bourbon** (1378–1457\) *Lord of [Carency](/wiki/Carency "Carency")\-en\-[Artois](/wiki/Artois "Artois") and of [Aubigny\-en\-Artois](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois "Aubigny-en-Artois")* He was the third son of [John I, Count of La Marche](/wiki/John_I%2C_Count_of_La_Marche "John I, Count of La Marche"), and of [Catherine of Vendôme](/wiki/Catherine_of_Vend%C3%B4me "Catherine of Vendôme"). In 1416 he married Catherine [of Artois](/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Artois "Capetian House of Artois") (†1420\), second daughter of [Philip of Artois](/wiki/Philip_of_Artois%2C_Count_of_Eu "Philip of Artois, Count of Eu"), [count of Eu](/wiki/Count_of_Eu "Count of Eu") and of [Marie of Berry](/wiki/Marie_of_Berry "Marie of Berry"). In 1420 he married Jeanne [of Vendômois](/wiki/Count_of_Vend%C3%B4me "Count of Vendôme"), daughter of Hamelin of [Vendômois](/wiki/Count_of_Vend%C3%B4me "Count of Vendôme") and of Alix de Bessé, with whom he had : 1\. Louis of Bourbon (1417\-†1453\), knight, lord of the towns and lands of [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse "Lécluse"), [Carency](/wiki/Carency "Carency"), [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois "Aubigny-en-Artois"), Aix, [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans "Duisans"), Buquoy, [Combles](/wiki/Combles "Combles")...; 2\. John (1418\-†1458\) 3\. Jeanne (1419\-†1443\) 4\. Catherine (1421–?) 5\. **Pierre de Bourbon** (1424\-†1481\)), lord of [Carency](/wiki/Carency "Carency"), lord of the lands and [seigneuries](/wiki/Fiefdom "Fiefdom") of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans "Duisans"), in 1450 married Philippotte de Plaine; 6\. **Jacques de Bourbon** (1425\-†\>1493\) see below ; 7\. Eléonore (1426–?) 8\. Andriette (1427–?) 9\. Philippe de Bourbon (1429–?), lord of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans "Duisans"), married Catherine de [Lalaing](/wiki/%C3%89caussinnes-Lalaing "Écaussinnes-Lalaing") (†1478\), daughter of Sance de [Lalaing](/wiki/%C3%89caussinnes-Lalaing "Écaussinnes-Lalaing"), lord of [Opprebais](/wiki/Sart-Risbart "Sart-Risbart"), grand bailiff of Le [Cambrésis](/wiki/Cambr%C3%A9sis "Cambrésis"), and of Catherine de [Robersart](/wiki/Robersart "Robersart"), lady of [Écaillon](/wiki/%C3%89caillon_%28Nord%29 "Écaillon (Nord)") and of Bruille. 9\.1 Antoine de Bourbon, lord of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans "Duisans"), married Jeanne de Habarcq, daughter of Pierre de Habarcq, lord of Gournay, and of Marie de [Ranchicourt](/wiki/Ranchicourt "Ranchicourt") ; 9\.1\.1 Pierre de Bourbon, died in infancy ; 9\.1\.2 Philippe de Bourbon who took the side of [Charles III, Duke of Bourbon](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Bourbon "Charles III, Duke of Bourbon"); 9\.1\.3 Jeanne de Bourbon, married by contract at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins_%28Allier%29 "Moulins (Allier)") on 20 January 1489, François Rolin, lord of Beauchamp and of Monetay; 9\.1\.4 Jeanne de Bourbon, died aged 14 and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours "Tours") ; 9\.1\.5 Eléonore de Bourbon, died and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours "Tours") ; 9\.1\.6 Andriette de Bourbon, died and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours "Tours") . * **Jacques de Bourbon** (1425\-†\>1493\)) *Lord of Carency, [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois "Aubigny-en-Artois"), Rochefort, Buquoy, [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse "Lécluse").* He was Lieutenant Général of [John II, Duke of Bourbon](/wiki/John_II%2C_Duke_of_Bourbon "John II, Duke of Bourbon") on his lands, by letters patent given at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins%2C_Allier "Moulins, Allier") on 28 February 1486\. [Louis XI](/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France "Louis XI of France") granted him the goods confiscated from Peter of Bourbon by letters of 20 April 1469\. He was still living in 1493\. In 1442 he married Antoinette de [la Tour](/wiki/La_Tour-d%27Auvergne "La Tour-d'Auvergne"), widow of Jacques Aubert, lord of Marteil and daughter of Annet II de [la Tour](/wiki/La_Tour-d%27Auvergne "La Tour-d'Auvergne"), lord of [Olliergues](/wiki/Olliergues "Olliergues") and of Elips de [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat "Vendat"), with whom he had : 1\. **Charles** (1444–?) see below 2\. Jean de Bourbon (1446–?), lord of Rochefort, d’Arson, married Jeanne de l’Isle, widow of Arnoul, lord of la Hanaide and Condé, only daughter of Jacques de l’Isle, lord of Frêne and of Catherine de Neusville, without posterity. * **Charles de Bourbon** (1444–?) *"Prince" of Carency, lord of [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois "Aubigny-en-Artois"), Rochefort, Buquoy, [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse "Lécluse"), Bougny, [Combles](/wiki/Combles "Combles"), Abret, [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat "Vendat"), Bains, Saint\-Georges and [Ternat](/wiki/Ternat "Ternat"), [Count of La Marche](/wiki/Count_of_La_Marche "Count of La Marche").* On 15 January 1468 he married Didière [of Vergy](/wiki/House_of_Vergy "House of Vergy"), only daughter and heir of Jean [of Vergy](/wiki/House_of_Vergy "House of Vergy"), lord of Fouvens and Vinory and of Marguerite de la Rocheguyon, no issue. On 8 November 1481, he married Antoinette de Chabannes (†1490\), daughter of Geoffroy de Chabannes, knight, lord of [Charlus](/wiki/Charlus "Charlus") and of Charlotte de Prie, no issue. On 18 April 1493, he married Catherine d’Alègre, daughter of Bertrand d’Alègre, baron of Puysaguet, lord of Busset, baron of Puysaguet, Le Temple and Saint\-Priest, and of Isabelle de Levy\-Cousan, by whom he had : 1\. Bertrand de Bourbon (1494\-†1515\)), died in the [battle of Marignan](/wiki/Battle_of_Marignan "Battle of Marignan") in 1515, no issue. 2\. Jean de Bourbon (1500\-†1520\), died at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins%2C_Allier "Moulins, Allier"), no issue. 3\. Louise de Bourbon, dame de [Combles](/wiki/Combles "Combles"), Buquoy and [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat "Vendat"). 4\. **Isabelle de Bourbon** see below * **Isabelle de Bourbon** *Princess of Carency, [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois "Aubigny-en-Artois"), [Combles](/wiki/Combles "Combles") and Buquoy.* On 22 February 1516 she married François de Peyrusse d'Escars (or des Cars) (†1550\), lord of La Vauguyon, councillor, chamberlain, gentleman of the king's chamber to [Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France "Francis I of France"), with whom she had : 1\. **Jean d’Escars** (†1595\) see below 2\. Susanne, in 1536 married Geoffroy de [Pompadour](/wiki/Arnac-Pompadour "Arnac-Pompadour") 3\. Anne, married Jean II de La Queille baron de [Fleurat](/wiki/Fleurat "Fleurat") 4\. Marguerite (†1589\) abbess of [Ligueux](/wiki/Ligueux%2C_Dordogne "Ligueux, Dordogne") 5\. Catherine
[ "House of Bourbon\\-Carency (14th–16th centuries)\n-----------------------------------------------", "* **John of Bourbon** (1378–1457\\)\n*Lord of [Carency](/wiki/Carency \"Carency\")\\-en\\-[Artois](/wiki/Artois \"Artois\") and of [Aubigny\\-en\\-Artois](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois \"Aubigny-en-Artois\")*", "He was the third son of [John I, Count of La Marche](/wiki/John_I%2C_Count_of_La_Marche \"John I, Count of La Marche\"), and of [Catherine of Vendôme](/wiki/Catherine_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Catherine of Vendôme\").", "In 1416 he married Catherine [of Artois](/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Artois \"Capetian House of Artois\") (†1420\\), second daughter of [Philip of Artois](/wiki/Philip_of_Artois%2C_Count_of_Eu \"Philip of Artois, Count of Eu\"), [count of Eu](/wiki/Count_of_Eu \"Count of Eu\") and of [Marie of Berry](/wiki/Marie_of_Berry \"Marie of Berry\").", "In 1420 he married Jeanne [of Vendômois](/wiki/Count_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Count of Vendôme\"), daughter of Hamelin of [Vendômois](/wiki/Count_of_Vend%C3%B4me \"Count of Vendôme\") and of Alix de Bessé, with whom he had :", "1\\. Louis of Bourbon (1417\\-†1453\\), knight, lord of the towns and lands of [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse \"Lécluse\"), [Carency](/wiki/Carency \"Carency\"), [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois \"Aubigny-en-Artois\"), Aix, [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans \"Duisans\"), Buquoy, [Combles](/wiki/Combles \"Combles\")...;\n2\\. John (1418\\-†1458\\)\n3\\. Jeanne (1419\\-†1443\\)\n4\\. Catherine (1421–?)\n5\\. **Pierre de Bourbon** (1424\\-†1481\\)), lord of [Carency](/wiki/Carency \"Carency\"), lord of the lands and [seigneuries](/wiki/Fiefdom \"Fiefdom\") of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans \"Duisans\"), in 1450 married Philippotte de Plaine;\n6\\. **Jacques de Bourbon** (1425\\-†\\>1493\\) see below ;\n7\\. Eléonore (1426–?)\n8\\. Andriette (1427–?)\n9\\. Philippe de Bourbon (1429–?), lord of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans \"Duisans\"), married Catherine de [Lalaing](/wiki/%C3%89caussinnes-Lalaing \"Écaussinnes-Lalaing\") (†1478\\), daughter of Sance de [Lalaing](/wiki/%C3%89caussinnes-Lalaing \"Écaussinnes-Lalaing\"), lord of [Opprebais](/wiki/Sart-Risbart \"Sart-Risbart\"), grand bailiff of Le [Cambrésis](/wiki/Cambr%C3%A9sis \"Cambrésis\"), and of Catherine de [Robersart](/wiki/Robersart \"Robersart\"), lady of [Écaillon](/wiki/%C3%89caillon_%28Nord%29 \"Écaillon (Nord)\") and of Bruille.\n9\\.1 Antoine de Bourbon, lord of [Duisans](/wiki/Duisans \"Duisans\"), married Jeanne de Habarcq, daughter of Pierre de Habarcq, lord of Gournay, and of Marie de [Ranchicourt](/wiki/Ranchicourt \"Ranchicourt\") ;\n9\\.1\\.1 Pierre de Bourbon, died in infancy ;\n9\\.1\\.2 Philippe de Bourbon who took the side of [Charles III, Duke of Bourbon](/wiki/Charles_III%2C_Duke_of_Bourbon \"Charles III, Duke of Bourbon\");\n9\\.1\\.3 Jeanne de Bourbon, married by contract at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins_%28Allier%29 \"Moulins (Allier)\") on 20 January 1489, François Rolin, lord of Beauchamp and of Monetay;\n9\\.1\\.4 Jeanne de Bourbon, died aged 14 and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours \"Tours\") ;\n9\\.1\\.5 Eléonore de Bourbon, died and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours \"Tours\") ;\n9\\.1\\.6 Andriette de Bourbon, died and buried at [Tours](/wiki/Tours \"Tours\") .\n* **Jacques de Bourbon** (1425\\-†\\>1493\\))\n*Lord of Carency, [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois \"Aubigny-en-Artois\"), Rochefort, Buquoy, [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse \"Lécluse\").*", "He was Lieutenant Général of [John II, Duke of Bourbon](/wiki/John_II%2C_Duke_of_Bourbon \"John II, Duke of Bourbon\") on his lands, by letters patent given at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins%2C_Allier \"Moulins, Allier\") on 28 February 1486\\. [Louis XI](/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France \"Louis XI of France\") granted him the goods confiscated from Peter of Bourbon by letters of 20 April 1469\\. He was still living in 1493\\.", "In 1442 he married Antoinette de [la Tour](/wiki/La_Tour-d%27Auvergne \"La Tour-d'Auvergne\"), widow of Jacques Aubert, lord of Marteil and daughter of Annet II de [la Tour](/wiki/La_Tour-d%27Auvergne \"La Tour-d'Auvergne\"), lord of [Olliergues](/wiki/Olliergues \"Olliergues\") and of Elips de [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat \"Vendat\"), with whom he had :", "1\\. **Charles** (1444–?) see below\n2\\. Jean de Bourbon (1446–?), lord of Rochefort, d’Arson, married Jeanne de l’Isle, widow of Arnoul, lord of la Hanaide and Condé, only daughter of Jacques de l’Isle, lord of Frêne and of Catherine de Neusville, without posterity.\n* **Charles de Bourbon** (1444–?)\n*\"Prince\" of Carency, lord of [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois \"Aubigny-en-Artois\"), Rochefort, Buquoy, [Lécluse](/wiki/L%C3%A9cluse \"Lécluse\"), Bougny, [Combles](/wiki/Combles \"Combles\"), Abret, [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat \"Vendat\"), Bains, Saint\\-Georges and [Ternat](/wiki/Ternat \"Ternat\"), [Count of La Marche](/wiki/Count_of_La_Marche \"Count of La Marche\").*", "On 15 January 1468 he married Didière [of Vergy](/wiki/House_of_Vergy \"House of Vergy\"), only daughter and heir of Jean [of Vergy](/wiki/House_of_Vergy \"House of Vergy\"), lord of Fouvens and Vinory and of Marguerite de la Rocheguyon, no issue.", "On 8 November 1481, he married Antoinette de Chabannes (†1490\\), daughter of Geoffroy de Chabannes, knight, lord of [Charlus](/wiki/Charlus \"Charlus\") and of Charlotte de Prie, no issue.", "On 18 April 1493, he married Catherine d’Alègre, daughter of Bertrand d’Alègre, baron of Puysaguet, lord of Busset, baron of Puysaguet, Le Temple and Saint\\-Priest, and of Isabelle de Levy\\-Cousan, by whom he had :", "1\\. Bertrand de Bourbon (1494\\-†1515\\)), died in the [battle of Marignan](/wiki/Battle_of_Marignan \"Battle of Marignan\") in 1515, no issue.\n2\\. Jean de Bourbon (1500\\-†1520\\), died at [Moulins](/wiki/Moulins%2C_Allier \"Moulins, Allier\"), no issue.\n3\\. Louise de Bourbon, dame de [Combles](/wiki/Combles \"Combles\"), Buquoy and [Vendat](/wiki/Vendat \"Vendat\").\n4\\. **Isabelle de Bourbon** see below\n* **Isabelle de Bourbon**\n*Princess of Carency, [Aubigny](/wiki/Aubigny-en-Artois \"Aubigny-en-Artois\"), [Combles](/wiki/Combles \"Combles\") and Buquoy.*", "On 22 February 1516 she married François de Peyrusse d'Escars (or des Cars) (†1550\\), lord of La Vauguyon, councillor, chamberlain, gentleman of the king's chamber to [Francis I](/wiki/Francis_I_of_France \"Francis I of France\"), with whom she had :\n1\\. **Jean d’Escars** (†1595\\) see below\n2\\. Susanne, in 1536 married Geoffroy de [Pompadour](/wiki/Arnac-Pompadour \"Arnac-Pompadour\")\n3\\. Anne, married Jean II de La Queille baron de [Fleurat](/wiki/Fleurat \"Fleurat\")\n4\\. Marguerite (†1589\\) abbess of [Ligueux](/wiki/Ligueux%2C_Dordogne \"Ligueux, Dordogne\")\n5\\. Catherine", "" ]
Work ---- He was supported in his research career by the [government](/wiki/Government "Government"), and was employed in various [public works](/wiki/Public_works "Public works") projects. ### Scientific instruments Among his contributions to scientific instrumentation were improvements to the [barometer](/wiki/Barometer "Barometer") (1695\), [hygrometer](/wiki/Hygrometer "Hygrometer") (1687\), and [thermometer](/wiki/Thermometer "Thermometer") (1695\), particularly for use of these instruments at sea. He also demonstrated an [optical telegraph](/wiki/Optical_telegraph "Optical telegraph") and proposed the use of his clepsydraAmontons, G. (1695\), *Remarques et expériences physiques sur la construction d'une nouvelle clepsydre*, Paris. ([water clock](/wiki/Water_clock "Water clock")) for [keeping time on a ship at sea](/wiki/Marine_chronometer "Marine chronometer"). ### Thermodynamics Amontons investigated the relationship between [pressure](/wiki/Pressure "Pressure") and [temperature](/wiki/Temperature "Temperature") in [gases](/wiki/Gas "Gas") though he lacked [accurate and precise](/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision "Accuracy and precision") [thermometers](/wiki/Thermometer "Thermometer"). Though his results were at best semi\-[quantitative](/wiki/Quantitative_research "Quantitative research"), he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one\-third between the temperatures of *cold* and the [boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point "Boiling point") of [water](/wiki/Water "Water").Amontons (20 June 1699\) [*Moyen de substituer commodement l'action du feu, a la force des hommes et des cheveaux pour mouvoir les machines*](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k35013/f265.image.langEN) (Method of substituting the force of fire for horse and man power to move machines), *Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences*, in: *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*, pp. 112\-126\. This was a substantial step towards the subsequent [gas laws](/wiki/Gas_laws "Gas laws") and, in particular, [Gay\-Lussac's law](/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law "Gay-Lussac's law"). His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. Though he came close to finding [absolute zero](/wiki/Absolute_zero "Absolute zero") \- the theoretical temperature by which the volume of air in his [air\-thermometer](/wiki/Gas_thermometer "Gas thermometer") will be reduced to nothing (estimated by him as −240° on the [Celsius](/wiki/Celsius "Celsius") scale),{{Cite EB1911\|wstitle\=Cold}} the discovery would not be complete until at least a century later. Guillaume Amontons is also the inventor of the [hot air engine](/wiki/Hot_air_engine "Hot air engine").{{cite web\|url\=http://hotairengines.org/primitive\-air\-engine/amontons\-1699\|title\=Amontons' engine\|work\=hotairengines.org}} In 1699, he built his first engine, more than a century earlier than the well\-known Stirling engine.{{cite web\|url\=http://hotairengines.org/closed\-cycle\-engine/stirling\-1816\|title\=The Stirling Engine\|work\=hotairengines.org}} This engine, named by Amontons a "fire mill" (*moulin à feu*) followed a new thermodynamic cycle, which later became known as the Stirling cycle. The fire mill is a wheel that makes use of the expansion of heated air to generate motive power. The calculated power of Amontons' fire mill was 39 HP, equal to the power of the most powerful hot air engines of the 19th century (with the exception of the "caloric engine" of Ericsson{{cite web\|url\=http://hotairengines.org/open\-cycle\-engine/ericsson\-1851\|title\=Ericsson's Caloric Engine\|work\=hotairengines.org}}). The main difference between Amontons' engine and the hot air engines of the 19th century was the nature of the piston (Amontons used water) and the use of rotational motion instead of alternating motion. ### Friction [right\|200px\|thumb\|[Free\-body diagram](/wiki/Free-body_diagram "Free-body diagram") for a block on a ramp. Arrows are [vectors](/wiki/Euclidean_vector "Euclidean vector") indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. *N* is the normal force, *mg* is the force of [gravity](/wiki/Gravity "Gravity"), and *Ff* is the force of friction.](/wiki/Image:Free_body_diagram2.svg "Free body diagram2.svg") In 1699, Amontons published his rediscovery of the laws of [friction](/wiki/Friction "Friction") first put forward by [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci "Leonardo da Vinci").Amontons (19 December 1699\) [*De la resistance causée dans les Machines, tant par les frottemens des parties qui les composent, que par roideur des cordes qu'on y employe, \& la maniere de calculer l'un \& l'autre*](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k35013/f344.image.langEN) (On the resistance caused in machines, both by the rubbing of the parts that compose them and by the stiffness of the cords that one uses in them, \& the way of calculating both), *Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences*, in: *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*, pp. 206\-222\. Though they were received with some skepticism, the laws were verified by [Charles\-Augustin de Coulomb](/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb "Charles-Augustin de Coulomb") in 1781\.Bowden, F.P. \& Tabor, D. (1950\) *The Friction and Lubrication of Solids* *pp*1, 87\-89 For this contribution, Amontons was named as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by [Duncan Dowson](/wiki/Duncan_Dowson "Duncan Dowson").{{Cite journal\|last\=Dowson\|first\=Duncan\|date\=1977\-10\-01\|title\=Men of Tribology: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519\)\|url\=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/tribology/article/99/4/382/429918/Men\-of\-Tribology\-Leonardo\-da\-Vinci\-1452\-1519\|journal\=Journal of Lubrication Technology\|language\=en\|volume\=99\|issue\=4\|pages\=382–386\|doi\=10\.1115/1\.3453230\|issn\=0022\-2305\|doi\-access\=free}}
[ "Work\n----", "He was supported in his research career by the [government](/wiki/Government \"Government\"), and was employed in various [public works](/wiki/Public_works \"Public works\") projects.", "### Scientific instruments", "Among his contributions to scientific instrumentation were improvements to the [barometer](/wiki/Barometer \"Barometer\") (1695\\), [hygrometer](/wiki/Hygrometer \"Hygrometer\") (1687\\), and [thermometer](/wiki/Thermometer \"Thermometer\") (1695\\), particularly for use of these instruments at sea. He also demonstrated an [optical telegraph](/wiki/Optical_telegraph \"Optical telegraph\") and proposed the use of his clepsydraAmontons, G. (1695\\), *Remarques et expériences physiques sur la construction d'une nouvelle clepsydre*, Paris. ([water clock](/wiki/Water_clock \"Water clock\")) for [keeping time on a ship at sea](/wiki/Marine_chronometer \"Marine chronometer\").", "### Thermodynamics", "Amontons investigated the relationship between [pressure](/wiki/Pressure \"Pressure\") and [temperature](/wiki/Temperature \"Temperature\") in [gases](/wiki/Gas \"Gas\") though he lacked [accurate and precise](/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision \"Accuracy and precision\") [thermometers](/wiki/Thermometer \"Thermometer\"). Though his results were at best semi\\-[quantitative](/wiki/Quantitative_research \"Quantitative research\"), he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one\\-third between the temperatures of *cold* and the [boiling point](/wiki/Boiling_point \"Boiling point\") of [water](/wiki/Water \"Water\").Amontons (20 June 1699\\) [*Moyen de substituer commodement l'action du feu, a la force des hommes et des cheveaux pour mouvoir les machines*](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k35013/f265.image.langEN) (Method of substituting the force of fire for horse and man power to move machines), *Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences*, in: *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*, pp. 112\\-126\\. This was a substantial step towards the subsequent [gas laws](/wiki/Gas_laws \"Gas laws\") and, in particular, [Gay\\-Lussac's law](/wiki/Gay-Lussac%27s_law \"Gay-Lussac's law\"). His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. Though he came close to finding [absolute zero](/wiki/Absolute_zero \"Absolute zero\") \\- the theoretical temperature by which the volume of air in his [air\\-thermometer](/wiki/Gas_thermometer \"Gas thermometer\") will be reduced to nothing (estimated by him as −240° on the [Celsius](/wiki/Celsius \"Celsius\") scale),{{Cite EB1911\\|wstitle\\=Cold}} the discovery would not be complete until at least a century later.", "Guillaume Amontons is also the inventor of the [hot air engine](/wiki/Hot_air_engine \"Hot air engine\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hotairengines.org/primitive\\-air\\-engine/amontons\\-1699\\|title\\=Amontons' engine\\|work\\=hotairengines.org}} In 1699, he built his first engine, more than a century earlier than the well\\-known Stirling engine.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hotairengines.org/closed\\-cycle\\-engine/stirling\\-1816\\|title\\=The Stirling Engine\\|work\\=hotairengines.org}} This engine, named by Amontons a \"fire mill\" (*moulin à feu*) followed a new thermodynamic cycle, which later became known as the Stirling cycle.", "The fire mill is a wheel that makes use of the expansion of heated air to generate motive power. The calculated power of Amontons' fire mill was 39 HP, equal to the power of the most powerful hot air engines of the 19th century (with the exception of the \"caloric engine\" of Ericsson{{cite web\\|url\\=http://hotairengines.org/open\\-cycle\\-engine/ericsson\\-1851\\|title\\=Ericsson's Caloric Engine\\|work\\=hotairengines.org}}).\nThe main difference between Amontons' engine and the hot air engines of the 19th century was the nature of the piston (Amontons used water) and the use of rotational motion instead of alternating motion.", "### Friction", "[right\\|200px\\|thumb\\|[Free\\-body diagram](/wiki/Free-body_diagram \"Free-body diagram\") for a block on a ramp. Arrows are [vectors](/wiki/Euclidean_vector \"Euclidean vector\") indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. *N* is the normal force, *mg* is the force of [gravity](/wiki/Gravity \"Gravity\"), and *Ff* is the force of friction.](/wiki/Image:Free_body_diagram2.svg \"Free body diagram2.svg\")\nIn 1699, Amontons published his rediscovery of the laws of [friction](/wiki/Friction \"Friction\") first put forward by [Leonardo da Vinci](/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci \"Leonardo da Vinci\").Amontons (19 December 1699\\) [*De la resistance causée dans les Machines, tant par les frottemens des parties qui les composent, que par roideur des cordes qu'on y employe, \\& la maniere de calculer l'un \\& l'autre*](http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k35013/f344.image.langEN) (On the resistance caused in machines, both by the rubbing of the parts that compose them and by the stiffness of the cords that one uses in them, \\& the way of calculating both), *Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences*, in: *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*, pp. 206\\-222\\. Though they were received with some skepticism, the laws were verified by [Charles\\-Augustin de Coulomb](/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb \"Charles-Augustin de Coulomb\") in 1781\\.Bowden, F.P. \\& Tabor, D. (1950\\) *The Friction and Lubrication of Solids* *pp*1, 87\\-89 For this contribution, Amontons was named as one of the 23 \"Men of Tribology\" by [Duncan Dowson](/wiki/Duncan_Dowson \"Duncan Dowson\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Dowson\\|first\\=Duncan\\|date\\=1977\\-10\\-01\\|title\\=Men of Tribology: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519\\)\\|url\\=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/tribology/article/99/4/382/429918/Men\\-of\\-Tribology\\-Leonardo\\-da\\-Vinci\\-1452\\-1519\\|journal\\=Journal of Lubrication Technology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=99\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=382–386\\|doi\\=10\\.1115/1\\.3453230\\|issn\\=0022\\-2305\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "" ]
Biography --------- Golubev was born 15 June 1925 in the village of Medvezhje, [Yaroslavl Province](/wiki/Yaroslavl_Oblast "Yaroslavl Oblast"), USSR, into a peasant family. In 1938 Golubev graduated from elementary school in town [Soligalich](/wiki/Soligalich "Soligalich") and came to Leningrad, where he lived and worked since 1938\. In 1941 he graduated from the Building college. After the beginning of the [Great Patriotic war](/wiki/Great_Patriotic_war "Great Patriotic war"), Golubev volunteered for the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army"). In January 1942 he was enrolled in flying school in Omsk, then studied at the Omsk tank school. Since March 1944 he served as a mechanic\-driver 2\-nd reserve tank regiment in [Nizhny Tagil](/wiki/Nizhny_Tagil "Nizhny Tagil"). In 1945 Golubev became seriously ill. He was treated at a hospital in Nizhniy Tagil, and then Leningrad. Later, he was discharged as a disabled veteran. In 1948 Golubev entered the Tavricheskaya Art School where he studied at V. Petrova, G. Shakh, M. Shuvaev. In 1952 he graduated from Art School with the qualification of an artist and teacher of painting and drawing. After graduation, he lived to benefit disabled veterans and the funds received for the execution of paintings under contracts with the State Art Fund. Since the end of the 1950s he was constantly involved in art exhibitions of Leningrad artists. He painted landscapes, still lifes, and genre compositions. He was most famous as a master of landscape. In 1966, Golubev was admitted to the [Leningrad Union of Artists](/wiki/Leningrad_Union_of_Artists "Leningrad Union of Artists").*Directory of members of the Leningrad branch of Union of Artists of Russian Federation*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\. \- p. 28\. A Solo exhibition of his works was in Leningrad (1991\). Golubev's painting style is original and individual, causing some association with the art of post\-impressionism. Later, in the 1970s to 1980s, the latter style becomes more generalized and emotionally charged, expressionist, with elements of primitivism.*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.*\- Saint Petersburg: NP\-Print Edition, 2007\. – p. 359\. Among his works are such paintings as "A Village of Putiatyno"*Exhibition of works by Vasily Vasilievich Golubev. Catalogue*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1991\. \- p. 6\. (1957\), ["Horses"](/wiki/)*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \- Saint Petersburg: NP\-Print Edition, 2007\. – p. 67\. (1962\), "Spring Rain", "Ladozhka River"*The Fine Arts of Leningrad. Exhibition catalogue*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1976\. \- p. 17\. (both 1963\), "At the Fence", "A Summer"*The Leningrad Fine Arts Exhibition.* \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1965\. \- p. 17\. (both 1964\), ["A Winter Sketch"](/wiki/)*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \- Saint Petersburg: NP\-Print Edition, 2007\. – p. 88\. (1966\), "Spring Brook"*Our Contemporary regional exhibition of Leningrad artists of 1975\. Catalogue*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\. \- p. 14\. (1968\), "Soldier's Family"*Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists dedicated to the 25th Anniversary of the Victory in Great Patriotic war. Catalogue.* \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1972\. \- p. 6\. (1969\), "Light\-Blue Day"*Exhibition of works by Vasily Vasilievich Golubev. Catalogue*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1991\. p. 9\. (1971\), "Golden Russia",*Across the Motherland Exhibition of Leningrad artists. Catalogue.* \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1974\. \- p. 12\. "A Summer"*Our Contemporary regional exhibition of Leningrad artists of 1975\. Catalogue*. \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\. \- p. 14\. (both 1972\), "Geologists"*The Portrait of Contemporary the Fifth Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists of 1976\. Catalogue.* \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1983\. \- p. 8\. (1976\), "Green Spaces", "Autumn Harvest"*Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists dedicated to the 60th Anniversary of October Revolution. Catalogue.* \- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1982\. \- p. 13\. (both 1977\), ["Green Lake"](/wiki/),*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \- Saint Petersburg: NP\-Print Edition, 2007\. – p. 143\. "Summer harvest", "In the Northern Land", "Light\-Blue Spaces" (all 1980\), and others. Golubev died of heart disease on 31 August 1985 in Leningrad, aged 60\. In 2005 in the U.S. was published the first monograph devoted to the work of Vasily Golubev.*Dr. Albert Kostenevich, Alexander D. Borovsky. Vasily Golubev. Master Russian Expressionist.* \- The Pushkin Group, 2005\. His paintings now reside in art museums and private collections in Russia,*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \- Saint Petersburg: NP\-Print Edition, 2007\. – pp. 6–7\. Finland, Germany, England, Japan, France,*Saint\-Pétersbourg \- Pont\-Audemer. Dessins, Gravures, Sculptures et Tableaux du XX siècle du fonds de L' Union des Artistes de Saint\-Pétersbourg*. \- Pont\-Audemer: 1994\. \- p. 111\. and the USA.*Dr. Albert Kostenevich, Alexander D. Borovsky. Vasily Golubev. Master Russian Expressionist.* \- The Pushkin Group, 2005\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Golubev was born 15 June 1925 in the village of Medvezhje, [Yaroslavl Province](/wiki/Yaroslavl_Oblast \"Yaroslavl Oblast\"), USSR, into a peasant family.", "In 1938 Golubev graduated from elementary school in town [Soligalich](/wiki/Soligalich \"Soligalich\") and came to Leningrad, where he lived and worked since 1938\\. In 1941 he graduated from the Building college. After the beginning of the [Great Patriotic war](/wiki/Great_Patriotic_war \"Great Patriotic war\"), Golubev volunteered for the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\"). In January 1942 he was enrolled in flying school in Omsk, then studied at the Omsk tank school. Since March 1944 he served as a mechanic\\-driver 2\\-nd reserve tank regiment in [Nizhny Tagil](/wiki/Nizhny_Tagil \"Nizhny Tagil\"). In 1945 Golubev became seriously ill. He was treated at a hospital in Nizhniy Tagil, and then Leningrad. Later, he was discharged as a disabled veteran.", "In 1948 Golubev entered the Tavricheskaya Art School where he studied at V. Petrova, G. Shakh, M. Shuvaev. In 1952 he graduated from Art School with the qualification of an artist and teacher of painting and drawing. After graduation, he lived to benefit disabled veterans and the funds received for the execution of paintings under contracts with the State Art Fund.", "Since the end of the 1950s he was constantly involved in art exhibitions of Leningrad artists. He painted landscapes, still lifes, and genre compositions. He was most famous as a master of landscape. In 1966, Golubev was admitted to the [Leningrad Union of Artists](/wiki/Leningrad_Union_of_Artists \"Leningrad Union of Artists\").*Directory of members of the Leningrad branch of Union of Artists of Russian Federation*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\\. \\- p. 28\\. A Solo exhibition of his works was in Leningrad (1991\\).", "Golubev's painting style is original and individual, causing some association with the art of post\\-impressionism. Later, in the 1970s to 1980s, the latter style becomes more generalized and emotionally charged, expressionist, with elements of primitivism.*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.*\\- Saint Petersburg: NP\\-Print Edition, 2007\\. – p. 359\\. Among his works are such paintings as \"A Village of Putiatyno\"*Exhibition of works by Vasily Vasilievich Golubev. Catalogue*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1991\\. \\- p. 6\\. (1957\\), [\"Horses\"](/wiki/)*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \\- Saint Petersburg: NP\\-Print Edition, 2007\\. – p. 67\\. (1962\\), \"Spring Rain\", \"Ladozhka River\"*The Fine Arts of Leningrad. Exhibition catalogue*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1976\\. \\- p. 17\\. (both 1963\\), \"At the Fence\", \"A Summer\"*The Leningrad Fine Arts Exhibition.* \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1965\\. \\- p. 17\\. (both 1964\\), [\"A Winter Sketch\"](/wiki/)*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \\- Saint Petersburg: NP\\-Print Edition, 2007\\. – p. 88\\. (1966\\), \"Spring Brook\"*Our Contemporary regional exhibition of Leningrad artists of 1975\\. Catalogue*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\\. \\- p. 14\\. (1968\\), \"Soldier's Family\"*Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists dedicated to the 25th Anniversary of the Victory in Great Patriotic war. Catalogue.* \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1972\\. \\- p. 6\\. (1969\\), \"Light\\-Blue Day\"*Exhibition of works by Vasily Vasilievich Golubev. Catalogue*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1991\\. p. 9\\. (1971\\), \"Golden Russia\",*Across the Motherland Exhibition of Leningrad artists. Catalogue.* \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1974\\. \\- p. 12\\. \"A Summer\"*Our Contemporary regional exhibition of Leningrad artists of 1975\\. Catalogue*. \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1980\\. \\- p. 14\\. (both 1972\\), \"Geologists\"*The Portrait of Contemporary the Fifth Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists of 1976\\. Catalogue.* \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1983\\. \\- p. 8\\. (1976\\), \"Green Spaces\", \"Autumn Harvest\"*Exhibition of works by Leningrad artists dedicated to the 60th Anniversary of October Revolution. Catalogue.* \\- Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1982\\. \\- p. 13\\. (both 1977\\), [\"Green Lake\"](/wiki/),*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \\- Saint Petersburg: NP\\-Print Edition, 2007\\. – p. 143\\. \"Summer harvest\", \"In the Northern Land\", \"Light\\-Blue Spaces\" (all 1980\\), and others.", "Golubev died of heart disease on 31 August 1985 in Leningrad, aged 60\\. In 2005 in the U.S. was published the first monograph devoted to the work of Vasily Golubev.*Dr. Albert Kostenevich, Alexander D. Borovsky. Vasily Golubev. Master Russian Expressionist.* \\- The Pushkin Group, 2005\\. His paintings now reside in art museums and private collections in Russia,*Sergei V. Ivanov. Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School.* \\- Saint Petersburg: NP\\-Print Edition, 2007\\. – pp. 6–7\\. Finland, Germany, England, Japan, France,*Saint\\-Pétersbourg \\- Pont\\-Audemer. Dessins, Gravures, Sculptures et Tableaux du XX siècle du fonds de L' Union des Artistes de Saint\\-Pétersbourg*. \\- Pont\\-Audemer: 1994\\. \\- p. 111\\. and the USA.*Dr. Albert Kostenevich, Alexander D. Borovsky. Vasily Golubev. Master Russian Expressionist.* \\- The Pushkin Group, 2005\\.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Early career (1999–2001\) Debuting as an 18\-year\-old for the [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows "Adelaide Crows"), McGregor played a few solid games in his first season. He picked up 18 disposals in his first game, as well as 6 marks and a goal. He then went on after a few more solid performances to play the rest of the season. He averaged 8 disposals a game for the season, as well as an aggregate of 5 goals. For the next couple of seasons, McGregor struggled to find his spot in the [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows "Adelaide Crows") team. He played 14 games in [2000](/wiki/2000_AFL_season "2000 AFL season"), averaging 10 disposals. But, he was inaccurate, kicking 9 goals, 15 behinds. In the [2001 season](/wiki/2001_AFL_season "2001 AFL season"), McGregor found his way into the Crows backline, played 12 games. He had lower stats then his last season, averaging just 9 disposals, and kicking 3 goals for the season. ### 2002–2003 seasons McGregor did not play the first 5 games of the season, but came back for the [Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows "Adelaide Crows") sixth against [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club "Richmond Football Club"). He still came into the match with an injury, and failed to pick up any touches. When he returned, he played mainly down back, but sometimes when a match\-up wasn't there for him, he drifted forward as another big forward. He averaged 12 disposals for the season, kicking 5 goals, including 2 in a semi\-final against [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club "Melbourne Football Club"). In [2003](/wiki/2003_AFL_season "2003 AFL season"), McGregor found himself changing roles between back and forward again. He missed out on just two games for the season, including their first final. In all, he played 22 games for the year, having 12 disposals and 4 marks a game. He also kicked 6 goals for the year. ### 2004–2005 seasons When [Neil Craig](/wiki/Neil_Craig "Neil Craig") took over as coach of the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club "Adelaide Football Club"), McGregor has started to play some of his best footy. He only missed out on the last 3 games of the [2004 season](/wiki/2004_AFL_season "2004 AFL season") due to injury. During 2004 he was described by Brisbane Lions star forward and enforcer Jonathan Brown as the toughest opponent he'd ever had to play on. He was pushed forward earlier in the year by [Gary Ayers](/wiki/Gary_Ayers "Gary Ayers"), proving his prowess by kicking 5 goals in a game against [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club "Richmond Football Club"). He averaged 13 disposals a match, and kicked 12 goals. He continued his good form into the next year, missing out on just one game of the year. He played his first seven games down back, before [Neil Craig](/wiki/Neil_Craig "Neil Craig") shifted him into the underscoring forward line. It proved to be a great move by the new coach, as McGregor went on to kick 31 goals for the season. During the 2005 preliminary final against the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles "West Coast Eagles"). McGregor was the victim of an elbow from [Travis Gaspar](/wiki/Travis_Gaspar "Travis Gaspar"), just before the bouncedown. This resulted in a [50\-metre penalty](/wiki/50-metre_penalty "50-metre penalty") and Adelaide kicking the first goal. Gasper was charged with striking, but found not guilty due to it being deemed an act of self\-defence.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/afl/hall\-cleared\-to\-play\-in\-grand\-final/2005/09/20/1126982057281\.html \|title\=Hall cleared to play in grand final\|date\=20 September 2005}} ### 2006–2008 seasons [2006](/wiki/2006_AFL_season "2006 AFL season") was a solid year for McGregor. He played in 19 games for the year, kicking 21 goals. McGregor only played nine games in 2007, leading him to request to be traded to another club at the end of the season.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/sport/big\-ken\-wants\-to\-go/story\-e6frecj3\-1111114424044 \|title\=Big Ken wants to go\|first\=Michelangelo \|last\=Rucci\|date\=14 September 2007}} He was retained on the list, and continued to play in 2008\. However, despite being contracted for 2009, he retired at the end of the 2008 season, having played only seven games.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.perthnow.com.au/sport/afl/mcgregor\-anounces\-retirement/story\-e6frg213\-1111117625214 \|title\=Adelaide utility Ken McGregor announces retirement\|date\= 29 September 2008}}[Ken McGregor retires](http://www.afc.com.au/tabid/4417/Default.aspx?newsid=68456){{Dead link\|date\=February 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
[ "Career\n------", "### Early career (1999–2001\\)", "Debuting as an 18\\-year\\-old for the [Adelaide Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows \"Adelaide Crows\"), McGregor played a few solid games in his first season. He picked up 18 disposals in his first game, as well as 6 marks and a goal. He then went on after a few more solid performances to play the rest of the season. He averaged 8 disposals a game for the season, as well as an aggregate of 5 goals.", "For the next couple of seasons, McGregor struggled to find his spot in the [Adelaide](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows \"Adelaide Crows\") team. He played 14 games in [2000](/wiki/2000_AFL_season \"2000 AFL season\"), averaging 10 disposals. But, he was inaccurate, kicking 9 goals, 15 behinds. In the [2001 season](/wiki/2001_AFL_season \"2001 AFL season\"), McGregor found his way into the Crows backline, played 12 games. He had lower stats then his last season, averaging just 9 disposals, and kicking 3 goals for the season.", "### 2002–2003 seasons", "McGregor did not play the first 5 games of the season, but came back for the [Crows](/wiki/Adelaide_Crows \"Adelaide Crows\") sixth against [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club \"Richmond Football Club\"). He still came into the match with an injury, and failed to pick up any touches. When he returned, he played mainly down back, but sometimes when a match\\-up wasn't there for him, he drifted forward as another big forward. He averaged 12 disposals for the season, kicking 5 goals, including 2 in a semi\\-final against [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne_Football_Club \"Melbourne Football Club\").", "In [2003](/wiki/2003_AFL_season \"2003 AFL season\"), McGregor found himself changing roles between back and forward again. He missed out on just two games for the season, including their first final. In all, he played 22 games for the year, having 12 disposals and 4 marks a game. He also kicked 6 goals for the year.", "### 2004–2005 seasons", "When [Neil Craig](/wiki/Neil_Craig \"Neil Craig\") took over as coach of the [Adelaide Football Club](/wiki/Adelaide_Football_Club \"Adelaide Football Club\"), McGregor has started to play some of his best footy. He only missed out on the last 3 games of the [2004 season](/wiki/2004_AFL_season \"2004 AFL season\") due to injury. During 2004 he was described by Brisbane Lions star forward and enforcer Jonathan Brown as the toughest opponent he'd ever had to play on. He was pushed forward earlier in the year by [Gary Ayers](/wiki/Gary_Ayers \"Gary Ayers\"), proving his prowess by kicking 5 goals in a game against [Richmond](/wiki/Richmond_Football_Club \"Richmond Football Club\"). He averaged 13 disposals a match, and kicked 12 goals.", "He continued his good form into the next year, missing out on just one game of the year. He played his first seven games down back, before [Neil Craig](/wiki/Neil_Craig \"Neil Craig\") shifted him into the underscoring forward line. It proved to be a great move by the new coach, as McGregor went on to kick 31 goals for the season.", "During the 2005 preliminary final against the [West Coast Eagles](/wiki/West_Coast_Eagles \"West Coast Eagles\"). McGregor was the victim of an elbow from [Travis Gaspar](/wiki/Travis_Gaspar \"Travis Gaspar\"), just before the bouncedown. This resulted in a [50\\-metre penalty](/wiki/50-metre_penalty \"50-metre penalty\") and Adelaide kicking the first goal. Gasper was charged with striking, but found not guilty due to it being deemed an act of self\\-defence.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.smh.com.au/news/afl/hall\\-cleared\\-to\\-play\\-in\\-grand\\-final/2005/09/20/1126982057281\\.html \\|title\\=Hall cleared to play in grand final\\|date\\=20 September 2005}}", "### 2006–2008 seasons", "[2006](/wiki/2006_AFL_season \"2006 AFL season\") was a solid year for McGregor. He played in 19 games for the year, kicking 21 goals.", "McGregor only played nine games in 2007, leading him to request to be traded to another club at the end of the season.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/sport/big\\-ken\\-wants\\-to\\-go/story\\-e6frecj3\\-1111114424044 \\|title\\=Big Ken wants to go\\|first\\=Michelangelo \\|last\\=Rucci\\|date\\=14 September 2007}} He was retained on the list, and continued to play in 2008\\. However, despite being contracted for 2009, he retired at the end of the 2008 season, having played only seven games.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.perthnow.com.au/sport/afl/mcgregor\\-anounces\\-retirement/story\\-e6frg213\\-1111117625214 \\|title\\=Adelaide utility Ken McGregor announces retirement\\|date\\= 29 September 2008}}[Ken McGregor retires](http://www.afc.com.au/tabid/4417/Default.aspx?newsid=68456){{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}", "" ]
History ------- {{See also\|Oberlin College\#History}} Oberlin was founded in 1833 by two [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterianism "Presbyterianism") ministers, [John Jay Shipherd](/wiki/John_Jay_Shipherd "John Jay Shipherd") and [Philo P. Stewart](/wiki/Philo_P._Stewart "Philo P. Stewart").{{cite book\|author\=Paul Henry Oehser\|title\=The United States Encyclopedia of History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2PgJAAAAMAAJ\|year\=1968\|publisher\=Curtis Books}} The pair had become friends while spending the summer of 1832 together in nearby [Elyria](/wiki/Elyria%2C_Ohio "Elyria, Ohio") and discovered a shared dissatisfaction with what they saw as the lack of strong Christian morals among the settlers of the American West.{{cite book\|author\=Robert Samuel Fletcher\|title\=A history of Oberlin College: from its foundation through the Civil War\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=eoleAAAAIAAJ\|year\=1971\|publisher\=Arno Press\|isbn\=9780405037054}} Their proposed solution was to create a religious community that would more closely adhere to Biblical commandments, along with a school for training Christian missionaries who would eventually spread throughout the American frontier.{{cite book\|author\=Roland M. Baumann\|title\=Constructing Black Education at Oberlin College: A Documentary History\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=CPFHBAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT15\|date\=31 July 2014\|publisher\=Ohio University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8214\-4363\-7\|pages\=15–}} The two decided to name their community after [Johann Friedrich Oberlin](/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Oberlin "Johann Friedrich Oberlin") (1740–1826\), an [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsace "Alsace") minister whose pedagogical achievements in a poor and remote area had greatly impressed and inspired them.{{cite book\|author\=Harry S. Ashmore\|title\=Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=Jh9GAQAAIAAJ\|year\=1961\|publisher\=Encyclopaedia Britannica}} Shipherd and Stewart rode south from Elyria into the forests that then covered the northern part of Ohio in search of a suitable location for their community. After a journey of approximately eight miles, they stopped to rest and pray in the shade of an elm tree along the forest, and agreed that this would be a good place to start their community. Shipherd traveled back east and convinced the owner of the land to donate {{convert\|500\|acre\|km2}} of land for the school, and he purchased an additional {{convert\|5000\|acre\|km2}} for the town, at the cost of $1\.50 per acre ($371/km2).{{cite book\|author1\=Charles Francis Richardson\|author2\=Henry Alden Clark\|title\=The College Book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/collegebook01clargoog\|year\=1878\|publisher\=Houghton, Osgood\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/collegebook01clargoog/page/n351 320]–}} In 1834 a charter for the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute was obtained from the legislature of Ohio, and the institute adopted as its motto "Learning and Labor."{{cite book\|author\=James H. Fairchild\|title\=Oberlin: its origin, progress and results: An address, prepared for the alumni of Oberlin College, assembled August 22, 1860\|url\=https://archive.org/details/oberlinitsorigi00fairgoog\|year\=1860\|publisher\=Shankland and Harmon\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/oberlinitsorigi00fairgoog/page/n51 45]–}} The same year saw a freshman class of four students.{{cite book\|author1\=Henry Cowles\|author2\=Asa Mahan\|title\=The Oberlin Evangelist\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=dzdFAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=RA1\-PA153\|year\=1855\|publisher\=R.E. Gillett\|pages\=1–}} In those days the words were taken quite literally: tuition at Oberlin was free, but students were expected to contribute by helping to build and sustain the community. This attracted a number of bright young people who would otherwise not have been able to afford tuition.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.oberlin.edu/about\-oberlin/oberlin\-history\|title\=Oberlin History\|date\=2017\-02\-23\|website\=Oberlin College and Conservatory\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-05\-29\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916231536/https://www.oberlin.edu/about\-oberlin/oberlin\-history\|archive\-date\=2019\-09\-16\|url\-status\=dead}} The motto remains to this day. During the mid\-1800s African Americans, predominantly free people of color and runaway slaves, settled in the area.{{cite book\|author\=Theodore Clarke Smith\|title\=The Liberty and Free Soil Parties in the Northwest\|url\=https://archive.org/details/libertyandfrees02smitgoog\|year\=1897\|publisher\=Longmans, Green, and Company\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/libertyandfrees02smitgoog/page/n28 12]–}}{{cite book\|author1\=Jerry Aldridge\|author2\=Lois McFadyen Christensen\|title\=Stealing from the Mother: The Marginalization of Women in Education and Psychology from 1900\-2010\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3QaaAAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA79\|date\=12 August 2013\|publisher\=R\&L Education\|isbn\=978\-1\-4758\-0160\-6\|pages\=79–}}{{cite book\|author1\=Steven E. Woodworth\|author2\=Charles W. Calhoun\|author\-link2\=Charles W. Calhoun\|title\=The Human Tradition in the Civil War and Reconstruction\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=J75hozZVfW8C\&pg\=PA158\|year\=2000\|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield\|isbn\=978\-0\-8420\-2727\-4\|pages\=158–}} In Oberlin's earliest years, transportation (especially for students) depended heavily on weather\-dependent [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie "Lake Erie") transportation routes; the nearest railroad passed through [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington%2C_Ohio "Wellington, Ohio"), and travellers were forced to rely on [stagecoaches](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach") between that village and Oberlin.{{cite book\|author\=Maxine Benson\|title\=Martha Maxwell, Rocky Mountain Naturalist\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9YX1SlbgQSMC\&pg\=PA19\|year\=1986\|publisher\=U of Nebraska Press\|isbn\=0\-8032\-6155\-1\|pages\=19–}}{{cite book\|author\=John Moring\|title\=Early American Naturalists: Exploring the American West, 1804\-1900\|url\=https://archive.org/details/earlyamericannat0000mori\|url\-access\=registration\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Taylor Trade Publications\|isbn\=978\-1\-58979\-183\-1\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/earlyamericannat0000mori/page/175 175]–}} This situation changed in 1852 when the [Toledo, Norwalk, and Cleveland Railroad](/wiki/Lake_Shore_and_Michigan_Southern_Railway "Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway") opened a stop in Oberlin along its [Grafton](/wiki/Grafton%2C_Ohio "Grafton, Ohio") line.Wright, G. Frederick, ed. *A Standard History of Lorain County Ohio*. [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") and [New York](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"): Lewis, 1916, 509\.{{cite book\|author\=James Harris Fairchild\|title\=Oberlin: The Colony and the College, 1833\-1883\|url\=https://archive.org/details/oberlincolonycol00fair\_0\|year\=1883\|publisher\=E.J. Goodrich\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/oberlincolonycol00fair\_0/page/n276 237]–}} Fifteen years later, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway opened a [new rail station](/wiki/Oberlin_Lake_Shore_and_Michigan_Southern_Station "Oberlin Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Station") along this line; no longer used for rail transportation, the depot has been converted for community use and sits at the center of a park.Owen, Lorrie K., ed. *Dictionary of Ohio Historic Places*. Vol. 2\. [St. Clair Shores](/wiki/St._Clair_Shores%2C_Michigan "St. Clair Shores, Michigan"): Somerset, 1999, 892\. On June 28, 1924, the worst flood in Oberlin history occurred on the same day that [a tornado](/wiki/1924_Lorain%E2%80%93Sandusky_tornado "1924 Lorain–Sandusky tornado") killed 62 people in [Lorain](/wiki/Lorain%2C_Ohio "Lorain, Ohio"). Afterward, the water was so deep that children swam in [Tappan Square](/wiki/Tappan_Square "Tappan Square").{{cite web\|url\=http://dcollections.oberlin.edu/cdm4/item\_viewer.php?CISOROOT\=/photos\&CISOPTR\=311\&REC\=2\|title\=1924 FLOOD IN OBERLIN OHIO :: Archives\-Popular Images\|website\=dcollections.oberlin.edu}} Damage was caused to all of downtown Oberlin.[June 28, 1924: Lorain Tornado](http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1924_tornado.htm) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319131507/http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1924\_tornado.htm \|date\=March 19, 2008 }} One of Oberlin's largest employers was the [Federal Aviation Administration](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration "Federal Aviation Administration"), which houses the [Cleveland Air Route Traffic Control Center](/wiki/Cleveland_Air_Route_Traffic_Control_Center "Cleveland Air Route Traffic Control Center") overseeing the airspace of six states and a small part of [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.chroniclet.com/Local\-News/2017/06/06/Air\-traffic\-privatization\-could\-be\-major\-economic\-hit\-to\-Oberlin.html\|title\=Air\-traffic privatization could be major economic hit to Oberlin\|date\=6 June 2017}}{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2002\&dat\=19971120\&id\=Ye1fAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=1471,4635754\&hl\=en\|title\=Beaver County Times \- Google News Archive Search\|website\=news.google.com}} ### Abolitionism Oberlin was not founded as an abolitionist town. Its status changed with the enrollment in 1835 of the [Lane Rebels](/wiki/Lane_Rebels "Lane Rebels"), a loose group of several dozen students coordinated by abolitionist [Theodore Weld](/wiki/Theodore_Weld "Theodore Weld"). They had withdrawn *en masse* from the new [Lane Theological Seminary](/wiki/Lane_Theological_Seminary "Lane Theological Seminary") of Cincinnati because of its treatment of the Black community and opposition to abolition of slavery.{{cite book\| title\=A statement of the reasons which induced the students of Lane Seminary, to dissolve their connection with that institution \|date\=December 15, 1834 \|url\=https://archive.org/details/ASPC0001868700\|location\=Cincinnati}} Cincinnati, on the Ohio River, was not a city where free blacks were safe, nor did Cincinnati welcome [fugitives](/wiki/Fugitive_slaves "Fugitive slaves"). By chance, this group encountered Shipherd, who was travelling around Ohio looking for students for his new Collegiate Institute. The group agreed to come to Oberlin, but on condition that [Asa Mahan](/wiki/Asa_Mahan "Asa Mahan"), who had resigned as a Lane trustee, come as president, and that Oberlin treat Black and white students equally, something no college in the United States did at the time. The trustees, although reluctantly, agreed to these conditions. The first Black enrolees, [James Bradley](/wiki/James_Bradley_%28former_slave%29 "James Bradley (former slave)") and the brothers Gideon Quarles and [Charles Henry Langston](/wiki/Charles_Henry_Langston "Charles Henry Langston"), did not enroll in Oberlin but in an affiliated school, the Sheffield Manual Labor Institute. (Their younger brother [John Mercer Langston](/wiki/John_Mercer_Langston "John Mercer Langston"), who in 1888 became the first black elected to the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress "United States Congress") from [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), also studied at Oberlin.) By the middle of the 19th century, Oberlin had become a major focus of the [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States "Abolitionism in the United States") movement in the United States.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.nla.gov.au/selected\-library\-collections/anti\-slavery\-movement\-in\-the\-united\-states \| title\=Anti\-Slavery Movement in the United States }} Escaped enslaved people were relatively safe there. Thousands of escaped enslaved people crossing the Ohio River from Kentucky came through Oberlin—some to stay in the area, but most as a way\-station to recover on their way to Lake Erie, where they found transportation across the lake to the safety of [Canada West](/wiki/Canada_West "Canada West") ([Ontario](/wiki/Ontario "Ontario")). The town of Oberlin, then, was an active "station" on the [Underground Railroad](/wiki/Underground_Railroad "Underground Railroad").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/20/books/big\-day\-at\-oberlin.html\|title \= Big Day at Oberlin\|newspaper \= The New York Times\|date \= 20 May 1990\|last1 \= Sears\|first1 \= Stephen W.}} Fugitive enslaved people were assisted by a new Ohio law that allowed them to apply for a [writ of habeas corpus](/wiki/Writ_of_habeas_corpus "Writ of habeas corpus"), which protected them from extradition back to the Southern states from which they had escaped. In 1858, a newly elected [Democratic](/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party "United States Democratic Party") state legislature repealed this law, making fugitives around Oberlin vulnerable to enforcement of the Federal [Fugitive Slave Law](/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Law_of_1850 "Fugitive Slave Law of 1850"), which allowed Southern slave\-catchers to target and extradite them back to the South. This situation came to a head with the [Oberlin\-Wellington Rescue](/wiki/Oberlin-Wellington_Rescue "Oberlin-Wellington Rescue"), a pivotal event described in Nat Brandt's book *The Town That Started the Civil War*. On September 13, 1858, a fugitive named John Price was captured by federal officials and held in neighboring [Wellington, Ohio](/wiki/Wellington%2C_Ohio "Wellington, Ohio"). A large group of Oberlin residents, consisting of both white and black townspeople, students, and faculty, set out for Wellington to release Price from captivity. [right\|thumb\|400px\|Oberlin "Rescuers" outside the Cuyahoga County jail. C.H. Langston is seventh from right in front row, with hat over his chest.](/wiki/Image:Oberlinrescuers.jpg "Oberlinrescuers.jpg") The men took Price back from the arresting [US Marshal](/wiki/US_Marshal "US Marshal"), and eventually smuggled him to Canada, but the authorities were not content to let the matter rest. United States President [James Buchanan](/wiki/James_Buchanan "James Buchanan") personally requested prosecution of the group (now referred to by sympathetic parties as "the Rescuers"), and 37 of them were indicted.{{Cite web\|url\=https://case.edu/ech/articles/o/oberlin\-wellington\-rescue/\|title \= Oberlin\-Wellington Rescue\|date \= 22 May 2018}}{{cite book\|author\=Mary Ellen Snodgrass\|title\=Civil Disobedience: An Encyclopedic History of Dissidence in the United States\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=mGrxBwAAQBAJ\&pg\=PA205\|date\=8 April 2015\|publisher\=Routledge\|isbn\=978\-1\-317\-47441\-8\|pages\=205–}}{{cite book\|author\=Jesse Ames Spencer\|title\=The United States: its beginnings, progress and modern development\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=uo4MAQAAMAAJ\|year\=1913\|publisher\=American educational alliance}} Twelve of those were formerly enslaved people, including Charles H. Langston.{{rp\|80}} State authorities arrested the US Marshal who had captured Price. In negotiation, the state agreed to free the arresters, and the federal officials agreed to free all but two of those indicted. Simeon M. Bushnell, a white man, and Charles H. Langston were both tried and convicted by an all\-Democrat jury. Langston's eloquent speech against slavery and injustice persuaded the judge to give them light sentences, with Langston receiving 20 days in jail and a fine of $100\.{{cite book\|author\=James Laxer\|title\=Staking Claims to a Continent: John A. Macdonald, Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, and the Making of North America\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=DC54DAAAQBAJ\&pg\=PT23\|date\=11 June 2016\|publisher\=House of Anansi Press Incorporated\|isbn\=978\-1\-77089\-431\-0\|pages\=23–}} They appealed to the [Ohio Supreme Court](/wiki/Ohio_Supreme_Court "Ohio Supreme Court") for a writ of *habeas corpus*, but on May 30, 1859, their petition was denied.{{cite book\|author\=Frederick J. Blue\|title\=No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\_hvEy5OpMMEC\&pg\=PA84\|year\=2005\|publisher\=LSU Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-8071\-2976\-0\|pages\=84–}} [thumb\|Cenotaph in Oberlin with names of Green, Copeland, and Leary, erected 1860: "These colored citizens of Oberlin, the heroic associates of the immortal John Brown, gave their lives for the slave."](/wiki/File:HFRM_interpretive_plaque.jpg "HFRM interpretive plaque.jpg") Three formerly enslaved people—[Lewis Sheridan Leary](/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary "Lewis Sheridan Leary"), [Shields Green](/wiki/Shields_Green "Shields Green"), and [John Anthony Copeland, Jr.](/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland%2C_Jr. "John Anthony Copeland, Jr.")—participated in [John Brown](/wiki/John_Brown_%28abolitionist%29 "John Brown (abolitionist)")'s famous 1859 [raid on Harpers Ferry](/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry "John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry"). Leary died during the raid, and Green and Copeland were hanged after arrest and conviction. The bodies of Green and Copeland were used for dissection and anatomical study at the [Winchester Medical College](/wiki/Burning_of_Winchester_Medical_College "Burning of Winchester Medical College"); the remains were discarded. Leary's body was first thrown in an unmarked pit, along with the 7 of the 9 others killed during the raid; much later the bodies were disinterred and reburied at the [John Brown Farm](/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site "John Brown Farm State Historic Site"), next to his grave. (See [John Brown's raiders](/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders "John Brown's raiders").) The political ferment resulting from the Oberlin\-Wellington Rescue led to a number of major protests throughout the northern part of Ohio, and an unprecedented boost to the anti\-slavery Republican party in the 1860 state elections. The governor of Ohio wrote to the new Republican President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") urging him to repeal the Fugitive Slave Law. Though in point of fact Lincoln declined this request, this decision did not prevent Southern states from seceding, and America was soon embroiled in the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War").
[ "History\n-------", "{{See also\\|Oberlin College\\#History}}\nOberlin was founded in 1833 by two [Presbyterian](/wiki/Presbyterianism \"Presbyterianism\") ministers, [John Jay Shipherd](/wiki/John_Jay_Shipherd \"John Jay Shipherd\") and [Philo P. Stewart](/wiki/Philo_P._Stewart \"Philo P. Stewart\").{{cite book\\|author\\=Paul Henry Oehser\\|title\\=The United States Encyclopedia of History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2PgJAAAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1968\\|publisher\\=Curtis Books}} The pair had become friends while spending the summer of 1832 together in nearby [Elyria](/wiki/Elyria%2C_Ohio \"Elyria, Ohio\") and discovered a shared dissatisfaction with what they saw as the lack of strong Christian morals among the settlers of the American West.{{cite book\\|author\\=Robert Samuel Fletcher\\|title\\=A history of Oberlin College: from its foundation through the Civil War\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=eoleAAAAIAAJ\\|year\\=1971\\|publisher\\=Arno Press\\|isbn\\=9780405037054}} Their proposed solution was to create a religious community that would more closely adhere to Biblical commandments, along with a school for training Christian missionaries who would eventually spread throughout the American frontier.{{cite book\\|author\\=Roland M. Baumann\\|title\\=Constructing Black Education at Oberlin College: A Documentary History\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=CPFHBAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT15\\|date\\=31 July 2014\\|publisher\\=Ohio University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8214\\-4363\\-7\\|pages\\=15–}} The two decided to name their community after [Johann Friedrich Oberlin](/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Oberlin \"Johann Friedrich Oberlin\") (1740–1826\\), an [Alsatian](/wiki/Alsace \"Alsace\") minister whose pedagogical achievements in a poor and remote area had greatly impressed and inspired them.{{cite book\\|author\\=Harry S. Ashmore\\|title\\=Encyclopaedia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=Jh9GAQAAIAAJ\\|year\\=1961\\|publisher\\=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}", "Shipherd and Stewart rode south from Elyria into the forests that then covered the northern part of Ohio in search of a suitable location for their community. After a journey of approximately eight miles, they stopped to rest and pray in the shade of an elm tree along the forest, and agreed that this would be a good place to start their community.", "Shipherd traveled back east and convinced the owner of the land to donate {{convert\\|500\\|acre\\|km2}} of land for the school, and he purchased an additional {{convert\\|5000\\|acre\\|km2}} for the town, at the cost of $1\\.50 per acre ($371/km2).{{cite book\\|author1\\=Charles Francis Richardson\\|author2\\=Henry Alden Clark\\|title\\=The College Book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/collegebook01clargoog\\|year\\=1878\\|publisher\\=Houghton, Osgood\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/collegebook01clargoog/page/n351 320]–}}", "In 1834 a charter for the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute was obtained from the legislature of Ohio, and the institute adopted as its motto \"Learning and Labor.\"{{cite book\\|author\\=James H. Fairchild\\|title\\=Oberlin: its origin, progress and results: An address, prepared for the alumni of Oberlin College, assembled August 22, 1860\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/oberlinitsorigi00fairgoog\\|year\\=1860\\|publisher\\=Shankland and Harmon\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/oberlinitsorigi00fairgoog/page/n51 45]–}} The same year saw a freshman class of four students.{{cite book\\|author1\\=Henry Cowles\\|author2\\=Asa Mahan\\|title\\=The Oberlin Evangelist\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dzdFAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA153\\|year\\=1855\\|publisher\\=R.E. Gillett\\|pages\\=1–}} In those days the words were taken quite literally: tuition at Oberlin was free, but students were expected to contribute by helping to build and sustain the community. This attracted a number of bright young people who would otherwise not have been able to afford tuition.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.oberlin.edu/about\\-oberlin/oberlin\\-history\\|title\\=Oberlin History\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-23\\|website\\=Oberlin College and Conservatory\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-05\\-29\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916231536/https://www.oberlin.edu/about\\-oberlin/oberlin\\-history\\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-09\\-16\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The motto remains to this day.", "During the mid\\-1800s African Americans, predominantly free people of color and runaway slaves, settled in the area.{{cite book\\|author\\=Theodore Clarke Smith\\|title\\=The Liberty and Free Soil Parties in the Northwest\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/libertyandfrees02smitgoog\\|year\\=1897\\|publisher\\=Longmans, Green, and Company\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/libertyandfrees02smitgoog/page/n28 12]–}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Jerry Aldridge\\|author2\\=Lois McFadyen Christensen\\|title\\=Stealing from the Mother: The Marginalization of Women in Education and Psychology from 1900\\-2010\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3QaaAAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA79\\|date\\=12 August 2013\\|publisher\\=R\\&L Education\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4758\\-0160\\-6\\|pages\\=79–}}{{cite book\\|author1\\=Steven E. Woodworth\\|author2\\=Charles W. Calhoun\\|author\\-link2\\=Charles W. Calhoun\\|title\\=The Human Tradition in the Civil War and Reconstruction\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=J75hozZVfW8C\\&pg\\=PA158\\|year\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8420\\-2727\\-4\\|pages\\=158–}}", "In Oberlin's earliest years, transportation (especially for students) depended heavily on weather\\-dependent [Lake Erie](/wiki/Lake_Erie \"Lake Erie\") transportation routes; the nearest railroad passed through [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington%2C_Ohio \"Wellington, Ohio\"), and travellers were forced to rely on [stagecoaches](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\") between that village and Oberlin.{{cite book\\|author\\=Maxine Benson\\|title\\=Martha Maxwell, Rocky Mountain Naturalist\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9YX1SlbgQSMC\\&pg\\=PA19\\|year\\=1986\\|publisher\\=U of Nebraska Press\\|isbn\\=0\\-8032\\-6155\\-1\\|pages\\=19–}}{{cite book\\|author\\=John Moring\\|title\\=Early American Naturalists: Exploring the American West, 1804\\-1900\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/earlyamericannat0000mori\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Taylor Trade Publications\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58979\\-183\\-1\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/earlyamericannat0000mori/page/175 175]–}} This situation changed in 1852 when the [Toledo, Norwalk, and Cleveland Railroad](/wiki/Lake_Shore_and_Michigan_Southern_Railway \"Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway\") opened a stop in Oberlin along its [Grafton](/wiki/Grafton%2C_Ohio \"Grafton, Ohio\") line.Wright, G. Frederick, ed. *A Standard History of Lorain County Ohio*. [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") and [New York](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\"): Lewis, 1916, 509\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=James Harris Fairchild\\|title\\=Oberlin: The Colony and the College, 1833\\-1883\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/oberlincolonycol00fair\\_0\\|year\\=1883\\|publisher\\=E.J. Goodrich\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/oberlincolonycol00fair\\_0/page/n276 237]–}} Fifteen years later, the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway opened a [new rail station](/wiki/Oberlin_Lake_Shore_and_Michigan_Southern_Station \"Oberlin Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Station\") along this line; no longer used for rail transportation, the depot has been converted for community use and sits at the center of a park.Owen, Lorrie K., ed. *Dictionary of Ohio Historic Places*. Vol. 2\\. [St. Clair Shores](/wiki/St._Clair_Shores%2C_Michigan \"St. Clair Shores, Michigan\"): Somerset, 1999, 892\\.", "On June 28, 1924, the worst flood in Oberlin history occurred on the same day that [a tornado](/wiki/1924_Lorain%E2%80%93Sandusky_tornado \"1924 Lorain–Sandusky tornado\") killed 62 people in [Lorain](/wiki/Lorain%2C_Ohio \"Lorain, Ohio\"). Afterward, the water was so deep that children swam in [Tappan Square](/wiki/Tappan_Square \"Tappan Square\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://dcollections.oberlin.edu/cdm4/item\\_viewer.php?CISOROOT\\=/photos\\&CISOPTR\\=311\\&REC\\=2\\|title\\=1924 FLOOD IN OBERLIN OHIO :: Archives\\-Popular Images\\|website\\=dcollections.oberlin.edu}} Damage was caused to all of downtown Oberlin.[June 28, 1924: Lorain Tornado](http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1924_tornado.htm) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319131507/http://www.ohiohistory.org/etcetera/exhibits/swio/pages/content/1924\\_tornado.htm \\|date\\=March 19, 2008 }}", "One of Oberlin's largest employers was the [Federal Aviation Administration](/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration \"Federal Aviation Administration\"), which houses the [Cleveland Air Route Traffic Control Center](/wiki/Cleveland_Air_Route_Traffic_Control_Center \"Cleveland Air Route Traffic Control Center\") overseeing the airspace of six states and a small part of [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.chroniclet.com/Local\\-News/2017/06/06/Air\\-traffic\\-privatization\\-could\\-be\\-major\\-economic\\-hit\\-to\\-Oberlin.html\\|title\\=Air\\-traffic privatization could be major economic hit to Oberlin\\|date\\=6 June 2017}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2002\\&dat\\=19971120\\&id\\=Ye1fAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=1471,4635754\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Beaver County Times \\- Google News Archive Search\\|website\\=news.google.com}}", "### Abolitionism", "Oberlin was not founded as an abolitionist town. Its status changed with the enrollment in 1835 of the [Lane Rebels](/wiki/Lane_Rebels \"Lane Rebels\"), a loose group of several dozen students coordinated by abolitionist [Theodore Weld](/wiki/Theodore_Weld \"Theodore Weld\"). They had withdrawn *en masse* from the new [Lane Theological Seminary](/wiki/Lane_Theological_Seminary \"Lane Theological Seminary\") of Cincinnati because of its treatment of the Black community and opposition to abolition of slavery.{{cite book\\|\ntitle\\=A statement of the reasons which induced the students of Lane Seminary, to dissolve their connection with that institution\n\\|date\\=December 15, 1834\n\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/ASPC0001868700\\|location\\=Cincinnati}} Cincinnati, on the Ohio River, was not a city where free blacks were safe, nor did Cincinnati welcome [fugitives](/wiki/Fugitive_slaves \"Fugitive slaves\").", "By chance, this group encountered Shipherd, who was travelling around Ohio looking for students for his new Collegiate Institute. The group agreed to come to Oberlin, but on condition that [Asa Mahan](/wiki/Asa_Mahan \"Asa Mahan\"), who had resigned as a Lane trustee, come as president, and that Oberlin treat Black and white students equally, something no college in the United States did at the time. The trustees, although reluctantly, agreed to these conditions. The first Black enrolees, [James Bradley](/wiki/James_Bradley_%28former_slave%29 \"James Bradley (former slave)\") and the brothers Gideon Quarles and [Charles Henry Langston](/wiki/Charles_Henry_Langston \"Charles Henry Langston\"), did not enroll in Oberlin but in an affiliated school, the Sheffield Manual Labor Institute. (Their younger brother [John Mercer Langston](/wiki/John_Mercer_Langston \"John Mercer Langston\"), who in 1888 became the first black elected to the [United States Congress](/wiki/United_States_Congress \"United States Congress\") from [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), also studied at Oberlin.)", "By the middle of the 19th century, Oberlin had become a major focus of the [abolitionist](/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States \"Abolitionism in the United States\") movement in the United States.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.nla.gov.au/selected\\-library\\-collections/anti\\-slavery\\-movement\\-in\\-the\\-united\\-states \\| title\\=Anti\\-Slavery Movement in the United States }} Escaped enslaved people were relatively safe there. Thousands of escaped enslaved people crossing the Ohio River from Kentucky came through Oberlin—some to stay in the area, but most as a way\\-station to recover on their way to Lake Erie, where they found transportation across the lake to the safety of [Canada West](/wiki/Canada_West \"Canada West\") ([Ontario](/wiki/Ontario \"Ontario\")).", "The town of Oberlin, then, was an active \"station\" on the [Underground Railroad](/wiki/Underground_Railroad \"Underground Railroad\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/20/books/big\\-day\\-at\\-oberlin.html\\|title \\= Big Day at Oberlin\\|newspaper \\= The New York Times\\|date \\= 20 May 1990\\|last1 \\= Sears\\|first1 \\= Stephen W.}} Fugitive enslaved people were assisted by a new Ohio law that allowed them to apply for a [writ of habeas corpus](/wiki/Writ_of_habeas_corpus \"Writ of habeas corpus\"), which protected them from extradition back to the Southern states from which they had escaped. In 1858, a newly elected [Democratic](/wiki/United_States_Democratic_Party \"United States Democratic Party\") state legislature repealed this law, making fugitives around Oberlin vulnerable to enforcement of the Federal [Fugitive Slave Law](/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Law_of_1850 \"Fugitive Slave Law of 1850\"), which allowed Southern slave\\-catchers to target and extradite them back to the South.", "This situation came to a head with the [Oberlin\\-Wellington Rescue](/wiki/Oberlin-Wellington_Rescue \"Oberlin-Wellington Rescue\"), a pivotal event described in Nat Brandt's book *The Town That Started the Civil War*. On September 13, 1858, a fugitive named John Price was captured by federal officials and held in neighboring [Wellington, Ohio](/wiki/Wellington%2C_Ohio \"Wellington, Ohio\"). A large group of Oberlin residents, consisting of both white and black townspeople, students, and faculty, set out for Wellington to release Price from captivity.\n[right\\|thumb\\|400px\\|Oberlin \"Rescuers\" outside the Cuyahoga County jail. C.H. Langston is seventh from right in front row, with hat over his chest.](/wiki/Image:Oberlinrescuers.jpg \"Oberlinrescuers.jpg\")\nThe men took Price back from the arresting [US Marshal](/wiki/US_Marshal \"US Marshal\"), and eventually smuggled him to Canada, but the authorities were not content to let the matter rest. United States President [James Buchanan](/wiki/James_Buchanan \"James Buchanan\") personally requested prosecution of the group (now referred to by sympathetic parties as \"the Rescuers\"), and 37 of them were indicted.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://case.edu/ech/articles/o/oberlin\\-wellington\\-rescue/\\|title \\= Oberlin\\-Wellington Rescue\\|date \\= 22 May 2018}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Mary Ellen Snodgrass\\|title\\=Civil Disobedience: An Encyclopedic History of Dissidence in the United States\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=mGrxBwAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PA205\\|date\\=8 April 2015\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-317\\-47441\\-8\\|pages\\=205–}}{{cite book\\|author\\=Jesse Ames Spencer\\|title\\=The United States: its beginnings, progress and modern development\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=uo4MAQAAMAAJ\\|year\\=1913\\|publisher\\=American educational alliance}} Twelve of those were formerly enslaved people, including Charles H. Langston.{{rp\\|80}} State authorities arrested the US Marshal who had captured Price. In negotiation, the state agreed to free the arresters, and the federal officials agreed to free all but two of those indicted. Simeon M. Bushnell, a white man, and Charles H. Langston were both tried and convicted by an all\\-Democrat jury. Langston's eloquent speech against slavery and injustice persuaded the judge to give them light sentences, with Langston receiving 20 days in jail and a fine of $100\\.{{cite book\\|author\\=James Laxer\\|title\\=Staking Claims to a Continent: John A. Macdonald, Abraham Lincoln, Jefferson Davis, and the Making of North America\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=DC54DAAAQBAJ\\&pg\\=PT23\\|date\\=11 June 2016\\|publisher\\=House of Anansi Press Incorporated\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-77089\\-431\\-0\\|pages\\=23–}} They appealed to the [Ohio Supreme Court](/wiki/Ohio_Supreme_Court \"Ohio Supreme Court\") for a writ of *habeas corpus*, but on May 30, 1859, their petition was denied.{{cite book\\|author\\=Frederick J. Blue\\|title\\=No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\_hvEy5OpMMEC\\&pg\\=PA84\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=LSU Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8071\\-2976\\-0\\|pages\\=84–}}", "[thumb\\|Cenotaph in Oberlin with names of Green, Copeland, and Leary, erected 1860: \"These colored citizens of Oberlin, the heroic associates of the immortal John Brown, gave their lives for the slave.\"](/wiki/File:HFRM_interpretive_plaque.jpg \"HFRM interpretive plaque.jpg\")\nThree formerly enslaved people—[Lewis Sheridan Leary](/wiki/Lewis_Sheridan_Leary \"Lewis Sheridan Leary\"), [Shields Green](/wiki/Shields_Green \"Shields Green\"), and [John Anthony Copeland, Jr.](/wiki/John_Anthony_Copeland%2C_Jr. \"John Anthony Copeland, Jr.\")—participated in [John Brown](/wiki/John_Brown_%28abolitionist%29 \"John Brown (abolitionist)\")'s famous 1859 [raid on Harpers Ferry](/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raid_on_Harpers_Ferry \"John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry\"). Leary died during the raid, and Green and Copeland were hanged after arrest and conviction. The bodies of Green and Copeland were used for dissection and anatomical study at the [Winchester Medical College](/wiki/Burning_of_Winchester_Medical_College \"Burning of Winchester Medical College\"); the remains were discarded. Leary's body was first thrown in an unmarked pit, along with the 7 of the 9 others killed during the raid; much later the bodies were disinterred and reburied at the [John Brown Farm](/wiki/John_Brown_Farm_State_Historic_Site \"John Brown Farm State Historic Site\"), next to his grave. (See [John Brown's raiders](/wiki/John_Brown%27s_raiders \"John Brown's raiders\").)", "The political ferment resulting from the Oberlin\\-Wellington Rescue led to a number of major protests throughout the northern part of Ohio, and an unprecedented boost to the anti\\-slavery Republican party in the 1860 state elections. The governor of Ohio wrote to the new Republican President [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") urging him to repeal the Fugitive Slave Law. Though in point of fact Lincoln declined this request, this decision did not prevent Southern states from seceding, and America was soon embroiled in the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1860\= 2115 \|1870\= 2888 \|1880\= 3242 \|1890\= 4376 \|1900\= 4082 \|1910\= 4365 \|1920\= 4286 \|1930\= 4292 \|1940\= 4305 \|1950\= 7062 \|1960\= 8198 \|1970\= 8761 \|1980\= 8660 \|1990\= 8191 \|2000\= 8195 \|2010\= 8286 \|2020\= 8555 \|estyear\=2021 \|estimate\=8249 \|estref\= \|footnote\=Sources:{{cite web\|title\=Population of Civil Divisions Less than Counties\|url\=http://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1870a\-08\.pdf\|work\=Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Ninth Census\|date\=1870\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=24 April 2020 }}{{cite web\|title\=Population of Civil Divisions Less than Counties\|url\=http://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1880a\_v1\-11\.pdf\|date\=1880\|work\=Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth Census\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\|title\=Population: Ohio\|url\=http://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/36894832v3ch3\.pdf\|work\=1910 U.S. Census\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\|title\=Population: Ohio\|url\=http://www2\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/03815512v1ch08\.pdf\|work\=1930 US Census\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\|title\=Number of Inhabitants: Ohio\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\-volume\-1/37749282v1p37\_ch02\.pdf\|date\=1960\|work\=18th Census of the United States\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=24 April 2020 }}{{cite web\|title\=Ohio: Population and Housing Unit Counts\|url\=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph\-2\-37\.pdf\|publisher\=U.S. Census Bureau\|access\-date\=22 November 2013}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/oberlincityohio,US/PST045221\|title\=Oberlin city, Ohio\|website\=census.gov\|accessdate\=July 6, 2022}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=2013\-01\-06}} of 2010, there were 8,286 people, 2,730 households, and 1,381 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1684\.1\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 2,984 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|606\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") of the city was 73\.0% White, 14\.8% African American, 0\.2% Native American, 4\.0% Asian, 1\.4% from other races, and 6\.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5\.1% of the population. There were 2,730 households, of which 24\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49\.4% were non\-families. 38\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.19 and the average family size was 2\.86\. The median age in the city was 23\.3 years. 14\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 37\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 14\.5% were from 25 to 44; 18\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 14\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\.0% male and 54\.0% female. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 41\.1% hold a bachelor's degree or higher.{{cite web \|url\=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3957834\.html \|title\=Oberlin (City) QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau \|access\-date\=2014\-10\-10 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016153522/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3957834\.html \|archive\-date\=2014\-10\-16 }} ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 8,195 people, 2,678 households, and 1,395 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,871\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 2,836 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|647\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 71\.92% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 18\.55% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.49% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 3\.40% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.17% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 1\.21% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 4\.26% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.04% of the population. There were 2,678 households, out of which 21\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47\.9% were non\-families. 35\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.31 and the average family size was 2\.89\. In the city the population was spread out, with 14\.7% under the age of 18, 36\.9% from 18 to 24, 16\.4% from 25 to 44, 17\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 77\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73\.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $41,094, and the median income for a family was $59,358\. Males had a median income of $42,170 versus $27,308 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $20,704\. About 6\.7% of families and 19\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 11\.6% of those under age 18 and 7\.5% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1860\\= 2115\n\\|1870\\= 2888\n\\|1880\\= 3242\n\\|1890\\= 4376\n\\|1900\\= 4082\n\\|1910\\= 4365\n\\|1920\\= 4286\n\\|1930\\= 4292\n\\|1940\\= 4305\n\\|1950\\= 7062\n\\|1960\\= 8198\n\\|1970\\= 8761\n\\|1980\\= 8660\n\\|1990\\= 8191\n\\|2000\\= 8195\n\\|2010\\= 8286\n\\|2020\\= 8555\n\\|estyear\\=2021\n\\|estimate\\=8249\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=Sources:{{cite web\\|title\\=Population of Civil Divisions Less than Counties\\|url\\=http://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1870a\\-08\\.pdf\\|work\\=Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Ninth Census\\|date\\=1870\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2020 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Population of Civil Divisions Less than Counties\\|url\\=http://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1880a\\_v1\\-11\\.pdf\\|date\\=1880\\|work\\=Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth Census\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Population: Ohio\\|url\\=http://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/36894832v3ch3\\.pdf\\|work\\=1910 U.S. Census\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Population: Ohio\\|url\\=http://www2\\.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/03815512v1ch08\\.pdf\\|work\\=1930 US Census\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2013}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Number of Inhabitants: Ohio\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1960/population\\-volume\\-1/37749282v1p37\\_ch02\\.pdf\\|date\\=1960\\|work\\=18th Census of the United States\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2020 }}{{cite web\\|title\\=Ohio: Population and Housing Unit Counts\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen1990/cph2/cph\\-2\\-37\\.pdf\\|publisher\\=U.S. Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=22 November 2013}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/oberlincityohio,US/PST045221\\|title\\=Oberlin city, Ohio\\|website\\=census.gov\\|accessdate\\=July 6, 2022}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-06}} of 2010, there were 8,286 people, 2,730 households, and 1,381 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1684\\.1\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 2,984 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|606\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The [racial makeup](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") of the city was 73\\.0% White, 14\\.8% African American, 0\\.2% Native American, 4\\.0% Asian, 1\\.4% from other races, and 6\\.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5\\.1% of the population.", "There were 2,730 households, of which 24\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35\\.9% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 49\\.4% were non\\-families. 38\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.19 and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.", "The median age in the city was 23\\.3 years. 14\\.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 37\\.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 14\\.5% were from 25 to 44; 18\\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 14\\.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46\\.0% male and 54\\.0% female.", "Of the city's population over the age of 25, 41\\.1% hold a bachelor's degree or higher.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3957834\\.html \\|title\\=Oberlin (City) QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-10 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016153522/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3957834\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-10\\-16 }}", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 8,195 people, 2,678 households, and 1,395 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,871\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 2,836 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|647\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 71\\.92% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 18\\.55% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.49% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 3\\.40% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.17% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.21% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 4\\.26% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.04% of the population.", "There were 2,678 households, out of which 21\\.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\\.5% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47\\.9% were non\\-families. 35\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.31 and the average family size was 2\\.89\\.", "In the city the population was spread out, with 14\\.7% under the age of 18, 36\\.9% from 18 to 24, 16\\.4% from 25 to 44, 17\\.0% from 45 to 64, and 15\\.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 77\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73\\.2 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $41,094, and the median income for a family was $59,358\\. Males had a median income of $42,170 versus $27,308 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $20,704\\. About 6\\.7% of families and 19\\.4% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 11\\.6% of those under age 18 and 7\\.5% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
{{anchor \|1937\|Blue Flame}}Second generation: 1937–1962 --------------------------------------------------------- {{Infobox automobile engine \| image \= \| name \= Second generation \| aka \= \| type \= \[\[inline\-6]] \| production \= 1937\-1963 US 1964\-1979 Brazil \| predecessor \= \| successor \= \| bore \={{Convert\|3\+1/2\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3\|1}} {{Convert\|3\+9/16\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3}} {{Convert\|3\+3/4\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3\|2}} \| stroke \={{Convert\|3\+3/4\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3\|2}} {{Convert\|3\+15/16\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=3}} \| displacement \= {{convert\|216\|cuin\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} ### 216 This engine had a {{Convert\|216\.48\|CID\|L\|1\|adj\=on}} displacement with a bore and stroke of {{convert\|3\+1/2x3\+3/4\|in\|mm\|2}}. A four\-bearing crankshaft was added, along with 6\.5:1 compression pistons, for {{Convert\|85\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}. A new cylinder head in 1941 increased output to {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}, and 6\.6:1 compression gave the 1949 model {{Convert\|92\|hp\|abbr\=on}}. {{anchor\|dipper}}This generation did not use a fully [pressurized oiling](/wiki/Oil_pressure "Oil pressure") system. The [connecting rods](/wiki/Connecting_rod "Connecting rod") were oiled using an "oil trough" built into the [oil pan](/wiki/Oil_pan "Oil pan") that had spray nozzles that squirted a stream of oil at the connecting rods (which were equipped with "dippers"), thus supplying oil to the rod [bearings](/wiki/Journal_bearing "Journal bearing"). Rod bearings were made of [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28metal%29 "Babbitt (metal)") cast integral with the rod. The bearing was adjustable for wear by removing copper shims placed between the rod cap and connecting rod. In this way specified oil clearance could be maintained. If the crankshaft were to be turned undersized, or if the bearing was damaged or worn out, rod and bearing were replaced as a unit, typically at the dealership. This engine was also used in GM's British [Bedford truck](/wiki/Bedford_truck "Bedford truck"). In the late 1930s rival [Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company "Austin Motor Company") decided to get into the 2\-3 ton truck ("lorry") market and in a crash program based the design on the basic architecture of this "Stove Bolt" engine, except that they added detachable shell main and con\-rod bearings and pressurized lubrication. That Austin engine, in six\-cylinder form, post war known as the [Austin D\-Series](/wiki/Austin_D-Series_engine "Austin D-Series engine"), went on to power cars such as the [Austin Sheerline](/wiki/Austin_Sheerline "Austin Sheerline") and [Princess](/wiki/Austin_Princess "Austin Princess"), and the [Jensen Interceptor](/wiki/Jensen_Interceptor_%281950%29 "Jensen Interceptor (1950)") and [541](/wiki/Jensen_541 "Jensen 541"). Austin also lopped off two cylinders to create the BS1 engine and in that form various versions, with various capacities, powered cars such as the [Austin 16](/wiki/Austin_16 "Austin 16"), [A70 Hampshire and Hereford](/wiki/Austin_A70 "Austin A70"), [A90 Atlantic](/wiki/Austin_A90_Atlantic "Austin A90 Atlantic"), the [Austin\-Healey 100](/wiki/Austin-Healey_100 "Austin-Healey 100")\-4 and the [Austin Gipsy](/wiki/Austin_Gipsy "Austin Gipsy"), a generation of commercial vans, as well as some models of the iconic [London black taxi (FX3 and FX4\)](/wiki/Hackney_carriage "Hackney carriage"). | Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |1937\-19406\.25:1 {{Convert\|85\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\|170\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1200 rpm | passenger cars | | {{Convert\|78\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\|168\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1100 rpm | trucks | |1941\-19426\.5:1 {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3300 rpm | {{Convert\|174\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1200\-2000 rpm | all except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over "Cab over") trucks | | {{Convert\|87\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3300 rpm | {{Convert\|172\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1200\-2000 rpm | COE trucks | | 1946\-1948 |{{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3300 rpm{{Convert\|174\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1200\-2000 rpm*Thriftmaster* | | 1949 |6\.6:1 | | 1950\-1953 | {{Convert\|92\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\|176\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-2000 rpm | | ### 235 [thumb\|left\|alt\=1953 Corvette Blue Flame engine\|1953 Corvette *Blue Flame*](/wiki/File:Corvette_1953_engine.JPG "Corvette 1953 engine.JPG") In 1941 a {{convert\|3859\|cc\|CID\|disp\=flip\|adj\=on}} version of the 216 engine was introduced for use in large trucks. Both the bore and stroke of {{cvt\|3\+9/16x3\+15/16\|in\|mm\|1}} were increased over the 216\. This engine had the same oil "dipper system" as the 216\. The 235 was introduced to the Chevy passenger car line in 1950, coupled to the new [Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide "Powerglide") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission"), and 3\.55:1 rear differential. The new version used with the Powerglide transmission featured [hydraulic lifters](/wiki/Tappet%23Hydraulic_tappets "Tappet#Hydraulic tappets"), a higher 7\.5:1 compression ratio, and larger intake valves to produce more power. The pushrod cover on the side of the engine also no longer extended across the cylinder head, to eliminate oil leaks.{{rp\|89}} In 1953 the 235 engine became standard equipment in all Chevrolet passenger cars except the sedan delivery body (which continued to use the older 216 until 1954\), but when coupled to the standard three\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission") (called *Thrift\-King* in that guise) it featured solid lifters, a 7\.1:1 compression ratio, and correspondingly lower power output: {{cvt\|108\|hp\|kW\|0}} versus {{cvt\|115\|hp\|kW\|0}} with the Powerglide. A fully pressurized lubrication system with shell type main bearings in lieu of poured [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28alloy%29 "Babbitt (alloy)") and aluminum pistons were also introduced in 1953, but only in the higher\-output *Blue Flame* version in cars ordered with the Powerglide transmission.{{rp\|102}} The alleged benefits of a "blue flame" rather than yellow had been touted in Chevrolet advertising since 1934\. The [1953 Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 "Chevrolet Corvette (C1)") used a unique version of the high\-pressure 235 engine with mechanical lifters, the same slightly higher\-lift camshaft as used in the 261 truck engine and three single\-barrel, side\-draft Carter Model YH carburetors to produce {{cvt\|150\|hp\|kW\|0}}. From 1954 to 1962, the high\-pressure 235 engine with solid lifters was used in some trucks. From 1956 to 1962, all 235 engines used in cars had hydraulic lifters. The 235 is known as one of the great Chevrolet engines, noted for its power and durability. It was replaced by the third generation [230](/wiki/Chevrolet_Turbo-Thrift_engine%23230 "Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine#230") from 1962\. Canadian\-production GMC trucks also used the 216 and 235 Chevrolet straight\-six engines as their base light\-duty truck powerplant in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The 216 was used from 1947 to 1953, and the 235 was used in 1954 light\-duty trucks only. Medium\-duty GMC trucks used US\-built GMC engines in the 248, 270, and higher sizes prior to 1954\. | Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |1941\-19486\.62:1 {{Convert\|93\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over "Cab over") trucks | | {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|189\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | COE trucks | |19496\.7:1 {{Convert\|93\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over "Cab over") trucks | | {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|189\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | COE trucks | |1950\-1952 {{Convert\|105\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|193\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *[Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide "Powerglide")* transmission; | | | {{Convert\|100\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3500 rpm | {{Convert\|190\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\-series COE trucks | | {{Convert\|92\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\|182\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1500\-1900 rpm | 3700\-series [*Dubl\-Duti*](/wiki/Multi-stop_truck "Multi-stop truck") vans | |1953 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|150\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|223\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | [Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 "Chevrolet Corvette (C1)") *Blue Flame Special* | | | 7\.5:1 | {{Convert\|115\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | | |7\.1:1 {{Convert\|108\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission; | | {{Convert\|107\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\-series COE trucks, 3700\-series *Dubl\-Duti* vans | |19548\.0:1 {{Convert\|155\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|225\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* (new camshaft introduced mid\-year) | | {{Convert\|150\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|223\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* | |7\.5:1 {{Convert\|125\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | | {{Convert\|115\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission | | {{Convert\|112\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | all trucks except COE | | {{Convert\|107\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | COE trucks, *Dubl\-Duti* vans | |1955 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|155\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|225\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | *Blue Flame 150* (Corvette, in limited numbers) | | |7\.5:1 {{Convert\|136\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|209\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2200 rpm | *Blue Flame 136* (passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission) | | | {{Convert\|123\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3800 rpm | {{Convert\|207\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Blue Flame 123* (passenger cars with manual transmission) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\-duty trucks) | | | 1956\-1957 | 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|140\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|210\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 140* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\-duty trucks) | | | 1958 |8\.25:1 {{Convert\|145\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|215\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 145* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | | |1959\-1962{{Convert\|135\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm {{Convert\|217\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000\-2400 rpm | *Hi\-Thrift* (passenger cars) *Hi\-Thrift 235* (1962\) | | | {{Convert\|217\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | | {{Convert\|110\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\|210\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1600 rpm | *Thriftmaster* economy option | ### 261 In 1954, a {{Convert\|260\.9\|CID\|L\|1\|adj\=on}} truck engine was introduced as an optional Jobmaster engine for heavy\-duty trucks. This engine was very similar to the 235 engine, except for a different block casting with a larger piston bore of {{convert\|3\+3/4\|in\|mm\|2}}, two extra coolant holes (in the block and head) between three paired (siamesed) cylinders, and a slightly higher lift camshaft. This engine was offered as a step up from the 235 starting in 1954\. It was offered in parallel with the [GMC V6 engine](/wiki/GMC_V6_engine "GMC V6 engine") in 1960 until 1963, when it was discontinued. The 261 US truck engine had mechanical lifters and was available from 1954 to 1962\. The 235 and 261 truck engines were also used by [GMC Truck](/wiki/GMC_Truck "GMC Truck") of Canada (GMC truck 6\-cylinder engines were also used in Canada). The 1955–1962 full\-size [Canadian Pontiac car](/wiki/Pontiac_%28automobile%29%23Canadian/export_models "Pontiac (automobile)#Canadian/export models") had a standard 261\-cubic\-inch engine that had hydraulic lifters. This engine was not sold in the US, but was very similar to the US truck 261\. The 261 engines were also used in light trucks and the [Chevrolet Veraneio](/wiki/Chevrolet_Veraneio "Chevrolet Veraneio") from 1958 to 1979 in Brazil. Produced 148 hp. | Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1954\-55 | 7\.17:1 | {{Convert\|135\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\|220\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | | | 1956\-57 | 7\.8:1 | {{Convert\|148\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\|232\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | | | 1958\-1962 | 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|150\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\|235\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | |
[ "{{anchor \\|1937\\|Blue Flame}}Second generation: 1937–1962\n---------------------------------------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile engine\n\\| image \\= \n\\| name \\= Second generation\n\\| aka \\=\n\\| type \\= \\[\\[inline\\-6]]\n\\| production \\= 1937\\-1963 US \n1964\\-1979 Brazil\n\\| predecessor \\=\n\\| successor \\=\n\\| bore \\={{Convert\\|3\\+1/2\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3\\|1}} \n{{Convert\\|3\\+9/16\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3}} \n{{Convert\\|3\\+3/4\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3\\|2}}\n\\| stroke \\={{Convert\\|3\\+3/4\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3\\|2}} \n{{Convert\\|3\\+15/16\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=3}}", "\\| displacement \\= {{convert\\|216\\|cuin\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}", "### 216", "This engine had a {{Convert\\|216\\.48\\|CID\\|L\\|1\\|adj\\=on}} displacement with a bore and stroke of {{convert\\|3\\+1/2x3\\+3/4\\|in\\|mm\\|2}}. A four\\-bearing crankshaft was added, along with 6\\.5:1 compression pistons, for {{Convert\\|85\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. A new cylinder head in 1941 increased output to {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, and 6\\.6:1 compression gave the 1949 model {{Convert\\|92\\|hp\\|abbr\\=on}}. {{anchor\\|dipper}}This generation did not use a fully [pressurized oiling](/wiki/Oil_pressure \"Oil pressure\") system. The [connecting rods](/wiki/Connecting_rod \"Connecting rod\") were oiled using an \"oil trough\" built into the [oil pan](/wiki/Oil_pan \"Oil pan\") that had spray nozzles that squirted a stream of oil at the connecting rods (which were equipped with \"dippers\"), thus supplying oil to the rod [bearings](/wiki/Journal_bearing \"Journal bearing\").", "Rod bearings were made of [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28metal%29 \"Babbitt (metal)\") cast integral with the rod. The bearing was adjustable for wear by removing copper shims placed between the rod cap and connecting rod. In this way specified oil clearance could be maintained. If the crankshaft were to be turned undersized, or if the bearing was damaged or worn out, rod and bearing were replaced as a unit, typically at the dealership.", "This engine was also used in GM's British [Bedford truck](/wiki/Bedford_truck \"Bedford truck\"). In the late 1930s rival [Austin](/wiki/Austin_Motor_Company \"Austin Motor Company\") decided to get into the 2\\-3 ton truck (\"lorry\") market and in a crash program based the design on the basic architecture of this \"Stove Bolt\" engine, except that they added detachable shell main and con\\-rod bearings and pressurized lubrication. That Austin engine, in six\\-cylinder form, post war known as the [Austin D\\-Series](/wiki/Austin_D-Series_engine \"Austin D-Series engine\"), went on to power cars such as the [Austin Sheerline](/wiki/Austin_Sheerline \"Austin Sheerline\") and [Princess](/wiki/Austin_Princess \"Austin Princess\"), and the [Jensen Interceptor](/wiki/Jensen_Interceptor_%281950%29 \"Jensen Interceptor (1950)\") and [541](/wiki/Jensen_541 \"Jensen 541\"). Austin also lopped off two cylinders to create the BS1 engine and in that form various versions, with various capacities, powered cars such as the [Austin 16](/wiki/Austin_16 \"Austin 16\"), [A70 Hampshire and Hereford](/wiki/Austin_A70 \"Austin A70\"), [A90 Atlantic](/wiki/Austin_A90_Atlantic \"Austin A90 Atlantic\"), the [Austin\\-Healey 100](/wiki/Austin-Healey_100 \"Austin-Healey 100\")\\-4 and the [Austin Gipsy](/wiki/Austin_Gipsy \"Austin Gipsy\"), a generation of commercial vans, as well as some models of the iconic [London black taxi (FX3 and FX4\\)](/wiki/Hackney_carriage \"Hackney carriage\").", "", "| Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|1937\\-19406\\.25:1 {{Convert\\|85\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\\|170\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1200 rpm | passenger cars |", "| {{Convert\\|78\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\\|168\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1100 rpm | trucks |\n|1941\\-19426\\.5:1 {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3300 rpm | {{Convert\\|174\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1200\\-2000 rpm | all except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over \"Cab over\") trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|87\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3300 rpm | {{Convert\\|172\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1200\\-2000 rpm | COE trucks |\n| 1946\\-1948 |{{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3300 rpm{{Convert\\|174\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1200\\-2000 rpm*Thriftmaster* |\n| 1949 |6\\.6:1 |\n| 1950\\-1953 | {{Convert\\|92\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\\|176\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-2000 rpm | |", "### 235", "[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=1953 Corvette Blue Flame engine\\|1953 Corvette *Blue Flame*](/wiki/File:Corvette_1953_engine.JPG \"Corvette 1953 engine.JPG\")\nIn 1941 a {{convert\\|3859\\|cc\\|CID\\|disp\\=flip\\|adj\\=on}} version of the 216 engine was introduced for use in large trucks. Both the bore and stroke of {{cvt\\|3\\+9/16x3\\+15/16\\|in\\|mm\\|1}} were increased over the 216\\. This engine had the same oil \"dipper system\" as the 216\\.", "The 235 was introduced to the Chevy passenger car line in 1950, coupled to the new [Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide \"Powerglide\") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\"), and 3\\.55:1 rear differential. The new version used with the Powerglide transmission featured [hydraulic lifters](/wiki/Tappet%23Hydraulic_tappets \"Tappet#Hydraulic tappets\"), a higher 7\\.5:1 compression ratio, and larger intake valves to produce more power. The pushrod cover on the side of the engine also no longer extended across the cylinder head, to eliminate oil leaks.{{rp\\|89}} In 1953 the 235 engine became standard equipment in all Chevrolet passenger cars except the sedan delivery body (which continued to use the older 216 until 1954\\), but when coupled to the standard three\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\") (called *Thrift\\-King* in that guise) it featured solid lifters, a 7\\.1:1 compression ratio, and correspondingly lower power output: {{cvt\\|108\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} versus {{cvt\\|115\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} with the Powerglide.", "A fully pressurized lubrication system with shell type main bearings in lieu of poured [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28alloy%29 \"Babbitt (alloy)\") and aluminum pistons were also introduced in 1953, but only in the higher\\-output *Blue Flame* version in cars ordered with the Powerglide transmission.{{rp\\|102}} The alleged benefits of a \"blue flame\" rather than yellow had been touted in Chevrolet advertising since 1934\\. The [1953 Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 \"Chevrolet Corvette (C1)\") used a unique version of the high\\-pressure 235 engine with mechanical lifters, the same slightly higher\\-lift camshaft as used in the 261 truck engine and three single\\-barrel, side\\-draft Carter Model YH carburetors to produce {{cvt\\|150\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}}.", "From 1954 to 1962, the high\\-pressure 235 engine with solid lifters was used in some trucks. From 1956 to 1962, all 235 engines used in cars had hydraulic lifters.", "The 235 is known as one of the great Chevrolet engines, noted for its power and durability. It was replaced by the third generation [230](/wiki/Chevrolet_Turbo-Thrift_engine%23230 \"Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine#230\") from 1962\\.", "Canadian\\-production GMC trucks also used the 216 and 235 Chevrolet straight\\-six engines as their base light\\-duty truck powerplant in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The 216 was used from 1947 to 1953, and the 235 was used in 1954 light\\-duty trucks only. Medium\\-duty GMC trucks used US\\-built GMC engines in the 248, 270, and higher sizes prior to 1954\\.", "", "| Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|1941\\-19486\\.62:1 {{Convert\\|93\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over \"Cab over\") trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|189\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | COE trucks |\n|19496\\.7:1 {{Convert\\|93\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over \"Cab over\") trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|189\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | COE trucks |\n|1950\\-1952 {{Convert\\|105\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|193\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *[Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide \"Powerglide\")* transmission; | |\n| {{Convert\\|100\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3500 rpm | {{Convert\\|190\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\\-series COE trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|92\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\\|182\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1500\\-1900 rpm | 3700\\-series [*Dubl\\-Duti*](/wiki/Multi-stop_truck \"Multi-stop truck\") vans |\n|1953 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|150\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|223\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | [Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 \"Chevrolet Corvette (C1)\") *Blue Flame Special* | |\n| 7\\.5:1 | {{Convert\\|115\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | |\n|7\\.1:1 {{Convert\\|108\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission; |", "| {{Convert\\|107\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\\-series COE trucks, 3700\\-series *Dubl\\-Duti* vans |\n|19548\\.0:1 {{Convert\\|155\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|225\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* (new camshaft introduced mid\\-year) |", "| {{Convert\\|150\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|223\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* |\n|7\\.5:1 {{Convert\\|125\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission |", "| {{Convert\\|115\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission |\n| {{Convert\\|112\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | all trucks except COE |", "| {{Convert\\|107\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | COE trucks, *Dubl\\-Duti* vans |\n|1955 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|155\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|225\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | *Blue Flame 150* (Corvette, in limited numbers) | |\n|7\\.5:1 {{Convert\\|136\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|209\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2200 rpm | *Blue Flame 136* (passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission) | |\n| {{Convert\\|123\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3800 rpm | {{Convert\\|207\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Blue Flame 123* (passenger cars with manual transmission) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\\-duty trucks) | |\n| 1956\\-1957 | 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|140\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|210\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 140* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\\-duty trucks) | |\n| 1958 |8\\.25:1 {{Convert\\|145\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|215\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 145* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | |\n|1959\\-1962{{Convert\\|135\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm {{Convert\\|217\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000\\-2400 rpm | *Hi\\-Thrift* (passenger cars) *Hi\\-Thrift 235* (1962\\) | |\n| {{Convert\\|217\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Thriftmaster* (trucks) |", "| {{Convert\\|110\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\\|210\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1600 rpm | *Thriftmaster* economy option |", "### 261", "In 1954, a {{Convert\\|260\\.9\\|CID\\|L\\|1\\|adj\\=on}} truck engine was introduced as an optional Jobmaster engine for heavy\\-duty trucks. This engine was very similar to the 235 engine, except for a different block casting with a larger piston bore of {{convert\\|3\\+3/4\\|in\\|mm\\|2}}, two extra coolant holes (in the block and head) between three paired (siamesed) cylinders, and a slightly higher lift camshaft. This engine was offered as a step up from the 235 starting in 1954\\. It was offered in parallel with the [GMC V6 engine](/wiki/GMC_V6_engine \"GMC V6 engine\") in 1960 until 1963, when it was discontinued. The 261 US truck engine had mechanical lifters and was available from 1954 to 1962\\.", "The 235 and 261 truck engines were also used by [GMC Truck](/wiki/GMC_Truck \"GMC Truck\") of Canada (GMC truck 6\\-cylinder engines were also used in Canada). The 1955–1962 full\\-size [Canadian Pontiac car](/wiki/Pontiac_%28automobile%29%23Canadian/export_models \"Pontiac (automobile)#Canadian/export models\") had a standard 261\\-cubic\\-inch engine that had hydraulic lifters. This engine was not sold in the US, but was very similar to the US truck 261\\.", "The 261 engines were also used in light trucks and the [Chevrolet Veraneio](/wiki/Chevrolet_Veraneio \"Chevrolet Veraneio\") from 1958 to 1979 in Brazil. Produced 148 hp.", "", "| Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Reference |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1954\\-55 | 7\\.17:1 | {{Convert\\|135\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\\|220\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | |\n| 1956\\-57 | 7\\.8:1 | {{Convert\\|148\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\\|232\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | |\n| 1958\\-1962 | 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|150\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\\|235\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | |", "" ]
### 235 [thumb\|left\|alt\=1953 Corvette Blue Flame engine\|1953 Corvette *Blue Flame*](/wiki/File:Corvette_1953_engine.JPG "Corvette 1953 engine.JPG") In 1941 a {{convert\|3859\|cc\|CID\|disp\=flip\|adj\=on}} version of the 216 engine was introduced for use in large trucks. Both the bore and stroke of {{cvt\|3\+9/16x3\+15/16\|in\|mm\|1}} were increased over the 216\. This engine had the same oil "dipper system" as the 216\. The 235 was introduced to the Chevy passenger car line in 1950, coupled to the new [Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide "Powerglide") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission"), and 3\.55:1 rear differential. The new version used with the Powerglide transmission featured [hydraulic lifters](/wiki/Tappet%23Hydraulic_tappets "Tappet#Hydraulic tappets"), a higher 7\.5:1 compression ratio, and larger intake valves to produce more power. The pushrod cover on the side of the engine also no longer extended across the cylinder head, to eliminate oil leaks.{{rp\|89}} In 1953 the 235 engine became standard equipment in all Chevrolet passenger cars except the sedan delivery body (which continued to use the older 216 until 1954\), but when coupled to the standard three\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission "Manual transmission") (called *Thrift\-King* in that guise) it featured solid lifters, a 7\.1:1 compression ratio, and correspondingly lower power output: {{cvt\|108\|hp\|kW\|0}} versus {{cvt\|115\|hp\|kW\|0}} with the Powerglide. A fully pressurized lubrication system with shell type main bearings in lieu of poured [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28alloy%29 "Babbitt (alloy)") and aluminum pistons were also introduced in 1953, but only in the higher\-output *Blue Flame* version in cars ordered with the Powerglide transmission.{{rp\|102}} The alleged benefits of a "blue flame" rather than yellow had been touted in Chevrolet advertising since 1934\. The [1953 Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 "Chevrolet Corvette (C1)") used a unique version of the high\-pressure 235 engine with mechanical lifters, the same slightly higher\-lift camshaft as used in the 261 truck engine and three single\-barrel, side\-draft Carter Model YH carburetors to produce {{cvt\|150\|hp\|kW\|0}}. From 1954 to 1962, the high\-pressure 235 engine with solid lifters was used in some trucks. From 1956 to 1962, all 235 engines used in cars had hydraulic lifters. The 235 is known as one of the great Chevrolet engines, noted for its power and durability. It was replaced by the third generation [230](/wiki/Chevrolet_Turbo-Thrift_engine%23230 "Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine#230") from 1962\. Canadian\-production GMC trucks also used the 216 and 235 Chevrolet straight\-six engines as their base light\-duty truck powerplant in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The 216 was used from 1947 to 1953, and the 235 was used in 1954 light\-duty trucks only. Medium\-duty GMC trucks used US\-built GMC engines in the 248, 270, and higher sizes prior to 1954\. | Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |1941\-19486\.62:1 {{Convert\|93\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over "Cab over") trucks | | {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|189\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | COE trucks | |19496\.7:1 {{Convert\|93\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over "Cab over") trucks | | {{Convert\|90\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\|189\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1000\-1900 rpm | COE trucks | |1950\-1952 {{Convert\|105\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|193\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *[Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide "Powerglide")* transmission; 4000, 6000\-series heavy\-duty trucks | | | {{Convert\|100\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3500 rpm | {{Convert\|190\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\-series COE trucks | | {{Convert\|92\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\|182\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1500\-1900 rpm | 3700\-series [*Dubl\-Duti*](/wiki/Multi-stop_truck "Multi-stop truck") vans | |1953 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|150\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|223\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | [Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 "Chevrolet Corvette (C1)") *Blue Flame Special* | | | 7\.5:1 | {{Convert\|115\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | | |7\.1:1 {{Convert\|108\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission; 4000, 6000\-series heavy\-duty trucks | | {{Convert\|107\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\-series COE trucks, 3700\-series *Dubl\-Duti* vans | |19548\.0:1 {{Convert\|155\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|225\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* (new camshaft introduced mid\-year) | | {{Convert\|150\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|223\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* | |7\.5:1 {{Convert\|125\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | | {{Convert\|115\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission | | {{Convert\|112\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\|200\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | all trucks except COE | | {{Convert\|107\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\|192\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | COE trucks, *Dubl\-Duti* vans | |1955 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|155\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|225\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | *Blue Flame 150* (Corvette, in limited numbers) | | |7\.5:1 {{Convert\|136\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|209\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2200 rpm | *Blue Flame 136* (passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission) | | | {{Convert\|123\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3800 rpm | {{Convert\|207\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Blue Flame 123* (passenger cars with manual transmission) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\-duty trucks) | | | 1956\-1957 | 8\.0:1 | {{Convert\|140\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|210\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 140* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\-duty trucks) | | | 1958 |8\.25:1 {{Convert\|145\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\|215\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 145* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | | |1959\-1962{{Convert\|135\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 4000 rpm {{Convert\|217\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000\-2400 rpm | *Hi\-Thrift* (passenger cars) *Hi\-Thrift 235* (1962\) | | | {{Convert\|217\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | | {{Convert\|110\|hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\|210\|lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} @ 1600 rpm | *Thriftmaster* economy option |
[ "### 235", "[thumb\\|left\\|alt\\=1953 Corvette Blue Flame engine\\|1953 Corvette *Blue Flame*](/wiki/File:Corvette_1953_engine.JPG \"Corvette 1953 engine.JPG\")\nIn 1941 a {{convert\\|3859\\|cc\\|CID\\|disp\\=flip\\|adj\\=on}} version of the 216 engine was introduced for use in large trucks. Both the bore and stroke of {{cvt\\|3\\+9/16x3\\+15/16\\|in\\|mm\\|1}} were increased over the 216\\. This engine had the same oil \"dipper system\" as the 216\\.", "The 235 was introduced to the Chevy passenger car line in 1950, coupled to the new [Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide \"Powerglide\") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\"), and 3\\.55:1 rear differential. The new version used with the Powerglide transmission featured [hydraulic lifters](/wiki/Tappet%23Hydraulic_tappets \"Tappet#Hydraulic tappets\"), a higher 7\\.5:1 compression ratio, and larger intake valves to produce more power. The pushrod cover on the side of the engine also no longer extended across the cylinder head, to eliminate oil leaks.{{rp\\|89}} In 1953 the 235 engine became standard equipment in all Chevrolet passenger cars except the sedan delivery body (which continued to use the older 216 until 1954\\), but when coupled to the standard three\\-speed [manual transmission](/wiki/Manual_transmission \"Manual transmission\") (called *Thrift\\-King* in that guise) it featured solid lifters, a 7\\.1:1 compression ratio, and correspondingly lower power output: {{cvt\\|108\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} versus {{cvt\\|115\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} with the Powerglide.", "A fully pressurized lubrication system with shell type main bearings in lieu of poured [babbitt](/wiki/Babbitt_%28alloy%29 \"Babbitt (alloy)\") and aluminum pistons were also introduced in 1953, but only in the higher\\-output *Blue Flame* version in cars ordered with the Powerglide transmission.{{rp\\|102}} The alleged benefits of a \"blue flame\" rather than yellow had been touted in Chevrolet advertising since 1934\\. The [1953 Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 \"Chevrolet Corvette (C1)\") used a unique version of the high\\-pressure 235 engine with mechanical lifters, the same slightly higher\\-lift camshaft as used in the 261 truck engine and three single\\-barrel, side\\-draft Carter Model YH carburetors to produce {{cvt\\|150\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}}.", "From 1954 to 1962, the high\\-pressure 235 engine with solid lifters was used in some trucks. From 1956 to 1962, all 235 engines used in cars had hydraulic lifters.", "The 235 is known as one of the great Chevrolet engines, noted for its power and durability. It was replaced by the third generation [230](/wiki/Chevrolet_Turbo-Thrift_engine%23230 \"Chevrolet Turbo-Thrift engine#230\") from 1962\\.", "Canadian\\-production GMC trucks also used the 216 and 235 Chevrolet straight\\-six engines as their base light\\-duty truck powerplant in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The 216 was used from 1947 to 1953, and the 235 was used in 1954 light\\-duty trucks only. Medium\\-duty GMC trucks used US\\-built GMC engines in the 248, 270, and higher sizes prior to 1954\\.", "", "| Year | Compression Ratio | Power | Torque | Notes | Reference |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n|1941\\-19486\\.62:1 {{Convert\\|93\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over \"Cab over\") trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|189\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | COE trucks |\n|19496\\.7:1 {{Convert\\|93\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | all applications except [COE](/wiki/Cab_over \"Cab over\") trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|90\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3100 rpm | {{Convert\\|189\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1000\\-1900 rpm | COE trucks |\n|1950\\-1952 {{Convert\\|105\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|193\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *[Powerglide](/wiki/Powerglide \"Powerglide\")* transmission; 4000, 6000\\-series heavy\\-duty trucks | |\n| {{Convert\\|100\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3500 rpm | {{Convert\\|190\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\\-series COE trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|92\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3400 rpm | {{Convert\\|182\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1500\\-1900 rpm | 3700\\-series [*Dubl\\-Duti*](/wiki/Multi-stop_truck \"Multi-stop truck\") vans |\n|1953 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|150\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|223\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | [Corvette](/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_%28C1%29 \"Chevrolet Corvette (C1)\") *Blue Flame Special* | |\n| 7\\.5:1 | {{Convert\\|115\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission | |\n|7\\.1:1 {{Convert\\|108\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission; 4000, 6000\\-series heavy\\-duty trucks |", "| {{Convert\\|107\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | 5000\\-series COE trucks, 3700\\-series *Dubl\\-Duti* vans |\n|19548\\.0:1 {{Convert\\|155\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|225\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* (new camshaft introduced mid\\-year) |", "| {{Convert\\|150\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|223\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | Corvette *Blue Flame 150* |\n|7\\.5:1 {{Convert\\|125\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission |", "| {{Convert\\|115\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | passenger cars with manual transmission |\n| {{Convert\\|112\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3700 rpm | {{Convert\\|200\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | all trucks except COE |", "| {{Convert\\|107\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3600 rpm | {{Convert\\|192\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | COE trucks, *Dubl\\-Duti* vans |\n|1955 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|155\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|225\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2800 rpm | *Blue Flame 150* (Corvette, in limited numbers) | |\n|7\\.5:1 {{Convert\\|136\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|209\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2200 rpm | *Blue Flame 136* (passenger cars with *Powerglide* transmission) | |\n| {{Convert\\|123\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3800 rpm | {{Convert\\|207\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Blue Flame 123* (passenger cars with manual transmission) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\\-duty trucks) | |\n| 1956\\-1957 | 8\\.0:1 | {{Convert\\|140\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|210\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 140* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (light and medium\\-duty trucks) *Loadmaster* (heavy\\-duty trucks) | |\n| 1958 |8\\.25:1 {{Convert\\|145\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4200 rpm | {{Convert\\|215\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2400 rpm | *Blue Flame 145* (passenger cars) *Thriftmaster* (trucks) | |\n|1959\\-1962{{Convert\\|135\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 4000 rpm {{Convert\\|217\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000\\-2400 rpm | *Hi\\-Thrift* (passenger cars) *Hi\\-Thrift 235* (1962\\) | |\n| {{Convert\\|217\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 2000 rpm | *Thriftmaster* (trucks) |", "| {{Convert\\|110\\|hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 3200 rpm | {{Convert\\|210\\|lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} @ 1600 rpm | *Thriftmaster* economy option |", "" ]
History ------- The Xcelsior was introduced October 2008 [APTA](/wiki/American_Public_Transportation_Association "American Public Transportation Association") Expo held in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego "San Diego"). The Xcelsior started off as a set of improvements to the company's prior product, the [New Flyer Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor "New Flyer Low Floor"), but over the development process the company said it ended up designing a new bus. Compared to the Low Floor, the Xcelsior was 10% lighter, boosting fuel economy by about 7%.{{cite magazine\|author1\=Starcic, Janna\|author2\=Roman, Alex\|author3\=Schlosser, Nicole\|date\=November–December 2008\|title\=Transportation's Green Future on Display at APTA EXPO\|url\=https://www.metro\-magazine.com/resources/metro\_apta08\.pdf\|magazine\=Metro Magazine\|pages\=20–50\|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} The bus was also designed to allow a much larger cooling system and the addition of a [SCR](/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction "Selective catalytic reduction") system, both required to meet the more stringent EPA mandates that were coming in 2010\. To accommodate the change, the [Thermo King](/wiki/Thermo_King "Thermo King") air conditioning system was moved from the rear of the bus to a roof mount location over the front axle. New Flyer found that the move improved the weight balance of the bus, and when combined with enhanced insulation, contributed to the vehicle running quieter.{{cite web\|author\=Hubbard, David\|date\=March 1, 2009\|title\=Xcelsior gives a spirited ride\|url\=https://busride.com/xcelsior\-gives\-a\-spirited\-ride/\|access\-date\=December 10, 2018\|work\=Bus Ride}} The interior of the bus was also modified. By moving the fuel tank and modifying the rear suspension, seating capacity was increased from 39 to 42 (on the 40\-foot model), with more forward\-facing seats. To improve [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility "Accessibility"), the floor height was lowered to {{Convert\|14\|in}} with the ability to [kneel](/wiki/Kneeling_bus "Kneeling bus") down to {{Convert\|10\|in}}, and the front entry door was widened, allowing a wider wheelchair ramp. To improve interior aesthetics, visible fasteners were eliminated and molded plastic surfaces were introduced. The utilitarian instrument panel was replaced with an automotive\-style electronic dashboard. The bus also had a redesigned front face, bumpers, and roof shrouds that also offered better aerodynamics and the front improved visibility for the driver. At launch, the Xcelsior was only available in a {{Convert\|40\|ft\|adj\=on}} length with power from the [Cummins ISL 280](/wiki/Cummins_ISL "Cummins ISL") and a [Allison B400](/wiki/Allison_Bus_Series "Allison Bus Series") conventional transmission or the Allison EP\-40 hybrid drive. [Brampton Transit](/wiki/Brampton_Transit "Brampton Transit"), serving [Brampton, Ontario](/wiki/Brampton%2C_Ontario "Brampton, Ontario"), was the first agency to order the Xcelsior. The first [trolleybus](/wiki/Trolleybus "Trolleybus") version of the Xcelsior was an XT40 built in 2014 for the [Seattle trolleybus system](/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Seattle "Trolleybuses in Seattle"), operated by [King County Metro](/wiki/King_County_Metro "King County Metro"),{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=November–December 2014\|title\=Trolleynews \[regular news section]\|page\=164\|magazine\=Trolleybus Magazine\|publisher\=National Trolleybus Association\|number\=318\|location\=UK\|issn\=0266\-7452}} the first unit of an order placed in 2013\.{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=September–October 2013\|title\=Trolleynews \[regular news section]\|pages\=136–137\|magazine\=Trolleybus Magazine\|publisher\=National Trolleybus Association\|number\=311\|location\=UK\|issn\=0266\-7452}} King County Metro also purchased the XT60 (articulated trolleybus), and both XT40s and XT60s were subsequently purchased by the [San Francisco Municipal Railway](/wiki/San_Francisco_Municipal_Railway "San Francisco Municipal Railway"), for the [San Francisco trolleybus system](/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_San_Francisco "Trolleybuses in San Francisco").{{cite news\|author\=\|date\=September–October 2017\|title\=Trolleynews \[regular news section]\|page\=197\|magazine\=Trolleybus Magazine\|publisher\=National Trolleybus Association\|number\=335\|location\=UK\|issn\=0266\-7452}} Beginning with the 2026 model year, the XDE60 will be discontinued as New Flyer was unable to find a powertrain complaint with new regulations taking effect around that time. With the 2027 model year, the XDE35 and XN35 will both be discontinued due projected low demand. {{Cite web \|date\=August 1, 2024 \|title\=ICE powertrain portfolio. \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\-content/uploads/2024/08/New\-Flyer\-ICE\-Powertrain\-Portfolio.pdf \|url\-status\= \|access\-date\=October 16, 2024}} {{Clear left}} ### Xcelsior CHARGE [left\|thumb\|A 5\-door XE60 [battery electric bus](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus "Battery electric bus") with [City Line](/wiki/City_Line_%28Spokane%2C_Washington%29 "City Line (Spokane, Washington)") livery operated by [Spokane Transit](/wiki/Spokane_Transit_Authority "Spokane Transit Authority") charging via [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 "SAE J3105") overhead charging station.](/wiki/File:Full_Spokane_City_Line_bus_charging_at_SCC_transit_center_October_2023.jpg "Full Spokane City Line bus charging at SCC transit center October 2023.jpg") The first Xcelsior [battery electric buses](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus "Battery electric bus") (XE40\) were built in 2014 and delivered to the [Chicago Transit Authority](/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority "Chicago Transit Authority") and [Winnipeg Transit](/wiki/Winnipeg_Transit "Winnipeg Transit").{{cite web\|author\=New Flyer Industries\|date\=August 15, 2018\|title\=New Flyer Electric Buses\|url\=https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/New\-Flyer\-Electric\-Bus\-2018\-08\-15\-Rev\-B.pdf\|access\-date\=24 December 2018\|publisher\=California Fuel Cell Partnership}} [Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Transportation_Authority "Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority") was the lead agency for the XE60, ordered in January 2019{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/2019/01/mbta\-leads\-bostons\-evolution\-in\-transit\-with\-battery electric\-buses\-from\-new\-flyer/\|title\=MBTA leads Boston's evolution in transit with battery electric buses from New Flyer\|date\=January 7, 2019\|publisher\=New Flyer Industries\|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} and placed into service on July 31, 2019\.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.mbta.com/news/2019\-07\-31/first\-zero\-emission\-battery electric\-buses\-join\-the\-mbta\-silver\-line\-fleet\|title\=First Zero\-emission, battery electric Buses Join the MBTA Silver Line Fleet\|date\=July 31, 2019\|publisher\=Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} The [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission "Toronto Transit Commission") operates 25 XE40 buses. The first battery electric Xcelsior buses were a powertrain option within the regular Xcelsior line; development was announced in 2011, a prototype was shown in 2012, and regular production began in 2014\.{{cite magazine \|author\=Plachno, Larry \|date\=April 2018 \|title\=Charging Ahead with Electric Buses \|url\=http://busmag.com/wp\-content/uploads/2018/05/Electric\-April.pdf \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|magazine\=National Bus Trader \|pages\=16–25}} The original battery electric Xcelsior bus, offered as an XE40, used a permanent magnet traction motor built by Siemens.{{cite press release \|url\=https://news.usa.siemens.biz/press\-release/industry/siemens\-electric\-drive\-system\-power\-new\-line\-transit\-buses \|title\=Siemens electric Drive System to Power New Line of Transit Buses \|date\=October 28, 2014 \|publisher\=Siemens \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} In October 2017, the Xcelsior CHARGE sub\-line was introduced. The Xcelsior CHARGE variant (XE*nn*) uses the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") ELFA2 electric drive system with different options for battery capacity, depending on the charging speed and range required.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\-content/uploads/2018/10/XcelsiorCHARGE\_1018\_NF\-compressed.pdf \|title\=Xcelsior CHARGE \|date\=October 2018 \|publisher\=New Flyer Industries \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} The traction motor used has an output of either {{convert\|210\|or\|280\|hp\|PS kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|1033\|or\|1475\|lbft\|Nm kgm\|0\|abbr\=on}}. Batteries are supplied by [XALT Energy](/wiki/XALT_Energy "XALT Energy"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.apta.com/mc/university/presentations/Documents/New%20Flyer%20Xcelsior%20CHARGE%E2%84%A2%20XE35,%20XE40%20and%20XE60%20Battery%20Electric%20Buses.pdf \|title\=New Flyer Xcelsior ''CHARGE''™ \|author\=New Flyer Industries \|date\=June 26, 2018 \|publisher\=American Public Transportation Association \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} or [A123 Systems](/wiki/A123_Systems "A123 Systems") (XE60 long\-range models and XHE*nn* fuel cell models). On\-route rapid charging is provided through an overhead pantograph designed to be interoperable with the [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 "SAE J3105") standard supplying 300–450 kW. Shop or depot charging may be performed using [SAE J3068](/wiki/SAE_J3068 "SAE J3068") and [J1772](/wiki/SAE_J1772 "SAE J1772") connectors supplying up to 150 kW. At Altoona, the as\-tested empty weight of an XE40 was measured at {{convert\|32770\|lb\|abbr\=on}} with a capacity of 76 (38 seated passengers \+ 37 standing passengers \+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating "Gross vehicle weight rating") of {{convert\|43550\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. It was equipped with 4 XALT Xsyst 7 (7 kWh) batteries and a SPHEROS fuel\-fired heater. When accelerating from a constant speed, the bus emitted an average maximum noise level of 66\.1 [dB(A)](/wiki/A-weighting "A-weighting"),{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/458\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE40 \|date\=July 2015 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} considerably lower than the average maximum noise level of 70\.4 dB(A) measured from a conventionally\-powered XD40\.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/416\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD40 \|date\=November 2012 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} #### XE60 [thumb\|G Line bus using on\-route charger at North Hollywood station](/wiki/File:G_Line_bus_charging_at_North_Hollywood_station.jpg "G Line bus charging at North Hollywood station.jpg") [thumb\|left\|The interior of an XE60\.](/wiki/File:XE60_Interior.jpg "XE60 Interior.jpg") The articulated XE60 adds a second driven axle, using the [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen "ZF Friedrichshafen") AxTrax AVE{{cite web \|author\=ZumMallen, Ryan \|date\=September 19, 2018 \|title\=New Flyer and ZF Building 100 Electric Buses for U.S. \|url\=https://www.trucks.com/2018/09/19/new\-flyer\-zf\-friedrichshafen\-electric\-buses\-usa/ \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|work\=Trucks}} on the middle axle. The AxTrax AVE (formerly known as the AVE 130\){{Dead link\|date\=September 2022}}{{cite magazine \|author\=Thoma, Frank \|date\=December 11, 2018 \|title\=Electric mobility in size XL \|url\=https://vision.zf.com/site/magazine/en/articles\_13121\.html \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|magazine\=Vision Magazine \|publisher\=ZF}} uses two electric motors (one per wheel), each with a maximum continuous/peak output of {{convert\|160\|/\|340\|hp\|PS kW\|abbr\=on\|0\|}} and maximum continuous/peak torque of {{convert\|6000\|/\|16200\|lbft\|Nm kgm\|0\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/506\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE60 \|date\=April 2019 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} Each motor is an asynchronous three\-phase AC motor operating on 650 VDC with an input current of 250 (continuous) to 340 (peak) amps, using a single\-speed reduction gear ratio of 22\.66:1\. The complete axle assembly weighs {{convert\|1250\|kg\|lb\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}{{cite web \|date\=November 2018 \|title\=Product Overview: Axle \& Transmission Systems for Buses \& Coaches \|url\=https://www.zf.com/products/media/product\_media/buses\_1/product\_overview\_1/product\_overview\_axle\_transmission\_systems.pdf \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|publisher\=ZF}} The as\-tested empty weight of an XE60 was {{convert\|52070\|lb\|abbr\=on}} with a capacity of 120 (50 seated passengers \+ 69 standing passengers \+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating "Gross vehicle weight rating") of {{convert\|70170\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. Compared to the diesel\-powered equivalent XD60, the XE60 is heavier (XD60 GVW is {{convert\|58600\|lb\|abbr\=on}}) and holds slightly fewer people (XD60 capacity is 123 people: 49 seated, 73 standing, 1 driver).{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/428\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD60 \|date\=July 2013 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} Depending on the driving route/style, the XE60 tested at Altoona had a predicted range of {{convert\|145\|to\|246\|mi\|abbr\=out}}. The [MBTA](/wiki/MBTA_bus "MBTA bus") and [NYMTA](/wiki/New_York_City_transit_buses "New York City transit buses") were the first to order the XE60, with the former ordering 5 and the latter ordering 15\. #### Xcelsior CHARGE NG Xcelsior CHARGE NG is New Flyer's next generation battery electric, zero\-emission bus. It is lighter, simpler and has longer range with better energy recovery. It has a capacity of 32\-61 passengers with 2 wheelchair locations. It is available in 35\-, 40\-, and 60\-foot configurations. It has a [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") ELFA3 traction motor, Lithium Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries, and electric roof\-mounted HVAC(s).{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-03\-17\|title\=New Flyer Unveils its Most Advanced EV Bus\|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/2021/03/new\-flyer\-unveils\-its\-most\-advanced\-ev\-bus/\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-06\|website\=New Flyer {{!}} North America's Bus Leader\|language\=en\-US}} #### Xcelsior CHARGE H2 The CHARGE model can be equipped with a hydrogen fuel cell (model code XHE), which acts as an on\-board charger to extend range.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\-content/uploads/2017/10/Xcelsior\-Hydrogen\-Fuel\-Cell\-Electric\-Bus\-1\.pdf \|title\=Xcelsior hydrogen fuel cell\-electric bus \|date\=October 2017 \|publisher\=New Flyer Industries \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} Earlier New Flyer fuel cell buses were based on the preceding [Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor "New Flyer Low Floor") chassis, designated H40LFR, and integrated by an outside vendor. In 2016, New Flyer received an order for 25 XHE40 buses under the [California Air Resources Board](/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board "California Air Resources Board") Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP).{{cite web \|url\=https://caltransit.org/cta/assets/Fall%20Conference/2017/PPTs/Maintenance/MAINT\-Zero%20Emission%20Implementations%20\-%20Warren.pdf \|title\=Zero\-Emission Implementations \|author\=Warren, David \|date\=November 9, 2017 \|publisher\=California Transit Association \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} The XHE40 uses a [MAN SE](/wiki/MAN_SE "MAN SE") model 1350 rear axle with a traction motor from Siemens; like the XE60, the XHE60 also uses a MAN 1350 rear axle as a pusher, but adds a ZF AxTrax AVE middle axle as a puller for traction\-challenged conditions. An XHE60 tested at Altoona weighed {{convert\|49890\|lb\|abbr\=on}} empty; with a total capacity of 132 (1 driver, 50 seated, 81 standing), the estimated GVW was {{convert\|69750\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. The fuel cell was a [Ballard](/wiki/Ballard_Power_Systems "Ballard Power Systems") HD85 with an 85 kW output.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/499\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XHE60 \|date\=August 2018 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} Development of the electric fuel cell buses is centered in California, with [AC Transit](/wiki/AC_Transit "AC Transit") serving as the lead agency for one XHE60, and [SunLine Transit Agency](/wiki/SunLine_Transit_Agency "SunLine Transit Agency"), AC Transit, and [Orange County Transportation Authority](/wiki/Orange_County_Transportation_Authority "Orange County Transportation Authority") testing several variants of XHE40\. ### Xcelsior AV New Flyer and Robotic Research announced a partnership in May 2019 to develop automated bus technology.{{cite press release \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/content/2019/05/new\-flyer\-announces\-robotic\-research\-partnership\-to\-revolutionize\-public\-transit\-using\-autonomous\-bus\-technology/ \|title\=New Flyer announces Robotic Research partnership to revolutionize public transit using automated bus technology \|date\=May 15, 2019 \|publisher\=New Flyer \|access\-date\=9 February 2021}} In January 2021, New Flyer introduced the Xcelsior AV, New Flyer's first ever autonomous bus.{{Cite web \|title\=Xcelsior AV™ \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/bus/xcelsior\-av/ \|access\-date\=2021\-02\-06 \|website\=New Flyer Industries \|language\=en\-US}} New Flyer claims the AV meets the [SAE](/wiki/SAE_International "SAE International") [J3016](/wiki/SAE_J3016 "SAE J3016") Level 4 of autonomy. The AV is based on the XE40 chassis, and uses Robotic Research's AutoDrive suite of sensors and AutoDrive ByWire mechanical actuators.{{cite news \|url\=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/02/02/new\-flyer\-xcelsior\-av\-is\-americas\-first\-autonomous\-bus/ \|title\=New Flyer Xcelsior AV Is America's First Autonomous Bus \|author\=Borrás, Jo \|date\=February 2, 2021 \|work\=Clean Technica \|access\-date\=9 February 2021}} Project management was performed by The Center for Transportation and Environment (CTE) with support from the [Federal Transit Administration](/wiki/Federal_Transit_Administration "Federal Transit Administration"), who provided a {{USD\|2}} million grant under the Integrated Mobility Innovation Program. The first three Xcelsior AV buses are scheduled to be tested by [CTtransit](/wiki/CTtransit "CTtransit") in 2021 on the [CTfastrak](/wiki/CTfastrak "CTfastrak") [bus rapid transit](/wiki/Bus_rapid_transit "Bus rapid transit") (BRT) line, over a dedicated right\-of\-way {{convert\|9\|mi}} long, connecting [New Britain](/wiki/New_Britain%2C_Connecticut "New Britain, Connecticut") and [Hartford, Connecticut](/wiki/Hartford%2C_Connecticut "Hartford, Connecticut"). The deployment on a BRT line is anticipated to test the vehicles' ability to perform precision docking at station platforms and [platooning](/wiki/Platoon_%28automobile%29 "Platoon (automobile)") multiple vehicles.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.masstransitmag.com/alt\-mobility/autonomous\-vehicles/article/21143509/ctdot\-scheduled\-to\-deploy\-first\-fullsize\-automated\-transit\-bus\-in\-north\-america \|title\=CTDOT scheduled to deploy first full\-size automated transit bus in North America \|author\=Wanek\-Libman, Mischa \|date\=June 24, 2020 \|work\=Mass Transit \|access\-date\=9 February 2021}}
[ "History\n-------", "The Xcelsior was introduced October 2008 [APTA](/wiki/American_Public_Transportation_Association \"American Public Transportation Association\") Expo held in [San Diego](/wiki/San_Diego \"San Diego\"). The Xcelsior started off as a set of improvements to the company's prior product, the [New Flyer Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor \"New Flyer Low Floor\"), but over the development process the company said it ended up designing a new bus. Compared to the Low Floor, the Xcelsior was 10% lighter, boosting fuel economy by about 7%.{{cite magazine\\|author1\\=Starcic, Janna\\|author2\\=Roman, Alex\\|author3\\=Schlosser, Nicole\\|date\\=November–December 2008\\|title\\=Transportation's Green Future on Display at APTA EXPO\\|url\\=https://www.metro\\-magazine.com/resources/metro\\_apta08\\.pdf\\|magazine\\=Metro Magazine\\|pages\\=20–50\\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}}", "The bus was also designed to allow a much larger cooling system and the addition of a [SCR](/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction \"Selective catalytic reduction\") system, both required to meet the more stringent EPA mandates that were coming in 2010\\. To accommodate the change, the [Thermo King](/wiki/Thermo_King \"Thermo King\") air conditioning system was moved from the rear of the bus to a roof mount location over the front axle. New Flyer found that the move improved the weight balance of the bus, and when combined with enhanced insulation, contributed to the vehicle running quieter.{{cite web\\|author\\=Hubbard, David\\|date\\=March 1, 2009\\|title\\=Xcelsior gives a spirited ride\\|url\\=https://busride.com/xcelsior\\-gives\\-a\\-spirited\\-ride/\\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018\\|work\\=Bus Ride}}", "The interior of the bus was also modified. By moving the fuel tank and modifying the rear suspension, seating capacity was increased from 39 to 42 (on the 40\\-foot model), with more forward\\-facing seats. To improve [accessibility](/wiki/Accessibility \"Accessibility\"), the floor height was lowered to {{Convert\\|14\\|in}} with the ability to [kneel](/wiki/Kneeling_bus \"Kneeling bus\") down to {{Convert\\|10\\|in}}, and the front entry door was widened, allowing a wider wheelchair ramp. To improve interior aesthetics, visible fasteners were eliminated and molded plastic surfaces were introduced. The utilitarian instrument panel was replaced with an automotive\\-style electronic dashboard.", "The bus also had a redesigned front face, bumpers, and roof shrouds that also offered better aerodynamics and the front improved visibility for the driver.", "At launch, the Xcelsior was only available in a {{Convert\\|40\\|ft\\|adj\\=on}} length with power from the [Cummins ISL 280](/wiki/Cummins_ISL \"Cummins ISL\") and a [Allison B400](/wiki/Allison_Bus_Series \"Allison Bus Series\") conventional transmission or the Allison EP\\-40 hybrid drive. [Brampton Transit](/wiki/Brampton_Transit \"Brampton Transit\"), serving [Brampton, Ontario](/wiki/Brampton%2C_Ontario \"Brampton, Ontario\"), was the first agency to order the Xcelsior.", "The first [trolleybus](/wiki/Trolleybus \"Trolleybus\") version of the Xcelsior was an XT40 built in 2014 for the [Seattle trolleybus system](/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_Seattle \"Trolleybuses in Seattle\"), operated by [King County Metro](/wiki/King_County_Metro \"King County Metro\"),{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=November–December 2014\\|title\\=Trolleynews \\[regular news section]\\|page\\=164\\|magazine\\=Trolleybus Magazine\\|publisher\\=National Trolleybus Association\\|number\\=318\\|location\\=UK\\|issn\\=0266\\-7452}} the first unit of an order placed in 2013\\.{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=September–October 2013\\|title\\=Trolleynews \\[regular news section]\\|pages\\=136–137\\|magazine\\=Trolleybus Magazine\\|publisher\\=National Trolleybus Association\\|number\\=311\\|location\\=UK\\|issn\\=0266\\-7452}} King County Metro also purchased the XT60 (articulated trolleybus), and both XT40s and XT60s were subsequently purchased by the [San Francisco Municipal Railway](/wiki/San_Francisco_Municipal_Railway \"San Francisco Municipal Railway\"), for the [San Francisco trolleybus system](/wiki/Trolleybuses_in_San_Francisco \"Trolleybuses in San Francisco\").{{cite news\\|author\\=\\|date\\=September–October 2017\\|title\\=Trolleynews \\[regular news section]\\|page\\=197\\|magazine\\=Trolleybus Magazine\\|publisher\\=National Trolleybus Association\\|number\\=335\\|location\\=UK\\|issn\\=0266\\-7452}}", "Beginning with the 2026 model year, the XDE60 will be discontinued as New Flyer was unable to find a powertrain complaint with new regulations taking effect around that time. With the 2027 model year, the XDE35 and XN35 will both be discontinued due projected low demand. {{Cite web \\|date\\=August 1, 2024 \\|title\\=ICE powertrain portfolio. \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\\-content/uploads/2024/08/New\\-Flyer\\-ICE\\-Powertrain\\-Portfolio.pdf \\|url\\-status\\= \\|access\\-date\\=October 16, 2024}}", "{{Clear left}}", "### Xcelsior CHARGE", "[left\\|thumb\\|A 5\\-door XE60 [battery electric bus](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus \"Battery electric bus\") with [City Line](/wiki/City_Line_%28Spokane%2C_Washington%29 \"City Line (Spokane, Washington)\") livery operated by [Spokane Transit](/wiki/Spokane_Transit_Authority \"Spokane Transit Authority\") charging via [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 \"SAE J3105\") overhead charging station.](/wiki/File:Full_Spokane_City_Line_bus_charging_at_SCC_transit_center_October_2023.jpg \"Full Spokane City Line bus charging at SCC transit center October 2023.jpg\") \nThe first Xcelsior [battery electric buses](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus \"Battery electric bus\") (XE40\\) were built in 2014 and delivered to the [Chicago Transit Authority](/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority \"Chicago Transit Authority\") and [Winnipeg Transit](/wiki/Winnipeg_Transit \"Winnipeg Transit\").{{cite web\\|author\\=New Flyer Industries\\|date\\=August 15, 2018\\|title\\=New Flyer Electric Buses\\|url\\=https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/New\\-Flyer\\-Electric\\-Bus\\-2018\\-08\\-15\\-Rev\\-B.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018\\|publisher\\=California Fuel Cell Partnership}} [Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Transportation_Authority \"Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\") was the lead agency for the XE60, ordered in January 2019{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/2019/01/mbta\\-leads\\-bostons\\-evolution\\-in\\-transit\\-with\\-battery electric\\-buses\\-from\\-new\\-flyer/\\|title\\=MBTA leads Boston's evolution in transit with battery electric buses from New Flyer\\|date\\=January 7, 2019\\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} and placed into service on July 31, 2019\\.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.mbta.com/news/2019\\-07\\-31/first\\-zero\\-emission\\-battery electric\\-buses\\-join\\-the\\-mbta\\-silver\\-line\\-fleet\\|title\\=First Zero\\-emission, battery electric Buses Join the MBTA Silver Line Fleet\\|date\\=July 31, 2019\\|publisher\\=Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} The [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission \"Toronto Transit Commission\") operates 25 XE40 buses.", "The first battery electric Xcelsior buses were a powertrain option within the regular Xcelsior line; development was announced in 2011, a prototype was shown in 2012, and regular production began in 2014\\.{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Plachno, Larry \\|date\\=April 2018 \\|title\\=Charging Ahead with Electric Buses \\|url\\=http://busmag.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/05/Electric\\-April.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|magazine\\=National Bus Trader \\|pages\\=16–25}} The original battery electric Xcelsior bus, offered as an XE40, used a permanent magnet traction motor built by Siemens.{{cite press release \\|url\\=https://news.usa.siemens.biz/press\\-release/industry/siemens\\-electric\\-drive\\-system\\-power\\-new\\-line\\-transit\\-buses \\|title\\=Siemens electric Drive System to Power New Line of Transit Buses \\|date\\=October 28, 2014 \\|publisher\\=Siemens \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} In October 2017, the Xcelsior CHARGE sub\\-line was introduced.", "The Xcelsior CHARGE variant (XE*nn*) uses the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") ELFA2 electric drive system with different options for battery capacity, depending on the charging speed and range required.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\\-content/uploads/2018/10/XcelsiorCHARGE\\_1018\\_NF\\-compressed.pdf \\|title\\=Xcelsior CHARGE \\|date\\=October 2018 \\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}} The traction motor used has an output of either {{convert\\|210\\|or\\|280\\|hp\\|PS kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|1033\\|or\\|1475\\|lbft\\|Nm kgm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. Batteries are supplied by [XALT Energy](/wiki/XALT_Energy \"XALT Energy\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.apta.com/mc/university/presentations/Documents/New%20Flyer%20Xcelsior%20CHARGE%E2%84%A2%20XE35,%20XE40%20and%20XE60%20Battery%20Electric%20Buses.pdf \\|title\\=New Flyer Xcelsior ''CHARGE''™ \\|author\\=New Flyer Industries \\|date\\=June 26, 2018 \\|publisher\\=American Public Transportation Association \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} or [A123 Systems](/wiki/A123_Systems \"A123 Systems\") (XE60 long\\-range models and XHE*nn* fuel cell models). On\\-route rapid charging is provided through an overhead pantograph designed to be interoperable with the [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 \"SAE J3105\") standard supplying 300–450 kW. Shop or depot charging may be performed using [SAE J3068](/wiki/SAE_J3068 \"SAE J3068\") and [J1772](/wiki/SAE_J1772 \"SAE J1772\") connectors supplying up to 150 kW.", "At Altoona, the as\\-tested empty weight of an XE40 was measured at {{convert\\|32770\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} with a capacity of 76 (38 seated passengers \\+ 37 standing passengers \\+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating \"Gross vehicle weight rating\") of {{convert\\|43550\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. It was equipped with 4 XALT Xsyst 7 (7 kWh) batteries and a SPHEROS fuel\\-fired heater. When accelerating from a constant speed, the bus emitted an average maximum noise level of 66\\.1 [dB(A)](/wiki/A-weighting \"A-weighting\"),{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/458\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE40 \\|date\\=July 2015 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} considerably lower than the average maximum noise level of 70\\.4 dB(A) measured from a conventionally\\-powered XD40\\.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/416\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD40 \\|date\\=November 2012 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}}", "#### XE60", "[thumb\\|G Line bus using on\\-route charger at North Hollywood station](/wiki/File:G_Line_bus_charging_at_North_Hollywood_station.jpg \"G Line bus charging at North Hollywood station.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|The interior of an XE60\\.](/wiki/File:XE60_Interior.jpg \"XE60 Interior.jpg\")\nThe articulated XE60 adds a second driven axle, using the [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen \"ZF Friedrichshafen\") AxTrax AVE{{cite web \\|author\\=ZumMallen, Ryan \\|date\\=September 19, 2018 \\|title\\=New Flyer and ZF Building 100 Electric Buses for U.S. \\|url\\=https://www.trucks.com/2018/09/19/new\\-flyer\\-zf\\-friedrichshafen\\-electric\\-buses\\-usa/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|work\\=Trucks}} on the middle axle. The AxTrax AVE (formerly known as the AVE 130\\){{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2022}}{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Thoma, Frank \\|date\\=December 11, 2018 \\|title\\=Electric mobility in size XL \\|url\\=https://vision.zf.com/site/magazine/en/articles\\_13121\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|magazine\\=Vision Magazine \\|publisher\\=ZF}} uses two electric motors (one per wheel), each with a maximum continuous/peak output of {{convert\\|160\\|/\\|340\\|hp\\|PS kW\\|abbr\\=on\\|0\\|}} and maximum continuous/peak torque of {{convert\\|6000\\|/\\|16200\\|lbft\\|Nm kgm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/506\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE60 \\|date\\=April 2019 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} Each motor is an asynchronous three\\-phase AC motor operating on 650 VDC with an input current of 250 (continuous) to 340 (peak) amps, using a single\\-speed reduction gear ratio of 22\\.66:1\\. The complete axle assembly weighs {{convert\\|1250\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}{{cite web \\|date\\=November 2018 \\|title\\=Product Overview: Axle \\& Transmission Systems for Buses \\& Coaches \\|url\\=https://www.zf.com/products/media/product\\_media/buses\\_1/product\\_overview\\_1/product\\_overview\\_axle\\_transmission\\_systems.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|publisher\\=ZF}}", "The as\\-tested empty weight of an XE60 was {{convert\\|52070\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} with a capacity of 120 (50 seated passengers \\+ 69 standing passengers \\+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating \"Gross vehicle weight rating\") of {{convert\\|70170\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. Compared to the diesel\\-powered equivalent XD60, the XE60 is heavier (XD60 GVW is {{convert\\|58600\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}) and holds slightly fewer people (XD60 capacity is 123 people: 49 seated, 73 standing, 1 driver).{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/428\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD60 \\|date\\=July 2013 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} Depending on the driving route/style, the XE60 tested at Altoona had a predicted range of {{convert\\|145\\|to\\|246\\|mi\\|abbr\\=out}}.", "The [MBTA](/wiki/MBTA_bus \"MBTA bus\") and [NYMTA](/wiki/New_York_City_transit_buses \"New York City transit buses\") were the first to order the XE60, with the former ordering 5 and the latter ordering 15\\.", "#### Xcelsior CHARGE NG", "Xcelsior CHARGE NG is New Flyer's next generation battery electric, zero\\-emission bus. It is lighter, simpler and has longer range with better energy recovery. It has a capacity of 32\\-61 passengers with 2 wheelchair locations. It is available in 35\\-, 40\\-, and 60\\-foot configurations. It has a [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") ELFA3 traction motor, Lithium Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries, and electric roof\\-mounted HVAC(s).{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-17\\|title\\=New Flyer Unveils its Most Advanced EV Bus\\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/2021/03/new\\-flyer\\-unveils\\-its\\-most\\-advanced\\-ev\\-bus/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-06\\|website\\=New Flyer {{!}} North America's Bus Leader\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "#### Xcelsior CHARGE H2", "The CHARGE model can be equipped with a hydrogen fuel cell (model code XHE), which acts as an on\\-board charger to extend range.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\\-content/uploads/2017/10/Xcelsior\\-Hydrogen\\-Fuel\\-Cell\\-Electric\\-Bus\\-1\\.pdf \\|title\\=Xcelsior hydrogen fuel cell\\-electric bus \\|date\\=October 2017 \\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}} Earlier New Flyer fuel cell buses were based on the preceding [Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor \"New Flyer Low Floor\") chassis, designated H40LFR, and integrated by an outside vendor. In 2016, New Flyer received an order for 25 XHE40 buses under the [California Air Resources Board](/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board \"California Air Resources Board\") Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://caltransit.org/cta/assets/Fall%20Conference/2017/PPTs/Maintenance/MAINT\\-Zero%20Emission%20Implementations%20\\-%20Warren.pdf \\|title\\=Zero\\-Emission Implementations \\|author\\=Warren, David \\|date\\=November 9, 2017 \\|publisher\\=California Transit Association \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} The XHE40 uses a [MAN SE](/wiki/MAN_SE \"MAN SE\") model 1350 rear axle with a traction motor from Siemens; like the XE60, the XHE60 also uses a MAN 1350 rear axle as a pusher, but adds a ZF AxTrax AVE middle axle as a puller for traction\\-challenged conditions.", "An XHE60 tested at Altoona weighed {{convert\\|49890\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} empty; with a total capacity of 132 (1 driver, 50 seated, 81 standing), the estimated GVW was {{convert\\|69750\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. The fuel cell was a [Ballard](/wiki/Ballard_Power_Systems \"Ballard Power Systems\") HD85 with an 85 kW output.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/499\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XHE60 \\|date\\=August 2018 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}}", "Development of the electric fuel cell buses is centered in California, with [AC Transit](/wiki/AC_Transit \"AC Transit\") serving as the lead agency for one XHE60, and [SunLine Transit Agency](/wiki/SunLine_Transit_Agency \"SunLine Transit Agency\"), AC Transit, and [Orange County Transportation Authority](/wiki/Orange_County_Transportation_Authority \"Orange County Transportation Authority\") testing several variants of XHE40\\.", "### Xcelsior AV", "New Flyer and Robotic Research announced a partnership in May 2019 to develop automated bus technology.{{cite press release \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/content/2019/05/new\\-flyer\\-announces\\-robotic\\-research\\-partnership\\-to\\-revolutionize\\-public\\-transit\\-using\\-autonomous\\-bus\\-technology/ \\|title\\=New Flyer announces Robotic Research partnership to revolutionize public transit using automated bus technology \\|date\\=May 15, 2019 \\|publisher\\=New Flyer \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021}} In January 2021, New Flyer introduced the Xcelsior AV, New Flyer's first ever autonomous bus.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Xcelsior AV™ \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/bus/xcelsior\\-av/ \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-06 \\|website\\=New Flyer Industries \\|language\\=en\\-US}} New Flyer claims the AV meets the [SAE](/wiki/SAE_International \"SAE International\") [J3016](/wiki/SAE_J3016 \"SAE J3016\") Level 4 of autonomy. The AV is based on the XE40 chassis, and uses Robotic Research's AutoDrive suite of sensors and AutoDrive ByWire mechanical actuators.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/02/02/new\\-flyer\\-xcelsior\\-av\\-is\\-americas\\-first\\-autonomous\\-bus/ \\|title\\=New Flyer Xcelsior AV Is America's First Autonomous Bus \\|author\\=Borrás, Jo \\|date\\=February 2, 2021 \\|work\\=Clean Technica \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021}} Project management was performed by The Center for Transportation and Environment (CTE) with support from the [Federal Transit Administration](/wiki/Federal_Transit_Administration \"Federal Transit Administration\"), who provided a {{USD\\|2}} million grant under the Integrated Mobility Innovation Program.", "The first three Xcelsior AV buses are scheduled to be tested by [CTtransit](/wiki/CTtransit \"CTtransit\") in 2021 on the [CTfastrak](/wiki/CTfastrak \"CTfastrak\") [bus rapid transit](/wiki/Bus_rapid_transit \"Bus rapid transit\") (BRT) line, over a dedicated right\\-of\\-way {{convert\\|9\\|mi}} long, connecting [New Britain](/wiki/New_Britain%2C_Connecticut \"New Britain, Connecticut\") and [Hartford, Connecticut](/wiki/Hartford%2C_Connecticut \"Hartford, Connecticut\"). The deployment on a BRT line is anticipated to test the vehicles' ability to perform precision docking at station platforms and [platooning](/wiki/Platoon_%28automobile%29 \"Platoon (automobile)\") multiple vehicles.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.masstransitmag.com/alt\\-mobility/autonomous\\-vehicles/article/21143509/ctdot\\-scheduled\\-to\\-deploy\\-first\\-fullsize\\-automated\\-transit\\-bus\\-in\\-north\\-america \\|title\\=CTDOT scheduled to deploy first full\\-size automated transit bus in North America \\|author\\=Wanek\\-Libman, Mischa \\|date\\=June 24, 2020 \\|work\\=Mass Transit \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021}}", "" ]
### Xcelsior CHARGE [left\|thumb\|A 5\-door XE60 [battery electric bus](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus "Battery electric bus") with [City Line](/wiki/City_Line_%28Spokane%2C_Washington%29 "City Line (Spokane, Washington)") livery operated by [Spokane Transit](/wiki/Spokane_Transit_Authority "Spokane Transit Authority") charging via [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 "SAE J3105") overhead charging station.](/wiki/File:Full_Spokane_City_Line_bus_charging_at_SCC_transit_center_October_2023.jpg "Full Spokane City Line bus charging at SCC transit center October 2023.jpg") The first Xcelsior [battery electric buses](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus "Battery electric bus") (XE40\) were built in 2014 and delivered to the [Chicago Transit Authority](/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority "Chicago Transit Authority") and [Winnipeg Transit](/wiki/Winnipeg_Transit "Winnipeg Transit").{{cite web\|author\=New Flyer Industries\|date\=August 15, 2018\|title\=New Flyer Electric Buses\|url\=https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/New\-Flyer\-Electric\-Bus\-2018\-08\-15\-Rev\-B.pdf\|access\-date\=24 December 2018\|publisher\=California Fuel Cell Partnership}} [Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Transportation_Authority "Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority") was the lead agency for the XE60, ordered in January 2019{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/2019/01/mbta\-leads\-bostons\-evolution\-in\-transit\-with\-battery electric\-buses\-from\-new\-flyer/\|title\=MBTA leads Boston's evolution in transit with battery electric buses from New Flyer\|date\=January 7, 2019\|publisher\=New Flyer Industries\|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} and placed into service on July 31, 2019\.{{cite press release\|url\=https://www.mbta.com/news/2019\-07\-31/first\-zero\-emission\-battery electric\-buses\-join\-the\-mbta\-silver\-line\-fleet\|title\=First Zero\-emission, battery electric Buses Join the MBTA Silver Line Fleet\|date\=July 31, 2019\|publisher\=Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} The [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission "Toronto Transit Commission") operates 25 XE40 buses. The first battery electric Xcelsior buses were a powertrain option within the regular Xcelsior line; development was announced in 2011, a prototype was shown in 2012, and regular production began in 2014\.{{cite magazine \|author\=Plachno, Larry \|date\=April 2018 \|title\=Charging Ahead with Electric Buses \|url\=http://busmag.com/wp\-content/uploads/2018/05/Electric\-April.pdf \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|magazine\=National Bus Trader \|pages\=16–25}} The original battery electric Xcelsior bus, offered as an XE40, used a permanent magnet traction motor built by Siemens.{{cite press release \|url\=https://news.usa.siemens.biz/press\-release/industry/siemens\-electric\-drive\-system\-power\-new\-line\-transit\-buses \|title\=Siemens electric Drive System to Power New Line of Transit Buses \|date\=October 28, 2014 \|publisher\=Siemens \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} In October 2017, the Xcelsior CHARGE sub\-line was introduced. The Xcelsior CHARGE variant (XE*nn*) uses the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") ELFA2 electric drive system with different options for battery capacity, depending on the charging speed and range required.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\-content/uploads/2018/10/XcelsiorCHARGE\_1018\_NF\-compressed.pdf \|title\=Xcelsior CHARGE \|date\=October 2018 \|publisher\=New Flyer Industries \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} The traction motor used has an output of either {{convert\|210\|or\|280\|hp\|PS kW\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|1033\|or\|1475\|lbft\|Nm kgm\|0\|abbr\=on}}. Batteries are supplied by [XALT Energy](/wiki/XALT_Energy "XALT Energy"){{cite web \|url\=https://www.apta.com/mc/university/presentations/Documents/New%20Flyer%20Xcelsior%20CHARGE%E2%84%A2%20XE35,%20XE40%20and%20XE60%20Battery%20Electric%20Buses.pdf \|title\=New Flyer Xcelsior ''CHARGE''™ \|author\=New Flyer Industries \|date\=June 26, 2018 \|publisher\=American Public Transportation Association \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} or [A123 Systems](/wiki/A123_Systems "A123 Systems") (XE60 long\-range models and XHE*nn* fuel cell models). On\-route rapid charging is provided through an overhead pantograph designed to be interoperable with the [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 "SAE J3105") standard supplying 300–450 kW. Shop or depot charging may be performed using [SAE J3068](/wiki/SAE_J3068 "SAE J3068") and [J1772](/wiki/SAE_J1772 "SAE J1772") connectors supplying up to 150 kW. At Altoona, the as\-tested empty weight of an XE40 was measured at {{convert\|32770\|lb\|abbr\=on}} with a capacity of 76 (38 seated passengers \+ 37 standing passengers \+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating "Gross vehicle weight rating") of {{convert\|43550\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. It was equipped with 4 XALT Xsyst 7 (7 kWh) batteries and a SPHEROS fuel\-fired heater. When accelerating from a constant speed, the bus emitted an average maximum noise level of 66\.1 [dB(A)](/wiki/A-weighting "A-weighting"),{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/458\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE40 \|date\=July 2015 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} considerably lower than the average maximum noise level of 70\.4 dB(A) measured from a conventionally\-powered XD40\.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/416\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD40 \|date\=November 2012 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} #### XE60 [thumb\|G Line bus using on\-route charger at North Hollywood station](/wiki/File:G_Line_bus_charging_at_North_Hollywood_station.jpg "G Line bus charging at North Hollywood station.jpg") [thumb\|left\|The interior of an XE60\.](/wiki/File:XE60_Interior.jpg "XE60 Interior.jpg") The articulated XE60 adds a second driven axle, using the [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen "ZF Friedrichshafen") AxTrax AVE{{cite web \|author\=ZumMallen, Ryan \|date\=September 19, 2018 \|title\=New Flyer and ZF Building 100 Electric Buses for U.S. \|url\=https://www.trucks.com/2018/09/19/new\-flyer\-zf\-friedrichshafen\-electric\-buses\-usa/ \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|work\=Trucks}} on the middle axle. The AxTrax AVE (formerly known as the AVE 130\){{Dead link\|date\=September 2022}}{{cite magazine \|author\=Thoma, Frank \|date\=December 11, 2018 \|title\=Electric mobility in size XL \|url\=https://vision.zf.com/site/magazine/en/articles\_13121\.html \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|magazine\=Vision Magazine \|publisher\=ZF}} uses two electric motors (one per wheel), each with a maximum continuous/peak output of {{convert\|160\|/\|340\|hp\|PS kW\|abbr\=on\|0\|}} and maximum continuous/peak torque of {{convert\|6000\|/\|16200\|lbft\|Nm kgm\|0\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/506\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE60 \|date\=April 2019 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=9 August 2019}} Each motor is an asynchronous three\-phase AC motor operating on 650 VDC with an input current of 250 (continuous) to 340 (peak) amps, using a single\-speed reduction gear ratio of 22\.66:1\. The complete axle assembly weighs {{convert\|1250\|kg\|lb\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}{{cite web \|date\=November 2018 \|title\=Product Overview: Axle \& Transmission Systems for Buses \& Coaches \|url\=https://www.zf.com/products/media/product\_media/buses\_1/product\_overview\_1/product\_overview\_axle\_transmission\_systems.pdf \|access\-date\=24 December 2018 \|publisher\=ZF}} The as\-tested empty weight of an XE60 was {{convert\|52070\|lb\|abbr\=on}} with a capacity of 120 (50 seated passengers \+ 69 standing passengers \+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating "Gross vehicle weight rating") of {{convert\|70170\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. Compared to the diesel\-powered equivalent XD60, the XE60 is heavier (XD60 GVW is {{convert\|58600\|lb\|abbr\=on}}) and holds slightly fewer people (XD60 capacity is 123 people: 49 seated, 73 standing, 1 driver).{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/428\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD60 \|date\=July 2013 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} Depending on the driving route/style, the XE60 tested at Altoona had a predicted range of {{convert\|145\|to\|246\|mi\|abbr\=out}}. The [MBTA](/wiki/MBTA_bus "MBTA bus") and [NYMTA](/wiki/New_York_City_transit_buses "New York City transit buses") were the first to order the XE60, with the former ordering 5 and the latter ordering 15\. #### Xcelsior CHARGE NG Xcelsior CHARGE NG is New Flyer's next generation battery electric, zero\-emission bus. It is lighter, simpler and has longer range with better energy recovery. It has a capacity of 32\-61 passengers with 2 wheelchair locations. It is available in 35\-, 40\-, and 60\-foot configurations. It has a [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens "Siemens") ELFA3 traction motor, Lithium Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries, and electric roof\-mounted HVAC(s).{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-03\-17\|title\=New Flyer Unveils its Most Advanced EV Bus\|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/2021/03/new\-flyer\-unveils\-its\-most\-advanced\-ev\-bus/\|access\-date\=2021\-04\-06\|website\=New Flyer {{!}} North America's Bus Leader\|language\=en\-US}} #### Xcelsior CHARGE H2 The CHARGE model can be equipped with a hydrogen fuel cell (model code XHE), which acts as an on\-board charger to extend range.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\-content/uploads/2017/10/Xcelsior\-Hydrogen\-Fuel\-Cell\-Electric\-Bus\-1\.pdf \|title\=Xcelsior hydrogen fuel cell\-electric bus \|date\=October 2017 \|publisher\=New Flyer Industries \|access\-date\=December 10, 2018}} Earlier New Flyer fuel cell buses were based on the preceding [Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor "New Flyer Low Floor") chassis, designated H40LFR, and integrated by an outside vendor. In 2016, New Flyer received an order for 25 XHE40 buses under the [California Air Resources Board](/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board "California Air Resources Board") Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP).{{cite web \|url\=https://caltransit.org/cta/assets/Fall%20Conference/2017/PPTs/Maintenance/MAINT\-Zero%20Emission%20Implementations%20\-%20Warren.pdf \|title\=Zero\-Emission Implementations \|author\=Warren, David \|date\=November 9, 2017 \|publisher\=California Transit Association \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} The XHE40 uses a [MAN SE](/wiki/MAN_SE "MAN SE") model 1350 rear axle with a traction motor from Siemens; like the XE60, the XHE60 also uses a MAN 1350 rear axle as a pusher, but adds a ZF AxTrax AVE middle axle as a puller for traction\-challenged conditions. An XHE60 tested at Altoona weighed {{convert\|49890\|lb\|abbr\=on}} empty; with a total capacity of 132 (1 driver, 50 seated, 81 standing), the estimated GVW was {{convert\|69750\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. The fuel cell was a [Ballard](/wiki/Ballard_Power_Systems "Ballard Power Systems") HD85 with an 85 kW output.{{cite report \|url\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/499\.pdf \|title\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XHE60 \|date\=August 2018 \|publisher\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \|access\-date\=24 December 2018}} Development of the electric fuel cell buses is centered in California, with [AC Transit](/wiki/AC_Transit "AC Transit") serving as the lead agency for one XHE60, and [SunLine Transit Agency](/wiki/SunLine_Transit_Agency "SunLine Transit Agency"), AC Transit, and [Orange County Transportation Authority](/wiki/Orange_County_Transportation_Authority "Orange County Transportation Authority") testing several variants of XHE40\.
[ "### Xcelsior CHARGE", "[left\\|thumb\\|A 5\\-door XE60 [battery electric bus](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus \"Battery electric bus\") with [City Line](/wiki/City_Line_%28Spokane%2C_Washington%29 \"City Line (Spokane, Washington)\") livery operated by [Spokane Transit](/wiki/Spokane_Transit_Authority \"Spokane Transit Authority\") charging via [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 \"SAE J3105\") overhead charging station.](/wiki/File:Full_Spokane_City_Line_bus_charging_at_SCC_transit_center_October_2023.jpg \"Full Spokane City Line bus charging at SCC transit center October 2023.jpg\") \nThe first Xcelsior [battery electric buses](/wiki/Battery_electric_bus \"Battery electric bus\") (XE40\\) were built in 2014 and delivered to the [Chicago Transit Authority](/wiki/Chicago_Transit_Authority \"Chicago Transit Authority\") and [Winnipeg Transit](/wiki/Winnipeg_Transit \"Winnipeg Transit\").{{cite web\\|author\\=New Flyer Industries\\|date\\=August 15, 2018\\|title\\=New Flyer Electric Buses\\|url\\=https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/New\\-Flyer\\-Electric\\-Bus\\-2018\\-08\\-15\\-Rev\\-B.pdf\\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018\\|publisher\\=California Fuel Cell Partnership}} [Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority](/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Transportation_Authority \"Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\") was the lead agency for the XE60, ordered in January 2019{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/2019/01/mbta\\-leads\\-bostons\\-evolution\\-in\\-transit\\-with\\-battery electric\\-buses\\-from\\-new\\-flyer/\\|title\\=MBTA leads Boston's evolution in transit with battery electric buses from New Flyer\\|date\\=January 7, 2019\\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} and placed into service on July 31, 2019\\.{{cite press release\\|url\\=https://www.mbta.com/news/2019\\-07\\-31/first\\-zero\\-emission\\-battery electric\\-buses\\-join\\-the\\-mbta\\-silver\\-line\\-fleet\\|title\\=First Zero\\-emission, battery electric Buses Join the MBTA Silver Line Fleet\\|date\\=July 31, 2019\\|publisher\\=Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority\\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} The [Toronto Transit Commission](/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission \"Toronto Transit Commission\") operates 25 XE40 buses.", "The first battery electric Xcelsior buses were a powertrain option within the regular Xcelsior line; development was announced in 2011, a prototype was shown in 2012, and regular production began in 2014\\.{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Plachno, Larry \\|date\\=April 2018 \\|title\\=Charging Ahead with Electric Buses \\|url\\=http://busmag.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/05/Electric\\-April.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|magazine\\=National Bus Trader \\|pages\\=16–25}} The original battery electric Xcelsior bus, offered as an XE40, used a permanent magnet traction motor built by Siemens.{{cite press release \\|url\\=https://news.usa.siemens.biz/press\\-release/industry/siemens\\-electric\\-drive\\-system\\-power\\-new\\-line\\-transit\\-buses \\|title\\=Siemens electric Drive System to Power New Line of Transit Buses \\|date\\=October 28, 2014 \\|publisher\\=Siemens \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} In October 2017, the Xcelsior CHARGE sub\\-line was introduced.", "The Xcelsior CHARGE variant (XE*nn*) uses the [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") ELFA2 electric drive system with different options for battery capacity, depending on the charging speed and range required.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\\-content/uploads/2018/10/XcelsiorCHARGE\\_1018\\_NF\\-compressed.pdf \\|title\\=Xcelsior CHARGE \\|date\\=October 2018 \\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}} The traction motor used has an output of either {{convert\\|210\\|or\\|280\\|hp\\|PS kW\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|1033\\|or\\|1475\\|lbft\\|Nm kgm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. Batteries are supplied by [XALT Energy](/wiki/XALT_Energy \"XALT Energy\"){{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.apta.com/mc/university/presentations/Documents/New%20Flyer%20Xcelsior%20CHARGE%E2%84%A2%20XE35,%20XE40%20and%20XE60%20Battery%20Electric%20Buses.pdf \\|title\\=New Flyer Xcelsior ''CHARGE''™ \\|author\\=New Flyer Industries \\|date\\=June 26, 2018 \\|publisher\\=American Public Transportation Association \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} or [A123 Systems](/wiki/A123_Systems \"A123 Systems\") (XE60 long\\-range models and XHE*nn* fuel cell models). On\\-route rapid charging is provided through an overhead pantograph designed to be interoperable with the [SAE J3105](/wiki/SAE_J3105 \"SAE J3105\") standard supplying 300–450 kW. Shop or depot charging may be performed using [SAE J3068](/wiki/SAE_J3068 \"SAE J3068\") and [J1772](/wiki/SAE_J1772 \"SAE J1772\") connectors supplying up to 150 kW.", "At Altoona, the as\\-tested empty weight of an XE40 was measured at {{convert\\|32770\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} with a capacity of 76 (38 seated passengers \\+ 37 standing passengers \\+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating \"Gross vehicle weight rating\") of {{convert\\|43550\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. It was equipped with 4 XALT Xsyst 7 (7 kWh) batteries and a SPHEROS fuel\\-fired heater. When accelerating from a constant speed, the bus emitted an average maximum noise level of 66\\.1 [dB(A)](/wiki/A-weighting \"A-weighting\"),{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/458\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE40 \\|date\\=July 2015 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} considerably lower than the average maximum noise level of 70\\.4 dB(A) measured from a conventionally\\-powered XD40\\.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/416\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD40 \\|date\\=November 2012 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}}", "#### XE60", "[thumb\\|G Line bus using on\\-route charger at North Hollywood station](/wiki/File:G_Line_bus_charging_at_North_Hollywood_station.jpg \"G Line bus charging at North Hollywood station.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|The interior of an XE60\\.](/wiki/File:XE60_Interior.jpg \"XE60 Interior.jpg\")\nThe articulated XE60 adds a second driven axle, using the [ZF](/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen \"ZF Friedrichshafen\") AxTrax AVE{{cite web \\|author\\=ZumMallen, Ryan \\|date\\=September 19, 2018 \\|title\\=New Flyer and ZF Building 100 Electric Buses for U.S. \\|url\\=https://www.trucks.com/2018/09/19/new\\-flyer\\-zf\\-friedrichshafen\\-electric\\-buses\\-usa/ \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|work\\=Trucks}} on the middle axle. The AxTrax AVE (formerly known as the AVE 130\\){{Dead link\\|date\\=September 2022}}{{cite magazine \\|author\\=Thoma, Frank \\|date\\=December 11, 2018 \\|title\\=Electric mobility in size XL \\|url\\=https://vision.zf.com/site/magazine/en/articles\\_13121\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|magazine\\=Vision Magazine \\|publisher\\=ZF}} uses two electric motors (one per wheel), each with a maximum continuous/peak output of {{convert\\|160\\|/\\|340\\|hp\\|PS kW\\|abbr\\=on\\|0\\|}} and maximum continuous/peak torque of {{convert\\|6000\\|/\\|16200\\|lbft\\|Nm kgm\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/506\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XE60 \\|date\\=April 2019 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=9 August 2019}} Each motor is an asynchronous three\\-phase AC motor operating on 650 VDC with an input current of 250 (continuous) to 340 (peak) amps, using a single\\-speed reduction gear ratio of 22\\.66:1\\. The complete axle assembly weighs {{convert\\|1250\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}{{cite web \\|date\\=November 2018 \\|title\\=Product Overview: Axle \\& Transmission Systems for Buses \\& Coaches \\|url\\=https://www.zf.com/products/media/product\\_media/buses\\_1/product\\_overview\\_1/product\\_overview\\_axle\\_transmission\\_systems.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018 \\|publisher\\=ZF}}", "The as\\-tested empty weight of an XE60 was {{convert\\|52070\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} with a capacity of 120 (50 seated passengers \\+ 69 standing passengers \\+ 1 driver) for a total [GVW](/wiki/Gross_vehicle_weight_rating \"Gross vehicle weight rating\") of {{convert\\|70170\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. Compared to the diesel\\-powered equivalent XD60, the XE60 is heavier (XD60 GVW is {{convert\\|58600\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}) and holds slightly fewer people (XD60 capacity is 123 people: 49 seated, 73 standing, 1 driver).{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/428\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XD60 \\|date\\=July 2013 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} Depending on the driving route/style, the XE60 tested at Altoona had a predicted range of {{convert\\|145\\|to\\|246\\|mi\\|abbr\\=out}}.", "The [MBTA](/wiki/MBTA_bus \"MBTA bus\") and [NYMTA](/wiki/New_York_City_transit_buses \"New York City transit buses\") were the first to order the XE60, with the former ordering 5 and the latter ordering 15\\.", "#### Xcelsior CHARGE NG", "Xcelsior CHARGE NG is New Flyer's next generation battery electric, zero\\-emission bus. It is lighter, simpler and has longer range with better energy recovery. It has a capacity of 32\\-61 passengers with 2 wheelchair locations. It is available in 35\\-, 40\\-, and 60\\-foot configurations. It has a [Siemens](/wiki/Siemens \"Siemens\") ELFA3 traction motor, Lithium Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries, and electric roof\\-mounted HVAC(s).{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-03\\-17\\|title\\=New Flyer Unveils its Most Advanced EV Bus\\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/2021/03/new\\-flyer\\-unveils\\-its\\-most\\-advanced\\-ev\\-bus/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-04\\-06\\|website\\=New Flyer {{!}} North America's Bus Leader\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "#### Xcelsior CHARGE H2", "The CHARGE model can be equipped with a hydrogen fuel cell (model code XHE), which acts as an on\\-board charger to extend range.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.newflyer.com/site\\-content/uploads/2017/10/Xcelsior\\-Hydrogen\\-Fuel\\-Cell\\-Electric\\-Bus\\-1\\.pdf \\|title\\=Xcelsior hydrogen fuel cell\\-electric bus \\|date\\=October 2017 \\|publisher\\=New Flyer Industries \\|access\\-date\\=December 10, 2018}} Earlier New Flyer fuel cell buses were based on the preceding [Low Floor](/wiki/New_Flyer_Low_Floor \"New Flyer Low Floor\") chassis, designated H40LFR, and integrated by an outside vendor. In 2016, New Flyer received an order for 25 XHE40 buses under the [California Air Resources Board](/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board \"California Air Resources Board\") Air Quality Improvement Program (AQIP).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://caltransit.org/cta/assets/Fall%20Conference/2017/PPTs/Maintenance/MAINT\\-Zero%20Emission%20Implementations%20\\-%20Warren.pdf \\|title\\=Zero\\-Emission Implementations \\|author\\=Warren, David \\|date\\=November 9, 2017 \\|publisher\\=California Transit Association \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}} The XHE40 uses a [MAN SE](/wiki/MAN_SE \"MAN SE\") model 1350 rear axle with a traction motor from Siemens; like the XE60, the XHE60 also uses a MAN 1350 rear axle as a pusher, but adds a ZF AxTrax AVE middle axle as a puller for traction\\-challenged conditions.", "An XHE60 tested at Altoona weighed {{convert\\|49890\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}} empty; with a total capacity of 132 (1 driver, 50 seated, 81 standing), the estimated GVW was {{convert\\|69750\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}. The fuel cell was a [Ballard](/wiki/Ballard_Power_Systems \"Ballard Power Systems\") HD85 with an 85 kW output.{{cite report \\|url\\=http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/buses/reports/499\\.pdf \\|title\\=Federal Transit Bus Test: New Flyer XHE60 \\|date\\=August 2018 \\|publisher\\=The Thomas D. Larson Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, The Pennsylvania State University \\|access\\-date\\=24 December 2018}}", "Development of the electric fuel cell buses is centered in California, with [AC Transit](/wiki/AC_Transit \"AC Transit\") serving as the lead agency for one XHE60, and [SunLine Transit Agency](/wiki/SunLine_Transit_Agency \"SunLine Transit Agency\"), AC Transit, and [Orange County Transportation Authority](/wiki/Orange_County_Transportation_Authority \"Orange County Transportation Authority\") testing several variants of XHE40\\.", "" ]
Career ------ {{More citations needed\|section\|find\=Ted\-Lewis \-Paint\|date\=November 2022}} [thumb\|160px\|Lewis in 1922\.](/wiki/File:Ted_Lewis_-_Mar_1922_JKJ.jpg "Ted Lewis - Mar 1922 JKJ.jpg") Lewis was one of the first Northern musicians to imitate the style of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans") jazz musicians who came to New York in the 1910s. He first recorded in 1917 with [Earl Fuller's Jazz Band](/wiki/Earl_Fuller "Earl Fuller"), then engaged at Rector's restaurant in Manhattan, a band which was attempting to copy the sound of the city's newest sensation, the [Original Dixieland Jass Band](/wiki/Original_Dixieland_Jass_Band "Original Dixieland Jass Band"), which was playing at Reisenweber's restaurant in New York City. Although the piccolo was the first instrument Lewis learned, he also played the C\-melody saxophone but was known principally as a clarinetist throughout his long career. His primary instrument was a Bb Albert System clarinet. Based on his earliest recordings, Lewis did not seem able to do much on the clarinet other than trill in its upper register. Promoting one recording the Victor catalog stated: "The sounds as of a dog in his dying anguish are from Ted Lewis' clarinet".Tim Gracyk, ["Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band"](https://syncopatedtimes.com/earl-fullers-famous-jazz-band/), *Popular American Recording Pioneers 1895\-1925*, via Red Hot Jazz Archive. As his career gained momentum he refined his style under the influence of the first New Orleans clarinetists to relocate in New York, [Larry Shields](/wiki/Larry_Shields "Larry Shields"), [Alcide Nunez](/wiki/Alcide_Nunez "Alcide Nunez"), and [Achille Baquet](/wiki/Achille_Baquet "Achille Baquet"). By 1919, Lewis was leading his own band, and had a recording contract with [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records "Columbia Records"), which marketed him as their answer to the [Original Dixieland Jass Band](/wiki/Original_Dixieland_Jass_Band "Original Dixieland Jass Band") who recorded for Victor records. For a time (as the company did with Paul Whiteman) Columbia gave him a special record label featuring his picture. At the start of the 1920s, he was being promoted as one of the leading lights of the mainstream form of jazz popular at the time. Although Lewis's clarinet style became increasingly corny, he certainly knew what good clarinet playing sounded like, for he hired musicians like [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman "Benny Goodman"), [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey "Jimmy Dorsey"), [Frank Teschemacher](/wiki/Frank_Teschemacher "Frank Teschemacher"), and [Don Murray](/wiki/Don_Murray_%28clarinetist%29 "Don Murray (clarinetist)") to play clarinet in his band. Over the years his band also included [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") greats [Muggsy Spanier](/wiki/Muggsy_Spanier "Muggsy Spanier") on trumpet and [George Brunies](/wiki/George_Brunies "George Brunies") on trombone. Ted Lewis's band was second only to the [Paul Whiteman](/wiki/Paul_Whiteman "Paul Whiteman") band in popularity during the early 1920s, and arguably played a more authentic form of jazz with less pretension than Whiteman.{{cite web \|title\=Ted Lewis (1890\-1971\)\|url\=https://syncopatedtimes.com/ted\-lewis\-1890\-1971/ \|website\=Red Hot Jazz Archive \|date\=April 11, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2020 }} Lewis recorded for Columbia from 1919 to 1933\. Subsequently, he recorded for [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records "Decca Records") from 1934 through the 1940s. In 1932, Lewis recorded "[In a Shanty in Old Shanty Town](/wiki/In_a_Shanty_in_Old_Shanty_Town "In a Shanty in Old Shanty Town")", which he had performed in the film *The Crooner* with his orchestra. The recording reached number one in radio polls and remained there for ten weeks. One of Lewis's most memorable songs was "[Me and My Shadow](/wiki/Me_and_My_Shadow "Me and My Shadow")" with which he frequently closed his act. Around 1928, Lewis noticed an usher named Eddie Chester mimicking his movements during his act. He hired Chester to follow him on stage as his shadow during "Me and My Shadow". Chester was followed by four African\-American shadows, the most famous being Charles "Snowball" Whittier, making Ted Lewis one of the first prominent white entertainers to showcase African\-American performers (arguably in stereotypical ways) onstage, on film, and eventually on network television.["Ted Lewis Biography" *Ted Lewis Museum*](http://www.tedlewismuseum.org/biography_finalized.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20130907000336/http://www.tedlewismuseum.org/biography\_finalized.html \|date\=September 7, 2013 }} Ted Lewis and His Orchestra was one of the featured entertainers at the 1939 [Golden Gate International Exposition](/wiki/Golden_Gate_International_Exposition "Golden Gate International Exposition") – Pageant of the Pacific on [Treasure Island](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_San_Francisco "Treasure Island, San Francisco") (Sunday, August 13, 1939, Program of Special Attractions and Events indicates that the Ted Lewis Orchestra performed from 2:45 to 3:45 p.m. and from 5:00 to 6:00 p.m. in the Temple Compound and from 8:30 to 11:30 p.m. in the Treasure Island Music Hall for a free dance).1939 Golden Gate International Exposition Program of Special attractions and Events for Sunday, August 13, 1939\. Lewis's band continued to play in the same general style throughout the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression"), but was essentially the musical backdrop for his act as a showman. He remained successful during an era when many bands broke up. Through it all he retained his famous [catchphrase](/wiki/Catchphrase "Catchphrase") *Is everybody happy?* and *Yessir!*. Lewis adopted a battered top hat for sentimental, hard\-luck tunes (he called himself "The High\-Hatted Tragedian of Song"). Frequently he would stray from song lyrics, improvising patter around them. This gave the effect of Lewis "speaking" the song spontaneously: "When ma' baby... when ma' baby smiles at me... *gee,* what a wonderful, wonderful *light* that *comes* to her eyes... look at that *light,* folks..." Lewis kept his band together through the 1950s and continued to make appearances in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada") and on television, appearing as the mystery guest on *[What's My Line?](/wiki/What%27s_My_Line%3F "What's My Line?")*, *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28American_franchise%29 "This Is Your Life (American franchise)")* and *[Person To Person](/wiki/Person_To_Person "Person To Person")* in the 1950s, and *[Hollywood Palace](/wiki/Hollywood_Palace "Hollywood Palace")* and others in the 1960s and 1970s.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=\-7Ka3X5z1BI \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/\-7Ka3X5z1BI\| archive\-date\=2021\-12\-11 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=What's My Line? \- Ted Lewis; Jack E. Leonard \& Margaret Truman \[panel] (Jul 15, 1956\)\|last\=What's My Line?\|date\=December 21, 2013\|access\-date\=May 31, 2019\|publisher\=\[\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}} True to his [vaudeville](/wiki/Vaudeville "Vaudeville") beginnings, he created a visual as well as a musical act. His physical presence with props like his top hat, white\-tipped cane and clarinet combined with bits of visual humor and dancing were as important to him and as crucial to his popularity as his music.
[ "Career\n------", "{{More citations needed\\|section\\|find\\=Ted\\-Lewis \\-Paint\\|date\\=November 2022}}\n[thumb\\|160px\\|Lewis in 1922\\.](/wiki/File:Ted_Lewis_-_Mar_1922_JKJ.jpg \"Ted Lewis - Mar 1922 JKJ.jpg\")\nLewis was one of the first Northern musicians to imitate the style of [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\") jazz musicians who came to New York in the 1910s. He first recorded in 1917 with [Earl Fuller's Jazz Band](/wiki/Earl_Fuller \"Earl Fuller\"), then engaged at Rector's restaurant in Manhattan, a band which was attempting to copy the sound of the city's newest sensation, the [Original Dixieland Jass Band](/wiki/Original_Dixieland_Jass_Band \"Original Dixieland Jass Band\"), which was playing at Reisenweber's restaurant in New York City.", "Although the piccolo was the first instrument Lewis learned, he also played the C\\-melody saxophone but was known principally as a clarinetist throughout his long career. His primary instrument was a Bb Albert System clarinet.", "Based on his earliest recordings, Lewis did not seem able to do much on the clarinet other than trill in its upper register. Promoting one recording the Victor catalog stated: \"The sounds as of a dog in his dying anguish are from Ted Lewis' clarinet\".Tim Gracyk, [\"Earl Fuller's Famous Jazz Band\"](https://syncopatedtimes.com/earl-fullers-famous-jazz-band/), *Popular American Recording Pioneers 1895\\-1925*, via Red Hot Jazz Archive. As his career gained momentum he refined his style under the influence of the first New Orleans clarinetists to relocate in New York, [Larry Shields](/wiki/Larry_Shields \"Larry Shields\"), [Alcide Nunez](/wiki/Alcide_Nunez \"Alcide Nunez\"), and [Achille Baquet](/wiki/Achille_Baquet \"Achille Baquet\").", "By 1919, Lewis was leading his own band, and had a recording contract with [Columbia Records](/wiki/Columbia_Records \"Columbia Records\"), which marketed him as their answer to the [Original Dixieland Jass Band](/wiki/Original_Dixieland_Jass_Band \"Original Dixieland Jass Band\") who recorded for Victor records. For a time (as the company did with Paul Whiteman) Columbia gave him a special record label featuring his picture.", "At the start of the 1920s, he was being promoted as one of the leading lights of the mainstream form of jazz popular at the time. Although Lewis's clarinet style became increasingly corny, he certainly knew what good clarinet playing sounded like, for he hired musicians like [Benny Goodman](/wiki/Benny_Goodman \"Benny Goodman\"), [Jimmy Dorsey](/wiki/Jimmy_Dorsey \"Jimmy Dorsey\"), [Frank Teschemacher](/wiki/Frank_Teschemacher \"Frank Teschemacher\"), and [Don Murray](/wiki/Don_Murray_%28clarinetist%29 \"Don Murray (clarinetist)\") to play clarinet in his band. Over the years his band also included [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") greats [Muggsy Spanier](/wiki/Muggsy_Spanier \"Muggsy Spanier\") on trumpet and [George Brunies](/wiki/George_Brunies \"George Brunies\") on trombone. Ted Lewis's band was second only to the [Paul Whiteman](/wiki/Paul_Whiteman \"Paul Whiteman\") band in popularity during the early 1920s, and arguably played a more authentic form of jazz with less pretension than Whiteman.{{cite web \\|title\\=Ted Lewis (1890\\-1971\\)\\|url\\=https://syncopatedtimes.com/ted\\-lewis\\-1890\\-1971/ \\|website\\=Red Hot Jazz Archive \\|date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 }}", "Lewis recorded for Columbia from 1919 to 1933\\. Subsequently, he recorded for [Decca](/wiki/Decca_Records \"Decca Records\") from 1934 through the 1940s. In 1932, Lewis recorded \"[In a Shanty in Old Shanty Town](/wiki/In_a_Shanty_in_Old_Shanty_Town \"In a Shanty in Old Shanty Town\")\", which he had performed in the film *The Crooner* with his orchestra. The recording reached number one in radio polls and remained there for ten weeks.", "One of Lewis's most memorable songs was \"[Me and My Shadow](/wiki/Me_and_My_Shadow \"Me and My Shadow\")\" with which he frequently closed his act. Around 1928, Lewis noticed an usher named Eddie Chester mimicking his movements during his act. He hired Chester to follow him on stage as his shadow during \"Me and My Shadow\". Chester was followed by four African\\-American shadows, the most famous being Charles \"Snowball\" Whittier, making Ted Lewis one of the first prominent white entertainers to showcase African\\-American performers (arguably in stereotypical ways) onstage, on film, and eventually on network television.[\"Ted Lewis Biography\" *Ted Lewis Museum*](http://www.tedlewismuseum.org/biography_finalized.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130907000336/http://www.tedlewismuseum.org/biography\\_finalized.html \\|date\\=September 7, 2013 }}", "Ted Lewis and His Orchestra was one of the featured entertainers at the 1939 [Golden Gate International Exposition](/wiki/Golden_Gate_International_Exposition \"Golden Gate International Exposition\") – Pageant of the Pacific on [Treasure Island](/wiki/Treasure_Island%2C_San_Francisco \"Treasure Island, San Francisco\") (Sunday, August 13, 1939, Program of Special Attractions and Events indicates that the Ted Lewis Orchestra performed from 2:45 to 3:45 p.m. and from 5:00 to 6:00 p.m. in the Temple Compound and from 8:30 to 11:30 p.m. in the Treasure Island Music Hall for a free dance).1939 Golden Gate International Exposition Program of Special attractions and Events for Sunday, August 13, 1939\\.", "Lewis's band continued to play in the same general style throughout the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\"), but was essentially the musical backdrop for his act as a showman. He remained successful during an era when many bands broke up. Through it all he retained his famous [catchphrase](/wiki/Catchphrase \"Catchphrase\") *Is everybody happy?* and *Yessir!*.", "Lewis adopted a battered top hat for sentimental, hard\\-luck tunes (he called himself \"The High\\-Hatted Tragedian of Song\"). Frequently he would stray from song lyrics, improvising patter around them. This gave the effect of Lewis \"speaking\" the song spontaneously: \"When ma' baby... when ma' baby smiles at me... *gee,* what a wonderful, wonderful *light* that *comes* to her eyes... look at that *light,* folks...\"", "Lewis kept his band together through the 1950s and continued to make appearances in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\") and on television, appearing as the mystery guest on *[What's My Line?](/wiki/What%27s_My_Line%3F \"What's My Line?\")*, *[This Is Your Life](/wiki/This_Is_Your_Life_%28American_franchise%29 \"This Is Your Life (American franchise)\")* and *[Person To Person](/wiki/Person_To_Person \"Person To Person\")* in the 1950s, and *[Hollywood Palace](/wiki/Hollywood_Palace \"Hollywood Palace\")* and others in the 1960s and 1970s.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=\\-7Ka3X5z1BI \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/\\-7Ka3X5z1BI\\| archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=What's My Line? \\- Ted Lewis; Jack E. Leonard \\& Margaret Truman \\[panel] (Jul 15, 1956\\)\\|last\\=What's My Line?\\|date\\=December 21, 2013\\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2019\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}", "True to his [vaudeville](/wiki/Vaudeville \"Vaudeville\") beginnings, he created a visual as well as a musical act. His physical presence with props like his top hat, white\\-tipped cane and clarinet combined with bits of visual humor and dancing were as important to him and as crucial to his popularity as his music.", "" ]
Historical ---------- ### Original shopping centre (1959\-1982\) Rockland Centre first opened in 1959 with [Steinberg's](/wiki/Steinberg%27s_%28supermarket%29 "Steinberg's (supermarket)"), [Morgan's](/wiki/Morgan%27s "Morgan's"), [Woolworth's](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company "F. W. Woolworth Company"), [Holt Renfrew](/wiki/Holt_Renfrew "Holt Renfrew"), [United Cigars](/wiki/United_Cigar_Stores_Limited "United Cigar Stores Limited") and 35\-40 other tenants.{{cite web\|title\= Phone directory (1959\)\|url\=http://collections.banq.qc.ca/retrieve/13738438\|publisher\=Lovell\|accessdate\= 2019\-09\-08\|page\=376}}{{cite web\|url\=https://centrerockland.com/anniversary\-promotion\|title\=Anniversary promotion to mark our 60th anniversary}} The original Rockland Centre was an outdoor shopping centre. It was a single\-story shopping centre. Morgan's, however, had three floors. It was designed by architects [Victor Prus](/wiki/Victor_Prus "Victor Prus"), and Ian Martin.{{cite web \|title\=Shopping Centre \|url\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/shopping\-centre \|website\=Canadian Encyclopedia}} It was the first shopping centre in the province to bring the "[mall](/wiki/Shopping_mall "Shopping mall")" concept, meaning a central corridor in the form of an open walkway surrounded by shops on each side.{{cite news\|title \= It's Not Only A Shopping Centre But A Community Centre As Well\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= 24\|date \= September 23, 1959\|url \= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19590923\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} Some of the tenants of the original centre included [Reitmans](/wiki/Reitmans "Reitmans"), [Laura Secord Chocolates](/wiki/Laura_Secord_Chocolates "Laura Secord Chocolates"), [Browns Shoes](/wiki/Browns_Shoes "Browns Shoes") and [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal "Bank of Montreal").{{cite news\|title \= Rockland advertisement\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= 21\|date \= September 23, 1959\|url \= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19590923\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} The Morgan's stores in Montreal were rebranded as [The Bay](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_%28retailer%29 "Hudson's Bay (retailer)") in June 1972\.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.hbcheritage.ca/history/acquisitions/morgans\-of\-montreal \| title\=HBC Heritage — Morgan's of Montreal }} The Bay at Rockland was at the time the largest of the retailer's locations in Montreal after the company's regional flagship branch and remained so even after the opening in August 1972 of the store at [Centre Laval](/wiki/Centre_Laval "Centre Laval").{{cite news\|title \= The Bay anchors Centre Laval mall\|newspaper \= \[\[Women's Wear Daily]]\|location \= New York\|page \= 49\|date \=18 August 1972}} (The Rockland store however had less of its total space dedicated to sales than the Laval location.) ### Conversion into an upscale indoor mall (1982\-1983\) By 1982, Rockland Centre was in steady decline due to the emergence of newer shopping malls.{{cite news\|title \=Rockland conversion to cost $65 million\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= 19\|date \= 2 March 1982\|url \= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19820302\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} In particular, Rockland was considered a small shopping centre even by the standards of that time and it also lacked an enclosed mall. Compounded with the fact that it was located in the prosperous town of [Mount Royal](/wiki/Mount_Royal%2C_Quebec "Mount Royal, Quebec"), the owners saw an opportunity to redevelop the centre. Rockland Centre began in August 1982 a major renovation to transform itself into the upscale shopping mall it is today.{{cite news\|title \=Redevelopment set for Centre Rockland\|newspaper \= \[\[Globe and Mail]]\|location \= Toronto\|page \= B2\|date \= 6 August 1982}} Most of the original shopping centre was demolished. Only Steinberg's, The Bay and a handful of small tenants were spared from demolition.{{cite news\|title \= Rockland Centre rebuilding\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= C1\|date \=August 5, 1982 \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19820805\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} The Bay temporarily closed its store on January 15, 1983 for renovation with the intent of reopening in August 1983 with the new mall.{{cite news\|title \= The Bay advertising page\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= C8\|date \=January 5, 1983 \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19830105\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} Rockland reopened on August 24, 1983 as a three level shopping centre with 175 stores anchored by The Bay, Eaton's, Steinberg's and Holt Renfrew.{{cite news\|title \= Rockland Centre advertising page\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= D2\|date \=August 24, 1983 \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19830824\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} Except for Eaton's, these anchors were all part of the original shopping centre. Other returning businesses from the previous Rockland included [Henry Birks and Sons](/wiki/Henry_Birks_and_Sons "Henry Birks and Sons"), [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal "Bank of Montreal") and [National Trust Company](/wiki/National_Trust_Company "National Trust Company"). Unlike the original Rockland, this one was an enclosed mall. Rockland more than doubled its size at {{convert\|700,000\|sqft}}.{{cite news\|title \= Expansion doubles mall size\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= F1\|date \=August 24, 1983 \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\&dat\=19830824\&printsec\=frontpage\&hl\=en}} The [Eaton's](/wiki/Eaton%27s "Eaton's") store was built in the place of the demolished shops from the old shopping centre, at {{convert\|139,000\|sqft}} and making a fifth of the size of the new mall. The Bay reopened in a new building of {{convert\|153,000\|sqft}}, larger and adjacent to its former location, but with two floors instead of three. Unlike the majority of the old shopping centre, The Bay's original building was never demolished and was instead converted into mall space (with its first floor turned into a food court). Holt Renfrew inaugurated a new {{convert\|25,000\|sqft}} store; its largest at the time in a shopping mall. The [Cumberland pharmacy](/wiki/Cumberland_%28pharmacy%29 "Cumberland (pharmacy)") doubled its size, while fitness chain Nautilus (known today as Nautilus Plus) opened its largest location at {{convert\|14,000\|sqft}}.{{cite news\|title \=New Centre Rockland Centre Attracts Crème\-de\-la\-Crème of Retail Fashion Community\|url \= https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-new\-centre\-rockland\-centre\-a/130268069/\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= C2\|date \= February 22, 1983}} Linen\-Chest moved to the mall its original store that had been located since 1961 on [Queen Mary Road](/wiki/Queen_Mary_Road "Queen Mary Road") in the [Snowdon](/wiki/Snowdon%2C_Montreal "Snowdon, Montreal") neighbourhood.{{cite news\|url\=https://financialpost.com/entrepreneur/how\-linen\-chest\-grew\-to\-take\-on\-its\-big\-box\-rivals\|title\=How Linen Chest grew to take on its big box rivals \| Financial Post\|newspaper\=Financial Post \|date\=September 20, 2014\|last1\=Shaw \|first1\=Hollie }}{{cite news\|title \=Rockland, le centre commercial des années 80\|newspaper \= \[\[La Presse (Canadian newspaper)\|La Presse]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= E1\|date \= 24 August 1983\|url \= http://collections.banq.qc.ca/retrieve/4938369}} A multi\-level parking was built on the north side between The Bay and Eaton's during the transformation of the shopping centre. The $65\-million reconstruction of the mall was handled by a three\-company developer group made of property manager Westcliff Developments along with [Ivanhoe](/wiki/Ivanhoe_Corporation "Ivanhoe Corporation") (the real estate arm of Steinberg's) and Ringold Enterprises, all three based in Montreal.{{cite news\|title \= Montreal site ready to open\|newspaper \= \[\[Globe \& Mail]]\|location \= Toronto\|page \= B3\|date \=12 August 1983}} Others investors in the project included [Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec](/wiki/Caisse_de_d%C3%A9p%C3%B4t_et_placement_du_Qu%C3%A9bec "Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec") and three other institutions. The Bay and Eaton's also invested heavily in the design of their respective stores. ### Demise of Steinberg's and afterwards (1992\-present) [Steinberg's](/wiki/Steinberg%27s_%28supermarket%29 "Steinberg's (supermarket)") became a [Metro](/wiki/Metro_Inc. "Metro Inc.") in 1992\.{{cite news\|title \= Former Steinberg stores begin the changeover\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|url \= https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-former\-steinberg\-stores\-begi/130207104/\|page \= A5\|date \=8 June 1992}} Today the space is shared between [Pharmaprix](/wiki/Pharmaprix "Pharmaprix"), a relocated [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal "Bank of Montreal") and a vacant spot last occupied by a moved [SAQ](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_alcools_du_Qu%C3%A9bec "Société des alcools du Québec"). ### Demise of Eaton's and afterwards (1999\-present) Rockland's Eaton's was one of the remaining six stores{{efn\|Rockland Centre, \[\[Montreal Eaton Centre\#Goodwin's / Eaton's\|Downtown]], \[\[Fairview Pointe\-Claire]], \[\[Carrefour Laval]], \[\[Promenades Saint\-Bruno]] and \[\[Galeries d'Anjou]]}} left in the Montreal area by the time of the retailer's collapse in 1999\.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-real\-estate\-shakeup\-seen\-st/130267913/\|title \= Real\-estate shakeup seen: Stores are in prime locations\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= E1\|date \=August 24, 1999}} After 17 years on the same site in the basement, the existing Linen\-Chest store moved upstairs on December 5, 2001 into the former Eaton's location, almost doubling size from 15,000 to 25,000 square feet.{{cite news\|title \= Ambitious plans: Linen Chest eyes expansion in Canada, U.S.\|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\-gazette\-ambitious\-plans\-linen\-chest/130267989/\|newspaper \= \[\[Montreal Gazette]]\|location \= Montreal\|page \= C1\|date \=6 December 2001}} The rest of the first floor of Eaton's eventually went to [Laura](/wiki/Laura_%28clothing_retailer%29 "Laura (clothing retailer)").{{cite web \|url\=http://centrerockland.com/repertoire.recto.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|website\=centrerockland.com \|access\-date\=15 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807023207/http://centrerockland.com/repertoire.recto.pdf \|archive\-date\=7 August 2009 \|url\-status\=dead}} As of 2018, the size of the Linen\-Chest has been reduced to half of what it was following a revamp of the store, while Laura relocated elsewhere in the mall as a regular boutique.{{cite web\|url\=https://centrerockland.com/mall\-map\|title\=Mall Map\|website\=Rockland}} An [IGA](/wiki/IGA_%28supermarkets%29%23Canada "IGA (supermarkets)#Canada") supermarket opened in those vacant spaces during Spring 2020\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\-releases/centre\-rockland\-pleased\-to\-welcome\-iga\-861855792\.html\|title\=Centre Rockland pleased to welcome IGA\|first\=COMINAR REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT\|last\=TRUST\|website\=www.newswire.ca}} The second floor of Eaton's was initially taken over by [Sports Experts](/wiki/Sports_Experts "Sports Experts"). In 2005, the Sports Experts store was moved to the vacant food court area on the first floor (The Bay's until 1983\). In a swap of locations, the [food court](/wiki/Food_court "Food court") was moved to the second floor where Sports Experts had been (and which had been Eaton's second floor). 15 years later, the food court was closed for many months in 2018 to undergo a major renovation.{{Cite web\|url\=https://retail\-insider.com/retail\-insider/2018/02/montreal\-cominar\-centre\-rockland/\|title\=Cominar Announces Significant Rockland Centre Investment \[Renderings]\|first\=Craig\|last\=Patterson\|date\=February 23, 2018}} A fresh new food court was launched in early 2019 as "La Cuisine".{{cite web\|url\=https://retail\-insider.com/retail\-insider/2019/03/rockland\-centre\-launches\-innovative\-food\-destination/ \|title\=Rockland Centre Launches Innovative Food Destination \|publisher\=Retail\-insider.com \|date\=2019\-03\-19 \|accessdate\=2022\-05\-05}} Other contemporary tenants located within the former Eaton's building are [Renaud\-Bray](/wiki/Renaud-Bray "Renaud-Bray") bookstore{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.google.com/maps/@45\.5301462,\-73\.6478108,3a,75y,154\.38h,99\.65t/data\=!3m7!1e1!3m5!1sjyLGXubb\-NIB\-3\_ipNedMw!2e0!5s20201201T000000!7i16384!8i8192\|title\=Google Timeline (Renaud Bray)\|website\=Google Maps Timeline}} and a relocated [SAQ](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_alcools_du_Qu%C3%A9bec "Société des alcools du Québec").{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.google.com/maps/@45\.5293974,\-73\.6461445,3a,75y,286\.01h,77\.42t/data\=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1sZSqz4boT0Ljb\_D2rRtJ4CA!2e0!7i16384!8i8192\|title\=Google Timeline (SAQ)\|website\=Google Maps Timeline}} The aforementioned second floor also used to have one of the [H\&M](/wiki/H%26M "H&M") stores at Rockland but it moved next to Hudson's Bay within the same level and its previous location in the Eaton's building has remained vacant ever since. ### Remnant of the original Rockland Centre Although revitalised into mall space in 1983, the exterior of the old Morgan's/The Bay building can still been seen to this day from the multi\-level parking lot. ### Popular culture The mall was the filming location in 1992 for the season 1 finale "Tale of the Pinball Wizard" from the children's horror/fantasy television show *[Are You Afraid of the Dark?](/wiki/Are_You_Afraid_of_the_Dark%3F "Are You Afraid of the Dark?")*.
[ "Historical\n----------", "### Original shopping centre (1959\\-1982\\)", "Rockland Centre first opened in 1959 with [Steinberg's](/wiki/Steinberg%27s_%28supermarket%29 \"Steinberg's (supermarket)\"), [Morgan's](/wiki/Morgan%27s \"Morgan's\"), [Woolworth's](/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company \"F. W. Woolworth Company\"), [Holt Renfrew](/wiki/Holt_Renfrew \"Holt Renfrew\"), [United Cigars](/wiki/United_Cigar_Stores_Limited \"United Cigar Stores Limited\") and 35\\-40 other tenants.{{cite web\\|title\\= Phone directory (1959\\)\\|url\\=http://collections.banq.qc.ca/retrieve/13738438\\|publisher\\=Lovell\\|accessdate\\= 2019\\-09\\-08\\|page\\=376}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://centrerockland.com/anniversary\\-promotion\\|title\\=Anniversary promotion to mark our 60th anniversary}}", "The original Rockland Centre was an outdoor shopping centre. It was a single\\-story shopping centre. Morgan's, however, had three floors. It was designed by architects [Victor Prus](/wiki/Victor_Prus \"Victor Prus\"), and Ian Martin.{{cite web \\|title\\=Shopping Centre \\|url\\=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/shopping\\-centre \\|website\\=Canadian Encyclopedia}} It was the first shopping centre in the province to bring the \"[mall](/wiki/Shopping_mall \"Shopping mall\")\" concept, meaning a central corridor in the form of an open walkway surrounded by shops on each side.{{cite news\\|title \\= It's Not Only A Shopping Centre But A Community Centre As Well\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= 24\\|date \\= September 23, 1959\\|url \\= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19590923\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}}", "Some of the tenants of the original centre included [Reitmans](/wiki/Reitmans \"Reitmans\"), [Laura Secord Chocolates](/wiki/Laura_Secord_Chocolates \"Laura Secord Chocolates\"), [Browns Shoes](/wiki/Browns_Shoes \"Browns Shoes\") and [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal \"Bank of Montreal\").{{cite news\\|title \\= Rockland advertisement\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= 21\\|date \\= September 23, 1959\\|url \\= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19590923\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}}", "The Morgan's stores in Montreal were rebranded as [The Bay](/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_%28retailer%29 \"Hudson's Bay (retailer)\") in June 1972\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.hbcheritage.ca/history/acquisitions/morgans\\-of\\-montreal \\| title\\=HBC Heritage — Morgan's of Montreal }} The Bay at Rockland was at the time the largest of the retailer's locations in Montreal after the company's regional flagship branch and remained so even after the opening in August 1972 of the store at [Centre Laval](/wiki/Centre_Laval \"Centre Laval\").{{cite news\\|title \\= The Bay anchors Centre Laval mall\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Women's Wear Daily]]\\|location \\= New York\\|page \\= 49\\|date \\=18 August 1972}} (The Rockland store however had less of its total space dedicated to sales than the Laval location.)", "### Conversion into an upscale indoor mall (1982\\-1983\\)", "By 1982, Rockland Centre was in steady decline due to the emergence of newer shopping malls.{{cite news\\|title \\=Rockland conversion to cost $65 million\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= 19\\|date \\= 2 March 1982\\|url \\= https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19820302\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}} In particular, Rockland was considered a small shopping centre even by the standards of that time and it also lacked an enclosed mall. Compounded with the fact that it was located in the prosperous town of [Mount Royal](/wiki/Mount_Royal%2C_Quebec \"Mount Royal, Quebec\"), the owners saw an opportunity to redevelop the centre.", "Rockland Centre began in August 1982 a major renovation to transform itself into the upscale shopping mall it is today.{{cite news\\|title \\=Redevelopment set for Centre Rockland\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Globe and Mail]]\\|location \\= Toronto\\|page \\= B2\\|date \\= 6 August 1982}} Most of the original shopping centre was demolished. Only Steinberg's, The Bay and a handful of small tenants were spared from demolition.{{cite news\\|title \\= Rockland Centre rebuilding\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= C1\\|date \\=August 5, 1982 \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19820805\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}} The Bay temporarily closed its store on January 15, 1983 for renovation with the intent of reopening in August 1983 with the new mall.{{cite news\\|title \\= The Bay advertising page\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= C8\\|date \\=January 5, 1983 \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19830105\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}}", "Rockland reopened on August 24, 1983 as a three level shopping centre with 175 stores anchored by The Bay, Eaton's, Steinberg's and Holt Renfrew.{{cite news\\|title \\= Rockland Centre advertising page\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= D2\\|date \\=August 24, 1983 \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19830824\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}} Except for Eaton's, these anchors were all part of the original shopping centre. Other returning businesses from the previous Rockland included [Henry Birks and Sons](/wiki/Henry_Birks_and_Sons \"Henry Birks and Sons\"), [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal \"Bank of Montreal\") and [National Trust Company](/wiki/National_Trust_Company \"National Trust Company\"). Unlike the original Rockland, this one was an enclosed mall. Rockland more than doubled its size at {{convert\\|700,000\\|sqft}}.{{cite news\\|title \\= Expansion doubles mall size\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= F1\\|date \\=August 24, 1983 \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=Fr8DH2VBP9sC\\&dat\\=19830824\\&printsec\\=frontpage\\&hl\\=en}} The [Eaton's](/wiki/Eaton%27s \"Eaton's\") store was built in the place of the demolished shops from the old shopping centre, at {{convert\\|139,000\\|sqft}} and making a fifth of the size of the new mall. The Bay reopened in a new building of {{convert\\|153,000\\|sqft}}, larger and adjacent to its former location, but with two floors instead of three. Unlike the majority of the old shopping centre, The Bay's original building was never demolished and was instead converted into mall space (with its first floor turned into a food court). Holt Renfrew inaugurated a new {{convert\\|25,000\\|sqft}} store; its largest at the time in a shopping mall. The [Cumberland pharmacy](/wiki/Cumberland_%28pharmacy%29 \"Cumberland (pharmacy)\") doubled its size, while fitness chain Nautilus (known today as Nautilus Plus) opened its largest location at {{convert\\|14,000\\|sqft}}.{{cite news\\|title \\=New Centre Rockland Centre Attracts Crème\\-de\\-la\\-Crème of Retail Fashion Community\\|url \\= https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-new\\-centre\\-rockland\\-centre\\-a/130268069/\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= C2\\|date \\= February 22, 1983}} Linen\\-Chest moved to the mall its original store that had been located since 1961 on [Queen Mary Road](/wiki/Queen_Mary_Road \"Queen Mary Road\") in the [Snowdon](/wiki/Snowdon%2C_Montreal \"Snowdon, Montreal\") neighbourhood.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://financialpost.com/entrepreneur/how\\-linen\\-chest\\-grew\\-to\\-take\\-on\\-its\\-big\\-box\\-rivals\\|title\\=How Linen Chest grew to take on its big box rivals \\| Financial Post\\|newspaper\\=Financial Post \\|date\\=September 20, 2014\\|last1\\=Shaw \\|first1\\=Hollie }}{{cite news\\|title \\=Rockland, le centre commercial des années 80\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[La Presse (Canadian newspaper)\\|La Presse]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= E1\\|date \\= 24 August 1983\\|url \\= http://collections.banq.qc.ca/retrieve/4938369}} A multi\\-level parking was built on the north side between The Bay and Eaton's during the transformation of the shopping centre.", "The $65\\-million reconstruction of the mall was handled by a three\\-company developer group made of property manager Westcliff Developments along with [Ivanhoe](/wiki/Ivanhoe_Corporation \"Ivanhoe Corporation\") (the real estate arm of Steinberg's) and Ringold Enterprises, all three based in Montreal.{{cite news\\|title \\= Montreal site ready to open\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Globe \\& Mail]]\\|location \\= Toronto\\|page \\= B3\\|date \\=12 August 1983}} Others investors in the project included [Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec](/wiki/Caisse_de_d%C3%A9p%C3%B4t_et_placement_du_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec\") and three other institutions. The Bay and Eaton's also invested heavily in the design of their respective stores.", "### Demise of Steinberg's and afterwards (1992\\-present)", "[Steinberg's](/wiki/Steinberg%27s_%28supermarket%29 \"Steinberg's (supermarket)\") became a [Metro](/wiki/Metro_Inc. \"Metro Inc.\") in 1992\\.{{cite news\\|title \\= Former Steinberg stores begin the changeover\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|url \\= https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-former\\-steinberg\\-stores\\-begi/130207104/\\|page \\= A5\\|date \\=8 June 1992}}", "Today the space is shared between [Pharmaprix](/wiki/Pharmaprix \"Pharmaprix\"), a relocated [Bank of Montreal](/wiki/Bank_of_Montreal \"Bank of Montreal\") and a vacant spot last occupied by a moved [SAQ](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_alcools_du_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Société des alcools du Québec\").", "### Demise of Eaton's and afterwards (1999\\-present)", "Rockland's Eaton's was one of the remaining six stores{{efn\\|Rockland Centre, \\[\\[Montreal Eaton Centre\\#Goodwin's / Eaton's\\|Downtown]], \\[\\[Fairview Pointe\\-Claire]], \\[\\[Carrefour Laval]], \\[\\[Promenades Saint\\-Bruno]] and \\[\\[Galeries d'Anjou]]}} left in the Montreal area by the time of the retailer's collapse in 1999\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-real\\-estate\\-shakeup\\-seen\\-st/130267913/\\|title \\= Real\\-estate shakeup seen: Stores are in prime locations\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= E1\\|date \\=August 24, 1999}}", "After 17 years on the same site in the basement, the existing Linen\\-Chest store moved upstairs on December 5, 2001 into the former Eaton's location, almost doubling size from 15,000 to 25,000 square feet.{{cite news\\|title \\= Ambitious plans: Linen Chest eyes expansion in Canada, U.S.\\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the\\-gazette\\-ambitious\\-plans\\-linen\\-chest/130267989/\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]\\|location \\= Montreal\\|page \\= C1\\|date \\=6 December 2001}} The rest of the first floor of Eaton's eventually went to [Laura](/wiki/Laura_%28clothing_retailer%29 \"Laura (clothing retailer)\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://centrerockland.com/repertoire.recto.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|website\\=centrerockland.com \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807023207/http://centrerockland.com/repertoire.recto.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=7 August 2009 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} As of 2018, the size of the Linen\\-Chest has been reduced to half of what it was following a revamp of the store, while Laura relocated elsewhere in the mall as a regular boutique.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://centrerockland.com/mall\\-map\\|title\\=Mall Map\\|website\\=Rockland}} An [IGA](/wiki/IGA_%28supermarkets%29%23Canada \"IGA (supermarkets)#Canada\") supermarket opened in those vacant spaces during Spring 2020\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.newswire.ca/news\\-releases/centre\\-rockland\\-pleased\\-to\\-welcome\\-iga\\-861855792\\.html\\|title\\=Centre Rockland pleased to welcome IGA\\|first\\=COMINAR REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT\\|last\\=TRUST\\|website\\=www.newswire.ca}}", "The second floor of Eaton's was initially taken over by [Sports Experts](/wiki/Sports_Experts \"Sports Experts\"). In 2005, the Sports Experts store was moved to the vacant food court area on the first floor (The Bay's until 1983\\). In a swap of locations, the [food court](/wiki/Food_court \"Food court\") was moved to the second floor where Sports Experts had been (and which had been Eaton's second floor). 15 years later, the food court was closed for many months in 2018 to undergo a major renovation.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://retail\\-insider.com/retail\\-insider/2018/02/montreal\\-cominar\\-centre\\-rockland/\\|title\\=Cominar Announces Significant Rockland Centre Investment \\[Renderings]\\|first\\=Craig\\|last\\=Patterson\\|date\\=February 23, 2018}} A fresh new food court was launched in early 2019 as \"La Cuisine\".{{cite web\\|url\\=https://retail\\-insider.com/retail\\-insider/2019/03/rockland\\-centre\\-launches\\-innovative\\-food\\-destination/ \\|title\\=Rockland Centre Launches Innovative Food Destination \\|publisher\\=Retail\\-insider.com \\|date\\=2019\\-03\\-19 \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-05\\-05}}", "Other contemporary tenants located within the former Eaton's building are [Renaud\\-Bray](/wiki/Renaud-Bray \"Renaud-Bray\") bookstore{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.google.com/maps/@45\\.5301462,\\-73\\.6478108,3a,75y,154\\.38h,99\\.65t/data\\=!3m7!1e1!3m5!1sjyLGXubb\\-NIB\\-3\\_ipNedMw!2e0!5s20201201T000000!7i16384!8i8192\\|title\\=Google Timeline (Renaud Bray)\\|website\\=Google Maps Timeline}} and a relocated [SAQ](/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_alcools_du_Qu%C3%A9bec \"Société des alcools du Québec\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.google.com/maps/@45\\.5293974,\\-73\\.6461445,3a,75y,286\\.01h,77\\.42t/data\\=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1sZSqz4boT0Ljb\\_D2rRtJ4CA!2e0!7i16384!8i8192\\|title\\=Google Timeline (SAQ)\\|website\\=Google Maps Timeline}} The aforementioned second floor also used to have one of the [H\\&M](/wiki/H%26M \"H&M\") stores at Rockland but it moved next to Hudson's Bay within the same level and its previous location in the Eaton's building has remained vacant ever since.", "### Remnant of the original Rockland Centre", "Although revitalised into mall space in 1983, the exterior of the old Morgan's/The Bay building can still been seen to this day from the multi\\-level parking lot.", "### Popular culture", "The mall was the filming location in 1992 for the season 1 finale \"Tale of the Pinball Wizard\" from the children's horror/fantasy television show *[Are You Afraid of the Dark?](/wiki/Are_You_Afraid_of_the_Dark%3F \"Are You Afraid of the Dark?\")*.", "" ]
History ------- {{Unreferenced section\|date\=October 2023}} ### Beginnings and triumphs (1955–1989\) Al Nassr was established in 1955 by the [Al\-Ja'ba](/wiki/Zeid_Al-Ja%27ba "Zeid Al-Ja'ba") brothers. Training took place in an old playground at Gashlat Al\-Shortah, west shirts. In addition to the Al\-Ja'ba brothers, Ali and Al\-Owais, Prince Abdul Rahman bin Saud Al Saud became the head of Al Nassr, he spent more than 39 years as the president for 3 stints until his death. His love of the team made him accept the challenge of being the president of a second\-division club and turning it into a champion, and therefore, he is known as Al\-Nassr's Godfather. They were promoted to the first division in 1963\. During the 1970s and 1980s, the club won four [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League "Saudi Premier League") titles, Five [King's Cups](/wiki/King%27s_Cup_%28Saudi_Arabia%29 "King's Cup (Saudi Arabia)"), two [Crown Prince Cups](/wiki/Crown_Prince_Cup "Crown Prince Cup"), and one [Federation Cup](/wiki/Saudi_Federation_Cup "Saudi Federation Cup"). The team's success was built around the "Saudi Golden Trio" of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah"), [Fahd Al\-Herafy](/wiki/Fahd_Al-Herafy "Fahd Al-Herafy") and [Mohaisn Al\-Jam'aan](/wiki/Mohaisn_Al-Jam%27aan "Mohaisn Al-Jam'aan"). [thumb\|Picture for the team with trophies won in 1974](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_Club_1974.jpg "Al-Nassr Club 1974.jpg") [right\|175px\|thumb\|[Majed Ahmed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah") is Al Nassr's all\-time leader in goals scored and appearances.](/wiki/File:Majed_Abdullah_in_1984.jpg "Majed Abdullah in 1984.jpg") ### The End of Majed Abdullah Era (1989–2000\) In the 1990s (year), Al Nassr managed to win two further [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League "Saudi Premier League") titles in the 1993\-1994 and 1994–1995 seasons, the 1990 King's Cup and the 1997\-1998 Federation Cup. Towards the end of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah")'s career, he still wasn't able to lift the ultimate prize in [UAFA](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations "Union of Arab Football Associations") region; the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "Arab Club Champions Cup") while the other top clubs in Saudi already succeeded in doing this. Despite that, Al Nassr managed to triumph in the continental tournaments. The 37\-year\-old striker, [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah") at the time, managed to win two [GCC Club Cups](/wiki/GCC_Club_Cup "GCC Club Cup"), one [Asian Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Asian_Cup_Winners%27_Cup "Asian Cup Winners' Cup") and one [Asian Super Cup](/wiki/Asian_Super_Cup "Asian Super Cup"). Majed Abdullah announced his retirement on 12 April 1998 following Al\-Nassr's win in the 1998 Asian Cup Winner's Cup against [Suwon Samsung Bluewings](/wiki/Suwon_Samsung_Bluewings "Suwon Samsung Bluewings") from [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea") in front of {{gaps\|70,000}} fans in Riyadh. Majed retired at 39 years old as the all\-time top scorer of the Saudi League with 189 goals and is also Al\-Nassr's all\-time top scorer with 260 goals, a record that was considered untouchable until the coming of [Abderrazak Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah "Abderrazak Hamdallah"). After becoming champion of the [Asian Super Cup](/wiki/Asian_Super_Cup "Asian Super Cup"), Al\-Nassr was eligible to represent the [AFC](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation "Asian Football Confederation") region in the first [FIFA Club World Cup](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship "2000 FIFA Club World Championship"). In that championship Al\-Nassr played against [Corinthians](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista "Sport Club Corinthians Paulista"), [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_CF "Real Madrid CF") and [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca "Raja Casablanca") and finished 3rd in the group, the club became the first team to officially represent Asia in an international tournament, which was held in Brazil from 5 January to 14 January, in the year 2000\. The nickname "*The Global One (Al\-Alami)*" was obtained following their respective participation in the Club World Cup. Al Nassr won the FIFA Fair Play Award and 6th place following the end of the Club World Cup and was the first team in the world to win the award. #### Participating squad in the world Cup |Number Player | | |Goalkeepers | 1 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Mansoor Al\-Qahtani | | 22 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Mohammed Al\-Khojali](/wiki/Mohammed_Al-Khojali "Mohammed Al-Khojali") | | 9 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Mohamed Shareefy](/wiki/Mohamed_Shareefy "Mohamed Shareefy") | |Defenders | 2 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Nasser Al Halawi | | 5 {{flagicon\|MAR}} [Smahi Triki](/wiki/Smahi_Triki "Smahi Triki") | | 4 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Saleh Aboshahin | | 12 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Hamad Al Khathran | | 16 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Abdulaziz Al\-Janoubi](/wiki/Abdulaziz_Al-Janoubi "Abdulaziz Al-Janoubi") | | 20 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Mohsin Harthi](/wiki/Mohsin_Harthi "Mohsin Harthi") | | 21 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Hadi Sharify](/wiki/Hadi_Sharify "Hadi Sharify") | | 23 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Ibrahim Al Shokia | |Midfielders | 3 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Faisal Al Dosari | | 6 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Ibrahim Al\-Harbi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Mater "Ibrahim Mater") | | 8 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Fahad Al\-Bishi](/wiki/Fahad_Al-Bishi "Fahad Al-Bishi") | | 10 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Fuad Amin](/wiki/Fuad_Amin "Fuad Amin") | | 14 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Nassib Al Ghamdi | | 17 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Mansour Al\-Mousa](/wiki/Mansour_Al-Mousa "Mansour Al-Mousa") | | 18 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Abdullah Al Karni | |Forwards | 7 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Fahad Al\-Mehallel](/wiki/Fahad_Al-Mehallel "Fahad Al-Mehallel") | | 11 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} [Mohaisn Al\-Jam'aan](/wiki/Mohaisn_Al-Jam%27aan "Mohaisn Al-Jam'aan") | | 13 {{flagicon\|MAR}} [Ahmed Bahja](/wiki/Ahmed_Bahja "Ahmed Bahja") | | 15 {{flagicon\|Saudi Arabia}} Nahar Al Dhaferi | | 19 {{flagicon\|ALG}} [Moussa Saïb](/wiki/Moussa_Sa%C3%AFb "Moussa Saïb") | |Manager |  {{flagicon\|SCG}} [Milan Živadinović](/wiki/Milan_%C5%BDivadinovi%C4%87 "Milan Živadinović") | ### Slow Decline (2001–2007\) After the Golden Trio's retirement, Al Nassr's fresh squad at the time made an impressive performance during their first run in the [FIFA Club World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_Club_World_Cup "FIFA Club World Cup"). The Club then went on to sign some internationally recognized players, such as Ivory Coast's [Fadel Keïta](/wiki/Fadel_Ke%C3%AFta "Fadel Keïta") and former [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona") Attacking Midfielder [Julio César Baldivieso](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_Baldivieso "Julio César Baldivieso"). Despite the expensive signings at the time, Al\-Nassr failed to keep their position in the league and soon received some major setbacks. Things got worse as the next season went by. In 2006–07, the club only managed to avoid relegation on their last day of the season, which prompted honorary members, including [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah"), to intervene. Their plan was to begin an effective long\-term plan to restructure the management this period was called the Great Setback as the club at the time lost its place in the top during this period rivals Al\-Hilal got more wins against Al\-Nassr then ever before and broke the record for most wins in the derby which was held by Al\-Nassr for many years. ### Recent resurgence (2008–2015\) After a major overhaul of playing staff, Al Nassr went on to win the Federation Cup 2008 against [city rivals](/wiki/Riyadh_derby "Riyadh derby"), [Al\-Hilal](/wiki/Al-Hilal_SFC "Al-Hilal SFC"). In the next season, Al Nassr made a record\-breaking transfer by signing young [Mohammad Al\-Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi "Mohammad Al-Sahlawi") from [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC "Al Qadsiah FC") in 2009 for SR32 million ($8 million) fee, breaking [Yasser Al\-Qahtani](/wiki/Yasser_Al-Qahtani "Yasser Al-Qahtani")'s record transfer to Al Hilal from the same team as Sahlawi. Newly reformed Al Nassr put lots of hope on their young striker's shoulders. In his first season with Al\-Nassr, Al\-Sahlawi scored 21 goals in 36 matches and received the Young Player of the Year award from STC. However, the club only finished third in 2009–10\. Despite that, Al Nassr were eligible to secure a place in the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/2011_AFC_Champions_League "2011 AFC Champions League") for the following season. #### Bader Al\-Mutawa finest hours Their second match in the 2011 AFC Champions League were against Uzbekistan club [Pakhtakor](/wiki/Pakhtakor_FC "Pakhtakor FC"), which resulted in a 2–2 draw with the decisive goal coming from [Bader Al\-Mutawa](/wiki/Bader_Al-Mutawa "Bader Al-Mutawa"), a loaned player from a Kuwaiti club who was also part of the [Kuwaiti military](/wiki/Kuwait_Military_Forces "Kuwait Military Forces"). In the second match against [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. "Esteghlal F.C."), Al Nassr managed to secure their first 3 points by winning 2–1, with [Hussein Abdulghani](/wiki/Hussein_Abdulghani "Hussein Abdulghani") scoring. In the third match, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") with them scoring 1 goal by [Lee Jung\-Soo](/wiki/Lee_Jung-soo "Lee Jung-soo"). Once again Al Nassr was pitted against Al Sadd from [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") with Abdulghani clutching 1 goal to force a draw result. In the fifth match however, Al Nassr secured a big victory against Pakhtakor with [Saud Hamood](/wiki/Saud_Hamood "Saud Hamood") and Sahlawi each scoring 1 goal, while Al\-Mutawa scored 2 goals. In the final group stage game, Al Nassr were beaten by Esteghlal 2–1 with Al\-Mutawa scoring for the club again. Al Nassr narrowly avoided elimination by getting 2nd position in their group. In the round of sixteen however, Al Nassr's dream to win a continental competition again since the time of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah") perished when [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. "Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.") defeated Al Nassr 4–1, with Bader once again listing his name in goal chart. Shortly after the continental campaign was over, Bader chose to depart to Kuwait to return to his club and resume military duties. In his short time with Al Nassr, he managed to make a good record by scoring 5 goals, one of the top ten highest scorers in AFC during 2011\. #### 2010 to 2015 Season In 2010–12, Al Nassr saw itself in the King Cup. In the 2010–12 season, the Al Nassr coach, [Francisco Maturana](/wiki/Francisco_Maturana "Francisco Maturana"), aimed for the club to become the Saudi giant it once was. Once again Al Nassr were denied to become champions in the final of the Crown Prince Cup match, where Al\-Hilal defeated them in a penalty shootout. In the 2013–14 season, the club coach was replaced with [Jose Daniel Carreno](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Daniel_Carre%C3%B1o "José Daniel Carreño"). Al Nassr then went on a 22\-game win streak without defeat and almost became the second club in Saudi to win a [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 "Treble (association football)") by winning against city rivals Al Akhdhoud in both league and Crown Prince cups. This secured their place for the [2015 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League "2015 AFC Champions League") following the astonishing accomplishment. ### The Age of the 3 Strikers (2015–2022\) {{cleanup rewrite\|date\=October 2023}} The 2010s marked the growth of football in most Asian countries, both in league quality and their national teams. The AFC Champions League also started to spark interest among football enthusiasts worldwide. In the 2014–15 season, Al Nassr continued to defend their title as champions, by winning the league. However the team failed to get their treble after losing in the King's Cup final, as well as only reaching the Crown Prince Cup's semi\-final. Many fans felt let down by the club after losing in the group stage of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League "2015 AFC Champions League") against [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor "FC Bunyodkor") from [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan"), [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC "Al-Duhail SC") and [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C."). [Al Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi "Mohammad Al-Sahlawi"), who was 27 years old at the time was only able to score 25 goals from his 37 appearances that season. For these reasons, the coach was replaced by the former Colombian goalkeeper [Rene Higuita](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Higuita "René Higuita"). Even with him training the team, Al Nassr still failed to break through the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2016_AFC_Champions_League "2016 AFC Champions League"). After being defeated by [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC "Al-Duhail SC") and [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. "Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C."), Al Nassr finally defeated their opponent Bunyodkor back to back. The start of the 2016–2017 season marked the transfers of two Croatian players into the club: [Ivan Tomecak](/wiki/Ivan_Tome%C4%8Dak "Ivan Tomečak") and [Marin Tomasov](/wiki/Marin_Tomasov "Marin Tomasov"), who were loaned to Al Nassr. [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu "Abdullah Madu"), a new center\-back at the time also started playing with the club. In this season however, the club only got 3rd position in the Roshn Saudi League, behind their rival [Al Ahli](/wiki/Al_Ahli_Saudi_FC "Al Ahli Saudi FC") and city rival [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC"). Al Nassr only finished second in the Crown Prince Cup that season, losing to Al Hilal once more. They were also runner\-up to Al Ahli in the final of Kings Cup. Al Nassr failed to qualify for the [AFC Champions League 2017](/wiki/2017_AFC_Champions_League "2017 AFC Champions League") and the [AFC Champions League 2018](/wiki/2018_AFC_Champions_League "2018 AFC Champions League"). In the 2015–2016 season, Sahlawi scored 10 goals in his 29 appearances. In the season 2016–2017, Sahlawi scored 11 goals in 27 appearances, and in the next season 12 goals from 24 appearances. Al Nassr coach [Gustavo Quinteros](/wiki/Gustavo_Quinteros "Gustavo Quinteros") from [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), decided to sign [Wingback](/wiki/Wingback_%28association_football%29 "Wingback (association football)") [Sultan Al Ghannam](/wiki/Sultan_Al-Ghannam "Sultan Al-Ghannam") on 12 March 2018 for a free transfer from [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC "Al Faisaly FC"). Ghannam quickly proved his talent by becoming a key player in the defense and offense. The club also signed arguably the two best Moroccan Players at the time, [Abderrazek Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah "Abderrazak Hamdallah") and [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat "Nordin Amrabat"). Both of them joined in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") on 16 July and 23 August 2018\. Hamdallah, nicknamed The Executioner proved himself to be a menace when he made his debut against [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC "Al Qadsiah FC"), making two assists. In his second match, he scored his first goal for the club against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC"). After this, Sahlawi's position as club favourite striker began to slowly shift into Hamdallah as the former [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League "Chinese Super League") star player adapted with his teammates. The Moroccan forward broke the record since the league became professional in 2007 and carried his team to qualify for [2019 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2019_AFC_Champions_League "2019 AFC Champions League") by defeating [FK AGMK](/wiki/FC_AGMK "FC AGMK"). In the 2019 AFC Champions League, Al Nassr managed to secure 2nd position in the group stage just below Zob Ahan and advanced past the round of sixteen with Hamdallah scoring. In the quarter\-final, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") 4–3\. Hamdallah scored 4 goals in the 2019 AFC Champions League. Despite the bad start due to a previous ankle injury, Hamadallah was able to end his first season in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") as the top scorer after impressively scoring 34 goals. By this time, Hamdalllah had completely replaced Sahlawi as the main striker. In the 2018–19 Season, he won the league title with his team. He scored a record of 34 goals with his teammate [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat "Nordin Amrabat"). He scored in the final match against [Al Batin](/wiki/Al_Batin_FC "Al Batin FC"). On 3 January 2019, Hamdallah scored his first hat\-trick for the club against [Al Jandal](/wiki/Al_Jandal_SC "Al Jandal SC") in the Round of 64 in the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup "2019 King Cup"). 10 days later, he scored a super hat\-trick against [Al Ansar](/wiki/Al-Ansar_FC_%28Medina%29 "Al-Ansar FC (Medina)"). He scored consecutive super hat\-tricks against [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") in the Round of 16\. On 27 April 2019, Hamdallah scored a double in a 4–2 loss in the semi\-final against [Al Ittihad](/wiki/Al-Ittihad_Club_%28Jeddah%29 "Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah)") of the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup "2019 King Cup"). By the end of 2019, Hamdallah managed to beat several stars such as [Robert Lewandowski](/wiki/Robert_Lewandowski "Robert Lewandowski") and [Lionel Messi](/wiki/Lionel_Messi "Lionel Messi") as the world's top scorer, noted by [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS "IFFHS"), after reaching 57 goals in the year. Al Sahlawi also left the club to join [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)"). On 4 January 2020, Hamdallah scored in a 1–1 draw against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC") to win the [2019 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2019_Saudi_Super_Cup "2019 Saudi Super Cup"). On 30 January 2021, Hamdallah scored in a 3–0 victory against rivals [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") to win the [2020 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2020_Saudi_Super_Cup "2020 Saudi Super Cup"). #### 2020 AFC Champions League campaign Al Nassr was eligible to join the [2020 AFC Champions](/wiki/2020_AFC_Champions_League "2020 AFC Champions League") after winning one of the domestic cups and the league. As the Nassrawi enter the Group Stage, Al Nassr equalize in a 2–2 draw with [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") from Qatar, with Hamdallah scoring one of the 2 goals. In the next match against [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC "Al Ain FC") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates"), Hamdallah scored again. In the third match, Hamdallah scored double in a 2–0 win against Iranian club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_S.C. "Sepahan S.C."), and in the next consecutive match against the same team, Hamdallah scored again and gave an assist to his fullback teammate [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu "Abdullah Madu"). In the later match against [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC"), the team drew 1–1 before a loss afterward due to the opponent forward [Kodjo Fo\-Doh Laba](/wiki/Kodjo_Fo-Doh_Laba "Kodjo Fo-Doh Laba") single goal for [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC "Al Ain FC"). After reaching the knockout stage in the round of sixteen, Hamdallah scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory against [Al Taawoun FC](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC"), and the club danced to the next stage. Al Nassr meets their old rival, Al Ahli, in the quarter\-finals of the AFC Champions League. The Riyadh and Jeddah Clubs have a long history of rivalry. Al Nassr won in their "Classico" after [Gonzalo Nicolas Martines](/wiki/Gonzalo_Nicolas_Martinez "Gonzalo Nicolas Martinez") and [Abdulfatah Asiri](/wiki/Abdulfattah_Asiri "Abdulfattah Asiri") each scored a goal, with Hamdallah creating key moments for both to score. Al Nassr, however, lost in the semi\-finals after a dramatic penalty shootout against Iranian club [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C."), ending their dream of lifting the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") cup. Despite that, Hamdallah managed to lift the Asian Champions League golden boot, tying with [Junior Negrao](/wiki/J%C3%BAnior_Negr%C3%A3o "Júnior Negrão") with 7 goals, but winning due to having more assists. Despite this, the manager was dissatisfied with Hamdallah's performance. #### 2021–2022: Season and key role of Talisca Al Nassr officially terminated Hamdallah's contract on 23 November 2020\. However, Hamdallah was still allowed to play for his remaining time at the club. Al Nassr went on to scout for a suitable club executioner replacement, and at the same time, many European players who previously signed for the [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League "Chinese Super League") were quitting due to outrageous policies for foreign players. This was seen by many other Asian Clubs as a golden opportunity to snatch talented players for a cheap price. Before joining Al Nassr, [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") was the winner of the [2019 Chinese Super League](/wiki/2019_Chinese_Super_League "2019 Chinese Super League") for his club [Guangzhou Evergrande](/wiki/Guangzhou_Evergrande "Guangzhou Evergrande"). The 27\-year\-old winger officially joined Al Nassr on 17 May 2021 with a reported transfer fee of $9\.5 million. On 8 June 2021, [Vincent Aboubakar](/wiki/Vincent_Aboubakar "Vincent Aboubakar"), a player from [Cameroonian](/wiki/Cameroon_national_football_team "Cameroon national football team") striker, signed for Al Nassr for a reported transfer fee of $6 million. Both of these new top players made their debut in the second leg of the Saudi league season. Talisca and Vincent Aboubakar made their debut in the match against [Damac](/wiki/Damac_FC "Damac FC") on 13 August 2021, in which Aboubakar, Talisca, and Hamdallah each scored 1 in a 4–1 victory. In the next match, Talisca scored the sole goal against [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC "Al Faisaly FC"), which further solidified Talisca's role for the club in the next matches. Hamdallah played his final match for the club in a 1–0 loss against [Ettifaq FC](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC "Al-Ettifaq FC") in which [Filip Kiss](/wiki/Filip_Kiss "Filip Kiss") from [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") clinched the victory for his team. [Jalolidin Masharipov](/wiki/Jaloliddin_Masharipov "Jaloliddin Masharipov"), who was previously loaned to [Shabab Al Ahli](/wiki/Shabab_Al_Ahli_Club "Shabab Al Ahli Club") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") returned to Al Nassr. The [Uzbekistan national team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team "Uzbekistan national football team") Midfielder made his first appearance in a 0–1 victory against Al Fateh on 1 January 2022\. Despite the team's best effort under the leadership of [Miguel Ángel Russo](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Russo "Miguel Ángel Russo"), the team still doesn't manage to lift a single trophy in the season. For this reason, the coach was replaced by [Rudi Garcia](/wiki/Rudi_Garcia "Rudi Garcia"). Rudi implemented a major overhaul and signed some new players, including prolific [Villareal](/wiki/Villarreal_CF "Villarreal CF") Fullback [Alvaro Gonzalez Soberon](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Álvaro González (footballer, born 1990)"), who at the time was a free agent. With a strong set of players, the coach aimed for a [domestic treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 "Treble (association football)"), which so far only [Ettifaq](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC "Al-Ettifaq FC") had done. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") scored his first hat\-trick for the club in a league match, helping his side to a 4–1 away league victory against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC "Al Raed FC"), and he became the League top scorer before [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo")'s arrival. ### Al Nassr completely new era (2023–present) [thumb\|Ronaldo (left) captaining Al Nassr in 2023On](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_14_%28cropped%29.jpg "(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 14 (cropped).jpg") 30 December 2022, Al Nassr signed [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") after the Portuguese player left [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") by mutual agreement. Ronaldo's contract runs for two\-and\-a\-half years until summer 2025, with a total salary of €200 million per year, thought to be the highest ever paid to a professional footballer. He made an immediate impact on the global following of the club, with their [Social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media") accounts growing to unbelievable numbers.{{cite web\|url\=https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\-nassr\-instagram\-followers\-cristiano\-ronaldo\-premier\-league/\|title\=Al\-Nassr now boast more Instagram followers than every Premier League club outside 'Big Six' after Cristiano Ronaldo's move sparked incredible increase\|website\=TalkSport\|date\=5 January 2023\|accessdate\=6 January 2023\|archive\-date\=5 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105174835/https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\-nassr\-instagram\-followers\-cristiano\-ronaldo\-premier\-league/\|url\-status\=live}} Al Nassr finished in second place in the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Saudi_Pro_League "2022–23 Saudi Pro League"). #### 2023 Arab Club Champions Cup [thumb\|Ronaldo (left) playing for Al Nassr against [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C.") in the [2023–24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League "2023–24 AFC Champions League").\|293x293px](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_04.jpg "(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 04.jpg") The [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "Arab Club Champions Cup") is a seasonal club football competition organised by the [Union of Arab Football Associations](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations "Union of Arab Football Associations") (UAFA) and contested by top clubs from the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world "Arab world"). On 28 July 2023, just one day after Al Nassr finished their Japan World Tour in friendly matches against [Inter Milan](/wiki/Inter_Milan "Inter Milan") and [Paris Saint\-Germain F.C.](/wiki/Paris_Saint-Germain_F.C. "Paris Saint-Germain F.C.") the Al Nassr main squad faced their opponent, [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)") in the group stage of [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "2023 Arab Club Champions Cup") which resulted in a 0–0 draw. Al Nassr's success came later when facing [US Monastir](/wiki/US_Monastir_%28Football%29 "US Monastir (Football)"), in which Ronaldo scored a goal in a 4–1 victory. In the final match in the group stage against [Zamalek](/wiki/Zamalek_SC "Zamalek SC") from Egypt, Ronaldo managed to equalize in the 87th minute securing the club their place in the next stage with a 1–1 draw. On 6 August 2023, Al Nassr faced [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca "Raja Casablanca") in the first one\-legged knockout game, in which they won 3–1 to reach the next round. In the semifinal on 9 August 2023, Ronaldo secured their position in the final for the first time in the championship history after scoring a penalty against [Al Shorta](/wiki/Al-Shorta_SC "Al-Shorta SC") from Iraq winning 1–0\. On 12 August 2023, the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "Arab Club Champions Cup") final was played. [Al Nassr](/wiki/Al_Nassr "Al Nassr") who were 1–0 down to [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") picked up a red card in the 71st min. Just 3 mins after, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") scored, making it 1\-1, sending the final to extra time. With just 10 men, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") scored in the 98th minute to secure a 2–1 comeback against [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") in the [final](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup_final "2023 Arab Club Champions Cup final"). Ronaldo finished the top scorer of the tournament with 6 goals and won the Golden Boot, while [Nawaf Al\-Aqidi](/wiki/Nawaf_Al-Aqidi "Nawaf Al-Aqidi") won the Golden Glove.[thumb\|Al Nassr supporters in a match against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC "Al Raed FC")\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_supporters.jpg "Al-Nassr supporters.jpg") #### End of 2023 Following the move of Cristiano Ronaldo in the summer of 2023, ex\-European team players [Otávio](/wiki/Ot%C3%A1vio_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 "Otávio (footballer, born 1995)"), [Sadio Mané](/wiki/Sadio_Man%C3%A9 "Sadio Mané"), [Aymeric Laporte](/wiki/Aymeric_Laporte "Aymeric Laporte"), [Seko Fofana](/wiki/Seko_Fofana "Seko Fofana"), [Marcelo Brozovic](/wiki/Marcelo_Brozovic "Marcelo Brozovic"), [Aziz Behich](/wiki/Aziz_Behich "Aziz Behich") and [Alex Telles](/wiki/Alex_Telles "Alex Telles") joined the club. At the end of the 2023 year, Al Nassr were 2nd in the league, trailing only [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC"). They finished 1st and unbeaten in their [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") group drawing Saudi Club [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") in the Round of 16\. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") currently sits 1st in the golden boot standings of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") with 8 goals in just the group stage. Al Nassr has qualified for the semi\-finals of the King's Cup after beating Saudi heavyweights [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al-Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al-Shabab FC (Riyadh)") 5–1\. #### 2024 The [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS "IFFHS") recognized [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") as the global top scorer, finishing the 2023 calendar year with 54 goals. As of February 2024, he has 30 goals in the first half of the season, scoring in every competition. Before the second half of the season, Al Nassr were supposed to go on a China Tour facing [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. "Shanghai Shenhua F.C.") on 24 January and [Zhejiang Professional](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. "Zhejiang Professional F.C.") on 28 January but the tour was deleyed and to be held in a future date. Al Nassr faced Saudi rivals, [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") and MLS side [Inter Miami](/wiki/Inter_Miami "Inter Miami") in the [Riyadh Season](/wiki/Riyadh_Season "Riyadh Season") Cup. The Cup ended with Al Nassr facing Al Hilal on 8 February 2024\. Al Nassr started the second half of the season with an [AFC Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League "Asian Champions League") match against Saudi team [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") on 12 January. Al Nassr were knocked out of the [2023\-24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023-24_AFC_Champions_League "2023-24 AFC Champions League") by [Al\-Ain FC](/wiki/Al-Ain_FC "Al-Ain FC") in the quarter finals, losing 1–0 in the first leg and winning 4–3 in the second leg, which led a 4\-4 aggregate to penalties, which they lost 1–3\. They also lost the [King's Cup](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_King_Cup "2023–24 King Cup") on Penalties, and were [Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Super_Cup "2023 Saudi Super Cup") Semi finalists, and finished 2nd in the league with 82 points the highest points in the club history. [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") won the golden boot and broke the record for most goals scored in a single [SPL](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") season. However, fans were angry after losing every domestic title and getting knocked out of the [Champions league](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League "2023–24 AFC Champions League") at the start of [2024–25](/wiki/2024%E2%80%9325_Al-Nassr_FC_season "2024–25 Al-Nassr FC season") season. The president Ibrahim al\-Muhaidib resigned for not being given enough control over the club, and manager [Luis Castro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Castro_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 "Luís Castro (footballer, born 1961)") was replaced in September 2024 by [Stefano Pioli](/wiki/Stefano_Pioli "Stefano Pioli").{{Cite web \|title\=Η Αλ Νασρ του Ρονάλντο απέλυσε τον προπονητή της: Φαβορί ο Πιόλι \|url\=https://www.sport24\.gr/football/i\-al\-nasr\-toy\-ronalnto\-apelyse\-ton\-proponiti\-tis\-favori\-o\-pioli.10380207\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-18 \|website\=sport24\.gr \|language\=el}} On 20 September, Al\-Nassr announced the launching of a TV channel for the club under the name of "[NASSR TV](/wiki/NASSR_TV "NASSR TV")", in partnership with [DAZN](/wiki/DAZN "DAZN"). The channel is first of its kind in the country and the region.
[ "History\n-------", "{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=October 2023}}", "### Beginnings and triumphs (1955–1989\\)", "Al Nassr was established in 1955 by the [Al\\-Ja'ba](/wiki/Zeid_Al-Ja%27ba \"Zeid Al-Ja'ba\") brothers. Training took place in an old playground at Gashlat Al\\-Shortah, west shirts. In addition to the Al\\-Ja'ba brothers, Ali and Al\\-Owais, Prince Abdul Rahman bin Saud Al Saud became the head of Al Nassr, he spent more than 39 years as the president for 3 stints until his death. His love of the team made him accept the challenge of being the president of a second\\-division club and turning it into a champion, and therefore, he is known as Al\\-Nassr's Godfather. They were promoted to the first division in 1963\\. During the 1970s and 1980s, the club won four [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League \"Saudi Premier League\") titles, Five [King's Cups](/wiki/King%27s_Cup_%28Saudi_Arabia%29 \"King's Cup (Saudi Arabia)\"), two [Crown Prince Cups](/wiki/Crown_Prince_Cup \"Crown Prince Cup\"), and one [Federation Cup](/wiki/Saudi_Federation_Cup \"Saudi Federation Cup\"). The team's success was built around the \"Saudi Golden Trio\" of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\"), [Fahd Al\\-Herafy](/wiki/Fahd_Al-Herafy \"Fahd Al-Herafy\") and [Mohaisn Al\\-Jam'aan](/wiki/Mohaisn_Al-Jam%27aan \"Mohaisn Al-Jam'aan\").\n[thumb\\|Picture for the team with trophies won in 1974](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_Club_1974.jpg \"Al-Nassr Club 1974.jpg\")", "", "[right\\|175px\\|thumb\\|[Majed Ahmed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\") is Al Nassr's all\\-time leader in goals scored and appearances.](/wiki/File:Majed_Abdullah_in_1984.jpg \"Majed Abdullah in 1984.jpg\")", "### The End of Majed Abdullah Era (1989–2000\\)", "In the 1990s (year), Al Nassr managed to win two further [Saudi Premier League](/wiki/Saudi_Premier_League \"Saudi Premier League\") titles in the 1993\\-1994 and 1994–1995 seasons, the 1990 King's Cup and the 1997\\-1998 Federation Cup. Towards the end of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\")'s career, he still wasn't able to lift the ultimate prize in [UAFA](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations \"Union of Arab Football Associations\") region; the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"Arab Club Champions Cup\") while the other top clubs in Saudi already succeeded in doing this. Despite that, Al Nassr managed to triumph in the continental tournaments. The 37\\-year\\-old striker, [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\") at the time, managed to win two [GCC Club Cups](/wiki/GCC_Club_Cup \"GCC Club Cup\"), one [Asian Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Asian_Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"Asian Cup Winners' Cup\") and one [Asian Super Cup](/wiki/Asian_Super_Cup \"Asian Super Cup\"). Majed Abdullah announced his retirement on 12 April 1998 following Al\\-Nassr's win in the 1998 Asian Cup Winner's Cup against [Suwon Samsung Bluewings](/wiki/Suwon_Samsung_Bluewings \"Suwon Samsung Bluewings\") from [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\") in front of {{gaps\\|70,000}} fans in Riyadh. Majed retired at 39 years old as the all\\-time top scorer of the Saudi League with 189 goals and is also Al\\-Nassr's all\\-time top scorer with 260 goals, a record that was considered untouchable until the coming of [Abderrazak Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah \"Abderrazak Hamdallah\").", "After becoming champion of the [Asian Super Cup](/wiki/Asian_Super_Cup \"Asian Super Cup\"), Al\\-Nassr was eligible to represent the [AFC](/wiki/Asian_Football_Confederation \"Asian Football Confederation\") region in the first [FIFA Club World Cup](/wiki/2000_FIFA_Club_World_Championship \"2000 FIFA Club World Championship\"). In that championship Al\\-Nassr played against [Corinthians](/wiki/Sport_Club_Corinthians_Paulista \"Sport Club Corinthians Paulista\"), [Real Madrid](/wiki/Real_Madrid_CF \"Real Madrid CF\") and [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca \"Raja Casablanca\") and finished 3rd in the group, the club became the first team to officially represent Asia in an international tournament, which was held in Brazil from 5 January to 14 January, in the year 2000\\. The nickname \"*The Global One (Al\\-Alami)*\" was obtained following their respective participation in the Club World Cup. Al Nassr won the FIFA Fair Play Award and 6th place following the end of the Club World Cup and was the first team in the world to win the award.\n#### Participating squad in the world Cup", "", "|Number", "", "Player", "| |\n|Goalkeepers", "| 1", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Mansoor Al\\-Qahtani |\n| 22", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Mohammed Al\\-Khojali](/wiki/Mohammed_Al-Khojali \"Mohammed Al-Khojali\") |\n| 9", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Mohamed Shareefy](/wiki/Mohamed_Shareefy \"Mohamed Shareefy\") |\n|Defenders", "| 2", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Nasser Al Halawi |\n| 5", "{{flagicon\\|MAR}}", "[Smahi Triki](/wiki/Smahi_Triki \"Smahi Triki\") |\n| 4", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Saleh Aboshahin |\n| 12", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Hamad Al Khathran |\n| 16", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Abdulaziz Al\\-Janoubi](/wiki/Abdulaziz_Al-Janoubi \"Abdulaziz Al-Janoubi\") |\n| 20", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Mohsin Harthi](/wiki/Mohsin_Harthi \"Mohsin Harthi\") |\n| 21", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Hadi Sharify](/wiki/Hadi_Sharify \"Hadi Sharify\") |\n| 23", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Ibrahim Al Shokia |\n|Midfielders", "| 3", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Faisal Al Dosari |\n| 6", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Ibrahim Al\\-Harbi](/wiki/Ibrahim_Mater \"Ibrahim Mater\") |\n| 8", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Fahad Al\\-Bishi](/wiki/Fahad_Al-Bishi \"Fahad Al-Bishi\") |\n| 10", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Fuad Amin](/wiki/Fuad_Amin \"Fuad Amin\") |\n| 14", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Nassib Al Ghamdi |\n| 17", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Mansour Al\\-Mousa](/wiki/Mansour_Al-Mousa \"Mansour Al-Mousa\") |\n| 18", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Abdullah Al Karni |\n|Forwards", "| 7", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Fahad Al\\-Mehallel](/wiki/Fahad_Al-Mehallel \"Fahad Al-Mehallel\") |\n| 11", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "[Mohaisn Al\\-Jam'aan](/wiki/Mohaisn_Al-Jam%27aan \"Mohaisn Al-Jam'aan\") |\n| 13", "{{flagicon\\|MAR}}", "[Ahmed Bahja](/wiki/Ahmed_Bahja \"Ahmed Bahja\") |\n| 15", "{{flagicon\\|Saudi Arabia}}", "Nahar Al Dhaferi |\n| 19", "{{flagicon\\|ALG}}", "[Moussa Saïb](/wiki/Moussa_Sa%C3%AFb \"Moussa Saïb\") |\n|Manager", "|", "{{flagicon\\|SCG}}", "[Milan Živadinović](/wiki/Milan_%C5%BDivadinovi%C4%87 \"Milan Živadinović\") |", "", "### Slow Decline (2001–2007\\)", "After the Golden Trio's retirement, Al Nassr's fresh squad at the time made an impressive performance during their first run in the [FIFA Club World Cup](/wiki/FIFA_Club_World_Cup \"FIFA Club World Cup\"). The Club then went on to sign some internationally recognized players, such as Ivory Coast's [Fadel Keïta](/wiki/Fadel_Ke%C3%AFta \"Fadel Keïta\") and former [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") Attacking Midfielder [Julio César Baldivieso](/wiki/Julio_C%C3%A9sar_Baldivieso \"Julio César Baldivieso\").", "Despite the expensive signings at the time, Al\\-Nassr failed to keep their position in the league and soon received some major setbacks. Things got worse as the next season went by. In 2006–07, the club only managed to avoid relegation on their last day of the season, which prompted honorary members, including [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\"), to intervene. Their plan was to begin an effective long\\-term plan to restructure the management this period was called the Great Setback as the club at the time lost its place in the top during this period rivals Al\\-Hilal got more wins against Al\\-Nassr then ever before and broke the record for most wins in the derby which was held by Al\\-Nassr for many years.", "### Recent resurgence (2008–2015\\)", "After a major overhaul of playing staff, Al Nassr went on to win the Federation Cup 2008 against [city rivals](/wiki/Riyadh_derby \"Riyadh derby\"), [Al\\-Hilal](/wiki/Al-Hilal_SFC \"Al-Hilal SFC\"). In the next season, Al Nassr made a record\\-breaking transfer by signing young [Mohammad Al\\-Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi \"Mohammad Al-Sahlawi\") from [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC \"Al Qadsiah FC\") in 2009 for SR32 million ($8 million) fee, breaking [Yasser Al\\-Qahtani](/wiki/Yasser_Al-Qahtani \"Yasser Al-Qahtani\")'s record transfer to Al Hilal from the same team as Sahlawi.", "Newly reformed Al Nassr put lots of hope on their young striker's shoulders. In his first season with Al\\-Nassr, Al\\-Sahlawi scored 21 goals in 36 matches and received the Young Player of the Year award from STC. However, the club only finished third in 2009–10\\. Despite that, Al Nassr were eligible to secure a place in the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/2011_AFC_Champions_League \"2011 AFC Champions League\") for the following season.", "#### Bader Al\\-Mutawa finest hours", "Their second match in the 2011 AFC Champions League were against Uzbekistan club [Pakhtakor](/wiki/Pakhtakor_FC \"Pakhtakor FC\"), which resulted in a 2–2 draw with the decisive goal coming from [Bader Al\\-Mutawa](/wiki/Bader_Al-Mutawa \"Bader Al-Mutawa\"), a loaned player from a Kuwaiti club who was also part of the [Kuwaiti military](/wiki/Kuwait_Military_Forces \"Kuwait Military Forces\"). In the second match against [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. \"Esteghlal F.C.\"), Al Nassr managed to secure their first 3 points by winning 2–1, with [Hussein Abdulghani](/wiki/Hussein_Abdulghani \"Hussein Abdulghani\") scoring. In the third match, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") with them scoring 1 goal by [Lee Jung\\-Soo](/wiki/Lee_Jung-soo \"Lee Jung-soo\").", "Once again Al Nassr was pitted against Al Sadd from [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\") with Abdulghani clutching 1 goal to force a draw result. In the fifth match however, Al Nassr secured a big victory against Pakhtakor with [Saud Hamood](/wiki/Saud_Hamood \"Saud Hamood\") and Sahlawi each scoring 1 goal, while Al\\-Mutawa scored 2 goals. In the final group stage game, Al Nassr were beaten by Esteghlal 2–1 with Al\\-Mutawa scoring for the club again. Al Nassr narrowly avoided elimination by getting 2nd position in their group.", "In the round of sixteen however, Al Nassr's dream to win a continental competition again since the time of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\") perished when [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. \"Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.\") defeated Al Nassr 4–1, with Bader once again listing his name in goal chart. Shortly after the continental campaign was over, Bader chose to depart to Kuwait to return to his club and resume military duties. In his short time with Al Nassr, he managed to make a good record by scoring 5 goals, one of the top ten highest scorers in AFC during 2011\\.", "#### 2010 to 2015 Season", "In 2010–12, Al Nassr saw itself in the King Cup. In the 2010–12 season, the Al Nassr coach, [Francisco Maturana](/wiki/Francisco_Maturana \"Francisco Maturana\"), aimed for the club to become the Saudi giant it once was. Once again Al Nassr were denied to become champions in the final of the Crown Prince Cup match, where Al\\-Hilal defeated them in a penalty shootout.", "In the 2013–14 season, the club coach was replaced with [Jose Daniel Carreno](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Daniel_Carre%C3%B1o \"José Daniel Carreño\"). Al Nassr then went on a 22\\-game win streak without defeat and almost became the second club in Saudi to win a [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 \"Treble (association football)\") by winning against city rivals Al Akhdhoud in both league and Crown Prince cups. This secured their place for the [2015 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League \"2015 AFC Champions League\") following the astonishing accomplishment.", "### The Age of the 3 Strikers (2015–2022\\)", "{{cleanup rewrite\\|date\\=October 2023}}", "The 2010s marked the growth of football in most Asian countries, both in league quality and their national teams. The AFC Champions League also started to spark interest among football enthusiasts worldwide.", "In the 2014–15 season, Al Nassr continued to defend their title as champions, by winning the league. However the team failed to get their treble after losing in the King's Cup final, as well as only reaching the Crown Prince Cup's semi\\-final. Many fans felt let down by the club after losing in the group stage of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League \"2015 AFC Champions League\") against [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor \"FC Bunyodkor\") from [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\"), [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC \"Al-Duhail SC\") and [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\").", "[Al Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi \"Mohammad Al-Sahlawi\"), who was 27 years old at the time was only able to score 25 goals from his 37 appearances that season. For these reasons, the coach was replaced by the former Colombian goalkeeper [Rene Higuita](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Higuita \"René Higuita\"). Even with him training the team, Al Nassr still failed to break through the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2016_AFC_Champions_League \"2016 AFC Champions League\"). After being defeated by [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC \"Al-Duhail SC\") and [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. \"Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.\"), Al Nassr finally defeated their opponent Bunyodkor back to back.", "The start of the 2016–2017 season marked the transfers of two Croatian players into the club: [Ivan Tomecak](/wiki/Ivan_Tome%C4%8Dak \"Ivan Tomečak\") and [Marin Tomasov](/wiki/Marin_Tomasov \"Marin Tomasov\"), who were loaned to Al Nassr. [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu \"Abdullah Madu\"), a new center\\-back at the time also started playing with the club. In this season however, the club only got 3rd position in the Roshn Saudi League, behind their rival [Al Ahli](/wiki/Al_Ahli_Saudi_FC \"Al Ahli Saudi FC\") and city rival [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\").", "Al Nassr only finished second in the Crown Prince Cup that season, losing to Al Hilal once more. They were also runner\\-up to Al Ahli in the final of Kings Cup. Al Nassr failed to qualify for the [AFC Champions League 2017](/wiki/2017_AFC_Champions_League \"2017 AFC Champions League\") and the [AFC Champions League 2018](/wiki/2018_AFC_Champions_League \"2018 AFC Champions League\"). In the 2015–2016 season, Sahlawi scored 10 goals in his 29 appearances. In the season 2016–2017, Sahlawi scored 11 goals in 27 appearances, and in the next season 12 goals from 24 appearances.", "Al Nassr coach [Gustavo Quinteros](/wiki/Gustavo_Quinteros \"Gustavo Quinteros\") from [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), decided to sign [Wingback](/wiki/Wingback_%28association_football%29 \"Wingback (association football)\") [Sultan Al Ghannam](/wiki/Sultan_Al-Ghannam \"Sultan Al-Ghannam\") on 12 March 2018 for a free transfer from [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC \"Al Faisaly FC\"). Ghannam quickly proved his talent by becoming a key player in the defense and offense. The club also signed arguably the two best Moroccan Players at the time, [Abderrazek Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah \"Abderrazak Hamdallah\") and [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat \"Nordin Amrabat\"). Both of them joined in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") on 16 July and 23 August 2018\\.", "Hamdallah, nicknamed The Executioner proved himself to be a menace when he made his debut against [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC \"Al Qadsiah FC\"), making two assists. In his second match, he scored his first goal for the club against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\"). After this, Sahlawi's position as club favourite striker began to slowly shift into Hamdallah as the former [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League \"Chinese Super League\") star player adapted with his teammates. The Moroccan forward broke the record since the league became professional in 2007 and carried his team to qualify for [2019 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2019_AFC_Champions_League \"2019 AFC Champions League\") by defeating [FK AGMK](/wiki/FC_AGMK \"FC AGMK\").", "In the 2019 AFC Champions League, Al Nassr managed to secure 2nd position in the group stage just below Zob Ahan and advanced past the round of sixteen with Hamdallah scoring. In the quarter\\-final, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") 4–3\\. Hamdallah scored 4 goals in the 2019 AFC Champions League.", "Despite the bad start due to a previous ankle injury, Hamadallah was able to end his first season in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") as the top scorer after impressively scoring 34 goals. By this time, Hamdalllah had completely replaced Sahlawi as the main striker.", "In the 2018–19 Season, he won the league title with his team. He scored a record of 34 goals with his teammate [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat \"Nordin Amrabat\"). He scored in the final match against [Al Batin](/wiki/Al_Batin_FC \"Al Batin FC\"). On 3 January 2019, Hamdallah scored his first hat\\-trick for the club against [Al Jandal](/wiki/Al_Jandal_SC \"Al Jandal SC\") in the Round of 64 in the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup \"2019 King Cup\").", "10 days later, he scored a super hat\\-trick against [Al Ansar](/wiki/Al-Ansar_FC_%28Medina%29 \"Al-Ansar FC (Medina)\"). He scored consecutive super hat\\-tricks against [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") in the Round of 16\\. On 27 April 2019, Hamdallah scored a double in a 4–2 loss in the semi\\-final against [Al Ittihad](/wiki/Al-Ittihad_Club_%28Jeddah%29 \"Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah)\") of the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup \"2019 King Cup\"). By the end of 2019, Hamdallah managed to beat several stars such as [Robert Lewandowski](/wiki/Robert_Lewandowski \"Robert Lewandowski\") and [Lionel Messi](/wiki/Lionel_Messi \"Lionel Messi\") as the world's top scorer, noted by [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS \"IFFHS\"), after reaching 57 goals in the year. Al Sahlawi also left the club to join [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)\").", "On 4 January 2020, Hamdallah scored in a 1–1 draw against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\") to win the [2019 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2019_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2019 Saudi Super Cup\"). On 30 January 2021, Hamdallah scored in a 3–0 victory against rivals [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") to win the [2020 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2020_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2020 Saudi Super Cup\").", "#### 2020 AFC Champions League campaign", "Al Nassr was eligible to join the [2020 AFC Champions](/wiki/2020_AFC_Champions_League \"2020 AFC Champions League\") after winning one of the domestic cups and the league. As the Nassrawi enter the Group Stage, Al Nassr equalize in a 2–2 draw with [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") from Qatar, with Hamdallah scoring one of the 2 goals. In the next match against [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC \"Al Ain FC\") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\"), Hamdallah scored again. In the third match, Hamdallah scored double in a 2–0 win against Iranian club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_S.C. \"Sepahan S.C.\"), and in the next consecutive match against the same team, Hamdallah scored again and gave an assist to his fullback teammate [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu \"Abdullah Madu\").", "In the later match against [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\"), the team drew 1–1 before a loss afterward due to the opponent forward [Kodjo Fo\\-Doh Laba](/wiki/Kodjo_Fo-Doh_Laba \"Kodjo Fo-Doh Laba\") single goal for [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC \"Al Ain FC\"). After reaching the knockout stage in the round of sixteen, Hamdallah scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory against [Al Taawoun FC](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\"), and the club danced to the next stage. Al Nassr meets their old rival, Al Ahli, in the quarter\\-finals of the AFC Champions League. The Riyadh and Jeddah Clubs have a long history of rivalry. Al Nassr won in their \"Classico\" after [Gonzalo Nicolas Martines](/wiki/Gonzalo_Nicolas_Martinez \"Gonzalo Nicolas Martinez\") and [Abdulfatah Asiri](/wiki/Abdulfattah_Asiri \"Abdulfattah Asiri\") each scored a goal, with Hamdallah creating key moments for both to score.", "Al Nassr, however, lost in the semi\\-finals after a dramatic penalty shootout against Iranian club [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\"), ending their dream of lifting the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") cup. Despite that, Hamdallah managed to lift the Asian Champions League golden boot, tying with [Junior Negrao](/wiki/J%C3%BAnior_Negr%C3%A3o \"Júnior Negrão\") with 7 goals, but winning due to having more assists. Despite this, the manager was dissatisfied with Hamdallah's performance.", "#### 2021–2022: Season and key role of Talisca", "Al Nassr officially terminated Hamdallah's contract on 23 November 2020\\. However, Hamdallah was still allowed to play for his remaining time at the club. Al Nassr went on to scout for a suitable club executioner replacement, and at the same time, many European players who previously signed for the [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League \"Chinese Super League\") were quitting due to outrageous policies for foreign players. This was seen by many other Asian Clubs as a golden opportunity to snatch talented players for a cheap price.", "Before joining Al Nassr, [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") was the winner of the [2019 Chinese Super League](/wiki/2019_Chinese_Super_League \"2019 Chinese Super League\") for his club [Guangzhou Evergrande](/wiki/Guangzhou_Evergrande \"Guangzhou Evergrande\"). The 27\\-year\\-old winger officially joined Al Nassr on 17 May 2021 with a reported transfer fee of $9\\.5 million. On 8 June 2021, [Vincent Aboubakar](/wiki/Vincent_Aboubakar \"Vincent Aboubakar\"), a player from [Cameroonian](/wiki/Cameroon_national_football_team \"Cameroon national football team\") striker, signed for Al Nassr for a reported transfer fee of $6 million. Both of these new top players made their debut in the second leg of the Saudi league season.", "Talisca and Vincent Aboubakar made their debut in the match against [Damac](/wiki/Damac_FC \"Damac FC\") on 13 August 2021, in which Aboubakar, Talisca, and Hamdallah each scored 1 in a 4–1 victory. In the next match, Talisca scored the sole goal against [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC \"Al Faisaly FC\"), which further solidified Talisca's role for the club in the next matches. Hamdallah played his final match for the club in a 1–0 loss against [Ettifaq FC](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC \"Al-Ettifaq FC\") in which [Filip Kiss](/wiki/Filip_Kiss \"Filip Kiss\") from [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\") clinched the victory for his team.", "[Jalolidin Masharipov](/wiki/Jaloliddin_Masharipov \"Jaloliddin Masharipov\"), who was previously loaned to [Shabab Al Ahli](/wiki/Shabab_Al_Ahli_Club \"Shabab Al Ahli Club\") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\") returned to Al Nassr. The [Uzbekistan national team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team \"Uzbekistan national football team\") Midfielder made his first appearance in a 0–1 victory against Al Fateh on 1 January 2022\\. Despite the team's best effort under the leadership of [Miguel Ángel Russo](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Russo \"Miguel Ángel Russo\"), the team still doesn't manage to lift a single trophy in the season. For this reason, the coach was replaced by [Rudi Garcia](/wiki/Rudi_Garcia \"Rudi Garcia\").", "Rudi implemented a major overhaul and signed some new players, including prolific [Villareal](/wiki/Villarreal_CF \"Villarreal CF\") Fullback [Alvaro Gonzalez Soberon](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Álvaro González (footballer, born 1990)\"), who at the time was a free agent. With a strong set of players, the coach aimed for a [domestic treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 \"Treble (association football)\"), which so far only [Ettifaq](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC \"Al-Ettifaq FC\") had done. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") scored his first hat\\-trick for the club in a league match, helping his side to a 4–1 away league victory against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC \"Al Raed FC\"), and he became the League top scorer before [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\")'s arrival.", "### Al Nassr completely new era (2023–present)", "[thumb\\|Ronaldo (left) captaining Al Nassr in 2023On](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_14_%28cropped%29.jpg \"(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 14 (cropped).jpg\") 30 December 2022, Al Nassr signed [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") after the Portuguese player left [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") by mutual agreement. Ronaldo's contract runs for two\\-and\\-a\\-half years until summer 2025, with a total salary of €200 million per year, thought to be the highest ever paid to a professional footballer. He made an immediate impact on the global following of the club, with their [Social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\") accounts growing to unbelievable numbers.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\\-nassr\\-instagram\\-followers\\-cristiano\\-ronaldo\\-premier\\-league/\\|title\\=Al\\-Nassr now boast more Instagram followers than every Premier League club outside 'Big Six' after Cristiano Ronaldo's move sparked incredible increase\\|website\\=TalkSport\\|date\\=5 January 2023\\|accessdate\\=6 January 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105174835/https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\\-nassr\\-instagram\\-followers\\-cristiano\\-ronaldo\\-premier\\-league/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Al Nassr finished in second place in the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Saudi_Pro_League \"2022–23 Saudi Pro League\").", "#### 2023 Arab Club Champions Cup", "[thumb\\|Ronaldo (left) playing for Al Nassr against [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\") in the [2023–24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League \"2023–24 AFC Champions League\").\\|293x293px](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_04.jpg \"(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 04.jpg\")\nThe [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"Arab Club Champions Cup\") is a seasonal club football competition organised by the [Union of Arab Football Associations](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations \"Union of Arab Football Associations\") (UAFA) and contested by top clubs from the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\").", "On 28 July 2023, just one day after Al Nassr finished their Japan World Tour in friendly matches against [Inter Milan](/wiki/Inter_Milan \"Inter Milan\") and [Paris Saint\\-Germain F.C.](/wiki/Paris_Saint-Germain_F.C. \"Paris Saint-Germain F.C.\") the Al Nassr main squad faced their opponent, [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)\") in the group stage of [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"2023 Arab Club Champions Cup\") which resulted in a 0–0 draw. Al Nassr's success came later when facing [US Monastir](/wiki/US_Monastir_%28Football%29 \"US Monastir (Football)\"), in which Ronaldo scored a goal in a 4–1 victory. In the final match in the group stage against [Zamalek](/wiki/Zamalek_SC \"Zamalek SC\") from Egypt, Ronaldo managed to equalize in the 87th minute securing the club their place in the next stage with a 1–1 draw.", "On 6 August 2023, Al Nassr faced [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca \"Raja Casablanca\") in the first one\\-legged knockout game, in which they won 3–1 to reach the next round. In the semifinal on 9 August 2023, Ronaldo secured their position in the final for the first time in the championship history after scoring a penalty against [Al Shorta](/wiki/Al-Shorta_SC \"Al-Shorta SC\") from Iraq winning 1–0\\.", "On 12 August 2023, the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"Arab Club Champions Cup\") final was played. [Al Nassr](/wiki/Al_Nassr \"Al Nassr\") who were 1–0 down to [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") picked up a red card in the 71st min. Just 3 mins after, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") scored, making it 1\\-1, sending the final to extra time. With just 10 men, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") scored in the 98th minute to secure a 2–1 comeback against [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") in the [final](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup_final \"2023 Arab Club Champions Cup final\"). Ronaldo finished the top scorer of the tournament with 6 goals and won the Golden Boot, while [Nawaf Al\\-Aqidi](/wiki/Nawaf_Al-Aqidi \"Nawaf Al-Aqidi\") won the Golden Glove.[thumb\\|Al Nassr supporters in a match against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC \"Al Raed FC\")\\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_supporters.jpg \"Al-Nassr supporters.jpg\")", "#### End of 2023", "Following the move of Cristiano Ronaldo in the summer of 2023, ex\\-European team players [Otávio](/wiki/Ot%C3%A1vio_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 \"Otávio (footballer, born 1995)\"), [Sadio Mané](/wiki/Sadio_Man%C3%A9 \"Sadio Mané\"), [Aymeric Laporte](/wiki/Aymeric_Laporte \"Aymeric Laporte\"), [Seko Fofana](/wiki/Seko_Fofana \"Seko Fofana\"), [Marcelo Brozovic](/wiki/Marcelo_Brozovic \"Marcelo Brozovic\"), [Aziz Behich](/wiki/Aziz_Behich \"Aziz Behich\") and [Alex Telles](/wiki/Alex_Telles \"Alex Telles\") joined the club.", "At the end of the 2023 year, Al Nassr were 2nd in the league, trailing only [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\"). They finished 1st and unbeaten in their [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") group drawing Saudi Club [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") in the Round of 16\\. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") currently sits 1st in the golden boot standings of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") with 8 goals in just the group stage. Al Nassr has qualified for the semi\\-finals of the King's Cup after beating Saudi heavyweights [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al-Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al-Shabab FC (Riyadh)\") 5–1\\.", "#### 2024", "The [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS \"IFFHS\") recognized [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") as the global top scorer, finishing the 2023 calendar year with 54 goals. As of February 2024, he has 30 goals in the first half of the season, scoring in every competition.", "Before the second half of the season, Al Nassr were supposed to go on a China Tour facing [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. \"Shanghai Shenhua F.C.\") on 24 January and [Zhejiang Professional](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. \"Zhejiang Professional F.C.\") on 28 January but the tour was deleyed and to be held in a future date. Al Nassr faced Saudi rivals, [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") and MLS side [Inter Miami](/wiki/Inter_Miami \"Inter Miami\") in the [Riyadh Season](/wiki/Riyadh_Season \"Riyadh Season\") Cup. The Cup ended with Al Nassr facing Al Hilal on 8 February 2024\\. Al Nassr started the second half of the season with an [AFC Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League \"Asian Champions League\") match against Saudi team [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") on 12 January.", "Al Nassr were knocked out of the [2023\\-24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023-24_AFC_Champions_League \"2023-24 AFC Champions League\") by [Al\\-Ain FC](/wiki/Al-Ain_FC \"Al-Ain FC\") in the quarter finals, losing 1–0 in the first leg and winning 4–3 in the second leg, which led a 4\\-4 aggregate to penalties, which they lost 1–3\\.", "They also lost the [King's Cup](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_King_Cup \"2023–24 King Cup\") on Penalties, and were [Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2023 Saudi Super Cup\") Semi finalists, and finished 2nd in the league with 82 points the highest points in the club history. [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") won the golden boot and broke the record for most goals scored in a single [SPL](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") season. \nHowever, fans were angry after losing every domestic title and getting knocked out of the [Champions league](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League \"2023–24 AFC Champions League\") at the start of [2024–25](/wiki/2024%E2%80%9325_Al-Nassr_FC_season \"2024–25 Al-Nassr FC season\") season. The president Ibrahim al\\-Muhaidib resigned for not being given enough control over the club, and manager [Luis Castro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Castro_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 \"Luís Castro (footballer, born 1961)\") was replaced in September 2024 by [Stefano Pioli](/wiki/Stefano_Pioli \"Stefano Pioli\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Η Αλ Νασρ του Ρονάλντο απέλυσε τον προπονητή της: Φαβορί ο Πιόλι \\|url\\=https://www.sport24\\.gr/football/i\\-al\\-nasr\\-toy\\-ronalnto\\-apelyse\\-ton\\-proponiti\\-tis\\-favori\\-o\\-pioli.10380207\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-18 \\|website\\=sport24\\.gr \\|language\\=el}} On 20 September, Al\\-Nassr announced the launching of a TV channel for the club under the name of \"[NASSR TV](/wiki/NASSR_TV \"NASSR TV\")\", in partnership with [DAZN](/wiki/DAZN \"DAZN\"). The channel is first of its kind in the country and the region.", "" ]
### Recent resurgence (2008–2015\) After a major overhaul of playing staff, Al Nassr went on to win the Federation Cup 2008 against [city rivals](/wiki/Riyadh_derby "Riyadh derby"), [Al\-Hilal](/wiki/Al-Hilal_SFC "Al-Hilal SFC"). In the next season, Al Nassr made a record\-breaking transfer by signing young [Mohammad Al\-Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi "Mohammad Al-Sahlawi") from [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC "Al Qadsiah FC") in 2009 for SR32 million ($8 million) fee, breaking [Yasser Al\-Qahtani](/wiki/Yasser_Al-Qahtani "Yasser Al-Qahtani")'s record transfer to Al Hilal from the same team as Sahlawi. Newly reformed Al Nassr put lots of hope on their young striker's shoulders. In his first season with Al\-Nassr, Al\-Sahlawi scored 21 goals in 36 matches and received the Young Player of the Year award from STC. However, the club only finished third in 2009–10\. Despite that, Al Nassr were eligible to secure a place in the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/2011_AFC_Champions_League "2011 AFC Champions League") for the following season. #### Bader Al\-Mutawa finest hours Their second match in the 2011 AFC Champions League were against Uzbekistan club [Pakhtakor](/wiki/Pakhtakor_FC "Pakhtakor FC"), which resulted in a 2–2 draw with the decisive goal coming from [Bader Al\-Mutawa](/wiki/Bader_Al-Mutawa "Bader Al-Mutawa"), a loaned player from a Kuwaiti club who was also part of the [Kuwaiti military](/wiki/Kuwait_Military_Forces "Kuwait Military Forces"). In the second match against [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. "Esteghlal F.C."), Al Nassr managed to secure their first 3 points by winning 2–1, with [Hussein Abdulghani](/wiki/Hussein_Abdulghani "Hussein Abdulghani") scoring. In the third match, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") with them scoring 1 goal by [Lee Jung\-Soo](/wiki/Lee_Jung-soo "Lee Jung-soo"). Once again Al Nassr was pitted against Al Sadd from [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar") with Abdulghani clutching 1 goal to force a draw result. In the fifth match however, Al Nassr secured a big victory against Pakhtakor with [Saud Hamood](/wiki/Saud_Hamood "Saud Hamood") and Sahlawi each scoring 1 goal, while Al\-Mutawa scored 2 goals. In the final group stage game, Al Nassr were beaten by Esteghlal 2–1 with Al\-Mutawa scoring for the club again. Al Nassr narrowly avoided elimination by getting 2nd position in their group. In the round of sixteen however, Al Nassr's dream to win a continental competition again since the time of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah "Majed Abdullah") perished when [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. "Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.") defeated Al Nassr 4–1, with Bader once again listing his name in goal chart. Shortly after the continental campaign was over, Bader chose to depart to Kuwait to return to his club and resume military duties. In his short time with Al Nassr, he managed to make a good record by scoring 5 goals, one of the top ten highest scorers in AFC during 2011\. #### 2010 to 2015 Season In 2010–12, Al Nassr saw itself in the King Cup. In the 2010–12 season, the Al Nassr coach, [Francisco Maturana](/wiki/Francisco_Maturana "Francisco Maturana"), aimed for the club to become the Saudi giant it once was. Once again Al Nassr were denied to become champions in the final of the Crown Prince Cup match, where Al\-Hilal defeated them in a penalty shootout. In the 2013–14 season, the club coach was replaced with [Jose Daniel Carreno](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Daniel_Carre%C3%B1o "José Daniel Carreño"). Al Nassr then went on a 22\-game win streak without defeat and almost became the second club in Saudi to win a [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 "Treble (association football)") by winning against city rivals Al Akhdhoud in both league and Crown Prince cups. This secured their place for the [2015 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League "2015 AFC Champions League") following the astonishing accomplishment.
[ "### Recent resurgence (2008–2015\\)", "After a major overhaul of playing staff, Al Nassr went on to win the Federation Cup 2008 against [city rivals](/wiki/Riyadh_derby \"Riyadh derby\"), [Al\\-Hilal](/wiki/Al-Hilal_SFC \"Al-Hilal SFC\"). In the next season, Al Nassr made a record\\-breaking transfer by signing young [Mohammad Al\\-Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi \"Mohammad Al-Sahlawi\") from [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC \"Al Qadsiah FC\") in 2009 for SR32 million ($8 million) fee, breaking [Yasser Al\\-Qahtani](/wiki/Yasser_Al-Qahtani \"Yasser Al-Qahtani\")'s record transfer to Al Hilal from the same team as Sahlawi.", "Newly reformed Al Nassr put lots of hope on their young striker's shoulders. In his first season with Al\\-Nassr, Al\\-Sahlawi scored 21 goals in 36 matches and received the Young Player of the Year award from STC. However, the club only finished third in 2009–10\\. Despite that, Al Nassr were eligible to secure a place in the [Asian Champions League](/wiki/2011_AFC_Champions_League \"2011 AFC Champions League\") for the following season.", "#### Bader Al\\-Mutawa finest hours", "Their second match in the 2011 AFC Champions League were against Uzbekistan club [Pakhtakor](/wiki/Pakhtakor_FC \"Pakhtakor FC\"), which resulted in a 2–2 draw with the decisive goal coming from [Bader Al\\-Mutawa](/wiki/Bader_Al-Mutawa \"Bader Al-Mutawa\"), a loaned player from a Kuwaiti club who was also part of the [Kuwaiti military](/wiki/Kuwait_Military_Forces \"Kuwait Military Forces\"). In the second match against [Esteghlal](/wiki/Esteghlal_F.C. \"Esteghlal F.C.\"), Al Nassr managed to secure their first 3 points by winning 2–1, with [Hussein Abdulghani](/wiki/Hussein_Abdulghani \"Hussein Abdulghani\") scoring. In the third match, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") with them scoring 1 goal by [Lee Jung\\-Soo](/wiki/Lee_Jung-soo \"Lee Jung-soo\").", "Once again Al Nassr was pitted against Al Sadd from [Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\") with Abdulghani clutching 1 goal to force a draw result. In the fifth match however, Al Nassr secured a big victory against Pakhtakor with [Saud Hamood](/wiki/Saud_Hamood \"Saud Hamood\") and Sahlawi each scoring 1 goal, while Al\\-Mutawa scored 2 goals. In the final group stage game, Al Nassr were beaten by Esteghlal 2–1 with Al\\-Mutawa scoring for the club again. Al Nassr narrowly avoided elimination by getting 2nd position in their group.", "In the round of sixteen however, Al Nassr's dream to win a continental competition again since the time of [Majed Abdullah](/wiki/Majed_Abdullah \"Majed Abdullah\") perished when [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. \"Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.\") defeated Al Nassr 4–1, with Bader once again listing his name in goal chart. Shortly after the continental campaign was over, Bader chose to depart to Kuwait to return to his club and resume military duties. In his short time with Al Nassr, he managed to make a good record by scoring 5 goals, one of the top ten highest scorers in AFC during 2011\\.", "#### 2010 to 2015 Season", "In 2010–12, Al Nassr saw itself in the King Cup. In the 2010–12 season, the Al Nassr coach, [Francisco Maturana](/wiki/Francisco_Maturana \"Francisco Maturana\"), aimed for the club to become the Saudi giant it once was. Once again Al Nassr were denied to become champions in the final of the Crown Prince Cup match, where Al\\-Hilal defeated them in a penalty shootout.", "In the 2013–14 season, the club coach was replaced with [Jose Daniel Carreno](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Daniel_Carre%C3%B1o \"José Daniel Carreño\"). Al Nassr then went on a 22\\-game win streak without defeat and almost became the second club in Saudi to win a [treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 \"Treble (association football)\") by winning against city rivals Al Akhdhoud in both league and Crown Prince cups. This secured their place for the [2015 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League \"2015 AFC Champions League\") following the astonishing accomplishment.", "" ]
### The Age of the 3 Strikers (2015–2022\) {{cleanup rewrite\|date\=October 2023}} The 2010s marked the growth of football in most Asian countries, both in league quality and their national teams. The AFC Champions League also started to spark interest among football enthusiasts worldwide. In the 2014–15 season, Al Nassr continued to defend their title as champions, by winning the league. However the team failed to get their treble after losing in the King's Cup final, as well as only reaching the Crown Prince Cup's semi\-final. Many fans felt let down by the club after losing in the group stage of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League "2015 AFC Champions League") against [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor "FC Bunyodkor") from [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan "Uzbekistan"), [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC "Al-Duhail SC") and [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C."). [Al Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi "Mohammad Al-Sahlawi"), who was 27 years old at the time was only able to score 25 goals from his 37 appearances that season. For these reasons, the coach was replaced by the former Colombian goalkeeper [Rene Higuita](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Higuita "René Higuita"). Even with him training the team, Al Nassr still failed to break through the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2016_AFC_Champions_League "2016 AFC Champions League"). After being defeated by [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC "Al-Duhail SC") and [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. "Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C."), Al Nassr finally defeated their opponent Bunyodkor back to back. The start of the 2016–2017 season marked the transfers of two Croatian players into the club: [Ivan Tomecak](/wiki/Ivan_Tome%C4%8Dak "Ivan Tomečak") and [Marin Tomasov](/wiki/Marin_Tomasov "Marin Tomasov"), who were loaned to Al Nassr. [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu "Abdullah Madu"), a new center\-back at the time also started playing with the club. In this season however, the club only got 3rd position in the Roshn Saudi League, behind their rival [Al Ahli](/wiki/Al_Ahli_Saudi_FC "Al Ahli Saudi FC") and city rival [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC"). Al Nassr only finished second in the Crown Prince Cup that season, losing to Al Hilal once more. They were also runner\-up to Al Ahli in the final of Kings Cup. Al Nassr failed to qualify for the [AFC Champions League 2017](/wiki/2017_AFC_Champions_League "2017 AFC Champions League") and the [AFC Champions League 2018](/wiki/2018_AFC_Champions_League "2018 AFC Champions League"). In the 2015–2016 season, Sahlawi scored 10 goals in his 29 appearances. In the season 2016–2017, Sahlawi scored 11 goals in 27 appearances, and in the next season 12 goals from 24 appearances. Al Nassr coach [Gustavo Quinteros](/wiki/Gustavo_Quinteros "Gustavo Quinteros") from [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), decided to sign [Wingback](/wiki/Wingback_%28association_football%29 "Wingback (association football)") [Sultan Al Ghannam](/wiki/Sultan_Al-Ghannam "Sultan Al-Ghannam") on 12 March 2018 for a free transfer from [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC "Al Faisaly FC"). Ghannam quickly proved his talent by becoming a key player in the defense and offense. The club also signed arguably the two best Moroccan Players at the time, [Abderrazek Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah "Abderrazak Hamdallah") and [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat "Nordin Amrabat"). Both of them joined in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") on 16 July and 23 August 2018\. Hamdallah, nicknamed The Executioner proved himself to be a menace when he made his debut against [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC "Al Qadsiah FC"), making two assists. In his second match, he scored his first goal for the club against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC"). After this, Sahlawi's position as club favourite striker began to slowly shift into Hamdallah as the former [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League "Chinese Super League") star player adapted with his teammates. The Moroccan forward broke the record since the league became professional in 2007 and carried his team to qualify for [2019 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2019_AFC_Champions_League "2019 AFC Champions League") by defeating [FK AGMK](/wiki/FC_AGMK "FC AGMK"). In the 2019 AFC Champions League, Al Nassr managed to secure 2nd position in the group stage just below Zob Ahan and advanced past the round of sixteen with Hamdallah scoring. In the quarter\-final, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") 4–3\. Hamdallah scored 4 goals in the 2019 AFC Champions League. Despite the bad start due to a previous ankle injury, Hamadallah was able to end his first season in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") as the top scorer after impressively scoring 34 goals. By this time, Hamdalllah had completely replaced Sahlawi as the main striker. In the 2018–19 Season, he won the league title with his team. He scored a record of 34 goals with his teammate [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat "Nordin Amrabat"). He scored in the final match against [Al Batin](/wiki/Al_Batin_FC "Al Batin FC"). On 3 January 2019, Hamdallah scored his first hat\-trick for the club against [Al Jandal](/wiki/Al_Jandal_SC "Al Jandal SC") in the Round of 64 in the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup "2019 King Cup"). 10 days later, he scored a super hat\-trick against [Al Ansar](/wiki/Al-Ansar_FC_%28Medina%29 "Al-Ansar FC (Medina)"). He scored consecutive super hat\-tricks against [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") in the Round of 16\. On 27 April 2019, Hamdallah scored a double in a 4–2 loss in the semi\-final against [Al Ittihad](/wiki/Al-Ittihad_Club_%28Jeddah%29 "Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah)") of the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup "2019 King Cup"). By the end of 2019, Hamdallah managed to beat several stars such as [Robert Lewandowski](/wiki/Robert_Lewandowski "Robert Lewandowski") and [Lionel Messi](/wiki/Lionel_Messi "Lionel Messi") as the world's top scorer, noted by [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS "IFFHS"), after reaching 57 goals in the year. Al Sahlawi also left the club to join [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)"). On 4 January 2020, Hamdallah scored in a 1–1 draw against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC") to win the [2019 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2019_Saudi_Super_Cup "2019 Saudi Super Cup"). On 30 January 2021, Hamdallah scored in a 3–0 victory against rivals [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") to win the [2020 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2020_Saudi_Super_Cup "2020 Saudi Super Cup"). #### 2020 AFC Champions League campaign Al Nassr was eligible to join the [2020 AFC Champions](/wiki/2020_AFC_Champions_League "2020 AFC Champions League") after winning one of the domestic cups and the league. As the Nassrawi enter the Group Stage, Al Nassr equalize in a 2–2 draw with [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC") from Qatar, with Hamdallah scoring one of the 2 goals. In the next match against [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC "Al Ain FC") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates"), Hamdallah scored again. In the third match, Hamdallah scored double in a 2–0 win against Iranian club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_S.C. "Sepahan S.C."), and in the next consecutive match against the same team, Hamdallah scored again and gave an assist to his fullback teammate [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu "Abdullah Madu"). In the later match against [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC "Al Sadd SC"), the team drew 1–1 before a loss afterward due to the opponent forward [Kodjo Fo\-Doh Laba](/wiki/Kodjo_Fo-Doh_Laba "Kodjo Fo-Doh Laba") single goal for [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC "Al Ain FC"). After reaching the knockout stage in the round of sixteen, Hamdallah scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory against [Al Taawoun FC](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC "Al Taawoun FC"), and the club danced to the next stage. Al Nassr meets their old rival, Al Ahli, in the quarter\-finals of the AFC Champions League. The Riyadh and Jeddah Clubs have a long history of rivalry. Al Nassr won in their "Classico" after [Gonzalo Nicolas Martines](/wiki/Gonzalo_Nicolas_Martinez "Gonzalo Nicolas Martinez") and [Abdulfatah Asiri](/wiki/Abdulfattah_Asiri "Abdulfattah Asiri") each scored a goal, with Hamdallah creating key moments for both to score. Al Nassr, however, lost in the semi\-finals after a dramatic penalty shootout against Iranian club [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C."), ending their dream of lifting the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") cup. Despite that, Hamdallah managed to lift the Asian Champions League golden boot, tying with [Junior Negrao](/wiki/J%C3%BAnior_Negr%C3%A3o "Júnior Negrão") with 7 goals, but winning due to having more assists. Despite this, the manager was dissatisfied with Hamdallah's performance. #### 2021–2022: Season and key role of Talisca Al Nassr officially terminated Hamdallah's contract on 23 November 2020\. However, Hamdallah was still allowed to play for his remaining time at the club. Al Nassr went on to scout for a suitable club executioner replacement, and at the same time, many European players who previously signed for the [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League "Chinese Super League") were quitting due to outrageous policies for foreign players. This was seen by many other Asian Clubs as a golden opportunity to snatch talented players for a cheap price. Before joining Al Nassr, [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") was the winner of the [2019 Chinese Super League](/wiki/2019_Chinese_Super_League "2019 Chinese Super League") for his club [Guangzhou Evergrande](/wiki/Guangzhou_Evergrande "Guangzhou Evergrande"). The 27\-year\-old winger officially joined Al Nassr on 17 May 2021 with a reported transfer fee of $9\.5 million. On 8 June 2021, [Vincent Aboubakar](/wiki/Vincent_Aboubakar "Vincent Aboubakar"), a player from [Cameroonian](/wiki/Cameroon_national_football_team "Cameroon national football team") striker, signed for Al Nassr for a reported transfer fee of $6 million. Both of these new top players made their debut in the second leg of the Saudi league season. Talisca and Vincent Aboubakar made their debut in the match against [Damac](/wiki/Damac_FC "Damac FC") on 13 August 2021, in which Aboubakar, Talisca, and Hamdallah each scored 1 in a 4–1 victory. In the next match, Talisca scored the sole goal against [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC "Al Faisaly FC"), which further solidified Talisca's role for the club in the next matches. Hamdallah played his final match for the club in a 1–0 loss against [Ettifaq FC](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC "Al-Ettifaq FC") in which [Filip Kiss](/wiki/Filip_Kiss "Filip Kiss") from [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") clinched the victory for his team. [Jalolidin Masharipov](/wiki/Jaloliddin_Masharipov "Jaloliddin Masharipov"), who was previously loaned to [Shabab Al Ahli](/wiki/Shabab_Al_Ahli_Club "Shabab Al Ahli Club") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates "United Arab Emirates") returned to Al Nassr. The [Uzbekistan national team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team "Uzbekistan national football team") Midfielder made his first appearance in a 0–1 victory against Al Fateh on 1 January 2022\. Despite the team's best effort under the leadership of [Miguel Ángel Russo](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Russo "Miguel Ángel Russo"), the team still doesn't manage to lift a single trophy in the season. For this reason, the coach was replaced by [Rudi Garcia](/wiki/Rudi_Garcia "Rudi Garcia"). Rudi implemented a major overhaul and signed some new players, including prolific [Villareal](/wiki/Villarreal_CF "Villarreal CF") Fullback [Alvaro Gonzalez Soberon](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 "Álvaro González (footballer, born 1990)"), who at the time was a free agent. With a strong set of players, the coach aimed for a [domestic treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 "Treble (association football)"), which so far only [Ettifaq](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC "Al-Ettifaq FC") had done. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") scored his first hat\-trick for the club in a league match, helping his side to a 4–1 away league victory against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC "Al Raed FC"), and he became the League top scorer before [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo")'s arrival.
[ "### The Age of the 3 Strikers (2015–2022\\)", "{{cleanup rewrite\\|date\\=October 2023}}", "The 2010s marked the growth of football in most Asian countries, both in league quality and their national teams. The AFC Champions League also started to spark interest among football enthusiasts worldwide.", "In the 2014–15 season, Al Nassr continued to defend their title as champions, by winning the league. However the team failed to get their treble after losing in the King's Cup final, as well as only reaching the Crown Prince Cup's semi\\-final. Many fans felt let down by the club after losing in the group stage of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2015_AFC_Champions_League \"2015 AFC Champions League\") against [Bunyodkor](/wiki/FC_Bunyodkor \"FC Bunyodkor\") from [Uzbekistan](/wiki/Uzbekistan \"Uzbekistan\"), [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC \"Al-Duhail SC\") and [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\").", "[Al Sahlawi](/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Sahlawi \"Mohammad Al-Sahlawi\"), who was 27 years old at the time was only able to score 25 goals from his 37 appearances that season. For these reasons, the coach was replaced by the former Colombian goalkeeper [Rene Higuita](/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Higuita \"René Higuita\"). Even with him training the team, Al Nassr still failed to break through the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/2016_AFC_Champions_League \"2016 AFC Champions League\"). After being defeated by [Al Duhail](/wiki/Al-Duhail_SC \"Al-Duhail SC\") and [Zob Ahan](/wiki/Zob_Ahan_Esfahan_F.C. \"Zob Ahan Esfahan F.C.\"), Al Nassr finally defeated their opponent Bunyodkor back to back.", "The start of the 2016–2017 season marked the transfers of two Croatian players into the club: [Ivan Tomecak](/wiki/Ivan_Tome%C4%8Dak \"Ivan Tomečak\") and [Marin Tomasov](/wiki/Marin_Tomasov \"Marin Tomasov\"), who were loaned to Al Nassr. [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu \"Abdullah Madu\"), a new center\\-back at the time also started playing with the club. In this season however, the club only got 3rd position in the Roshn Saudi League, behind their rival [Al Ahli](/wiki/Al_Ahli_Saudi_FC \"Al Ahli Saudi FC\") and city rival [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\").", "Al Nassr only finished second in the Crown Prince Cup that season, losing to Al Hilal once more. They were also runner\\-up to Al Ahli in the final of Kings Cup. Al Nassr failed to qualify for the [AFC Champions League 2017](/wiki/2017_AFC_Champions_League \"2017 AFC Champions League\") and the [AFC Champions League 2018](/wiki/2018_AFC_Champions_League \"2018 AFC Champions League\"). In the 2015–2016 season, Sahlawi scored 10 goals in his 29 appearances. In the season 2016–2017, Sahlawi scored 11 goals in 27 appearances, and in the next season 12 goals from 24 appearances.", "Al Nassr coach [Gustavo Quinteros](/wiki/Gustavo_Quinteros \"Gustavo Quinteros\") from [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), decided to sign [Wingback](/wiki/Wingback_%28association_football%29 \"Wingback (association football)\") [Sultan Al Ghannam](/wiki/Sultan_Al-Ghannam \"Sultan Al-Ghannam\") on 12 March 2018 for a free transfer from [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC \"Al Faisaly FC\"). Ghannam quickly proved his talent by becoming a key player in the defense and offense. The club also signed arguably the two best Moroccan Players at the time, [Abderrazek Hamdallah](/wiki/Abderrazak_Hamdallah \"Abderrazak Hamdallah\") and [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat \"Nordin Amrabat\"). Both of them joined in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") on 16 July and 23 August 2018\\.", "Hamdallah, nicknamed The Executioner proved himself to be a menace when he made his debut against [Al Qadsiah](/wiki/Al_Qadsiah_FC \"Al Qadsiah FC\"), making two assists. In his second match, he scored his first goal for the club against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\"). After this, Sahlawi's position as club favourite striker began to slowly shift into Hamdallah as the former [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League \"Chinese Super League\") star player adapted with his teammates. The Moroccan forward broke the record since the league became professional in 2007 and carried his team to qualify for [2019 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2019_AFC_Champions_League \"2019 AFC Champions League\") by defeating [FK AGMK](/wiki/FC_AGMK \"FC AGMK\").", "In the 2019 AFC Champions League, Al Nassr managed to secure 2nd position in the group stage just below Zob Ahan and advanced past the round of sixteen with Hamdallah scoring. In the quarter\\-final, Al Nassr was defeated by [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") 4–3\\. Hamdallah scored 4 goals in the 2019 AFC Champions League.", "Despite the bad start due to a previous ankle injury, Hamadallah was able to end his first season in the [Saudi Pro League](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") as the top scorer after impressively scoring 34 goals. By this time, Hamdalllah had completely replaced Sahlawi as the main striker.", "In the 2018–19 Season, he won the league title with his team. He scored a record of 34 goals with his teammate [Nordin Amrabat](/wiki/Nordin_Amrabat \"Nordin Amrabat\"). He scored in the final match against [Al Batin](/wiki/Al_Batin_FC \"Al Batin FC\"). On 3 January 2019, Hamdallah scored his first hat\\-trick for the club against [Al Jandal](/wiki/Al_Jandal_SC \"Al Jandal SC\") in the Round of 64 in the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup \"2019 King Cup\").", "10 days later, he scored a super hat\\-trick against [Al Ansar](/wiki/Al-Ansar_FC_%28Medina%29 \"Al-Ansar FC (Medina)\"). He scored consecutive super hat\\-tricks against [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") in the Round of 16\\. On 27 April 2019, Hamdallah scored a double in a 4–2 loss in the semi\\-final against [Al Ittihad](/wiki/Al-Ittihad_Club_%28Jeddah%29 \"Al-Ittihad Club (Jeddah)\") of the [2019 King Cup](/wiki/2019_King_Cup \"2019 King Cup\"). By the end of 2019, Hamdallah managed to beat several stars such as [Robert Lewandowski](/wiki/Robert_Lewandowski \"Robert Lewandowski\") and [Lionel Messi](/wiki/Lionel_Messi \"Lionel Messi\") as the world's top scorer, noted by [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS \"IFFHS\"), after reaching 57 goals in the year. Al Sahlawi also left the club to join [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)\").", "On 4 January 2020, Hamdallah scored in a 1–1 draw against [Al Taawoun](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\") to win the [2019 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2019_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2019 Saudi Super Cup\"). On 30 January 2021, Hamdallah scored in a 3–0 victory against rivals [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") to win the [2020 Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2020_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2020 Saudi Super Cup\").", "#### 2020 AFC Champions League campaign", "Al Nassr was eligible to join the [2020 AFC Champions](/wiki/2020_AFC_Champions_League \"2020 AFC Champions League\") after winning one of the domestic cups and the league. As the Nassrawi enter the Group Stage, Al Nassr equalize in a 2–2 draw with [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\") from Qatar, with Hamdallah scoring one of the 2 goals. In the next match against [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC \"Al Ain FC\") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\"), Hamdallah scored again. In the third match, Hamdallah scored double in a 2–0 win against Iranian club [Sepahan](/wiki/Sepahan_S.C. \"Sepahan S.C.\"), and in the next consecutive match against the same team, Hamdallah scored again and gave an assist to his fullback teammate [Abdullah Madu](/wiki/Abdullah_Madu \"Abdullah Madu\").", "In the later match against [Al Sadd](/wiki/Al_Sadd_SC \"Al Sadd SC\"), the team drew 1–1 before a loss afterward due to the opponent forward [Kodjo Fo\\-Doh Laba](/wiki/Kodjo_Fo-Doh_Laba \"Kodjo Fo-Doh Laba\") single goal for [Al Ain](/wiki/Al_Ain_FC \"Al Ain FC\"). After reaching the knockout stage in the round of sixteen, Hamdallah scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory against [Al Taawoun FC](/wiki/Al_Taawoun_FC \"Al Taawoun FC\"), and the club danced to the next stage. Al Nassr meets their old rival, Al Ahli, in the quarter\\-finals of the AFC Champions League. The Riyadh and Jeddah Clubs have a long history of rivalry. Al Nassr won in their \"Classico\" after [Gonzalo Nicolas Martines](/wiki/Gonzalo_Nicolas_Martinez \"Gonzalo Nicolas Martinez\") and [Abdulfatah Asiri](/wiki/Abdulfattah_Asiri \"Abdulfattah Asiri\") each scored a goal, with Hamdallah creating key moments for both to score.", "Al Nassr, however, lost in the semi\\-finals after a dramatic penalty shootout against Iranian club [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\"), ending their dream of lifting the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") cup. Despite that, Hamdallah managed to lift the Asian Champions League golden boot, tying with [Junior Negrao](/wiki/J%C3%BAnior_Negr%C3%A3o \"Júnior Negrão\") with 7 goals, but winning due to having more assists. Despite this, the manager was dissatisfied with Hamdallah's performance.", "#### 2021–2022: Season and key role of Talisca", "Al Nassr officially terminated Hamdallah's contract on 23 November 2020\\. However, Hamdallah was still allowed to play for his remaining time at the club. Al Nassr went on to scout for a suitable club executioner replacement, and at the same time, many European players who previously signed for the [Chinese Super League](/wiki/Chinese_Super_League \"Chinese Super League\") were quitting due to outrageous policies for foreign players. This was seen by many other Asian Clubs as a golden opportunity to snatch talented players for a cheap price.", "Before joining Al Nassr, [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") was the winner of the [2019 Chinese Super League](/wiki/2019_Chinese_Super_League \"2019 Chinese Super League\") for his club [Guangzhou Evergrande](/wiki/Guangzhou_Evergrande \"Guangzhou Evergrande\"). The 27\\-year\\-old winger officially joined Al Nassr on 17 May 2021 with a reported transfer fee of $9\\.5 million. On 8 June 2021, [Vincent Aboubakar](/wiki/Vincent_Aboubakar \"Vincent Aboubakar\"), a player from [Cameroonian](/wiki/Cameroon_national_football_team \"Cameroon national football team\") striker, signed for Al Nassr for a reported transfer fee of $6 million. Both of these new top players made their debut in the second leg of the Saudi league season.", "Talisca and Vincent Aboubakar made their debut in the match against [Damac](/wiki/Damac_FC \"Damac FC\") on 13 August 2021, in which Aboubakar, Talisca, and Hamdallah each scored 1 in a 4–1 victory. In the next match, Talisca scored the sole goal against [Al Faisaly](/wiki/Al_Faisaly_FC \"Al Faisaly FC\"), which further solidified Talisca's role for the club in the next matches. Hamdallah played his final match for the club in a 1–0 loss against [Ettifaq FC](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC \"Al-Ettifaq FC\") in which [Filip Kiss](/wiki/Filip_Kiss \"Filip Kiss\") from [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\") clinched the victory for his team.", "[Jalolidin Masharipov](/wiki/Jaloliddin_Masharipov \"Jaloliddin Masharipov\"), who was previously loaned to [Shabab Al Ahli](/wiki/Shabab_Al_Ahli_Club \"Shabab Al Ahli Club\") from [UAE](/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates \"United Arab Emirates\") returned to Al Nassr. The [Uzbekistan national team](/wiki/Uzbekistan_national_football_team \"Uzbekistan national football team\") Midfielder made his first appearance in a 0–1 victory against Al Fateh on 1 January 2022\\. Despite the team's best effort under the leadership of [Miguel Ángel Russo](/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Russo \"Miguel Ángel Russo\"), the team still doesn't manage to lift a single trophy in the season. For this reason, the coach was replaced by [Rudi Garcia](/wiki/Rudi_Garcia \"Rudi Garcia\").", "Rudi implemented a major overhaul and signed some new players, including prolific [Villareal](/wiki/Villarreal_CF \"Villarreal CF\") Fullback [Alvaro Gonzalez Soberon](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%28footballer%2C_born_1990%29 \"Álvaro González (footballer, born 1990)\"), who at the time was a free agent. With a strong set of players, the coach aimed for a [domestic treble](/wiki/Treble_%28association_football%29 \"Treble (association football)\"), which so far only [Ettifaq](/wiki/Al-Ettifaq_FC \"Al-Ettifaq FC\") had done. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") scored his first hat\\-trick for the club in a league match, helping his side to a 4–1 away league victory against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC \"Al Raed FC\"), and he became the League top scorer before [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\")'s arrival.", "" ]
### Al Nassr completely new era (2023–present) [thumb\|Ronaldo (left) captaining Al Nassr in 2023On](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_14_%28cropped%29.jpg "(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 14 (cropped).jpg") 30 December 2022, Al Nassr signed [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") after the Portuguese player left [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") by mutual agreement. Ronaldo's contract runs for two\-and\-a\-half years until summer 2025, with a total salary of €200 million per year, thought to be the highest ever paid to a professional footballer. He made an immediate impact on the global following of the club, with their [Social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media") accounts growing to unbelievable numbers.{{cite web\|url\=https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\-nassr\-instagram\-followers\-cristiano\-ronaldo\-premier\-league/\|title\=Al\-Nassr now boast more Instagram followers than every Premier League club outside 'Big Six' after Cristiano Ronaldo's move sparked incredible increase\|website\=TalkSport\|date\=5 January 2023\|accessdate\=6 January 2023\|archive\-date\=5 January 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105174835/https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\-nassr\-instagram\-followers\-cristiano\-ronaldo\-premier\-league/\|url\-status\=live}} Al Nassr finished in second place in the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Saudi_Pro_League "2022–23 Saudi Pro League"). #### 2023 Arab Club Champions Cup [thumb\|Ronaldo (left) playing for Al Nassr against [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. "Persepolis F.C.") in the [2023–24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League "2023–24 AFC Champions League").\|293x293px](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_04.jpg "(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 04.jpg") The [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "Arab Club Champions Cup") is a seasonal club football competition organised by the [Union of Arab Football Associations](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations "Union of Arab Football Associations") (UAFA) and contested by top clubs from the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world "Arab world"). On 28 July 2023, just one day after Al Nassr finished their Japan World Tour in friendly matches against [Inter Milan](/wiki/Inter_Milan "Inter Milan") and [Paris Saint\-Germain F.C.](/wiki/Paris_Saint-Germain_F.C. "Paris Saint-Germain F.C.") the Al Nassr main squad faced their opponent, [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)") in the group stage of [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "2023 Arab Club Champions Cup") which resulted in a 0–0 draw. Al Nassr's success came later when facing [US Monastir](/wiki/US_Monastir_%28Football%29 "US Monastir (Football)"), in which Ronaldo scored a goal in a 4–1 victory. In the final match in the group stage against [Zamalek](/wiki/Zamalek_SC "Zamalek SC") from Egypt, Ronaldo managed to equalize in the 87th minute securing the club their place in the next stage with a 1–1 draw. On 6 August 2023, Al Nassr faced [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca "Raja Casablanca") in the first one\-legged knockout game, in which they won 3–1 to reach the next round. In the semifinal on 9 August 2023, Ronaldo secured their position in the final for the first time in the championship history after scoring a penalty against [Al Shorta](/wiki/Al-Shorta_SC "Al-Shorta SC") from Iraq winning 1–0\. On 12 August 2023, the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup "Arab Club Champions Cup") final was played. [Al Nassr](/wiki/Al_Nassr "Al Nassr") who were 1–0 down to [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") picked up a red card in the 71st min. Just 3 mins after, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") scored, making it 1\-1, sending the final to extra time. With just 10 men, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") scored in the 98th minute to secure a 2–1 comeback against [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") in the [final](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup_final "2023 Arab Club Champions Cup final"). Ronaldo finished the top scorer of the tournament with 6 goals and won the Golden Boot, while [Nawaf Al\-Aqidi](/wiki/Nawaf_Al-Aqidi "Nawaf Al-Aqidi") won the Golden Glove.[thumb\|Al Nassr supporters in a match against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC "Al Raed FC")\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_supporters.jpg "Al-Nassr supporters.jpg") #### End of 2023 Following the move of Cristiano Ronaldo in the summer of 2023, ex\-European team players [Otávio](/wiki/Ot%C3%A1vio_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 "Otávio (footballer, born 1995)"), [Sadio Mané](/wiki/Sadio_Man%C3%A9 "Sadio Mané"), [Aymeric Laporte](/wiki/Aymeric_Laporte "Aymeric Laporte"), [Seko Fofana](/wiki/Seko_Fofana "Seko Fofana"), [Marcelo Brozovic](/wiki/Marcelo_Brozovic "Marcelo Brozovic"), [Aziz Behich](/wiki/Aziz_Behich "Aziz Behich") and [Alex Telles](/wiki/Alex_Telles "Alex Telles") joined the club. At the end of the 2023 year, Al Nassr were 2nd in the league, trailing only [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC"). They finished 1st and unbeaten in their [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") group drawing Saudi Club [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") in the Round of 16\. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca "Talisca") currently sits 1st in the golden boot standings of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League "AFC Champions League") with 8 goals in just the group stage. Al Nassr has qualified for the semi\-finals of the King's Cup after beating Saudi heavyweights [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al-Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 "Al-Shabab FC (Riyadh)") 5–1\. #### 2024 The [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS "IFFHS") recognized [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") as the global top scorer, finishing the 2023 calendar year with 54 goals. As of February 2024, he has 30 goals in the first half of the season, scoring in every competition. Before the second half of the season, Al Nassr were supposed to go on a China Tour facing [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. "Shanghai Shenhua F.C.") on 24 January and [Zhejiang Professional](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. "Zhejiang Professional F.C.") on 28 January but the tour was deleyed and to be held in a future date. Al Nassr faced Saudi rivals, [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC "Al Hilal SFC") and MLS side [Inter Miami](/wiki/Inter_Miami "Inter Miami") in the [Riyadh Season](/wiki/Riyadh_Season "Riyadh Season") Cup. The Cup ended with Al Nassr facing Al Hilal on 8 February 2024\. Al Nassr started the second half of the season with an [AFC Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League "Asian Champions League") match against Saudi team [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC "Al-Fayha FC") on 12 January. Al Nassr were knocked out of the [2023\-24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023-24_AFC_Champions_League "2023-24 AFC Champions League") by [Al\-Ain FC](/wiki/Al-Ain_FC "Al-Ain FC") in the quarter finals, losing 1–0 in the first leg and winning 4–3 in the second leg, which led a 4\-4 aggregate to penalties, which they lost 1–3\. They also lost the [King's Cup](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_King_Cup "2023–24 King Cup") on Penalties, and were [Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Super_Cup "2023 Saudi Super Cup") Semi finalists, and finished 2nd in the league with 82 points the highest points in the club history. [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo "Cristiano Ronaldo") won the golden boot and broke the record for most goals scored in a single [SPL](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League "Saudi Pro League") season. However, fans were angry after losing every domestic title and getting knocked out of the [Champions league](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League "2023–24 AFC Champions League") at the start of [2024–25](/wiki/2024%E2%80%9325_Al-Nassr_FC_season "2024–25 Al-Nassr FC season") season. The president Ibrahim al\-Muhaidib resigned for not being given enough control over the club, and manager [Luis Castro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Castro_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 "Luís Castro (footballer, born 1961)") was replaced in September 2024 by [Stefano Pioli](/wiki/Stefano_Pioli "Stefano Pioli").{{Cite web \|title\=Η Αλ Νασρ του Ρονάλντο απέλυσε τον προπονητή της: Φαβορί ο Πιόλι \|url\=https://www.sport24\.gr/football/i\-al\-nasr\-toy\-ronalnto\-apelyse\-ton\-proponiti\-tis\-favori\-o\-pioli.10380207\.html \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-18 \|website\=sport24\.gr \|language\=el}} On 20 September, Al\-Nassr announced the launching of a TV channel for the club under the name of "[NASSR TV](/wiki/NASSR_TV "NASSR TV")", in partnership with [DAZN](/wiki/DAZN "DAZN"). The channel is first of its kind in the country and the region.
[ "### Al Nassr completely new era (2023–present)", "[thumb\\|Ronaldo (left) captaining Al Nassr in 2023On](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_14_%28cropped%29.jpg \"(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 14 (cropped).jpg\") 30 December 2022, Al Nassr signed [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") after the Portuguese player left [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") by mutual agreement. Ronaldo's contract runs for two\\-and\\-a\\-half years until summer 2025, with a total salary of €200 million per year, thought to be the highest ever paid to a professional footballer. He made an immediate impact on the global following of the club, with their [Social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\") accounts growing to unbelievable numbers.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\\-nassr\\-instagram\\-followers\\-cristiano\\-ronaldo\\-premier\\-league/\\|title\\=Al\\-Nassr now boast more Instagram followers than every Premier League club outside 'Big Six' after Cristiano Ronaldo's move sparked incredible increase\\|website\\=TalkSport\\|date\\=5 January 2023\\|accessdate\\=6 January 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105174835/https://talksport.com/football/1293963/al\\-nassr\\-instagram\\-followers\\-cristiano\\-ronaldo\\-premier\\-league/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Al Nassr finished in second place in the [2022–23 season](/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Saudi_Pro_League \"2022–23 Saudi Pro League\").", "#### 2023 Arab Club Champions Cup", "[thumb\\|Ronaldo (left) playing for Al Nassr against [Persepolis](/wiki/Persepolis_F.C. \"Persepolis F.C.\") in the [2023–24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League \"2023–24 AFC Champions League\").\\|293x293px](/wiki/File:%28Tehran%29_Persepolis_F.C._v_Al_Nassr_FC%2C_19_September_2023_04.jpg \"(Tehran) Persepolis F.C. v Al Nassr FC, 19 September 2023 04.jpg\")\nThe [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"Arab Club Champions Cup\") is a seasonal club football competition organised by the [Union of Arab Football Associations](/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Football_Associations \"Union of Arab Football Associations\") (UAFA) and contested by top clubs from the [Arab world](/wiki/Arab_world \"Arab world\").", "On 28 July 2023, just one day after Al Nassr finished their Japan World Tour in friendly matches against [Inter Milan](/wiki/Inter_Milan \"Inter Milan\") and [Paris Saint\\-Germain F.C.](/wiki/Paris_Saint-Germain_F.C. \"Paris Saint-Germain F.C.\") the Al Nassr main squad faced their opponent, [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al_Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al Shabab FC (Riyadh)\") in the group stage of [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"2023 Arab Club Champions Cup\") which resulted in a 0–0 draw. Al Nassr's success came later when facing [US Monastir](/wiki/US_Monastir_%28Football%29 \"US Monastir (Football)\"), in which Ronaldo scored a goal in a 4–1 victory. In the final match in the group stage against [Zamalek](/wiki/Zamalek_SC \"Zamalek SC\") from Egypt, Ronaldo managed to equalize in the 87th minute securing the club their place in the next stage with a 1–1 draw.", "On 6 August 2023, Al Nassr faced [Raja Casablanca](/wiki/Raja_Casablanca \"Raja Casablanca\") in the first one\\-legged knockout game, in which they won 3–1 to reach the next round. In the semifinal on 9 August 2023, Ronaldo secured their position in the final for the first time in the championship history after scoring a penalty against [Al Shorta](/wiki/Al-Shorta_SC \"Al-Shorta SC\") from Iraq winning 1–0\\.", "On 12 August 2023, the [Arab Club Champions Cup](/wiki/Arab_Club_Champions_Cup \"Arab Club Champions Cup\") final was played. [Al Nassr](/wiki/Al_Nassr \"Al Nassr\") who were 1–0 down to [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") picked up a red card in the 71st min. Just 3 mins after, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") scored, making it 1\\-1, sending the final to extra time. With just 10 men, [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") scored in the 98th minute to secure a 2–1 comeback against [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") in the [final](/wiki/2023_Arab_Club_Champions_Cup_final \"2023 Arab Club Champions Cup final\"). Ronaldo finished the top scorer of the tournament with 6 goals and won the Golden Boot, while [Nawaf Al\\-Aqidi](/wiki/Nawaf_Al-Aqidi \"Nawaf Al-Aqidi\") won the Golden Glove.[thumb\\|Al Nassr supporters in a match against [Al Raed](/wiki/Al_Raed_FC \"Al Raed FC\")\\|278x278px](/wiki/File:Al-Nassr_supporters.jpg \"Al-Nassr supporters.jpg\")", "#### End of 2023", "Following the move of Cristiano Ronaldo in the summer of 2023, ex\\-European team players [Otávio](/wiki/Ot%C3%A1vio_%28footballer%2C_born_1995%29 \"Otávio (footballer, born 1995)\"), [Sadio Mané](/wiki/Sadio_Man%C3%A9 \"Sadio Mané\"), [Aymeric Laporte](/wiki/Aymeric_Laporte \"Aymeric Laporte\"), [Seko Fofana](/wiki/Seko_Fofana \"Seko Fofana\"), [Marcelo Brozovic](/wiki/Marcelo_Brozovic \"Marcelo Brozovic\"), [Aziz Behich](/wiki/Aziz_Behich \"Aziz Behich\") and [Alex Telles](/wiki/Alex_Telles \"Alex Telles\") joined the club.", "At the end of the 2023 year, Al Nassr were 2nd in the league, trailing only [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\"). They finished 1st and unbeaten in their [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") group drawing Saudi Club [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") in the Round of 16\\. [Talisca](/wiki/Talisca \"Talisca\") currently sits 1st in the golden boot standings of the [AFC Champions League](/wiki/AFC_Champions_League \"AFC Champions League\") with 8 goals in just the group stage. Al Nassr has qualified for the semi\\-finals of the King's Cup after beating Saudi heavyweights [Al Shabab](/wiki/Al-Shabab_FC_%28Riyadh%29 \"Al-Shabab FC (Riyadh)\") 5–1\\.", "#### 2024", "The [IFFHS](/wiki/IFFHS \"IFFHS\") recognized [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") as the global top scorer, finishing the 2023 calendar year with 54 goals. As of February 2024, he has 30 goals in the first half of the season, scoring in every competition.", "Before the second half of the season, Al Nassr were supposed to go on a China Tour facing [Shanghai Shenhua](/wiki/Shanghai_Shenhua_F.C. \"Shanghai Shenhua F.C.\") on 24 January and [Zhejiang Professional](/wiki/Zhejiang_Professional_F.C. \"Zhejiang Professional F.C.\") on 28 January but the tour was deleyed and to be held in a future date. Al Nassr faced Saudi rivals, [Al Hilal](/wiki/Al_Hilal_SFC \"Al Hilal SFC\") and MLS side [Inter Miami](/wiki/Inter_Miami \"Inter Miami\") in the [Riyadh Season](/wiki/Riyadh_Season \"Riyadh Season\") Cup. The Cup ended with Al Nassr facing Al Hilal on 8 February 2024\\. Al Nassr started the second half of the season with an [AFC Champions League](/wiki/Asian_Champions_League \"Asian Champions League\") match against Saudi team [Al Fayha](/wiki/Al-Fayha_FC \"Al-Fayha FC\") on 12 January.", "Al Nassr were knocked out of the [2023\\-24 AFC Champions League](/wiki/2023-24_AFC_Champions_League \"2023-24 AFC Champions League\") by [Al\\-Ain FC](/wiki/Al-Ain_FC \"Al-Ain FC\") in the quarter finals, losing 1–0 in the first leg and winning 4–3 in the second leg, which led a 4\\-4 aggregate to penalties, which they lost 1–3\\.", "They also lost the [King's Cup](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_King_Cup \"2023–24 King Cup\") on Penalties, and were [Saudi Super Cup](/wiki/2023_Saudi_Super_Cup \"2023 Saudi Super Cup\") Semi finalists, and finished 2nd in the league with 82 points the highest points in the club history. [Cristiano Ronaldo](/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo \"Cristiano Ronaldo\") won the golden boot and broke the record for most goals scored in a single [SPL](/wiki/Saudi_Pro_League \"Saudi Pro League\") season. \nHowever, fans were angry after losing every domestic title and getting knocked out of the [Champions league](/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_AFC_Champions_League \"2023–24 AFC Champions League\") at the start of [2024–25](/wiki/2024%E2%80%9325_Al-Nassr_FC_season \"2024–25 Al-Nassr FC season\") season. The president Ibrahim al\\-Muhaidib resigned for not being given enough control over the club, and manager [Luis Castro](/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs_Castro_%28footballer%2C_born_1961%29 \"Luís Castro (footballer, born 1961)\") was replaced in September 2024 by [Stefano Pioli](/wiki/Stefano_Pioli \"Stefano Pioli\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Η Αλ Νασρ του Ρονάλντο απέλυσε τον προπονητή της: Φαβορί ο Πιόλι \\|url\\=https://www.sport24\\.gr/football/i\\-al\\-nasr\\-toy\\-ronalnto\\-apelyse\\-ton\\-proponiti\\-tis\\-favori\\-o\\-pioli.10380207\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-18 \\|website\\=sport24\\.gr \\|language\\=el}} On 20 September, Al\\-Nassr announced the launching of a TV channel for the club under the name of \"[NASSR TV](/wiki/NASSR_TV \"NASSR TV\")\", in partnership with [DAZN](/wiki/DAZN \"DAZN\"). The channel is first of its kind in the country and the region.", "" ]
Life ---- Cronin was born in [Ealing](/wiki/Ealing "Ealing"), [Middlesex](/wiki/Middlesex "Middlesex"), England, second son of Charles Frederick Cronin (1859–1887\), an auctioneer, and Laura *née* Marshall (1850–1934\). His father was advised to go to Australia for the sake of his health. Charles and his wife set off in 1886, leaving Bernard and his brother in England in the care of their grandmother and aunts. In [Mitcham, South Australia](/wiki/Mitcham%2C_South_Australia "Mitcham, South Australia"), Bernard's father succumbed to his illness and died. Laura returned to London and in 1889 married Frederick Cecil Browne, who had taken her under his wing during her husband's illness and accompanied her back to England, and the two of them returned to Australia in the same year, accompanied by Bernard's brother Laurence Kimberley. Bernard himself followed them to Australia at the age of six in 1890 in the care of the captain of RMS *Austral*.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/ShipsAA.html \|title\=Ship Descriptions \- Ar to av \|accessdate\=2008\-08\-25 \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210224815/http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/ShipsAA.html \|archivedate\=10 February 2009 \|df\=dmy\-all }} During the voyage the young Bernard nearly accidentally killed an able seaman who was painting the ship's side whilst holding on to the deck with one hand. Young Bernard jumped on the man's hand "just to see what happened". The man let go, but was rescued.{{Cite web\|title\=Reprint: Australian Authors III: Bernard Cronin by Aidan de Brune \- Matilda\|url\=http://www.middlemiss.org/matilda/2010/10/reprint\-australian\-authors\-iii\-bernard\-cronin\-by\-aldan\-de\-brune.html\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-16\|website\=www.middlemiss.org}} He emerged from his education in 1901 with a diploma in agriculture, and is the first recipient of the gold medal, from the [Dookie](/wiki/Dookie%2C_Victoria "Dookie, Victoria") Agricultural College, now part of the [Goulburn Ovens Institute of Technical and Further Education](/wiki/Goulburn_Ovens_Institute_of_TAFE "Goulburn Ovens Institute of TAFE") in Victoria and still Australia's premier agricultural college. In 1908 he joined his brother Laurie (also a graduate of Dookie Agricultural College) in a cattle\-farming venture in Tasmania which, due to the forestation and other natural conditions which had defeated many settlers before them, was not successful. Cronin married a farmer's daughter, Victoria Maud Ferres, on 11 March 1908\. In 1913 he went back to Melbourne, where he worked as a salesman before getting a job as a clerk in the Department of the Navy and began to devote his spare time to writing. He published his first novel *The Coastlanders*, set in Tasmania, in 1918\. He went on to write numerous novels, short stories, poems and a radio play, *Stampede* (1937\), using his own name and a number of pseudonyms, such as Dennis Adair, Hugh Bohun, Wallace Dixon, Tas East and Eric North. He also jointly used the pseudonym Stephen Grey when writing with Capel Boake (the pseudonym of Doris Boake Kerr). In the 1920s Cronin worked for the [*Melbourne Herald*](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Melbourne%29 "The Herald (Melbourne)"), then between 1936 and 1957 contributed over 50 articles to *[Walkabout](/wiki/Walkabout_%28magazine%29 "Walkabout (magazine)")*{{Cite journal \|last\=Holmes, O.B.E.. M.C.., F.R.G.S. \|first\=Charles \|date\=1 November 195 \|title\=How Walkabout Began \|url\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj\-747971298 \|journal\=Walkabout \|volume\=25 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=9}} and also in the 1950s was a contributor to the [*Melbourne Sun*](/wiki/The_Sun_News-Pictorial "The Sun News-Pictorial"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") he worked as a publicity censor in Victoria and Western Australia. In 1920 Cronin and [Gertrude Hart](/wiki/Gertrude_Hart "Gertrude Hart") founded the Old Derelicts' Club for emerging writers. Their club became the Society of Australian Authors in 1927 and its first president was Cronin. Cronin started the Quill Club in 1933 and he then thought that the society began to become too political. The Society of Australian Authors ceased to operate in 1936\.{{Citation\|last\=O'Neill\|first\=Sally\|title\=Cronin, Bernard Charles (1884–1968\)\|url\=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/cronin\-bernard\-charles\-5826\|work\=Australian Dictionary of Biography\|place\=Canberra\|publisher\=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-16}} He was a member of the [International PEN](/wiki/International_PEN "International PEN") Club in Melbourne and he was granted life membership in 1961\. He was a keen student of [the Bible](/wiki/The_Bible "The Bible") and supporter of the [British\-Israelist](/wiki/British_Israelism "British Israelism") movement. In his later life he took up woodcarving and painting. He died at his home in East [Camberwell, Victoria](/wiki/Camberwell%2C_Victoria "Camberwell, Victoria") on 9 June 1968 and was buried in [Springvale Cemetery](/wiki/The_Necropolis%2C_Springvale "The Necropolis, Springvale"). Cronin Street in [McKellar](/wiki/McKellar%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory "McKellar, Australian Capital Territory"), a suburb of [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra "Canberra"),{{Cite web\|title\=Cronin St · McKellar ACT 2617, Australia\|url\=https://www.google.co.uk/maps?ftid\=0x6b17acde6e8db4a9:0x60f6c4a25f0a6e9d\&q\=Cronin\+Street,\+McKellar,\+Australian\+Capital\+Territory,\+Australia\&hl\=en\&ved\=0CAwQ\-gswAA\&sa\=X\&ei\=ayDuTcDjN4\-WjwfNtp3XAQ\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-16\|website\=Cronin St · McKellar ACT 2617, Australia\|language\=en}} is named after him and is one of a number of streets in the area named after Australian authors.[Public Place Names 2003, No. 16 – Street Nomenclature in the Division of McKellar](http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/di/2003-293/current/pdf/2003-293.pdf), Disallowable Instrument DI2003\-293
[ "Life\n----", "Cronin was born in [Ealing](/wiki/Ealing \"Ealing\"), [Middlesex](/wiki/Middlesex \"Middlesex\"), England, second son of Charles Frederick Cronin (1859–1887\\), an auctioneer, and Laura *née* Marshall (1850–1934\\). His father was advised to go to Australia for the sake of his health. Charles and his wife set off in 1886, leaving Bernard and his brother in England in the care of their grandmother and aunts. In [Mitcham, South Australia](/wiki/Mitcham%2C_South_Australia \"Mitcham, South Australia\"), Bernard's father succumbed to his illness and died. Laura returned to London and in 1889 married Frederick Cecil Browne, who had taken her under his wing during her husband's illness and accompanied her back to England, and the two of them returned to Australia in the same year, accompanied by Bernard's brother Laurence Kimberley. Bernard himself followed them to Australia at the age of six in 1890 in the care of the captain of RMS *Austral*.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/ShipsAA.html \\|title\\=Ship Descriptions \\- Ar to av \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-08\\-25 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210224815/http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/ShipsAA.html \\|archivedate\\=10 February 2009 \\|df\\=dmy\\-all }} During the voyage the young Bernard nearly accidentally killed an able seaman who was painting the ship's side whilst holding on to the deck with one hand. Young Bernard jumped on the man's hand \"just to see what happened\". The man let go, but was rescued.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Reprint: Australian Authors III: Bernard Cronin by Aidan de Brune \\- Matilda\\|url\\=http://www.middlemiss.org/matilda/2010/10/reprint\\-australian\\-authors\\-iii\\-bernard\\-cronin\\-by\\-aldan\\-de\\-brune.html\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-16\\|website\\=www.middlemiss.org}}", "He emerged from his education in 1901 with a diploma in agriculture, and is the first recipient of the gold medal, from the [Dookie](/wiki/Dookie%2C_Victoria \"Dookie, Victoria\") Agricultural College, now part of the [Goulburn Ovens Institute of Technical and Further Education](/wiki/Goulburn_Ovens_Institute_of_TAFE \"Goulburn Ovens Institute of TAFE\") in Victoria and still Australia's premier agricultural college. In 1908 he joined his brother Laurie (also a graduate of Dookie Agricultural College) in a cattle\\-farming venture in Tasmania which, due to the forestation and other natural conditions which had defeated many settlers before them, was not successful.", "Cronin married a farmer's daughter, Victoria Maud Ferres, on 11 March 1908\\. In 1913 he went back to Melbourne, where he worked as a salesman before getting a job as a clerk in the Department of the Navy and began to devote his spare time to writing. He published his first novel *The Coastlanders*, set in Tasmania, in 1918\\. He went on to write numerous novels, short stories, poems and a radio play, *Stampede* (1937\\), using his own name and a number of pseudonyms, such as Dennis Adair, Hugh Bohun, Wallace Dixon, Tas East and Eric North. He also jointly used the pseudonym Stephen Grey when writing with Capel Boake (the pseudonym of Doris Boake Kerr).", "In the 1920s Cronin worked for the [*Melbourne Herald*](/wiki/The_Herald_%28Melbourne%29 \"The Herald (Melbourne)\"), then between 1936 and 1957 contributed over 50 articles to *[Walkabout](/wiki/Walkabout_%28magazine%29 \"Walkabout (magazine)\")*{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Holmes, O.B.E.. M.C.., F.R.G.S. \\|first\\=Charles \\|date\\=1 November 195 \\|title\\=How Walkabout Began \\|url\\=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj\\-747971298 \\|journal\\=Walkabout \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=9}} and also in the 1950s was a contributor to the [*Melbourne Sun*](/wiki/The_Sun_News-Pictorial \"The Sun News-Pictorial\"). During [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") he worked as a publicity censor in Victoria and Western Australia.", "In 1920 Cronin and [Gertrude Hart](/wiki/Gertrude_Hart \"Gertrude Hart\") founded the Old Derelicts' Club for emerging writers. Their club became the Society of Australian Authors in 1927 and its first president was Cronin. Cronin started the Quill Club in 1933 and he then thought that the society began to become too political. The Society of Australian Authors ceased to operate in 1936\\.{{Citation\\|last\\=O'Neill\\|first\\=Sally\\|title\\=Cronin, Bernard Charles (1884–1968\\)\\|url\\=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/cronin\\-bernard\\-charles\\-5826\\|work\\=Australian Dictionary of Biography\\|place\\=Canberra\\|publisher\\=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-16}} He was a member of the [International PEN](/wiki/International_PEN \"International PEN\") Club in Melbourne and he was granted life membership in 1961\\.", "He was a keen student of [the Bible](/wiki/The_Bible \"The Bible\") and supporter of the [British\\-Israelist](/wiki/British_Israelism \"British Israelism\") movement. In his later life he took up woodcarving and painting. He died at his home in East [Camberwell, Victoria](/wiki/Camberwell%2C_Victoria \"Camberwell, Victoria\") on 9 June 1968 and was buried in [Springvale Cemetery](/wiki/The_Necropolis%2C_Springvale \"The Necropolis, Springvale\").", "Cronin Street in [McKellar](/wiki/McKellar%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory \"McKellar, Australian Capital Territory\"), a suburb of [Canberra](/wiki/Canberra \"Canberra\"),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Cronin St · McKellar ACT 2617, Australia\\|url\\=https://www.google.co.uk/maps?ftid\\=0x6b17acde6e8db4a9:0x60f6c4a25f0a6e9d\\&q\\=Cronin\\+Street,\\+McKellar,\\+Australian\\+Capital\\+Territory,\\+Australia\\&hl\\=en\\&ved\\=0CAwQ\\-gswAA\\&sa\\=X\\&ei\\=ayDuTcDjN4\\-WjwfNtp3XAQ\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-16\\|website\\=Cronin St · McKellar ACT 2617, Australia\\|language\\=en}} is named after him and is one of a number of streets in the area named after Australian authors.[Public Place Names 2003, No. 16 – Street Nomenclature in the Division of McKellar](http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/di/2003-293/current/pdf/2003-293.pdf), Disallowable Instrument DI2003\\-293", "" ]
International career -------------------- ### Wales Jones represented Wales at both under\-18 and under\-21 level, completing a Grand Slam at the 2005 under\-21 Six Nations Championship.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/international/4352087\.stm\|title\=Wales U21 32\-5 Ireland U21\|date\=18 March 2005}} Jones made his senior Wales debut during the [2006 Summer Tests](/wiki/2006_June_rugby_union_tests "2006 June rugby union tests"), starting at flanker as Wales lost to [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_rugby_union_team "Argentina national rugby union team") in successive games.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/international/5084264\.stm\|title\=Argentina 45\-27 Wales\|date\=17 June 2006}} Jones would secure his first Wales win against the [Pacific Islanders](/wiki/Pacific_Islanders_rugby_union_team "Pacific Islanders rugby union team") at the [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") in the [2006 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2006_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals "2006 end-of-year rugby union internationals"). Jones' first appearance at lock would occur in the following game, a victory over [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team "Canada national rugby union team"), ahead of a permanent switch from then on. Jones became first choice lock ahead of the [2007 Six Nations](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship "2007 Six Nations Championship"), appearing in all 5 games. Disappointing performances however saw Wales finish 5th in the standings, securing their only win of the tournament on the final day against [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team "England national rugby union team").{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/6454287\.stm\|title \= Wales 27\-18 England\|date \= 17 March 2007}} Jones scored his first Wales try during the [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches "2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches"), crossing the line in a 27–20 win over [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_rugby_union_team "Argentina national rugby union team").{{cite web\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/6951094\.stm \|title\=BBC SPORT \| Rugby Union \| Welsh \| Wales 27\-20 Argentina \|publisher\=BBC News \|date\=2007\-08\-18 \|accessdate\=2022\-09\-07}} Jones was selected at lock in Wales opening [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup "2007 Rugby World Cup") pool game against [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team "Canada national rugby union team"), scoring on his World Cup debut as Wales ran out unconvincing 42–17 victors.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/6980580\.stm\|title \= Wales 42\-17 Canada\|date \= 9 September 2007}} Following defeat to [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team "Australia national rugby union team") in [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Jones would score again against [Japan](/wiki/Japan_national_rugby_union_team "Japan national rugby union team") at the [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") in the third pool game, increasing their chances to qualify. Unfortunately, Wales would fall to defeat in the final game against [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji_national_rugby_union_team "Fiji national rugby union team"), crashing out of the World Cup at the pool stage.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/7017637\.stm\|title \= Wales 34\-38 Fiji\|date \= 29 September 2007}} Jones started in Wales' opening game of the [2008 Six Nations](/wiki/2008_Six_Nations_Championship "2008 Six Nations Championship") against England, achieving a first win at [Twickenham](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium "Twickenham Stadium") in 20 years.{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/7215056\.stm\|title \= England 19\-26 Wales\|date \= 2 February 2008}} Jones would miss the following two games, victories over Scotland and Italy due to injury{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/7228261\.stm\|title \= Wales coach makes three changes\|date \= 5 February 2008}} before returning for the final games against Ireland and France. Wales would complete their second [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28rugby_union%29 "Grand Slam (rugby union)") in four years, and a first for Jones.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/rugby/report?gameId\=25605\&league\=180659\|title\=Wales vs France \- Report \- Six Nations 2008 \- 15 Mar, 2008 \- ESPN}} Jones scored his first Six Nations try in the opening game of the [2009 championship](/wiki/2009_Six_Nations_Championship "2009 Six Nations Championship") against Scotland at [Murrayfield](/wiki/Murrayfield "Murrayfield").{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/7873538\.stm\|title \= Scotland 13\-26 Wales\|date \= 8 February 2009}} In the penultimate game of the tournament against Italy, Jones was selected to captain Wales for the first time, becoming the 126th player to do so.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/mar/05/wales\-henson\-alun\-wyn\-jones\|title \= Six Nations: Alun\-Wyn Jones to captain much\-changed Wales against Italy in Rome\|website \= \[\[TheGuardian.com]]\|date \= 5 March 2009}} On 18 January 2010, he was named in the 35\-man Wales squad for the 2010 Six Nations tournament.{{cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/8463499\.stm \|title\=Wales 2010 Six Nations Squad \|work\=BBC News \|date\=19 January 2010 \|access\-date\=17 June 2013 }} In the first game against England, Jones tripped hooker [Dylan Hartley](/wiki/Dylan_Hartley "Dylan Hartley"), for which he was sent to the sin\-bin. During his 10 minutes there, England scored 17 points and went on to victory. Coach Warren Gatland later criticised Jones for the offence, saying it cost Wales the game.{{cite news \|title\=Coach Warren Gatland blasts Wales lock Alun Wyn Jones \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\_union/welsh/8502494\.stm \|website\=BBC Sport \|date\=6 February 2010 \|accessdate\=6 February 2023 }} 2014 saw Jones captain Wales three times – once against Italy and twice against South Africa. In the 2014 Autumn Internationals, he scored a try in Wales's 28–33 loss to Australia. In the [2015 Six Nations](/wiki/2015_Six_Nations "2015 Six Nations"), he formed a second row partnership with [Luke Charteris](/wiki/Luke_Charteris "Luke Charteris") and won two man\-of\-the\-match awards during the tournament, earning them against Scotland and Italy. Jones made his 100th appearance when Wales faced South Africa in the quarter\-finals of the [2015 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2015_Rugby_World_Cup "2015 Rugby World Cup") but Wales were knocked out of the competition with South Africa winning 23–19\. Jones took part in the [2016 Six Nations](/wiki/2016_Six_Nations "2016 Six Nations") and was originally paired with [Luke Charteris](/wiki/Luke_Charteris "Luke Charteris") who was then replaced by [Bradley Davies](/wiki/Bradley_Davies "Bradley Davies"). Jones suffered an injury in the penultimate game against England in the tournament and was replaced with a returning Charteris. Jones returned to action on the 2016 tour to New Zealand, playing his 100th test for Wales in the first test against New Zealand – his 106th appearance. His 100th Welsh test ended in disappointment with New Zealand beating Wales 39–21, going on to win the series 3–0\. He took part in the 2016 autumn internationals but had to miss the first match due to the death of his father. He returned to play Argentina in which he won the man of the match award.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\-union/37935687\|title\=Autumn international: Wales 24–20 Argentina\|work\=BBC Sport\|date\=12 November 2016}} Jones took over from [Sam Warburton](/wiki/Sam_Warburton "Sam Warburton") as captain of the Welsh squad for the [2017 Six Nations](/wiki/2017_Six_Nations_Championship "2017 Six Nations Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jan/17/alun\-wyn\-jones\-sam\-warburton\-wales\-captain\|title\=Alun Wyn Jones replaces Sam Warburton as Wales captain\|date\=January 17, 2017\|website\=the Guardian}} In 2019, Jones captained Wales in their [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28rugby_union%29 "Grand Slam (rugby union)") victory and was named Player of the Championship in a public vote.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.sixnationsrugby.com/2019/03/22/wales\-captain\-alun\-wyn\-jones\-crowned\-2019\-guinness\-six\-nations\-player\-of\-the\-championship/\|title\=WALES CAPTAIN ALUN WYN JONES CROWNED 2019 GUINNESS SIX NATIONS PLAYER OF THE CHAMPIONSHIP\|date\=22 March 2019\|website\=sixnationsrugby.com\|access\-date\=22 March 2019 }} It was later established that Jones suffered knee ligament damage early in the Grand Slam decider against [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland_national_rugby_union_team "Ireland national rugby union team").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.reuters.com/article/rugby\-union\-nations\-wal\-jones\-idAFL3N21A055\|title\=Rugby\-Wales' Jones suffered knee ligament damage in Six Nations decider\|newspaper\=Reuters\|date\=23 March 2019}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.skysports.com/rugby\-union/news/15190/11672633/ospreys\-alun\-wyn\-jones\-and\-george\-north\-could\-miss\-a\-month\-and\-scott\-williams\-season\-over\|title\=Ospreys' Alun Wyn Jones and George North could miss a month and Scott Williams' season over\|website\=Sky Sports}} Following the game, he was referred to by [Jonathan Davies](/wiki/Jonathan_Davies_%28rugby%2C_born_1962%29 "Jonathan Davies (rugby, born 1962)") and others as "the greatest ever" Welsh rugby player.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/rugby\-union/2019/03/16/time\-remember\-name\-alun\-wyn\-jones\-could\-europes\-greatest\-ever/\|title\=Time to remember the name – Alun Wyn Jones could be Europe's greatest ever\|date\=16 March 2019\|last\=Greenwood\|first\=Will\|website\=\[\[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\-union/47653810\|title\=Alun Wyn Jones: Wales' legendary leader \& player of the 2019 Six Nations\|date\=22 March 2019\|last\=Pritchard\|first\=Dafydd\|website\=BBC Sport\|access\-date\=22 March 2019 }} On 29 September 2019, in a game against Australia at the [2019 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2019_Rugby_World_Cup "2019 Rugby World Cup"), he became Wales' most\-capped player, overtaking the record of 129 caps held by [Gethin Jenkins](/wiki/Gethin_Jenkins "Gethin Jenkins").{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\-union/49869891\|title\=Wales hold out to beat Australia\|work\=BBC Sport}} On 24 October 2020, Jones equalled [Richie McCaw](/wiki/Richie_McCaw "Richie McCaw")'s record for the most international appearances, 148 caps, during Wales' 38–21 loss to France.{{Cite news\|last\=Bywater\|first\=Alex\|date\=2020\-10\-24\|title\=Jones admits need for improvement after France leave Wales beaten again\|language\=en\-GB\|work\=The Observer\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/oct/24/france\-wales\-rugby\-union\-match\-report\|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25\|issn\=0029\-7712}} A week later he set a new record, winning his 149th cap against Scotland.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/54725357\|title\=Scotland win in Wales to end 18\-year wait\|work\=BBC Sport}} On 19 March 2022 he lost his 150th cap, at home [against Italy](/wiki/2022_Six_Nations_Championship%23Round_5 "2022 Six Nations Championship#Round 5").{{cite news \|title\=Six Nations: Wales' Alun Wyn Jones on reaching 150 caps \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/av/rugby\-union/60807938}} On 19 May 2023, Jones announced his immediate retirement from international rugby along with fellow Welsh international [Justin Tipuric](/wiki/Justin_Tipuric "Justin Tipuric").{{cite news \|title\=Jones and Tipuric announce shock Wales retirements \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/65650298 \|access\-date\=19 May 2023 \|work\=BBC Sport \|date\=19 May 2023}} ### British and Irish Lions In 2009, Jones was one of 13 Welsh players selected in the squad for the [British \& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions "British & Irish Lions")' [tour to South Africa](/wiki/2009_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa "2009 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa"). Jones appeared in the provincial matches against [Royal XV](/wiki/Highveld_XV "Highveld XV"), when he scored his first Lions try, [Golden Lions](/wiki/Golden_Lions "Golden Lions"), and [Sharks](/wiki/Sharks_%28Currie_Cup%29 "Sharks (Currie Cup)"). Jones then started the first test alongside [Paul O'Connell](/wiki/Paul_O%27Connell "Paul O'Connell") against [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_team "South Africa national rugby team"), with the team losing 26–21 in [Durban](/wiki/Durban "Durban"). Jones appeared as a replacement in the remaining two tests, a defeat and a win, as the series ended in a 2–1 defeat for the Lions. In total he played 24 games across 4 tours (including 12 tests) scoring 2 tries. Jones received his second Lions selection on 30 April 2013, for the [tour to Australia](/wiki/2013_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia "2013 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia"). Jones played and scored in a warm up game against the [Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. "Barbarian F.C.") before appearing in provincial games against [Western Force](/wiki/Western_Force "Western Force"), [Combined Country](/wiki/Combined_New_South_Wales%E2%80%93Queensland_Country "Combined New South Wales–Queensland Country") and [Waratahs](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Waratahs "New South Wales Waratahs"). Jones started at Lock in the first test, playing a role in a 23–21 win, as well as in the second test defeat in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne "Melbourne"). Due to Sam Warburton's tour\-ending injury in the second test, Jones was selected as captain for the deciding third test in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney "Sydney"),{{cite news\|last\=Palmer \|first\=Bryn \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/rugby\-union/23141552 \|title\=Lions 2013: Alun Wyn Jones captain as Brian O'Driscoll omitted \|work\=bbc.co.uk \|date\= 3 July 2013\|access\-date\=5 July 2013 }} which the Lions won 41–16\. This made him the first substitute captain to lead the Lions to victory in the final test of a series since [1904](/wiki/1904_British_Lions_tour_to_Australia_and_New_Zealand "1904 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/story/190867\.html \|title\=Who was the last Scot to start a Test for Lions? \|first\=John \|last\=Griffiths \|work\=Ask John \|publisher\=ESPN Scrum \|date\=17 July 2013 \|access\-date\=21 July 2013}} On 19 April 2017, Jones was again selected for the Lions ahead of their [tour to New Zealand](/wiki/2017_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand "2017 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand"). Jones captained the Lions for the second time in the provincial game against the [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusaders_%28rugby_union%29 "Crusaders (rugby union)") as the Lions won 3–12\. Jones was once again first choice Lock for the tour, starting at 4 in the first test and 5 in the second and third and left New Zealand as the first player in the professional era to play in nine consecutive British \& Irish Lions tests.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.lionsrugby.com/2017/07/13/2017\-lions\-player\-retrospective\-alun\-wyn\-jones/\|title\=2017 Lions Player Retrospective: Alun Wyn Jones\|date\=July 13, 2017\|website\=British \& Irish Lions}} During the [Lions tour](/wiki/2017_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand "2017 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand") he became one of only seven Lions players to have beaten [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team "South Africa national rugby union team"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team "Australia national rugby union team") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_union_team "New Zealand national rugby union team") while touring these countries, following the 24–21 win in the second test. Jones started in all three tests of the series against the All Blacks. On 6 May 2021, Jones was selected and named captain of the British and Irish Lions for their [tour to South Africa](/wiki/2021_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa "2021 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/57007546\|title\=British and Irish Lions 2021: Sam Simmonds in 37\-man squad but Billy Vunipola misses out\|date\=6 May 2021\|work\=BBC Sport\|accessdate\= 6 May 2021}} He dislocated his shoulder in the warm\-up match against Japan in Edinburgh on 26 June but returned to play in the successful first test win against the Springboks four weeks later. Jones played in all three tests to reach 12 British and Irish Lions caps. [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team "South Africa national rugby union team") won the final test 19–16 and the series by two games to one.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\-union/58130765\|title\=South Africa 19–16 British and Irish Lions: Morne Steyn's late penalty wins series\|date\=7 August 2021\|work\=BBC Sport\|accessdate\= 9 August 2021}} ### Barbarians On 28 May 2023, Jones captained [the Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. "Barbarian F.C.") to a 48\-42 victory over a World XV.{{cite web \|title\=Folau booed as Jones' Barbarians beat World XV \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/65739583 \|website\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=10 October 2023}} Three days later, Jones would then play for both the Barbarians and [Swansea RFC](/wiki/Swansea_RFC "Swansea RFC"), swapping teams at half\-time, in a game at [the St Helen's ground](/wiki/St_Helen%27s_Rugby_and_Cricket_Ground "St Helen's Rugby and Cricket Ground"), celebrating Swansea's 150th anniversary.{{cite web \|title\=Jones had 'tear in eye' as Barbarians beat Swansea \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/65771251 \|website\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=10 October 2023}} On 10 August 2023, it was announced that Jones would play again for the Barbarians, against [Wales](/wiki/Welsh_Rugby_Union "Welsh Rugby Union"), on 4 November, at the [Principality Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium").{{cite web \|title\=Wales announce Barbarians game to celebrate Jones \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/66453214 \|website\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=10 October 2023}} In the match, Jones captained the Barbarians, scored a try, and was named Man of the Match, despite his team losing 49\-26 to Wales. In an on\-field interview after the match, Jones thanked the crowd in the stadium for their support over his career, as well as mentioning fellow players retiring from international duty, including [Justin Tipuric](/wiki/Justin_Tipuric "Justin Tipuric"), [Leigh Halfpenny](/wiki/Leigh_Halfpenny "Leigh Halfpenny"), and the absent [Dan Biggar](/wiki/Dan_Biggar "Dan Biggar").{{cite web \|title\=Wales beat Baa\-Baas in rousing send\-off for stars \|url\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\-union/67321481 \|website\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=8 November 2023}} ### International tries | Try | Opponent | Location | Venue | Tests | Date | Result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | {{ru\|ARG}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches "2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2007\|August\|18}} | Win | | 2 | {{ru\|CAN}} | [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes "Nantes"), France | [Stade de la Beaujoire](/wiki/Stade_de_la_Beaujoire "Stade de la Beaujoire") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup "2007 Rugby World Cup") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2007\|September\|9}} | Win | | 3 | {{ru\|JPN}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup "2007 Rugby World Cup") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2007\|September\|20}} | Win | | 4 | {{ru\|SCO}} | [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh "Edinburgh"), Scotland | [Murrayfield](/wiki/Murrayfield "Murrayfield") | [2009 Six Nations](/wiki/2009_Six_Nations_Championship "2009 Six Nations Championship") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2009\|February\|8}} | Win | | 5 | {{ru\|RSA}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | [2010 Summer Internationals](/wiki/2010_June_rugby_union_tests "2010 June rugby union tests") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2010\|June\|5}} | Loss | | 6 | {{ru\|ARG}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | [2011 Rugby World Cup warm\-up matches](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches "2011 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2011\|August\|20}} | Win | | 7 | {{ru\|NAM}} | [New Plymouth](/wiki/New_Plymouth "New Plymouth"), New Zealand | [Yarrow Stadium](/wiki/Yarrow_Stadium "Yarrow Stadium") | [2011 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup "2011 Rugby World Cup") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2011\|September\|26}} | Win | | 8 | {{ru\|AUS}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | [2014 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2014_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals "2014 end-of-year rugby union internationals") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2014\|November\|8}} | Loss | | 9 | {{ru\|NZ}} | [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington "Wellington"), New Zealand | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Westpac_Stadium "Westpac Stadium") | [2016 Tour of New Zealand](/wiki/2016_Wales_rugby_union_tour_of_New_Zealand "2016 Wales rugby union tour of New Zealand") | {{dts\|format\=dmy\|2016\|June\|18}} | Loss |
[ "International career\n--------------------", "### Wales", "Jones represented Wales at both under\\-18 and under\\-21 level, completing a Grand Slam at the 2005 under\\-21 Six Nations Championship.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/international/4352087\\.stm\\|title\\=Wales U21 32\\-5 Ireland U21\\|date\\=18 March 2005}}", "Jones made his senior Wales debut during the [2006 Summer Tests](/wiki/2006_June_rugby_union_tests \"2006 June rugby union tests\"), starting at flanker as Wales lost to [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_rugby_union_team \"Argentina national rugby union team\") in successive games.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/international/5084264\\.stm\\|title\\=Argentina 45\\-27 Wales\\|date\\=17 June 2006}} Jones would secure his first Wales win against the [Pacific Islanders](/wiki/Pacific_Islanders_rugby_union_team \"Pacific Islanders rugby union team\") at the [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") in the [2006 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2006_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2006 end-of-year rugby union internationals\"). Jones' first appearance at lock would occur in the following game, a victory over [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team \"Canada national rugby union team\"), ahead of a permanent switch from then on.", "Jones became first choice lock ahead of the [2007 Six Nations](/wiki/2007_Six_Nations_Championship \"2007 Six Nations Championship\"), appearing in all 5 games. Disappointing performances however saw Wales finish 5th in the standings, securing their only win of the tournament on the final day against [England](/wiki/England_national_rugby_union_team \"England national rugby union team\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/6454287\\.stm\\|title \\= Wales 27\\-18 England\\|date \\= 17 March 2007}} Jones scored his first Wales try during the [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\"), crossing the line in a 27–20 win over [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina_national_rugby_union_team \"Argentina national rugby union team\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/6951094\\.stm \\|title\\=BBC SPORT \\| Rugby Union \\| Welsh \\| Wales 27\\-20 Argentina \\|publisher\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2007\\-08\\-18 \\|accessdate\\=2022\\-09\\-07}} Jones was selected at lock in Wales opening [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") pool game against [Canada](/wiki/Canada_national_rugby_union_team \"Canada national rugby union team\"), scoring on his World Cup debut as Wales ran out unconvincing 42–17 victors.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/6980580\\.stm\\|title \\= Wales 42\\-17 Canada\\|date \\= 9 September 2007}} Following defeat to [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team \"Australia national rugby union team\") in [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Jones would score again against [Japan](/wiki/Japan_national_rugby_union_team \"Japan national rugby union team\") at the [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") in the third pool game, increasing their chances to qualify. Unfortunately, Wales would fall to defeat in the final game against [Fiji](/wiki/Fiji_national_rugby_union_team \"Fiji national rugby union team\"), crashing out of the World Cup at the pool stage.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/7017637\\.stm\\|title \\= Wales 34\\-38 Fiji\\|date \\= 29 September 2007}}", "Jones started in Wales' opening game of the [2008 Six Nations](/wiki/2008_Six_Nations_Championship \"2008 Six Nations Championship\") against England, achieving a first win at [Twickenham](/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium \"Twickenham Stadium\") in 20 years.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/7215056\\.stm\\|title \\= England 19\\-26 Wales\\|date \\= 2 February 2008}} Jones would miss the following two games, victories over Scotland and Italy due to injury{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/7228261\\.stm\\|title \\= Wales coach makes three changes\\|date \\= 5 February 2008}} before returning for the final games against Ireland and France. Wales would complete their second [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28rugby_union%29 \"Grand Slam (rugby union)\") in four years, and a first for Jones.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/rugby/report?gameId\\=25605\\&league\\=180659\\|title\\=Wales vs France \\- Report \\- Six Nations 2008 \\- 15 Mar, 2008 \\- ESPN}} Jones scored his first Six Nations try in the opening game of the [2009 championship](/wiki/2009_Six_Nations_Championship \"2009 Six Nations Championship\") against Scotland at [Murrayfield](/wiki/Murrayfield \"Murrayfield\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/7873538\\.stm\\|title \\= Scotland 13\\-26 Wales\\|date \\= 8 February 2009}} In the penultimate game of the tournament against Italy, Jones was selected to captain Wales for the first time, becoming the 126th player to do so.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/mar/05/wales\\-henson\\-alun\\-wyn\\-jones\\|title \\= Six Nations: Alun\\-Wyn Jones to captain much\\-changed Wales against Italy in Rome\\|website \\= \\[\\[TheGuardian.com]]\\|date \\= 5 March 2009}}", "On 18 January 2010, he was named in the 35\\-man Wales squad for the 2010 Six Nations tournament.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/8463499\\.stm \\|title\\=Wales 2010 Six Nations Squad \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=19 January 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=17 June 2013 }} In the first game against England, Jones tripped hooker [Dylan Hartley](/wiki/Dylan_Hartley \"Dylan Hartley\"), for which he was sent to the sin\\-bin. During his 10 minutes there, England scored 17 points and went on to victory. Coach Warren Gatland later criticised Jones for the offence, saying it cost Wales the game.{{cite news \\|title\\=Coach Warren Gatland blasts Wales lock Alun Wyn Jones \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby\\_union/welsh/8502494\\.stm \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=6 February 2010 \\|accessdate\\=6 February 2023 }}", "2014 saw Jones captain Wales three times – once against Italy and twice against South Africa. In the 2014 Autumn Internationals, he scored a try in Wales's 28–33 loss to Australia.", "In the [2015 Six Nations](/wiki/2015_Six_Nations \"2015 Six Nations\"), he formed a second row partnership with [Luke Charteris](/wiki/Luke_Charteris \"Luke Charteris\") and won two man\\-of\\-the\\-match awards during the tournament, earning them against Scotland and Italy.", "Jones made his 100th appearance when Wales faced South Africa in the quarter\\-finals of the [2015 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2015_Rugby_World_Cup \"2015 Rugby World Cup\") but Wales were knocked out of the competition with South Africa winning 23–19\\.", "Jones took part in the [2016 Six Nations](/wiki/2016_Six_Nations \"2016 Six Nations\") and was originally paired with [Luke Charteris](/wiki/Luke_Charteris \"Luke Charteris\") who was then replaced by [Bradley Davies](/wiki/Bradley_Davies \"Bradley Davies\"). Jones suffered an injury in the penultimate game against England in the tournament and was replaced with a returning Charteris. Jones returned to action on the 2016 tour to New Zealand, playing his 100th test for Wales in the first test against New Zealand – his 106th appearance. His 100th Welsh test ended in disappointment with New Zealand beating Wales 39–21, going on to win the series 3–0\\.", "He took part in the 2016 autumn internationals but had to miss the first match due to the death of his father. He returned to play Argentina in which he won the man of the match award.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\\-union/37935687\\|title\\=Autumn international: Wales 24–20 Argentina\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|date\\=12 November 2016}} Jones took over from [Sam Warburton](/wiki/Sam_Warburton \"Sam Warburton\") as captain of the Welsh squad for the [2017 Six Nations](/wiki/2017_Six_Nations_Championship \"2017 Six Nations Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jan/17/alun\\-wyn\\-jones\\-sam\\-warburton\\-wales\\-captain\\|title\\=Alun Wyn Jones replaces Sam Warburton as Wales captain\\|date\\=January 17, 2017\\|website\\=the Guardian}}", "In 2019, Jones captained Wales in their [Grand Slam](/wiki/Grand_Slam_%28rugby_union%29 \"Grand Slam (rugby union)\") victory and was named Player of the Championship in a public vote.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sixnationsrugby.com/2019/03/22/wales\\-captain\\-alun\\-wyn\\-jones\\-crowned\\-2019\\-guinness\\-six\\-nations\\-player\\-of\\-the\\-championship/\\|title\\=WALES CAPTAIN ALUN WYN JONES CROWNED 2019 GUINNESS SIX NATIONS PLAYER OF THE CHAMPIONSHIP\\|date\\=22 March 2019\\|website\\=sixnationsrugby.com\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2019 }} It was later established that Jones suffered knee ligament damage early in the Grand Slam decider against [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland_national_rugby_union_team \"Ireland national rugby union team\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.reuters.com/article/rugby\\-union\\-nations\\-wal\\-jones\\-idAFL3N21A055\\|title\\=Rugby\\-Wales' Jones suffered knee ligament damage in Six Nations decider\\|newspaper\\=Reuters\\|date\\=23 March 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.skysports.com/rugby\\-union/news/15190/11672633/ospreys\\-alun\\-wyn\\-jones\\-and\\-george\\-north\\-could\\-miss\\-a\\-month\\-and\\-scott\\-williams\\-season\\-over\\|title\\=Ospreys' Alun Wyn Jones and George North could miss a month and Scott Williams' season over\\|website\\=Sky Sports}} Following the game, he was referred to by [Jonathan Davies](/wiki/Jonathan_Davies_%28rugby%2C_born_1962%29 \"Jonathan Davies (rugby, born 1962)\") and others as \"the greatest ever\" Welsh rugby player.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/rugby\\-union/2019/03/16/time\\-remember\\-name\\-alun\\-wyn\\-jones\\-could\\-europes\\-greatest\\-ever/\\|title\\=Time to remember the name – Alun Wyn Jones could be Europe's greatest ever\\|date\\=16 March 2019\\|last\\=Greenwood\\|first\\=Will\\|website\\=\\[\\[The Daily Telegraph]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\\-union/47653810\\|title\\=Alun Wyn Jones: Wales' legendary leader \\& player of the 2019 Six Nations\\|date\\=22 March 2019\\|last\\=Pritchard\\|first\\=Dafydd\\|website\\=BBC Sport\\|access\\-date\\=22 March 2019 }}", "On 29 September 2019, in a game against Australia at the [2019 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2019_Rugby_World_Cup \"2019 Rugby World Cup\"), he became Wales' most\\-capped player, overtaking the record of 129 caps held by [Gethin Jenkins](/wiki/Gethin_Jenkins \"Gethin Jenkins\").{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\\-union/49869891\\|title\\=Wales hold out to beat Australia\\|work\\=BBC Sport}}", "On 24 October 2020, Jones equalled [Richie McCaw](/wiki/Richie_McCaw \"Richie McCaw\")'s record for the most international appearances, 148 caps, during Wales' 38–21 loss to France.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Bywater\\|first\\=Alex\\|date\\=2020\\-10\\-24\\|title\\=Jones admits need for improvement after France leave Wales beaten again\\|language\\=en\\-GB\\|work\\=The Observer\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/oct/24/france\\-wales\\-rugby\\-union\\-match\\-report\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25\\|issn\\=0029\\-7712}} A week later he set a new record, winning his 149th cap against Scotland.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/54725357\\|title\\=Scotland win in Wales to end 18\\-year wait\\|work\\=BBC Sport}} On 19 March 2022 he lost his 150th cap, at home [against Italy](/wiki/2022_Six_Nations_Championship%23Round_5 \"2022 Six Nations Championship#Round 5\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Six Nations: Wales' Alun Wyn Jones on reaching 150 caps \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/av/rugby\\-union/60807938}}", "On 19 May 2023, Jones announced his immediate retirement from international rugby along with fellow Welsh international [Justin Tipuric](/wiki/Justin_Tipuric \"Justin Tipuric\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Jones and Tipuric announce shock Wales retirements \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/65650298 \\|access\\-date\\=19 May 2023 \\|work\\=BBC Sport \\|date\\=19 May 2023}}", "### British and Irish Lions", "In 2009, Jones was one of 13 Welsh players selected in the squad for the [British \\& Irish Lions](/wiki/British_%26_Irish_Lions \"British & Irish Lions\")' [tour to South Africa](/wiki/2009_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa \"2009 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa\"). Jones appeared in the provincial matches against [Royal XV](/wiki/Highveld_XV \"Highveld XV\"), when he scored his first Lions try, [Golden Lions](/wiki/Golden_Lions \"Golden Lions\"), and [Sharks](/wiki/Sharks_%28Currie_Cup%29 \"Sharks (Currie Cup)\"). Jones then started the first test alongside [Paul O'Connell](/wiki/Paul_O%27Connell \"Paul O'Connell\") against [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_team \"South Africa national rugby team\"), with the team losing 26–21 in [Durban](/wiki/Durban \"Durban\"). Jones appeared as a replacement in the remaining two tests, a defeat and a win, as the series ended in a 2–1 defeat for the Lions. In total he played 24 games across 4 tours (including 12 tests) scoring 2 tries.", "Jones received his second Lions selection on 30 April 2013, for the [tour to Australia](/wiki/2013_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_Australia \"2013 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia\"). Jones played and scored in a warm up game against the [Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. \"Barbarian F.C.\") before appearing in provincial games against [Western Force](/wiki/Western_Force \"Western Force\"), [Combined Country](/wiki/Combined_New_South_Wales%E2%80%93Queensland_Country \"Combined New South Wales–Queensland Country\") and [Waratahs](/wiki/New_South_Wales_Waratahs \"New South Wales Waratahs\"). Jones started at Lock in the first test, playing a role in a 23–21 win, as well as in the second test defeat in [Melbourne](/wiki/Melbourne \"Melbourne\"). Due to Sam Warburton's tour\\-ending injury in the second test, Jones was selected as captain for the deciding third test in [Sydney](/wiki/Sydney \"Sydney\"),{{cite news\\|last\\=Palmer \\|first\\=Bryn \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/rugby\\-union/23141552 \\|title\\=Lions 2013: Alun Wyn Jones captain as Brian O'Driscoll omitted \\|work\\=bbc.co.uk \\|date\\= 3 July 2013\\|access\\-date\\=5 July 2013 }} which the Lions won 41–16\\. This made him the first substitute captain to lead the Lions to victory in the final test of a series since [1904](/wiki/1904_British_Lions_tour_to_Australia_and_New_Zealand \"1904 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.espnscrum.com/scrum/rugby/story/190867\\.html \\|title\\=Who was the last Scot to start a Test for Lions? \\|first\\=John \\|last\\=Griffiths \\|work\\=Ask John \\|publisher\\=ESPN Scrum \\|date\\=17 July 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=21 July 2013}}", "On 19 April 2017, Jones was again selected for the Lions ahead of their [tour to New Zealand](/wiki/2017_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand \"2017 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand\"). Jones captained the Lions for the second time in the provincial game against the [Crusaders](/wiki/Crusaders_%28rugby_union%29 \"Crusaders (rugby union)\") as the Lions won 3–12\\. Jones was once again first choice Lock for the tour, starting at 4 in the first test and 5 in the second and third and left New Zealand as the first player in the professional era to play in nine consecutive British \\& Irish Lions tests.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.lionsrugby.com/2017/07/13/2017\\-lions\\-player\\-retrospective\\-alun\\-wyn\\-jones/\\|title\\=2017 Lions Player Retrospective: Alun Wyn Jones\\|date\\=July 13, 2017\\|website\\=British \\& Irish Lions}} During the [Lions tour](/wiki/2017_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_New_Zealand \"2017 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand\") he became one of only seven Lions players to have beaten [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team \"South Africa national rugby union team\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia_national_rugby_union_team \"Australia national rugby union team\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_national_rugby_union_team \"New Zealand national rugby union team\") while touring these countries, following the 24–21 win in the second test. Jones started in all three tests of the series against the All Blacks.", "On 6 May 2021, Jones was selected and named captain of the British and Irish Lions for their [tour to South Africa](/wiki/2021_British_%26_Irish_Lions_tour_to_South_Africa \"2021 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/57007546\\|title\\=British and Irish Lions 2021: Sam Simmonds in 37\\-man squad but Billy Vunipola misses out\\|date\\=6 May 2021\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|accessdate\\= 6 May 2021}} He dislocated his shoulder in the warm\\-up match against Japan in Edinburgh on 26 June but returned to play in the successful first test win against the Springboks four weeks later. Jones played in all three tests to reach 12 British and Irish Lions caps. [South Africa](/wiki/South_Africa_national_rugby_union_team \"South Africa national rugby union team\") won the final test 19–16 and the series by two games to one.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/rugby\\-union/58130765\\|title\\=South Africa 19–16 British and Irish Lions: Morne Steyn's late penalty wins series\\|date\\=7 August 2021\\|work\\=BBC Sport\\|accessdate\\= 9 August 2021}}", "### Barbarians", "On 28 May 2023, Jones captained [the Barbarians](/wiki/Barbarian_F.C. \"Barbarian F.C.\") to a 48\\-42 victory over a World XV.{{cite web \\|title\\=Folau booed as Jones' Barbarians beat World XV \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/65739583 \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2023}} Three days later, Jones would then play for both the Barbarians and [Swansea RFC](/wiki/Swansea_RFC \"Swansea RFC\"), swapping teams at half\\-time, in a game at [the St Helen's ground](/wiki/St_Helen%27s_Rugby_and_Cricket_Ground \"St Helen's Rugby and Cricket Ground\"), celebrating Swansea's 150th anniversary.{{cite web \\|title\\=Jones had 'tear in eye' as Barbarians beat Swansea \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/65771251 \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2023}}", "On 10 August 2023, it was announced that Jones would play again for the Barbarians, against [Wales](/wiki/Welsh_Rugby_Union \"Welsh Rugby Union\"), on 4 November, at the [Principality Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Wales announce Barbarians game to celebrate Jones \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/66453214 \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=10 October 2023}} In the match, Jones captained the Barbarians, scored a try, and was named Man of the Match, despite his team losing 49\\-26 to Wales. In an on\\-field interview after the match, Jones thanked the crowd in the stadium for their support over his career, as well as mentioning fellow players retiring from international duty, including [Justin Tipuric](/wiki/Justin_Tipuric \"Justin Tipuric\"), [Leigh Halfpenny](/wiki/Leigh_Halfpenny \"Leigh Halfpenny\"), and the absent [Dan Biggar](/wiki/Dan_Biggar \"Dan Biggar\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Wales beat Baa\\-Baas in rousing send\\-off for stars \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby\\-union/67321481 \\|website\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2023}}", "### International tries", "", "| Try | Opponent | Location | Venue | Tests | Date | Result |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | {{ru\\|ARG}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2007 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|August\\|18}} | Win |\n| 2 | {{ru\\|CAN}} | [Nantes](/wiki/Nantes \"Nantes\"), France | [Stade de la Beaujoire](/wiki/Stade_de_la_Beaujoire \"Stade de la Beaujoire\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|September\\|9}} | Win |\n| 3 | {{ru\\|JPN}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2007 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2007_Rugby_World_Cup \"2007 Rugby World Cup\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2007\\|September\\|20}} | Win |\n| 4 | {{ru\\|SCO}} | [Edinburgh](/wiki/Edinburgh \"Edinburgh\"), Scotland | [Murrayfield](/wiki/Murrayfield \"Murrayfield\") | [2009 Six Nations](/wiki/2009_Six_Nations_Championship \"2009 Six Nations Championship\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2009\\|February\\|8}} | Win |\n| 5 | {{ru\\|RSA}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2010 Summer Internationals](/wiki/2010_June_rugby_union_tests \"2010 June rugby union tests\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2010\\|June\\|5}} | Loss |\n| 6 | {{ru\\|ARG}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2011 Rugby World Cup warm\\-up matches](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup_warm-up_matches \"2011 Rugby World Cup warm-up matches\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|August\\|20}} | Win |\n| 7 | {{ru\\|NAM}} | [New Plymouth](/wiki/New_Plymouth \"New Plymouth\"), New Zealand | [Yarrow Stadium](/wiki/Yarrow_Stadium \"Yarrow Stadium\") | [2011 Rugby World Cup](/wiki/2011_Rugby_World_Cup \"2011 Rugby World Cup\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2011\\|September\\|26}} | Win |\n| 8 | {{ru\\|AUS}} | [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | [2014 Autumn Internationals](/wiki/2014_end-of-year_rugby_union_internationals \"2014 end-of-year rugby union internationals\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2014\\|November\\|8}} | Loss |\n| 9 | {{ru\\|NZ}} | [Wellington](/wiki/Wellington \"Wellington\"), New Zealand | [Westpac Stadium](/wiki/Westpac_Stadium \"Westpac Stadium\") | [2016 Tour of New Zealand](/wiki/2016_Wales_rugby_union_tour_of_New_Zealand \"2016 Wales rugby union tour of New Zealand\") | {{dts\\|format\\=dmy\\|2016\\|June\\|18}} | Loss |", "" ]
Etymology --------- Shuhari roughly translates to "to keep, to fall, to break away" or "follow the rules, break the rules, transcend the rules". Shuhari can be decomposed in 3 kanjis: * {{nihongo\|\|守\|'''shu'''}} "protect", "obey"—traditional wisdom—learning fundamentals, techniques, [heuristics](/wiki/Heuristic "Heuristic"), proverbs.{{Cite web \|date\=2024\-07\-12 \|title\=Shuhari — The Stages of Learning 守破離 \|url\=https://www.gojukarate.com/shuhari\-the\-stages\-of\-learning/ \|access\-date\=2024\-07\-14 \|website\=Goju Karate \|language\=en}} * {{nihongo\|\|破\|'''ha'''}} "detach", "digress"—breaking with tradition—detachment from the illusions of self, to break with tradition \- to find exceptions to traditional wisdom, to find new approaches. In some styles of Japanese music ([gagaku](/wiki/Gagaku "Gagaku") and [noh](/wiki/Noh "Noh")), it is also the middle of the song. * {{nihongo\|\|離\|'''ri'''}} "leave", "separate"—[transcendence](/wiki/Transcendence_%28philosophy%29 "Transcendence (philosophy)")—there are no techniques or proverbs, all moves are natural, becoming one with spirit alone without clinging to forms; transcending the physical \- there is no traditional technique or wisdom, all movements are allowed. While the concept of Shuhari is very old, and most often identified with martial arts in general, it actually has its roots in early Japanese theater and poetry. This historical context is important because part of the literal meaning of Shuhari has also evolved. In feudal Japan (including during the entire shogunate/pre\-[Meiji Restoration](/wiki/Meiji_Restoration "Meiji Restoration") era), the "ri" of shuhari was expressed with the kanji 離 . Ri was about four kilometers – specifically, 3,927\.6 meters as standardized in the 17th century: 36 cho (町), with each cho measured at 109\.9 meters). The ri was a standard unit of far\-distance measure just like a kilometer or mile is today. However, as time evolved and a modern Japan emerged, ri came to mean a subset of its former meaning: a village or even place of birth (especially in the sense of a small town of birth). This is because fiefdoms, which centered around villages, were measured in ri. As the concept of fiefdoms receded and then disappeared, the meaning of ri changed from the distance that included the village to the village itself. At that point, the "ri" of shuhari became ri, still maintaining the idea of large distance, but now meaning "to leave or separate away."
[ "Etymology\n---------", "", "", "Shuhari roughly translates to \"to keep, to fall, to break away\" or \"follow the rules, break the rules, transcend the rules\".", "Shuhari can be decomposed in 3 kanjis:\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|守\\|'''shu'''}} \"protect\", \"obey\"—traditional wisdom—learning fundamentals, techniques, [heuristics](/wiki/Heuristic \"Heuristic\"), proverbs.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2024\\-07\\-12 \\|title\\=Shuhari — The Stages of Learning 守破離 \\|url\\=https://www.gojukarate.com/shuhari\\-the\\-stages\\-of\\-learning/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-07\\-14 \\|website\\=Goju Karate \\|language\\=en}}\n* {{nihongo\\|\\|破\\|'''ha'''}} \"detach\", \"digress\"—breaking with tradition—detachment from the illusions of self, to break with tradition \\- to find exceptions to traditional wisdom, to find new approaches. In some styles of Japanese music ([gagaku](/wiki/Gagaku \"Gagaku\") and [noh](/wiki/Noh \"Noh\")), it is also the middle of the song.", "* {{nihongo\\|\\|離\\|'''ri'''}} \"leave\", \"separate\"—[transcendence](/wiki/Transcendence_%28philosophy%29 \"Transcendence (philosophy)\")—there are no techniques or proverbs, all moves are natural, becoming one with spirit alone without clinging to forms; transcending the physical \\- there is no traditional technique or wisdom, all movements are allowed. \nWhile the concept of Shuhari is very old, and most often identified with martial arts in general, it actually has its roots in early Japanese theater and poetry.", "This historical context is important because part of the literal meaning of Shuhari has also evolved.", "In feudal Japan (including during the entire shogunate/pre\\-[Meiji Restoration](/wiki/Meiji_Restoration \"Meiji Restoration\") era), the \"ri\" of shuhari was expressed with the kanji 離 .", "Ri was about four kilometers – specifically, 3,927\\.6 meters as standardized in the 17th century: 36 cho (町), with each cho measured at 109\\.9 meters). The ri was a standard unit of far\\-distance measure just like a kilometer or mile is today.", "However, as time evolved and a modern Japan emerged, ri came to mean a subset of its former meaning: a village or even place of birth (especially in the sense of a small town of birth). This is because fiefdoms, which centered around villages, were measured in ri. As the concept of fiefdoms receded and then disappeared, the meaning of ri changed from the distance that included the village to the village itself.", "At that point, the \"ri\" of shuhari became ri, still maintaining the idea of large distance, but now meaning \"to leave or separate away.\"", "" ]
Methods ------- ### CRISPR/Cas9 Loss of function [thumb\|right\|The CRISPR\-Cas9 gene editing mechanism. Cas9 cleaves dsDNA upstream (5') of the PAM site (red), and the gRNA provides a template for repair.](/wiki/File:GRNA-Cas9.png "GRNA-Cas9.png") {{Main\|CRISPR}} The [clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR)](/wiki/CRISPR "CRISPR")/[Cas9](/wiki/Cas9 "Cas9") system is a gene\-editing technology that can introduce [double\-strand breaks (DSBs)](/wiki/DNA_repair%23Double-strand_breaks "DNA repair#Double-strand breaks") at a target genomic locus. By using a [single guide RNA (sgRNA)](/wiki/Guide_RNA "Guide RNA"), the [endonuclease](/wiki/Endonuclease "Endonuclease") Cas9 can be delivered to a specific DNA sequence where it cleaves the nucleotide chain.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Jinek M, Chylinski K, Fonfara I, Hauer M, Doudna JA, Charpentier E \| title \= A programmable dual\-RNA\-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 337 \| issue \= 6096 \| pages \= 816–21 \| date \= August 2012 \| pmid \= 22745249 \| pmc \= 6286148 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1225829 \| bibcode \= 2012Sci...337\..816J }} The specificity of the sgRNA is determined by a 20\-nt sequence, homologous to the genomic locus of interest, and the binding to Cas9 is mediated by a constant scaffold region of the sgRNA. The desired target site must be immediately followed (5’ to 3’) by a conserved 3 nucleotide [protospacer adjacent motif](/wiki/Protospacer_adjacent_motif "Protospacer adjacent motif") (PAM).{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wu X, Kriz AJ, Sharp PA \| title \= Target specificity of the CRISPR\-Cas9 system \| journal \= Quantitative Biology \| volume \= 2 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 59–70 \| date \= June 2014 \| pmid \= 25722925 \| pmc \= 4338555 \| doi \= 10\.1007/s40484\-014\-0030\-x }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Zhang F, Wen Y, Guo X \| title \= CRISPR/Cas9 for genome editing: progress, implications and challenges \| journal \= Human Molecular Genetics \| volume \= 23 \| issue \= R1 \| pages \= R40\-6 \| date \= September 2014 \| pmid \= 24651067 \| doi \= 10\.1093/hmg/ddu125 \| doi\-access \= free }} In order to repair the DSBs, the cell may use the highly error prone [non\-homologous end joining](/wiki/Non-homologous_end_joining "Non-homologous end joining"), or [homologous recombination](/wiki/Homologous_recombination "Homologous recombination"). By designing suitable sgRNAs, planned insertions or deletions can be introduced into the genome. In the context of genome\-wide LOF screens, the aim is to cause gene disruption and knockout.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2020}} ### sgRNA libraries #### Constructing a Library To perform CRISPR knockouts on a genome\-wide scale, collections of sgRNAs known as sgRNA libraries, or CRISPR knockout libraries, must be generated. The first step in creating a sgRNA library is to identify genomic regions of interest based on known sgRNA targeting rules.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Joung J, Konermann S, Gootenberg JS, Abudayyeh OO, Platt RJ, Brigham MD, Sanjana NE, Zhang F \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Genome\-scale CRISPR\-Cas9 knockout and transcriptional activation screening \| journal \= Nature Protocols \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 4 \| pages \= 828–863 \| date \= April 2017 \| pmid \= 28333914 \| pmc \= 5526071 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nprot.2017\.016 }} For example, sgRNAs are most efficient when targeting the coding regions of genes and not the 5’ and 3’ [UTRs](/wiki/Untranslated_region "Untranslated region"). Conserved exons present as attractive targets, and position relative to the transcription start site should be considered. Secondly, all the possible PAM sites are identified and selected for. On\- and off\-target activity should be analysed, as should GC content, and homopolymer stretches should be avoided. The most commonly used Cas9 endonuclease, derived from *[Streptococcus pyogenes](/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes "Streptococcus pyogenes")*, recognises a PAM sequence of NGG.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Endo M, Mikami M, Endo A, Kaya H, Itoh T, Nishimasu H, Nureki O, Toki S \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Genome editing in plants by engineered CRISPR\-Cas9 recognizing NG PAM \| journal \= Nature Plants \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 14–17 \| date \= January 2019 \| pmid \= 30531939 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41477\-018\-0321\-8 \| s2cid \= 54462288 }} Furthermore, specific nucleotides appear to be favoured at specific locations. Guanine is strongly favoured over cytosine on position 20 right next to the PAM motif, and on position 16 cytosine is preferred over guanine.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Doench JG, Fusi N, Sullender M, Hegde M, Vaimberg EW, Donovan KF, Smith I, Tothova Z, Wilen C, Orchard R, Virgin HW, Listgarten J, Root DE \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Optimized sgRNA design to maximize activity and minimize off\-target effects of CRISPR\-Cas9 \| journal \= Nature Biotechnology \| volume \= 34 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 184–191 \| date \= February 2016 \| pmid \= 26780180 \| pmc \= 4744125 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nbt.3437 }} For the variable nucleotide in the NGG PAM motif, it has been shown that cytosine is preferred and thymine disfavoured. With such criteria taken into account, the sgRNA library is computationally designed around the selected PAM sites.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Cancellieri S, Canver MC, Bombieri N, Giugno R, Pinello L \| title \= CRISPRitz: rapid, high\-throughput, and variant\-aware in silico off\-target site identification for CRISPR genome editing \| journal \= Bioinformatics \| volume \= 36\| issue \= 7\| date \= November 2019 \| pages \= 2001–2008 \| pmid \= 31764961 \| doi \= 10\.1093/bioinformatics/btz867 \| pmc \= 7141852 }} Multiple sgRNAs (at least 4–6\) should be created against every single gene to limit false\-positive detection, and negative control sgRNAs with no known targets should be included. The sgRNAs are then created by *in situ* synthesis, amplified by PCR, and cloned into a vector delivery system. #### Existing libraries Developing a new sgRNA library is a laborious and time\-consuming process. In practice, researchers may select an existing library depending on their experimental purpose and cell lines of interest. As of February 2020, the most widely used resources for genome\-wide CRISPR knockout screens have been the two [Genome\-Scale CRISPR Knock\-Out (GeCKO)](https://www.addgene.org/pooled-library/zhang-human-gecko-v2/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA1-3yBRCmARIsAN7B4H3q-L7oXzYqaazZYhsLG6hugYsIOXTQrBe2cJMQywz37qDGmWcuhvwaAmfkEALw_wcB/) libraries created by the Zhang lab.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Sanjana NE, Shalem O, Zhang F \| title \= Improved vectors and genome\-wide libraries for CRISPR screening \| journal \= Nature Methods \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 8 \| pages \= 783–784 \| date \= August 2014 \| pmid \= 25075903 \| pmc \= 4486245 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nmeth.3047 }} Available through Addgene, these lentiviral libraries respectively target human and mouse exons, and both are available as a one\-vector system (where the sgRNAs and Cas9 are present on the same plasmid) or as a two\-vector system (where the sgRNAs and Cas9 are present on separate plasmids). Each library is delivered as two half\-libraries, allowing researchers to screen with 3 or 6 sgRNAs/gene.{{cite web \| title \= Pooled Libraries \| url \= https://www.addgene.org/pooled\-library/ \| work \= Addgene }} Aside from GeCKO, a number of other CRISPR libraries have been generated and made available through Addgene. The Sabatini \& Lander labs currently have 7 separate human and mouse libraries, including targeted sublibraries for distinct subpools such as kinases and ribosomal genes (Addgene \#51043–51048\). Further, improvements to the specificity of sgRNAs have resulted in ‘second generation’ libraries, such as the Brie (Addgene \#73632\) and Brunello (Addgene \#73178\) libraries generated by the Doench and Root labs, and the Toronto knockout (TKO) library (Addgene \#1000000069\) generated by the Moffat lab. ### Lentiviral vectors [thumb\|right\|400px\|Producing Infectious Transgenic Lentivirus: A Simple Schematic. Two transfer plasmids, encoding Cas9 and sgRNA separately, may be used depending on the applied library.](/wiki/File:Producing_Infectious_Transgenic_Lentivirus.png "Producing Infectious Transgenic Lentivirus.png") Targeted gene knockout using CRISPR/Cas9 requires the use of a delivery system to introduce the sgRNA and Cas9 into the cell. Although a number of different delivery systems are potentially available for CRISPR,{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Xu CL, Ruan MZ, Mahajan VB, Tsang SH \| title \= Viral Delivery Systems for CRISPR \| journal \= Viruses \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 28 \| date \= January 2019 \| pmid \= 30621179 \| pmc \= 6356701 \| doi \= 10\.3390/v11010028 \| doi\-access \= free }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Lino CA, Harper JC, Carney JP, Timlin JA \| title \= Delivering CRISPR: a review of the challenges and approaches \| journal \= Drug Delivery \| volume \= 25 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1234–1257 \| date \= November 2018 \| pmid \= 29801422 \| pmc \= 6058482 \| doi \= 10\.1080/10717544\.2018\.1474964 }} genome\-wide loss\-of\-function screens are predominantly carried out using third generation lentiviral vectors.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Wang T, Wei JJ, Sabatini DM, Lander ES \| title \= Genetic screens in human cells using the CRISPR\-Cas9 system \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 343 \| issue \= 6166 \| pages \= 80–4 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 24336569 \| pmc \= 3972032 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1246981 \| bibcode \= 2014Sci...343\...80W }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Shalem O, Sanjana NE, Hartenian E, Shi X, Scott DA, Mikkelson T, Heckl D, Ebert BL, Root DE, Doench JG, Zhang F \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Genome\-scale CRISPR\-Cas9 knockout screening in human cells \| journal \= Science \| volume \= 343 \| issue \= 6166 \| pages \= 84–87 \| date \= January 2014 \| pmid \= 24336571 \| pmc \= 4089965 \| doi \= 10\.1126/science.1247005 \| bibcode \= 2014Sci...343\...84S }} These [lentiviral vectors](/wiki/Viral_vector%23Lentiviruses "Viral vector#Lentiviruses") are able to efficiently transduce a broad range of cell types and stably integrate into the genome of dividing and non\-dividing cells.{{cite book \| vauthors \= Yaniz\-Galende E, Hajjar RJ \| chapter \= Stem cell and gene therapy for cardiac regeneration. \| title \= Cardiac Regeneration and Repair \| date \= January 2014 \| pages \= 347–379 \| publisher \= Woodhead Publishing \| doi \= 10\.1533/9780857096708\.4\.347 \| isbn \= 9780857096586 }}{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Pauwels K, Gijsbers R, Toelen J, Schambach A, Willard\-Gallo K, Verheust C, Debyser Z, Herman P \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= State\-of\-the\-art lentiviral vectors for research use: risk assessment and biosafety recommendations \| journal \= Current Gene Therapy \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 459–74 \| date \= December 2009 \| pmid \= 20021330 \| doi \= 10\.2174/156652309790031120 }} Third generation lentiviral particles are produced by co\-transfecting 293T human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells with: 1. two packaging plasmids, one encoding [Rev](/wiki/Rev_%28HIV%29 "Rev (HIV)") and the other [Gag](/wiki/Group-specific_antigen "Group-specific antigen") and [Pol](/wiki/Pol_%28HIV%29 "Pol (HIV)"); 2. an [interchangeable envelope plasmid](/wiki/Pseudotyping "Pseudotyping") that encodes for an envelope glycoprotein of another virus (most commonly the G protein of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV\-G)); 3. one or two (depending on the applied library) transfer plasmids, encoding for Cas9 and sgRNA, as well as selection markers.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Dull T, Zufferey R, Kelly M, Mandel RJ, Nguyen M, Trono D, Naldini L \| title \= A third\-generation lentivirus vector with a conditional packaging system \| journal \= Journal of Virology \| volume \= 72 \| issue \= 11 \| pages \= 8463–71 \| date \= November 1998 \| pmid \= 9765382 \| pmc \= 110254 \| doi \= 10\.1128/JVI.72\.11\.8463\-8471\.1998}}{{cite web \| title \= Lenti\-X CRISPR/Cas9 System User Manual. \| publisher \= Takara Bio USA \| url \= https://www.takarabio.com/assets/documents/User%20Manual/Lenti\-X\_CRISPR\-Cas9\_System\_User\_Manual\_121316\.pdf }} The lentiviral particle\-containing supernatant is harvested, concentrated and subsequently used to infect the target cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Tiscornia G, Singer O, Verma IM \| title \= Production and purification of lentiviral vectors \| journal \= Nature Protocols \| volume \= 1 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 241–5 \| date \= 2006 \| pmid \= 17406239 \| doi \= 10\.1038/nprot.2006\.37 \| s2cid \= 37763028 }} The exact protocol for lentiviral production will vary depending on the research aim and applied library. If a two vector\-system is used, for example, cells are sequentially transduced with Cas9 and sgRNA in a two\-step procedure. Although more complex, this has the advantage of a higher titre for the sgRNA library virus. ### Phenotypic selection In general, there are two different formats of genome\-wide CRISPR knockout screens: arrayed and pooled. In an arrayed screen, each well contains a specific and known sgRNA targeting a specific gene. Since the sgRNA responsible for each phenotype is known based on well location, phenotypes can be identified and analysed without requiring genetic sequencing. This format allows for the measurement of more specific cellular phenotypes, perhaps by fluorescence or luminescence, and allows researchers to use more library types and delivery methods.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Agrotis A, Ketteler R \| title \= A new age in functional genomics using CRISPR/Cas9 in arrayed library screening \| journal \= Frontiers in Genetics \| volume \= 6 \| pages \= 300 \| date \= 2015 \| pmid \= 26442115 \| pmc \= 4585242 \| doi \= 10\.3389/fgene.2015\.00300 \| doi\-access \= free }} For large\-scale LOF screens, however, arrayed formats are considered low\-efficiency, and expensive in terms of financial and material resources because cell populations have to be isolated and cultured individually. In a pooled screen, cells grown in a single vessel are transduced in bulk with viral vectors collectively containing the entire sgRNA library. To ensure that the amount of cells infected by more than one sgRNA\-containing particle is limited, a low multiplicity of infection (MOI) (typically 0\.3\-0\.6\) is used.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Yeung AT, Choi YH, Lee AH, Hale C, Ponstingl H, Pickard D, Goulding D, Thomas M, Gill E, Kim JK, Bradley A, Hancock RE, Dougan G \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Salmonella Infection \| journal \= mBio \| volume \= 10 \| issue \= 5 \| date \= October 2019 \| pmid \= 31594818 \| pmc \= 6786873 \| doi \= 10\.1128/mBio.02169\-19 }} Evidence so far has suggested that each sgRNA should be represented in a minimum of 200 cells.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Hart T, Chandrashekhar M, Aregger M, Steinhart Z, Brown KR, MacLeod G, Mis M, Zimmermann M, Fradet\-Turcotte A, Sun S, Mero P, Dirks P, Sidhu S, Roth FP, Rissland OS, Durocher D, Angers S, Moffat J \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= High\-Resolution CRISPR Screens Reveal Fitness Genes and Genotype\-Specific Cancer Liabilities \| journal \= Cell \| volume \= 163 \| issue \= 6 \| pages \= 1515–26 \| date \= December 2015 \| pmid \= 26627737 \| doi \= 10\.1016/j.cell.2015\.11\.015 \| doi\-access \= free }} Transduced cells will be selected for, followed by positive or negative selection for the phenotype of interest, and genetic sequencing will be necessary to identify the integrated sgRNAs. ### Next\-generation sequencing \& hit analysis Following phenotypic selection, genomic DNA is extracted from the selected clones, alongside a control cell population.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Slesarev A, Viswanathan L, Tang Y, Borgschulte T, Achtien K, Razafsky D, Onions D, Chang A, Cote C \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= CRISPR/CAS9 targeted CAPTURE of mammalian genomic regions for characterization by NGS \| journal \= Scientific Reports \| volume \= 9 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 3587 \| date \= March 2019 \| pmid \= 30837529 \| pmc \= 6401131 \| doi \= 10\.1038/s41598\-019\-39667\-4 \| bibcode \= 2019NatSR...9\.3587S }} In the most common protocols for genome\-wide knockouts, a 'Next\-generation sequencing (NGS) library' is created by a two step polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The first step amplifies the sgRNA region, using primers specific to the lentiviral integration sequence, and the second step adds Illumina i5 and i7 sequences. NGS of the PCR products allows the recovered sgRNAs to be identified, and a quantification step can be used to determine the relative abundance of each sgRNA. The final step in the screen is to computationally evaluate the significantly enriched or depleted sgRNAs, trace them back to their corresponding genes, and in turn determine which genes and pathways could be responsible for the observed phenotype. Several algorithms are currently available for this purpose, with the most popular being the Model\-based Analysis of Genome\-wide CRISPR/Cas9 Knockout (MAGeCK) method.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li W, Xu H, Xiao T, Cong L, Love MI, Zhang F, Irizarry RA, Liu JS, Brown M, Liu XS \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= MAGeCK enables robust identification of essential genes from genome\-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens \| journal \= Genome Biology \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 12 \| pages \= 554 \| date \= 2014 \| pmid \= 25476604 \| pmc \= 4290824 \| doi \= 10\.1186/s13059\-014\-0554\-4 \| doi\-access \= free }} Developed specifically for CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens in 2014, MAGeCK demonstrated better performance compared with alternative algorithms at the time, and has since demonstrated robust results and high sensitivity across different experimental conditions.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Li W, Köster J, Xu H, Chen CH, Xiao T, Liu JS, Brown M, Liu XS \| display\-authors \= 6 \| title \= Quality control, modeling, and visualization of CRISPR screens with MAGeCK\-VISPR \| journal \= Genome Biology \| volume \= 16 \| pages \= 281 \| date \= December 2015 \| pmid \= 26673418 \| pmc \= 4699372 \| doi \= 10\.1186/s13059\-015\-0843\-6 \| doi\-access \= free }} As of 2015, the MAGeCK algorithm has been extended to introduce quality control measurements, and account for the previously overlooked sgRNA knockout efficiency. A web\-based visualisation tool (VISPR) was also integrated, allowing users to interactively explore the results, analysis, and quality controls.
[ "Methods\n-------", "### CRISPR/Cas9 Loss of function", "[thumb\\|right\\|The CRISPR\\-Cas9 gene editing mechanism. Cas9 cleaves dsDNA upstream (5') of the PAM site (red), and the gRNA provides a template for repair.](/wiki/File:GRNA-Cas9.png \"GRNA-Cas9.png\")\n{{Main\\|CRISPR}}", "The [clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR)](/wiki/CRISPR \"CRISPR\")/[Cas9](/wiki/Cas9 \"Cas9\") system is a gene\\-editing technology that can introduce [double\\-strand breaks (DSBs)](/wiki/DNA_repair%23Double-strand_breaks \"DNA repair#Double-strand breaks\") at a target genomic locus. By using a [single guide RNA (sgRNA)](/wiki/Guide_RNA \"Guide RNA\"), the [endonuclease](/wiki/Endonuclease \"Endonuclease\") Cas9 can be delivered to a specific DNA sequence where it cleaves the nucleotide chain.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Jinek M, Chylinski K, Fonfara I, Hauer M, Doudna JA, Charpentier E \\| title \\= A programmable dual\\-RNA\\-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 337 \\| issue \\= 6096 \\| pages \\= 816–21 \\| date \\= August 2012 \\| pmid \\= 22745249 \\| pmc \\= 6286148 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1225829 \\| bibcode \\= 2012Sci...337\\..816J }} The specificity of the sgRNA is determined by a 20\\-nt sequence, homologous to the genomic locus of interest, and the binding to Cas9 is mediated by a constant scaffold region of the sgRNA. The desired target site must be immediately followed (5’ to 3’) by a conserved 3 nucleotide [protospacer adjacent motif](/wiki/Protospacer_adjacent_motif \"Protospacer adjacent motif\") (PAM).{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wu X, Kriz AJ, Sharp PA \\| title \\= Target specificity of the CRISPR\\-Cas9 system \\| journal \\= Quantitative Biology \\| volume \\= 2 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 59–70 \\| date \\= June 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25722925 \\| pmc \\= 4338555 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s40484\\-014\\-0030\\-x }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Zhang F, Wen Y, Guo X \\| title \\= CRISPR/Cas9 for genome editing: progress, implications and challenges \\| journal \\= Human Molecular Genetics \\| volume \\= 23 \\| issue \\= R1 \\| pages \\= R40\\-6 \\| date \\= September 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24651067 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/hmg/ddu125 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} In order to repair the DSBs, the cell may use the highly error prone [non\\-homologous end joining](/wiki/Non-homologous_end_joining \"Non-homologous end joining\"), or [homologous recombination](/wiki/Homologous_recombination \"Homologous recombination\"). By designing suitable sgRNAs, planned insertions or deletions can be introduced into the genome. In the context of genome\\-wide LOF screens, the aim is to cause gene disruption and knockout.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2020}}", "### sgRNA libraries", "#### Constructing a Library", "To perform CRISPR knockouts on a genome\\-wide scale, collections of sgRNAs known as sgRNA libraries, or CRISPR knockout libraries, must be generated. The first step in creating a sgRNA library is to identify genomic regions of interest based on known sgRNA targeting rules.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Joung J, Konermann S, Gootenberg JS, Abudayyeh OO, Platt RJ, Brigham MD, Sanjana NE, Zhang F \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Genome\\-scale CRISPR\\-Cas9 knockout and transcriptional activation screening \\| journal \\= Nature Protocols \\| volume \\= 12 \\| issue \\= 4 \\| pages \\= 828–863 \\| date \\= April 2017 \\| pmid \\= 28333914 \\| pmc \\= 5526071 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nprot.2017\\.016 }} For example, sgRNAs are most efficient when targeting the coding regions of genes and not the 5’ and 3’ [UTRs](/wiki/Untranslated_region \"Untranslated region\"). Conserved exons present as attractive targets, and position relative to the transcription start site should be considered. Secondly, all the possible PAM sites are identified and selected for. On\\- and off\\-target activity should be analysed, as should GC content, and homopolymer stretches should be avoided. The most commonly used Cas9 endonuclease, derived from *[Streptococcus pyogenes](/wiki/Streptococcus_pyogenes \"Streptococcus pyogenes\")*, recognises a PAM sequence of NGG.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Endo M, Mikami M, Endo A, Kaya H, Itoh T, Nishimasu H, Nureki O, Toki S \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Genome editing in plants by engineered CRISPR\\-Cas9 recognizing NG PAM \\| journal \\= Nature Plants \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 14–17 \\| date \\= January 2019 \\| pmid \\= 30531939 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41477\\-018\\-0321\\-8 \\| s2cid \\= 54462288 }}", "Furthermore, specific nucleotides appear to be favoured at specific locations. Guanine is strongly favoured over cytosine on position 20 right next to the PAM motif, and on position 16 cytosine is preferred over guanine.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Doench JG, Fusi N, Sullender M, Hegde M, Vaimberg EW, Donovan KF, Smith I, Tothova Z, Wilen C, Orchard R, Virgin HW, Listgarten J, Root DE \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Optimized sgRNA design to maximize activity and minimize off\\-target effects of CRISPR\\-Cas9 \\| journal \\= Nature Biotechnology \\| volume \\= 34 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 184–191 \\| date \\= February 2016 \\| pmid \\= 26780180 \\| pmc \\= 4744125 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nbt.3437 }} For the variable nucleotide in the NGG PAM motif, it has been shown that cytosine is preferred and thymine disfavoured. With such criteria taken into account, the sgRNA library is computationally designed around the selected PAM sites.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Cancellieri S, Canver MC, Bombieri N, Giugno R, Pinello L \\| title \\= CRISPRitz: rapid, high\\-throughput, and variant\\-aware in silico off\\-target site identification for CRISPR genome editing \\| journal \\= Bioinformatics \\| volume \\= 36\\| issue \\= 7\\| date \\= November 2019 \\| pages \\= 2001–2008 \\| pmid \\= 31764961 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1093/bioinformatics/btz867 \\| pmc \\= 7141852 }}", "Multiple sgRNAs (at least 4–6\\) should be created against every single gene to limit false\\-positive detection, and negative control sgRNAs with no known targets should be included. The sgRNAs are then created by *in situ* synthesis, amplified by PCR, and cloned into a vector delivery system.", "#### Existing libraries", "Developing a new sgRNA library is a laborious and time\\-consuming process. In practice, researchers may select an existing library depending on their experimental purpose and cell lines of interest.\nAs of February 2020, the most widely used resources for genome\\-wide CRISPR knockout screens have been the two [Genome\\-Scale CRISPR Knock\\-Out (GeCKO)](https://www.addgene.org/pooled-library/zhang-human-gecko-v2/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA1-3yBRCmARIsAN7B4H3q-L7oXzYqaazZYhsLG6hugYsIOXTQrBe2cJMQywz37qDGmWcuhvwaAmfkEALw_wcB/) libraries created by the Zhang lab.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Sanjana NE, Shalem O, Zhang F \\| title \\= Improved vectors and genome\\-wide libraries for CRISPR screening \\| journal \\= Nature Methods \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 8 \\| pages \\= 783–784 \\| date \\= August 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25075903 \\| pmc \\= 4486245 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nmeth.3047 }} Available through Addgene, these lentiviral libraries respectively target human and mouse exons, and both are available as a one\\-vector system (where the sgRNAs and Cas9 are present on the same plasmid) or as a two\\-vector system (where the sgRNAs and Cas9 are present on separate plasmids). Each library is delivered as two half\\-libraries, allowing researchers to screen with 3 or 6 sgRNAs/gene.{{cite web \\| title \\= Pooled Libraries \\| url \\= https://www.addgene.org/pooled\\-library/ \\| work \\= Addgene }}", "Aside from GeCKO, a number of other CRISPR libraries have been generated and made available through Addgene. The Sabatini \\& Lander labs currently have 7 separate human and mouse libraries, including targeted sublibraries for distinct subpools such as kinases and ribosomal genes (Addgene \\#51043–51048\\). Further, improvements to the specificity of sgRNAs have resulted in ‘second generation’ libraries, such as the Brie (Addgene \\#73632\\) and Brunello (Addgene \\#73178\\) libraries generated by the Doench and Root labs, and the Toronto knockout (TKO) library (Addgene \\#1000000069\\) generated by the Moffat lab.", "### Lentiviral vectors", "[thumb\\|right\\|400px\\|Producing Infectious Transgenic Lentivirus: A Simple Schematic. Two transfer plasmids, encoding Cas9 and sgRNA separately, may be used depending on the applied library.](/wiki/File:Producing_Infectious_Transgenic_Lentivirus.png \"Producing Infectious Transgenic Lentivirus.png\")\nTargeted gene knockout using CRISPR/Cas9 requires the use of a delivery system to introduce the sgRNA and Cas9 into the cell. Although a number of different delivery systems are potentially available for CRISPR,{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Xu CL, Ruan MZ, Mahajan VB, Tsang SH \\| title \\= Viral Delivery Systems for CRISPR \\| journal \\= Viruses \\| volume \\= 11 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 28 \\| date \\= January 2019 \\| pmid \\= 30621179 \\| pmc \\= 6356701 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3390/v11010028 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Lino CA, Harper JC, Carney JP, Timlin JA \\| title \\= Delivering CRISPR: a review of the challenges and approaches \\| journal \\= Drug Delivery \\| volume \\= 25 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 1234–1257 \\| date \\= November 2018 \\| pmid \\= 29801422 \\| pmc \\= 6058482 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1080/10717544\\.2018\\.1474964 }} genome\\-wide loss\\-of\\-function screens are predominantly carried out using third generation lentiviral vectors.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Wang T, Wei JJ, Sabatini DM, Lander ES \\| title \\= Genetic screens in human cells using the CRISPR\\-Cas9 system \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 343 \\| issue \\= 6166 \\| pages \\= 80–4 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24336569 \\| pmc \\= 3972032 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1246981 \\| bibcode \\= 2014Sci...343\\...80W }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Shalem O, Sanjana NE, Hartenian E, Shi X, Scott DA, Mikkelson T, Heckl D, Ebert BL, Root DE, Doench JG, Zhang F \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Genome\\-scale CRISPR\\-Cas9 knockout screening in human cells \\| journal \\= Science \\| volume \\= 343 \\| issue \\= 6166 \\| pages \\= 84–87 \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pmid \\= 24336571 \\| pmc \\= 4089965 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1126/science.1247005 \\| bibcode \\= 2014Sci...343\\...84S }} These [lentiviral vectors](/wiki/Viral_vector%23Lentiviruses \"Viral vector#Lentiviruses\") are able to efficiently transduce a broad range of cell types and stably integrate into the genome of dividing and non\\-dividing cells.{{cite book \\| vauthors \\= Yaniz\\-Galende E, Hajjar RJ \\| chapter \\= Stem cell and gene therapy for cardiac regeneration. \\| title \\= Cardiac Regeneration and Repair \\| date \\= January 2014 \\| pages \\= 347–379 \\| publisher \\= Woodhead Publishing \\| doi \\= 10\\.1533/9780857096708\\.4\\.347 \\| isbn \\= 9780857096586 }}{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Pauwels K, Gijsbers R, Toelen J, Schambach A, Willard\\-Gallo K, Verheust C, Debyser Z, Herman P \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= State\\-of\\-the\\-art lentiviral vectors for research use: risk assessment and biosafety recommendations \\| journal \\= Current Gene Therapy \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 459–74 \\| date \\= December 2009 \\| pmid \\= 20021330 \\| doi \\= 10\\.2174/156652309790031120 }}\nThird generation lentiviral particles are produced by co\\-transfecting 293T human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells with:", "1. two packaging plasmids, one encoding [Rev](/wiki/Rev_%28HIV%29 \"Rev (HIV)\") and the other [Gag](/wiki/Group-specific_antigen \"Group-specific antigen\") and [Pol](/wiki/Pol_%28HIV%29 \"Pol (HIV)\");\n2. an [interchangeable envelope plasmid](/wiki/Pseudotyping \"Pseudotyping\") that encodes for an envelope glycoprotein of another virus (most commonly the G protein of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV\\-G));\n3. one or two (depending on the applied library) transfer plasmids, encoding for Cas9 and sgRNA, as well as selection markers.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Dull T, Zufferey R, Kelly M, Mandel RJ, Nguyen M, Trono D, Naldini L \\| title \\= A third\\-generation lentivirus vector with a conditional packaging system \\| journal \\= Journal of Virology \\| volume \\= 72 \\| issue \\= 11 \\| pages \\= 8463–71 \\| date \\= November 1998 \\| pmid \\= 9765382 \\| pmc \\= 110254 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/JVI.72\\.11\\.8463\\-8471\\.1998}}{{cite web \\| title \\= Lenti\\-X CRISPR/Cas9 System User Manual. \\| publisher \\= Takara Bio USA \\| url \\= https://www.takarabio.com/assets/documents/User%20Manual/Lenti\\-X\\_CRISPR\\-Cas9\\_System\\_User\\_Manual\\_121316\\.pdf }}", "The lentiviral particle\\-containing supernatant is harvested, concentrated and subsequently used to infect the target cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Tiscornia G, Singer O, Verma IM \\| title \\= Production and purification of lentiviral vectors \\| journal \\= Nature Protocols \\| volume \\= 1 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 241–5 \\| date \\= 2006 \\| pmid \\= 17406239 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/nprot.2006\\.37 \\| s2cid \\= 37763028 }} The exact protocol for lentiviral production will vary depending on the research aim and applied library. If a two vector\\-system is used, for example, cells are sequentially transduced with Cas9 and sgRNA in a two\\-step procedure. Although more complex, this has the advantage of a higher titre for the sgRNA library virus.", "### Phenotypic selection", "In general, there are two different formats of genome\\-wide CRISPR knockout screens: arrayed and pooled. In an arrayed screen, each well contains a specific and known sgRNA targeting a specific gene. Since the sgRNA responsible for each phenotype is known based on well location, phenotypes can be identified and analysed without requiring genetic sequencing. This format allows for the measurement of more specific cellular phenotypes, perhaps by fluorescence or luminescence, and allows researchers to use more library types and delivery methods.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Agrotis A, Ketteler R \\| title \\= A new age in functional genomics using CRISPR/Cas9 in arrayed library screening \\| journal \\= Frontiers in Genetics \\| volume \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 300 \\| date \\= 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26442115 \\| pmc \\= 4585242 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3389/fgene.2015\\.00300 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} For large\\-scale LOF screens, however, arrayed formats are considered low\\-efficiency, and expensive in terms of financial and material resources because cell populations have to be isolated and cultured individually.", "In a pooled screen, cells grown in a single vessel are transduced in bulk with viral vectors collectively containing the entire sgRNA library. To ensure that the amount of cells infected by more than one sgRNA\\-containing particle is limited, a low multiplicity of infection (MOI) (typically 0\\.3\\-0\\.6\\) is used.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Yeung AT, Choi YH, Lee AH, Hale C, Ponstingl H, Pickard D, Goulding D, Thomas M, Gill E, Kim JK, Bradley A, Hancock RE, Dougan G \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Salmonella Infection \\| journal \\= mBio \\| volume \\= 10 \\| issue \\= 5 \\| date \\= October 2019 \\| pmid \\= 31594818 \\| pmc \\= 6786873 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1128/mBio.02169\\-19 }} Evidence so far has suggested that each sgRNA should be represented in a minimum of 200 cells.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Hart T, Chandrashekhar M, Aregger M, Steinhart Z, Brown KR, MacLeod G, Mis M, Zimmermann M, Fradet\\-Turcotte A, Sun S, Mero P, Dirks P, Sidhu S, Roth FP, Rissland OS, Durocher D, Angers S, Moffat J \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= High\\-Resolution CRISPR Screens Reveal Fitness Genes and Genotype\\-Specific Cancer Liabilities \\| journal \\= Cell \\| volume \\= 163 \\| issue \\= 6 \\| pages \\= 1515–26 \\| date \\= December 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26627737 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1016/j.cell.2015\\.11\\.015 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Transduced cells will be selected for, followed by positive or negative selection for the phenotype of interest, and genetic sequencing will be necessary to identify the integrated sgRNAs.", "### Next\\-generation sequencing \\& hit analysis", "Following phenotypic selection, genomic DNA is extracted from the selected clones, alongside a control cell population.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Slesarev A, Viswanathan L, Tang Y, Borgschulte T, Achtien K, Razafsky D, Onions D, Chang A, Cote C \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= CRISPR/CAS9 targeted CAPTURE of mammalian genomic regions for characterization by NGS \\| journal \\= Scientific Reports \\| volume \\= 9 \\| issue \\= 1 \\| pages \\= 3587 \\| date \\= March 2019 \\| pmid \\= 30837529 \\| pmc \\= 6401131 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1038/s41598\\-019\\-39667\\-4 \\| bibcode \\= 2019NatSR...9\\.3587S }} In the most common protocols for genome\\-wide knockouts, a 'Next\\-generation sequencing (NGS) library' is created by a two step polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The first step amplifies the sgRNA region, using primers specific to the lentiviral integration sequence, and the second step adds Illumina i5 and i7 sequences. NGS of the PCR products allows the recovered sgRNAs to be identified, and a quantification step can be used to determine the relative abundance of each sgRNA.", "The final step in the screen is to computationally evaluate the significantly enriched or depleted sgRNAs, trace them back to their corresponding genes, and in turn determine which genes and pathways could be responsible for the observed phenotype. Several algorithms are currently available for this purpose, with the most popular being the Model\\-based Analysis of Genome\\-wide CRISPR/Cas9 Knockout (MAGeCK) method.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li W, Xu H, Xiao T, Cong L, Love MI, Zhang F, Irizarry RA, Liu JS, Brown M, Liu XS \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= MAGeCK enables robust identification of essential genes from genome\\-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens \\| journal \\= Genome Biology \\| volume \\= 15 \\| issue \\= 12 \\| pages \\= 554 \\| date \\= 2014 \\| pmid \\= 25476604 \\| pmc \\= 4290824 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/s13059\\-014\\-0554\\-4 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Developed specifically for CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens in 2014, MAGeCK demonstrated better performance compared with alternative algorithms at the time, and has since demonstrated robust results and high sensitivity across different experimental conditions.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Li W, Köster J, Xu H, Chen CH, Xiao T, Liu JS, Brown M, Liu XS \\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\| title \\= Quality control, modeling, and visualization of CRISPR screens with MAGeCK\\-VISPR \\| journal \\= Genome Biology \\| volume \\= 16 \\| pages \\= 281 \\| date \\= December 2015 \\| pmid \\= 26673418 \\| pmc \\= 4699372 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1186/s13059\\-015\\-0843\\-6 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} As of 2015, the MAGeCK algorithm has been extended to introduce quality control measurements, and account for the previously overlooked sgRNA knockout efficiency. A web\\-based visualisation tool (VISPR) was also integrated, allowing users to interactively explore the results, analysis, and quality controls.", "" ]
Key indices ----------- ### Population growth The population had increased by 132,150,000 (11\.66%) over the population of 1,133,680,000 from the Fourth National Census on 1 July 1990\. The average rate of population growth per year was 1\.07%. ### Households There were 348,370,000 [households](/wiki/Household "Household"), with 1,198,390,000 people. The average household size was 3\.44 people, a decrease of 0\.52 from the 1990 average household size of 3\.96\. ### Sex There were 653,550,000 males (51\.63% of the population) and 612,280,000 females (48\.37%). The [sex ratio](/wiki/Sex_ratio "Sex ratio") was 106\.74 men for every 100 women. ### Age There were 289,790,000 children aged 0\-14, representing 22\.89% of the population; 887,930,000 people aged 15–64, representing 70\.15% of the population; and 88,110,000 people aged 65 and older, representing 6\.96% of the population. The proportion of people 14 and under had decreased by 4\.8% since the 1990 census, and the proportion of people 65 and over had increased by 1\.39%. ### Educational attainment Among the population, 45,710,000 people had attended higher education; 141,090,000 people had attended high school (including vocational high school); 429,890,000 had attended middle school; and 451,910,000 had attended elementary school. (These figures include people who completed the level of education indicated, people who failed to complete it, and current students.) In comparison with the 1990 census, the following changes happened (per 100,000 people): * People with higher education increased from 1,422 to 3,611\. * People with high school education increased from 8,039 to 11,146\. * People with middle school education increased from 23,344 to 33,961\. * People with only elementary school education decreased from 37,057 to 35,701\. The [illiteracy](/wiki/Illiteracy "Illiteracy") rate (people age 15 and above who are unable to read or can only read very little) was 85,070,000 people. The illiteracy rate had decreased from 15\.88% in 1990 to 6\.72% in 2000, a decrease of 9\.16 percentage points. | \+Educational attainment (age 15\+) | | Level of education | 2000 census | | | Population | % | None | 84,297,682 | 8\.8 | Literacy class (扫盲班) | 20,767,294 | 2\.2 | Elementary school (小学) | 291,102,294 | 30\.4 | Middle school (初中) | 380,276,707 | 39\.7 | High school (高中) | 98,548,414 | 10\.3 | Vocational secondary school (中专) | 39,073,590 | 4\.1 | Vocational college (专科) | 28,984,109 | 3\.0 | Bachelor's degree (本科) | 14,150,609 | 1\.5 | Graduate school (研究生) | 883,933 | 0\.1 || Total | 958,084,632 | | [Illiteracy](/wiki/Illiteracy "Illiteracy") rate | 86,992,069 | 9\.1 | ### Urban and rural population The urban population was 455,940,000 (36\.09%), and the rural population was 807,390,000 (63\.91%). The urban population had increased by 9\.86% since 1990\.
[ "Key indices\n-----------", "### Population growth", "The population had increased by 132,150,000 (11\\.66%) over the population of 1,133,680,000 from the Fourth National Census on 1 July 1990\\. The average rate of population growth per year was 1\\.07%.", "### Households", "There were 348,370,000 [households](/wiki/Household \"Household\"), with 1,198,390,000 people. The average household size was 3\\.44 people, a decrease of 0\\.52 from the 1990 average household size of 3\\.96\\.", "### Sex", "There were 653,550,000 males (51\\.63% of the population) and 612,280,000 females (48\\.37%). The [sex ratio](/wiki/Sex_ratio \"Sex ratio\") was 106\\.74 men for every 100 women.", "### Age", "There were 289,790,000 children aged 0\\-14, representing 22\\.89% of the population; 887,930,000 people aged 15–64, representing 70\\.15% of the population; and 88,110,000 people aged 65 and older, representing 6\\.96% of the population. The proportion of people 14 and under had decreased by 4\\.8% since the 1990 census, and the proportion of people 65 and over had increased by 1\\.39%.", "### Educational attainment", "Among the population, 45,710,000 people had attended higher education; 141,090,000 people had attended high school (including vocational high school); 429,890,000 had attended middle school; and 451,910,000 had attended elementary school. (These figures include people who completed the level of education indicated, people who failed to complete it, and current students.)", "In comparison with the 1990 census, the following changes happened (per 100,000 people):\n* People with higher education increased from 1,422 to 3,611\\.\n* People with high school education increased from 8,039 to 11,146\\.\n* People with middle school education increased from 23,344 to 33,961\\.\n* People with only elementary school education decreased from 37,057 to 35,701\\.", "The [illiteracy](/wiki/Illiteracy \"Illiteracy\") rate (people age 15 and above who are unable to read or can only read very little) was 85,070,000 people. The illiteracy rate had decreased from 15\\.88% in 1990 to 6\\.72% in 2000, a decrease of 9\\.16 percentage points.", "", "| \\+Educational attainment (age 15\\+) |", "| Level of education | 2000 census | |\n| Population | % |", "None |\n 84,297,682 |\n 8\\.8 |\n Literacy class (扫盲班) |\n 20,767,294 |\n 2\\.2 |\n Elementary school (小学) |\n 291,102,294 |\n 30\\.4 |\n Middle school (初中) |\n 380,276,707 |\n 39\\.7 |\n High school (高中) |\n 98,548,414 |\n 10\\.3 |\n Vocational secondary school (中专) |\n 39,073,590 |\n 4\\.1 |\n Vocational college (专科) |\n 28,984,109 |\n 3\\.0 |\n Bachelor's degree (本科) |\n 14,150,609 |\n 1\\.5 |\n Graduate school (研究生) |\n 883,933 |\n 0\\.1 || Total | 958,084,632 | |", "[Illiteracy](/wiki/Illiteracy \"Illiteracy\") rate |\n 86,992,069 |\n 9\\.1 |", "### Urban and rural population", "The urban population was 455,940,000 (36\\.09%), and the rural population was 807,390,000 (63\\.91%). The urban population had increased by 9\\.86% since 1990\\.", "" ]
Coaching -------- Davis helped make the [run and shoot offense](/wiki/Run_and_shoot_offense "Run and shoot offense") famous as a coach, revolutionizing football in the 1960s and 1970s.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/columns/story?columnist\=schlabach\_mark\&id\=4340650\|title\=Spread concepts around for decades\|last\=Schlabach\|first\=Mark\|date\=July 20, 2009\|work\=ESPN.com\|access\-date\=July 21, 2009}} In developing his run and shoot offense, Davis espoused the theories of Glenn "Tiger" Ellison, football coach at [Middletown High School](/wiki/Middletown_High_School_%28Ohio%29 "Middletown High School (Ohio)") in [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio "Ohio"), who wrote the book *Run \& Shoot Football: Offense of the Future*. Davis utilized the offense in a coaching career that included 15 years at the high school level in Oregon, at the college level, and professionally in the NFL, CFL, USFL, WLAF, and Arena League. ### High school Davis spent 15 seasons coaching high school football in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"), culminating in a 1973 state championship at [Hillsboro High School](/wiki/Hillsboro_High_School_%28Oregon%29 "Hillsboro High School (Oregon)").{{cite news\|title\=Recreation and Leisure: Hillsboro offense produces '73 AAA grid title\|last\=McKinney\|first\=Dick\|date\=October 19, 1976\|work\=Hillsboro Argus\|page\=5}}{{cite journal\|last\=Moore\|first\=Kenny\|title\=Of Mouse And His Men\|journal\=\[\[Sports Illustrated]]\|date\=November 12, 1979\|url\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1126294/2/index.htm\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227134422/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1126294/2/index.htm\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=December 27, 2013\|accessdate\=November 10, 2012}} That team went 11–1 and set school marks in seven team season offensive categories and 15 records overall. ### College Davis then moved on to take the head coaching position at [Portland State University](/wiki/Portland_State_University "Portland State University"), where he coached from 1975 to 1980\. He led the PSU football program to a 42–24 record over six seasons, averaging 38 points and nearly 500 yards of offense per game. PSU led the nation in scoring three times. The unique passing game made stars out of Davis' two main quarterbacks, [June Jones](/wiki/June_Jones "June Jones") and [Neil Lomax](/wiki/Neil_Lomax "Neil Lomax"). In 1975, Jones, former Southern Methodist University and [University of Hawai{{okina}}i](/wiki/Hawaii_Warriors_football "Hawaii Warriors football") head coach, threw for a Division II record 3,518 yards. Davis' next quarterback, Lomax, set NCAA records of 13,220 yards and 106 touchdowns in 42 games. Under Davis' direction, Portland State set 20 NCAA Division II offensive records. Davis left Portland State to serve as offensive coordinator at [UC Berkeley](/wiki/California_Golden_Bears_football "California Golden Bears football") for the 1981 season. After Cal began the year with a 1–6 record, Davis resigned upon being told that head coach [Roger Theder](/wiki/Roger_Theder "Roger Theder") intended to make changes to the offensive scheme.{{cite web \|title\='Mouse' Davis resigns Cal post \|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=860\&dat\=19811028\&id\=V4dUAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=QY8DAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3016,2355690\&hl\=en \|website\=news.google.com \|publisher\=Ellensburg Daily Record \|access\-date\=December 28, 2022 \|date\=October 28, 1981}} For the 2004–2006 seasons, Davis served as an assistant coach for Jones at Hawai{{okina}}i. Then in February 2007, he returned to Portland State to serve as offensive coordinator for new PSU head coach [Jerry Glanville](/wiki/Jerry_Glanville "Jerry Glanville")'s staff. He retired at the age of 76 on June 1, 2009, but later returned to the University of Hawai{{okina}}i as an assistant coach on June 25, 2010\.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.staradvertiser.com/sports/20100626\_Mouse\_back\_in\_business\_in\_Hawaii.html \|title\=Mouse back in business in Hawaii \- Hawaii Sports \- Honolulu Star\-Advertiser \|publisher\=Staradvertiser.com \|accessdate\=December 27, 2013}} Davis was an inaugural member of the Portland State Athletics Hall of Fame when he was inducted in 1997\. ### Professional Davis has been head coach of the now\-defunct [USFL](/wiki/United_States_Football_League "United States Football League")'s [Denver Gold](/wiki/Denver_Gold "Denver Gold"), the [WLAF](/wiki/World_League_of_American_Football "World League of American Football")'s [New York/New Jersey Knights](/wiki/New_York/New_Jersey_Knights "New York/New Jersey Knights"), and the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League_%281987%E2%80%932008%29 "Arena Football League (1987–2008)")'s [Detroit Fury](/wiki/Detroit_Fury "Detroit Fury") and the [af2](/wiki/Af2 "Af2")'s [San Diego Riptide](/wiki/San_Diego_Riptide "San Diego Riptide"). He was also an assistant coach with the [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League")'s [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons") and [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") and with the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League"). In 1982, Davis joined the Toronto Argonauts as offensive coordinator and turned the team into a contender instantly with his pass\-happy club. Led by his tandem of QBs [Condredge Holloway](/wiki/Condredge_Holloway "Condredge Holloway") (Tennessee) and Joe Barnes (Texas Tech). They finished the regular season with a record of (9–6–1\) Davis' Argos lost in the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 to the [Warren Moon](/wiki/Warren_Moon "Warren Moon")\-led Edmonton Eskimos to the score of 32–16\. Davis left the Argonauts prior to the 1983 season, however the team, using the offense he had installed, finished the regular season with a commanding (12–4\) record and did win the 71st Grey Cup that year over the British Columbia Lions to the score of 18–17\. It was their first championship in 31 years. In 1984, Davis headed back to the US to take the offensive coordinator job with the USFL expansion Houston Gamblers. His quarterback was a rookie from the University of Miami named Jim Kelly. The "Mouseketeers" offensive unit lit up the USFL in their first year of existence passing for 5,793 yards and 45 passing touchdowns \- ending their expansion season with a (13–5\) record. The Gamblers' offense became the first team in pro football history to have two receivers with over 100 receptions in a single season: Richard Johnson with 115 and Ricky Sanders with 101\. In 1985, Davis took his first head coaching job at the professional level when he took the [reins](/wiki/Rein "Rein") of the Denver Gold, bringing his run\-and\-shoot offense to the Mile High City. He once again had a tandem of QBs in Vince Evans and Bob Gagliano. The Gold finished the season with its first playoff berth with an (11–7\) mark but lost in the first round to the Memphis Showboats. Davis was slated to become head coach of the St. Louis Lightning of the [World Indoor Football League](/wiki/World_Indoor_Football_League "World Indoor Football League") in 1988, but the league dissolved before the season began. 1991 Davis took the head coaching job of the New York/New Jersey Knights of the WLAF. The 1991 season had Davis and the Knights go (5–5\) and won the North American East Division. But they bowed out of the playoffs semifinal to the eventual champion London Monarchs. The following year saw their record improve to (6–4\) and second place in the division but missed qualifying for the playoffs. In 1993, he again joined the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") as an assistant coach but the team had a disastrous season finishing 3–15 as it was an offense ill\-suited to [Tracy Ham](/wiki/Tracy_Ham "Tracy Ham")'s talents and Ham did not have the best weapons around him.
[ "Coaching\n--------", "Davis helped make the [run and shoot offense](/wiki/Run_and_shoot_offense \"Run and shoot offense\") famous as a coach, revolutionizing football in the 1960s and 1970s.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/columns/story?columnist\\=schlabach\\_mark\\&id\\=4340650\\|title\\=Spread concepts around for decades\\|last\\=Schlabach\\|first\\=Mark\\|date\\=July 20, 2009\\|work\\=ESPN.com\\|access\\-date\\=July 21, 2009}} In developing his run and shoot offense, Davis espoused the theories of Glenn \"Tiger\" Ellison, football coach at [Middletown High School](/wiki/Middletown_High_School_%28Ohio%29 \"Middletown High School (Ohio)\") in [Ohio](/wiki/Ohio \"Ohio\"), who wrote the book *Run \\& Shoot Football: Offense of the Future*. Davis utilized the offense in a coaching career that included 15 years at the high school level in Oregon, at the college level, and professionally in the NFL, CFL, USFL, WLAF, and Arena League.", "### High school", "Davis spent 15 seasons coaching high school football in [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"), culminating in a 1973 state championship at [Hillsboro High School](/wiki/Hillsboro_High_School_%28Oregon%29 \"Hillsboro High School (Oregon)\").{{cite news\\|title\\=Recreation and Leisure: Hillsboro offense produces '73 AAA grid title\\|last\\=McKinney\\|first\\=Dick\\|date\\=October 19, 1976\\|work\\=Hillsboro Argus\\|page\\=5}}{{cite journal\\|last\\=Moore\\|first\\=Kenny\\|title\\=Of Mouse And His Men\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Sports Illustrated]]\\|date\\=November 12, 1979\\|url\\=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1126294/2/index.htm\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227134422/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1126294/2/index.htm\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=December 27, 2013\\|accessdate\\=November 10, 2012}} That team went 11–1 and set school marks in seven team season offensive categories and 15 records overall.", "### College", "Davis then moved on to take the head coaching position at [Portland State University](/wiki/Portland_State_University \"Portland State University\"), where he coached from 1975 to 1980\\. He led the PSU football program to a 42–24 record over six seasons, averaging 38 points and nearly 500 yards of offense per game. PSU led the nation in scoring three times. The unique passing game made stars out of Davis' two main quarterbacks, [June Jones](/wiki/June_Jones \"June Jones\") and [Neil Lomax](/wiki/Neil_Lomax \"Neil Lomax\"). In 1975, Jones, former Southern Methodist University and [University of Hawai{{okina}}i](/wiki/Hawaii_Warriors_football \"Hawaii Warriors football\") head coach, threw for a Division II record 3,518 yards. Davis' next quarterback, Lomax, set NCAA records of 13,220 yards and 106 touchdowns in 42 games. Under Davis' direction, Portland State set 20 NCAA Division II offensive records.", "Davis left Portland State to serve as offensive coordinator at [UC Berkeley](/wiki/California_Golden_Bears_football \"California Golden Bears football\") for the 1981 season. After Cal began the year with a 1–6 record, Davis resigned upon being told that head coach [Roger Theder](/wiki/Roger_Theder \"Roger Theder\") intended to make changes to the offensive scheme.{{cite web \\|title\\='Mouse' Davis resigns Cal post \\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=860\\&dat\\=19811028\\&id\\=V4dUAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=QY8DAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3016,2355690\\&hl\\=en \\|website\\=news.google.com \\|publisher\\=Ellensburg Daily Record \\|access\\-date\\=December 28, 2022 \\|date\\=October 28, 1981}}", "For the 2004–2006 seasons, Davis served as an assistant coach for Jones at Hawai{{okina}}i. Then in February 2007, he returned to Portland State to serve as offensive coordinator for new PSU head coach [Jerry Glanville](/wiki/Jerry_Glanville \"Jerry Glanville\")'s staff. He retired at the age of 76 on June 1, 2009, but later returned to the University of Hawai{{okina}}i as an assistant coach on June 25, 2010\\.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.staradvertiser.com/sports/20100626\\_Mouse\\_back\\_in\\_business\\_in\\_Hawaii.html \\|title\\=Mouse back in business in Hawaii \\- Hawaii Sports \\- Honolulu Star\\-Advertiser \\|publisher\\=Staradvertiser.com \\|accessdate\\=December 27, 2013}}", "Davis was an inaugural member of the Portland State Athletics Hall of Fame when he was inducted in 1997\\.", "### Professional", "Davis has been head coach of the now\\-defunct [USFL](/wiki/United_States_Football_League \"United States Football League\")'s [Denver Gold](/wiki/Denver_Gold \"Denver Gold\"), the [WLAF](/wiki/World_League_of_American_Football \"World League of American Football\")'s [New York/New Jersey Knights](/wiki/New_York/New_Jersey_Knights \"New York/New Jersey Knights\"), and the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League_%281987%E2%80%932008%29 \"Arena Football League (1987–2008)\")'s [Detroit Fury](/wiki/Detroit_Fury \"Detroit Fury\") and the [af2](/wiki/Af2 \"Af2\")'s [San Diego Riptide](/wiki/San_Diego_Riptide \"San Diego Riptide\"). He was also an assistant coach with the [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\")'s [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\") and [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") and with the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\").", "In 1982, Davis joined the Toronto Argonauts as offensive coordinator and turned the team into a contender instantly with his pass\\-happy club. Led by his tandem of QBs [Condredge Holloway](/wiki/Condredge_Holloway \"Condredge Holloway\") (Tennessee) and Joe Barnes (Texas Tech). They finished the regular season with a record of (9–6–1\\) Davis' Argos lost in the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 to the [Warren Moon](/wiki/Warren_Moon \"Warren Moon\")\\-led Edmonton Eskimos to the score of 32–16\\.", "Davis left the Argonauts prior to the 1983 season, however the team, using the offense he had installed, finished the regular season with a commanding (12–4\\) record and did win the 71st Grey Cup that year over the British Columbia Lions to the score of 18–17\\. It was their first championship in 31 years.", "In 1984, Davis headed back to the US to take the offensive coordinator job with the USFL expansion Houston Gamblers. His quarterback was a rookie from the University of Miami named Jim Kelly. The \"Mouseketeers\" offensive unit lit up the USFL in their first year of existence passing for 5,793 yards and 45 passing touchdowns \\- ending their expansion season with a (13–5\\) record. The Gamblers' offense became the first team in pro football history to have two receivers with over 100 receptions in a single season: Richard Johnson with 115 and Ricky Sanders with 101\\.", "In 1985, Davis took his first head coaching job at the professional level when he took the [reins](/wiki/Rein \"Rein\") of the Denver Gold, bringing his run\\-and\\-shoot offense to the Mile High City. He once again had a tandem of QBs in Vince Evans and Bob Gagliano. The Gold finished the season with its first playoff berth with an (11–7\\) mark but lost in the first round to the Memphis Showboats.", "Davis was slated to become head coach of the St. Louis Lightning of the [World Indoor Football League](/wiki/World_Indoor_Football_League \"World Indoor Football League\") in 1988, but the league dissolved before the season began.", "1991 Davis took the head coaching job of the New York/New Jersey Knights of the WLAF. The 1991 season had Davis and the Knights go (5–5\\) and won the North American East Division. But they bowed out of the playoffs semifinal to the eventual champion London Monarchs. The following year saw their record improve to (6–4\\) and second place in the division but missed qualifying for the playoffs.", "In 1993, he again joined the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") as an assistant coach but the team had a disastrous season finishing 3–15 as it was an offense ill\\-suited to [Tracy Ham](/wiki/Tracy_Ham \"Tracy Ham\")'s talents and Ham did not have the best weapons around him.", "" ]
### Professional Davis has been head coach of the now\-defunct [USFL](/wiki/United_States_Football_League "United States Football League")'s [Denver Gold](/wiki/Denver_Gold "Denver Gold"), the [WLAF](/wiki/World_League_of_American_Football "World League of American Football")'s [New York/New Jersey Knights](/wiki/New_York/New_Jersey_Knights "New York/New Jersey Knights"), and the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League_%281987%E2%80%932008%29 "Arena Football League (1987–2008)")'s [Detroit Fury](/wiki/Detroit_Fury "Detroit Fury") and the [af2](/wiki/Af2 "Af2")'s [San Diego Riptide](/wiki/San_Diego_Riptide "San Diego Riptide"). He was also an assistant coach with the [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League")'s [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons "Atlanta Falcons") and [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions "Detroit Lions") and with the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League "Canadian Football League"). In 1982, Davis joined the Toronto Argonauts as offensive coordinator and turned the team into a contender instantly with his pass\-happy club. Led by his tandem of QBs [Condredge Holloway](/wiki/Condredge_Holloway "Condredge Holloway") (Tennessee) and Joe Barnes (Texas Tech). They finished the regular season with a record of (9–6–1\) Davis' Argos lost in the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 to the [Warren Moon](/wiki/Warren_Moon "Warren Moon")\-led Edmonton Eskimos to the score of 32–16\. Davis left the Argonauts prior to the 1983 season, however the team, using the offense he had installed, finished the regular season with a commanding (12–4\) record and did win the 71st Grey Cup that year over the British Columbia Lions to the score of 18–17\. It was their first championship in 31 years. In 1984, Davis headed back to the US to take the offensive coordinator job with the USFL expansion Houston Gamblers. His quarterback was a rookie from the University of Miami named Jim Kelly. The "Mouseketeers" offensive unit lit up the USFL in their first year of existence passing for 5,793 yards and 45 passing touchdowns \- ending their expansion season with a (13–5\) record. The Gamblers' offense became the first team in pro football history to have two receivers with over 100 receptions in a single season: Richard Johnson with 115 and Ricky Sanders with 101\. In 1985, Davis took his first head coaching job at the professional level when he took the [reins](/wiki/Rein "Rein") of the Denver Gold, bringing his run\-and\-shoot offense to the Mile High City. He once again had a tandem of QBs in Vince Evans and Bob Gagliano. The Gold finished the season with its first playoff berth with an (11–7\) mark but lost in the first round to the Memphis Showboats. Davis was slated to become head coach of the St. Louis Lightning of the [World Indoor Football League](/wiki/World_Indoor_Football_League "World Indoor Football League") in 1988, but the league dissolved before the season began. 1991 Davis took the head coaching job of the New York/New Jersey Knights of the WLAF. The 1991 season had Davis and the Knights go (5–5\) and won the North American East Division. But they bowed out of the playoffs semifinal to the eventual champion London Monarchs. The following year saw their record improve to (6–4\) and second place in the division but missed qualifying for the playoffs. In 1993, he again joined the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts "Toronto Argonauts") as an assistant coach but the team had a disastrous season finishing 3–15 as it was an offense ill\-suited to [Tracy Ham](/wiki/Tracy_Ham "Tracy Ham")'s talents and Ham did not have the best weapons around him.
[ "### Professional", "Davis has been head coach of the now\\-defunct [USFL](/wiki/United_States_Football_League \"United States Football League\")'s [Denver Gold](/wiki/Denver_Gold \"Denver Gold\"), the [WLAF](/wiki/World_League_of_American_Football \"World League of American Football\")'s [New York/New Jersey Knights](/wiki/New_York/New_Jersey_Knights \"New York/New Jersey Knights\"), and the [Arena Football League](/wiki/Arena_Football_League_%281987%E2%80%932008%29 \"Arena Football League (1987–2008)\")'s [Detroit Fury](/wiki/Detroit_Fury \"Detroit Fury\") and the [af2](/wiki/Af2 \"Af2\")'s [San Diego Riptide](/wiki/San_Diego_Riptide \"San Diego Riptide\"). He was also an assistant coach with the [NFL](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\")'s [Atlanta Falcons](/wiki/Atlanta_Falcons \"Atlanta Falcons\") and [Detroit Lions](/wiki/Detroit_Lions \"Detroit Lions\") and with the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") in the [Canadian Football League](/wiki/Canadian_Football_League \"Canadian Football League\").", "In 1982, Davis joined the Toronto Argonauts as offensive coordinator and turned the team into a contender instantly with his pass\\-happy club. Led by his tandem of QBs [Condredge Holloway](/wiki/Condredge_Holloway \"Condredge Holloway\") (Tennessee) and Joe Barnes (Texas Tech). They finished the regular season with a record of (9–6–1\\) Davis' Argos lost in the 70th Grey Cup in 1982 to the [Warren Moon](/wiki/Warren_Moon \"Warren Moon\")\\-led Edmonton Eskimos to the score of 32–16\\.", "Davis left the Argonauts prior to the 1983 season, however the team, using the offense he had installed, finished the regular season with a commanding (12–4\\) record and did win the 71st Grey Cup that year over the British Columbia Lions to the score of 18–17\\. It was their first championship in 31 years.", "In 1984, Davis headed back to the US to take the offensive coordinator job with the USFL expansion Houston Gamblers. His quarterback was a rookie from the University of Miami named Jim Kelly. The \"Mouseketeers\" offensive unit lit up the USFL in their first year of existence passing for 5,793 yards and 45 passing touchdowns \\- ending their expansion season with a (13–5\\) record. The Gamblers' offense became the first team in pro football history to have two receivers with over 100 receptions in a single season: Richard Johnson with 115 and Ricky Sanders with 101\\.", "In 1985, Davis took his first head coaching job at the professional level when he took the [reins](/wiki/Rein \"Rein\") of the Denver Gold, bringing his run\\-and\\-shoot offense to the Mile High City. He once again had a tandem of QBs in Vince Evans and Bob Gagliano. The Gold finished the season with its first playoff berth with an (11–7\\) mark but lost in the first round to the Memphis Showboats.", "Davis was slated to become head coach of the St. Louis Lightning of the [World Indoor Football League](/wiki/World_Indoor_Football_League \"World Indoor Football League\") in 1988, but the league dissolved before the season began.", "1991 Davis took the head coaching job of the New York/New Jersey Knights of the WLAF. The 1991 season had Davis and the Knights go (5–5\\) and won the North American East Division. But they bowed out of the playoffs semifinal to the eventual champion London Monarchs. The following year saw their record improve to (6–4\\) and second place in the division but missed qualifying for the playoffs.", "In 1993, he again joined the [Toronto Argonauts](/wiki/Toronto_Argonauts \"Toronto Argonauts\") as an assistant coach but the team had a disastrous season finishing 3–15 as it was an offense ill\\-suited to [Tracy Ham](/wiki/Tracy_Ham \"Tracy Ham\")'s talents and Ham did not have the best weapons around him.", "" ]
The Grand Crus of Maison Louis Latour ------------------------------------- **Corton\-Charlemagne** [Corton\-Charlemagne](/wiki/Corton-Charlemagne "Corton-Charlemagne") is a [Grand Cru](/wiki/Grand_cru_%28Burgundy%29 "Grand cru (Burgundy)") from the hill of [Corton](/wiki/Corton_%28wine%29 "Corton (wine)") in the [Côte de Beaune appellation](/wiki/C%C3%B4te_de_Beaune "Côte de Beaune"). It is one of the flagship wines of Maison Louis Latour. This vineyard is close to the famous "Clos Charlemagne" which was property of the [Emperor Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne") until 775\. The word “Corton” is a contraction of “Curtis Othonis” which means “domain of Othon”, an emperor.[Dictionary of Wine (Dico du Vin)](http://www.dico-du-vin.com/corton-charlemagnecharlemagne-aoc-cote-de-beaune-grand-cru/) Paradoxically, it was the worst crisis that the Burgundian vineyards ever knew that gave birth to this wine. The limestone\-rich soil at the top of the hillside had been ignored before Louis Latour – the 7th generation of Latour – decided to plant Chardonnay instead of the [Aligoté](/wiki/Aligot%C3%A9 "Aligoté") that was destroyed by [phylloxera](/wiki/Phylloxera "Phylloxera"). As an homage, his signature still graces the Corton\-Charlemagne label today. Situated at the summit of the hill of Corton, the vineyards reach a perfect maturity thanks to their southern exposure. They are overseen by the cross of Charlemagne, a monument given by the [Hospices de Beaune](/wiki/Hospices_de_Beaune "Hospices de Beaune") in 1943 to Louis\-Noël Latour. [thumb\|Grand Cru wine selection, Louis Latour](/wiki/File:Montage_Maison_Louis_LATOUR_S_Chapuis_130.jpg "Montage Maison Louis LATOUR S Chapuis 130.jpg") **Château Corton Grancey** The hill of Corton is known for the quality of its soil and its exposure. The cuvée Château Corton Grancey Grand Cru, is only produced in the best years, it was created in order to honor the history of the Domaine. It is a blend of five Grand Crus of Corton: *Les Bressandes, Les Perrières, Les Grèves, Les Chaumes,* and *Le Clos du Roi.* The wines are vinified and aged separately, then the best barrels are selected to produce the cuvée. "Grancey" was the name of the last owners of the château located on the Rue des Corton (street of Corton) before the purchase of this building by the Latour family in 1891\. **Chambertin Grand Cru «Cuvée Héritiers Latour»** The Grand Cru of the Côte de Nuits, Chambertin was already cultivated in the 6th century by the monks of the Bèze Abbey. At the end of the 19th century, the Latour family bought 0\.81 hectares in the Chambertin Grand Cru appellation, constituting a single parcel, from top to bottom of the hillside, closer to Latricières\-Chambertin than to Clos de Bèze. The terroir of Chambertin is due to a geological phenomenon called "cone alluvial". It is a complex terroir characterized by brown limestone soils, which gives complex and powerful wines. **Romanée\-Saint\-Vivant Grand Cru «Les Quatre Journaux»** The Grand Cru of the Côte de Nuits, Romanée\-Saint\-Vivant bears the name of the priory of Saint\-Vivant. The monks were the first to cultivate vines around [Vosne\-Romanée](/wiki/Vosne-Roman%C3%A9e_wine "Vosne-Romanée wine").{{Cite web \|title\=Romanée Saint\-Vivant \- Appellations et Crus classés \|url\=https://www.abcduvin.com/index.php/term/,6c53ad9f5fa7aa706e53aeabb1ac.xhtml \|access\-date\=2023\-02\-08 \|website\=www.abcduvin.com}} The Latour family has owned 0\.8 hectares of Romanée\-Saint\-Vivant since December 1898, purchased by the Domaine from the heirs of the Marey\-Monge and Larey families. The parcel "Les Quatre Journaux" is located southwest of Romanée\-Saint\-Vivant, close to [Romanée\-Conti](/wiki/Roman%C3%A9e-Conti "Romanée-Conti"). **Chevalier Montrachet Grand Cru «Les Demoiselles»** The [Chevalier\-Montrachet](/wiki/Chevalier-Montrachet "Chevalier-Montrachet") parcel is located just above the [Montrachet](/wiki/Montrachet "Montrachet") parcel and is an exception because its brown soils are usually reserved for Pinot Noir. However, here they produce famous Chardonnays. In 1913, Domaine Latour bought 0\.51 hectare of Chevalier\-Montrachet from the widow of Léonce Bocquet, restorer of part of the Château du Clos de Vougeot. This parcel was named "Les Demoiselles" in homage to Adèle and Julie Voillot, the daughters of a Beaune General at the beginning of the 19th century, who owned the parcel and died without marrying.
[ "The Grand Crus of Maison Louis Latour\n-------------------------------------", "**Corton\\-Charlemagne**", "[Corton\\-Charlemagne](/wiki/Corton-Charlemagne \"Corton-Charlemagne\") is a [Grand Cru](/wiki/Grand_cru_%28Burgundy%29 \"Grand cru (Burgundy)\") from the hill of [Corton](/wiki/Corton_%28wine%29 \"Corton (wine)\") in the [Côte de Beaune appellation](/wiki/C%C3%B4te_de_Beaune \"Côte de Beaune\"). It is one of the flagship wines of Maison Louis Latour. This vineyard is close to the famous \"Clos Charlemagne\" which was property of the [Emperor Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\") until 775\\. The word “Corton” is a contraction of “Curtis Othonis” which means “domain of Othon”, an emperor.[Dictionary of Wine (Dico du Vin)](http://www.dico-du-vin.com/corton-charlemagnecharlemagne-aoc-cote-de-beaune-grand-cru/)", "Paradoxically, it was the worst crisis that the Burgundian vineyards ever knew that gave birth to this wine. The limestone\\-rich soil at the top of the hillside had been ignored before Louis Latour – the 7th generation of Latour – decided to plant Chardonnay instead of the [Aligoté](/wiki/Aligot%C3%A9 \"Aligoté\") that was destroyed by [phylloxera](/wiki/Phylloxera \"Phylloxera\"). As an homage, his signature still graces the Corton\\-Charlemagne label today. Situated at the summit of the hill of Corton, the vineyards reach a perfect maturity thanks to their southern exposure. They are overseen by the cross of Charlemagne, a monument given by the [Hospices de Beaune](/wiki/Hospices_de_Beaune \"Hospices de Beaune\") in 1943 to Louis\\-Noël Latour.\n[thumb\\|Grand Cru wine selection, Louis Latour](/wiki/File:Montage_Maison_Louis_LATOUR_S_Chapuis_130.jpg \"Montage Maison Louis LATOUR S Chapuis 130.jpg\")\n**Château Corton Grancey**", "The hill of Corton is known for the quality of its soil and its exposure. The cuvée Château Corton Grancey Grand Cru, is only produced in the best years, it was created in order to honor the history of the Domaine. It is a blend of five Grand Crus of Corton: *Les Bressandes, Les Perrières, Les Grèves, Les Chaumes,* and *Le Clos du Roi.* The wines are vinified and aged separately, then the best barrels are selected to produce the cuvée.", "\"Grancey\" was the name of the last owners of the château located on the Rue des Corton (street of Corton) before the purchase of this building by the Latour family in 1891\\.", "**Chambertin Grand Cru «Cuvée Héritiers Latour»**", "The Grand Cru of the Côte de Nuits, Chambertin was already cultivated in the 6th century by the monks of the Bèze Abbey.", "At the end of the 19th century, the Latour family bought 0\\.81 hectares in the Chambertin Grand Cru appellation, constituting a single parcel, from top to bottom of the hillside, closer to Latricières\\-Chambertin than to Clos de Bèze. The terroir of Chambertin is due to a geological phenomenon called \"cone alluvial\". It is a complex terroir characterized by brown limestone soils, which gives complex and powerful wines.", "**Romanée\\-Saint\\-Vivant Grand Cru «Les Quatre Journaux»**", "The Grand Cru of the Côte de Nuits, Romanée\\-Saint\\-Vivant bears the name of the priory of Saint\\-Vivant. The monks were the first to cultivate vines around [Vosne\\-Romanée](/wiki/Vosne-Roman%C3%A9e_wine \"Vosne-Romanée wine\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Romanée Saint\\-Vivant \\- Appellations et Crus classés \\|url\\=https://www.abcduvin.com/index.php/term/,6c53ad9f5fa7aa706e53aeabb1ac.xhtml \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-02\\-08 \\|website\\=www.abcduvin.com}}", "The Latour family has owned 0\\.8 hectares of Romanée\\-Saint\\-Vivant since December 1898, purchased by the Domaine from the heirs of the Marey\\-Monge and Larey families. The parcel \"Les Quatre Journaux\" is located southwest of Romanée\\-Saint\\-Vivant, close to [Romanée\\-Conti](/wiki/Roman%C3%A9e-Conti \"Romanée-Conti\").", "**Chevalier Montrachet Grand Cru «Les Demoiselles»**", "The [Chevalier\\-Montrachet](/wiki/Chevalier-Montrachet \"Chevalier-Montrachet\") parcel is located just above the [Montrachet](/wiki/Montrachet \"Montrachet\") parcel and is an exception because its brown soils are usually reserved for Pinot Noir. However, here they produce famous Chardonnays.", "In 1913, Domaine Latour bought 0\\.51 hectare of Chevalier\\-Montrachet from the widow of Léonce Bocquet, restorer of part of the Château du Clos de Vougeot. This parcel was named \"Les Demoiselles\" in homage to Adèle and Julie Voillot, the daughters of a Beaune General at the beginning of the 19th century, who owned the parcel and died without marrying.", "" ]
Politics and Parliament ----------------------- Morris joined the Liberal Party in 1975 and was elected to [Mornington Shire Council](/wiki/Shire_of_Mornington_%28Victoria%29 "Shire of Mornington (Victoria)"), in 1987, serving until 1994 (including a period as President, 1992 to 1993\). Im 2005 Morris was selected as the [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia_%28Victorian_Division%29 "Liberal Party of Australia (Victorian Division)") candidate for [Mornington](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Mornington "Electoral district of Mornington"), a seat being vacated by sitting member Robin Cooper. He was first elected in November 2006\. In 2008, he voted in favour of the "Abortion Law Reform Act 2008" one of the few Liberal MP's to do so, he also became the Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Local Government and in 2010 added Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Environment and Climate Change to his responsibilities. Following the election of the Baillieu Government in 2010 Morris was appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Local Government and a member of the Privileges Committee of the Legislative Assembly and of the Parliament's Public Accounts and Estimates Committee. In February 2013 he was elected Chair of that Committee. In 2014, following the change of Government, Morris was appointed Shadow Minister for Finance by the new Opposition Leader, [Matthew Guy](/wiki/Matthew_Guy "Matthew Guy"), and was elected Deputy Chair of both the Legislative Assembly Privileges Committee and the Public Accounts and Estimates Committee. In 2017, after a minor re\-shuffle of the Shadow Ministry he was appointed Shadow Minister for Local Government and Shadow Cabinet Secretary in addition to his existing responsibilities. In December 2021 Morris lost Liberal Party preselection for the [2022 Victorian state election](/wiki/2022_Victorian_state_election "2022 Victorian state election") to former Federal member for Dunkley [Chris Crewther](/wiki/Chris_Crewther "Chris Crewther").{{Cite web \| url\=https://www.mpnews.com.au/2021/12/13/politics\-peninsula\-style/?amp \| title\=Politics peninsula\-style \| date\=13 December 2021 }} He retired at the [2022 Victorian state election](/wiki/2022_Victorian_state_election "2022 Victorian state election").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/vic/2022/guide/morn \| title\=Mornington (Key Seat) \- VIC Electorate, Candidates, Results \| website\=\[\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] }}
[ "Politics and Parliament\n-----------------------", "Morris joined the Liberal Party in 1975 and was elected to [Mornington Shire Council](/wiki/Shire_of_Mornington_%28Victoria%29 \"Shire of Mornington (Victoria)\"), in 1987, serving until 1994 (including a period as President, 1992 to 1993\\).", "Im 2005 Morris was selected as the [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia_%28Victorian_Division%29 \"Liberal Party of Australia (Victorian Division)\") candidate for [Mornington](/wiki/Electoral_district_of_Mornington \"Electoral district of Mornington\"), a seat being vacated by sitting member Robin Cooper. He was first elected in November 2006\\.", "In 2008, he voted in favour of the \"Abortion Law Reform Act 2008\" one of the few Liberal MP's to do so, he also became the Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Local Government and in 2010 added Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Environment and Climate Change to his responsibilities.", "Following the election of the Baillieu Government in 2010 Morris was appointed Parliamentary Secretary for Local Government and a member of the Privileges Committee of the Legislative Assembly and of the Parliament's Public Accounts and Estimates Committee. In February 2013 he was elected Chair of that Committee.", "In 2014, following the change of Government, Morris was appointed Shadow Minister for Finance by the new Opposition Leader, [Matthew Guy](/wiki/Matthew_Guy \"Matthew Guy\"), and was elected Deputy Chair of both the Legislative Assembly Privileges Committee and the Public Accounts and Estimates Committee. In 2017, after a minor re\\-shuffle of the Shadow Ministry he was appointed Shadow Minister for Local Government and Shadow Cabinet Secretary in addition to his existing responsibilities.", "In December 2021 Morris lost Liberal Party preselection for the [2022 Victorian state election](/wiki/2022_Victorian_state_election \"2022 Victorian state election\") to former Federal member for Dunkley [Chris Crewther](/wiki/Chris_Crewther \"Chris Crewther\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www.mpnews.com.au/2021/12/13/politics\\-peninsula\\-style/?amp \\| title\\=Politics peninsula\\-style \\| date\\=13 December 2021 }} He retired at the [2022 Victorian state election](/wiki/2022_Victorian_state_election \"2022 Victorian state election\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/vic/2022/guide/morn \\| title\\=Mornington (Key Seat) \\- VIC Electorate, Candidates, Results \\| website\\=\\[\\[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] }}", "" ]
Life ---- Little is known of his life before 1585\. As explained by himself, he entered the army when he only was 18 years old.González de León, page 135\. In 1585, he was sergeant in Francisco of Bobadilla's army in to [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders "Flanders"); in 1590 he was imprisoned for some time for participation in a mutiny.Martínez Laínez \& Sánchez de Toca, pages 227 and 228\. From 1593, as an artillery officer in the Spanish army, he took part in the wars of Spain against [Henry IV of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France "Henry IV of France") and against the Flemish rebels. He took part in the sieges of La Chapelle (1594\), [Doullens](/wiki/Doullens "Doullens"), Cambray (1595\), [Calais](/wiki/Calais "Calais") (1596\) and in the defense of [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens "Amiens"), occupied by the Spanish army in 1597\.Giannini, p. 486\. In this period he met his main sponsor: Pedro Enríquez of Acevedo, count of Fuentes, who had been appointed governor of [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") in 1600\.Martínez Laínez, p. 183\.Giannini, p. 487\. From 1600, as inspector of fortificacions of the [Duchy of Milan](/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan "Duchy of Milan"), he carried out numerous secret missions for the Spain; He also took part in the foundation of the Academy of Artillery of Milan, for what Fuentes had obtained the approval of the king, [Philip III of Spain](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain "Philip III of Spain")Martínez Laínez, p. 184\.Martínez Laínez, p. 185\. From Milan, he recommended that Spain create a similar academy in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid").González de León, p. 139\. The death of the count of Fuentes in 1610 left Lechuga without any political support.Giannini, pàgina 488\. Yet, in 1613 he was transferred to the Royal Navy based in [Cadiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz "Cádiz") and he was appointed lieutenant general.. In 1614 he took part in the expedition against La Mamora, now [Mehdya](/wiki/Mehdya "Mehdya") ([Morocco](/wiki/Morocco "Morocco")), and was appointed governor once the place was conquered, and commissioned to build strong fortifications there.Giannini, p. 489\. In 1620 he was faced with aggression from the Moroccans of the area; their siege was broken by reinforcements from Cadiz in 1621\.Giannini, p. 490\-491\. In September 1622 Diego of Escobedo was appointed governor of La Mamora as his replacement; it is not known if the appointment was due to the death or the resignation of Cristobal Lechuga. [left\|thumb\|Grave of Cristóbal Lechuga in Baeza Cathedral](/wiki/File:Baeza_-_Catedral%2C_Sepulcro_de_Cristobal_Lechuga.jpg "Baeza - Catedral, Sepulcro de Cristobal Lechuga.jpg") However, in the years 1618–1619, perhaps during a leave in his natal village, Baeza, he erected a family chapel in the Romanesque church of Santa Cruz, where he wanted to be buried. This chapel\-sepulchre was moved to Baeza's Cathedral, when the church was "desamortitzada" in 1835 and we can see it, still today, in this place.
[ "Life\n----", "Little is known of his life before 1585\\. As explained by himself, he entered the army when he only was 18 years old.González de León, page 135\\. In 1585, he was sergeant in Francisco of Bobadilla's army in to [Flanders](/wiki/Flanders \"Flanders\"); in 1590 he was imprisoned for some time for participation in a mutiny.Martínez Laínez \\& Sánchez de Toca, pages 227 and 228\\.", "From 1593, as an artillery officer in the Spanish army, he took part in the wars of Spain against [Henry IV of France](/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France \"Henry IV of France\") and against the Flemish rebels. He took part in the sieges of La Chapelle (1594\\), [Doullens](/wiki/Doullens \"Doullens\"), Cambray (1595\\), [Calais](/wiki/Calais \"Calais\") (1596\\) and in the defense of [Amiens](/wiki/Amiens \"Amiens\"), occupied by the Spanish army in 1597\\.Giannini, p. 486\\. In this period he met his main sponsor: Pedro Enríquez of Acevedo, count of Fuentes, who had been appointed governor of [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") in 1600\\.Martínez Laínez, p. 183\\.Giannini, p. 487\\.", "From 1600, as inspector of fortificacions of the [Duchy of Milan](/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan \"Duchy of Milan\"), he carried out numerous secret missions for the Spain; He also took part in the foundation of the Academy of Artillery of Milan, for what Fuentes had obtained the approval of the king, [Philip III of Spain](/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain \"Philip III of Spain\")Martínez Laínez, p. 184\\.Martínez Laínez, p. 185\\. From Milan, he recommended that Spain create a similar academy in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\").González de León, p. 139\\.", "The death of the count of Fuentes in 1610 left Lechuga without any political support.Giannini, pàgina 488\\. Yet, in 1613 he was transferred to the Royal Navy based in [Cadiz](/wiki/C%C3%A1diz \"Cádiz\") and he was appointed lieutenant general..", "In 1614 he took part in the expedition against La Mamora, now [Mehdya](/wiki/Mehdya \"Mehdya\") ([Morocco](/wiki/Morocco \"Morocco\")), and was appointed governor once the place was conquered, and commissioned to build strong fortifications there.Giannini, p. 489\\.", "In 1620 he was faced with aggression from the Moroccans of the area; their siege was broken by reinforcements from Cadiz in 1621\\.Giannini, p. 490\\-491\\. In September 1622 Diego of Escobedo was appointed governor of La Mamora as his replacement; it is not known if the appointment was due to the death or the resignation of Cristobal Lechuga.\n[left\\|thumb\\|Grave of Cristóbal Lechuga in Baeza Cathedral](/wiki/File:Baeza_-_Catedral%2C_Sepulcro_de_Cristobal_Lechuga.jpg \"Baeza - Catedral, Sepulcro de Cristobal Lechuga.jpg\")\nHowever, in the years 1618–1619, perhaps during a leave in his natal village, Baeza, he erected a family chapel in the Romanesque church of Santa Cruz, where he wanted to be buried. This chapel\\-sepulchre was moved to Baeza's Cathedral, when the church was \"desamortitzada\" in 1835 and we can see it, still today, in this place.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- ### Act I In 1959, a new musical called "*Robbin' Hood!*", a western version of [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood "Robin Hood"), is in the midst of its preview performances at the [Colonial Theatre](/wiki/Colonial_Theatre_%28Boston%29 "Colonial Theatre (Boston)") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"). During the closing number of one of the performances, the character of Madame Marian, played by faded film star diva Jessica Cranshaw, looks on as Rob Hood, played by Bobby Pepper, wins a sharp\-shooting contest and proposes to Miss Nancy, a schoolmarm, played by Niki Harris. The cast then sings the finale of the show, during which it is clear that Jessica can neither sing, dance, nor act ("Wide Open Spaces"). She takes her bow and, after receiving two bouquets, collapses behind the curtain. Later that night, Carmen Bernstein, the show's hard\-bitten co\-producer, divorced songwriting team Aaron Fox and Georgia Hendricks, and the show's financial backer, Oscar Shapiro, read the reviews, most of which are terrible, especially the Boston Globe's, which is the review they needed to make it to Broadway. The group wonders how anyone could be so heartless to become a critic ("What Kind of Man?"). The show's flamboyant English director, Christopher Belling, arrives, and says that he had an epiphany about how to fix the show after walking into a church. Just then, stage manager Johnny Harmon tells Carmen that there is a phone call for her. Carmen suspects that it's her philandering husband, Sidney Bernstein, the show's theatrical promoter. Meanwhile, Aaron argues with Georgia about the reason she joined the show, as he believes that she only wanted to rekindle a romance with the show's leading man, Bobby. Belling asks Georgia to sing Madame Marian's opening number. Everyone is pessimistic, but she does so spectacularly, and it is clear that she is thinking about her failed marriage with Aaron. Aaron begins to sing with her, but Bobby cuts him off and they finish the number together ("Thinking of Him"). Belling then announces his plan: they are going to replace Jessica. Niki, the actress who plays Miss Nancy, steps forward and says she would feel terrible taking over, but Belling goes on to say that he is actually casting Georgia as Madame Marian. Bambi Bernét, the show's featured dancer, steps forward and says that Niki should get the role, but Belling sees right through her: Bambi is Niki's understudy, meaning if Niki got the lead, she'd get to play Miss Nancy. Georgia is cast, in spite of Aaron's disapproval. Carmen then enters and tells everyone that it was the hospital that had called and confirms that Jessica has died. The cast performs a brief ceremony, and it is clear that no one is sorry to see their leading lady die ("The Woman's Dead"). Lieutenant Frank Cioffi of the Boston Police Department then arrives to announce that he is there to investigate foul play in Jessica's death, as he reveals her death was caused by cyanide poisoning. Cioffi tells Belling to finish up his cast meeting before Cioffi begins questioning. The ensemble tries to leave, saying that they want to quit the show, but Carmen tries to convince them that the show must go on, though various members of the cast stand up to her, including Bambi, who is actually named Elaine and is in fact Carmen's daughter. Cioffi, an amateur performer himself, enthusiastically convinces them to do the show, and helps them realize how lucky they are to be actors and actresses ("Show People"). Thanks to the newfound energy and commitment, Carmen decides to treat everyone to a drink at the local bar. However, since Jessica was poisoned in the last ten minutes of the show and never left the stage thereafter, Cioffi believes that she must have been murdered by a member of the company, and he enforces a lockdown on the building and will not let anyone leave. Sidney, Carmen's husband, then arrives after flying in from New York, and Cioffi begins to suspect him, although Sidney claims to have been with a certain woman whose name he refuses to give. Cioffi is left alone with the winsome Niki, who is now the understudy for Georgia. The lieutenant is struck by Niki's charm and confides in her about his investigation and his lonely life, as he feels as if he's married to his job ("Coffee Shop Nights"). She seems to return his affection, so he hopes she is not the murderer. The next day, Georgia attempts to learn a dance from the show, but is failing miserably despite Bobby's constant belief in her. Daryl Grady, the critic who wrote the terrible review for the Boston Globe, arrives at the theatre. Cioffi asks him how he got inside and Daryl points out that, as a member of the press, he's exempt from the building's quarantine. It is revealed that Carmen and Sidney called him in to request a re\-review the show with Georgia as the new lead, and Daryl agrees to re\-review the show, the following night, to which they reluctantly agree. In his original review, Daryl only praised the choreography and Niki's performance. Niki tries to thank Daryl for his kind words about her, however he tells her that he does not associate with the artists he reviews, and leaves after having a brief argument with Cioffi about his previous review. Bobby, Belling, and Georgia enter, enraged with the fact that they have so little time to prepare for a review. Belling works to re\-stage a difficult production number, featuring Niki, Georgia and Bambi ("In the Same Boat \#1"). Cioffi suggests that the song needs to be rewritten, and he is left alone with Aaron, who shows Cioffi the process for composing a song. After he lets it slip that he misses Georgia, Aaron confesses that he still loves her and would like to reconcile ("I Miss the Music"). Georgia and the cast then hold a dress rehearsal of the big saloon hall number ("Thataway!"). Georgia pulls it off spectacularly and everyone finally believes they have a shot of putting on a great show. Cioffi and tells the cast that he has figured out that Sidney has been blackmailing every member of the show into working for him. Belling then interrupts and requests to re\-work the ending pose of the song. While the curtain is closing, Sidney Bernstein is simultaneously rung up, with the curtain rope tied around his neck. ### Act II Sasha, the conductor, turns to the audience to reveal that Sidney's hanging was fatal ("The Man is Dead"). A makeshift dormitory has been set up on the stage of the still\-sequestered Colonial Theatre. Each member of the company grows more paranoid by the hour, and often suspects the others during various periods of the night ("He Did It"). Cioffi returns from the coroner's office and tells everyone that Sidney was knocked out before being tied to the rope, so everyone is still a suspect, but his focus is more on whether the show will be ready for its re\-opening. Niki then finds a death threat for Sidney, stating he will die unless he closes the show. Oscar reveals Sidney died for nothing as he was going to comply, going so far as to giving back last checks he made out. Carmen takes them back, saying she is going to keep the show open. Aaron previews his new version of "In the Same Boat", now featuring Bobby, Randy, and Harv ("In the Same Boat \#2"), though Cioffi is still unsatisfied with the product. Bambi asks that a pas de deux be added for herself and Bobby during the show's square dance number. Carmen agrees, but she insist that she is no stage mother, as her duty has always been to the box office ("It's a Business"). Daryl Grady then comes in and tells everyone that he's taking interviews from the cast in the Green Room. At the rehearsal of the re\-staged square dance number, Bambi and Bobby are doing incredibly well, and everyone is impressed, however, towards the end of the number, Bobby is shot, and left wounded in the arm ("Kansasland"). Through use of angles, Cioffi is quick to figure out that Carmen was actually the target of the shot, not Bobby. Niki comes forward with the gun, and the company immediately jumps to the conclusion that she is guilty ("She Did It (Reprise)"). She says that she innocently found the gun backstage and hands it over, albeit after she accidentally pulls the trigger and almost kills Cioffi. Cioffi gathers Aaron, Georgia, and Bobby and tells them that Sidney had no blackmail material on them, and yet they were still content working for such low pay. Georgia then quotes a death threat which Cioffi had not read out loud, leading Cioffi to arrest her when Aaron attempts to takes the blame for her, reviving their romance ("Thinking of Him/I Miss the Music (Reprise)"). Cioffi reveals that it was all an act, and that Bobby had only been pretending to be Georgia's boyfriend so that she could stir something back up in Aaron. She leaves, and Bobby confesses that he does love Georgia, and that he would do anything for her, even commit murder. Niki laments how love makes people feel bad, but Cioffi begins flirting with her and reminisces about the first time he saw her on stage, leading them into an elaborate fantasy sequence, in which they daydream about being a couple in a musical ("A Tough Act to Follow"). He then confronts Niki about a coded memo in Sidney's blackmail book, as there was a black zero next to her name. Johnny tells Cioffi that he knows the secret, but refuses to tell Cioffi what it is. He is then shot while alone onstage. He tears out a page from his notebook reading "Drop in Planet Earth", and then bleeds out ("In the Same Boat \#3"). Cioffi takes Niki and Belling up to the theatre's catwalk high above the stage. While searching for messages on the back of the drops, he announces that he's solved the mystery. Left alone, he is hit with a sandbag and is sent tumbling down. He narrowly escapes death by clutching onto a prop, which lowers him to safety. When on the ground, he exclaims that he has solved it... he finally knows how to stage "In the Same Boat". Putting together all three versions, the cast is able to sing an incredible, show stopping number ("In The Same Boat\- Complete"). With the number completed, Cioffi tells Niki he has a plan to solve the murder. Cioffi announces over the theatre PA system that he and Niki are engaged, before asking the cast to re\-stage the bows, when Jessica was murdered (“Wide Open Spaces”(reprise)). The cast quickly notices that Georgia is only being offered one bouquet, rather than two like on opening night. Cioffi figures out that the murderer hid a pellet gun with a cyanide capsule inside a bouquet, disguised as an usher, and killed Jessica. Bobby suddenly comes on stage with a bloody head and collapses, and everyone realizes that the masked Rob Hood standing on stage is a fake. Cioffi then announces that the zero and the "Drop in Planet Earth" both represented a globe: The Boston Globe. He finally solves the case: the murderer is the Boston Globe critic, Daryl Grady. Daryl then takes off the mask and holds a knife to Niki's throat, threatening to kill her so that Cioffi cannot marry her. He reveals that he is in love with Niki and did not want her to move, so he decided he would do anything to stop the show from going on to Broadway. He demands that Cioffi give him his gun on his holster, to which he complies, though when Daryl tries to shoot Cioffi, it is revealed that the gun was not loaded. Cioffi takes another gun from his jacket, and officially arrests Daryl. Carmen pulls the trapdoor, leading Daryl to fall below the stage. Cioffi's colleague, Detective O'Farrell, takes him into custody and the cast of the production is relieved that the murder is finally solved. Cioffi privately confronts Carmen, and she admits that she killed Sidney. Carmen has been secretly acting on behalf of Bambi, belittling Bambi in public so nobody would know how much support she was actually putting into Bambi's career, while pretending to be unsupportive so Bambi would have to work to get ahead rather than rely on nepotism. She wants her daughter to move on to Broadway, but Sidney was going to close the show. Cioffi agrees to wait until after the show's Broadway opening to turn her in, and tells her that, with the right lawyer, she could easily be acquitted of what is surely justifiable homicide. Carmen tells Cioffi that while his duty may be to the police, his heart will always be onstage, and that he will always be one of them ("Show People (Reprise)"). Belling comes on and notifies them that with Bobby's injury, he will not be able to perform that night. Finally, the show reopens. Georgia is now Madame Marian ("Wide Open Spaces Finale"), Cioffi has replaced Bobby as Rob Hood, and "Tough Act to Follow" has become the new finale of the show. Cioffi proposes to Niki during the show's final scene, to which she accepts, and the stage becomes a celebration ("A Tough Act to Follow (Reprise)").
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "### Act I", "In 1959, a new musical called \"*Robbin' Hood!*\", a western version of [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood \"Robin Hood\"), is in the midst of its preview performances at the [Colonial Theatre](/wiki/Colonial_Theatre_%28Boston%29 \"Colonial Theatre (Boston)\") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"). During the closing number of one of the performances, the character of Madame Marian, played by faded film star diva Jessica Cranshaw, looks on as Rob Hood, played by Bobby Pepper, wins a sharp\\-shooting contest and proposes to Miss Nancy, a schoolmarm, played by Niki Harris. The cast then sings the finale of the show, during which it is clear that Jessica can neither sing, dance, nor act (\"Wide Open Spaces\"). She takes her bow and, after receiving two bouquets, collapses behind the curtain.", "Later that night, Carmen Bernstein, the show's hard\\-bitten co\\-producer, divorced songwriting team Aaron Fox and Georgia Hendricks, and the show's financial backer, Oscar Shapiro, read the reviews, most of which are terrible, especially the Boston Globe's, which is the review they needed to make it to Broadway. The group wonders how anyone could be so heartless to become a critic (\"What Kind of Man?\"). The show's flamboyant English director, Christopher Belling, arrives, and says that he had an epiphany about how to fix the show after walking into a church. Just then, stage manager Johnny Harmon tells Carmen that there is a phone call for her. Carmen suspects that it's her philandering husband, Sidney Bernstein, the show's theatrical promoter. Meanwhile, Aaron argues with Georgia about the reason she joined the show, as he believes that she only wanted to rekindle a romance with the show's leading man, Bobby. Belling asks Georgia to sing Madame Marian's opening number. Everyone is pessimistic, but she does so spectacularly, and it is clear that she is thinking about her failed marriage with Aaron. Aaron begins to sing with her, but Bobby cuts him off and they finish the number together (\"Thinking of Him\").", "Belling then announces his plan: they are going to replace Jessica. Niki, the actress who plays Miss Nancy, steps forward and says she would feel terrible taking over, but Belling goes on to say that he is actually casting Georgia as Madame Marian. Bambi Bernét, the show's featured dancer, steps forward and says that Niki should get the role, but Belling sees right through her: Bambi is Niki's understudy, meaning if Niki got the lead, she'd get to play Miss Nancy. Georgia is cast, in spite of Aaron's disapproval. Carmen then enters and tells everyone that it was the hospital that had called and confirms that Jessica has died. The cast performs a brief ceremony, and it is clear that no one is sorry to see their leading lady die (\"The Woman's Dead\").", "Lieutenant Frank Cioffi of the Boston Police Department then arrives to announce that he is there to investigate foul play in Jessica's death, as he reveals her death was caused by cyanide poisoning. Cioffi tells Belling to finish up his cast meeting before Cioffi begins questioning. The ensemble tries to leave, saying that they want to quit the show, but Carmen tries to convince them that the show must go on, though various members of the cast stand up to her, including Bambi, who is actually named Elaine and is in fact Carmen's daughter. Cioffi, an amateur performer himself, enthusiastically convinces them to do the show, and helps them realize how lucky they are to be actors and actresses (\"Show People\"). Thanks to the newfound energy and commitment, Carmen decides to treat everyone to a drink at the local bar. However, since Jessica was poisoned in the last ten minutes of the show and never left the stage thereafter, Cioffi believes that she must have been murdered by a member of the company, and he enforces a lockdown on the building and will not let anyone leave. Sidney, Carmen's husband, then arrives after flying in from New York, and Cioffi begins to suspect him, although Sidney claims to have been with a certain woman whose name he refuses to give.", "Cioffi is left alone with the winsome Niki, who is now the understudy for Georgia. The lieutenant is struck by Niki's charm and confides in her about his investigation and his lonely life, as he feels as if he's married to his job (\"Coffee Shop Nights\"). She seems to return his affection, so he hopes she is not the murderer. The next day, Georgia attempts to learn a dance from the show, but is failing miserably despite Bobby's constant belief in her. Daryl Grady, the critic who wrote the terrible review for the Boston Globe, arrives at the theatre. Cioffi asks him how he got inside and Daryl points out that, as a member of the press, he's exempt from the building's quarantine. It is revealed that Carmen and Sidney called him in to request a re\\-review the show with Georgia as the new lead, and Daryl agrees to re\\-review the show, the following night, to which they reluctantly agree. In his original review, Daryl only praised the choreography and Niki's performance. Niki tries to thank Daryl for his kind words about her, however he tells her that he does not associate with the artists he reviews, and leaves after having a brief argument with Cioffi about his previous review.", "Bobby, Belling, and Georgia enter, enraged with the fact that they have so little time to prepare for a review. Belling works to re\\-stage a difficult production number, featuring Niki, Georgia and Bambi (\"In the Same Boat \\#1\"). Cioffi suggests that the song needs to be rewritten, and he is left alone with Aaron, who shows Cioffi the process for composing a song. After he lets it slip that he misses Georgia, Aaron confesses that he still loves her and would like to reconcile (\"I Miss the Music\"). Georgia and the cast then hold a dress rehearsal of the big saloon hall number (\"Thataway!\"). Georgia pulls it off spectacularly and everyone finally believes they have a shot of putting on a great show. Cioffi and tells the cast that he has figured out that Sidney has been blackmailing every member of the show into working for him. Belling then interrupts and requests to re\\-work the ending pose of the song. While the curtain is closing, Sidney Bernstein is simultaneously rung up, with the curtain rope tied around his neck.", "### Act II", "Sasha, the conductor, turns to the audience to reveal that Sidney's hanging was fatal (\"The Man is Dead\"). A makeshift dormitory has been set up on the stage of the still\\-sequestered Colonial Theatre. Each member of the company grows more paranoid by the hour, and often suspects the others during various periods of the night (\"He Did It\"). Cioffi returns from the coroner's office and tells everyone that Sidney was knocked out before being tied to the rope, so everyone is still a suspect, but his focus is more on whether the show will be ready for its re\\-opening. Niki then finds a death threat for Sidney, stating he will die unless he closes the show. Oscar reveals Sidney died for nothing as he was going to comply, going so far as to giving back last checks he made out. Carmen takes them back, saying she is going to keep the show open. Aaron previews his new version of \"In the Same Boat\", now featuring Bobby, Randy, and Harv (\"In the Same Boat \\#2\"), though Cioffi is still unsatisfied with the product.", "Bambi asks that a pas de deux be added for herself and Bobby during the show's square dance number. Carmen agrees, but she insist that she is no stage mother, as her duty has always been to the box office (\"It's a Business\"). Daryl Grady then comes in and tells everyone that he's taking interviews from the cast in the Green Room. At the rehearsal of the re\\-staged square dance number, Bambi and Bobby are doing incredibly well, and everyone is impressed, however, towards the end of the number, Bobby is shot, and left wounded in the arm (\"Kansasland\"). Through use of angles, Cioffi is quick to figure out that Carmen was actually the target of the shot, not Bobby. Niki comes forward with the gun, and the company immediately jumps to the conclusion that she is guilty (\"She Did It (Reprise)\"). She says that she innocently found the gun backstage and hands it over, albeit after she accidentally pulls the trigger and almost kills Cioffi.", "Cioffi gathers Aaron, Georgia, and Bobby and tells them that Sidney had no blackmail material on them, and yet they were still content working for such low pay. Georgia then quotes a death threat which Cioffi had not read out loud, leading Cioffi to arrest her when Aaron attempts to takes the blame for her, reviving their romance (\"Thinking of Him/I Miss the Music (Reprise)\"). Cioffi reveals that it was all an act, and that Bobby had only been pretending to be Georgia's boyfriend so that she could stir something back up in Aaron. She leaves, and Bobby confesses that he does love Georgia, and that he would do anything for her, even commit murder.", "Niki laments how love makes people feel bad, but Cioffi begins flirting with her and reminisces about the first time he saw her on stage, leading them into an elaborate fantasy sequence, in which they daydream about being a couple in a musical (\"A Tough Act to Follow\"). He then confronts Niki about a coded memo in Sidney's blackmail book, as there was a black zero next to her name. Johnny tells Cioffi that he knows the secret, but refuses to tell Cioffi what it is. He is then shot while alone onstage. He tears out a page from his notebook reading \"Drop in Planet Earth\", and then bleeds out (\"In the Same Boat \\#3\").", "Cioffi takes Niki and Belling up to the theatre's catwalk high above the stage. While searching for messages on the back of the drops, he announces that he's solved the mystery. Left alone, he is hit with a sandbag and is sent tumbling down. He narrowly escapes death by clutching onto a prop, which lowers him to safety. When on the ground, he exclaims that he has solved it... he finally knows how to stage \"In the Same Boat\". Putting together all three versions, the cast is able to sing an incredible, show stopping number (\"In The Same Boat\\- Complete\").", "With the number completed, Cioffi tells Niki he has a plan to solve the murder. Cioffi announces over the theatre PA system that he and Niki are engaged, before asking the cast to re\\-stage the bows, when Jessica was murdered (“Wide Open Spaces”(reprise)). The cast quickly notices that Georgia is only being offered one bouquet, rather than two like on opening night. Cioffi figures out that the murderer hid a pellet gun with a cyanide capsule inside a bouquet, disguised as an usher, and killed Jessica. Bobby suddenly comes on stage with a bloody head and collapses, and everyone realizes that the masked Rob Hood standing on stage is a fake.", "Cioffi then announces that the zero and the \"Drop in Planet Earth\" both represented a globe: The Boston Globe. He finally solves the case: the murderer is the Boston Globe critic, Daryl Grady. Daryl then takes off the mask and holds a knife to Niki's throat, threatening to kill her so that Cioffi cannot marry her. He reveals that he is in love with Niki and did not want her to move, so he decided he would do anything to stop the show from going on to Broadway. He demands that Cioffi give him his gun on his holster, to which he complies, though when Daryl tries to shoot Cioffi, it is revealed that the gun was not loaded. Cioffi takes another gun from his jacket, and officially arrests Daryl. Carmen pulls the trapdoor, leading Daryl to fall below the stage. Cioffi's colleague, Detective O'Farrell, takes him into custody and the cast of the production is relieved that the murder is finally solved.", "Cioffi privately confronts Carmen, and she admits that she killed Sidney. Carmen has been secretly acting on behalf of Bambi, belittling Bambi in public so nobody would know how much support she was actually putting into Bambi's career, while pretending to be unsupportive so Bambi would have to work to get ahead rather than rely on nepotism. She wants her daughter to move on to Broadway, but Sidney was going to close the show. Cioffi agrees to wait until after the show's Broadway opening to turn her in, and tells her that, with the right lawyer, she could easily be acquitted of what is surely justifiable homicide. Carmen tells Cioffi that while his duty may be to the police, his heart will always be onstage, and that he will always be one of them (\"Show People (Reprise)\"). Belling comes on and notifies them that with Bobby's injury, he will not be able to perform that night.", "Finally, the show reopens. Georgia is now Madame Marian (\"Wide Open Spaces Finale\"), Cioffi has replaced Bobby as Rob Hood, and \"Tough Act to Follow\" has become the new finale of the show. Cioffi proposes to Niki during the show's final scene, to which she accepts, and the stage becomes a celebration (\"A Tough Act to Follow (Reprise)\").", "" ]
### Act I In 1959, a new musical called "*Robbin' Hood!*", a western version of [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood "Robin Hood"), is in the midst of its preview performances at the [Colonial Theatre](/wiki/Colonial_Theatre_%28Boston%29 "Colonial Theatre (Boston)") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston "Boston"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts "Massachusetts"). During the closing number of one of the performances, the character of Madame Marian, played by faded film star diva Jessica Cranshaw, looks on as Rob Hood, played by Bobby Pepper, wins a sharp\-shooting contest and proposes to Miss Nancy, a schoolmarm, played by Niki Harris. The cast then sings the finale of the show, during which it is clear that Jessica can neither sing, dance, nor act ("Wide Open Spaces"). She takes her bow and, after receiving two bouquets, collapses behind the curtain. Later that night, Carmen Bernstein, the show's hard\-bitten co\-producer, divorced songwriting team Aaron Fox and Georgia Hendricks, and the show's financial backer, Oscar Shapiro, read the reviews, most of which are terrible, especially the Boston Globe's, which is the review they needed to make it to Broadway. The group wonders how anyone could be so heartless to become a critic ("What Kind of Man?"). The show's flamboyant English director, Christopher Belling, arrives, and says that he had an epiphany about how to fix the show after walking into a church. Just then, stage manager Johnny Harmon tells Carmen that there is a phone call for her. Carmen suspects that it's her philandering husband, Sidney Bernstein, the show's theatrical promoter. Meanwhile, Aaron argues with Georgia about the reason she joined the show, as he believes that she only wanted to rekindle a romance with the show's leading man, Bobby. Belling asks Georgia to sing Madame Marian's opening number. Everyone is pessimistic, but she does so spectacularly, and it is clear that she is thinking about her failed marriage with Aaron. Aaron begins to sing with her, but Bobby cuts him off and they finish the number together ("Thinking of Him"). Belling then announces his plan: they are going to replace Jessica. Niki, the actress who plays Miss Nancy, steps forward and says she would feel terrible taking over, but Belling goes on to say that he is actually casting Georgia as Madame Marian. Bambi Bernét, the show's featured dancer, steps forward and says that Niki should get the role, but Belling sees right through her: Bambi is Niki's understudy, meaning if Niki got the lead, she'd get to play Miss Nancy. Georgia is cast, in spite of Aaron's disapproval. Carmen then enters and tells everyone that it was the hospital that had called and confirms that Jessica has died. The cast performs a brief ceremony, and it is clear that no one is sorry to see their leading lady die ("The Woman's Dead"). Lieutenant Frank Cioffi of the Boston Police Department then arrives to announce that he is there to investigate foul play in Jessica's death, as he reveals her death was caused by cyanide poisoning. Cioffi tells Belling to finish up his cast meeting before Cioffi begins questioning. The ensemble tries to leave, saying that they want to quit the show, but Carmen tries to convince them that the show must go on, though various members of the cast stand up to her, including Bambi, who is actually named Elaine and is in fact Carmen's daughter. Cioffi, an amateur performer himself, enthusiastically convinces them to do the show, and helps them realize how lucky they are to be actors and actresses ("Show People"). Thanks to the newfound energy and commitment, Carmen decides to treat everyone to a drink at the local bar. However, since Jessica was poisoned in the last ten minutes of the show and never left the stage thereafter, Cioffi believes that she must have been murdered by a member of the company, and he enforces a lockdown on the building and will not let anyone leave. Sidney, Carmen's husband, then arrives after flying in from New York, and Cioffi begins to suspect him, although Sidney claims to have been with a certain woman whose name he refuses to give. Cioffi is left alone with the winsome Niki, who is now the understudy for Georgia. The lieutenant is struck by Niki's charm and confides in her about his investigation and his lonely life, as he feels as if he's married to his job ("Coffee Shop Nights"). She seems to return his affection, so he hopes she is not the murderer. The next day, Georgia attempts to learn a dance from the show, but is failing miserably despite Bobby's constant belief in her. Daryl Grady, the critic who wrote the terrible review for the Boston Globe, arrives at the theatre. Cioffi asks him how he got inside and Daryl points out that, as a member of the press, he's exempt from the building's quarantine. It is revealed that Carmen and Sidney called him in to request a re\-review the show with Georgia as the new lead, and Daryl agrees to re\-review the show, the following night, to which they reluctantly agree. In his original review, Daryl only praised the choreography and Niki's performance. Niki tries to thank Daryl for his kind words about her, however he tells her that he does not associate with the artists he reviews, and leaves after having a brief argument with Cioffi about his previous review. Bobby, Belling, and Georgia enter, enraged with the fact that they have so little time to prepare for a review. Belling works to re\-stage a difficult production number, featuring Niki, Georgia and Bambi ("In the Same Boat \#1"). Cioffi suggests that the song needs to be rewritten, and he is left alone with Aaron, who shows Cioffi the process for composing a song. After he lets it slip that he misses Georgia, Aaron confesses that he still loves her and would like to reconcile ("I Miss the Music"). Georgia and the cast then hold a dress rehearsal of the big saloon hall number ("Thataway!"). Georgia pulls it off spectacularly and everyone finally believes they have a shot of putting on a great show. Cioffi and tells the cast that he has figured out that Sidney has been blackmailing every member of the show into working for him. Belling then interrupts and requests to re\-work the ending pose of the song. While the curtain is closing, Sidney Bernstein is simultaneously rung up, with the curtain rope tied around his neck.
[ "### Act I", "In 1959, a new musical called \"*Robbin' Hood!*\", a western version of [Robin Hood](/wiki/Robin_Hood \"Robin Hood\"), is in the midst of its preview performances at the [Colonial Theatre](/wiki/Colonial_Theatre_%28Boston%29 \"Colonial Theatre (Boston)\") in [Boston](/wiki/Boston \"Boston\"), [Massachusetts](/wiki/Massachusetts \"Massachusetts\"). During the closing number of one of the performances, the character of Madame Marian, played by faded film star diva Jessica Cranshaw, looks on as Rob Hood, played by Bobby Pepper, wins a sharp\\-shooting contest and proposes to Miss Nancy, a schoolmarm, played by Niki Harris. The cast then sings the finale of the show, during which it is clear that Jessica can neither sing, dance, nor act (\"Wide Open Spaces\"). She takes her bow and, after receiving two bouquets, collapses behind the curtain.", "Later that night, Carmen Bernstein, the show's hard\\-bitten co\\-producer, divorced songwriting team Aaron Fox and Georgia Hendricks, and the show's financial backer, Oscar Shapiro, read the reviews, most of which are terrible, especially the Boston Globe's, which is the review they needed to make it to Broadway. The group wonders how anyone could be so heartless to become a critic (\"What Kind of Man?\"). The show's flamboyant English director, Christopher Belling, arrives, and says that he had an epiphany about how to fix the show after walking into a church. Just then, stage manager Johnny Harmon tells Carmen that there is a phone call for her. Carmen suspects that it's her philandering husband, Sidney Bernstein, the show's theatrical promoter. Meanwhile, Aaron argues with Georgia about the reason she joined the show, as he believes that she only wanted to rekindle a romance with the show's leading man, Bobby. Belling asks Georgia to sing Madame Marian's opening number. Everyone is pessimistic, but she does so spectacularly, and it is clear that she is thinking about her failed marriage with Aaron. Aaron begins to sing with her, but Bobby cuts him off and they finish the number together (\"Thinking of Him\").", "Belling then announces his plan: they are going to replace Jessica. Niki, the actress who plays Miss Nancy, steps forward and says she would feel terrible taking over, but Belling goes on to say that he is actually casting Georgia as Madame Marian. Bambi Bernét, the show's featured dancer, steps forward and says that Niki should get the role, but Belling sees right through her: Bambi is Niki's understudy, meaning if Niki got the lead, she'd get to play Miss Nancy. Georgia is cast, in spite of Aaron's disapproval. Carmen then enters and tells everyone that it was the hospital that had called and confirms that Jessica has died. The cast performs a brief ceremony, and it is clear that no one is sorry to see their leading lady die (\"The Woman's Dead\").", "Lieutenant Frank Cioffi of the Boston Police Department then arrives to announce that he is there to investigate foul play in Jessica's death, as he reveals her death was caused by cyanide poisoning. Cioffi tells Belling to finish up his cast meeting before Cioffi begins questioning. The ensemble tries to leave, saying that they want to quit the show, but Carmen tries to convince them that the show must go on, though various members of the cast stand up to her, including Bambi, who is actually named Elaine and is in fact Carmen's daughter. Cioffi, an amateur performer himself, enthusiastically convinces them to do the show, and helps them realize how lucky they are to be actors and actresses (\"Show People\"). Thanks to the newfound energy and commitment, Carmen decides to treat everyone to a drink at the local bar. However, since Jessica was poisoned in the last ten minutes of the show and never left the stage thereafter, Cioffi believes that she must have been murdered by a member of the company, and he enforces a lockdown on the building and will not let anyone leave. Sidney, Carmen's husband, then arrives after flying in from New York, and Cioffi begins to suspect him, although Sidney claims to have been with a certain woman whose name he refuses to give.", "Cioffi is left alone with the winsome Niki, who is now the understudy for Georgia. The lieutenant is struck by Niki's charm and confides in her about his investigation and his lonely life, as he feels as if he's married to his job (\"Coffee Shop Nights\"). She seems to return his affection, so he hopes she is not the murderer. The next day, Georgia attempts to learn a dance from the show, but is failing miserably despite Bobby's constant belief in her. Daryl Grady, the critic who wrote the terrible review for the Boston Globe, arrives at the theatre. Cioffi asks him how he got inside and Daryl points out that, as a member of the press, he's exempt from the building's quarantine. It is revealed that Carmen and Sidney called him in to request a re\\-review the show with Georgia as the new lead, and Daryl agrees to re\\-review the show, the following night, to which they reluctantly agree. In his original review, Daryl only praised the choreography and Niki's performance. Niki tries to thank Daryl for his kind words about her, however he tells her that he does not associate with the artists he reviews, and leaves after having a brief argument with Cioffi about his previous review.", "Bobby, Belling, and Georgia enter, enraged with the fact that they have so little time to prepare for a review. Belling works to re\\-stage a difficult production number, featuring Niki, Georgia and Bambi (\"In the Same Boat \\#1\"). Cioffi suggests that the song needs to be rewritten, and he is left alone with Aaron, who shows Cioffi the process for composing a song. After he lets it slip that he misses Georgia, Aaron confesses that he still loves her and would like to reconcile (\"I Miss the Music\"). Georgia and the cast then hold a dress rehearsal of the big saloon hall number (\"Thataway!\"). Georgia pulls it off spectacularly and everyone finally believes they have a shot of putting on a great show. Cioffi and tells the cast that he has figured out that Sidney has been blackmailing every member of the show into working for him. Belling then interrupts and requests to re\\-work the ending pose of the song. While the curtain is closing, Sidney Bernstein is simultaneously rung up, with the curtain rope tied around his neck.", "" ]
### Act II Sasha, the conductor, turns to the audience to reveal that Sidney's hanging was fatal ("The Man is Dead"). A makeshift dormitory has been set up on the stage of the still\-sequestered Colonial Theatre. Each member of the company grows more paranoid by the hour, and often suspects the others during various periods of the night ("He Did It"). Cioffi returns from the coroner's office and tells everyone that Sidney was knocked out before being tied to the rope, so everyone is still a suspect, but his focus is more on whether the show will be ready for its re\-opening. Niki then finds a death threat for Sidney, stating he will die unless he closes the show. Oscar reveals Sidney died for nothing as he was going to comply, going so far as to giving back last checks he made out. Carmen takes them back, saying she is going to keep the show open. Aaron previews his new version of "In the Same Boat", now featuring Bobby, Randy, and Harv ("In the Same Boat \#2"), though Cioffi is still unsatisfied with the product. Bambi asks that a pas de deux be added for herself and Bobby during the show's square dance number. Carmen agrees, but she insist that she is no stage mother, as her duty has always been to the box office ("It's a Business"). Daryl Grady then comes in and tells everyone that he's taking interviews from the cast in the Green Room. At the rehearsal of the re\-staged square dance number, Bambi and Bobby are doing incredibly well, and everyone is impressed, however, towards the end of the number, Bobby is shot, and left wounded in the arm ("Kansasland"). Through use of angles, Cioffi is quick to figure out that Carmen was actually the target of the shot, not Bobby. Niki comes forward with the gun, and the company immediately jumps to the conclusion that she is guilty ("She Did It (Reprise)"). She says that she innocently found the gun backstage and hands it over, albeit after she accidentally pulls the trigger and almost kills Cioffi. Cioffi gathers Aaron, Georgia, and Bobby and tells them that Sidney had no blackmail material on them, and yet they were still content working for such low pay. Georgia then quotes a death threat which Cioffi had not read out loud, leading Cioffi to arrest her when Aaron attempts to takes the blame for her, reviving their romance ("Thinking of Him/I Miss the Music (Reprise)"). Cioffi reveals that it was all an act, and that Bobby had only been pretending to be Georgia's boyfriend so that she could stir something back up in Aaron. She leaves, and Bobby confesses that he does love Georgia, and that he would do anything for her, even commit murder. Niki laments how love makes people feel bad, but Cioffi begins flirting with her and reminisces about the first time he saw her on stage, leading them into an elaborate fantasy sequence, in which they daydream about being a couple in a musical ("A Tough Act to Follow"). He then confronts Niki about a coded memo in Sidney's blackmail book, as there was a black zero next to her name. Johnny tells Cioffi that he knows the secret, but refuses to tell Cioffi what it is. He is then shot while alone onstage. He tears out a page from his notebook reading "Drop in Planet Earth", and then bleeds out ("In the Same Boat \#3"). Cioffi takes Niki and Belling up to the theatre's catwalk high above the stage. While searching for messages on the back of the drops, he announces that he's solved the mystery. Left alone, he is hit with a sandbag and is sent tumbling down. He narrowly escapes death by clutching onto a prop, which lowers him to safety. When on the ground, he exclaims that he has solved it... he finally knows how to stage "In the Same Boat". Putting together all three versions, the cast is able to sing an incredible, show stopping number ("In The Same Boat\- Complete"). With the number completed, Cioffi tells Niki he has a plan to solve the murder. Cioffi announces over the theatre PA system that he and Niki are engaged, before asking the cast to re\-stage the bows, when Jessica was murdered (“Wide Open Spaces”(reprise)). The cast quickly notices that Georgia is only being offered one bouquet, rather than two like on opening night. Cioffi figures out that the murderer hid a pellet gun with a cyanide capsule inside a bouquet, disguised as an usher, and killed Jessica. Bobby suddenly comes on stage with a bloody head and collapses, and everyone realizes that the masked Rob Hood standing on stage is a fake. Cioffi then announces that the zero and the "Drop in Planet Earth" both represented a globe: The Boston Globe. He finally solves the case: the murderer is the Boston Globe critic, Daryl Grady. Daryl then takes off the mask and holds a knife to Niki's throat, threatening to kill her so that Cioffi cannot marry her. He reveals that he is in love with Niki and did not want her to move, so he decided he would do anything to stop the show from going on to Broadway. He demands that Cioffi give him his gun on his holster, to which he complies, though when Daryl tries to shoot Cioffi, it is revealed that the gun was not loaded. Cioffi takes another gun from his jacket, and officially arrests Daryl. Carmen pulls the trapdoor, leading Daryl to fall below the stage. Cioffi's colleague, Detective O'Farrell, takes him into custody and the cast of the production is relieved that the murder is finally solved. Cioffi privately confronts Carmen, and she admits that she killed Sidney. Carmen has been secretly acting on behalf of Bambi, belittling Bambi in public so nobody would know how much support she was actually putting into Bambi's career, while pretending to be unsupportive so Bambi would have to work to get ahead rather than rely on nepotism. She wants her daughter to move on to Broadway, but Sidney was going to close the show. Cioffi agrees to wait until after the show's Broadway opening to turn her in, and tells her that, with the right lawyer, she could easily be acquitted of what is surely justifiable homicide. Carmen tells Cioffi that while his duty may be to the police, his heart will always be onstage, and that he will always be one of them ("Show People (Reprise)"). Belling comes on and notifies them that with Bobby's injury, he will not be able to perform that night. Finally, the show reopens. Georgia is now Madame Marian ("Wide Open Spaces Finale"), Cioffi has replaced Bobby as Rob Hood, and "Tough Act to Follow" has become the new finale of the show. Cioffi proposes to Niki during the show's final scene, to which she accepts, and the stage becomes a celebration ("A Tough Act to Follow (Reprise)").
[ "### Act II", "Sasha, the conductor, turns to the audience to reveal that Sidney's hanging was fatal (\"The Man is Dead\"). A makeshift dormitory has been set up on the stage of the still\\-sequestered Colonial Theatre. Each member of the company grows more paranoid by the hour, and often suspects the others during various periods of the night (\"He Did It\"). Cioffi returns from the coroner's office and tells everyone that Sidney was knocked out before being tied to the rope, so everyone is still a suspect, but his focus is more on whether the show will be ready for its re\\-opening. Niki then finds a death threat for Sidney, stating he will die unless he closes the show. Oscar reveals Sidney died for nothing as he was going to comply, going so far as to giving back last checks he made out. Carmen takes them back, saying she is going to keep the show open. Aaron previews his new version of \"In the Same Boat\", now featuring Bobby, Randy, and Harv (\"In the Same Boat \\#2\"), though Cioffi is still unsatisfied with the product.", "Bambi asks that a pas de deux be added for herself and Bobby during the show's square dance number. Carmen agrees, but she insist that she is no stage mother, as her duty has always been to the box office (\"It's a Business\"). Daryl Grady then comes in and tells everyone that he's taking interviews from the cast in the Green Room. At the rehearsal of the re\\-staged square dance number, Bambi and Bobby are doing incredibly well, and everyone is impressed, however, towards the end of the number, Bobby is shot, and left wounded in the arm (\"Kansasland\"). Through use of angles, Cioffi is quick to figure out that Carmen was actually the target of the shot, not Bobby. Niki comes forward with the gun, and the company immediately jumps to the conclusion that she is guilty (\"She Did It (Reprise)\"). She says that she innocently found the gun backstage and hands it over, albeit after she accidentally pulls the trigger and almost kills Cioffi.", "Cioffi gathers Aaron, Georgia, and Bobby and tells them that Sidney had no blackmail material on them, and yet they were still content working for such low pay. Georgia then quotes a death threat which Cioffi had not read out loud, leading Cioffi to arrest her when Aaron attempts to takes the blame for her, reviving their romance (\"Thinking of Him/I Miss the Music (Reprise)\"). Cioffi reveals that it was all an act, and that Bobby had only been pretending to be Georgia's boyfriend so that she could stir something back up in Aaron. She leaves, and Bobby confesses that he does love Georgia, and that he would do anything for her, even commit murder.", "Niki laments how love makes people feel bad, but Cioffi begins flirting with her and reminisces about the first time he saw her on stage, leading them into an elaborate fantasy sequence, in which they daydream about being a couple in a musical (\"A Tough Act to Follow\"). He then confronts Niki about a coded memo in Sidney's blackmail book, as there was a black zero next to her name. Johnny tells Cioffi that he knows the secret, but refuses to tell Cioffi what it is. He is then shot while alone onstage. He tears out a page from his notebook reading \"Drop in Planet Earth\", and then bleeds out (\"In the Same Boat \\#3\").", "Cioffi takes Niki and Belling up to the theatre's catwalk high above the stage. While searching for messages on the back of the drops, he announces that he's solved the mystery. Left alone, he is hit with a sandbag and is sent tumbling down. He narrowly escapes death by clutching onto a prop, which lowers him to safety. When on the ground, he exclaims that he has solved it... he finally knows how to stage \"In the Same Boat\". Putting together all three versions, the cast is able to sing an incredible, show stopping number (\"In The Same Boat\\- Complete\").", "With the number completed, Cioffi tells Niki he has a plan to solve the murder. Cioffi announces over the theatre PA system that he and Niki are engaged, before asking the cast to re\\-stage the bows, when Jessica was murdered (“Wide Open Spaces”(reprise)). The cast quickly notices that Georgia is only being offered one bouquet, rather than two like on opening night. Cioffi figures out that the murderer hid a pellet gun with a cyanide capsule inside a bouquet, disguised as an usher, and killed Jessica. Bobby suddenly comes on stage with a bloody head and collapses, and everyone realizes that the masked Rob Hood standing on stage is a fake.", "Cioffi then announces that the zero and the \"Drop in Planet Earth\" both represented a globe: The Boston Globe. He finally solves the case: the murderer is the Boston Globe critic, Daryl Grady. Daryl then takes off the mask and holds a knife to Niki's throat, threatening to kill her so that Cioffi cannot marry her. He reveals that he is in love with Niki and did not want her to move, so he decided he would do anything to stop the show from going on to Broadway. He demands that Cioffi give him his gun on his holster, to which he complies, though when Daryl tries to shoot Cioffi, it is revealed that the gun was not loaded. Cioffi takes another gun from his jacket, and officially arrests Daryl. Carmen pulls the trapdoor, leading Daryl to fall below the stage. Cioffi's colleague, Detective O'Farrell, takes him into custody and the cast of the production is relieved that the murder is finally solved.", "Cioffi privately confronts Carmen, and she admits that she killed Sidney. Carmen has been secretly acting on behalf of Bambi, belittling Bambi in public so nobody would know how much support she was actually putting into Bambi's career, while pretending to be unsupportive so Bambi would have to work to get ahead rather than rely on nepotism. She wants her daughter to move on to Broadway, but Sidney was going to close the show. Cioffi agrees to wait until after the show's Broadway opening to turn her in, and tells her that, with the right lawyer, she could easily be acquitted of what is surely justifiable homicide. Carmen tells Cioffi that while his duty may be to the police, his heart will always be onstage, and that he will always be one of them (\"Show People (Reprise)\"). Belling comes on and notifies them that with Bobby's injury, he will not be able to perform that night.", "Finally, the show reopens. Georgia is now Madame Marian (\"Wide Open Spaces Finale\"), Cioffi has replaced Bobby as Rob Hood, and \"Tough Act to Follow\" has become the new finale of the show. Cioffi proposes to Niki during the show's final scene, to which she accepts, and the stage becomes a celebration (\"A Tough Act to Follow (Reprise)\").", "" ]
Other productions ----------------- ### United States A U.S. tour of *Curtains* was scheduled to start in a limited engagement beginning in March 2010, according to Avid Touring Group.{{cite web \|last\=Jones \|first\=Kenneth \|title\=''Curtains'' Will Tour in Fall 2009 \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/curtains\-will\-tour\-in\-fall\-2009\-com\-150317 \|website\=Playbill \|date\=May 21, 2008}}{{cite web \|title\=Curtains \|url\=http://www.avidtouring.com/attraction.php?id\=0012 \|website\=AvidTouring.com \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707193123/http://www.avidtouring.com/attraction.php?id\=0012 \|archive\-date\=July 7, 2011}} The New England premiere of *Curtains* opened August 13, 2010, for five shows only, at the Haskell Opera House in Derby Line, Vermont/Stanstead, [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec "Quebec"). The show was performed by QNEK Productions, the resident theatre company at the [Haskell Opera House](/wiki/Haskell_Free_Library_and_Opera_House "Haskell Free Library and Opera House").<http://www.qnek.com> qnek.com ### International The first European production opened in [Visby](/wiki/Visby "Visby"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") in April 2009\. Produced and directed by Sofia Ahlin Schwanbohm, the cast featured Fredrik Wahlgren (Lt. Frank Cioffi), Clara Strauch (Carmen Bernstein), Ingrid Zerpe as (Georgia Hendricks), and Vilhelm Blomgren as (Aaron Fox).[http://www1\.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT\=LAD25755SAU04191\&changeLocaleTo\=en\_GB](http://www1.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT=LAD25755SAU04191&changeLocaleTo=en_GB){{Dead link\|date\=December 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} ticnet.se The Australian premiere of *Curtains* was held on February 12, 2010, at Spotlight Theatre on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland "Gold Coast, Queensland"), and ran for four weeks. The first UK performance of *Curtains* was given at the Kenneth More Theatre, Ilford, on March 11, 2010\. The first UK Professional production of the show was at the [Landor Theatre](/wiki/Landor_Theatre "Landor Theatre") in [London](/wiki/London "London"). The show opened to previews on July 25, 2012, before opening officially on July 30, 2012\. The show ran until September 1\. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons\-fringe\-landor\-theatre\-to\-offer\-u.k.\-professional\-premiere\-of\-kander\-194029](http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons-fringe-landor-theatre-to-offer-u.k.-professional-premiere-of-kander-194029) The production received positive reviews with Paul Vale from the Stage writing, "this is a traditional musical comedy that despite some minor flaws, throws out plenty of laugh out loud one\-liners and some great tunes" <http://www.thestage.co.uk/reviews/review.php/36905/curtains> The Scottish Premiere was performed by the [Southern Light Opera Company](/wiki/Southern_Light_Opera_Company "Southern Light Opera Company") in the Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh on 15 to 19 May 2012\. The New Zealand premiere of *Curtains* was performed at Porirua Little Theatre, Wellington, on April 8, 2010, and the musical ran for four weeks. The Irish premiere of *Curtains* was performed by 'Clara Musical Society' to mark their 40th year. The performances ran April 5 to 9, 2011, at The GAA social Centre, River Street, Clara, Co. Offaly. The Czech premiere was at Musical theatre Karlin (Hudební divadlo Karlín) on September 22, 2011, opening to mostly positive reviews. The creative team included director Antonín Procházka, translator Adam Novák, designers Michalea Hořejší and Aleš Valášek and choreographer Pavel Strouhal.{{Cite web\|last\=Doubrava\|first\=Ondřej\|url\=http://www.musical.cz/zpravy/praha/vrazda\-za\-oponou\-zna\-tvurci\-tym\-i\-velkou\-cast\-obsazeni/\|title \= "Vražda za oponou" zná tvůrčí tým i velkou část obsazení\|website \= Musical.cz\|date \= 23 March 2011\|language \= cs}} The German premiere was at the Landestheater Coburg on November 5, 2011\.{{cite web \|title\=Landestheater Coburg \|url\=http://www.landestheater\-coburg.de/ \|website\=landestheater\-coburg.de}} The Canadian premiere was performed by No Strings Theatre Company with a run from July 26 to 29, 2012, at The Al Green Theatre in Toronto. In 2016, [The Production Company](/wiki/The_Production_Company "The Production Company") mounted a professional production staged at the [Melbourne Arts Centre](/wiki/Arts_Centre_Melbourne "Arts Centre Melbourne") in Australia. The cast included [Simon Gleeson](/wiki/Simon_Gleeson "Simon Gleeson") as Frank Cioffi, Alinta Chidzey as Niki Harris, [Colin Lane](/wiki/Colin_Lane "Colin Lane") as Christopher Belling, [Lucy Maunder](/wiki/Lucy_Maunder "Lucy Maunder") and Alex Rathgeber as Georgia Hendricks and Aaron Fox, and [John Wood](/wiki/John_Wood_%28actor%2C_born_1946%29 "John Wood (actor, born 1946)") as Sidney Bernstein.{{Cite web\|last \= Woodhead\|first \= Cameron\|url \= http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/stage/melbourne\-stage/curtains\-review\-the\-production\-companys\-musical\-whodunit\-rollicking\-good\-fun\-20160822\-gqxybw.html\|title \= Curtains review: The Production Company's musical whodunit rollicking good fun\|website \= Sydney Morning Herald\|date \= 22 August 2016}}["'Curtains' Media Release"](http://www.theproductioncompany.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Curtains-Media-Release_June15_v31.pdf), TheProductionCompany.com.au A UK tour began at the [Churchill Theatre, Bromley](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre "Churchill Theatre") in October 2019 starring [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford "Jason Manford") as Frank Cioffi, [Carley Stenson](/wiki/Carley_Stenson "Carley Stenson") as Georgia Hendricks, [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba "Ore Oduba") (alternating venues with Andy Coxon) as Aaron Fox and [Rebecca Lock](/wiki/Rebecca_Lock "Rebecca Lock") as Carmen Bernstein and directed by Paul Foster.{{Cite web\|url\=https://curtainsmusical.com/\|title\=Curtains – A comedy musical whodunnit\|website\=curtainsmusical.com\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-26}} The production transferred to the [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre "Wyndham's Theatre") in [London's West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") featuring the touring cast (with the exception of Oduba being replaced by Coxon as Aaron Fox, and [Cory English](/wiki/Cory_English "Cory English") as Oscar Shapiro from December 13 to 22\) from December 13, 2019, until January 13, 2020, before resuming the UK tour until spring 2020\.{{cite web \|last\=Meyer \|first\=Dan \|title\=John Kander and Fred Ebb's ''Curtains'' Set to Rise in a West End Debut \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/john\-kander\-and\-fred\-ebbs\-curtains\-set\-to\-rise\-in\-a\-west\-end\-debut \|website\=Playbill \|date\=November 1, 2019}} However, due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the tour finished early at the [Leicester Haymarket Theatre](/wiki/Leicester_Haymarket_Theatre "Leicester Haymarket Theatre") in March 2020\. A recording was live streamed online on April 14, 2020, filmed during the tour in October 2019 at the [Palace Theatre, Manchester](/wiki/Palace_Theatre%2C_Manchester "Palace Theatre, Manchester"), with profits of the live stream going to the Funds For Freelancers charity.
[ "Other productions\n-----------------", "### United States", "A U.S. tour of *Curtains* was scheduled to start in a limited engagement beginning in March 2010, according to Avid Touring Group.{{cite web \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=Kenneth \\|title\\=''Curtains'' Will Tour in Fall 2009 \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/curtains\\-will\\-tour\\-in\\-fall\\-2009\\-com\\-150317 \\|website\\=Playbill \\|date\\=May 21, 2008}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Curtains \\|url\\=http://www.avidtouring.com/attraction.php?id\\=0012 \\|website\\=AvidTouring.com \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707193123/http://www.avidtouring.com/attraction.php?id\\=0012 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 7, 2011}}", "The New England premiere of *Curtains* opened August 13, 2010, for five shows only, at the Haskell Opera House in Derby Line, Vermont/Stanstead, [Quebec](/wiki/Quebec \"Quebec\"). The show was performed by QNEK Productions, the resident theatre company at the [Haskell Opera House](/wiki/Haskell_Free_Library_and_Opera_House \"Haskell Free Library and Opera House\").<http://www.qnek.com> qnek.com", "### International", "The first European production opened in [Visby](/wiki/Visby \"Visby\"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") in April 2009\\. Produced and directed by Sofia Ahlin Schwanbohm, the cast featured Fredrik Wahlgren (Lt. Frank Cioffi), Clara Strauch (Carmen Bernstein), Ingrid Zerpe as (Georgia Hendricks), and Vilhelm Blomgren as (Aaron Fox).[http://www1\\.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT\\=LAD25755SAU04191\\&changeLocaleTo\\=en\\_GB](http://www1.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT=LAD25755SAU04191&changeLocaleTo=en_GB){{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} ticnet.se", "The Australian premiere of *Curtains* was held on February 12, 2010, at Spotlight Theatre on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland \"Gold Coast, Queensland\"), and ran for four weeks.", "The first UK performance of *Curtains* was given at the Kenneth More Theatre, Ilford, on March 11, 2010\\. The first UK Professional production of the show was at the [Landor Theatre](/wiki/Landor_Theatre \"Landor Theatre\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). The show opened to previews on July 25, 2012, before opening officially on July 30, 2012\\. The show ran until September 1\\. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons\\-fringe\\-landor\\-theatre\\-to\\-offer\\-u.k.\\-professional\\-premiere\\-of\\-kander\\-194029](http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons-fringe-landor-theatre-to-offer-u.k.-professional-premiere-of-kander-194029) The production received positive reviews with Paul Vale from the Stage writing, \"this is a traditional musical comedy that despite some minor flaws, throws out plenty of laugh out loud one\\-liners and some great tunes\" <http://www.thestage.co.uk/reviews/review.php/36905/curtains>\nThe Scottish Premiere was performed by the [Southern Light Opera Company](/wiki/Southern_Light_Opera_Company \"Southern Light Opera Company\") in the Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh on 15 to 19 May 2012\\.", "The New Zealand premiere of *Curtains* was performed at Porirua Little Theatre, Wellington, on April 8, 2010, and the musical ran for four weeks.", "The Irish premiere of *Curtains* was performed by 'Clara Musical Society' to mark their 40th year. The performances ran April 5 to 9, 2011, at The GAA social Centre, River Street, Clara, Co. Offaly.", "The Czech premiere was at Musical theatre Karlin (Hudební divadlo Karlín) on September 22, 2011, opening to mostly positive reviews. The creative team included director Antonín Procházka, translator Adam Novák, designers Michalea Hořejší and Aleš Valášek and choreographer Pavel Strouhal.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Doubrava\\|first\\=Ondřej\\|url\\=http://www.musical.cz/zpravy/praha/vrazda\\-za\\-oponou\\-zna\\-tvurci\\-tym\\-i\\-velkou\\-cast\\-obsazeni/\\|title \\= \"Vražda za oponou\" zná tvůrčí tým i velkou část obsazení\\|website \\= Musical.cz\\|date \\= 23 March 2011\\|language \\= cs}}", "The German premiere was at the Landestheater Coburg on November 5, 2011\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Landestheater Coburg \\|url\\=http://www.landestheater\\-coburg.de/ \\|website\\=landestheater\\-coburg.de}}", "The Canadian premiere was performed by No Strings Theatre Company with a run from July 26 to 29, 2012, at The Al Green Theatre in Toronto.", "In 2016, [The Production Company](/wiki/The_Production_Company \"The Production Company\") mounted a professional production staged at the [Melbourne Arts Centre](/wiki/Arts_Centre_Melbourne \"Arts Centre Melbourne\") in Australia. The cast included [Simon Gleeson](/wiki/Simon_Gleeson \"Simon Gleeson\") as Frank Cioffi, Alinta Chidzey as Niki Harris, [Colin Lane](/wiki/Colin_Lane \"Colin Lane\") as Christopher Belling, [Lucy Maunder](/wiki/Lucy_Maunder \"Lucy Maunder\") and Alex Rathgeber as Georgia Hendricks and Aaron Fox, and [John Wood](/wiki/John_Wood_%28actor%2C_born_1946%29 \"John Wood (actor, born 1946)\") as Sidney Bernstein.{{Cite web\\|last \\= Woodhead\\|first \\= Cameron\\|url \\= http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/stage/melbourne\\-stage/curtains\\-review\\-the\\-production\\-companys\\-musical\\-whodunit\\-rollicking\\-good\\-fun\\-20160822\\-gqxybw.html\\|title \\= Curtains review: The Production Company's musical whodunit rollicking good fun\\|website \\= Sydney Morning Herald\\|date \\= 22 August 2016}}[\"'Curtains' Media Release\"](http://www.theproductioncompany.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Curtains-Media-Release_June15_v31.pdf), TheProductionCompany.com.au", "A UK tour began at the [Churchill Theatre, Bromley](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre \"Churchill Theatre\") in October 2019 starring [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford \"Jason Manford\") as Frank Cioffi, [Carley Stenson](/wiki/Carley_Stenson \"Carley Stenson\") as Georgia Hendricks, [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba \"Ore Oduba\") (alternating venues with Andy Coxon) as Aaron Fox and [Rebecca Lock](/wiki/Rebecca_Lock \"Rebecca Lock\") as Carmen Bernstein and directed by Paul Foster.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://curtainsmusical.com/\\|title\\=Curtains – A comedy musical whodunnit\\|website\\=curtainsmusical.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-26}} The production transferred to the [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre \"Wyndham's Theatre\") in [London's West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") featuring the touring cast (with the exception of Oduba being replaced by Coxon as Aaron Fox, and [Cory English](/wiki/Cory_English \"Cory English\") as Oscar Shapiro from December 13 to 22\\) from December 13, 2019, until January 13, 2020, before resuming the UK tour until spring 2020\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Meyer \\|first\\=Dan \\|title\\=John Kander and Fred Ebb's ''Curtains'' Set to Rise in a West End Debut \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/john\\-kander\\-and\\-fred\\-ebbs\\-curtains\\-set\\-to\\-rise\\-in\\-a\\-west\\-end\\-debut \\|website\\=Playbill \\|date\\=November 1, 2019}} However, due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the tour finished early at the [Leicester Haymarket Theatre](/wiki/Leicester_Haymarket_Theatre \"Leicester Haymarket Theatre\") in March 2020\\. A recording was live streamed online on April 14, 2020, filmed during the tour in October 2019 at the [Palace Theatre, Manchester](/wiki/Palace_Theatre%2C_Manchester \"Palace Theatre, Manchester\"), with profits of the live stream going to the Funds For Freelancers charity.", "" ]
### International The first European production opened in [Visby](/wiki/Visby "Visby"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden "Sweden") in April 2009\. Produced and directed by Sofia Ahlin Schwanbohm, the cast featured Fredrik Wahlgren (Lt. Frank Cioffi), Clara Strauch (Carmen Bernstein), Ingrid Zerpe as (Georgia Hendricks), and Vilhelm Blomgren as (Aaron Fox).[http://www1\.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT\=LAD25755SAU04191\&changeLocaleTo\=en\_GB](http://www1.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT=LAD25755SAU04191&changeLocaleTo=en_GB){{Dead link\|date\=December 2023 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} ticnet.se The Australian premiere of *Curtains* was held on February 12, 2010, at Spotlight Theatre on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland "Gold Coast, Queensland"), and ran for four weeks. The first UK performance of *Curtains* was given at the Kenneth More Theatre, Ilford, on March 11, 2010\. The first UK Professional production of the show was at the [Landor Theatre](/wiki/Landor_Theatre "Landor Theatre") in [London](/wiki/London "London"). The show opened to previews on July 25, 2012, before opening officially on July 30, 2012\. The show ran until September 1\. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons\-fringe\-landor\-theatre\-to\-offer\-u.k.\-professional\-premiere\-of\-kander\-194029](http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons-fringe-landor-theatre-to-offer-u.k.-professional-premiere-of-kander-194029) The production received positive reviews with Paul Vale from the Stage writing, "this is a traditional musical comedy that despite some minor flaws, throws out plenty of laugh out loud one\-liners and some great tunes" <http://www.thestage.co.uk/reviews/review.php/36905/curtains> The Scottish Premiere was performed by the [Southern Light Opera Company](/wiki/Southern_Light_Opera_Company "Southern Light Opera Company") in the Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh on 15 to 19 May 2012\. The New Zealand premiere of *Curtains* was performed at Porirua Little Theatre, Wellington, on April 8, 2010, and the musical ran for four weeks. The Irish premiere of *Curtains* was performed by 'Clara Musical Society' to mark their 40th year. The performances ran April 5 to 9, 2011, at The GAA social Centre, River Street, Clara, Co. Offaly. The Czech premiere was at Musical theatre Karlin (Hudební divadlo Karlín) on September 22, 2011, opening to mostly positive reviews. The creative team included director Antonín Procházka, translator Adam Novák, designers Michalea Hořejší and Aleš Valášek and choreographer Pavel Strouhal.{{Cite web\|last\=Doubrava\|first\=Ondřej\|url\=http://www.musical.cz/zpravy/praha/vrazda\-za\-oponou\-zna\-tvurci\-tym\-i\-velkou\-cast\-obsazeni/\|title \= "Vražda za oponou" zná tvůrčí tým i velkou část obsazení\|website \= Musical.cz\|date \= 23 March 2011\|language \= cs}} The German premiere was at the Landestheater Coburg on November 5, 2011\.{{cite web \|title\=Landestheater Coburg \|url\=http://www.landestheater\-coburg.de/ \|website\=landestheater\-coburg.de}} The Canadian premiere was performed by No Strings Theatre Company with a run from July 26 to 29, 2012, at The Al Green Theatre in Toronto. In 2016, [The Production Company](/wiki/The_Production_Company "The Production Company") mounted a professional production staged at the [Melbourne Arts Centre](/wiki/Arts_Centre_Melbourne "Arts Centre Melbourne") in Australia. The cast included [Simon Gleeson](/wiki/Simon_Gleeson "Simon Gleeson") as Frank Cioffi, Alinta Chidzey as Niki Harris, [Colin Lane](/wiki/Colin_Lane "Colin Lane") as Christopher Belling, [Lucy Maunder](/wiki/Lucy_Maunder "Lucy Maunder") and Alex Rathgeber as Georgia Hendricks and Aaron Fox, and [John Wood](/wiki/John_Wood_%28actor%2C_born_1946%29 "John Wood (actor, born 1946)") as Sidney Bernstein.{{Cite web\|last \= Woodhead\|first \= Cameron\|url \= http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/stage/melbourne\-stage/curtains\-review\-the\-production\-companys\-musical\-whodunit\-rollicking\-good\-fun\-20160822\-gqxybw.html\|title \= Curtains review: The Production Company's musical whodunit rollicking good fun\|website \= Sydney Morning Herald\|date \= 22 August 2016}}["'Curtains' Media Release"](http://www.theproductioncompany.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Curtains-Media-Release_June15_v31.pdf), TheProductionCompany.com.au A UK tour began at the [Churchill Theatre, Bromley](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre "Churchill Theatre") in October 2019 starring [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford "Jason Manford") as Frank Cioffi, [Carley Stenson](/wiki/Carley_Stenson "Carley Stenson") as Georgia Hendricks, [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba "Ore Oduba") (alternating venues with Andy Coxon) as Aaron Fox and [Rebecca Lock](/wiki/Rebecca_Lock "Rebecca Lock") as Carmen Bernstein and directed by Paul Foster.{{Cite web\|url\=https://curtainsmusical.com/\|title\=Curtains – A comedy musical whodunnit\|website\=curtainsmusical.com\|access\-date\=2019\-02\-26}} The production transferred to the [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre "Wyndham's Theatre") in [London's West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre") featuring the touring cast (with the exception of Oduba being replaced by Coxon as Aaron Fox, and [Cory English](/wiki/Cory_English "Cory English") as Oscar Shapiro from December 13 to 22\) from December 13, 2019, until January 13, 2020, before resuming the UK tour until spring 2020\.{{cite web \|last\=Meyer \|first\=Dan \|title\=John Kander and Fred Ebb's ''Curtains'' Set to Rise in a West End Debut \|url\=https://www.playbill.com/article/john\-kander\-and\-fred\-ebbs\-curtains\-set\-to\-rise\-in\-a\-west\-end\-debut \|website\=Playbill \|date\=November 1, 2019}} However, due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic"), the tour finished early at the [Leicester Haymarket Theatre](/wiki/Leicester_Haymarket_Theatre "Leicester Haymarket Theatre") in March 2020\. A recording was live streamed online on April 14, 2020, filmed during the tour in October 2019 at the [Palace Theatre, Manchester](/wiki/Palace_Theatre%2C_Manchester "Palace Theatre, Manchester"), with profits of the live stream going to the Funds For Freelancers charity.
[ "### International", "The first European production opened in [Visby](/wiki/Visby \"Visby\"), [Sweden](/wiki/Sweden \"Sweden\") in April 2009\\. Produced and directed by Sofia Ahlin Schwanbohm, the cast featured Fredrik Wahlgren (Lt. Frank Cioffi), Clara Strauch (Carmen Bernstein), Ingrid Zerpe as (Georgia Hendricks), and Vilhelm Blomgren as (Aaron Fox).[http://www1\\.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT\\=LAD25755SAU04191\\&changeLocaleTo\\=en\\_GB](http://www1.ticnet.se/PriceTable?EVNT=LAD25755SAU04191&changeLocaleTo=en_GB){{Dead link\\|date\\=December 2023 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} ticnet.se", "The Australian premiere of *Curtains* was held on February 12, 2010, at Spotlight Theatre on the [Gold Coast](/wiki/Gold_Coast%2C_Queensland \"Gold Coast, Queensland\"), and ran for four weeks.", "The first UK performance of *Curtains* was given at the Kenneth More Theatre, Ilford, on March 11, 2010\\. The first UK Professional production of the show was at the [Landor Theatre](/wiki/Landor_Theatre \"Landor Theatre\") in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"). The show opened to previews on July 25, 2012, before opening officially on July 30, 2012\\. The show ran until September 1\\. [http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons\\-fringe\\-landor\\-theatre\\-to\\-offer\\-u.k.\\-professional\\-premiere\\-of\\-kander\\-194029](http://www.playbill.com/news/article/londons-fringe-landor-theatre-to-offer-u.k.-professional-premiere-of-kander-194029) The production received positive reviews with Paul Vale from the Stage writing, \"this is a traditional musical comedy that despite some minor flaws, throws out plenty of laugh out loud one\\-liners and some great tunes\" <http://www.thestage.co.uk/reviews/review.php/36905/curtains>\nThe Scottish Premiere was performed by the [Southern Light Opera Company](/wiki/Southern_Light_Opera_Company \"Southern Light Opera Company\") in the Royal Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh on 15 to 19 May 2012\\.", "The New Zealand premiere of *Curtains* was performed at Porirua Little Theatre, Wellington, on April 8, 2010, and the musical ran for four weeks.", "The Irish premiere of *Curtains* was performed by 'Clara Musical Society' to mark their 40th year. The performances ran April 5 to 9, 2011, at The GAA social Centre, River Street, Clara, Co. Offaly.", "The Czech premiere was at Musical theatre Karlin (Hudební divadlo Karlín) on September 22, 2011, opening to mostly positive reviews. The creative team included director Antonín Procházka, translator Adam Novák, designers Michalea Hořejší and Aleš Valášek and choreographer Pavel Strouhal.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Doubrava\\|first\\=Ondřej\\|url\\=http://www.musical.cz/zpravy/praha/vrazda\\-za\\-oponou\\-zna\\-tvurci\\-tym\\-i\\-velkou\\-cast\\-obsazeni/\\|title \\= \"Vražda za oponou\" zná tvůrčí tým i velkou část obsazení\\|website \\= Musical.cz\\|date \\= 23 March 2011\\|language \\= cs}}", "The German premiere was at the Landestheater Coburg on November 5, 2011\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Landestheater Coburg \\|url\\=http://www.landestheater\\-coburg.de/ \\|website\\=landestheater\\-coburg.de}}", "The Canadian premiere was performed by No Strings Theatre Company with a run from July 26 to 29, 2012, at The Al Green Theatre in Toronto.", "In 2016, [The Production Company](/wiki/The_Production_Company \"The Production Company\") mounted a professional production staged at the [Melbourne Arts Centre](/wiki/Arts_Centre_Melbourne \"Arts Centre Melbourne\") in Australia. The cast included [Simon Gleeson](/wiki/Simon_Gleeson \"Simon Gleeson\") as Frank Cioffi, Alinta Chidzey as Niki Harris, [Colin Lane](/wiki/Colin_Lane \"Colin Lane\") as Christopher Belling, [Lucy Maunder](/wiki/Lucy_Maunder \"Lucy Maunder\") and Alex Rathgeber as Georgia Hendricks and Aaron Fox, and [John Wood](/wiki/John_Wood_%28actor%2C_born_1946%29 \"John Wood (actor, born 1946)\") as Sidney Bernstein.{{Cite web\\|last \\= Woodhead\\|first \\= Cameron\\|url \\= http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/stage/melbourne\\-stage/curtains\\-review\\-the\\-production\\-companys\\-musical\\-whodunit\\-rollicking\\-good\\-fun\\-20160822\\-gqxybw.html\\|title \\= Curtains review: The Production Company's musical whodunit rollicking good fun\\|website \\= Sydney Morning Herald\\|date \\= 22 August 2016}}[\"'Curtains' Media Release\"](http://www.theproductioncompany.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Curtains-Media-Release_June15_v31.pdf), TheProductionCompany.com.au", "A UK tour began at the [Churchill Theatre, Bromley](/wiki/Churchill_Theatre \"Churchill Theatre\") in October 2019 starring [Jason Manford](/wiki/Jason_Manford \"Jason Manford\") as Frank Cioffi, [Carley Stenson](/wiki/Carley_Stenson \"Carley Stenson\") as Georgia Hendricks, [Ore Oduba](/wiki/Ore_Oduba \"Ore Oduba\") (alternating venues with Andy Coxon) as Aaron Fox and [Rebecca Lock](/wiki/Rebecca_Lock \"Rebecca Lock\") as Carmen Bernstein and directed by Paul Foster.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://curtainsmusical.com/\\|title\\=Curtains – A comedy musical whodunnit\\|website\\=curtainsmusical.com\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-26}} The production transferred to the [Wyndham's Theatre](/wiki/Wyndham%27s_Theatre \"Wyndham's Theatre\") in [London's West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\") featuring the touring cast (with the exception of Oduba being replaced by Coxon as Aaron Fox, and [Cory English](/wiki/Cory_English \"Cory English\") as Oscar Shapiro from December 13 to 22\\) from December 13, 2019, until January 13, 2020, before resuming the UK tour until spring 2020\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Meyer \\|first\\=Dan \\|title\\=John Kander and Fred Ebb's ''Curtains'' Set to Rise in a West End Debut \\|url\\=https://www.playbill.com/article/john\\-kander\\-and\\-fred\\-ebbs\\-curtains\\-set\\-to\\-rise\\-in\\-a\\-west\\-end\\-debut \\|website\\=Playbill \\|date\\=November 1, 2019}} However, due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\"), the tour finished early at the [Leicester Haymarket Theatre](/wiki/Leicester_Haymarket_Theatre \"Leicester Haymarket Theatre\") in March 2020\\. A recording was live streamed online on April 14, 2020, filmed during the tour in October 2019 at the [Palace Theatre, Manchester](/wiki/Palace_Theatre%2C_Manchester \"Palace Theatre, Manchester\"), with profits of the live stream going to the Funds For Freelancers charity.", "" ]
Origins ------- ### The Riviera name [thumb\|1949 Buick Roadmaster Riviera (one of the first [hardtops](/wiki/Hardtop "Hardtop"))](/wiki/File:1949_Buick_Roadmaster_Riviera_Coup%C3%A9_-_Flickr_-_exfordy.jpg "1949 Buick Roadmaster Riviera Coupé - Flickr - exfordy.jpg") [thumb\|1959 Buick Electra 225 Riviera](/wiki/File:1959_Buick_Electra_225_Riviera_Sedan_side.jpg "1959 Buick Electra 225 Riviera Sedan side.jpg") The name *Riviera*, [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language "Italian language") for *coastline*, was chosen to evoke the allure and affluence of the [French Riviera](/wiki/French_Riviera "French Riviera"). It first entered the [Buick](/wiki/Buick "Buick") line in 1949, as the designation for the new two\-door pillarless [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop "Hardtop"), described in advertising as "stunningly smart". The [Buick Roadmaster](/wiki/Buick_Roadmaster "Buick Roadmaster") Riviera coupe (along with the [Cadillac Coupe de Ville](/wiki/Cadillac_De_Ville "Cadillac De Ville") and [Oldsmobile 98](/wiki/Oldsmobile_98 "Oldsmobile 98") Holiday coupe) constituted the first mass production use of this body style, which was to become popular over the next 30 years. Buick added a two\-door Riviera hardtop to the [Super](/wiki/Buick_Super "Buick Super") the following year, the [Special](/wiki/Buick_Special "Buick Special") in 1951, and the [Century](/wiki/Buick_Century "Buick Century") upon its return, after a 12\-year absence, in 1954\. From 1951 to 1953 the *Riviera* designation was given to the existing long\-wheelbase versions of the four\-door Buick Roadmaster and Super [sedans](/wiki/Sedan_%28car%29 "Sedan (car)"). The 1951–53 Buick Roadmaster and Super four\-door Riviera sedans feature more standard features, more plush interior trim, and a wheelbase (and overall length) that is {{convert\|4\.0\|in\|mm\|0}} longer than a regular Buick Roadmaster or Super four\-door sedan. The 1951–52 Buick Super four\-door Riviera sedan is still {{convert\|0\.75\|in\|mm\|0}} shorter in wheelbase and length than the regular Buick Roadmaster and {{convert\|4\.75\|in\|mm\|0}} shorter than the Roadmaster four\-door Riviera sedan. In 1953, with the move from the [Fireball](/wiki/Buick_Straight-8_engine "Buick Straight-8 engine") [straight\-eight](/wiki/Straight-eight_engine "Straight-eight engine") to the more compact [Fireball](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine "Buick V8 engine") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine") engine, the Roadmaster and Super four\-door Riviera sedans became the same length. In the middle of the 1955 model year, Buick and [Oldsmobile](/wiki/Oldsmobile "Oldsmobile") introduced the world's first mass\-produced four\-door hardtops, with Buick offering it only on the Century and Special models, and the *Riviera* designation was also applied to these body styles. Four\-door Riviera hardtops were added to the Roadmaster and Super lines at the beginning of the following model year. However, since it was a body style designation and not a model, the Riviera name does not usually appear on the car. In 1959, Buick became much more selective in applying the Riviera name. From then until 1962 it only was used to denote a premium trimmed six\-window hardtop style which it initially shared exclusively with [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac "Cadillac") (the Oldsmobile 98 would receive it in 1961\) and was available only on the [Electra 225](/wiki/Buick_Electra "Buick Electra"). The last usage of the term *Riviera* to describe a luxury trim level was 1963, as the formal designation of the \#4829 Electra 225 Riviera four\-door hardtop, the same year the E\-body model two\-door hardtop coupe Riviera made its debut. ### Debut as a personal luxury car [thumb\|1963 Buick Silver Arrow concept car](/wiki/File:Sloan_Museum_at_Courtland_Center_December_2018_06_%281963_Buick_Silver_Arrow%29.jpg "Sloan Museum at Courtland Center December 2018 06 (1963 Buick Silver Arrow).jpg") In the late 1950s, GM lacked a [personal luxury car](/wiki/Personal_luxury_car "Personal luxury car") to compete with the highly successful [Ford Thunderbird](/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird "Ford Thunderbird")—a uniquely styled, two\-door that had dramatically increased in popularity when expanded from a two\-seater to a four\-passenger car and the [Chrysler 300C](/wiki/Chrysler_300_letter_series%231957_300C "Chrysler 300 letter series#1957 300C"). To fill this gap, an experimental [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac "Cadillac") design, the **XP\-715**, was created, dubbed the "LaSalle" after a former GM luxury marque. Its angular look was reportedly inspired by GM styling chief [Bill Mitchell](/wiki/Bill_Mitchell_%28designer%29 "Bill Mitchell (designer)")'s visit to [London](/wiki/London "London") during the period, when he was struck by the sight of a custom\-bodied [Rolls\-Royce](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_car "Rolls-Royce car"). He later said that "knife\-edged" styling was what he wanted for the new model, but with a lower profile. The design itself was penned by stylist Ned Nickles.{{cite web \|title\=Buick Riviera’s sexy styling in the ’60s \|url\=https://collectorsautosupply.com/blog/buick\-rivieras\-sexy\-styling\-in\-the\-60s/ \|publisher\=collectorsautosupply.com \|quote\=Then in 1963 the Riviera name was transferred to a completely new Buick aimed at the Thunderbird.}} When Cadillac passed on the venture in 1960 the project was thrown open for competition by the other GM Divisions. Buick, desperate to revive its flagging sales, won the competition by enlisting the aid of the [McCann\-Erickson](/wiki/McCann-Erickson "McCann-Erickson") advertising agency to create its presentation.{{cite web \|url\=https://cardesignnews.com/articles/concept\-car\-of\-the\-week/2017/05/cadillac\-personal\-luxury\-car\-concepts \|title\=Cadillac Personal Luxury Car Concepts \|work\=Car Design News \|access\-date\=23 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=2019\-02\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001824/https://cardesignnews.com/articles/concept\-car\-of\-the\-week/2017/05/cadillac\-personal\-luxury\-car\-concepts \|url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|title\=1961 Cadillac LaSalle XP\-715 \|url\= http://automobilebrandsofthepast.blogspot.com/2013/07/1961\-cadillac\-la\-salle\-xp\-715\.html?m\=1 \|work\=Automobile Brands of the Past\|date\=3 July 2013 \|access\-date\=23 February 2019}} Initially referred to as the "Buick LaSalle" and later "Buick Riviera" concept cars,{{cite web\|url\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\-buick\-la\-salle\-concept\-car\-poster/ \|title\=1963 Buick La Salle Concept Car Poster \|website\=GMPhotoStore \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}}{{cite web \|url\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\-buick\-riviera\-show\-car\-poster/ \|title\=1963 Buick Riviera Show Car Poster\|website\=GMPhotoStore \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}}{{cite web\|url\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\-buick\-la\-salle\-concept\-poster/ \|title\=1963 Buick La Salle Concept Poster (front view) \|website\=GMPhotoStore \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} the finished design was adapted to a shortened version of Buick's existing [cruciform frame](/wiki/Chassis "Chassis"). It was again introduced as a concept car in 1963 called the Buick Riviera Silver Arrow.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.conceptcarz.com/vehicle/z15603/Buick\-Riviera\-Silver\-Arrow\-I.aspx \|title\=1963 Buick Riviera Silver Arrow I \|website\=Conceptcarz \|first\=Daniel \|last\=Vaughan \|date\=September 2007 \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} Of the first generation Riviera, 112,544 units were produced in three years, divided into exactly 40,000 vehicles in the 1963 model year, as well as 37,658 for 1964 and the last model year 1965 with 34,586 vehicles. {{Clear}}
[ "Origins\n-------", "### The Riviera name", "[thumb\\|1949 Buick Roadmaster Riviera (one of the first [hardtops](/wiki/Hardtop \"Hardtop\"))](/wiki/File:1949_Buick_Roadmaster_Riviera_Coup%C3%A9_-_Flickr_-_exfordy.jpg \"1949 Buick Roadmaster Riviera Coupé - Flickr - exfordy.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|1959 Buick Electra 225 Riviera](/wiki/File:1959_Buick_Electra_225_Riviera_Sedan_side.jpg \"1959 Buick Electra 225 Riviera Sedan side.jpg\")", "The name *Riviera*, [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language \"Italian language\") for *coastline*, was chosen to evoke the allure and affluence of the [French Riviera](/wiki/French_Riviera \"French Riviera\"). It first entered the [Buick](/wiki/Buick \"Buick\") line in 1949, as the designation for the new two\\-door pillarless [hardtop](/wiki/Hardtop \"Hardtop\"), described in advertising as \"stunningly smart\". The [Buick Roadmaster](/wiki/Buick_Roadmaster \"Buick Roadmaster\") Riviera coupe (along with the [Cadillac Coupe de Ville](/wiki/Cadillac_De_Ville \"Cadillac De Ville\") and [Oldsmobile 98](/wiki/Oldsmobile_98 \"Oldsmobile 98\") Holiday coupe) constituted the first mass production use of this body style, which was to become popular over the next 30 years. Buick added a two\\-door Riviera hardtop to the [Super](/wiki/Buick_Super \"Buick Super\") the following year, the [Special](/wiki/Buick_Special \"Buick Special\") in 1951, and the [Century](/wiki/Buick_Century \"Buick Century\") upon its return, after a 12\\-year absence, in 1954\\.", "From 1951 to 1953 the *Riviera* designation was given to the existing long\\-wheelbase versions of the four\\-door Buick Roadmaster and Super [sedans](/wiki/Sedan_%28car%29 \"Sedan (car)\"). The 1951–53 Buick Roadmaster and Super four\\-door Riviera sedans feature more standard features, more plush interior trim, and a wheelbase (and overall length) that is {{convert\\|4\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} longer than a regular Buick Roadmaster or Super four\\-door sedan. The 1951–52 Buick Super four\\-door Riviera sedan is still {{convert\\|0\\.75\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} shorter in wheelbase and length than the regular Buick Roadmaster and {{convert\\|4\\.75\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} shorter than the Roadmaster four\\-door Riviera sedan. In 1953, with the move from the [Fireball](/wiki/Buick_Straight-8_engine \"Buick Straight-8 engine\") [straight\\-eight](/wiki/Straight-eight_engine \"Straight-eight engine\") to the more compact [Fireball](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine \"Buick V8 engine\") [V8](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\") engine, the Roadmaster and Super four\\-door Riviera sedans became the same length.", "In the middle of the 1955 model year, Buick and [Oldsmobile](/wiki/Oldsmobile \"Oldsmobile\") introduced the world's first mass\\-produced four\\-door hardtops, with Buick offering it only on the Century and Special models, and the *Riviera* designation was also applied to these body styles. Four\\-door Riviera hardtops were added to the Roadmaster and Super lines at the beginning of the following model year. However, since it was a body style designation and not a model, the Riviera name does not usually appear on the car.", "In 1959, Buick became much more selective in applying the Riviera name. From then until 1962 it only was used to denote a premium trimmed six\\-window hardtop style which it initially shared exclusively with [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\") (the Oldsmobile 98 would receive it in 1961\\) and was available only on the [Electra 225](/wiki/Buick_Electra \"Buick Electra\"). The last usage of the term *Riviera* to describe a luxury trim level was 1963, as the formal designation of the \\#4829 Electra 225 Riviera four\\-door hardtop, the same year the E\\-body model two\\-door hardtop coupe Riviera made its debut.", "### Debut as a personal luxury car", "[thumb\\|1963 Buick Silver Arrow concept car](/wiki/File:Sloan_Museum_at_Courtland_Center_December_2018_06_%281963_Buick_Silver_Arrow%29.jpg \"Sloan Museum at Courtland Center December 2018 06 (1963 Buick Silver Arrow).jpg\")", "In the late 1950s, GM lacked a [personal luxury car](/wiki/Personal_luxury_car \"Personal luxury car\") to compete with the highly successful [Ford Thunderbird](/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird \"Ford Thunderbird\")—a uniquely styled, two\\-door that had dramatically increased in popularity when expanded from a two\\-seater to a four\\-passenger car and the [Chrysler 300C](/wiki/Chrysler_300_letter_series%231957_300C \"Chrysler 300 letter series#1957 300C\"). To fill this gap, an experimental [Cadillac](/wiki/Cadillac \"Cadillac\") design, the **XP\\-715**, was created, dubbed the \"LaSalle\" after a former GM luxury marque. Its angular look was reportedly inspired by GM styling chief [Bill Mitchell](/wiki/Bill_Mitchell_%28designer%29 \"Bill Mitchell (designer)\")'s visit to [London](/wiki/London \"London\") during the period, when he was struck by the sight of a custom\\-bodied [Rolls\\-Royce](/wiki/Rolls-Royce_car \"Rolls-Royce car\"). He later said that \"knife\\-edged\" styling was what he wanted for the new model, but with a lower profile. The design itself was penned by stylist Ned Nickles.{{cite web \\|title\\=Buick Riviera’s sexy styling in the ’60s \\|url\\=https://collectorsautosupply.com/blog/buick\\-rivieras\\-sexy\\-styling\\-in\\-the\\-60s/ \\|publisher\\=collectorsautosupply.com \\|quote\\=Then in 1963 the Riviera name was transferred to a completely new Buick aimed at the Thunderbird.}}", "When Cadillac passed on the venture in 1960 the project was thrown open for competition by the other GM Divisions. Buick, desperate to revive its flagging sales, won the competition by enlisting the aid of the [McCann\\-Erickson](/wiki/McCann-Erickson \"McCann-Erickson\") advertising agency to create its presentation.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://cardesignnews.com/articles/concept\\-car\\-of\\-the\\-week/2017/05/cadillac\\-personal\\-luxury\\-car\\-concepts \\|title\\=Cadillac Personal Luxury Car Concepts \\|work\\=Car Design News \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224001824/https://cardesignnews.com/articles/concept\\-car\\-of\\-the\\-week/2017/05/cadillac\\-personal\\-luxury\\-car\\-concepts \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|title\\=1961 Cadillac LaSalle XP\\-715 \\|url\\= http://automobilebrandsofthepast.blogspot.com/2013/07/1961\\-cadillac\\-la\\-salle\\-xp\\-715\\.html?m\\=1 \\|work\\=Automobile Brands of the Past\\|date\\=3 July 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=23 February 2019}} Initially referred to as the \"Buick LaSalle\" and later \"Buick Riviera\" concept cars,{{cite web\\|url\\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\\-buick\\-la\\-salle\\-concept\\-car\\-poster/ \\|title\\=1963 Buick La Salle Concept Car Poster \\|website\\=GMPhotoStore \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}}{{cite web \\|url\\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\\-buick\\-riviera\\-show\\-car\\-poster/ \\|title\\=1963 Buick Riviera Show Car Poster\\|website\\=GMPhotoStore \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}}{{cite web\\|url\\= https://gmphotostore.com/1963\\-buick\\-la\\-salle\\-concept\\-poster/ \\|title\\=1963 Buick La Salle Concept Poster (front view) \\|website\\=GMPhotoStore \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}} the finished design was adapted to a shortened version of Buick's existing [cruciform frame](/wiki/Chassis \"Chassis\"). It was again introduced as a concept car in 1963 called the Buick Riviera Silver Arrow.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.conceptcarz.com/vehicle/z15603/Buick\\-Riviera\\-Silver\\-Arrow\\-I.aspx \\|title\\=1963 Buick Riviera Silver Arrow I \\|website\\=Conceptcarz \\|first\\=Daniel \\|last\\=Vaughan \\|date\\=September 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}}", "Of the first generation Riviera, 112,544 units were produced in three years, divided into exactly 40,000 vehicles in the 1963 model year, as well as 37,658 for 1964 and the last model year 1965 with 34,586 vehicles.", "{{Clear}}", "" ]
First generation (1963–1965\) ----------------------------- {{Infobox automobile \| image \= Buick Riviera silver.jpg \| caption \= \| name \= First generation \| model\_years \= 1963–1965 \| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[hardtop]] \| layout \= \[\[FR layout]] \| platform \= \[\[GM E platform\|E\-body]] \| assembly \= \[\[Buick City]], \[\[Flint, Michigan]] \| designer \= \[\[Bill Mitchell (automobile designer)\|Bill Mitchell]] \| engine \= {{cvt\|401\|cuin\|L\|1}} \[\[Buick V8 engine\#401\|Nailhead]] \[\[V8 engine\|V8]] {{cvt\|425\|cuin\|L\|1}} \[\[Buick V8 engine\#425\|Nailhead]] \[\[V8 engine\|V8]] \| transmission \= Twin Turbine \[\[Dynaflow]] \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]] (1963\) 3\-speed \[\[Turbo\-Hydramatic\|TH\-400]] \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]] (1964\-1965\) \| wheelbase \= {{cvt\|117\.0\|in\|mm\|0}} \| length \= {{cvt\|208\.0\|in\|mm\|0}}{{cite web\|title\=1963 Buick Riviera Brochure \|page\=16 \|url\= http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1963\_Buick/1963%20Buick\_Riviera\_Brochure/1963%20Buick%20Riviera\-16\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} \| width \= {{cvt\|76\.3\|in\|mm\|0}}–{{cvt\|76\.6\|in\|mm\|0}} \| height \= {{cvt\|53\.0\|in\|mm\|0}} }} [thumb\|left\|1964 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1964_Buick_Riviera_%2829369827551%29.jpg "1964 Buick Riviera (29369827551).jpg") [left\|thumb\|1965 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1965_Buick_Riviera_%2814344695097%29_%28cropped%29.jpg "1965 Buick Riviera (14344695097) (cropped).jpg") [left\|thumb\|Interior](/wiki/File:Buick_Riviera_interior_white.jpg "Buick Riviera interior white.jpg") The production Riviera was introduced on October 4, 1962, as a 1963 model, its distinctive bodyshell was unique to the marque, unusual for a GM product. The design was substantially the same as the original, less expensively [hidden headlights](/wiki/Hidden_headlights "Hidden headlights") concealed in the fender grilles. The elegant ground\-up styling sported the new "[Coke bottle look](/wiki/Coke_bottle_styling "Coke bottle styling")" introduced the year before on the arresting [Studebaker Avanti](/wiki/Studebaker_Avanti "Studebaker Avanti"), with a tapered midsection surrounded by flaring fenders. There was no trace of the "[Sweepspear](/wiki/Buick%23Sweepspear "Buick#Sweepspear")" used on [beltlines](/wiki/Beltline_%28automotive%29 "Beltline (automotive)") of earlier Buicks with the Riviera package.{{cite book \|editor\=Gunnell, John\|title\=The Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946–1975 \|edition\=2nd \|place\=Iola, WI \|publisher\=Kraus Publications\|pages\=50–92\|year\=1987 \|isbn\=978\-0\-87341\-096\-0}} It rode a [cruciform](/wiki/Cruciform "Cruciform") frame similar to the standard Buick chassis, but shorter and narrower, with a {{cvt\|2\|in\|mm}} narrower track. Its [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase") of {{convert\|117\.0\|in\|mm}} and overall length of {{convert\|208\.0\|in\|mm}} were {{cvt\|6\.0\|in\|mm}} and {{cvt\|7\.7\|in\|mm}} shorter, respectively, than a [Buick LeSabre](/wiki/Buick_LeSabre "Buick LeSabre"), but slightly longer than a contemporary [Thunderbird](/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird_%28third_generation%29 "Ford Thunderbird (third generation)"). At {{convert\|3998\|lb\|kg}},{{sfnp\|Flory\|2004\|p\=210}} it was about {{cvt\|390\|lb\|kg}} lighter than either. It shared the standard [Buick V8 engines](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine "Buick V8 engine"), with a displacement of either {{cvt\|401\|cuin\|L\|1}} or {{cvt\|425\|cuin\|L\|1}}, and the unique continuously variable design [twin turbine](/wiki/Dynaflow "Dynaflow") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission"). Power brakes were standard, using Buick's massive "Al\-Fin" ([aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum "Aluminum") finned) drums of {{cvt\|12\.0\|in\|mm}} diameter. [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering "Power steering") was standard equipment, with an overall [steering ratio](/wiki/Steering_ratio "Steering ratio") of 20\.5:1, giving 3\.5 turns lock\-to\-lock. The Riviera's [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 "Suspension (vehicle)") used Buick's standard design, with [double wishbones](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension "Double wishbone suspension") in the front and a [live axle](/wiki/Live_axle "Live axle") located by [trailing arms](/wiki/Trailing_arm "Trailing arm") and a lateral [track bar](/wiki/Panhard_rod "Panhard rod") in the rear, but the [roll centers](/wiki/Roll_center "Roll center") were lowered to reduce body lean. Although its [coil springs](/wiki/Coil_spring "Coil spring") were actually slightly softer than other Buicks, the Riviera's lighter weight made its ride somewhat firmer. While still biased towards [understeer](/wiki/Understeer "Understeer"), contemporary testers considered it one of the most driveable American cars, with an excellent balance of comfort and agility. Buick's {{cvt\|325\|hp\|kW\|0}} {{cvt\|401\|cuin\|L\|1}} "Nailhead" V\-8 was initially the only available engine,{{sfnp\|Flory\|2004\|p\=204}} fitted with dual exhaust as standard equipment, and the turbine drive the only transmission.{{sfnp\|Flory\|2004\|p\=206}} Base price was $4,333 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|4333\|1962}}}} in {{Inflation\-year\|US}} dollars {{inflation\-fn\|US}}),{{sfnp\|Flory\|2004\|p\=210}} running upwards of $5,000 delivered with typical options (${{formatnum:{{Inflation\|US\|5000\|1962}}}} in {{Inflation\-year\|US}} dollars {{inflation\-fn\|US}}). Buick announced an optional {{cvt\|340\|hp\|kW\|0}} {{cvt\|425\|cuin\|L\|1}} version of the Nailhead in December 1962\. Total production was deliberately limited to 40,000 vehicles (in a year that Buick sold 440,000 units overall) to emphasize the Riviera's exclusivity and to increase demand; only 2,601 were delivered with the delayed availability larger engine in the 1963 model year. With the same power as the bigger Buicks and less weight, the Riviera had improved all\-around performance: *[Motor Trend](/wiki/Motor_Trend "Motor Trend")* recorded {{convert\|0\|\-\|60\|mph\|km/h}} in 8 seconds or less, the standing {{convert\|1/4\|mi\|m}} in about 16 seconds, and an observed top speed of {{convert\|115\|mph\|km/h}}. Fuel economy was {{cvt\|13\.2\|mpgus}}. Front leg room was {{convert\|40\.1\|in\|mm\|0}}.{{cite web \|title\=1965 Buick Full Line Brochure \|page\=44 \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|url\=http://oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1965\_Buick/1965\_Buick\_Full\_Line\_Brochure/1965%20Buick%20Full%20Line\-44\.html \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} Inside, the Riviera featured a luxurious four\-place cabin with front [bucket seats](/wiki/Bucket_seat "Bucket seat") and bucket\-style seats in the rear. A center console with a floor shifter and storage compartment built into the instrument panel divided the front. Upholstery choices included all\-vinyl, cloth and vinyl, or optional leather. A deluxe interior option included real walnut inserts on the doors and below the rear side windows. Extra\-cost options included a tilt steering wheel, power windows, power driver's seat, air conditioning, a remote\-controlled side\-view mirror, and white sidewall tires. Minimal trim and mechanical changes were made for 1964, with the most identifiable distinguishing features being a raised stylized "R" hood emblem and "R" emblems replacing the Buick crests in the taillight lenses. The interior is distinguished by moving the heater controls from controls under the dashboard eyebrow to slide controls in the forward fairing of the center console. Leather was dropped as an option, and the [Dynaflow](/wiki/Dynaflow "Dynaflow") twin\-turbine transmission was replaced by a new three\-speed [Super Turbine 400](/wiki/Super_Turbine_400 "Super Turbine 400"). This was a GM Turbo Hydra\-Matic. It used a two\-speed "D" and 'L" selector, but could automatically downshift from third to second until the car reached a suitable speed to downshift to first. This was the first year of the stylized "R" emblem, a trademark that would continue throughout the remainder of Riviera's 36\-year production run.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.rivowners.org/features/evolution/images/64/64hood.jpg \|title\=Image of Riviera hood ornament \|website\=Riviera Owners Association \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} The engine was upgraded to the previously optional {{cvt\|340\|hp\|kW\|0}} {{cvt\|425\|cuin\|L\|1}} V8\. A {{cvt\|360\|hp\|kW\|0}} 'Super Wildcat' version was available, with dual Carter AFB four\-barrel [carburetors](/wiki/Carburetor "Carburetor").[thumb\|1965 Buick Riviera GS](/wiki/File:GM_Heritage_Center_-_029_-_Cars_-_Riviera_GS.jpg "GM Heritage Center - 029 - Cars - Riviera GS.jpg") In 1965 the {{cvt\|401\|cuin\|L\|1}} V8 returned as the standard engine, and the "Gran Sport" version made its debut, powered by the Super Wildcat V8, a {{cvt\|360\|hp\|kW\|0}} engine equipped with two Carter 625 CFM carburetors, a distributor with different advance, and outfitted with a more aggressive 3\.42 axle ratio. A heavy\-duty suspension was the separate H2 option but was not part of the Gran Sport option. It offered a quicker ratio steering box and firmer rated springs. The Super Turbine 400 transmission now had a variable pitch torque converter, but was fitted with a three\-speed gear selector. The Gran Sport stock dual exhaust pipes were increased from {{convert\|2\.0\|in\|mm}} to {{convert\|2\.25\|in\|mm}} inside diameter and had fewer turns to reduce backpressure. Externally, the headlamps, now vertically arranged, were hidden behind clamshell doors in the leading edges of each fender, as had been in the original design. The non\-functional side scoops between the doors and rear wheel arches were removed, and the taillights moved from the body into the rear bumper.{{cite web\|url\= http://www.rivowners.org/features/evolution/images/65/65\-rear.jpg \|title\=Image of rear quarter of car \|work\=Riviera Owners Association \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} A [vinyl roof](/wiki/Vinyl_roof "Vinyl roof") became available as an option, offered only in black, and the tilt steering wheel, optional in previous years, was now standard equipment. Total sales for the 1963 through 1965 model years was 112,244\. The Riviera was well received by the motoring press and considered a great success, giving the Thunderbird its first real competition as America's preeminent [personal luxury car](/wiki/Personal_luxury_car "Personal luxury car"). It has since earned Milestone status from the Milestone Car Society. [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Cars "Jaguar Cars") founder and designer [Sir William Lyons](/wiki/William_Lyons "William Lyons") remarked that Mitchell had done "a very wonderful job," and [Sergio Pininfarina](/wiki/Sergio_Pininfarina "Sergio Pininfarina") declared it "one of the most beautiful American cars ever built; it has marked a very impressive return to simplicity of American car design." At its debut at the [Paris Auto Show](/wiki/Paris_Motor_Show "Paris Motor Show"), [Raymond Loewy](/wiki/Raymond_Loewy "Raymond Loewy") said the Riviera was the most handsome American production car—apart from his own [Studebaker Avanti](/wiki/Studebaker_Avanti "Studebaker Avanti"), in his view the Riviera's only real competition for 1963\.{{cite web\|author\=((Auto Editors of Consumer Guide)) \|title\=1963\-1965 Buick Riviera \|date\=15 October 2007 \|website\=auto.howstuffworks.com \|url\= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1963\-1965\-buick\-riviera.htm \|access\-date\=12 November 2019 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112214442/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1963\-1965\-buick\-riviera.htm \|archive\-date\=2019\-11\-12}} The first\-generation Riviera is considered a styling landmark and has become a collectible car.{{cite web \|url\= https://musclecarclub.com/buick\-riviera \|title\=Riviera History 1963\-1975 \|work\=Muscle Car Club \|date\=7 January 2015 \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} | \+Buick Riviera Production Figures | | Yearly Total | | --- | --- | --- | | **1963** | 40,000 | | **1964** | 37,958 | | **1965** | 34,586 | |
[ "First generation (1963–1965\\)\n-----------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| image \\= Buick Riviera silver.jpg\n\\| caption \\= \n\\| name \\= First generation\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1963–1965\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[hardtop]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[FR layout]]\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[GM E platform\\|E\\-body]]\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Buick City]], \\[\\[Flint, Michigan]]\n\\| designer \\= \\[\\[Bill Mitchell (automobile designer)\\|Bill Mitchell]]\n\\| engine \\= {{cvt\\|401\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \\[\\[Buick V8 engine\\#401\\|Nailhead]] \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]] \n{{cvt\\|425\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \\[\\[Buick V8 engine\\#425\\|Nailhead]] \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n\\| transmission \\= Twin Turbine \\[\\[Dynaflow]] \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]] (1963\\) \n3\\-speed \\[\\[Turbo\\-Hydramatic\\|TH\\-400]] \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]] (1964\\-1965\\)\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{cvt\\|117\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}\n\\| length \\= {{cvt\\|208\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}{{cite web\\|title\\=1963 Buick Riviera Brochure \\|page\\=16 \\|url\\= http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1963\\_Buick/1963%20Buick\\_Riviera\\_Brochure/1963%20Buick%20Riviera\\-16\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}}\n\\| width \\= {{cvt\\|76\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}–{{cvt\\|76\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}\n\\| height \\= {{cvt\\|53\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}\n}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|1964 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1964_Buick_Riviera_%2829369827551%29.jpg \"1964 Buick Riviera (29369827551).jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|1965 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1965_Buick_Riviera_%2814344695097%29_%28cropped%29.jpg \"1965 Buick Riviera (14344695097) (cropped).jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|Interior](/wiki/File:Buick_Riviera_interior_white.jpg \"Buick Riviera interior white.jpg\")\nThe production Riviera was introduced on October 4, 1962, as a 1963 model, its distinctive bodyshell was unique to the marque, unusual for a GM product. The design was substantially the same as the original, less expensively [hidden headlights](/wiki/Hidden_headlights \"Hidden headlights\") concealed in the fender grilles. The elegant ground\\-up styling sported the new \"[Coke bottle look](/wiki/Coke_bottle_styling \"Coke bottle styling\")\" introduced the year before on the arresting [Studebaker Avanti](/wiki/Studebaker_Avanti \"Studebaker Avanti\"), with a tapered midsection surrounded by flaring fenders. There was no trace of the \"[Sweepspear](/wiki/Buick%23Sweepspear \"Buick#Sweepspear\")\" used on [beltlines](/wiki/Beltline_%28automotive%29 \"Beltline (automotive)\") of earlier Buicks with the Riviera package.{{cite book \\|editor\\=Gunnell, John\\|title\\=The Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946–1975 \\|edition\\=2nd \\|place\\=Iola, WI \\|publisher\\=Kraus Publications\\|pages\\=50–92\\|year\\=1987 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87341\\-096\\-0}}", "It rode a [cruciform](/wiki/Cruciform \"Cruciform\") frame similar to the standard Buick chassis, but shorter and narrower, with a {{cvt\\|2\\|in\\|mm}} narrower track. Its [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\") of {{convert\\|117\\.0\\|in\\|mm}} and overall length of {{convert\\|208\\.0\\|in\\|mm}} were {{cvt\\|6\\.0\\|in\\|mm}} and {{cvt\\|7\\.7\\|in\\|mm}} shorter, respectively, than a [Buick LeSabre](/wiki/Buick_LeSabre \"Buick LeSabre\"), but slightly longer than a contemporary [Thunderbird](/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird_%28third_generation%29 \"Ford Thunderbird (third generation)\"). At {{convert\\|3998\\|lb\\|kg}},{{sfnp\\|Flory\\|2004\\|p\\=210}} it was about {{cvt\\|390\\|lb\\|kg}} lighter than either. It shared the standard [Buick V8 engines](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine \"Buick V8 engine\"), with a displacement of either {{cvt\\|401\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} or {{cvt\\|425\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}}, and the unique continuously variable design [twin turbine](/wiki/Dynaflow \"Dynaflow\") [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\"). Power brakes were standard, using Buick's massive \"Al\\-Fin\" ([aluminum](/wiki/Aluminum \"Aluminum\") finned) drums of {{cvt\\|12\\.0\\|in\\|mm}} diameter. [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering \"Power steering\") was standard equipment, with an overall [steering ratio](/wiki/Steering_ratio \"Steering ratio\") of 20\\.5:1, giving 3\\.5 turns lock\\-to\\-lock.", "The Riviera's [suspension](/wiki/Suspension_%28vehicle%29 \"Suspension (vehicle)\") used Buick's standard design, with [double wishbones](/wiki/Double_wishbone_suspension \"Double wishbone suspension\") in the front and a [live axle](/wiki/Live_axle \"Live axle\") located by [trailing arms](/wiki/Trailing_arm \"Trailing arm\") and a lateral [track bar](/wiki/Panhard_rod \"Panhard rod\") in the rear, but the [roll centers](/wiki/Roll_center \"Roll center\") were lowered to reduce body lean. Although its [coil springs](/wiki/Coil_spring \"Coil spring\") were actually slightly softer than other Buicks, the Riviera's lighter weight made its ride somewhat firmer. While still biased towards [understeer](/wiki/Understeer \"Understeer\"), contemporary testers considered it one of the most driveable American cars, with an excellent balance of comfort and agility.", "Buick's {{cvt\\|325\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} {{cvt\\|401\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \"Nailhead\" V\\-8 was initially the only available engine,{{sfnp\\|Flory\\|2004\\|p\\=204}} fitted with dual exhaust as standard equipment, and the turbine drive the only transmission.{{sfnp\\|Flory\\|2004\\|p\\=206}} Base price was $4,333 (${{formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\|4333\\|1962}}}} in {{Inflation\\-year\\|US}} dollars {{inflation\\-fn\\|US}}),{{sfnp\\|Flory\\|2004\\|p\\=210}} running upwards of $5,000 delivered with typical options (${{formatnum:{{Inflation\\|US\\|5000\\|1962}}}} in {{Inflation\\-year\\|US}} dollars {{inflation\\-fn\\|US}}). Buick announced an optional {{cvt\\|340\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} {{cvt\\|425\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} version of the Nailhead in December 1962\\. Total production was deliberately limited to 40,000 vehicles (in a year that Buick sold 440,000 units overall) to emphasize the Riviera's exclusivity and to increase demand; only 2,601 were delivered with the delayed availability larger engine in the 1963 model year.", "With the same power as the bigger Buicks and less weight, the Riviera had improved all\\-around performance: *[Motor Trend](/wiki/Motor_Trend \"Motor Trend\")* recorded {{convert\\|0\\|\\-\\|60\\|mph\\|km/h}} in 8 seconds or less, the standing {{convert\\|1/4\\|mi\\|m}} in about 16 seconds, and an observed top speed of {{convert\\|115\\|mph\\|km/h}}. Fuel economy was {{cvt\\|13\\.2\\|mpgus}}. Front leg room was {{convert\\|40\\.1\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}.{{cite web \\|title\\=1965 Buick Full Line Brochure \\|page\\=44 \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|url\\=http://oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1965\\_Buick/1965\\_Buick\\_Full\\_Line\\_Brochure/1965%20Buick%20Full%20Line\\-44\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}}", "Inside, the Riviera featured a luxurious four\\-place cabin with front [bucket seats](/wiki/Bucket_seat \"Bucket seat\") and bucket\\-style seats in the rear. A center console with a floor shifter and storage compartment built into the instrument panel divided the front. Upholstery choices included all\\-vinyl, cloth and vinyl, or optional leather. A deluxe interior option included real walnut inserts on the doors and below the rear side windows. Extra\\-cost options included a tilt steering wheel, power windows, power driver's seat, air conditioning, a remote\\-controlled side\\-view mirror, and white sidewall tires.", "Minimal trim and mechanical changes were made for 1964, with the most identifiable distinguishing features being a raised stylized \"R\" hood emblem and \"R\" emblems replacing the Buick crests in the taillight lenses. The interior is distinguished by moving the heater controls from controls under the dashboard eyebrow to slide controls in the forward fairing of the center console. Leather was dropped as an option, and the [Dynaflow](/wiki/Dynaflow \"Dynaflow\") twin\\-turbine transmission was replaced by a new three\\-speed [Super Turbine 400](/wiki/Super_Turbine_400 \"Super Turbine 400\"). This was a GM Turbo Hydra\\-Matic. It used a two\\-speed \"D\" and 'L\" selector, but could automatically downshift from third to second until the car reached a suitable speed to downshift to first. This was the first year of the stylized \"R\" emblem, a trademark that would continue throughout the remainder of Riviera's 36\\-year production run.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.rivowners.org/features/evolution/images/64/64hood.jpg \\|title\\=Image of Riviera hood ornament \\|website\\=Riviera Owners Association \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}} The engine was upgraded to the previously optional {{cvt\\|340\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} {{cvt\\|425\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} V8\\. A {{cvt\\|360\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} 'Super Wildcat' version was available, with dual Carter AFB four\\-barrel [carburetors](/wiki/Carburetor \"Carburetor\").[thumb\\|1965 Buick Riviera GS](/wiki/File:GM_Heritage_Center_-_029_-_Cars_-_Riviera_GS.jpg \"GM Heritage Center - 029 - Cars - Riviera GS.jpg\")\nIn 1965 the {{cvt\\|401\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} V8 returned as the standard engine, and the \"Gran Sport\" version made its debut, powered by the Super Wildcat V8, a {{cvt\\|360\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} engine equipped with two Carter 625 CFM carburetors, a distributor with different advance, and outfitted with a more aggressive 3\\.42 axle ratio. A heavy\\-duty suspension was the separate H2 option but was not part of the Gran Sport option. It offered a quicker ratio steering box and firmer rated springs. The Super Turbine 400 transmission now had a variable pitch torque converter, but was fitted with a three\\-speed gear selector. The Gran Sport stock dual exhaust pipes were increased from {{convert\\|2\\.0\\|in\\|mm}} to {{convert\\|2\\.25\\|in\\|mm}} inside diameter and had fewer turns to reduce backpressure. Externally, the headlamps, now vertically arranged, were hidden behind clamshell doors in the leading edges of each fender, as had been in the original design. The non\\-functional side scoops between the doors and rear wheel arches were removed, and the taillights moved from the body into the rear bumper.{{cite web\\|url\\= http://www.rivowners.org/features/evolution/images/65/65\\-rear.jpg \\|title\\=Image of rear quarter of car \\|work\\=Riviera Owners Association \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}} A [vinyl roof](/wiki/Vinyl_roof \"Vinyl roof\") became available as an option, offered only in black, and the tilt steering wheel, optional in previous years, was now standard equipment.", "Total sales for the 1963 through 1965 model years was 112,244\\. The Riviera was well received by the motoring press and considered a great success, giving the Thunderbird its first real competition as America's preeminent [personal luxury car](/wiki/Personal_luxury_car \"Personal luxury car\").", "It has since earned Milestone status from the Milestone Car Society. [Jaguar](/wiki/Jaguar_Cars \"Jaguar Cars\") founder and designer [Sir William Lyons](/wiki/William_Lyons \"William Lyons\") remarked that Mitchell had done \"a very wonderful job,\" and [Sergio Pininfarina](/wiki/Sergio_Pininfarina \"Sergio Pininfarina\") declared it \"one of the most beautiful American cars ever built; it has marked a very impressive return to simplicity of American car design.\" At its debut at the [Paris Auto Show](/wiki/Paris_Motor_Show \"Paris Motor Show\"), [Raymond Loewy](/wiki/Raymond_Loewy \"Raymond Loewy\") said the Riviera was the most handsome American production car—apart from his own [Studebaker Avanti](/wiki/Studebaker_Avanti \"Studebaker Avanti\"), in his view the Riviera's only real competition for 1963\\.{{cite web\\|author\\=((Auto Editors of Consumer Guide)) \\|title\\=1963\\-1965 Buick Riviera \\|date\\=15 October 2007 \\|website\\=auto.howstuffworks.com \\|url\\= https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1963\\-1965\\-buick\\-riviera.htm \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112214442/https://auto.howstuffworks.com/1963\\-1965\\-buick\\-riviera.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-11\\-12}} The first\\-generation Riviera is considered a styling landmark and has become a collectible car.{{cite web \\|url\\= https://musclecarclub.com/buick\\-riviera \\|title\\=Riviera History 1963\\-1975 \\|work\\=Muscle Car Club \\|date\\=7 January 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}}", "", "| \\+Buick Riviera Production Figures | | Yearly Total |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| **1963** | 40,000 |\n| **1964** | 37,958 |\n| **1965** | 34,586 |\n|", "" ]
Second generation (1966–1970\) ------------------------------ {{Infobox automobile \| image \= 1966 Buick Riviera \-Side View.jpg \| caption \= 1966 Buick Riviera GS \| name \= Second generation \| model\_years \= 1966–1970 \| body\_style \= 2\-door \[\[hardtop]] \| layout \= \[\[FR layout]] \| platform \= \[\[GM E platform\|E\-body]] \| assembly \= \[\[Flint, Michigan]] (\[\[Buick City]]) \| engine \= {{cvt\|425\|cuin\|L\|1}} \[\[Buick V8 engine\#425\|Nailhead]] \[\[V8 engine\|V8]] {{cvt\|430\|cuin\|L\|1}} \[\[Buick V8 engine\#430\|Buick]] V8 {{cvt\|455\|cuin\|L\|1}} \[\[Buick V8 engine\#455\|Buick]] V8 \| transmission \= 3\-speed \[\[Turbo\-Hydramatic\|TH\-400]] automatic \| wheelbase \= {{cvt\|119\.0\|in\|mm\|0}}{{cite web \|title\=1968 Buick Riviera\| pages\=14–15 \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/new/171110/1968%20Buick%20Riviera/1968%20Buick%20Riviera\-14\-15\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} \| length \= {{cvt\|211\.2\|in\|mm\|0}} (1966–67\){{cite web\|title\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \|page\=12 \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\_Buick/1966\_Buick\_Riviera\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\-12\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} {{cvt\|215\.2\|in\|mm\|0}} (1968–1970\) \| width \= {{cvt\|78\.8\|in\|mm\|0}} {{cvt\|79\.3\|in\|mm\|0}} (1970\) \| height \= {{cvt\|53\.2\|–\|53\.6\|in\|mm\|0}} \| related \= \[\[Cadillac Eldorado]] \[\[Oldsmobile Toronado]] \| designer \= Dave Holls{{cite web \|title\=Remembering A Great Automotive Designer: Dave Holls \|first \= Robert \|last \= Tate \|url\= https://www.motorcities.org/story\-of\-the\-week/2019/remembering\-a\-great\-automotive\-designer\-dave\-holls \|work \= MotorCities \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|date\=2019\-02\-13 \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-19}} }} [left\|thumb\|1966 Buick Riviera GS rear](/wiki/File:1966_Buick_Riviera_GS_-_Rear_View.jpg "1966 Buick Riviera GS - Rear View.jpg") [thumb\|left\|1967 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1967_Buick_Riviera%2C_front_left%2C_06-24-2024.jpg "1967 Buick Riviera, front left, 06-24-2024.jpg") [thumb\|left\|1968 Buick Riviera GS](/wiki/File:Riviera_GS.JPG "Riviera GS.JPG") [left\|thumb\|1969 model (headlights deployed)](/wiki/File:2nd_Buick_Riviera.jpg "2nd Buick Riviera.jpg") [thumb\|left\|1970 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1970_Buick_Rivera_Coupe_%2832986452965%29.jpg "1970 Buick Rivera Coupe (32986452965).jpg") The Riviera was redesigned for the 1966 model year.{{cite web\|title\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \|page\=4 \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\_Buick/1966\_Buick\_Riviera\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\-04\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} It retained its [cruciform X\-frame](/wiki/Vehicle_frame%23X-frame "Vehicle frame#X-frame"), powertrain, and brakes, but its new body was longer, wider, and {{convert\|200\|lb\|kg}} heavier. Vent windows, a feature GM had introduced in the 1930s, were absent. Headlamps remained concealed, but now pivoted behind the grille when not in use, and they were once again horizontal. The car's added weight slowed acceleration with the unchanged 425 engine. The Gran Sport package remained available as an option. Rear seat belts{{cite web \|title\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \|page\=11 \|url\= http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\_Buick/1966\_Buick\_Riviera\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\-11\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} and AM/FM radio{{cite web \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1967\_Buick/1967\_Buick\_Riviera\_Owners\_Manual/1967%20Buick%20Riviera%20Manual%20Page%2018\.html \|page\=18 \|title\=1967 Buick Riviera Owners Manual \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} were optional. The new front\-wheel drive [Oldsmobile Toronado](/wiki/Oldsmobile_Toronado "Oldsmobile Toronado") shared the Riviera platform, and, a year later, the also front\-wheel drive [Cadillac Eldorado](/wiki/Cadillac_Eldorado "Cadillac Eldorado") — the Riviera retaining the rear\-wheel drive layout. Inside, the four\-place cabin with front and rear bucket seats and center console were replaced by a choice of bucket seats or conventional bench seats as standard equipment, making the Riviera a full six\-passenger car for the first time. Optionally available was a Strato\-bench seat with armrest or Strato bucket seats with either a short console or a full\-length operating console with a horseshoe\-shaped floor shifter and storage compartment. Both the buckets and Strato\-bench seat were available with a reclining seat option for the passenger's side. Sales for 1966 rebounded to 45,308, a new record. For 1967, Buick replaced the 425 "Nailhead" with a {{cvt\|430\|cuin\|L\|1}} [V8](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine "Buick V8 engine"). Its {{cvt\|360\|hp\|kW\|0}} and {{cvt\|475\|lbft\|Nm\|0}} of torque were a performance improvement. Gasoline mileage improved slightly, but remained low. Powerful [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake "Disc brake") with Bendix four\-piston calipers became optional for the front wheels but most Riviera continued to be ordered with Buick's highly capable ribbed aluminum brake drums. Cosmetically, changes were few and were limited to the addition of a wide, full\-width, center\-mounted horizontal chrome grille bar that stretched over the headlight doors and outboard parking lights. Sales were 42,799 for the 1967 model year. The Riviera had full instrumentation.{{cite web \|title\=1967 Buick Riviera Owners Manual \|page\=29 \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1967\_Buick/1967\_Buick\_Riviera\_Owners\_Manual/1967%20Buick%20Riviera%20Manual%20Page%2029\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-08}} 1967 saw the introduction of U.S. mandated safety equipment to improve occupant crash protection, including an energy\-absorbing steering column, non\-protruding control knobs, 4\-way hazard flasher, soft interior surfaces, locking seatbacks (on 2\-door models), a dual\-circuit hydraulic braking system (with warning light), and shoulder belt anchors. 1968 models had reshaped loop\-type bumpers that surrounded both the vehicle's recessed crosshatch front grille and tail lamps. Hidden wiper arms debuted. Federally mandated side marker lights appeared, as inverted trapezoids on the lower leading edges of the front fenders, and circular in the rear. The interior was restyled and for the first time shared its instrument panel with the other full\-size Buick models. Shoulder belts for front outboard occupants were made standard on all cars built from January 1, 1968\. Mechanically, the transmission lost its variable pitch torque converter. A tilt steering wheel was standard.{{cite web \|title\=1968 Buick Riviera brochure \|page\=15 \|url\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1968\_Buick/1968%20Buick%20Riviera/image8\.html \|website\=Oldcarbrochures.com \|access\-date\=12 November 2019}} Sales set another new record in 1968, as 49,284 units were sold. For the 1969 model year, grilles gained a pattern of fine vertical bars overlaid by two wider horizontal bars. Front marker lights became far shorter and square. Front outboard headrests were revised. The ignition switch was moved from the instrument panel to the steering column and locked the steering wheel and selector lever when the key was removed (a security feature that became mandatory for the 1970 model year). Chrome side trim was revised, as well. At the rear, the reverse lights moved from the rear bumper to new three\-section tail\-light lenses. Sales for 1969 were 52,872\. The 1970 Riviera was restyled, incorporating design cues from Bill Mitchell's 1968 "Silver Arrow II" concept car.{{sfnp\|Savage\|1993\|p\=51}} Exposed quad headlamps were nearly flush\-mounted, while the new front bumper wrapped around and over the new vertical bar grille. A pronounced side trim and skirted rear wheels were standard, with optional exposed wheels. The rear used revised bumper and taillights. The engine was upgraded to {{cvt\|455\|cuin\|L\|1}}, the largest engine Buick offered to date, rated at {{cvt\|370\|hp\|kW\|0}} gross, {{cvt\|245\|hp\|kW\|0}} net, and over {{cvt\|500\|lbft\|Nm\|\-1}} of torque. 1970 sales were 37,366, the second\-generation Riviera proved more successful than the first, with 227,669 units sold over five the years. {{clear}}
[ "Second generation (1966–1970\\)\n------------------------------", "{{Infobox automobile\n\\| image \\= 1966 Buick Riviera \\-Side View.jpg\n\\| caption \\= 1966 Buick Riviera GS\n\\| name \\= Second generation\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1966–1970\n\\| body\\_style \\= 2\\-door \\[\\[hardtop]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[FR layout]]\n\\| platform \\= \\[\\[GM E platform\\|E\\-body]]\n\\| assembly \\= \\[\\[Flint, Michigan]] (\\[\\[Buick City]])\n\\| engine \\= {{cvt\\|425\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \\[\\[Buick V8 engine\\#425\\|Nailhead]] \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]] \n{{cvt\\|430\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \\[\\[Buick V8 engine\\#430\\|Buick]] V8 \n{{cvt\\|455\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} \\[\\[Buick V8 engine\\#455\\|Buick]] V8\n\\| transmission \\= 3\\-speed \\[\\[Turbo\\-Hydramatic\\|TH\\-400]] automatic\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{cvt\\|119\\.0\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}{{cite web \\|title\\=1968 Buick Riviera\\| pages\\=14–15 \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/new/171110/1968%20Buick%20Riviera/1968%20Buick%20Riviera\\-14\\-15\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}}\n\\| length \\= {{cvt\\|211\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} (1966–67\\){{cite web\\|title\\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \\|page\\=12 \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\\_Buick/1966\\_Buick\\_Riviera\\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\\-12\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}} \n {{cvt\\|215\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} (1968–1970\\)\n\\| width \\= {{cvt\\|78\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} \n {{cvt\\|79\\.3\\|in\\|mm\\|0}} (1970\\)\n\\| height \\= {{cvt\\|53\\.2\\|–\\|53\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|0}}\n\\| related \\= \\[\\[Cadillac Eldorado]] \n\\[\\[Oldsmobile Toronado]]\n\\| designer \\= Dave Holls{{cite web \\|title\\=Remembering A Great Automotive Designer: Dave Holls \\|first \\= Robert \\|last \\= Tate \\|url\\= https://www.motorcities.org/story\\-of\\-the\\-week/2019/remembering\\-a\\-great\\-automotive\\-designer\\-dave\\-holls \\|work \\= MotorCities \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|date\\=2019\\-02\\-13 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-19}}\n}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|1966 Buick Riviera GS rear](/wiki/File:1966_Buick_Riviera_GS_-_Rear_View.jpg \"1966 Buick Riviera GS - Rear View.jpg\") \n[thumb\\|left\\|1967 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1967_Buick_Riviera%2C_front_left%2C_06-24-2024.jpg \"1967 Buick Riviera, front left, 06-24-2024.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|1968 Buick Riviera GS](/wiki/File:Riviera_GS.JPG \"Riviera GS.JPG\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|1969 model (headlights deployed)](/wiki/File:2nd_Buick_Riviera.jpg \"2nd Buick Riviera.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|1970 Buick Riviera](/wiki/File:1970_Buick_Rivera_Coupe_%2832986452965%29.jpg \"1970 Buick Rivera Coupe (32986452965).jpg\")", "The Riviera was redesigned for the 1966 model year.{{cite web\\|title\\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \\|page\\=4 \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\\_Buick/1966\\_Buick\\_Riviera\\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\\-04\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}} It retained its [cruciform X\\-frame](/wiki/Vehicle_frame%23X-frame \"Vehicle frame#X-frame\"), powertrain, and brakes, but its new body was longer, wider, and {{convert\\|200\\|lb\\|kg}} heavier. Vent windows, a feature GM had introduced in the 1930s, were absent. Headlamps remained concealed, but now pivoted behind the grille when not in use, and they were once again horizontal. The car's added weight slowed acceleration with the unchanged 425 engine. The Gran Sport package remained available as an option. Rear seat belts{{cite web \\|title\\=1966 Buick Riviera brochure \\|page\\=11 \\|url\\= http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1966\\_Buick/1966\\_Buick\\_Riviera\\_Brochure/1966%20Buick%20Riviera\\-11\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}} and AM/FM radio{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1967\\_Buick/1967\\_Buick\\_Riviera\\_Owners\\_Manual/1967%20Buick%20Riviera%20Manual%20Page%2018\\.html \\|page\\=18 \\|title\\=1967 Buick Riviera Owners Manual \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}} were optional.", "The new front\\-wheel drive [Oldsmobile Toronado](/wiki/Oldsmobile_Toronado \"Oldsmobile Toronado\") shared the Riviera platform, and, a year later, the also front\\-wheel drive [Cadillac Eldorado](/wiki/Cadillac_Eldorado \"Cadillac Eldorado\") — the Riviera retaining the rear\\-wheel drive layout.", "Inside, the four\\-place cabin with front and rear bucket seats and center console were replaced by a choice of bucket seats or conventional bench seats as standard equipment, making the Riviera a full six\\-passenger car for the first time. Optionally available was a Strato\\-bench seat with armrest or Strato bucket seats with either a short console or a full\\-length operating console with a horseshoe\\-shaped floor shifter and storage compartment. Both the buckets and Strato\\-bench seat were available with a reclining seat option for the passenger's side. Sales for 1966 rebounded to 45,308, a new record.", "For 1967, Buick replaced the 425 \"Nailhead\" with a {{cvt\\|430\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}} [V8](/wiki/Buick_V8_engine \"Buick V8 engine\"). Its {{cvt\\|360\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} and {{cvt\\|475\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|0}} of torque were a performance improvement. Gasoline mileage improved slightly, but remained low. Powerful [disc brakes](/wiki/Disc_brake \"Disc brake\") with Bendix four\\-piston calipers became optional for the front wheels but most Riviera continued to be ordered with Buick's highly capable ribbed aluminum brake drums. Cosmetically, changes were few and were limited to the addition of a wide, full\\-width, center\\-mounted horizontal chrome grille bar that stretched over the headlight doors and outboard parking lights. Sales were 42,799 for the 1967 model year. The Riviera had full instrumentation.{{cite web \\|title\\=1967 Buick Riviera Owners Manual \\|page\\=29 \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1967\\_Buick/1967\\_Buick\\_Riviera\\_Owners\\_Manual/1967%20Buick%20Riviera%20Manual%20Page%2029\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-08}}", "1967 saw the introduction of U.S. mandated safety equipment to improve occupant crash protection, including an energy\\-absorbing steering column, non\\-protruding control knobs, 4\\-way hazard flasher, soft interior surfaces, locking seatbacks (on 2\\-door models), a dual\\-circuit hydraulic braking system (with warning light), and shoulder belt anchors.", "1968 models had reshaped loop\\-type bumpers that surrounded both the vehicle's recessed crosshatch front grille and tail lamps. Hidden wiper arms debuted. Federally mandated side marker lights appeared, as inverted trapezoids on the lower leading edges of the front fenders, and circular in the rear. The interior was restyled and for the first time shared its instrument panel with the other full\\-size Buick models. Shoulder belts for front outboard occupants were made standard on all cars built from January 1, 1968\\. Mechanically, the transmission lost its variable pitch torque converter. A tilt steering wheel was standard.{{cite web \\|title\\=1968 Buick Riviera brochure \\|page\\=15 \\|url\\=http://www.oldcarbrochures.com/static/NA/Buick/1968\\_Buick/1968%20Buick%20Riviera/image8\\.html \\|website\\=Oldcarbrochures.com \\|access\\-date\\=12 November 2019}} Sales set another new record in 1968, as 49,284 units were sold.", "For the 1969 model year, grilles gained a pattern of fine vertical bars overlaid by two wider horizontal bars. Front marker lights became far shorter and square. Front outboard headrests were revised. The ignition switch was moved from the instrument panel to the steering column and locked the steering wheel and selector lever when the key was removed (a security feature that became mandatory for the 1970 model year). Chrome side trim was revised, as well. At the rear, the reverse lights moved from the rear bumper to new three\\-section tail\\-light lenses. Sales for 1969 were 52,872\\.", "The 1970 Riviera was restyled, incorporating design cues from Bill Mitchell's 1968 \"Silver Arrow II\" concept car.{{sfnp\\|Savage\\|1993\\|p\\=51}} Exposed quad headlamps were nearly flush\\-mounted, while the new front bumper wrapped around and over the new vertical bar grille. A pronounced side trim and skirted rear wheels were standard, with optional exposed wheels. The rear used revised bumper and taillights. The engine was upgraded to {{cvt\\|455\\|cuin\\|L\\|1}}, the largest engine Buick offered to date, rated at {{cvt\\|370\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} gross, {{cvt\\|245\\|hp\\|kW\\|0}} net, and over {{cvt\\|500\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|\\-1}} of torque. 1970 sales were 37,366, the second\\-generation Riviera proved more successful than the first, with 227,669 units sold over five the years.", "{{clear}}", "" ]
Golf Channel ------------ Abbott joined [Golf Channel](/wiki/Golf_Channel "Golf Channel") in November 2005 as a reporter and presenter for the network's UK Channel, based in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida "Orlando, Florida"). He worked on the news show [Golf Central](/wiki/Golf_Central "Golf Central"), and also hosted [LPGA Tour](/wiki/LPGA_Tour "LPGA Tour") coverage alongside [Laura Baugh](/wiki/Laura_Baugh "Laura Baugh"). [The Golf Channel UK](/wiki/The_Golf_Channel_UK "The Golf Channel UK") went off the air on 31 December 2007 but Abbott was retained by the network to work on its U.S.\-based operation. In January 2008, he began hosting [European Tour](/wiki/European_Tour "European Tour") coverage, as well as reporting and anchoring [Golf Central](/wiki/Golf_Central "Golf Central"). Abbott also became the voice behind the *Top 10* series for one season. In late 2008, Abbott began appearing on the network's [LPGA Tour](/wiki/LPGA_Tour "LPGA Tour") coverage. In 2009, Abbott reported on the announcement of golf's inclusion into the [Olympics](/wiki/Olympics "Olympics") from [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark "Denmark"). Seven years later at the games in Rio, golf returned to The Olympics and Abbott was part of the [NBC Sports](/wiki/NBC_Sports "NBC Sports") broadcast team. In 2010, Abbott replaced [Vince Cellini](/wiki/Vince_Cellini "Vince Cellini") as host of Golf Channel's hit series, [The Big Break](/wiki/The_Big_Break "The Big Break"). Abbott has gone\-on to host eleven seasons of Big Break, including Big Break NFL, alongside [Michele Tafoya](/wiki/Michele_Tafoya "Michele Tafoya"), and the latest season Big Break, The Palm Beaches, Florida which aired in early 2015\. In June 2015, Golf Channel significantly reduced its original programming division putting [The Big Break](/wiki/The_Big_Break "The Big Break") on\-hold, it is unclear when the show will return to the network or whether Abbott will continue as host. In 2012, Abbott made his first appearance on Golf Channel's [PGA Tour](/wiki/PGA_Tour "PGA Tour") coverage. A year later, he appeared for the first time as an announcer and interviewer for [NBC](/wiki/NBC "NBC") at the [U.S. Women's Open](/wiki/U.S._Women%27s_Open "U.S. Women's Open"). Two years later, Abbott was part of the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") commentary team at the [Ricoh Women's British Open](/wiki/Ricoh_Women%27s_British_Open "Ricoh Women's British Open") from [Royal Birkdale Golf Club](/wiki/Royal_Birkdale_Golf_Club "Royal Birkdale Golf Club"). Later in 2014, he appeared as a tower announcer for NBC's coverage of [The Ryder Cup](/wiki/The_Ryder_Cup "The Ryder Cup"). In 2015, Abbott called the winning putt for the US in their victory over Europe at the [Solheim Cup](/wiki/Solheim_Cup "Solheim Cup") in Heidelberg, Germany. A few weeks later he was part of the commentary team for Golf Channel \& NBC's coverage of the [President's Cup](/wiki/President%27s_Cup "President's Cup") in Songdo, South Korea, meaning by the age of 33 Abbott had commentated the Ryder, President's, Solheim and Walker Cups. Golf Channel \& NBC began a 13\-year commitment to broadcast [The Open](/wiki/The_Open "The Open") in 2016 and Abbott was part of the commentary team at [Royal Troon](/wiki/Royal_Troon "Royal Troon").
[ "Golf Channel\n------------", "Abbott joined [Golf Channel](/wiki/Golf_Channel \"Golf Channel\") in November 2005 as a reporter and presenter for the network's UK Channel, based in [Orlando, Florida](/wiki/Orlando%2C_Florida \"Orlando, Florida\"). He worked on the news show [Golf Central](/wiki/Golf_Central \"Golf Central\"), and also hosted [LPGA Tour](/wiki/LPGA_Tour \"LPGA Tour\") coverage alongside [Laura Baugh](/wiki/Laura_Baugh \"Laura Baugh\"). [The Golf Channel UK](/wiki/The_Golf_Channel_UK \"The Golf Channel UK\") went off the air on 31 December 2007 but Abbott was retained by the network to work on its U.S.\\-based operation.", "In January 2008, he began hosting [European Tour](/wiki/European_Tour \"European Tour\") coverage, as well as reporting and anchoring [Golf Central](/wiki/Golf_Central \"Golf Central\"). Abbott also became the voice behind the *Top 10* series for one season. In late 2008, Abbott began appearing on the network's [LPGA Tour](/wiki/LPGA_Tour \"LPGA Tour\") coverage.", "In 2009, Abbott reported on the announcement of golf's inclusion into the [Olympics](/wiki/Olympics \"Olympics\") from [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\"), [Denmark](/wiki/Denmark \"Denmark\"). Seven years later at the games in Rio, golf returned to The Olympics and Abbott was part of the [NBC Sports](/wiki/NBC_Sports \"NBC Sports\") broadcast team.", "In 2010, Abbott replaced [Vince Cellini](/wiki/Vince_Cellini \"Vince Cellini\") as host of Golf Channel's hit series, [The Big Break](/wiki/The_Big_Break \"The Big Break\"). Abbott has gone\\-on to host eleven seasons of Big Break, including Big Break NFL, alongside [Michele Tafoya](/wiki/Michele_Tafoya \"Michele Tafoya\"), and the latest season Big Break, The Palm Beaches, Florida which aired in early 2015\\. In June 2015, Golf Channel significantly reduced its original programming division putting [The Big Break](/wiki/The_Big_Break \"The Big Break\") on\\-hold, it is unclear when the show will return to the network or whether Abbott will continue as host.", "In 2012, Abbott made his first appearance on Golf Channel's [PGA Tour](/wiki/PGA_Tour \"PGA Tour\") coverage. A year later, he appeared for the first time as an announcer and interviewer for [NBC](/wiki/NBC \"NBC\") at the [U.S. Women's Open](/wiki/U.S._Women%27s_Open \"U.S. Women's Open\"). Two years later, Abbott was part of the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") commentary team at the [Ricoh Women's British Open](/wiki/Ricoh_Women%27s_British_Open \"Ricoh Women's British Open\") from [Royal Birkdale Golf Club](/wiki/Royal_Birkdale_Golf_Club \"Royal Birkdale Golf Club\"). Later in 2014, he appeared as a tower announcer for NBC's coverage of [The Ryder Cup](/wiki/The_Ryder_Cup \"The Ryder Cup\").", "In 2015, Abbott called the winning putt for the US in their victory over Europe at the [Solheim Cup](/wiki/Solheim_Cup \"Solheim Cup\") in Heidelberg, Germany. A few weeks later he was part of the commentary team for Golf Channel \\& NBC's coverage of the [President's Cup](/wiki/President%27s_Cup \"President's Cup\") in Songdo, South Korea, meaning by the age of 33 Abbott had commentated the Ryder, President's, Solheim and Walker Cups.", "Golf Channel \\& NBC began a 13\\-year commitment to broadcast [The Open](/wiki/The_Open \"The Open\") in 2016 and Abbott was part of the commentary team at [Royal Troon](/wiki/Royal_Troon \"Royal Troon\").", "" ]
Social identity --------------- People's activities and possessions are organized around their social identities—the multifaceted labels by which their "me" is recognized by themselves and members of society. Identities differ from traits, such as aggressiveness or honesty, in that the latter characterizes how someone behaves within an Identity. Social identities (accountant, golfer, parent) are derived from social roles, but they are not the same. Roles are [consensual](/wiki/Consensual "Consensual") prescriptions, behaviors expected of those occupying a particular position in society, and in that sense, they partition a society.Young, M. N. (1991\). Disposition of possessions during role transitions. In R. Holman \& M. Solomon (Eds.), minimal advances in consumer research, Vol. 18\. (pp. 33\-39\). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. [Social Identity Theory](/wiki/Social_Identity_Theory "Social Identity Theory") was developed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979\. Their theory was originally developed to understand the [psychological](/wiki/Psychological "Psychological") basis of intergroup discrimination. Tajfel et al. (1971\) attempted to identify minimum conditions that would lead members of one group to discriminate for the in\-group to which they belonged and against another out\-group. Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was the social identity theory. Social identity is a person's sense of who they are, based on their group membership(s). Tajfel (1979\) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team, etc.), which people belonged to were a source of pride and [self\-esteem](/wiki/Self-esteem "Self-esteem"). Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world.Tajfel, H., \& Turner, J. C. (1979\). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The social psychology of intergroup relations?, 33, 47 The social roles we ascribe to ourselves are the basis of our social identities and collectively, these identities form our global self—our overall sense of who we are. This identity\-to\-global self\-path operationalizes social identity theory's guiding premise that one's overall sense of self, derives from the particular identities that one enacts and ascribes to one's self.Burke, P. J., \& Tully, J. C. (1977\). The measurement of role identity. Social Forces, 55, 881\-897\. McCall, G. J., \& Simmons, J. L. (1978\). Identities and Interactions: an examination of human associations in everyday life. New York: Free Press. ### Consumer gender Earlier gender identity and [consumer behavior](/wiki/Consumer_behavior "Consumer behavior") research suggests that [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") plays a role in consumer behavior and the construction of consumer identity. Varying from assisting in [information processing](/wiki/Data_processing "Data processing"), to connecting individuals to the rest of the world, to orchestrating an individual's perceptions, to developing one's attitudes about appropriate [social behaviors](/wiki/Social_behaviors "Social behaviors").Bem, Sandra, L. (1981\), "Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing," Psychological Review, 88, 354\-64\. Fischer, Eileen and Stephen Arnold J. (1990\), "More Than a Labor of Love: Gender Roles and Christmas Gift Shopping," Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (30, 333\-45\). Regarding consumers' brand perceptions, it was explained that consumer brand consumption is congruent with consumer gender\-image, and stated that the gender\-self could generate strong gender\-congruency effects with regards to brand loyalty.Sirgy, Joseph M. (1982\), "Self\-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3\), 287\-99\. Sirgy, Joseph M. (1986\), Self\-Congruity: Toward a Theory of Personality and Cybernetics, New York:Praeger Publishers. For example, consumers prefer goods or spokespersons that match their sense of [masculinity](/wiki/Masculinity "Masculinity") and [femininity](/wiki/Femininity "Femininity").Fry, Joseph N. (1971\), "Personality Variables and Cigarette Brand Choice," Journal of MarketingResearch, 8, 298\-304\. Worth, Leila T., Jeanne Smith, and Diane M. Mackie (1992\), "Gender Schematicity and Preference for Gender\-Typed Products," Psychology and Marketing, 9 (1\), 17\-30\. [Edward Bernays](/wiki/Edward_Bernays "Edward Bernays") was a public relations pioneer in the 20th century who sometimes used the theory of consumer identity in order to sell products to desired target groups. One incident of this was the targeting of feminist activists in an attempt to sell more cigarettes to women, branding cigarettes as [Torches of Freedom](/wiki/Torches_of_Freedom "Torches of Freedom"). This action took advantage of the consumer identity of women who aspired to equal purchasing habits to men to advocate a specific product to this group. ### Consumer and class From basic property to define, it is the group of people who can buy qualified goods and services; they do not only buy for the basic need. It would roughly divide the consumers, according to their capability of purchase from the society and from history. A class is marked by a set of conditions, in one place and time, but the fluidity of the construction, rather than the concept, of class, means that markers change categories like gender and race. It is a persistent [social construct](/wiki/Social_constructionism "Social constructionism") which is fluid across time and place, and increasingly, is downplayed in contemporary social rhetoric.KaelaJubas Shopping for identity:articulations of gender race and class by critical consumers Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture But considering different target of the brands and difficulty in satisfying the critical consumers, more brands prefer to demonstrate their distinct characteristic through some special aesthetic value, in [Gramscian](/wiki/Gramscian "Gramscian"), the hegemonic ideologies of consumerism and [neoliberalism](/wiki/Neoliberalism "Neoliberalism") give rise to the 'common sense' understanding that shopping provides opportunities to assert free choice in a society which proclaims equality and personal responsibility. ### Consumer and ethnicity Ethnicity is both an automatic characteristic of [racial group](/wiki/Racial_group "Racial group") membership and a process of group identification in which people use ethnic labels to define themselves and others.P.T. Costa Jr., R.R. McCraeFour Ways Five Factors Are Basic Personality and Individual Differences, 13 (1992\) During the process of purchase, it also considers other elements that a product that is formerly associated with a specific [ethnic group](/wiki/Ethnic_group "Ethnic group") is detached from its roots and marketed to other subcultures through buying the same brand's products. Group members tend to be tightly knit, and they are likely to infer meanings that go beyond the spoken word. Also, we should turn the focus onto the physical part, which is existing and objective without any judgment of body shapes or body measurements, or the ratios of different ethnic groups are imperative to determine any differences. However, differently shaped consumers require differently shaped apparel to accommodate figure variations the classification of female body shapes within a specific country is, however, a challenge due to variations within and across ethnically [homogeneous](/wiki/Homogeneous "Homogeneous") and [heterogeneous](/wiki/Heterogeneous "Heterogeneous") populations.Anderson, L.J., Brannon, L.E., Ulrich, P.V., Presley, A.B., Waronka, D., Grasso, M. \& Stevenson, D. (2001\) Understanding Fitting Preferences of Female Consumers: Development an Expert System to Enhance Accurate Sizing Selection, National Textile Centre Annual Report, 198\-A08\.Pisut, G. \& Connell, L.J. (2007\) Fit preferences of female consumers in USA. Journal of Fashion Marketing, 11, 366–379\.
[ "Social identity\n---------------", "People's activities and possessions are organized around their social identities—the multifaceted labels by which their \"me\" is recognized by themselves and members of society. Identities differ from traits, such as aggressiveness or honesty, in that the latter characterizes how someone behaves within an Identity. Social identities (accountant, golfer, parent) are derived from social roles, but they are not the same. Roles are [consensual](/wiki/Consensual \"Consensual\") prescriptions, behaviors expected of those occupying a particular position in society, and in that sense, they partition a society.Young, M. N. (1991\\). Disposition of possessions during role transitions. In R. Holman \\& M. Solomon (Eds.), minimal advances in consumer research, Vol. 18\\. (pp. 33\\-39\\). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.", "[Social Identity Theory](/wiki/Social_Identity_Theory \"Social Identity Theory\") was developed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979\\. Their theory was originally developed to understand the [psychological](/wiki/Psychological \"Psychological\") basis of intergroup discrimination. Tajfel et al. (1971\\) attempted to identify minimum conditions that would lead members of one group to discriminate for the in\\-group to which they belonged and against another out\\-group.", "Henri Tajfel's greatest contribution to psychology was the social identity theory. Social identity is a person's sense of who they are, based on their group membership(s).", "Tajfel (1979\\) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team, etc.), which people belonged to were a source of pride and [self\\-esteem](/wiki/Self-esteem \"Self-esteem\"). Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world.Tajfel, H., \\& Turner, J. C. (1979\\). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The social psychology of intergroup relations?, 33, 47", "The social roles we ascribe to ourselves are the basis of our social identities and collectively, these identities form our global self—our overall sense of who we are. This identity\\-to\\-global self\\-path operationalizes social identity theory's guiding premise that one's overall sense of self, derives from the particular identities that one enacts and ascribes to one's self.Burke, P. J., \\& Tully, J. C. (1977\\). The measurement of role identity. Social Forces, 55, 881\\-897\\.", "McCall, G. J., \\& Simmons, J. L. (1978\\). Identities and Interactions: an examination of human associations in everyday life. New York: Free Press.", "### Consumer gender", "Earlier gender identity and [consumer behavior](/wiki/Consumer_behavior \"Consumer behavior\") research suggests that [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") plays a role in consumer behavior and the construction of consumer identity. Varying from assisting in [information processing](/wiki/Data_processing \"Data processing\"), to connecting individuals to the rest of the world, to orchestrating an individual's perceptions, to developing one's attitudes about appropriate [social behaviors](/wiki/Social_behaviors \"Social behaviors\").Bem, Sandra, L. (1981\\), \"Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing,\" Psychological Review, 88, 354\\-64\\.", "Fischer, Eileen and Stephen Arnold J. (1990\\), \"More Than a Labor of Love: Gender Roles and Christmas Gift Shopping,\" Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (30, 333\\-45\\).", "Regarding consumers' brand perceptions, it was explained that consumer brand consumption is congruent with consumer gender\\-image, and stated that the gender\\-self could generate strong gender\\-congruency effects with regards to brand loyalty.Sirgy, Joseph M. (1982\\), \"Self\\-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review,\" Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3\\), 287\\-99\\.", "Sirgy, Joseph M. (1986\\), Self\\-Congruity: Toward a Theory of Personality and Cybernetics, New York:Praeger Publishers. For example, consumers prefer goods or spokespersons that match their sense of [masculinity](/wiki/Masculinity \"Masculinity\") and [femininity](/wiki/Femininity \"Femininity\").Fry, Joseph N. (1971\\), \"Personality Variables and Cigarette Brand Choice,\" Journal of MarketingResearch, 8, 298\\-304\\.", "Worth, Leila T., Jeanne Smith, and Diane M. Mackie (1992\\), \"Gender Schematicity and Preference for Gender\\-Typed Products,\" Psychology and Marketing, 9 (1\\), 17\\-30\\.", "[Edward Bernays](/wiki/Edward_Bernays \"Edward Bernays\") was a public relations pioneer in the 20th century who sometimes used the theory of consumer identity in order to sell products to desired target groups. One incident of this was the targeting of feminist activists in an attempt to sell more cigarettes to women, branding cigarettes as [Torches of Freedom](/wiki/Torches_of_Freedom \"Torches of Freedom\"). This action took advantage of the consumer identity of women who aspired to equal purchasing habits to men to advocate a specific product to this group.", "### Consumer and class", "From basic property to define, it is the group of people who can buy qualified goods and services; they do not only buy for the basic need. It would roughly divide the consumers, according to their capability of purchase from the society and from history. A class is marked by a set of conditions, in one place and time, but the fluidity of the construction, rather than the concept, of class, means that markers change categories like gender and race. It is a persistent [social construct](/wiki/Social_constructionism \"Social constructionism\") which is fluid across time and place, and increasingly, is downplayed in contemporary social rhetoric.KaelaJubas Shopping for identity:articulations of gender race and class by critical consumers Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture But considering different target of the brands and difficulty in satisfying the critical consumers, more brands prefer to demonstrate their distinct characteristic through some special aesthetic value, in [Gramscian](/wiki/Gramscian \"Gramscian\"), the hegemonic ideologies of consumerism and [neoliberalism](/wiki/Neoliberalism \"Neoliberalism\") give rise to the 'common sense' understanding that shopping provides opportunities to assert free choice in a society which proclaims equality and personal responsibility.", "### Consumer and ethnicity", "Ethnicity is both an automatic characteristic of [racial group](/wiki/Racial_group \"Racial group\") membership and a process of group identification in which people use ethnic labels to define themselves and others.P.T. Costa Jr., R.R. McCraeFour Ways Five Factors Are Basic Personality and Individual Differences, 13 (1992\\) During the process of purchase, it also considers other elements that a product that is formerly associated with a specific [ethnic group](/wiki/Ethnic_group \"Ethnic group\") is detached from its roots and marketed to other subcultures through buying the same brand's products. Group members tend to be tightly knit, and they are likely to infer meanings that go beyond the spoken word. Also, we should turn the focus onto the physical part, which is existing and objective without any judgment of body shapes or body measurements, or the ratios of different ethnic groups are imperative to determine any differences. However, differently shaped consumers require differently shaped apparel to accommodate figure variations the classification of female body shapes within a specific country is, however, a challenge due to variations within and across ethnically [homogeneous](/wiki/Homogeneous \"Homogeneous\") and [heterogeneous](/wiki/Heterogeneous \"Heterogeneous\") populations.Anderson, L.J., Brannon, L.E., Ulrich, P.V., Presley, A.B., Waronka, D., Grasso, M. \\& Stevenson, D. (2001\\) Understanding Fitting Preferences of Female Consumers: Development an Expert System to Enhance Accurate Sizing Selection, National Textile Centre Annual Report, 198\\-A08\\.Pisut, G. \\& Connell, L.J. (2007\\) Fit preferences of female consumers in USA. Journal of Fashion Marketing, 11, 366–379\\.", "" ]
### Consumer gender Earlier gender identity and [consumer behavior](/wiki/Consumer_behavior "Consumer behavior") research suggests that [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity "Gender identity") plays a role in consumer behavior and the construction of consumer identity. Varying from assisting in [information processing](/wiki/Data_processing "Data processing"), to connecting individuals to the rest of the world, to orchestrating an individual's perceptions, to developing one's attitudes about appropriate [social behaviors](/wiki/Social_behaviors "Social behaviors").Bem, Sandra, L. (1981\), "Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing," Psychological Review, 88, 354\-64\. Fischer, Eileen and Stephen Arnold J. (1990\), "More Than a Labor of Love: Gender Roles and Christmas Gift Shopping," Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (30, 333\-45\). Regarding consumers' brand perceptions, it was explained that consumer brand consumption is congruent with consumer gender\-image, and stated that the gender\-self could generate strong gender\-congruency effects with regards to brand loyalty.Sirgy, Joseph M. (1982\), "Self\-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review," Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3\), 287\-99\. Sirgy, Joseph M. (1986\), Self\-Congruity: Toward a Theory of Personality and Cybernetics, New York:Praeger Publishers. For example, consumers prefer goods or spokespersons that match their sense of [masculinity](/wiki/Masculinity "Masculinity") and [femininity](/wiki/Femininity "Femininity").Fry, Joseph N. (1971\), "Personality Variables and Cigarette Brand Choice," Journal of MarketingResearch, 8, 298\-304\. Worth, Leila T., Jeanne Smith, and Diane M. Mackie (1992\), "Gender Schematicity and Preference for Gender\-Typed Products," Psychology and Marketing, 9 (1\), 17\-30\. [Edward Bernays](/wiki/Edward_Bernays "Edward Bernays") was a public relations pioneer in the 20th century who sometimes used the theory of consumer identity in order to sell products to desired target groups. One incident of this was the targeting of feminist activists in an attempt to sell more cigarettes to women, branding cigarettes as [Torches of Freedom](/wiki/Torches_of_Freedom "Torches of Freedom"). This action took advantage of the consumer identity of women who aspired to equal purchasing habits to men to advocate a specific product to this group.
[ "### Consumer gender", "Earlier gender identity and [consumer behavior](/wiki/Consumer_behavior \"Consumer behavior\") research suggests that [gender identity](/wiki/Gender_identity \"Gender identity\") plays a role in consumer behavior and the construction of consumer identity. Varying from assisting in [information processing](/wiki/Data_processing \"Data processing\"), to connecting individuals to the rest of the world, to orchestrating an individual's perceptions, to developing one's attitudes about appropriate [social behaviors](/wiki/Social_behaviors \"Social behaviors\").Bem, Sandra, L. (1981\\), \"Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing,\" Psychological Review, 88, 354\\-64\\.", "Fischer, Eileen and Stephen Arnold J. (1990\\), \"More Than a Labor of Love: Gender Roles and Christmas Gift Shopping,\" Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (30, 333\\-45\\).", "Regarding consumers' brand perceptions, it was explained that consumer brand consumption is congruent with consumer gender\\-image, and stated that the gender\\-self could generate strong gender\\-congruency effects with regards to brand loyalty.Sirgy, Joseph M. (1982\\), \"Self\\-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review,\" Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3\\), 287\\-99\\.", "Sirgy, Joseph M. (1986\\), Self\\-Congruity: Toward a Theory of Personality and Cybernetics, New York:Praeger Publishers. For example, consumers prefer goods or spokespersons that match their sense of [masculinity](/wiki/Masculinity \"Masculinity\") and [femininity](/wiki/Femininity \"Femininity\").Fry, Joseph N. (1971\\), \"Personality Variables and Cigarette Brand Choice,\" Journal of MarketingResearch, 8, 298\\-304\\.", "Worth, Leila T., Jeanne Smith, and Diane M. Mackie (1992\\), \"Gender Schematicity and Preference for Gender\\-Typed Products,\" Psychology and Marketing, 9 (1\\), 17\\-30\\.", "[Edward Bernays](/wiki/Edward_Bernays \"Edward Bernays\") was a public relations pioneer in the 20th century who sometimes used the theory of consumer identity in order to sell products to desired target groups. One incident of this was the targeting of feminist activists in an attempt to sell more cigarettes to women, branding cigarettes as [Torches of Freedom](/wiki/Torches_of_Freedom \"Torches of Freedom\"). This action took advantage of the consumer identity of women who aspired to equal purchasing habits to men to advocate a specific product to this group.", "" ]
The "August experience" ----------------------- [thumb\|A woman gives flowers to a soldier on 1 August 1914\.\|left\|233x233px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-118-18%2C_Mobilmachung.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1974-118-18, Mobilmachung.jpg") Until well after the end of World War I, most historians held that the enthusiasm for the war at its outbreak had been almost universal in the major countries involved. The picture is now more nuanced. The German sense of elation in August 1914 affected primarily intellectuals, university students and the middle class in the larger cities. Among the urban worker and rural populations, the mood was more sombre and sceptical: "The soldiers did not go to war with a joy in their hearts and a song on their lips, but instead with grim determination and out of a sense of duty."{{Cite journal \|last\=Ringmar \|first\=Erik \|date\=January 2018 \|title\=The spirit of 1914 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26393406 \|journal\=War in History \|publisher\=Sage Publications, Inc. \|volume\=25 \|issue\=1 \|page\=27 \|jstor\=26393406 \|via\=JStOR}} The fact that it was the jubilation rather than the resignation that was widely reported can be explained by the fact that the elite, with the backing of the government, were in the position to project their perceptions onto the whole of German society.{{Cite book \|last\=Chickering \|first\=Roger \|url\={{Google books\| H4HRAwAAQBAJ \|page\=16\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-1107037687 \|location\=Cambridge, UK \|pages\=16}} The news of the defeat of Russian forces at the [Battle of Tannenberg](/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg "Battle of Tannenberg") in [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia") (23 to 30 August) and reports portraying a victorious march into Belgium briefly spread the war euphoria even to the working class,{{Cite web \|last1\=Schweinoch \|first1\=Oliver \|last2\=Scriba \|first2\=Arnulf \|date\=24 November 2022 \|title\=Das "August\-Erlebnis" \|trans\-title\=The "August Experience" \|url\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\-weltkrieg/innenpolitik/august\-erlebnis.html \|access\-date\=20 March 2024 \|website\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \|language\=de}} but when the promised quick victory failed to materialise, the feeling faded.{{Sfn\|Ringmar\|2018\|p\=30}} ### Enthusiasm When Germany's ultimatum to Russia demanding that it demobilise expired on 1 August 1914, an officer announced from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace "Berlin Palace") that Germany too was mobilising. The crowd that had gathered to await the news then sang [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach")'s chorale {{Lang\|de\|Nun danket alle Gott}} ("Now all give thanks to God") in a clear expression of religious emotion. [thumb\|244x244px\|German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914\. Messages on the car read: "Trip to Paris", "See you later on the Boulevard", "Off to battle" and "My sword tip is itching". It is not known whether the soldiers' enthusiasm is genuine or if the scene was staged for propaganda purposes.](/wiki/File:German_soldiers_in_a_railroad_car_on_the_way_to_the_front_during_early_World_War_I%2C_taken_in_1914._Taken_from_greatwar.nl_site.jpg "German soldiers in a railroad car on the way to the front during early World War I, taken in 1914. Taken from greatwar.nl site.jpg") In 1958 [Golo Mann](/wiki/Golo_Mann "Golo Mann"), one of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann")'s sons, wrote that "jubilation, war fury and the joy of war" could be felt everywhere in Europe, since everyone thought they were the ones under attack, especially in Germany. For years the belief had been growing that Germany was encircled by enemies from whom it was necessary to free itself. It was the news of the Russian mobilisation in particular that triggered a wave of patriotism. The subsequent rapid succession of declarations of war against Russia and France gave the impression that the impending encirclement had been averted, with the result that confidence in victory spread.{{Cite book \|last\=Mann \|first\=Golo \|url\=https://archive.org/details/deutschegeschich0000mann \|title\=Deutsche Geschichte des 19\. und 20\. Jahrhunderts \|date\=1979 \|publisher\=S. Fischer \|location\=Frankfurt \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/deutschegeschich0000mann/page/590/mode/2up 590] \|isbn\=978\-3\-10\-347901\-0 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=German History of the 19th and 20th Centuries}} For some Germans, the beginning of the war was perceived as a "revival experience".{{Cite web \|last\=Lange \|first\=Peter \|date\=28 June 2014 \|title\=Die Schüsse von Sarajevo und die Folgen \|trans\-title\=The Shots at Sarajevo and their Aftermath \|url\=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/erster\-weltkrieg\-die\-schuesse\-von\-sarajevo\-und\-die\-folgen\-100\.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2014 \|website\=Deutschlandfunk Kultur \|language\=de}} Many students viewed the existential experience of battle as a possible escape from an existence that was seen as boring and shallow. Nationalist\-minded Germans spoke of the "cleansing steel bath of the nation".{{Cite book \|last\=Kratzer \|first\=Hertha \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=aZylCgAAQBAJ\&dq\=%22reinigenden\+stahlbad\+der\+nation%22\&pg\=PT30 \|title\=Alles, was ich wollte, war Freiheit \|publisher\=Verlagsgruppe Styria GmbH \& Company KG \|year\=2015 \|isbn\=9783990403860 \|location\=Vienna \|pages\=ebook \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=All I Wanted Was Freedom \|chapter\=Kriegsbegeisterung und Pazifismus \|trans\-chapter\=War Enthusiasm and Pacifism}} Military historian Manfried Rauchensteiner saw the enthusiasm for war as a very real factor that had an impact across all social classes and political camps. The prospect of war in the summer of 1914 became a projection screen for a wide range of political, philosophical and existential desires:{{Cite news \|last\=Rauchensteiner \|first\=Manfried \|date\=13 June 2014 \|title\=17\.000\.000 Tote später war alles anders \|trans\-title\=17,000,000 Deaths Later Everything was Different \|url\=https://www.diepresse.com/3821124/17000000\-tote\-spaeter\-war\-alles\-anders \|access\-date\=16 March 2024 \|work\=Die Presse \|language\=de}} > People did not take it for granted that there was such a thing as war, but it did not seem particularly frightening to them either; war was part of the human condition and was tremendously exciting. War seemed to be the ideal way to escape from everyday life. ... All sorts of contradictory things flowed into the feeling: weariness of modernity and the longing for something new, irrational expectations of redemption, the resolution of a wide variety of dilemmas, the overcoming of stagnation. ... \[O]ne had the feeling that the war was seen as salvation. ... Students, professors, writers, artists, priests, atheists, anarchists, political activists, radicals: everyone wanted to be there when the Pax Europaea came to an end. ... They all saw in war not the horror, but the change. An emergency *[Abitur](/wiki/Abitur "Abitur")* (the qualification exam that came at the end of a secondary school education) was decreed on the day the war began. In view of the enthusiasm for the war that gripped many young men, upper primary school pupils (13th grade) who wanted to join the army voluntarily were allowed to take the *Abitur* early. The written but not the oral examinations were waived.{{Cite journal \|date\=1 August 1914 \|title\=E. Höhere Lehranstalten für die Männliche Jugend \|trans\-title\=Secondary Schools for Young Men \|url\=https://scripta.bbf.dipf.de/viewer/image/985843438\_0056/491/ \|journal\=Zentralblatt für die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaltung in Preußen \- 1914 \|language\=de \|volume\=56 \|pages\=496–497 \|via\=ScriptaPaedagogica}} In a very short time, entire sixth forms were channelled through the process and were ready for military service. One of them was the poet [Carl Zuckmayer](/wiki/Carl_Zuckmayer "Carl Zuckmayer"), who later described the experience:{{Cite book \|last\=Zuckmayer \|first\=Carl \|title\=Als wär's ein Stück von mir \|publisher\=Fischer \|year\=1966 \|isbn\= \|location\=Frankfurt \|page\=204 \|language\=de \|trans\-title\=As If It Were A Piece of Me}} > For us, the whole thing was tremendous fun. The uniform gave even the worst pupil a touch of manly dignity against which the teacher was powerless. ... We were asked only the easiest questions, so no one could fail. The *Abitur*, the nightmare of many youthful years, became a family celebration. There were those among the educated elite who hoped that the "Spirit of 1914" would help heal the social, political and cultural divisions that plagued Germany. With the nation threatened from without, a new spirit of community would reshape national life. The burdens and rewards of the war would be shared equally. But the early idealism became disillusionment in the face of the reality of the war.{{Cite book \|last\=Chickering \|first\=Roger \|url\={{Google books\|H4HRAwAAQBAJ \|page\=16\|plainurl\=yes}} \|title\=Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|year\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-1107037687 \|location\=Cambridge, UK \|pages\=116–118}} ### Religious and cultural expressions Some churches gave the war their religious blessing. {{Ill\|Dietrich Vorwerk\|de}}, a Protestant pastor, reworked the [Lord's Prayer](/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer "Lord's Prayer") nationalistically: "In thy merciful patience, forgive each bullet and each blow that misses its mark. Lead us not into the temptation of letting our wrath be too gentle in carrying out Thy divine judgment. Deliver us and our pledged ally from the Evil One and his servants on earth. Thine is the kingdom, the German land. May we, through Thy mailed hand, come to power and glory."{{Cite journal \|last\=Jacobs \|first\=Alan \|date\=27 August 2014 \|title\=The Great and Holy War \|url\=https://www.thenewatlantis.com/text\-patterns/the\-great\-and\-holy\-war \|journal\=The New Atlantis}} [left\|thumb\|189x189px\|The [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature "Nobel Prize in Literature") winning writer [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann") in 1913\. He supported the war on cultural grounds.](/wiki/File:The_German_Classics_-_Thomas_Mann.png "The German Classics - Thomas Mann.png") The war was welcomed by some writers and artists. In his "Thoughts in War" ({{Lang\|de\|Gedanken im Krieg}}), written in August and September 1914, [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann "Thomas Mann") spoke of the war as "cleansing" and an exit from a peaceful world:{{Cite web \|last\=Anz \|first\=Thomas \|date\=10 May 2015 \|title\=Expressionismus im Krieg \|trans\-title\=Expressionism in War \|url\=https://literaturkritik.de/public/artikel.php?art\_id\=957\&ausgabe\=26 \|access\-date\=16 March 2024 \|website\=lituraturkritik.de \|language\=de}} > We knew it, this world of peace. ... Did it not swarm with the vermin of the spirit like maggots? Did it not fester and stink of the decomposing substance of civilisation? ... How could the artist, the soldier in the artist, not have praised God for the collapse of a world of peace with which he was so fed up, so utterly fed up? War! What we felt was purification, liberation and a tremendous hope. Support for the war was reflected in the [Manifesto of the Ninety\-three](/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Ninety-Three "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three") ({{Lang\|de\|Manifest der 93}}) of October 1914, a document signed by 93 artists and intellectuals, including Mann. In defence of Germany's conduct of the war, they made reference to its culture: "You who know us, you who together with us have guarded the highest possessions of mankind – to you we also call out: Believe us! Believe that we shall fight this war to the end as a cultured people to whom the legacy of [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe "Goethe"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven") and [Kant](/wiki/Kant "Kant") are as sacred as hearth and land."{{Cite web \|title\=Bernhard vom Brocke, "'Scholarship and Militarism': The Appeal of 93 'to the Civilized World!'" (October 4, 1914\) \|url\=https://ghdi.ghi\-dc.org/sub\_document.cfm?document\_id\=938 \|access\-date\=16 March 2024 \|website\=GHDI (German History in Documents and Images)}} The same feelings were echoed in the Declaration of University Teachers of the German Reich of October 1914, which was signed by almost 90% of Germany's university teachers: "Our belief is that the salvation of the entire culture of Europe depends on the victory that German 'militarism' will win."{{Cite news \|last\=vom Bruch \|first\=Rüdiger \|date\=5 June 2014 \|title\=Die Berliner Universität im Ersten Weltkrieg: "Erster geistiger Waffenplatz Deutschlands" \|trans\-title\=The University of Berlin during the First World War: "Germany's first centre of intellectual weapons" \|url\=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/erster\-geistiger\-waffenplatz\-deutschlands\-6642910\.html \|access\-date\=16 March 2024 \|work\=Der Tagesspiegel \|language\=de}} Both declarations, it should be noted, were primarily a reaction to the worldwide outrage over the [German Army's actions in Belgium](/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium "Rape of Belgium") during the early stages of the war. Intellectuals who had kept their distance from the masses presented themselves as patriots. The sociologist [Max Weber](/wiki/Max_Weber "Max Weber") wrote of "this great and marvellous war" and that it was wonderful to still be able to experience it, even if very bitter not to be allowed to go to the front.{{Cite web \|last\=Notz \|first\=Gisela \|date\=29 September 2014 \|title\=Deutschland, Deutschland über alles... Die Rolle der Intelligenz und der Wissenschaft im Ersten Weltkrieg \|trans\-title\=Germany, Germany above all... The Role of the Intellectual and Science in the First World War \|url\=https://www.bdwi.de/forum/archiv/uebersicht/7919401\.html \|access\-date\=17 March 2023 \|website\=Bund Deutscher Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftler \|language\=de}} [Rudolf Alexander Schröder](/wiki/Rudolf_Alexander_Schr%C3%B6der "Rudolf Alexander Schröder") wrote in his 1915 poem "We ride hidden by forests and gorges" ({{Lang\|de\|Wir reiten von Wäldern und Schluchten verborgen}}): "For you I want to live, for you I want to die, Germany, Germany."{{Cite web \|last\=Schröder \|first\=Rudolf Alexander \|title\=Wir reiten von Wäldern und Schluchten verborgen \|trans\-title\=We ride hidden by forests and gorges (full German text) \|url\=https://www.volksliederarchiv.de/wir\-reiten\-von\-waeldern\-und\-schluchten\-verborgen/ \|access\-date\=17 March 2024 \|website\=Volksliederarchiv \|date\=12 January 1915 \|publisher\=Müller\-Lüdenscheidt\-Verlag \|place\=Bremen \|language\=de}} In "Soldier's Farewell" ({{Lang\|de\|Soldatenabschied}}), Heinrich Lersch in 1914 wrote the frequently quoted refrain "Germany must live, even if we have to die!"{{Cite web \|last\=Lersch \|first\=Heinrich \|title\=Soldatenabschied \|trans\-title\=Soldier's Farewell \|url\=https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Soldatenabschied\_(Lersch) \|access\-date\=17 March 2024 \|website\=Wikisource (German) \|language\=de}} ### Austria\-Hungary The experience of the people in the [Austro\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire "Austro-Hungarian Empire") at the start of World War I was in many ways similar to that in Germany. The enthusiasm was not particularly widespread. It was strongest among the middle class, in the large cities and in the German and Hungarian regions, although initially it was felt among the Poles and Czechs as well. The [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy "Habsburg monarchy") portrayed its tie to the German Empire as one of {{Lang\|de\|\[\[Nibelungentreue]]}} ("[Nibelung](/wiki/Nibelung "Nibelung") loyalty") and saw itself as a superior bulwark of civilization against the "barbarian East" of the [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs "Serbs") and Russians.{{Cite web \|last\=Mutschlechner \|first\=Martin \|title\=Die Begeisterung für den Krieg \|trans\-title\=Enthusiasm for the War \|url\=https://ww1\.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/die\-begeisterung\-fuer\-den\-krieg \|access\-date\=23 March 2024 \|website\=Die Welt der Hapsburger \|language\=de}} Prior to the start of the war, [Austrian social democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria "Social Democratic Party of Austria") supported peace initiatives and held anti\-war demonstrations. After the fighting began, they hoped it would bring changes to the unjust political and social systems not just at home but across Europe. It was seen as a chance to overcome the decadent pessimism of the aristocracy's *[Fin de siècle](/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle "Fin de siècle")* culture. Once the initial mood of enthusiasm wore down, however, the Dual Monarchy fell into a period of political passivity. Resistance to its war policy came only later. [thumb\|213x213px\|The Austrian writer [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig "Stefan Zweig") in 1900\. He opposed the war but was swept up by the enthusiasm of the moment.](/wiki/File:Stefan_Zweig_1900_cropped.jpg "Stefan Zweig 1900 cropped.jpg") The Austrian author [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig "Stefan Zweig") described the seductive solidarity brought by the outbreak of the war:{{Cite web \|last\=Zweig \|first\=Stefan \|title\=Die ersten Stunden des Krieges von 1914 \|trans\-title\=The First Hours of the War of 1914 \|url\=https://www.projekt\-gutenberg.org/zweig/weltgest/chap010\.html \|website\=Project Gutenberg\-de \|language\=de}} > To do honour to the truth, I must confess that there was something magnificent, captivating and even seductive in this first awakening of the masses, and that it was difficult to resist. In spite of all my hatred and disgust towards the war, I would not want to have foregone the memory left behind by those first days. As never before, thousands and hundreds of thousands felt what they should have felt in peace: that they belonged together. A city of two million, a country of almost fifty million, felt in that hour that they were witnessing world history, that they were experiencing a moment that would never return, and that all were called upon to hurl their own tiny 'I's into the glowing mass in order to purify themselves of selfishness. All differences of class, language and religion were for that one moment submerged in the surging feeling of brotherhood.
[ "The \"August experience\"\n-----------------------", "[thumb\\|A woman gives flowers to a soldier on 1 August 1914\\.\\|left\\|233x233px](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1974-118-18%2C_Mobilmachung.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1974-118-18, Mobilmachung.jpg\")\nUntil well after the end of World War I, most historians held that the enthusiasm for the war at its outbreak had been almost universal in the major countries involved. The picture is now more nuanced. The German sense of elation in August 1914 affected primarily intellectuals, university students and the middle class in the larger cities. Among the urban worker and rural populations, the mood was more sombre and sceptical: \"The soldiers did not go to war with a joy in their hearts and a song on their lips, but instead with grim determination and out of a sense of duty.\"{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Ringmar \\|first\\=Erik \\|date\\=January 2018 \\|title\\=The spirit of 1914 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26393406 \\|journal\\=War in History \\|publisher\\=Sage Publications, Inc. \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=27 \\|jstor\\=26393406 \\|via\\=JStOR}} The fact that it was the jubilation rather than the resignation that was widely reported can be explained by the fact that the elite, with the backing of the government, were in the position to project their perceptions onto the whole of German society.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Chickering \\|first\\=Roger \\|url\\={{Google books\\| H4HRAwAAQBAJ \\|page\\=16\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1107037687 \\|location\\=Cambridge, UK \\|pages\\=16}}", "The news of the defeat of Russian forces at the [Battle of Tannenberg](/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg \"Battle of Tannenberg\") in [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\") (23 to 30 August) and reports portraying a victorious march into Belgium briefly spread the war euphoria even to the working class,{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Schweinoch \\|first1\\=Oliver \\|last2\\=Scriba \\|first2\\=Arnulf \\|date\\=24 November 2022 \\|title\\=Das \"August\\-Erlebnis\" \\|trans\\-title\\=The \"August Experience\" \\|url\\=https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/erster\\-weltkrieg/innenpolitik/august\\-erlebnis.html \\|access\\-date\\=20 March 2024 \\|website\\=Deutsches Historisches Museum \\|language\\=de}} but when the promised quick victory failed to materialise, the feeling faded.{{Sfn\\|Ringmar\\|2018\\|p\\=30}}", "### Enthusiasm", "When Germany's ultimatum to Russia demanding that it demobilise expired on 1 August 1914, an officer announced from the [Berlin Palace](/wiki/Berlin_Palace \"Berlin Palace\") that Germany too was mobilising. The crowd that had gathered to await the news then sang [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\")'s chorale {{Lang\\|de\\|Nun danket alle Gott}} (\"Now all give thanks to God\") in a clear expression of religious emotion.\n[thumb\\|244x244px\\|German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914\\. Messages on the car read: \"Trip to Paris\", \"See you later on the Boulevard\", \"Off to battle\" and \"My sword tip is itching\". It is not known whether the soldiers' enthusiasm is genuine or if the scene was staged for propaganda purposes.](/wiki/File:German_soldiers_in_a_railroad_car_on_the_way_to_the_front_during_early_World_War_I%2C_taken_in_1914._Taken_from_greatwar.nl_site.jpg \"German soldiers in a railroad car on the way to the front during early World War I, taken in 1914. Taken from greatwar.nl site.jpg\")\nIn 1958 [Golo Mann](/wiki/Golo_Mann \"Golo Mann\"), one of [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\")'s sons, wrote that \"jubilation, war fury and the joy of war\" could be felt everywhere in Europe, since everyone thought they were the ones under attack, especially in Germany. For years the belief had been growing that Germany was encircled by enemies from whom it was necessary to free itself. It was the news of the Russian mobilisation in particular that triggered a wave of patriotism. The subsequent rapid succession of declarations of war against Russia and France gave the impression that the impending encirclement had been averted, with the result that confidence in victory spread.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Mann \\|first\\=Golo \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/deutschegeschich0000mann \\|title\\=Deutsche Geschichte des 19\\. und 20\\. Jahrhunderts \\|date\\=1979 \\|publisher\\=S. Fischer \\|location\\=Frankfurt \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/deutschegeschich0000mann/page/590/mode/2up 590] \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-10\\-347901\\-0 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=German History of the 19th and 20th Centuries}}", "For some Germans, the beginning of the war was perceived as a \"revival experience\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lange \\|first\\=Peter \\|date\\=28 June 2014 \\|title\\=Die Schüsse von Sarajevo und die Folgen \\|trans\\-title\\=The Shots at Sarajevo and their Aftermath \\|url\\=https://www.deutschlandfunkkultur.de/erster\\-weltkrieg\\-die\\-schuesse\\-von\\-sarajevo\\-und\\-die\\-folgen\\-100\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2014 \\|website\\=Deutschlandfunk Kultur \\|language\\=de}} Many students viewed the existential experience of battle as a possible escape from an existence that was seen as boring and shallow. Nationalist\\-minded Germans spoke of the \"cleansing steel bath of the nation\".{{Cite book \\|last\\=Kratzer \\|first\\=Hertha \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=aZylCgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=%22reinigenden\\+stahlbad\\+der\\+nation%22\\&pg\\=PT30 \\|title\\=Alles, was ich wollte, war Freiheit \\|publisher\\=Verlagsgruppe Styria GmbH \\& Company KG \\|year\\=2015 \\|isbn\\=9783990403860 \\|location\\=Vienna \\|pages\\=ebook \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=All I Wanted Was Freedom \\|chapter\\=Kriegsbegeisterung und Pazifismus \\|trans\\-chapter\\=War Enthusiasm and Pacifism}} Military historian Manfried Rauchensteiner saw the enthusiasm for war as a very real factor that had an impact across all social classes and political camps. The prospect of war in the summer of 1914 became a projection screen for a wide range of political, philosophical and existential desires:{{Cite news \\|last\\=Rauchensteiner \\|first\\=Manfried \\|date\\=13 June 2014 \\|title\\=17\\.000\\.000 Tote später war alles anders \\|trans\\-title\\=17,000,000 Deaths Later Everything was Different \\|url\\=https://www.diepresse.com/3821124/17000000\\-tote\\-spaeter\\-war\\-alles\\-anders \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2024 \\|work\\=Die Presse \\|language\\=de}}\n> People did not take it for granted that there was such a thing as war, but it did not seem particularly frightening to them either; war was part of the human condition and was tremendously exciting. War seemed to be the ideal way to escape from everyday life. ... All sorts of contradictory things flowed into the feeling: weariness of modernity and the longing for something new, irrational expectations of redemption, the resolution of a wide variety of dilemmas, the overcoming of stagnation. ... \\[O]ne had the feeling that the war was seen as salvation. ... Students, professors, writers, artists, priests, atheists, anarchists, political activists, radicals: everyone wanted to be there when the Pax Europaea came to an end. ... They all saw in war not the horror, but the change.", "An emergency *[Abitur](/wiki/Abitur \"Abitur\")* (the qualification exam that came at the end of a secondary school education) was decreed on the day the war began. In view of the enthusiasm for the war that gripped many young men, upper primary school pupils (13th grade) who wanted to join the army voluntarily were allowed to take the *Abitur* early. The written but not the oral examinations were waived.{{Cite journal \\|date\\=1 August 1914 \\|title\\=E. Höhere Lehranstalten für die Männliche Jugend \\|trans\\-title\\=Secondary Schools for Young Men \\|url\\=https://scripta.bbf.dipf.de/viewer/image/985843438\\_0056/491/ \\|journal\\=Zentralblatt für die gesamte Unterrichtsverwaltung in Preußen \\- 1914 \\|language\\=de \\|volume\\=56 \\|pages\\=496–497 \\|via\\=ScriptaPaedagogica}} In a very short time, entire sixth forms were channelled through the process and were ready for military service. One of them was the poet [Carl Zuckmayer](/wiki/Carl_Zuckmayer \"Carl Zuckmayer\"), who later described the experience:{{Cite book \\|last\\=Zuckmayer \\|first\\=Carl \\|title\\=Als wär's ein Stück von mir \\|publisher\\=Fischer \\|year\\=1966 \\|isbn\\= \\|location\\=Frankfurt \\|page\\=204 \\|language\\=de \\|trans\\-title\\=As If It Were A Piece of Me}}\n> For us, the whole thing was tremendous fun. The uniform gave even the worst pupil a touch of manly dignity against which the teacher was powerless. ... We were asked only the easiest questions, so no one could fail. The *Abitur*, the nightmare of many youthful years, became a family celebration.", "There were those among the educated elite who hoped that the \"Spirit of 1914\" would help heal the social, political and cultural divisions that plagued Germany. With the nation threatened from without, a new spirit of community would reshape national life. The burdens and rewards of the war would be shared equally. But the early idealism became disillusionment in the face of the reality of the war.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Chickering \\|first\\=Roger \\|url\\={{Google books\\|H4HRAwAAQBAJ \\|page\\=16\\|plainurl\\=yes}} \\|title\\=Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|year\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1107037687 \\|location\\=Cambridge, UK \\|pages\\=116–118}}", "### Religious and cultural expressions", "Some churches gave the war their religious blessing. {{Ill\\|Dietrich Vorwerk\\|de}}, a Protestant pastor, reworked the [Lord's Prayer](/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer \"Lord's Prayer\") nationalistically: \"In thy merciful patience, forgive each bullet and each blow that misses its mark. Lead us not into the temptation of letting our wrath be too gentle in carrying out Thy divine judgment. Deliver us and our pledged ally from the Evil One and his servants on earth. Thine is the kingdom, the German land. May we, through Thy mailed hand, come to power and glory.\"{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Jacobs \\|first\\=Alan \\|date\\=27 August 2014 \\|title\\=The Great and Holy War \\|url\\=https://www.thenewatlantis.com/text\\-patterns/the\\-great\\-and\\-holy\\-war \\|journal\\=The New Atlantis}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|189x189px\\|The [Nobel Prize](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature \"Nobel Prize in Literature\") winning writer [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\") in 1913\\. He supported the war on cultural grounds.](/wiki/File:The_German_Classics_-_Thomas_Mann.png \"The German Classics - Thomas Mann.png\")\nThe war was welcomed by some writers and artists. In his \"Thoughts in War\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Gedanken im Krieg}}), written in August and September 1914, [Thomas Mann](/wiki/Thomas_Mann \"Thomas Mann\") spoke of the war as \"cleansing\" and an exit from a peaceful world:{{Cite web \\|last\\=Anz \\|first\\=Thomas \\|date\\=10 May 2015 \\|title\\=Expressionismus im Krieg \\|trans\\-title\\=Expressionism in War \\|url\\=https://literaturkritik.de/public/artikel.php?art\\_id\\=957\\&ausgabe\\=26 \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2024 \\|website\\=lituraturkritik.de \\|language\\=de}}\n> We knew it, this world of peace. ... Did it not swarm with the vermin of the spirit like maggots? Did it not fester and stink of the decomposing substance of civilisation? ... How could the artist, the soldier in the artist, not have praised God for the collapse of a world of peace with which he was so fed up, so utterly fed up? War! What we felt was purification, liberation and a tremendous hope.", "Support for the war was reflected in the [Manifesto of the Ninety\\-three](/wiki/Manifesto_of_the_Ninety-Three \"Manifesto of the Ninety-Three\") ({{Lang\\|de\\|Manifest der 93}}) of October 1914, a document signed by 93 artists and intellectuals, including Mann. In defence of Germany's conduct of the war, they made reference to its culture: \"You who know us, you who together with us have guarded the highest possessions of mankind – to you we also call out: Believe us! Believe that we shall fight this war to the end as a cultured people to whom the legacy of [Goethe](/wiki/Goethe \"Goethe\"), [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\") and [Kant](/wiki/Kant \"Kant\") are as sacred as hearth and land.\"{{Cite web \\|title\\=Bernhard vom Brocke, \"'Scholarship and Militarism': The Appeal of 93 'to the Civilized World!'\" (October 4, 1914\\) \\|url\\=https://ghdi.ghi\\-dc.org/sub\\_document.cfm?document\\_id\\=938 \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2024 \\|website\\=GHDI (German History in Documents and Images)}} The same feelings were echoed in the Declaration of University Teachers of the German Reich of October 1914, which was signed by almost 90% of Germany's university teachers: \"Our belief is that the salvation of the entire culture of Europe depends on the victory that German 'militarism' will win.\"{{Cite news \\|last\\=vom Bruch \\|first\\=Rüdiger \\|date\\=5 June 2014 \\|title\\=Die Berliner Universität im Ersten Weltkrieg: \"Erster geistiger Waffenplatz Deutschlands\" \\|trans\\-title\\=The University of Berlin during the First World War: \"Germany's first centre of intellectual weapons\" \\|url\\=https://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/erster\\-geistiger\\-waffenplatz\\-deutschlands\\-6642910\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=16 March 2024 \\|work\\=Der Tagesspiegel \\|language\\=de}} Both declarations, it should be noted, were primarily a reaction to the worldwide outrage over the [German Army's actions in Belgium](/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium \"Rape of Belgium\") during the early stages of the war.", "Intellectuals who had kept their distance from the masses presented themselves as patriots. The sociologist [Max Weber](/wiki/Max_Weber \"Max Weber\") wrote of \"this great and marvellous war\" and that it was wonderful to still be able to experience it, even if very bitter not to be allowed to go to the front.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Notz \\|first\\=Gisela \\|date\\=29 September 2014 \\|title\\=Deutschland, Deutschland über alles... Die Rolle der Intelligenz und der Wissenschaft im Ersten Weltkrieg \\|trans\\-title\\=Germany, Germany above all... The Role of the Intellectual and Science in the First World War \\|url\\=https://www.bdwi.de/forum/archiv/uebersicht/7919401\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2023 \\|website\\=Bund Deutscher Wissenschaftlerinnen und Wissenschaftler \\|language\\=de}} [Rudolf Alexander Schröder](/wiki/Rudolf_Alexander_Schr%C3%B6der \"Rudolf Alexander Schröder\") wrote in his 1915 poem \"We ride hidden by forests and gorges\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Wir reiten von Wäldern und Schluchten verborgen}}): \"For you I want to live, for you I want to die, Germany, Germany.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schröder \\|first\\=Rudolf Alexander \\|title\\=Wir reiten von Wäldern und Schluchten verborgen \\|trans\\-title\\=We ride hidden by forests and gorges (full German text) \\|url\\=https://www.volksliederarchiv.de/wir\\-reiten\\-von\\-waeldern\\-und\\-schluchten\\-verborgen/ \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\|website\\=Volksliederarchiv \\|date\\=12 January 1915 \\|publisher\\=Müller\\-Lüdenscheidt\\-Verlag \\|place\\=Bremen \\|language\\=de}} In \"Soldier's Farewell\" ({{Lang\\|de\\|Soldatenabschied}}), Heinrich Lersch in 1914 wrote the frequently quoted refrain \"Germany must live, even if we have to die!\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lersch \\|first\\=Heinrich \\|title\\=Soldatenabschied \\|trans\\-title\\=Soldier's Farewell \\|url\\=https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Soldatenabschied\\_(Lersch) \\|access\\-date\\=17 March 2024 \\|website\\=Wikisource (German) \\|language\\=de}}", "### Austria\\-Hungary", "The experience of the people in the [Austro\\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire \"Austro-Hungarian Empire\") at the start of World War I was in many ways similar to that in Germany. The enthusiasm was not particularly widespread. It was strongest among the middle class, in the large cities and in the German and Hungarian regions, although initially it was felt among the Poles and Czechs as well. The [Habsburg monarchy](/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy \"Habsburg monarchy\") portrayed its tie to the German Empire as one of {{Lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Nibelungentreue]]}} (\"[Nibelung](/wiki/Nibelung \"Nibelung\") loyalty\") and saw itself as a superior bulwark of civilization against the \"barbarian East\" of the [Serbs](/wiki/Serbs \"Serbs\") and Russians.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Mutschlechner \\|first\\=Martin \\|title\\=Die Begeisterung für den Krieg \\|trans\\-title\\=Enthusiasm for the War \\|url\\=https://ww1\\.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/die\\-begeisterung\\-fuer\\-den\\-krieg \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2024 \\|website\\=Die Welt der Hapsburger \\|language\\=de}}", "Prior to the start of the war, [Austrian social democrats](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Austria \"Social Democratic Party of Austria\") supported peace initiatives and held anti\\-war demonstrations. After the fighting began, they hoped it would bring changes to the unjust political and social systems not just at home but across Europe. It was seen as a chance to overcome the decadent pessimism of the aristocracy's *[Fin de siècle](/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle \"Fin de siècle\")* culture. Once the initial mood of enthusiasm wore down, however, the Dual Monarchy fell into a period of political passivity. Resistance to its war policy came only later.\n[thumb\\|213x213px\\|The Austrian writer [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig \"Stefan Zweig\") in 1900\\. He opposed the war but was swept up by the enthusiasm of the moment.](/wiki/File:Stefan_Zweig_1900_cropped.jpg \"Stefan Zweig 1900 cropped.jpg\")\nThe Austrian author [Stefan Zweig](/wiki/Stefan_Zweig \"Stefan Zweig\") described the seductive solidarity brought by the outbreak of the war:{{Cite web \\|last\\=Zweig \\|first\\=Stefan \\|title\\=Die ersten Stunden des Krieges von 1914 \\|trans\\-title\\=The First Hours of the War of 1914 \\|url\\=https://www.projekt\\-gutenberg.org/zweig/weltgest/chap010\\.html \\|website\\=Project Gutenberg\\-de \\|language\\=de}}\n> To do honour to the truth, I must confess that there was something magnificent, captivating and even seductive in this first awakening of the masses, and that it was difficult to resist. In spite of all my hatred and disgust towards the war, I would not want to have foregone the memory left behind by those first days. As never before, thousands and hundreds of thousands felt what they should have felt in peace: that they belonged together. A city of two million, a country of almost fifty million, felt in that hour that they were witnessing world history, that they were experiencing a moment that would never return, and that all were called upon to hurl their own tiny 'I's into the glowing mass in order to purify themselves of selfishness. All differences of class, language and religion were for that one moment submerged in the surging feeling of brotherhood.", "", "" ]
Plot ---- A murder case that took place in the mid\-60s is narrated through a voice and radio news as the titles role on. A husband is accused of murdering his wife and has been sentenced to death. The film then moves forward with a dream by a girl ([Navya Nair](/wiki/Navya_Nair "Navya Nair")), who dreams of getting killed by a man. The girl is clad in an old\-style dress resembling the trends of the '60s. She is not able to identify the man nor could she rationalize her dream. However, she is terribly frightened, so much so that she could not speak, recall her past, and get to terms with the present. She is now in a home run by Christian Missionary. She is under care of the Jo ([Vincent Asokan](/wiki/Vincent_Asokan "Vincent Asokan")), the person in charge for the rehabilitation of physically and mentally challenged people. He names her Anjali and develops a secret love towards her. Enters psychiatrist Krishnan ([Raghuvaran](/wiki/Raghuvaran "Raghuvaran")), an expert in hypnotist therapy, who comes forward to help them. The therapy reveals that she is Anjali reincarnation of the girl, who was allegedly killed by her husband in 1965\. The shocking revelation gives her the power of speech back, but still, she is unable to recall her past in this birth. Further sittings with the psychiatrist reveal the possible reason for the murder. The husband suspected an affair between his wife and his friend, a famous playback singer Madhavan ([Vineeth](/wiki/Vineeth "Vineeth")). The scenes surfaced in hypnotic sleep identify the husband. It is none other than Jo, who is the reincarnation of the husband. Now, Anjali is afraid of Jo, and the doctor starts counselling Jo by putting him into hypnotic sleep. Jo, in his travel to his previous birth, finds that the husband was not responsible for the murder. Both Anjali and doctor are not ready to accept his words, and they suspect that he would repeat the effort in this birth as well. Jo, who is in love with Anjali, is shaken and determined to find the truth. This leads him searching the missing lines of the murder that took place 40 years ago. The script reveals the truth with many unexpected twists in the tale. Jo and his friend go and ask Madhavan, the singer who loved Thamarai, the girl who was killed. He tells them that her husband saw a boy talking to his mother about lying in the court. Madhavan says that the killer is a person named Gopikrishnan, and Jo understands immediately that he means the hypnotist Krishnan, who helped Anjali.
[ "Plot\n----", "A murder case that took place in the mid\\-60s is narrated through a voice and radio news as the titles role on. A husband is accused of murdering his wife and has been sentenced to death.", "The film then moves forward with a dream by a girl ([Navya Nair](/wiki/Navya_Nair \"Navya Nair\")), who dreams of getting killed by a man. The girl is clad in an old\\-style dress resembling the trends of the '60s. She is not able to identify the man nor could she rationalize her dream. However, she is terribly frightened, so much so that she could not speak, recall her past, and get to terms with the present.", "She is now in a home run by Christian Missionary. She is under care of the Jo ([Vincent Asokan](/wiki/Vincent_Asokan \"Vincent Asokan\")), the person in charge for the rehabilitation of physically and mentally challenged people. He names her Anjali and develops a secret love towards her.", "Enters psychiatrist Krishnan ([Raghuvaran](/wiki/Raghuvaran \"Raghuvaran\")), an expert in hypnotist therapy, who comes forward to help them. The therapy reveals that she is Anjali reincarnation of the girl, who was allegedly killed by her husband in 1965\\. The shocking revelation gives her the power of speech back, but still, she is unable to recall her past in this birth.", "Further sittings with the psychiatrist reveal the possible reason for the murder. The husband suspected an affair between his wife and his friend, a famous playback singer Madhavan ([Vineeth](/wiki/Vineeth \"Vineeth\")). The scenes surfaced in hypnotic sleep identify the husband. It is none other than Jo, who is the reincarnation of the husband. Now, Anjali is afraid of Jo, and the doctor starts counselling Jo by putting him into hypnotic sleep. Jo, in his travel to his previous birth, finds that the husband was not responsible for the murder. Both Anjali and doctor are not ready to accept his words, and they suspect that he would repeat the effort in this birth as well.", "Jo, who is in love with Anjali, is shaken and determined to find the truth. This leads him searching the missing lines of the murder that took place 40 years ago. The script reveals the truth with many unexpected twists in the tale. Jo and his friend go and ask Madhavan, the singer who loved Thamarai, the girl who was killed. He tells them that her husband saw a boy talking to his mother about lying in the court. Madhavan says that the killer is a person named Gopikrishnan, and Jo understands immediately that he means the hypnotist Krishnan, who helped Anjali.", "" ]
Game summaries -------------- ### vs Fresno State {{see also\|2024 Fresno State Bulldogs football team}} * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Fresno State Bulldogs (0–0\) vs No. 9 Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|August 31\|Saturday}} \|time\=7:30 p.m. ET \|road\=Fresno State \|R1\=0 \|R2\=3 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=7 \|home\='''No. 9 Michigan''' \|H1\=7 \|H2\=3 \|H3\=3 \|H4\=17 \|stadium \= \[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance \= 110,665 \|weather \= {{convert\|72\|F\|C}}, sunny, NE {{convert\|5\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\= Jeff Servinski \|TV \= \[\[College Football on NBC Sports\|NBC]] \|TVAnnouncers \= \[\[Noah Eagle]] (play\-by\-play), \[\[Todd Blackledge]] (color commentator), and \[\[Kathryn Tappen]] (sideline reporter) \|reference \= \|scoring \= ;First quarter \*(11:03\) MICH – \[\[Donovan Edwards]] 3\-yard pass from \[\[Alex Orji]], \[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick (''Drive: 5 plays, 31 yards, 2:28; '''Michigan 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \*(7:35\) FRES – Dylan Lynch 41\-yard field goal (''Drive: 8 plays, 38 yards, 3:23; '''Michigan 7–3''''') \*(0:31\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 45\-yard field goal (''Drive: 11 plays, 47 yards, 6:56; '''Michigan 10–3''''') ;Third quarter \*(9:21\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 53\-yard field goal (''Drive: 10 plays, 38 yards, 5:32; '''Michigan 13–3''''') ;Fourth quarter \*(12:42\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 55\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 26 yards, 3:28; '''Michigan 16–3''''') \*(10:06\) FRES – Raylen Sharpe 19\-yard pass from Mikey Keene, Dylan Lynch kick (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 2:36; '''Michigan 16–10''''') \*(5:43\) MICH – \[\[Colston Loveland]] 18\-yard pass from \[\[Davis Warren]], Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 4:17; '''Michigan 23–10''''') \*(3:57\) MICH – \[\[Will Johnson (cornerback)\|Will Johnson]] 86\-yard interception return, Dominic Zvada kick ('''''Michigan 30–10''''') }} Michigan opened the season at home against the [Fresno State Bulldogs](/wiki/2024_Fresno_State_Bulldogs_football_team "2024 Fresno State Bulldogs football team"). Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter via a three\-yard touchdown pass from [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji "Alex Orji") to [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards "Donovan Edwards"). The teams exchanged field goals in the second quarter, first a 41\-yard field goal by Dylan Lynch for Fresno State, then a 45\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada") for Michigan. Michigan led, 10–3, at halftime. Michigan scored the only points of the third quarter via a 53\-yard field goal by Zvada. Michigan extended their lead in the fourth quarter via a 55\-yard field goal by Zvada. The teams then exchanged touchdowns, first a 16\-yard touchdown pass from Mikey Keene to Raylen Sharpe for Fresno State, then an 18\-yard touchdown pass from [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren "Davis Warren") to [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland "Colston Loveland") for Michigan. Michigan scored the final points of the game via an 86\-yard interception return by [Will Johnson](/wiki/Will_Johnson_%28cornerback%29 "Will Johnson (cornerback)").{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/8/31/football\-wolverines\-17\-point\-fourth\-quarter\-secures\-season\-opening\-win\-over\-fresno\-state \|title\=Wolverines' 17\-point Fourth Quarter Secures Season\-Opening Win Over Fresno State \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=September 1, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 1, 2024}} This was the first ever meeting between the two teams. Senior quarterback [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren "Davis Warren") made his first start of his career, and completed 15 of 25 passes for 118 yards and a touchdown. [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada")'s 55\-yard field goal in the fourth quarter was the sixth\-longest in program history. Defensively, Michigan held Fresno State to nine rushing yards, including \-16 rushing yards in the second\-half.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/8/31/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-vs\-fresno\-state \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#9 Michigan 30, Fresno State 10 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=August 31, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 1, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Fresno State Bulldogs \| VisitorDisplay \= Fresno State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= 18 \| VisPlaysYds \= 58–244 \| VisRushing \= 22–9 \| VisPassYds \= 235 \| VisPassing \= 22–36–2 \| VisTOP \= 26:00 \| HomeFirsts \= 18 \| HomePlaysYds \= 61–269 \| HomeRushing \= 34–148 \| HomePassYds \= 121 \| HomePassing \= 16–27–1 \| HomeTOP \= 34:00 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Fresno State Bulldogs \| VisitorDisplay \= Fresno State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \[\[Mikey Keene]] \| VisPassStats \= 22/36, 235 yards, 2 INT \| VisRusher \= Malik Sherrod \| VisRushStats \= 14 carries, 24 yards \| VisReceiver \= Jalen Moss \| VisReceivingStats \= 6 receptions, 97 yards \| HomePasser \= \[\[Davis Warren]] \| HomePassStats \= 15/25, 118 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Kalel Mullings]] \| HomeRushStats \= 15 carries, 92 yards \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Colston Loveland]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 8 receptions, 87 yards, 1 TD }} {{Clear}} ### vs No. 3 Texas {{see also\|2024 Texas Longhorns football team}} * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=No. 3 Texas Longhorns (1–0\) vs No. 10 Michigan Wolverines (1–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|September 7\|Saturday}} \|time\= 12:10 p.m. ET \|road\='''No. 3 Texas''' \|R1\=7 \|R2\=17 \|R3\=7 \|R4\=0 \|home\=No. 10 Michigan \|H1\=0 \|H2\=3 \|H3\=3 \|H4\=6 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\= 111,170 \|weather \= {{convert\|52\|F\|C}}, sunny, NW {{convert\|12\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\= Ron Snodgrass \|TV\=\[\[Big Noon Saturday\|Fox]] \|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Gus Johnson (sportscaster)\|Gus Johnson]] (play\-by\-play), \[\[Joel Klatt]] (color commentator), and \[\[Jenny Taft]] (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \*(4:04\) TEX – \[\[Gunnar Helm]] 21\-yard pass from \[\[Quinn Ewers]], \[\[Bert Auburn]] kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 56 yards, 3:06; '''Texas 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \*(13:23\) MICH – \[\[Dominic Zvada]] 37\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 55 yards, 5:45; '''Texas 7–3''''') \*(8:24\) TEX – Jerrick Gibson 7\-yard run, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 12 plays, 76 yards, 4:53; '''Texas 14–3''''') \*(2:40\) TEX – Bert Auburn 26\-yard field goal (''Drive: 10 plays, 29 yards, 4:10; '''Texas 17–3''''') \*(0:10\) TEX – \[\[Matthew Golden]] 5\-yard pass from Quinn Ewers, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 42 yards, 0:49; '''Texas 24–3''''') ;Third quarter \*(5:28\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 52\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 41 yards, 4:22; '''Texas 24–6''''') \*(2:29\) TEX – \[\[Jaydon Blue]] 7\-yard pass from Quinn Ewers, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 75 yards, 2:49; '''Texas 31–6''''') ;Fourth quarter \*(1:54\) MICH – \[\[Semaj Morgan]] 31\-yard pass from \[\[Davis Warren]], (''Drive: 8 plays, 78 yards, 2:55; '''Texas 31–12''''') }} In week 2, Michigan hosted the [Texas Longhorns](/wiki/2024_Texas_Longhorns_football_team "2024 Texas Longhorns football team"). Texas opened the scoring in the first quarter via a 21\-yard touchdown pass from [Quinn Ewers](/wiki/Quinn_Ewers "Quinn Ewers") to [Gunnar Helm](/wiki/Gunnar_Helm "Gunnar Helm"). Michigan finally got on the board in the second quarter via a 37\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada"). Texas scored 17 points in the quarter via a seven\-yard touchdown run by Jerrick Gibson, a 26\-yard field goal by [Bert Auburn](/wiki/Bert_Auburn "Bert Auburn"), and a five\-yard touchdown pass from Ewers to [Matthew Golden](/wiki/Matthew_Golden "Matthew Golden"). Texas led, 24–3, at halftime. In the third quarter, Michigan scored a 52\-yard field goal by Zvada. Texas responded with a seven\-yard touchdown pass from Ewers to [Jaydon Blue](/wiki/Jaydon_Blue "Jaydon Blue"). Michigan scored the only points of the fourth quarter via a 31\-yard touchdown pass from [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren "Davis Warren") to [Semaj Morgan](/wiki/Semaj_Morgan "Semaj Morgan").{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/7/football\-michigan\-downed\-by\-no\-3\-texas\-at\-big\-house \|title\=Michigan Downed by No. 3 Texas at Big House \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=September 7, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 7, 2024}} The loss ended Michigan's streak of 29 consecutive regular season wins. The 28 wins tied a Big Ten Conference record. Quarterback [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren "Davis Warren") completed 22 passes for a career\-high 204 yards. Tight end [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland "Colston Loveland") recorded eight receptions for 70 yards.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/7/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-vs\-texas \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#3 Texas 31, \#10 Michigan 12 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=September 7, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 7, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Texas Longhorns \| VisitorDisplay \= Texas \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= 19 \| VisPlaysYds \= 68–389 \| VisRushing \= 32–143 \| VisPassYds \= 246 \| VisPassing \= 24–36–0 \| VisTOP \= 31:20 \| HomeFirsts \= 13 \| HomePlaysYds \= 56–284 \| HomeRushing \= 23–80 \| HomePassYds \= 204 \| HomePassing \= 22–33–2 \| HomeTOP \= 28:40 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Texas Longhorns \| VisitorDisplay \= Texas \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \[\[Quinn Ewers]] \| VisPassStats \= 24\-36, 246 yards, 3 TD \| VisRusher \= \[\[Ryan Wingo]] \| VisRushStats \= 1 carries, 55 yards \| VisReceiver \= \[\[Gunnar Helm]] \| VisReceivingStats \= 7 receptions, 98 yards, 1 TD \| HomePasser \= \[\[Davis Warren]] \| HomePassStats \= 22\-33, 204 yards, 1 TD, 2 INT \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Donovan Edwards]] \| HomeRushStats \= 8 carries, 41 yards \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Colston Loveland]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 8 receptions, 70 yards }} {{Clear}} ### vs Arkansas State {{see also\|2024 Arkansas State Red Wolves football team}} * + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Arkansas State Red Wolves (2–0\) vs No. 17 Michigan Wolverines (1–1\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|September 14\|Saturday}} \|time\=Noon \|road\=Arkansas State \|R1\=0 \|R2\=3 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=15 \|home\='''No. 17 Michigan''' \|H1\=7 \|H2\=14 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=7 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\=110,250 \|weather \= {{convert\|78\|F\|C}}, sunny, NE {{convert\|7\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\= Jerry McGinn \|TV\=\[\[Big Ten Network\|BTN]] \|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Jeff Levering]] (play\-by\-play), \[\[Jake Butt]] (color commentator), and \[\[Brooke Fletcher]] (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \*(2:23\) MICH – \[\[Kalel Mullings]] 30\-yard run, \[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick (''Drive: 11 plays, 76 yards, 6:39; '''Michigan 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \*(14:18\) ASU – Clune Van Andel 27\-yard field goal (''Drive: 4 plays, 6 yards, 1:10; '''Michigan 7–3''''') \*(6:41\) MICH – \[\[Donovan Edwards]] 7\-yard run, Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 13 plays, 75 yards, 7:37; '''Michigan 14–3''''') \*(2:57\) MICH – Kalel Mullings 5\-yard run, Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 4 plays, 55 yards, 1:59; '''Michigan 21–3''''') ;Fourth quarter \*(12:49\) MICH – Hogan Hansen 9\-yard pass from \[\[Alex Orji]], Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 9 plays, 80 yards, 5:18; '''Michigan 28–3''''') \*(5:38\) ASU – Reginald Harden Jr. 24\-yard pass from \[\[Timmy McClain]], Clune Van Andel kick (''Drive: 9 plays, 64 yards, 3:40; '''Michigan 28–10''''') \*(0:08\) ASU – Reginald Harden Jr. 22\-yard pass from Timmy McClain, Timmy McClain run (''Drive: 11 plays, 75 yards, 3:50; '''Michigan 28–18''''') }} On September 14, Michigan defeated [Arkansas State](/wiki/2024_Arkansas_State_Red_Wolves_football_team "2024 Arkansas State Red Wolves football team"), 28–18, before a crowd of 110,250 at Michigan Stadium. Arkansas State opened the game with a 13\-play, 51\-yard drive to Michigan's 24\-yard line, but Clune Van Andel's field goal attempt missed the mark. Michigan then drove 76 yards on 11 plays, ending with a 30\-yard touchdown run by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings "Kalel Mullings"). Late in the first quarter, [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren "Davis Warren") threw an interception that Charles Willekes returned 30 yards to the Michigan 15\-yard line. On the third play of the second quarter, Arkansas State capitalized on the turnover, as Van Andel kicked a 27\-yard field goal. Michigan responded with a 75\-yard, 13\-play, seven\-and\-a\-half minute drive that featured seven runs by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards "Donovan Edwards"), including a seven\-yard touchdown run. On Michigan's next possession, Michigan drove 55 yards on four plays, including a 30\-yard run by Mullings to the Arkansas State five\-yard line, followed by a five\-yard touchdown run by Mullings. Warren was intercepted for a second time with 1:15 remaining in the half. In the final minute of the half, Arkansas State drove 58 yards to Michigan's 21\-yard line, but Van Andel missed a 38\-yard field goal in the final seconds of the half. Michigan led, 21–3, at halftime. On Michigan's second possession of the second half, Davis Warren threw his third interception. Davis was replaced at quarterback by [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji "Alex Orji"). Late in the third quarter and early in the fourth, Mullings and Orji led Michigan on an 80\-yard drive capped by a nine\-yard touchdown pass from Orji to Hogan Hansen. Midway through the fourth quarter, Arkansas State drove 64 yards, scoring on a 24\-yard touchdown pass from [Timmy McClain](/wiki/Timmy_McClain "Timmy McClain") to Reginald Harden Jr. After holding Michigan to a three\-and\-out, Arkansas State mounted another long drive, covering 75 yards and ending with a 22\-yard touchdown pass from McClain to Harden with eight seconds remaining in the game.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/14/football\-u\-m\-dominates\-ground\-game\-in\-victory\-over\-arkansas\-state \|title\=U\-M Dominates Ground Game in Victory Over Arkansas State \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=September 14, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 14, 2024}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/recap/\_/gameId/401628479 \|title\=No. 17 Michigan beats Arkansas State 28\-18 on the ground, overcoming Davis Warren's 3 interceptions \|website\=\[\[ESPN.com]] \|date\=September 14, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 14, 2024}} Davis Warren threw 14 passes, all of which were caught \-\- 11 by Michigan receivers and three by Arkansas State defenders. Following the game, Michigan announced that Alex Orji would take over from Warren as Michigan's starting quarterback. Michigan tallied 301 rushing yards in the game, led by Kalel Mullings (153 yards, 15 carries, two touchdowns) and Donovan Edwards (82 yards, 17 carries, one touchdown). Tight end [Marlin Klein](/wiki/Marlin_Klein "Marlin Klein") made his first career start, recording three receptions for 43 yards. Michigan's defense held Arkansas State to 58 rushing yards, including \-6 rushing yards in the first half. However, Arkansas State quarterbacks completed 26 of 44 passes for 222 yards and two touchdowns.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/14/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-arkansas\-state \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#17 Michigan 28, Arkansas State 18 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=September 14, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 14, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Arkansas State Red Wolves \| VisitorDisplay \= Arkansas State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= 17 \| VisPlaysYds \= 69–280 \| VisRushing \= 25–58 \| VisPassYds \= 222 \| VisPassing \= 26–44–1 \| VisTOP \= 25:36 \| HomeFirsts \= 20 \| HomePlaysYds \= 62–435 \| HomeRushing \= 44–301 \| HomePassYds \= 134 \| HomePassing \= 13–18–3 \| HomeTOP \= 34:24 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Arkansas State Red Wolves \| VisitorDisplay \= Arkansas State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \[\[Jaylen Raynor]] \| VisPassStats \= 19\-33, 140 yards, 1 INT \| VisRusher \= Devin Spencer \| VisRushStats \= 7 carries, 28 yards \| VisReceiver \= Reginald Harden Jr. \| VisReceivingStats \= 3 receptions, 52 yards, 2 TD \| HomePasser \= \[\[Davis Warren]] \| HomePassStats \= 11\-14, 122 yards, 3 INT \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Kalel Mullings]] \| HomeRushStats \= 15 carries, 153 yards, 2 TD \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Marlin Klein]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 3 receptions, 43 yards }} {{Clear}} ### vs No. 11 USC {{see also\|2024 USC Trojans football team}} * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=No. 11 USC Trojans (2–0\) vs No. 18 Michigan Wolverines (2–1\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|September 21\|Saturday}} \|time\=3:30 p.m. \[\[Eastern Daylight Time\|EDT]]/12:30 p.m. \[\[Pacific Daylight Time\|PDT]] \|road\=No. 11 USC \|R1\=0 \|R2\=3 \|R3\=14 \|R4\=7 \|home\='''No. 18 Michigan''' \|H1\=7 \|H2\=7 \|H3\=6 \|H4\=7 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\=110,702 \|weather \= {{convert\|83\|F\|C}}, sunny, NW {{convert\|7\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\=Chris Coyte \|TV\=\[\[College Football on CBS Sports\|CBS]] \|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Brad Nessler]] (play\-by\-play), \[\[Gary Danielson]] (color commentator), and \[\[Jenny Dell]] (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \* (3:10\) Michigan – \[\[Kalel Mullings]] 53\-yard run (\[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 5 plays, 63 yards, 1:40; '''Michigan 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \* (7:14\) Michigan – \[\[Donovan Edwards]] 41\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 6 plays, 80 yards, 3:33; '''Michigan 14–0''''') \* (4:15\) USC \- Michael Lantz 29\-yard field goal (''Drive: 8 plays, 64 yards, 2:59; '''Michigan 14–3''''') ;Third quarter \* (9:12\) USC – \[\[Duce Robinson]] 9\-yard pass from \[\[Miller Moss (American football)\|Miller Moss]] (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 75 yards, 5:50; '''Michigan 14–10''''') \* (5:31\) Michigan – \[\[Will Johnson (cornerback)\|Will Johnson]] 42\-yard interception return (Dominic Zvada kick blocked) ('''Michigan 20–10''') \* (1:28\) USC \- Jay Fair 16\-yard pass from Miller Moss (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 2 plays, 27 yards, 0:57; '''Michigan 20–17''''') ;Fourth quarter \* (7:01\) USC – \[\[Ja'Kobi Lane]] 24\-yard pass from Miller Moss (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 18 yards, 1:27; '''USC 24–20''''') \* (0:37\) Michigan – Kalel Mullings 1\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 10 plays, 89 yards, 3:25; '''Michigan 27–24''''') }} On September 21, Michigan defeated [USC](/wiki/2024_USC_Trojans_football_team "2024 USC Trojans football team"), 27–24, before a crowd of 110,702 at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor. It was USC's first conference game as a member of the Big Ten. The teams exchanged punts on the first four drives. On Michigan's third drive, [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings "Kalel Mullings") ran 53 yards for a touchdown with 3:10 remaining in the first quarter. The team's then exchanged punts on the next three drives. On Michigan's fifth drive of the game, the Wolverines drove 80 yards in six plays, ending with a 41\-yard touchdown run by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards "Donovan Edwards"). USC then drove 64 yards, including passes from [Miller Moss](/wiki/Miller_Moss_%28American_football%29 "Miller Moss (American football)") to [Zachariah Branch](/wiki/Zachariah_Branch "Zachariah Branch") of 24 and 42 yards, the latter moving the ball to Michigan's 10\-yard line. Michigan's defense held, and USC's Michael Lantz kicked a 29\-yard field goal. Michigan led, 14–3, at halftime. On the opening drive of the second half, USC drove 75 yards on 12 plays, ending with a nine\-yard touchdown pass from Moss to [Duce Robinson](/wiki/Duce_Robinson "Duce Robinson"). Michigan was held to a three\-and\-out on its first drive of the second half. On USC's second drive of the second half, [Will Johnson](/wiki/Will_Johnson_%28cornerback%29 "Will Johnson (cornerback)") intercepted a Moss pass and returned it 42 yards for a touchdown. [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada")'s extra point kick was blocked, and Michigan led, 20–10\. On USC's next possession, [Woody Marks](/wiki/Woody_Marks "Woody Marks") ran for a 65\-yard gain to the Michigan two\-yard line. Moss was sacked and fumbled at the nine\-yard line; [Kenneth Grant](/wiki/Kenneth_Grant_%28American_football%29 "Kenneth Grant (American football)") recovered the fumble and returned it to the USC 18\-yard line where USC's Woody Marks ripped the ball from Grant's arms for a fumble recovery. USC scored on a 16\-yard pass from Moss to Jay Fair, and Michigan's lead was narrowed to 20–17 at the end of the third quarter. With 8:35 remaining in the game, Donovan Edwards fumbled as USC linebacker Eric Gentry punched the ball from Edwards' hands and recovered the ball at Michigan's 18\-yard line. USC then took the lead on a 24\-yard touchdown pass from Moss to [Ja'Kobi Lane](/wiki/Ja%27Kobi_Lane "Ja'Kobi Lane"). After an exchange of punts, Michigan took over at its own 11\-yard line with 3:25 remaining. Mullings ran for 63 yards to the 17\-yard line with 2:21 remaining and ultimately scored the winning touchdown on a one\-yard run with 37 seconds remaining.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/21/fbl\-mullings\-plays\-hero\-in\-michigans\-late\-game\-victory\-over\-no\-11\-usc \|title\=Mullings Plays Hero in Michigan's Late\-Game Victory Over No. 11 USC \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=September 21, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 21, 2024}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/recap/\_/gameId/401628489 \|title\=Mullings' 2nd TD with 37 seconds left lifts No. 18 Michigan to 27\-24 win over No. 11 USC \|website\=\[\[ESPN.com]] \|date\=September 21, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 21, 2024}} Quarterback [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji "Alex Orji") made his first career start, completing seven of 12 passes for 32 yards, "the lowest output by a Michigan quarterback since 1987\."{{cite news\|title\=Orji plays low\-profile role in debut as Michigan's starting QB\|newspaper\=The Detroit News\|author\=Angelique S. Chengelis\|date\=September 21, 2024\|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/college/university\-michigan/2024/09/21/alex\-orji\-plays\-low\-profile\-role\-in\-debut\-as\-michigan\-wolverines\-starting\-qb/75326892007/}} Kalel Mullings rushed for 159 yards and two touchdowns on 17 carries. Donovan Edwards also tallied 74 rushing yards as Michigan backs combined for 290 rushing ayrds. Michigan's defense held USC to \-16 rushing yards in the first half. Michigan had four sacks, including two by [Josaiah Stewart](/wiki/Josaiah_Stewart "Josaiah Stewart"). Will Johnson became the first player in program history with more than two career interceptions returned for touchdowns.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/21/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-vs\-usc \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#18 Michigan 27, \#11 USC 24 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=September 21, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 21, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= USC Trojans \| VisitorDisplay \= USC \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= 17 \| VisPlaysYds \= 73–379 \| VisRushing \= 21–96 \| VisPassYds \= 283 \| VisPassing \= 28–52–1 \| VisTOP \= 30:42 \| HomeFirsts \= 12 \| HomePlaysYds \= 58–322 \| HomeRushing \= 46–290 \| HomePassYds \= 32 \| HomePassing \= 7–12–0 \| HomeTOP \= 29:18 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= USC Trojans \| VisitorDisplay \= USC \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \[\[Miller Moss (American football)\|Miller Moss]] \| VisPassStats \= 28/51, 283 yards, 3 TD, 1 INT \| VisRusher \= \[\[Woody Marks]] \| VisRushStats \= 13 carries, 100 yards \| VisReceiver \= \[\[Zachariah Branch]] \| VisReceivingStats \= 6 receptions, 98 yards \| HomePasser \= \[\[Alex Orji]] \| HomePassStats \= 7/12, 32 yards \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Kalel Mullings]] \| HomeRushStats \= 17 carries, 159 yards, 2 TD \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Marlin Klein]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 1 reception, 10 yards }} {{Clear}} ### vs Minnesota {{see also\|2024 Minnesota Golden Gophers football team\|Little Brown Jug (college football trophy)}} * + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Minnesota Golden Gophers (2–2\) vs No. 12 Michigan Wolverines (3–1\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|September 28\|Saturday}} \|time\=Noon \|road\=Minnesota \|R1\=0 \|R2\=3 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=21 \|home\='''No. 12 Michigan''' \|H1\=7 \|H2\=14 \|H3\=3 \|H4\=3 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\=110,340 \|weather \= {{convert\|67\|F\|C}}, rain, NE {{convert\|8\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\= Mark Kluczynski \|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\=Gus Johnson (play\-by\-play), Joel Klatt (color commentator), and Jenny Taft (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \* (6:34\) Michigan – \[\[Kalel Mullings]] 27\-yard run (\[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 9 plays, 79 yards, 4:57; '''Michigan 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \* (8:59\) Michigan – Kalel Mullings 1\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 16 yards, 1:26; '''Michigan 14–0''''') \* (3:48\) Michigan – \[\[Tyler Morris]] 11\-yard pass from \[\[Alex Orji]] (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 1 play, 11 yards, 0:29; '''Michigan 21–0''''') \* (0:00\) Minnesota – \[\[Dragan Kesich]] 20\-yard field gold (''Drive: 10 plays, 77 yards, 1:54; '''Michigan 21–3''''') ;Third quarter \* (7:36\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 53\-yard field gold (''Drive: 13 plays, 40 yards, 7:24; '''Michigan 24–3''''') ;Fourth quarter \* (14:01\) Minnesota – \[\[Darius Taylor (American football)\|Darius Taylor]] 3\-yard run (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 76 yards, 4:59; '''Michigan 24–10''''') \* (11:05\) Minnesota – Darius Taylor 4\-yard run (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 17 yards, 0:47; '''Michigan 24–17''''') \* (4:33\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 35\-yard field gold (''Drive: 14 plays, 58 yards, 6:32; '''Michigan 27–17''''') \* (1:37\) Minnesota – Daniel Jackson 12\-yard pass from \[\[Max Brosmer]] (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 14 plays, 75 yards, 2:56; '''Michigan 27–24''''') }} On September 28, Michigan defeated [Minnesota](/wiki/2024_Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_football_team "2024 Minnesota Golden Gophers football team"), 27–24, before a crowd of 110,340 at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, to retain the Little Brown Jug. Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter via a 27\-yard touchdown run by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings "Kalel Mullings"). Michigan scored 14 points in the second quarter via a one\-yard touchdown run by Mullings and an 11\-yard touchdown pass from [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji "Alex Orji") to [Tyler Morris](/wiki/Tyler_Morris "Tyler Morris"). Minnesota finally got on the board via via a 20\-yard field goal as time expired in the first half. Michigan led, 21–3, at halftime. Michigan scored the only points of the third quarter via a 53\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada"). Michigan extended their lead in the fourth quarter via a 35\-yard field goal by Zvada. Minnesota scored 21 points in the fourth quarter via two touchdown runs by [Darius Taylor](/wiki/Darius_Taylor_%28American_football%29 "Darius Taylor (American football)"), from three\-yards, and four\-yards, respectively, and a 12\-yard touchdown pass from [Max Brosmer](/wiki/Max_Brosmer "Max Brosmer") to Daniel Jackson.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/28/football\-mullings\-first\-half\-defense\-help\-u\-m\-defeat\-minnesota\-retain\-little\-brown\-jug \|title\=Mullings, First\-Half Defense Help U\-M Defeat Minnesota, Retain Little Brown Jug \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=September 28, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 28, 2024}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/recap/\_/gameId/401628497 \|title\=No. 12 Michigan holds off Minnesota in 4th quarter to win 27\-24 and retain Little Brown Jug \|website\=\[\[ESPN.com]] \|date\=September 28, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 28, 2024}} Michigan's defense recorded four sacks and eight tackles for loss in the first half of the game for the first time since a game against Penn State on November 15, 2021\. With four receptions for 41 yards, tight end [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland "Colston Loveland")'s 1,112 career receiving yards ranks fifth all\-time among tight ends, while his 84 career receptions ranks tied for sixth in program history.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/28/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-vs\-minnesota \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#12 Michigan 27, Minnesota 24 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=September 28, 2024 \|access\-date\=September 28, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Minnesota Golden Gophers \| VisitorDisplay \= Minnesota \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= 20 \| VisPlaysYds \= 66–296 \| VisRushing \= 25–38 \| VisPassYds \= 258 \| VisPassing \= 27–41–1 \| VisTOP \= 26:44 \| HomeFirsts \= 15 \| HomePlaysYds \= 61–241 \| HomeRushing \= 43–155 \| HomePassYds \= 86 \| HomePassing \= 10–18–1 \| HomeTOP \= 33:16 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Minnesota Golden Gophers \| VisitorDisplay \= Minnesota \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \[\[Max Brosmer]] \| VisPassStats \= 27/40, 258 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \| VisRusher \= \[\[Darius Taylor (American football)\|Darius Taylor]] \| VisRushStats \= 13 carries, 36 yards, 2 TD \| VisReceiver \= Elijah Spencer \| VisReceivingStats \= 6 receptions, 67 yards \| HomePasser \= \[\[Alex Orji]] \| HomePassStats \= 10/18, 86 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Kalel Mullings]] \| HomeRushStats \= 24 carries, 111 yards, 2 TD \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Colston Loveland]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 4 receptions, 41 yards }} {{Clear}} ### at Washington {{see also\|2024 Washington Huskies football team}} * + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=No. 10 Michigan Wolverines (4–1\) at Washington Huskies (3–2\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|October 5\|Saturday}} \|time\=7:30 p.m. \|road\=No. 10 Michigan \|R1\=0 \|R2\=10 \|R3\=7 \|R4\=0 \|home\='''Washington''' \|H1\=7 \|H2\=7 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=13 \|stadium\=\[\[Husky Stadium]] • \[\[Seattle, Washington]] \|attendance\=72,132 \|weather \= {{convert\|63\|F\|C}}, sunny, N {{convert\|8\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\=Kole Knueppel \|TV\=NBC \|TVAnnouncers\=Noah Eagle (play\-by\-play), Todd Blackledge (color commentator), and Kathryn Tappen (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \* (2:38\) Washington – \[\[Denzel Boston]] 3\-yard pass from \[\[Will Rogers (American football)\|Will Rogers]] (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 13 plays, 83 yards, 5:16; '''Washington 7–0''''') ;Second quarter \* (9:38\) Washington – \[\[Giles Jackson]] 16\-yard pass from Will Rogers (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 4 plays, 74 yards, 2:16; '''Washington 14–0''''') \* (5:25\) Michigan – \[\[Donovan Edwards]] 39\-yard run (\[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 4:13; '''Washington 14–7''''') \* (1:49\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 45\-yard field gold (''Drive: 8 plays, 56 yards, 2:38; '''Washington 14–10''''') ;Third quarter \* (8:38\) Michigan – \[\[Colston Loveland]] 8\-yard pass from \[\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\|Jack Tuttle]] (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 11 plays, 75 yards, 6:22; '''Michigan 17–14''''') ;Fourth quarter \* (13:38\) Washington – Grady Gross 28\-yard field gold (''Drive: 12 plays, 45 yards, 6:00; '''Tied 17–17''''') \* (6:22\) Washington – \[\[Jonah Coleman]] 1\-yard run (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 4 plays, 32 yards, 1:40; '''Washington 24–17''''') \* (1:06\) Washington – Grady Gross 32\-yard field gold (''Drive: 6 plays, 26 yards, 2:18; '''Washington 27–17''''') }} On October 5, Michigan lost to [Washington](/wiki/2024_Washington_Huskies_football_team "2024 Washington Huskies football team") 17–27\. Washington opened the scoring in the first quarter via a three\-yard touchdown pass from [Will Rogers](/wiki/Will_Rogers_%28American_football%29 "Will Rogers (American football)") to [Denzel Boston](/wiki/Denzel_Boston "Denzel Boston"). Washington extended their lead in the second quarter via a 16\-yard touchdown pass from Rogers to [Giles Jackson](/wiki/Giles_Jackson "Giles Jackson"). Michigan scored ten points in the quarter via a 39\-yard touchdown run by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards "Donovan Edwards"), and a 45\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada"). Washington led, 14–10, at halftime. Michigan took their first lead of the game in the third quarter via an eight\-yard touchdown pass from [Jack Tuttle](/wiki/Jack_Tuttle_%28American_football%29 "Jack Tuttle (American football)") to [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland "Colston Loveland"). Tuttle committed two turnovers in the final ten minutes of the game, and Washington capitalized. Washington scored 13 points in the fourth quarter via a 28\-yard field goal by Grady Gross, a one\-yard touchdown run by [Jonah Coleman](/wiki/Jonah_Coleman "Jonah Coleman"), and a 32\-yard field goal by Gross.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.espn.com/college\-football/recap/\_/gameId/401628505 \|title\=Washington pulls away in 4th quarter to beat No. 10 Michigan 27\-17 \|website\=\[\[ESPN.com]] \|date\=October 5, 2024 \|access\-date\=October 5, 2024}} The loss ended an 11\-game streak of consecutive wins on the road for the Wolverines, which tied a program record. The loss also ended a program record streak of 27 consecutive Big Ten wins.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/5/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-at\-washington \|title\=Postgame Notes: Washington 27, \#10 Michigan 17 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=October 5, 2024 \|access\-date\=October 5, 2024}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Washington Huskies \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Washington \| VisFirsts \= 17 \| VisPlaysYds \= 62–287 \| VisRushing \= 37–174 \| VisPassYds \= 113 \| VisPassing \= 13–25–1 \| VisTOP \= 30:30 \| HomeFirsts \= 23 \| HomePlaysYds \= 68–429 \| HomeRushing \= 35–114 \| HomePassYds \= 315 \| HomePassing \= 23–33–1 \| HomeTOP \= 29:30 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Washington Huskies \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Washington \| VisPasser \= \[\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\|Jack Tuttle]] \| VisPassStats \= 10/18, 98 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \| VisRusher \= \[\[Donovan Edwards]] \| VisRushStats \= 14 carries, 95 yards, 1 TD \| VisReceiver \= \[\[Colston Loveland]] \| VisReceivingStats \= 6 receptions, 33 yards, 1 TD \| HomePasser \= \[\[Will Rogers (American football)\|Will Rogers]] \| HomePassStats \= 21/31, 271 yards, 2 TD, 1 INT \| HomeRusher \= \[\[Jonah Coleman]] \| HomeRushStats \= 18 carries, 80 yards, 1 TD \| HomeReceiver \= \[\[Denzel Boston]] \| HomeReceivingStats \= 5 receptions, 80 yards, 1 TD }} {{Clear}} ### at No. 22 Illinois {{see also\|2024 Illinois Fighting Illini football team\|Illinois–Michigan football series}} * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=No. 24 Michigan Wolverines (4–2\) at No. 22 Illinois Fighting Illini (5–1\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|October 19\|Saturday}} \|time\=3:30 p.m. \|road\=No. 24 Michigan \|R1\=0 \|R2\=7 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\='''No. 22 Illinois''' \|H1\=3 \|H2\=10 \|H3\=8 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Memorial Stadium (Champaign)\|Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Champaign, Illinois]] \|attendance\=60,670 \|weather \= {{convert\|72\|F\|C}}, sunny, SW {{convert\|4\|mph\|km/h}} \|referee\=Tim O'Dey \|TV\=CBS \|TVAnnouncers\=Brad Nessler (play\-by\-play), Gary Danielson (color commentator), and Jenny Dell (sideline reporter) \|reference\= \|scoring\= ;First quarter \* (12:07\) Illinois – David Olano 47\-yard field gold (''Drive: 7 plays, 46 yards, 2:53; '''Illinois 3–0''''') ;Second quarter \* (11:35\) Illinois – David Olano 32\-yard field gold (''Drive: 5 plays, 24 yards, 2:37; '''Illinois 6–0''''') \* (7:53\) Illinois – Tanner Arkin 2\-yard pass from \[\[Luke Altmyer]] (David Olano kick) (''Drive: 7 plays, 51 yards, 3:04; '''Illinois 13–0''''') \* (1:40\) Michigan – \[\[Kalel Mullings]] 1\-yard run (\[\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 72 yards, 6:07; '''Illinois 13–7''''') ;Third quarter \* (9:16\) Illinois – Luke Altmyer 1\-yard run (Donovan Leary–\[\[Zakhari Franklin]] pass) (''Drive: 8 plays, 55 yards, 3:47; '''Illinois 21–7''''') ;Fourth quarter \*''No scoring plays'' }} On October 19, following its bye week, Michigan lost to [Illinois](/wiki/2024_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team "2024 Illinois Fighting Illini football team"), 21–7, at [Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28University_of_Illinois%29 "Memorial Stadium (University of Illinois)") in [Champaign, Illinois](/wiki/Champaign%2C_Illinois "Champaign, Illinois"). Illinois wore [1924](/wiki/1924_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team "1924 Illinois Fighting Illini football team") throwback uniforms to commemorate the 100th anniversary of [Red Grange](/wiki/Red_Grange "Red Grange")'s six\-touchdown game against Michigan on the day Memorial Stadium was dedicated.{{cite web\|url\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/10139920\-why\-illinois\-will\-wear\-1920s\-style\-throwback\-uniforms\-leather\-helmets\-vs\-michigan \|title\=Why Illinois Will Wear 1920s\-Style Throwback Uniforms, Leather Helmets vs. Michigan \|website\=\[\[Bleacher Report]] \|date\=October 18, 2024 \|access\-date\=October 20, 2024}} On the opening drive of the game, Illinois drove 46 yards on seven plays, including a 29\-yard run by Aidan Laughery, and took the lead on a 47\-yard field goal by David Olano. Michigan punted on its first two possessions. On its third possession, quarterback [Jack Tuttle](/wiki/Jack_Tuttle_%28American_football%29 "Jack Tuttle (American football)") fumbled at Michigan's 25\-yard line, setting up a 32\-yard field goal by Olano. On Michigan's next possession, [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards "Donovan Edwards") fumbled and Illinois recovered the ball at midfield. The Illini then drove 51 yards on seven plays, scoring on a two\-yard touchdown pass from [Luke Altmyer](/wiki/Luke_Altmyer "Luke Altmyer") to Tanner Arkin. Trailing, 13\-0, Michigan then drove 72 yards on 12 plays, including eight runs by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings "Kalel Mullings"), ending with a one\-yard touchdown run by Mullings. Illinois drove 49 yards in the closing two minutes of the first half, but Olano's field\-goal attempt from 44 yards was blocked by [Makari Paige](/wiki/Makari_Paige "Makari Paige"). Illinois led 13–7 at halftime.{{cite news\|title\=Recap: Michigan stays winless on road in 21\-7 loss at Illinois\|author\=Kameron Goodwill\|newspaper\=The Detroit News\|date\=October 19, 2024\|url\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/college/university\-michigan/2024/10/19/live\-updates\-michigan\-wolverines\-football\-at\-illinois\-fighting\-illini/75721566007/}}{{cite news\|title\=Michigan football offense looks completely broken in 21\-7 spanking by Illinois\|author\=Tony Garcia\|newspaper\=Detroit Free Press\|date\=October 19, 2024\|url\=https://www.freep.com/story/sports/college/university\-michigan/wolverines/2024/10/19/michigan\-football\-illinois\-game\-recap\-week\-8/75753260007/}} On the opening drive of the second half, Michgan was held to a [three\-and\-out](/wiki/Three-and-out "Three-and-out"). Illinois then drove 55 yards in eight plays, including a 36\-yard run by Tanner Arkin on a fake punt, and ending with a one\-yard touchdown run by Altmyer and a two\-point conversion pass from Donovan Leary to [Zakhari Franklin](/wiki/Zakhari_Franklin "Zakhari Franklin"). Michigan's next two drives combined for 14:13 of game time, however, they failed to score any points due to a blocked 28\-yard field goal try by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada "Dominic Zvada") and an interception thrown by Tuttle at the Illinois two\-yard line. Michigan's offense was held scoreless by the Fighting Illini for the final 31:40 of the game. This was Illinois' first victory against Michigan since [2009](/wiki/2009_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team "2009 Michigan Wolverines football team").{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/19/football\-michigan\-suffers\-road\-loss\-at\-no\-22\-illinois \|title\=Michigan Suffers Road Loss at No. 22 Illinois \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|first1\=Dave \|last1\=Ablauf \|first2\=Chad \|last2\=Shepard \|date\=October 19, 2024 \|access\-date\=October 19, 2024}} Michigan scored only seven points against an Illinois defense that gave up 49 points to [Purdue](/wiki/2024_Purdue_Boilermakers_football_team "2024 Purdue Boilermakers football team") one week earlier. It was Michigan's lowest point total since a 31\-0 loss to [Notre Dame](/wiki/2014_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football_team "2014 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team") in September 2014\.{{cite news\|title\=Michigan's Loss at Illinois Marks Lowest Point Total Since 2014 Notre Dame Game\|publisher\=SI.com\|accessdate\=October 20, 2024\|url\=https://www.si.com/college/notredame/football/michigan\-loss\-illinois\-program\-low\-since\-2014\-notre\-dame}} Quarterback Jack Tuttle made his first start of the season for Michigan and completed 20 of 32 passes for 208 yards (129 in the fourth quarter) with one interception and a fumble. Tuttle was also sacked five times.{{cite web\|url\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/19/football\-postgame\-notes\-michigan\-at\-illinois \|title\=Postgame Notes: \#22 Illinois 21, \#24 Michigan 7 \|publisher\=CBS Interactive \|work\=MGoBlue.com \|date\=October 19, 2024 \|access\-date\=October 19, 2024}} After the game, CBS broadcaster [Brian Jones](/wiki/Brian_Jones_%28American_football_linebacker%29 "Brian Jones (American football linebacker)") described Michigan's offense as "pathetic" and "embarrassing" and noted that Tuttle "couldn't hit the side of a building."{{cite news\|title\=Michigan football ripped by CBS experts, fans after 'embarrassing' showing vs. Illinois\|publisher\=Yahoo! sports\|date\=October 19, 2024\|author\=Marlowe Alter\|url\=https://sports.yahoo.com/michigan\-football\-ripped\-cbs\-analysts\-214011714\.html}} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Illinois Fighting Illini \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Illinois \| VisFirsts \= 20 \| VisPlaysYds \= 70–322 \| VisRushing \= 38–114 \| VisPassYds \= 208 \| VisPassing \= 20–32–1 \| VisTOP \= 33:34 \| HomeFirsts \= 18 \| HomePlaysYds \= 57–267 \| HomeRushing \= 38–187 \| HomePassYds \= 80 \| HomePassing \= 9–19–0 \| HomeTOP \= 26:26 }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Illinois Fighting Illini \| HomeDisplay \= Illinois \| HomeAltColors \= y \| VisPasser \= \[\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\|Jack Tuttle]] \| VisPassStats \= 20/32, 208 yards, 1 INT \| VisRusher \= \[\[Kalel Mullings]] \| VisRushStats \= 19 carries, 87 yards, 1 TD \| VisReceiver \= \[\[Colston Loveland]] \| VisReceivingStats \= 7 receptions, 83 yards \| HomePasser \= \[\[Luke Altmyer]] \| HomePassStats \= 9/18, 80 yards, 1 TD \| HomeRusher \= Aidan Laughery \| HomeRushStats \= 9 carries, 54 yards \| HomeReceiver \= Pat Bryant \| HomeReceivingStats \= 4 receptions, 32 yards }} {{Clear}} ### vs Michigan State {{see also\|2024 Michigan State Spartans football team\|Michigan–Michigan State football rivalry}} {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Michigan State Spartans (0–0\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|October 26\|Saturday}} \|time\= \|road\=Michigan State \|R1\=0 \|R2\=0 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\=Michigan \|H1\=0 \|H2\=0 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\= \|weather\= \|referee\= \|TV\= \|TVAnnouncers\= \|reference\= \|scoring\= }} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Michigan State Spartans \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= \| VisPlaysYds \= \| VisRushing \= \| VisPassYds \= \| VisPassing \= \| VisTOP \= \| HomeFirsts \= \| HomePlaysYds \= \| HomeRushing \= \| HomePassYds \= \| HomePassing \= \| HomeTOP \= }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Michigan State Spartans \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan State \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \| VisPassStats \= \| VisRusher \= \| VisRushStats \= \| VisReceiver \= \| VisReceivingStats \= \| HomePasser \= \| HomePassStats \= \| HomeRusher \= \| HomeRushStats \= \| HomeReceiver \= \| HomeReceivingStats \= }} {{Clear}} ### vs Oregon {{see also\|2024 Oregon Ducks football team}} {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Oregon Ducks (0–0\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|November 2\|Saturday}} \|time\= \|road\=Oregon \|R1\=0 \|R2\=0 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\=Michigan \|H1\=0 \|H2\=0 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\= \|weather\= \|referee\= \|TV\= \|TVAnnouncers\= \|reference\= \|scoring\= }} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Oregon Ducks \| VisitorDisplay \= Oregon \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= \| VisPlaysYds \= \| VisRushing \= \| VisPassYds \= \| VisPassing \= \| VisTOP \= \| HomeFirsts \= \| HomePlaysYds \= \| HomeRushing \= \| HomePassYds \= \| HomePassing \= \| HomeTOP \= }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Oregon Ducks \| VisitorDisplay \= Oregon \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \| VisPassStats \= \| VisRusher \= \| VisRushStats \= \| VisReceiver \= \| VisReceivingStats \= \| HomePasser \= \| HomePassStats \= \| HomeRusher \= \| HomeRushStats \= \| HomeReceiver \= \| HomeReceivingStats \= }} {{Clear}} ### at Indiana {{see also\|2024 Indiana Hoosiers football team}} {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) at Indiana Hoosiers (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|November 9\|Saturday}} \|time\= \|road\=Michigan \|R1\=0 \|R2\=0 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\=Indiana \|H1\=0 \|H2\=0 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Memorial Stadium (Bloomington)\|Memorial Stadium]] • \[\[Bloomington, Indiana]] \|attendance\= \|weather\= \|referee\= \|TV\= \|TVAnnouncers\= \|reference\= \|scoring\= }} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Indiana Hoosiers \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Indiana \| VisFirsts \= \| VisPlaysYds \= \| VisRushing \= \| VisPassYds \= \| VisPassing \= \| VisTOP \= \| HomeFirsts \= \| HomePlaysYds \= \| HomeRushing \= \| HomePassYds \= \| HomePassing \= \| HomeTOP \= }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Indiana Hoosiers \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Indiana \| VisPasser \= \| VisPassStats \= \| VisRusher \= \| VisRushStats \= \| VisReceiver \= \| VisReceivingStats \= \| HomePasser \= \| HomePassStats \= \| HomeRusher \= \| HomeRushStats \= \| HomeReceiver \= \| HomeReceivingStats \= }} {{Clear}} ### vs Northwestern {{see also\|2024 Northwestern Wildcats football team\|George Jewett Trophy}} {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Northwestern Wildcats (0–0\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|November 23\|Saturday}} \|time\= \|road\=Northwestern \|R1\=0 \|R2\=0 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\=Michigan \|H1\=0 \|H2\=0 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]] • \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] \|attendance\= \|weather\= \|referee\= \|TV\= \|TVAnnouncers\= \|reference\= \|scoring\= }} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Northwestern Wildcats \| VisitorDisplay \= Northwestern \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisFirsts \= \| VisPlaysYds \= \| VisRushing \= \| VisPassYds \= \| VisPassing \= \| VisTOP \= \| HomeFirsts \= \| HomePlaysYds \= \| HomeRushing \= \| HomePassYds \= \| HomePassing \= \| HomeTOP \= }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Northwestern Wildcats \| VisitorDisplay \= Northwestern \| Home \= Michigan Wolverines \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Michigan \| VisPasser \= \| VisPassStats \= \| VisRusher \= \| VisRushStats \= \| VisReceiver \= \| VisReceivingStats \= \| HomePasser \= \| HomePassStats \= \| HomeRusher \= \| HomeRushStats \= \| HomeReceiver \= \| HomeReceivingStats \= }} {{Clear}} ### at Ohio State {{see also\|2024 Ohio State Buckeyes football team\|Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry}} {{Americanfootballbox \|titlestyle\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\-align:center; \|state\=autocollapse \|title\=Michigan Wolverines (0–0\) at Ohio State Buckeyes (0–0\) – Game summary \|date\={{tooltip\|November 30\|Saturday}} \|time\= 12:00 p.m. ET \|road\=Michigan \|R1\=0 \|R2\=0 \|R3\=0 \|R4\=0 \|home\=Ohio State \|H1\=0 \|H2\=0 \|H3\=0 \|H4\=0 \|stadium\=\[\[Ohio Stadium]] • \[\[Columbus, Ohio]] \|attendance\= \|weather\= \|referee\= \|TV\=Fox \|TVAnnouncers\=Gus Johnson (play\-by\-play), Joel Klatt (color commentator), Jenny Taft, and \[\[Tom Rinaldi]] (sideline reporters) \|reference\= \|scoring\= }} {{AmFootballGameStatistics \| Float \= left \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Ohio State Buckeyes \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Ohio State \| VisFirsts \= \| VisPlaysYds \= \| VisRushing \= \| VisPassYds \= \| VisPassing \= \| VisTOP \= \| HomeFirsts \= \| HomePlaysYds \= \| HomeRushing \= \| HomePassYds \= \| HomePassing \= \| HomeTOP \= }} {{AmFootballGameTopPlayers \| Float \= right \| Visitor \= Michigan Wolverines \| VisitorDisplay \= Michigan \| Home \= Ohio State Buckeyes \| HomeAltColors \= \| HomeDisplay \= Ohio State \| VisPasser \= \| VisPassStats \= \| VisRusher \= \| VisRushStats \= \| VisReceiver \= \| VisReceivingStats \= \| HomePasser \= \| HomePassStats \= \| HomeRusher \= \| HomeRushStats \= \| HomeReceiver \= \| HomeReceivingStats \= }} {{Clear}}
[ "Game summaries\n--------------", "### vs Fresno State", "{{see also\\|2024 Fresno State Bulldogs football team}}\n* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Fresno State Bulldogs (0–0\\) vs No. 9 Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|August 31\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=7:30 p.m. ET\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Fresno State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=3 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 9 Michigan'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7 \\|H2\\=3 \\|H3\\=3 \\|H4\\=17\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium \\= \\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance \\= 110,665\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|72\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, NE {{convert\\|5\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Jeff Servinski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV \\= \\[\\[College Football on NBC Sports\\|NBC]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers \\= \\[\\[Noah Eagle]] (play\\-by\\-play), \\[\\[Todd Blackledge]] (color commentator), and \\[\\[Kathryn Tappen]] (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference \\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring \\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(11:03\\) MICH – \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]] 3\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Alex Orji]], \\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick (''Drive: 5 plays, 31 yards, 2:28; '''Michigan 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(7:35\\) FRES – Dylan Lynch 41\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 8 plays, 38 yards, 3:23; '''Michigan 7–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(0:31\\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 45\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 11 plays, 47 yards, 6:56; '''Michigan 10–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(9:21\\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 53\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 10 plays, 38 yards, 5:32; '''Michigan 13–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(12:42\\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 55\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 26 yards, 3:28; '''Michigan 16–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(10:06\\) FRES – Raylen Sharpe 19\\-yard pass from Mikey Keene, Dylan Lynch kick (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 2:36; '''Michigan 16–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(5:43\\) MICH – \\[\\[Colston Loveland]] 18\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Davis Warren]], Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 4:17; '''Michigan 23–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(3:57\\) MICH – \\[\\[Will Johnson (cornerback)\\|Will Johnson]] 86\\-yard interception return, Dominic Zvada kick ('''''Michigan 30–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}", "Michigan opened the season at home against the [Fresno State Bulldogs](/wiki/2024_Fresno_State_Bulldogs_football_team \"2024 Fresno State Bulldogs football team\"). Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter via a three\\-yard touchdown pass from [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji \"Alex Orji\") to [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards \"Donovan Edwards\"). The teams exchanged field goals in the second quarter, first a 41\\-yard field goal by Dylan Lynch for Fresno State, then a 45\\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\") for Michigan. Michigan led, 10–3, at halftime. Michigan scored the only points of the third quarter via a 53\\-yard field goal by Zvada. Michigan extended their lead in the fourth quarter via a 55\\-yard field goal by Zvada. The teams then exchanged touchdowns, first a 16\\-yard touchdown pass from Mikey Keene to Raylen Sharpe for Fresno State, then an 18\\-yard touchdown pass from [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren \"Davis Warren\") to [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland \"Colston Loveland\") for Michigan. Michigan scored the final points of the game via an 86\\-yard interception return by [Will Johnson](/wiki/Will_Johnson_%28cornerback%29 \"Will Johnson (cornerback)\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/8/31/football\\-wolverines\\-17\\-point\\-fourth\\-quarter\\-secures\\-season\\-opening\\-win\\-over\\-fresno\\-state \\|title\\=Wolverines' 17\\-point Fourth Quarter Secures Season\\-Opening Win Over Fresno State \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=September 1, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 1, 2024}}", "This was the first ever meeting between the two teams. Senior quarterback [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren \"Davis Warren\") made his first start of his career, and completed 15 of 25 passes for 118 yards and a touchdown. [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\")'s 55\\-yard field goal in the fourth quarter was the sixth\\-longest in program history. Defensively, Michigan held Fresno State to nine rushing yards, including \\-16 rushing yards in the second\\-half.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/8/31/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-vs\\-fresno\\-state \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#9 Michigan 30, Fresno State 10 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=August 31, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 1, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Fresno State Bulldogs\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Fresno State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 18\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 58–244\n\\| VisRushing \\= 22–9\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 235\n\\| VisPassing \\= 22–36–2\n\\| VisTOP \\= 26:00\n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 18\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 61–269\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 34–148\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 121\n\\| HomePassing \\= 16–27–1\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 34:00\n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Fresno State Bulldogs\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Fresno State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Mikey Keene]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 22/36, 235 yards, 2 INT\n\\| VisRusher \\= Malik Sherrod\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 14 carries, 24 yards\n\\| VisReceiver \\= Jalen Moss\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 6 receptions, 97 yards\n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Davis Warren]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 15/25, 118 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT\n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 15 carries, 92 yards\n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Colston Loveland]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 8 receptions, 87 yards, 1 TD\n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs No. 3 Texas", "{{see also\\|2024 Texas Longhorns football team}}\n* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 3 Texas Longhorns (1–0\\) vs No. 10 Michigan Wolverines (1–0\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|September 7\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\= 12:10 p.m. ET\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\='''No. 3 Texas'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=7 \\|R2\\=17 \\|R3\\=7 \\|R4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\=No. 10 Michigan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=3 \\|H3\\=3 \\|H4\\=6\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\= 111,170\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|52\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, NW {{convert\\|12\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Ron Snodgrass\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[Big Noon Saturday\\|Fox]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Gus Johnson (sportscaster)\\|Gus Johnson]] (play\\-by\\-play), \\[\\[Joel Klatt]] (color commentator), and \\[\\[Jenny Taft]] (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(4:04\\) TEX – \\[\\[Gunnar Helm]] 21\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Quinn Ewers]], \\[\\[Bert Auburn]] kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 56 yards, 3:06; '''Texas 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(13:23\\) MICH – \\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] 37\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 55 yards, 5:45; '''Texas 7–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(8:24\\) TEX – Jerrick Gibson 7\\-yard run, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 12 plays, 76 yards, 4:53; '''Texas 14–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(2:40\\) TEX – Bert Auburn 26\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 10 plays, 29 yards, 4:10; '''Texas 17–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(0:10\\) TEX – \\[\\[Matthew Golden]] 5\\-yard pass from Quinn Ewers, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 42 yards, 0:49; '''Texas 24–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(5:28\\) MICH – Dominic Zvada 52\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 9 plays, 41 yards, 4:22; '''Texas 24–6''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(2:29\\) TEX – \\[\\[Jaydon Blue]] 7\\-yard pass from Quinn Ewers, Bert Auburn kick (''Drive: 6 plays, 75 yards, 2:49; '''Texas 31–6''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(1:54\\) MICH – \\[\\[Semaj Morgan]] 31\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Davis Warren]], (''Drive: 8 plays, 78 yards, 2:55; '''Texas 31–12''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}", "In week 2, Michigan hosted the [Texas Longhorns](/wiki/2024_Texas_Longhorns_football_team \"2024 Texas Longhorns football team\"). Texas opened the scoring in the first quarter via a 21\\-yard touchdown pass from [Quinn Ewers](/wiki/Quinn_Ewers \"Quinn Ewers\") to [Gunnar Helm](/wiki/Gunnar_Helm \"Gunnar Helm\"). Michigan finally got on the board in the second quarter via a 37\\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\"). Texas scored 17 points in the quarter via a seven\\-yard touchdown run by Jerrick Gibson, a 26\\-yard field goal by [Bert Auburn](/wiki/Bert_Auburn \"Bert Auburn\"), and a five\\-yard touchdown pass from Ewers to [Matthew Golden](/wiki/Matthew_Golden \"Matthew Golden\"). Texas led, 24–3, at halftime. In the third quarter, Michigan scored a 52\\-yard field goal by Zvada. Texas responded with a seven\\-yard touchdown pass from Ewers to [Jaydon Blue](/wiki/Jaydon_Blue \"Jaydon Blue\"). Michigan scored the only points of the fourth quarter via a 31\\-yard touchdown pass from [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren \"Davis Warren\") to [Semaj Morgan](/wiki/Semaj_Morgan \"Semaj Morgan\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/7/football\\-michigan\\-downed\\-by\\-no\\-3\\-texas\\-at\\-big\\-house \\|title\\=Michigan Downed by No. 3 Texas at Big House \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=September 7, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 7, 2024}}", "The loss ended Michigan's streak of 29 consecutive regular season wins. The 28 wins tied a Big Ten Conference record. Quarterback [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren \"Davis Warren\") completed 22 passes for a career\\-high 204 yards. Tight end [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland \"Colston Loveland\") recorded eight receptions for 70 yards.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/7/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-vs\\-texas \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#3 Texas 31, \\#10 Michigan 12 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=September 7, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 7, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Texas Longhorns\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Texas\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 19\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 68–389\n\\| VisRushing \\= 32–143\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 246\n\\| VisPassing \\= 24–36–0\n\\| VisTOP \\= 31:20 \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 13\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 56–284\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 23–80\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 204\n\\| HomePassing \\= 22–33–2\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 28:40 \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Texas Longhorns\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Texas\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Quinn Ewers]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 24\\-36, 246 yards, 3 TD \n\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Ryan Wingo]]\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 1 carries, 55 yards\n\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Gunnar Helm]]\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 7 receptions, 98 yards, 1 TD \n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Davis Warren]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 22\\-33, 204 yards, 1 TD, 2 INT \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 8 carries, 41 yards \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Colston Loveland]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 8 receptions, 70 yards \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs Arkansas State", "{{see also\\|2024 Arkansas State Red Wolves football team}}\n* + - * + - * {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Arkansas State Red Wolves (2–0\\) vs No. 17 Michigan Wolverines (1–1\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|September 14\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=Noon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Arkansas State\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=3 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=15\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 17 Michigan'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7 \\|H2\\=14 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=110,250\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|78\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, NE {{convert\\|7\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Jerry McGinn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[Big Ten Network\\|BTN]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Jeff Levering]] (play\\-by\\-play), \\[\\[Jake Butt]] (color commentator), and \\[\\[Brooke Fletcher]] (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(2:23\\) MICH – \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]] 30\\-yard run, \\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick (''Drive: 11 plays, 76 yards, 6:39; '''Michigan 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(14:18\\) ASU – Clune Van Andel 27\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 4 plays, 6 yards, 1:10; '''Michigan 7–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(6:41\\) MICH – \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]] 7\\-yard run, Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 13 plays, 75 yards, 7:37; '''Michigan 14–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(2:57\\) MICH – Kalel Mullings 5\\-yard run, Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 4 plays, 55 yards, 1:59; '''Michigan 21–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(12:49\\) MICH – Hogan Hansen 9\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Alex Orji]], Dominic Zvada kick (''Drive: 9 plays, 80 yards, 5:18; '''Michigan 28–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(5:38\\) ASU – Reginald Harden Jr. 24\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Timmy McClain]], Clune Van Andel kick (''Drive: 9 plays, 64 yards, 3:40; '''Michigan 28–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\\*(0:08\\) ASU – Reginald Harden Jr. 22\\-yard pass from Timmy McClain, Timmy McClain run (''Drive: 11 plays, 75 yards, 3:50; '''Michigan 28–18''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\tOn September 14, Michigan defeated [Arkansas State](/wiki/2024_Arkansas_State_Red_Wolves_football_team \"2024 Arkansas State Red Wolves football team\"), 28–18, before a crowd of 110,250 at Michigan Stadium.", "Arkansas State opened the game with a 13\\-play, 51\\-yard drive to Michigan's 24\\-yard line, but Clune Van Andel's field goal attempt missed the mark. Michigan then drove 76 yards on 11 plays, ending with a 30\\-yard touchdown run by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings \"Kalel Mullings\"). Late in the first quarter, [Davis Warren](/wiki/Davis_Warren \"Davis Warren\") threw an interception that Charles Willekes returned 30 yards to the Michigan 15\\-yard line. On the third play of the second quarter, Arkansas State capitalized on the turnover, as Van Andel kicked a 27\\-yard field goal. Michigan responded with a 75\\-yard, 13\\-play, seven\\-and\\-a\\-half minute drive that featured seven runs by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards \"Donovan Edwards\"), including a seven\\-yard touchdown run. On Michigan's next possession, Michigan drove 55 yards on four plays, including a 30\\-yard run by Mullings to the Arkansas State five\\-yard line, followed by a five\\-yard touchdown run by Mullings. Warren was intercepted for a second time with 1:15 remaining in the half. In the final minute of the half, Arkansas State drove 58 yards to Michigan's 21\\-yard line, but Van Andel missed a 38\\-yard field goal in the final seconds of the half. Michigan led, 21–3, at halftime.", "On Michigan's second possession of the second half, Davis Warren threw his third interception. Davis was replaced at quarterback by [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji \"Alex Orji\"). Late in the third quarter and early in the fourth, Mullings and Orji led Michigan on an 80\\-yard drive capped by a nine\\-yard touchdown pass from Orji to Hogan Hansen. Midway through the fourth quarter, Arkansas State drove 64 yards, scoring on a 24\\-yard touchdown pass from [Timmy McClain](/wiki/Timmy_McClain \"Timmy McClain\") to Reginald Harden Jr. After holding Michigan to a three\\-and\\-out, Arkansas State mounted another long drive, covering 75 yards and ending with a 22\\-yard touchdown pass from McClain to Harden with eight seconds remaining in the game.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/14/football\\-u\\-m\\-dominates\\-ground\\-game\\-in\\-victory\\-over\\-arkansas\\-state \\|title\\=U\\-M Dominates Ground Game in Victory Over Arkansas State \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=September 14, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2024}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/recap/\\_/gameId/401628479 \\|title\\=No. 17 Michigan beats Arkansas State 28\\-18 on the ground, overcoming Davis Warren's 3 interceptions \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]] \\|date\\=September 14, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2024}}", "Davis Warren threw 14 passes, all of which were caught \\-\\- 11 by Michigan receivers and three by Arkansas State defenders. Following the game, Michigan announced that Alex Orji would take over from Warren as Michigan's starting quarterback.", "Michigan tallied 301 rushing yards in the game, led by Kalel Mullings (153 yards, 15 carries, two touchdowns) and Donovan Edwards (82 yards, 17 carries, one touchdown). Tight end [Marlin Klein](/wiki/Marlin_Klein \"Marlin Klein\") made his first career start, recording three receptions for 43 yards.", "Michigan's defense held Arkansas State to 58 rushing yards, including \\-6 rushing yards in the first half. However, Arkansas State quarterbacks completed 26 of 44 passes for 222 yards and two touchdowns.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/14/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-arkansas\\-state \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#17 Michigan 28, Arkansas State 18 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=September 14, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 14, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Arkansas State Red Wolves\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Arkansas State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 17\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 69–280\n\\| VisRushing \\= 25–58\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 222\n\\| VisPassing \\= 26–44–1\n\\| VisTOP \\= 25:36 \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 20\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 62–435\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 44–301\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 134\n\\| HomePassing \\= 13–18–3\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 34:24 \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Arkansas State Red Wolves\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Arkansas State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jaylen Raynor]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 19\\-33, 140 yards, 1 INT \n\\| VisRusher \\= Devin Spencer\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 7 carries, 28 yards \n\\| VisReceiver \\= Reginald Harden Jr.\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 3 receptions, 52 yards, 2 TD\n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Davis Warren]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 11\\-14, 122 yards, 3 INT \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 15 carries, 153 yards, 2 TD\n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Marlin Klein]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 3 receptions, 43 yards\n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs No. 11 USC", "{{see also\\|2024 USC Trojans football team}}\n* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 11 USC Trojans (2–0\\) vs No. 18 Michigan Wolverines (2–1\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|September 21\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=3:30 p.m. \\[\\[Eastern Daylight Time\\|EDT]]/12:30 p.m. \\[\\[Pacific Daylight Time\\|PDT]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 11 USC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=3 \\|R3\\=14 \\|R4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 18 Michigan'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7 \\|H2\\=7 \\|H3\\=6 \\|H4\\=7\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=110,702\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|83\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, NW {{convert\\|7\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\=Chris Coyte\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=\\[\\[College Football on CBS Sports\\|CBS]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Brad Nessler]] (play\\-by\\-play), \\[\\[Gary Danielson]] (color commentator), and \\[\\[Jenny Dell]] (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (3:10\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]] 53\\-yard run (\\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 5 plays, 63 yards, 1:40; '''Michigan 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (7:14\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]] 41\\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 6 plays, 80 yards, 3:33; '''Michigan 14–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (4:15\\) USC \\- Michael Lantz 29\\-yard field goal (''Drive: 8 plays, 64 yards, 2:59; '''Michigan 14–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (9:12\\) USC – \\[\\[Duce Robinson]] 9\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Miller Moss (American football)\\|Miller Moss]] (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 75 yards, 5:50; '''Michigan 14–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (5:31\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Will Johnson (cornerback)\\|Will Johnson]] 42\\-yard interception return (Dominic Zvada kick blocked) ('''Michigan 20–10''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (1:28\\) USC \\- Jay Fair 16\\-yard pass from Miller Moss (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 2 plays, 27 yards, 0:57; '''Michigan 20–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (7:01\\) USC – \\[\\[Ja'Kobi Lane]] 24\\-yard pass from Miller Moss (Michael Lantz kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 18 yards, 1:27; '''USC 24–20''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (0:37\\) Michigan – Kalel Mullings 1\\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 10 plays, 89 yards, 3:25; '''Michigan 27–24''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOn September 21, Michigan defeated [USC](/wiki/2024_USC_Trojans_football_team \"2024 USC Trojans football team\"), 27–24, before a crowd of 110,702 at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor. It was USC's first conference game as a member of the Big Ten.", "The teams exchanged punts on the first four drives. On Michigan's third drive, [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings \"Kalel Mullings\") ran 53 yards for a touchdown with 3:10 remaining in the first quarter. The team's then exchanged punts on the next three drives. On Michigan's fifth drive of the game, the Wolverines drove 80 yards in six plays, ending with a 41\\-yard touchdown run by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards \"Donovan Edwards\"). USC then drove 64 yards, including passes from [Miller Moss](/wiki/Miller_Moss_%28American_football%29 \"Miller Moss (American football)\") to [Zachariah Branch](/wiki/Zachariah_Branch \"Zachariah Branch\") of 24 and 42 yards, the latter moving the ball to Michigan's 10\\-yard line. Michigan's defense held, and USC's Michael Lantz kicked a 29\\-yard field goal. Michigan led, 14–3, at halftime.", "On the opening drive of the second half, USC drove 75 yards on 12 plays, ending with a nine\\-yard touchdown pass from Moss to [Duce Robinson](/wiki/Duce_Robinson \"Duce Robinson\"). Michigan was held to a three\\-and\\-out on its first drive of the second half. On USC's second drive of the second half, [Will Johnson](/wiki/Will_Johnson_%28cornerback%29 \"Will Johnson (cornerback)\") intercepted a Moss pass and returned it 42 yards for a touchdown. [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\")'s extra point kick was blocked, and Michigan led, 20–10\\. On USC's next possession, [Woody Marks](/wiki/Woody_Marks \"Woody Marks\") ran for a 65\\-yard gain to the Michigan two\\-yard line. Moss was sacked and fumbled at the nine\\-yard line; [Kenneth Grant](/wiki/Kenneth_Grant_%28American_football%29 \"Kenneth Grant (American football)\") recovered the fumble and returned it to the USC 18\\-yard line where USC's Woody Marks ripped the ball from Grant's arms for a fumble recovery. USC scored on a 16\\-yard pass from Moss to Jay Fair, and Michigan's lead was narrowed to 20–17 at the end of the third quarter.", "With 8:35 remaining in the game, Donovan Edwards fumbled as USC linebacker Eric Gentry punched the ball from Edwards' hands and recovered the ball at Michigan's 18\\-yard line. USC then took the lead on a 24\\-yard touchdown pass from Moss to [Ja'Kobi Lane](/wiki/Ja%27Kobi_Lane \"Ja'Kobi Lane\"). After an exchange of punts, Michigan took over at its own 11\\-yard line with 3:25 remaining. Mullings ran for 63 yards to the 17\\-yard line with 2:21 remaining and ultimately scored the winning touchdown on a one\\-yard run with 37 seconds remaining.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/21/fbl\\-mullings\\-plays\\-hero\\-in\\-michigans\\-late\\-game\\-victory\\-over\\-no\\-11\\-usc \\|title\\=Mullings Plays Hero in Michigan's Late\\-Game Victory Over No. 11 USC \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=September 21, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2024}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/recap/\\_/gameId/401628489 \\|title\\=Mullings' 2nd TD with 37 seconds left lifts No. 18 Michigan to 27\\-24 win over No. 11 USC \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]] \\|date\\=September 21, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2024}}", "Quarterback [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji \"Alex Orji\") made his first career start, completing seven of 12 passes for 32 yards, \"the lowest output by a Michigan quarterback since 1987\\.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Orji plays low\\-profile role in debut as Michigan's starting QB\\|newspaper\\=The Detroit News\\|author\\=Angelique S. Chengelis\\|date\\=September 21, 2024\\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/college/university\\-michigan/2024/09/21/alex\\-orji\\-plays\\-low\\-profile\\-role\\-in\\-debut\\-as\\-michigan\\-wolverines\\-starting\\-qb/75326892007/}} Kalel Mullings rushed for 159 yards and two touchdowns on 17 carries. Donovan Edwards also tallied 74 rushing yards as Michigan backs combined for 290 rushing ayrds.", "Michigan's defense held USC to \\-16 rushing yards in the first half. Michigan had four sacks, including two by [Josaiah Stewart](/wiki/Josaiah_Stewart \"Josaiah Stewart\"). Will Johnson became the first player in program history with more than two career interceptions returned for touchdowns.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/21/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-vs\\-usc \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#18 Michigan 27, \\#11 USC 24 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=September 21, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 21, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= USC Trojans\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= USC\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 17\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 73–379\n\\| VisRushing \\= 21–96\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 283\n\\| VisPassing \\= 28–52–1\n\\| VisTOP \\= 30:42 \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 12\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 58–322\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 46–290\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 32\n\\| HomePassing \\= 7–12–0\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 29:18 \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= USC Trojans\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= USC\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Miller Moss (American football)\\|Miller Moss]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 28/51, 283 yards, 3 TD, 1 INT \n\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Woody Marks]]\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 13 carries, 100 yards \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Zachariah Branch]]\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 6 receptions, 98 yards\n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Alex Orji]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 7/12, 32 yards\n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 17 carries, 159 yards, 2 TD\n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Marlin Klein]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 1 reception, 10 yards \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs Minnesota", "{{see also\\|2024 Minnesota Golden Gophers football team\\|Little Brown Jug (college football trophy)}}\n* + - * + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=Minnesota Golden Gophers (2–2\\) vs No. 12 Michigan Wolverines (3–1\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|September 28\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=Noon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=Minnesota\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=3 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=21\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 12 Michigan'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7 \\|H2\\=14 \\|H3\\=3 \\|H4\\=3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=110,340\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|67\\|F\\|C}}, rain, NE {{convert\\|8\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\= Mark Kluczynski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=Fox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=Gus Johnson (play\\-by\\-play), Joel Klatt (color commentator), and Jenny Taft (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (6:34\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]] 27\\-yard run (\\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 9 plays, 79 yards, 4:57; '''Michigan 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (8:59\\) Michigan – Kalel Mullings 1\\-yard run (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 16 yards, 1:26; '''Michigan 14–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (3:48\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Tyler Morris]] 11\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Alex Orji]] (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 1 play, 11 yards, 0:29; '''Michigan 21–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (0:00\\) Minnesota – \\[\\[Dragan Kesich]] 20\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 10 plays, 77 yards, 1:54; '''Michigan 21–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (7:36\\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 53\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 13 plays, 40 yards, 7:24; '''Michigan 24–3''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (14:01\\) Minnesota – \\[\\[Darius Taylor (American football)\\|Darius Taylor]] 3\\-yard run (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 76 yards, 4:59; '''Michigan 24–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (11:05\\) Minnesota – Darius Taylor 4\\-yard run (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 3 plays, 17 yards, 0:47; '''Michigan 24–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (4:33\\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 35\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 14 plays, 58 yards, 6:32; '''Michigan 27–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (1:37\\) Minnesota – Daniel Jackson 12\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Max Brosmer]] (Dragan Kesich kick) (''Drive: 14 plays, 75 yards, 2:56; '''Michigan 27–24''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOn September 28, Michigan defeated [Minnesota](/wiki/2024_Minnesota_Golden_Gophers_football_team \"2024 Minnesota Golden Gophers football team\"), 27–24, before a crowd of 110,340 at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, to retain the Little Brown Jug. Michigan opened the scoring in the first quarter via a 27\\-yard touchdown run by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings \"Kalel Mullings\"). Michigan scored 14 points in the second quarter via a one\\-yard touchdown run by Mullings and an 11\\-yard touchdown pass from [Alex Orji](/wiki/Alex_Orji \"Alex Orji\") to [Tyler Morris](/wiki/Tyler_Morris \"Tyler Morris\"). Minnesota finally got on the board via via a 20\\-yard field goal as time expired in the first half. Michigan led, 21–3, at halftime. Michigan scored the only points of the third quarter via a 53\\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\"). Michigan extended their lead in the fourth quarter via a 35\\-yard field goal by Zvada. Minnesota scored 21 points in the fourth quarter via two touchdown runs by [Darius Taylor](/wiki/Darius_Taylor_%28American_football%29 \"Darius Taylor (American football)\"), from three\\-yards, and four\\-yards, respectively, and a 12\\-yard touchdown pass from [Max Brosmer](/wiki/Max_Brosmer \"Max Brosmer\") to Daniel Jackson.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/28/football\\-mullings\\-first\\-half\\-defense\\-help\\-u\\-m\\-defeat\\-minnesota\\-retain\\-little\\-brown\\-jug \\|title\\=Mullings, First\\-Half Defense Help U\\-M Defeat Minnesota, Retain Little Brown Jug \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=September 28, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2024}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/recap/\\_/gameId/401628497 \\|title\\=No. 12 Michigan holds off Minnesota in 4th quarter to win 27\\-24 and retain Little Brown Jug \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]] \\|date\\=September 28, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2024}}", "Michigan's defense recorded four sacks and eight tackles for loss in the first half of the game for the first time since a game against Penn State on November 15, 2021\\. With four receptions for 41 yards, tight end [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland \"Colston Loveland\")'s 1,112 career receiving yards ranks fifth all\\-time among tight ends, while his 84 career receptions ranks tied for sixth in program history.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/9/28/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-vs\\-minnesota \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#12 Michigan 27, Minnesota 24 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=September 28, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=September 28, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Minnesota Golden Gophers\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Minnesota\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 20\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 66–296\n\\| VisRushing \\= 25–38\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 258\n\\| VisPassing \\= 27–41–1\n\\| VisTOP \\= 26:44 \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 15\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 61–241\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 43–155\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 86\n\\| HomePassing \\= 10–18–1\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 33:16 \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Minnesota Golden Gophers\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Minnesota\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Max Brosmer]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 27/40, 258 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \n\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Darius Taylor (American football)\\|Darius Taylor]]\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 13 carries, 36 yards, 2 TD\n\\| VisReceiver \\= Elijah Spencer \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 6 receptions, 67 yards\n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Alex Orji]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 10/18, 86 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 24 carries, 111 yards, 2 TD \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Colston Loveland]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions, 41 yards\n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### at Washington", "{{see also\\|2024 Washington Huskies football team}}\n* + - * + - * + {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 10 Michigan Wolverines (4–1\\) at Washington Huskies (3–2\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|October 5\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=7:30 p.m.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 10 Michigan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=10 \\|R3\\=7 \\|R4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''Washington'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=7 \\|H2\\=7 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=13\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Husky Stadium]] • \\[\\[Seattle, Washington]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=72,132\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|63\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, N {{convert\\|8\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\=Kole Knueppel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=NBC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=Noah Eagle (play\\-by\\-play), Todd Blackledge (color commentator), and Kathryn Tappen (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (2:38\\) Washington – \\[\\[Denzel Boston]] 3\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Will Rogers (American football)\\|Will Rogers]] (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 13 plays, 83 yards, 5:16; '''Washington 7–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (9:38\\) Washington – \\[\\[Giles Jackson]] 16\\-yard pass from Will Rogers (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 4 plays, 74 yards, 2:16; '''Washington 14–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (5:25\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]] 39\\-yard run (\\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 7 plays, 75 yards, 4:13; '''Washington 14–7''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (1:49\\) Michigan – Dominic Zvada 45\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 8 plays, 56 yards, 2:38; '''Washington 14–10''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (8:38\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Colston Loveland]] 8\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\\|Jack Tuttle]] (Dominic Zvada kick) (''Drive: 11 plays, 75 yards, 6:22; '''Michigan 17–14''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (13:38\\) Washington – Grady Gross 28\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 12 plays, 45 yards, 6:00; '''Tied 17–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (6:22\\) Washington – \\[\\[Jonah Coleman]] 1\\-yard run (Grady Gross kick) (''Drive: 4 plays, 32 yards, 1:40; '''Washington 24–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\* (1:06\\) Washington – Grady Gross 32\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 6 plays, 26 yards, 2:18; '''Washington 27–17''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOn October 5, Michigan lost to [Washington](/wiki/2024_Washington_Huskies_football_team \"2024 Washington Huskies football team\") 17–27\\. Washington opened the scoring in the first quarter via a three\\-yard touchdown pass from [Will Rogers](/wiki/Will_Rogers_%28American_football%29 \"Will Rogers (American football)\") to [Denzel Boston](/wiki/Denzel_Boston \"Denzel Boston\"). Washington extended their lead in the second quarter via a 16\\-yard touchdown pass from Rogers to [Giles Jackson](/wiki/Giles_Jackson \"Giles Jackson\"). Michigan scored ten points in the quarter via a 39\\-yard touchdown run by [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards \"Donovan Edwards\"), and a 45\\-yard field goal by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\"). Washington led, 14–10, at halftime. Michigan took their first lead of the game in the third quarter via an eight\\-yard touchdown pass from [Jack Tuttle](/wiki/Jack_Tuttle_%28American_football%29 \"Jack Tuttle (American football)\") to [Colston Loveland](/wiki/Colston_Loveland \"Colston Loveland\"). Tuttle committed two turnovers in the final ten minutes of the game, and Washington capitalized. Washington scored 13 points in the fourth quarter via a 28\\-yard field goal by Grady Gross, a one\\-yard touchdown run by [Jonah Coleman](/wiki/Jonah_Coleman \"Jonah Coleman\"), and a 32\\-yard field goal by Gross.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.espn.com/college\\-football/recap/\\_/gameId/401628505 \\|title\\=Washington pulls away in 4th quarter to beat No. 10 Michigan 27\\-17 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ESPN.com]] \\|date\\=October 5, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2024}}", "The loss ended an 11\\-game streak of consecutive wins on the road for the Wolverines, which tied a program record. The loss also ended a program record streak of 27 consecutive Big Ten wins.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/5/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-at\\-washington \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: Washington 27, \\#10 Michigan 17 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=October 5, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=October 5, 2024}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Washington Huskies\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Washington\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 17\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 62–287\n\\| VisRushing \\= 37–174\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 113\n\\| VisPassing \\= 13–25–1\n\\| VisTOP \\= 30:30\n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 23\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 68–429\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 35–114\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 315\n\\| HomePassing \\= 23–33–1\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 29:30\n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Washington Huskies\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Washington\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\\|Jack Tuttle]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 10/18, 98 yards, 1 TD, 1 INT \n\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Donovan Edwards]]\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 14 carries, 95 yards, 1 TD \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Colston Loveland]]\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 6 receptions, 33 yards, 1 TD \n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Will Rogers (American football)\\|Will Rogers]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 21/31, 271 yards, 2 TD, 1 INT \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \\[\\[Jonah Coleman]]\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 18 carries, 80 yards, 1 TD \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \\[\\[Denzel Boston]]\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 5 receptions, 80 yards, 1 TD \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### at No. 22 Illinois", "{{see also\\|2024 Illinois Fighting Illini football team\\|Illinois–Michigan football series}}\n* + - * + - {{Americanfootballbox\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|title\\=No. 24 Michigan Wolverines (4–2\\) at No. 22 Illinois Fighting Illini (5–1\\) – Game summary\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|October 19\\|Saturday}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|time\\=3:30 p.m.\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|road\\=No. 24 Michigan\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=7 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|home\\='''No. 22 Illinois'''\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|H1\\=3 \\|H2\\=10 \\|H3\\=8 \\|H4\\=0\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Memorial Stadium (Champaign)\\|Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Champaign, Illinois]]\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|attendance\\=60,670\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|weather \\= {{convert\\|72\\|F\\|C}}, sunny, SW {{convert\\|4\\|mph\\|km/h}}\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|referee\\=Tim O'Dey\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|TV\\=CBS\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|TVAnnouncers\\=Brad Nessler (play\\-by\\-play), Gary Danielson (color commentator), and Jenny Dell (sideline reporter)\n\t\t\t\t\t\\|reference\\= \n\t\t\t\t\t\\|scoring\\=\n\t\t\t\t\t;First quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* (12:07\\) Illinois – David Olano 47\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 7 plays, 46 yards, 2:53; '''Illinois 3–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t;Second quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* (11:35\\) Illinois – David Olano 32\\-yard field gold (''Drive: 5 plays, 24 yards, 2:37; '''Illinois 6–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* (7:53\\) Illinois – Tanner Arkin 2\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Luke Altmyer]] (David Olano kick) (''Drive: 7 plays, 51 yards, 3:04; '''Illinois 13–0''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* (1:40\\) Michigan – \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]] 1\\-yard run (\\[\\[Dominic Zvada]] kick) (''Drive: 12 plays, 72 yards, 6:07; '''Illinois 13–7''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t;Third quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\\* (9:16\\) Illinois – Luke Altmyer 1\\-yard run (Donovan Leary–\\[\\[Zakhari Franklin]] pass) (''Drive: 8 plays, 55 yards, 3:47; '''Illinois 21–7''''')\n\t\t\t\t\t;Fourth quarter\n\t\t\t\t\t\\*''No scoring plays''\n\t\t\t\t\t}}\n\t\t\t\t\tOn October 19, following its bye week, Michigan lost to [Illinois](/wiki/2024_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team \"2024 Illinois Fighting Illini football team\"), 21–7, at [Memorial Stadium](/wiki/Memorial_Stadium_%28University_of_Illinois%29 \"Memorial Stadium (University of Illinois)\") in [Champaign, Illinois](/wiki/Champaign%2C_Illinois \"Champaign, Illinois\"). Illinois wore [1924](/wiki/1924_Illinois_Fighting_Illini_football_team \"1924 Illinois Fighting Illini football team\") throwback uniforms to commemorate the 100th anniversary of [Red Grange](/wiki/Red_Grange \"Red Grange\")'s six\\-touchdown game against Michigan on the day Memorial Stadium was dedicated.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/10139920\\-why\\-illinois\\-will\\-wear\\-1920s\\-style\\-throwback\\-uniforms\\-leather\\-helmets\\-vs\\-michigan \\|title\\=Why Illinois Will Wear 1920s\\-Style Throwback Uniforms, Leather Helmets vs. Michigan \\|website\\=\\[\\[Bleacher Report]] \\|date\\=October 18, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=October 20, 2024}}", "On the opening drive of the game, Illinois drove 46 yards on seven plays, including a 29\\-yard run by Aidan Laughery, and took the lead on a 47\\-yard field goal by David Olano. Michigan punted on its first two possessions. On its third possession, quarterback [Jack Tuttle](/wiki/Jack_Tuttle_%28American_football%29 \"Jack Tuttle (American football)\") fumbled at Michigan's 25\\-yard line, setting up a 32\\-yard field goal by Olano. On Michigan's next possession, [Donovan Edwards](/wiki/Donovan_Edwards \"Donovan Edwards\") fumbled and Illinois recovered the ball at midfield. The Illini then drove 51 yards on seven plays, scoring on a two\\-yard touchdown pass from [Luke Altmyer](/wiki/Luke_Altmyer \"Luke Altmyer\") to Tanner Arkin. Trailing, 13\\-0, Michigan then drove 72 yards on 12 plays, including eight runs by [Kalel Mullings](/wiki/Kalel_Mullings \"Kalel Mullings\"), ending with a one\\-yard touchdown run by Mullings. Illinois drove 49 yards in the closing two minutes of the first half, but Olano's field\\-goal attempt from 44 yards was blocked by [Makari Paige](/wiki/Makari_Paige \"Makari Paige\"). Illinois led 13–7 at halftime.{{cite news\\|title\\=Recap: Michigan stays winless on road in 21\\-7 loss at Illinois\\|author\\=Kameron Goodwill\\|newspaper\\=The Detroit News\\|date\\=October 19, 2024\\|url\\=https://www.detroitnews.com/story/sports/college/university\\-michigan/2024/10/19/live\\-updates\\-michigan\\-wolverines\\-football\\-at\\-illinois\\-fighting\\-illini/75721566007/}}{{cite news\\|title\\=Michigan football offense looks completely broken in 21\\-7 spanking by Illinois\\|author\\=Tony Garcia\\|newspaper\\=Detroit Free Press\\|date\\=October 19, 2024\\|url\\=https://www.freep.com/story/sports/college/university\\-michigan/wolverines/2024/10/19/michigan\\-football\\-illinois\\-game\\-recap\\-week\\-8/75753260007/}}", "On the opening drive of the second half, Michgan was held to a [three\\-and\\-out](/wiki/Three-and-out \"Three-and-out\"). Illinois then drove 55 yards in eight plays, including a 36\\-yard run by Tanner Arkin on a fake punt, and ending with a one\\-yard touchdown run by Altmyer and a two\\-point conversion pass from Donovan Leary to [Zakhari Franklin](/wiki/Zakhari_Franklin \"Zakhari Franklin\"). Michigan's next two drives combined for 14:13 of game time, however, they failed to score any points due to a blocked 28\\-yard field goal try by [Dominic Zvada](/wiki/Dominic_Zvada \"Dominic Zvada\") and an interception thrown by Tuttle at the Illinois two\\-yard line. Michigan's offense was held scoreless by the Fighting Illini for the final 31:40 of the game. This was Illinois' first victory against Michigan since [2009](/wiki/2009_Michigan_Wolverines_football_team \"2009 Michigan Wolverines football team\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/19/football\\-michigan\\-suffers\\-road\\-loss\\-at\\-no\\-22\\-illinois \\|title\\=Michigan Suffers Road Loss at No. 22 Illinois \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|first1\\=Dave \\|last1\\=Ablauf \\|first2\\=Chad \\|last2\\=Shepard \\|date\\=October 19, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2024}}", "Michigan scored only seven points against an Illinois defense that gave up 49 points to [Purdue](/wiki/2024_Purdue_Boilermakers_football_team \"2024 Purdue Boilermakers football team\") one week earlier. It was Michigan's lowest point total since a 31\\-0 loss to [Notre Dame](/wiki/2014_Notre_Dame_Fighting_Irish_football_team \"2014 Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team\") in September 2014\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Michigan's Loss at Illinois Marks Lowest Point Total Since 2014 Notre Dame Game\\|publisher\\=SI.com\\|accessdate\\=October 20, 2024\\|url\\=https://www.si.com/college/notredame/football/michigan\\-loss\\-illinois\\-program\\-low\\-since\\-2014\\-notre\\-dame}} Quarterback Jack Tuttle made his first start of the season for Michigan and completed 20 of 32 passes for 208 yards (129 in the fourth quarter) with one interception and a fumble. Tuttle was also sacked five times.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://mgoblue.com/news/2024/10/19/football\\-postgame\\-notes\\-michigan\\-at\\-illinois \\|title\\=Postgame Notes: \\#22 Illinois 21, \\#24 Michigan 7 \\|publisher\\=CBS Interactive \\|work\\=MGoBlue.com \\|date\\=October 19, 2024 \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2024}} After the game, CBS broadcaster [Brian Jones](/wiki/Brian_Jones_%28American_football_linebacker%29 \"Brian Jones (American football linebacker)\") described Michigan's offense as \"pathetic\" and \"embarrassing\" and noted that Tuttle \"couldn't hit the side of a building.\"{{cite news\\|title\\=Michigan football ripped by CBS experts, fans after 'embarrassing' showing vs. Illinois\\|publisher\\=Yahoo! sports\\|date\\=October 19, 2024\\|author\\=Marlowe Alter\\|url\\=https://sports.yahoo.com/michigan\\-football\\-ripped\\-cbs\\-analysts\\-214011714\\.html}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Illinois Fighting Illini\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Illinois\n\\| VisFirsts \\= 20\n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= 70–322\n\\| VisRushing \\= 38–114\n\\| VisPassYds \\= 208\n\\| VisPassing \\= 20–32–1\n\\| VisTOP \\= 33:34\n\\| HomeFirsts \\= 18\n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= 57–267\n\\| HomeRushing \\= 38–187\n\\| HomePassYds \\= 80\n\\| HomePassing \\= 9–19–0\n\\| HomeTOP \\= 26:26\n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Illinois Fighting Illini\n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Illinois\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= y\n\\| VisPasser \\= \\[\\[Jack Tuttle (American football)\\|Jack Tuttle]]\n\\| VisPassStats \\= 20/32, 208 yards, 1 INT \n\\| VisRusher \\= \\[\\[Kalel Mullings]]\n\\| VisRushStats \\= 19 carries, 87 yards, 1 TD \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \\[\\[Colston Loveland]]\n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= 7 receptions, 83 yards \n\\| HomePasser \\= \\[\\[Luke Altmyer]]\n\\| HomePassStats \\= 9/18, 80 yards, 1 TD\n\\| HomeRusher \\= Aidan Laughery\n\\| HomeRushStats \\= 9 carries, 54 yards\n\\| HomeReceiver \\= Pat Bryant\n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= 4 receptions, 32 yards \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs Michigan State", "{{see also\\|2024 Michigan State Spartans football team\\|Michigan–Michigan State football rivalry}}\n{{Americanfootballbox\n\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\\|title\\=Michigan State Spartans (0–0\\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|October 26\\|Saturday}}\n\\|time\\=\n\\|road\\=Michigan State\n\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=0 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\\|home\\=Michigan\n\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=0 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\\|attendance\\=\n\\|weather\\=\n\\|referee\\=\n\\|TV\\=\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\n\\|reference\\=\n\\|scoring\\=\n}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan State Spartans\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= \n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= \n\\| VisRushing \\= \n\\| VisPassYds \\= \n\\| VisPassing \\= \n\\| VisTOP \\= \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= \n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= \n\\| HomeRushing \\= \n\\| HomePassYds \\= \n\\| HomePassing \\= \n\\| HomeTOP \\= \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan State Spartans\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan State\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \n\\| VisPassStats \\= \n\\| VisRusher \\= \n\\| VisRushStats \\= \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= \n\\| HomePasser \\= \n\\| HomePassStats \\= \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \n\\| HomeRushStats \\= \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs Oregon", "{{see also\\|2024 Oregon Ducks football team}}\n{{Americanfootballbox\n\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\\|title\\=Oregon Ducks (0–0\\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|November 2\\|Saturday}}\n\\|time\\=\n\\|road\\=Oregon\n\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=0 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\\|home\\=Michigan\n\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=0 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\\|attendance\\=\n\\|weather\\=\n\\|referee\\=\n\\|TV\\=\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\n\\|reference\\=\n\\|scoring\\=\n}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Oregon Ducks\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Oregon\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= \n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= \n\\| VisRushing \\= \n\\| VisPassYds \\= \n\\| VisPassing \\= \n\\| VisTOP \\= \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= \n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= \n\\| HomeRushing \\= \n\\| HomePassYds \\= \n\\| HomePassing \\= \n\\| HomeTOP \\= \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Oregon Ducks\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Oregon\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \n\\| VisPassStats \\= \n\\| VisRusher \\= \n\\| VisRushStats \\= \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= \n\\| HomePasser \\= \n\\| HomePassStats \\= \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \n\\| HomeRushStats \\= \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### at Indiana", "{{see also\\|2024 Indiana Hoosiers football team}}\n{{Americanfootballbox\n\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\\|title\\=Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) at Indiana Hoosiers (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|November 9\\|Saturday}}\n\\|time\\=\n\\|road\\=Michigan\n\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=0 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\\|home\\=Indiana\n\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=0 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Memorial Stadium (Bloomington)\\|Memorial Stadium]] • \\[\\[Bloomington, Indiana]]\n\\|attendance\\=\n\\|weather\\=\n\\|referee\\=\n\\|TV\\=\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\n\\|reference\\=\n\\|scoring\\=\n}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Indiana Hoosiers\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Indiana\n\\| VisFirsts \\= \n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= \n\\| VisRushing \\= \n\\| VisPassYds \\= \n\\| VisPassing \\= \n\\| VisTOP \\= \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= \n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= \n\\| HomeRushing \\= \n\\| HomePassYds \\= \n\\| HomePassing \\= \n\\| HomeTOP \\= \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Indiana Hoosiers\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Indiana\n\\| VisPasser \\= \n\\| VisPassStats \\= \n\\| VisRusher \\= \n\\| VisRushStats \\= \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= \n\\| HomePasser \\= \n\\| HomePassStats \\= \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \n\\| HomeRushStats \\= \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### vs Northwestern", "{{see also\\|2024 Northwestern Wildcats football team\\|George Jewett Trophy}}", "{{Americanfootballbox\n\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\\|title\\=Northwestern Wildcats (0–0\\) vs Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|November 23\\|Saturday}}\n\\|time\\=\n\\|road\\=Northwestern\n\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=0 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\\|home\\=Michigan\n\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=0 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]] • \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\\|attendance\\=\n\\|weather\\=\n\\|referee\\=\n\\|TV\\=\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\n\\|reference\\=\n\\|scoring\\=\n}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Northwestern Wildcats\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Northwestern\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisFirsts \\= \n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= \n\\| VisRushing \\= \n\\| VisPassYds \\= \n\\| VisPassing \\= \n\\| VisTOP \\= \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= \n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= \n\\| HomeRushing \\= \n\\| HomePassYds \\= \n\\| HomePassing \\= \n\\| HomeTOP \\= \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Northwestern Wildcats\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Northwestern\n\\| Home \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| VisPasser \\= \n\\| VisPassStats \\= \n\\| VisRusher \\= \n\\| VisRushStats \\= \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= \n\\| HomePasser \\= \n\\| HomePassStats \\= \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \n\\| HomeRushStats \\= \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "### at Ohio State", "{{see also\\|2024 Ohio State Buckeyes football team\\|Michigan–Ohio State football rivalry}}", "{{Americanfootballbox\n\\|titlestyle\\={{CollegePrimaryStyle\\|Michigan Wolverines}};text\\-align:center;\n\\|state\\=autocollapse\n\\|title\\=Michigan Wolverines (0–0\\) at Ohio State Buckeyes (0–0\\) – Game summary\n\\|date\\={{tooltip\\|November 30\\|Saturday}}\n\\|time\\= 12:00 p.m. ET\n\\|road\\=Michigan\n\\|R1\\=0 \\|R2\\=0 \\|R3\\=0 \\|R4\\=0\n\\|home\\=Ohio State\n\\|H1\\=0 \\|H2\\=0 \\|H3\\=0 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|stadium\\=\\[\\[Ohio Stadium]] • \\[\\[Columbus, Ohio]]\n\\|attendance\\=\n\\|weather\\=\n\\|referee\\=\n\\|TV\\=Fox\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=Gus Johnson (play\\-by\\-play), Joel Klatt (color commentator), Jenny Taft, and \\[\\[Tom Rinaldi]] (sideline reporters)\n\\|reference\\=\n\\|scoring\\=\n}}", "{{AmFootballGameStatistics\n\\| Float \\= left\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Ohio State Buckeyes\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Ohio State\n\\| VisFirsts \\= \n\\| VisPlaysYds \\= \n\\| VisRushing \\= \n\\| VisPassYds \\= \n\\| VisPassing \\= \n\\| VisTOP \\= \n\\| HomeFirsts \\= \n\\| HomePlaysYds \\= \n\\| HomeRushing \\= \n\\| HomePassYds \\= \n\\| HomePassing \\= \n\\| HomeTOP \\= \n}}\n{{AmFootballGameTopPlayers\n\\| Float \\= right\n\\| Visitor \\= Michigan Wolverines\n\\| VisitorDisplay \\= Michigan\n\\| Home \\= Ohio State Buckeyes\n\\| HomeAltColors \\= \n\\| HomeDisplay \\= Ohio State\n\\| VisPasser \\= \n\\| VisPassStats \\= \n\\| VisRusher \\= \n\\| VisRushStats \\= \n\\| VisReceiver \\= \n\\| VisReceivingStats \\= \n\\| HomePasser \\= \n\\| HomePassStats \\= \n\\| HomeRusher \\= \n\\| HomeRushStats \\= \n\\| HomeReceiver \\= \n\\| HomeReceivingStats \\= \n}}\n{{Clear}}", "" ]
Themes ------ ### Homoeroticism Edward and Gaveston's homoerotic relationship provides the backdrop for the play. When Gaveston plans to produce his masque, he describes "a lovely boy in Dian's shape... / And in his sportful hands an olive tree / To hide those parts which men delight to see" (1\.2\.60–63\). Gaveston is deeply aware of the theatre's ability to eroticize young male actors. The Queen feels jealous of Gaveston and Edward's relationship, noting: "For now my lord the king regards me not, / But dotes upon the love of Gaveston. / He claps his cheeks and hangs about his neck, / Smiles in his face and whispers in his ears" (1\.2\.49–52\). Much of the criticism on *Edward II* focuses on homoeroticism and power. For example, Emily Bartels's *Spectacles of Strangeness*—which focuses on how Marlowe depicts "others" and how that depiction exposes "demonization of the other as a strategy for self\-authorization and self\-empowerment"—has a chapter on *Edward II* entitled "The Show of Sodomy".{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=XV}} In this chapter, Bartels focuses on how sodomy is politicized, exposed and defined, stating, "In Marlowe, sodomy is finally neither unseeable nor unspeakable. Rather it is exposed as a subject obscured and displayed as beyond display by those who would maintain a hegemonic hold over 'what the matter meant.'"{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=145}} In order to show how sodomy works in Marlowe's plays, Bartels places particular attention to the tension between how sodomy is hidden in the play and then sanctioned as the means of killing Edward.{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=143\-173}} Bartels pays close attention to the fact that Lightborn's murder of the king leaves no marks on his body.{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=143\-173}} She concludes that "sodomical leanings...are not politically corrupt. Though largely unspoken, they are not unspeakable."{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=172}} Sodomy was not a clearly defined act in the early modern period. Jonathan Goldberg asserts that sodomy was "invisible so long as homosexual acts failed to connect with the much more visible signs of social disruption represented by unorthodox religious or social positions".Goldberg, Jonathan. "Sodomy and Society: The Case of Cristopher Marlowe", *Staging the Renaissance: Reinterpretations of Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama*. Edited by David Kastan and Peter Stallybrass, Routledge, 1991\. David Stymeist reconciles two opposing critical approaches to *Edward II*—one that views the play as subversive towards sexual norms and one that upholds sexual norms—by paying attention to how the play presents alternative sexuality and how it punishes sexual transgressions. The spatial difference between Ireland and England is the significance of how much Edward's state wanted Gaveston gone, but at the same time, if Gaveston travels such distance to see the King, it puts a big spotlight on their desire to see one another and their intimacy.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Stanivukovic\|first1\=Goran\|last2\=Goodwin\|first2\=Adrian\|date\=2017\-02\-23\|title\=Gaveston in Ireland: Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and the casting of queer brotherhood\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/0950236X.2016\.1191532\|journal\=Textual Practice\|volume\=31\|issue\=2\|pages\=379–397\|doi\=10\.1080/0950236X.2016\.1191532\|s2cid\=156255332\|issn\=0950\-236X}} #### Queer brotherhood Queer brotherhood specifically refers to the sexual brotherhood intertwined with the political aspects of Ireland and England. In *Edward II*, Ireland is a place that accepts sexual brotherhood, and it is the only place, outside of England, that exposes male bonds and extreme homoerotic scenes. The relationship between Gaveston and Edward is interconnected with the political aspects of Ireland and England. Edward referring to Gaveston as a 'Brother' shows the intimacy between the two rather than just calling him a 'Friend'. #### Homophobia Homophobia is represented by the banishment of Gaveston by deceased king Edward I for being a bad influence on King Edward II.{{Cite journal\|last\=Comensoli\|first\=Viviana\|date\=1993\|title\=Homophobia and the Regulation of Desire: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Marlowe's "Edward II"\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704287\|journal\=Journal of the History of Sexuality\|volume\=4\|issue\=2\|pages\=175–200\|jstor\=3704287\|issn\=1043\-4070}} Mortimer describes Gaveston as someone who corrupts, dishonors and shames the court of the King, thus showing the homophobia of the state.{{Cite journal\|last\=Stymeist\|first\=David\|date\=2004\|title\=Status, Sodomy, and the Theater in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\|journal\=\[\[SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900]]\|volume\=44\|issue\=2\|pages\=233–253\|doi\=10\.1353/sel.2004\.0022\|s2cid\=161120617\|issn\=1522\-9270}} Mortimer's homophobia is possibly rooted from his loyalty to deceased king Edward I, whom he sees as a father figure of the kingdom. Mortimer constantly threatens to kill Gaveston because of his fear of homosexuality. Mortimer has an obsession with his sword, which is associated with a fear of castration as a punishment for sodomy and homosexuality. Throughout the play, Mortimer insults Gaveston as a form of homophobic violence (and he does eventually kill Gaveston and Edward II); it's also possible that his extreme violence is rooted from his repressed homosexuality and his fear of feminization.{{Cite journal\|last\=Jonathan Crewe\|date\=2009\|title\=Disorderly Love: Sodomy Revisited in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1353/crt.0\.0111\|journal\=Criticism\|volume\=51\|issue\=3\|pages\=385–399\|doi\=10\.1353/crt.0\.0111\|issn\=1536\-0342}} In other words, Mortimer is desperately trying to get rid of people, Gaveston, Edward and Spencer(s), who trigger his homoerotic impulses. The method with which Edward II is assassinated, a hot poker through his anus, is a symbolic death of homophobia of both the state and Mortimer. How Edward II is tortured and killed in the sewer of his castle is symbolic to sodomy and homophobia. The barons, on the other hand, have a fear of sodomy being a threat to a heterosexual relationship between the queen and the king. ### Religion *Edward II* presents tension between the church and the state. When Edward and Gaveston strip the Bishop of Coventry of his lands and possessions, they joke subversively about religious traditions. Edward and Gaveston mock the Bishop as they attack him. Before the play takes place, the Bishop advocates for Gaveston's exile. As Edward and Gaveston attack the Bishop, they mock Catholic symbols as they assert their power over the Bishop: > {{dialogue > \|Gaveston\|Saving your reverence, you must pardon me. \| action\|He lays hold of him. > \|Edward\|Throw off his golden mitre, rend his stole, > And in the channel christen him anew.}} > {{0\|—}}(1\.1\.185–189\) Edward and Gaveston attack the symbols of the church—baptisms, pardons and church attire—to humiliate the Bishop. After Edward allows Gaveston to take the Bishop's possessions, Gaveston states, "A prison may beseem his holiness" (1\.1\.206\). Later in the play, the Archbishop of Canterbury threatens to "discharge these lords / Of duty and allegiance to \[Edward]", and Edward asks, "Why should a king be subject to a priest?" (1\.4\.61–62, 96\). In her essay "Marlowe, History, and Politics", Paulina Kewes asserts that *Edward II* uses religious history to comment on politics: "Marlowe...\[invites] the audience to consider the contingent religious colouring of the conflict between the crown and the nobility...Marlowe's target is the widespread use of religion to justify political heterodoxy.""Marlowe, History, and Politics." Kewes, Paulina. *Christopher Marlowe in Context*, edited by Emily Bartels and Emma Simth, Cambridge University Press, 2013\. pp. 138–154\. ### Social status *Edward II* is a play that is deeply aware of social status and its relationship to birthrights. Mortimer is deeply resentful of Gaveston's social mobility and repeatedly claims that Gaveston is "hardly a gentleman by birth" (1\.4\.29\). Later, when Mortimer Senior asserts that "the mightiest kings have had their minions" (1\.4\.390\), Mortimer responds that Gaveston's "wanton humour grieves \[him] not, but this \[he scorns], that one so basely born / Should by his sovereign's favour grow so pert / And riot it with the treasure of the realm" (1\.4\.401–404\). The nobility's treatment of Spencer and Spencer Senior mirrors their treatment of Gaveston. When Spencer and Lancaster start arguing about treason, Pembroke responds by calling Spencer a "base upstart" (3\.3\.21\). The nobility also call Spencer a flatterer multiple times. However, in *Edward II*, social mobility, social status, and power come with consequences. [Clifford Leech](/wiki/Clifford_Leech "Clifford Leech") shows how the play ties together themes of power, social status, and suffering, stating, "In *Tamburlaine* \[Marlowe] had already contemplated power, and saw the spectacle inevitably involved suffering. Here the suffering, still consequential on the exercise and the dream of power, is the major fact."[Leech, Clifford](/wiki/Clifford_Leech "Clifford Leech"). "Marlowe's 'Edward II': Power and Suffering." *[Critical Quarterly](/wiki/Critical_Quarterly "Critical Quarterly")*, vol. 1\. Spring 1959\. pp. 181–197 Leech notes that each of the characters who strives for power or holds a powerful position in the play—Edward, Gaveston, the Queen and Mortimer—each meets a tragic end as they vie for power
[ "Themes\n------", "### Homoeroticism", "Edward and Gaveston's homoerotic relationship provides the backdrop for the play. When Gaveston plans to produce his masque, he describes \"a lovely boy in Dian's shape... / And in his sportful hands an olive tree / To hide those parts which men delight to see\" (1\\.2\\.60–63\\). Gaveston is deeply aware of the theatre's ability to eroticize young male actors. The Queen feels jealous of Gaveston and Edward's relationship, noting: \"For now my lord the king regards me not, / But dotes upon the love of Gaveston. / He claps his cheeks and hangs about his neck, / Smiles in his face and whispers in his ears\" (1\\.2\\.49–52\\).", "Much of the criticism on *Edward II* focuses on homoeroticism and power. For example, Emily Bartels's *Spectacles of Strangeness*—which focuses on how Marlowe depicts \"others\" and how that depiction exposes \"demonization of the other as a strategy for self\\-authorization and self\\-empowerment\"—has a chapter on *Edward II* entitled \"The Show of Sodomy\".{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=XV}} In this chapter, Bartels focuses on how sodomy is politicized, exposed and defined, stating, \"In Marlowe, sodomy is finally neither unseeable nor unspeakable. Rather it is exposed as a subject obscured and displayed as beyond display by those who would maintain a hegemonic hold over 'what the matter meant.'\"{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=145}} In order to show how sodomy works in Marlowe's plays, Bartels places particular attention to the tension between how sodomy is hidden in the play and then sanctioned as the means of killing Edward.{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=143\\-173}} Bartels pays close attention to the fact that Lightborn's murder of the king leaves no marks on his body.{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=143\\-173}} She concludes that \"sodomical leanings...are not politically corrupt. Though largely unspoken, they are not unspeakable.\"{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=172}}", "Sodomy was not a clearly defined act in the early modern period. Jonathan Goldberg asserts that sodomy was \"invisible so long as homosexual acts failed to connect with the much more visible signs of social disruption represented by unorthodox religious or social positions\".Goldberg, Jonathan. \"Sodomy and Society: The Case of Cristopher Marlowe\", *Staging the Renaissance: Reinterpretations of Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama*. Edited by David Kastan and Peter Stallybrass, Routledge, 1991\\. David Stymeist reconciles two opposing critical approaches to *Edward II*—one that views the play as subversive towards sexual norms and one that upholds sexual norms—by paying attention to how the play presents alternative sexuality and how it punishes sexual transgressions.", "The spatial difference between Ireland and England is the significance of how much Edward's state wanted Gaveston gone, but at the same time, if Gaveston travels such distance to see the King, it puts a big spotlight on their desire to see one another and their intimacy.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Stanivukovic\\|first1\\=Goran\\|last2\\=Goodwin\\|first2\\=Adrian\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-23\\|title\\=Gaveston in Ireland: Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and the casting of queer brotherhood\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/0950236X.2016\\.1191532\\|journal\\=Textual Practice\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=379–397\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/0950236X.2016\\.1191532\\|s2cid\\=156255332\\|issn\\=0950\\-236X}}", "#### Queer brotherhood", "Queer brotherhood specifically refers to the sexual brotherhood intertwined with the political aspects of Ireland and England. In *Edward II*, Ireland is a place that accepts sexual brotherhood, and it is the only place, outside of England, that exposes male bonds and extreme homoerotic scenes. The relationship between Gaveston and Edward is interconnected with the political aspects of Ireland and England. Edward referring to Gaveston as a 'Brother' shows the intimacy between the two rather than just calling him a 'Friend'.", "#### Homophobia", "Homophobia is represented by the banishment of Gaveston by deceased king Edward I for being a bad influence on King Edward II.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Comensoli\\|first\\=Viviana\\|date\\=1993\\|title\\=Homophobia and the Regulation of Desire: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Marlowe's \"Edward II\"\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704287\\|journal\\=Journal of the History of Sexuality\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=175–200\\|jstor\\=3704287\\|issn\\=1043\\-4070}} Mortimer describes Gaveston as someone who corrupts, dishonors and shames the court of the King, thus showing the homophobia of the state.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Stymeist\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=2004\\|title\\=Status, Sodomy, and the Theater in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\\|journal\\=\\[\\[SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900]]\\|volume\\=44\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=233–253\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/sel.2004\\.0022\\|s2cid\\=161120617\\|issn\\=1522\\-9270}} Mortimer's homophobia is possibly rooted from his loyalty to deceased king Edward I, whom he sees as a father figure of the kingdom. Mortimer constantly threatens to kill Gaveston because of his fear of homosexuality. Mortimer has an obsession with his sword, which is associated with a fear of castration as a punishment for sodomy and homosexuality. Throughout the play, Mortimer insults Gaveston as a form of homophobic violence (and he does eventually kill Gaveston and Edward II); it's also possible that his extreme violence is rooted from his repressed homosexuality and his fear of feminization.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Jonathan Crewe\\|date\\=2009\\|title\\=Disorderly Love: Sodomy Revisited in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1353/crt.0\\.0111\\|journal\\=Criticism\\|volume\\=51\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=385–399\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/crt.0\\.0111\\|issn\\=1536\\-0342}} In other words, Mortimer is desperately trying to get rid of people, Gaveston, Edward and Spencer(s), who trigger his homoerotic impulses. The method with which Edward II is assassinated, a hot poker through his anus, is a symbolic death of homophobia of both the state and Mortimer. How Edward II is tortured and killed in the sewer of his castle is symbolic to sodomy and homophobia.", "The barons, on the other hand, have a fear of sodomy being a threat to a heterosexual relationship between the queen and the king.", "### Religion", "*Edward II* presents tension between the church and the state. When Edward and Gaveston strip the Bishop of Coventry of his lands and possessions, they joke subversively about religious traditions. Edward and Gaveston mock the Bishop as they attack him. Before the play takes place, the Bishop advocates for Gaveston's exile. As Edward and Gaveston attack the Bishop, they mock Catholic symbols as they assert their power over the Bishop:", "> {{dialogue\n> \\|Gaveston\\|Saving your reverence, you must pardon me. \\| action\\|He lays hold of him.\n> \\|Edward\\|Throw off his golden mitre, rend his stole, \n> And in the channel christen him anew.}} \n> {{0\\|—}}(1\\.1\\.185–189\\)", "", "Edward and Gaveston attack the symbols of the church—baptisms, pardons and church attire—to humiliate the Bishop. After Edward allows Gaveston to take the Bishop's possessions, Gaveston states, \"A prison may beseem his holiness\" (1\\.1\\.206\\). Later in the play, the Archbishop of Canterbury threatens to \"discharge these lords / Of duty and allegiance to \\[Edward]\", and Edward asks, \"Why should a king be subject to a priest?\" (1\\.4\\.61–62, 96\\). In her essay \"Marlowe, History, and Politics\", Paulina Kewes asserts that *Edward II* uses religious history to comment on politics: \"Marlowe...\\[invites] the audience to consider the contingent religious colouring of the conflict between the crown and the nobility...Marlowe's target is the widespread use of religion to justify political heterodoxy.\"\"Marlowe, History, and Politics.\" Kewes, Paulina. *Christopher Marlowe in Context*, edited by Emily Bartels and Emma Simth, Cambridge University Press, 2013\\. pp. 138–154\\.", "### Social status", "*Edward II* is a play that is deeply aware of social status and its relationship to birthrights. Mortimer is deeply resentful of Gaveston's social mobility and repeatedly claims that Gaveston is \"hardly a gentleman by birth\" (1\\.4\\.29\\). Later, when Mortimer Senior asserts that \"the mightiest kings have had their minions\" (1\\.4\\.390\\), Mortimer responds that Gaveston's \"wanton humour grieves \\[him] not, but this \\[he scorns], that one so basely born / Should by his sovereign's favour grow so pert / And riot it with the treasure of the realm\" (1\\.4\\.401–404\\). The nobility's treatment of Spencer and Spencer Senior mirrors their treatment of Gaveston. When Spencer and Lancaster start arguing about treason, Pembroke responds by calling Spencer a \"base upstart\" (3\\.3\\.21\\). The nobility also call Spencer a flatterer multiple times. However, in *Edward II*, social mobility, social status, and power come with consequences. [Clifford Leech](/wiki/Clifford_Leech \"Clifford Leech\") shows how the play ties together themes of power, social status, and suffering, stating, \"In *Tamburlaine* \\[Marlowe] had already contemplated power, and saw the spectacle inevitably involved suffering. Here the suffering, still consequential on the exercise and the dream of power, is the major fact.\"[Leech, Clifford](/wiki/Clifford_Leech \"Clifford Leech\"). \"Marlowe's 'Edward II': Power and Suffering.\" *[Critical Quarterly](/wiki/Critical_Quarterly \"Critical Quarterly\")*, vol. 1\\. Spring 1959\\. pp. 181–197 Leech notes that each of the characters who strives for power or holds a powerful position in the play—Edward, Gaveston, the Queen and Mortimer—each meets a tragic end as they vie for power", "" ]
### Homoeroticism Edward and Gaveston's homoerotic relationship provides the backdrop for the play. When Gaveston plans to produce his masque, he describes "a lovely boy in Dian's shape... / And in his sportful hands an olive tree / To hide those parts which men delight to see" (1\.2\.60–63\). Gaveston is deeply aware of the theatre's ability to eroticize young male actors. The Queen feels jealous of Gaveston and Edward's relationship, noting: "For now my lord the king regards me not, / But dotes upon the love of Gaveston. / He claps his cheeks and hangs about his neck, / Smiles in his face and whispers in his ears" (1\.2\.49–52\). Much of the criticism on *Edward II* focuses on homoeroticism and power. For example, Emily Bartels's *Spectacles of Strangeness*—which focuses on how Marlowe depicts "others" and how that depiction exposes "demonization of the other as a strategy for self\-authorization and self\-empowerment"—has a chapter on *Edward II* entitled "The Show of Sodomy".{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=XV}} In this chapter, Bartels focuses on how sodomy is politicized, exposed and defined, stating, "In Marlowe, sodomy is finally neither unseeable nor unspeakable. Rather it is exposed as a subject obscured and displayed as beyond display by those who would maintain a hegemonic hold over 'what the matter meant.'"{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=145}} In order to show how sodomy works in Marlowe's plays, Bartels places particular attention to the tension between how sodomy is hidden in the play and then sanctioned as the means of killing Edward.{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=143\-173}} Bartels pays close attention to the fact that Lightborn's murder of the king leaves no marks on his body.{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=143\-173}} She concludes that "sodomical leanings...are not politically corrupt. Though largely unspoken, they are not unspeakable."{{sfn\|Bartels\|1993\|p\=172}} Sodomy was not a clearly defined act in the early modern period. Jonathan Goldberg asserts that sodomy was "invisible so long as homosexual acts failed to connect with the much more visible signs of social disruption represented by unorthodox religious or social positions".Goldberg, Jonathan. "Sodomy and Society: The Case of Cristopher Marlowe", *Staging the Renaissance: Reinterpretations of Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama*. Edited by David Kastan and Peter Stallybrass, Routledge, 1991\. David Stymeist reconciles two opposing critical approaches to *Edward II*—one that views the play as subversive towards sexual norms and one that upholds sexual norms—by paying attention to how the play presents alternative sexuality and how it punishes sexual transgressions. The spatial difference between Ireland and England is the significance of how much Edward's state wanted Gaveston gone, but at the same time, if Gaveston travels such distance to see the King, it puts a big spotlight on their desire to see one another and their intimacy.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Stanivukovic\|first1\=Goran\|last2\=Goodwin\|first2\=Adrian\|date\=2017\-02\-23\|title\=Gaveston in Ireland: Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and the casting of queer brotherhood\|url\=https://doi.org/10\.1080/0950236X.2016\.1191532\|journal\=Textual Practice\|volume\=31\|issue\=2\|pages\=379–397\|doi\=10\.1080/0950236X.2016\.1191532\|s2cid\=156255332\|issn\=0950\-236X}} #### Queer brotherhood Queer brotherhood specifically refers to the sexual brotherhood intertwined with the political aspects of Ireland and England. In *Edward II*, Ireland is a place that accepts sexual brotherhood, and it is the only place, outside of England, that exposes male bonds and extreme homoerotic scenes. The relationship between Gaveston and Edward is interconnected with the political aspects of Ireland and England. Edward referring to Gaveston as a 'Brother' shows the intimacy between the two rather than just calling him a 'Friend'. #### Homophobia Homophobia is represented by the banishment of Gaveston by deceased king Edward I for being a bad influence on King Edward II.{{Cite journal\|last\=Comensoli\|first\=Viviana\|date\=1993\|title\=Homophobia and the Regulation of Desire: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Marlowe's "Edward II"\|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704287\|journal\=Journal of the History of Sexuality\|volume\=4\|issue\=2\|pages\=175–200\|jstor\=3704287\|issn\=1043\-4070}} Mortimer describes Gaveston as someone who corrupts, dishonors and shames the court of the King, thus showing the homophobia of the state.{{Cite journal\|last\=Stymeist\|first\=David\|date\=2004\|title\=Status, Sodomy, and the Theater in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\|journal\=\[\[SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900]]\|volume\=44\|issue\=2\|pages\=233–253\|doi\=10\.1353/sel.2004\.0022\|s2cid\=161120617\|issn\=1522\-9270}} Mortimer's homophobia is possibly rooted from his loyalty to deceased king Edward I, whom he sees as a father figure of the kingdom. Mortimer constantly threatens to kill Gaveston because of his fear of homosexuality. Mortimer has an obsession with his sword, which is associated with a fear of castration as a punishment for sodomy and homosexuality. Throughout the play, Mortimer insults Gaveston as a form of homophobic violence (and he does eventually kill Gaveston and Edward II); it's also possible that his extreme violence is rooted from his repressed homosexuality and his fear of feminization.{{Cite journal\|last\=Jonathan Crewe\|date\=2009\|title\=Disorderly Love: Sodomy Revisited in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.1353/crt.0\.0111\|journal\=Criticism\|volume\=51\|issue\=3\|pages\=385–399\|doi\=10\.1353/crt.0\.0111\|issn\=1536\-0342}} In other words, Mortimer is desperately trying to get rid of people, Gaveston, Edward and Spencer(s), who trigger his homoerotic impulses. The method with which Edward II is assassinated, a hot poker through his anus, is a symbolic death of homophobia of both the state and Mortimer. How Edward II is tortured and killed in the sewer of his castle is symbolic to sodomy and homophobia. The barons, on the other hand, have a fear of sodomy being a threat to a heterosexual relationship between the queen and the king.
[ "### Homoeroticism", "Edward and Gaveston's homoerotic relationship provides the backdrop for the play. When Gaveston plans to produce his masque, he describes \"a lovely boy in Dian's shape... / And in his sportful hands an olive tree / To hide those parts which men delight to see\" (1\\.2\\.60–63\\). Gaveston is deeply aware of the theatre's ability to eroticize young male actors. The Queen feels jealous of Gaveston and Edward's relationship, noting: \"For now my lord the king regards me not, / But dotes upon the love of Gaveston. / He claps his cheeks and hangs about his neck, / Smiles in his face and whispers in his ears\" (1\\.2\\.49–52\\).", "Much of the criticism on *Edward II* focuses on homoeroticism and power. For example, Emily Bartels's *Spectacles of Strangeness*—which focuses on how Marlowe depicts \"others\" and how that depiction exposes \"demonization of the other as a strategy for self\\-authorization and self\\-empowerment\"—has a chapter on *Edward II* entitled \"The Show of Sodomy\".{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=XV}} In this chapter, Bartels focuses on how sodomy is politicized, exposed and defined, stating, \"In Marlowe, sodomy is finally neither unseeable nor unspeakable. Rather it is exposed as a subject obscured and displayed as beyond display by those who would maintain a hegemonic hold over 'what the matter meant.'\"{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=145}} In order to show how sodomy works in Marlowe's plays, Bartels places particular attention to the tension between how sodomy is hidden in the play and then sanctioned as the means of killing Edward.{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=143\\-173}} Bartels pays close attention to the fact that Lightborn's murder of the king leaves no marks on his body.{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=143\\-173}} She concludes that \"sodomical leanings...are not politically corrupt. Though largely unspoken, they are not unspeakable.\"{{sfn\\|Bartels\\|1993\\|p\\=172}}", "Sodomy was not a clearly defined act in the early modern period. Jonathan Goldberg asserts that sodomy was \"invisible so long as homosexual acts failed to connect with the much more visible signs of social disruption represented by unorthodox religious or social positions\".Goldberg, Jonathan. \"Sodomy and Society: The Case of Cristopher Marlowe\", *Staging the Renaissance: Reinterpretations of Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama*. Edited by David Kastan and Peter Stallybrass, Routledge, 1991\\. David Stymeist reconciles two opposing critical approaches to *Edward II*—one that views the play as subversive towards sexual norms and one that upholds sexual norms—by paying attention to how the play presents alternative sexuality and how it punishes sexual transgressions.", "The spatial difference between Ireland and England is the significance of how much Edward's state wanted Gaveston gone, but at the same time, if Gaveston travels such distance to see the King, it puts a big spotlight on their desire to see one another and their intimacy.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Stanivukovic\\|first1\\=Goran\\|last2\\=Goodwin\\|first2\\=Adrian\\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-23\\|title\\=Gaveston in Ireland: Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and the casting of queer brotherhood\\|url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1080/0950236X.2016\\.1191532\\|journal\\=Textual Practice\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=379–397\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/0950236X.2016\\.1191532\\|s2cid\\=156255332\\|issn\\=0950\\-236X}}", "#### Queer brotherhood", "Queer brotherhood specifically refers to the sexual brotherhood intertwined with the political aspects of Ireland and England. In *Edward II*, Ireland is a place that accepts sexual brotherhood, and it is the only place, outside of England, that exposes male bonds and extreme homoerotic scenes. The relationship between Gaveston and Edward is interconnected with the political aspects of Ireland and England. Edward referring to Gaveston as a 'Brother' shows the intimacy between the two rather than just calling him a 'Friend'.", "#### Homophobia", "Homophobia is represented by the banishment of Gaveston by deceased king Edward I for being a bad influence on King Edward II.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Comensoli\\|first\\=Viviana\\|date\\=1993\\|title\\=Homophobia and the Regulation of Desire: A Psychoanalytic Reading of Marlowe's \"Edward II\"\\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704287\\|journal\\=Journal of the History of Sexuality\\|volume\\=4\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=175–200\\|jstor\\=3704287\\|issn\\=1043\\-4070}} Mortimer describes Gaveston as someone who corrupts, dishonors and shames the court of the King, thus showing the homophobia of the state.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Stymeist\\|first\\=David\\|date\\=2004\\|title\\=Status, Sodomy, and the Theater in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\\|journal\\=\\[\\[SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900]]\\|volume\\=44\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=233–253\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/sel.2004\\.0022\\|s2cid\\=161120617\\|issn\\=1522\\-9270}} Mortimer's homophobia is possibly rooted from his loyalty to deceased king Edward I, whom he sees as a father figure of the kingdom. Mortimer constantly threatens to kill Gaveston because of his fear of homosexuality. Mortimer has an obsession with his sword, which is associated with a fear of castration as a punishment for sodomy and homosexuality. Throughout the play, Mortimer insults Gaveston as a form of homophobic violence (and he does eventually kill Gaveston and Edward II); it's also possible that his extreme violence is rooted from his repressed homosexuality and his fear of feminization.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Jonathan Crewe\\|date\\=2009\\|title\\=Disorderly Love: Sodomy Revisited in Marlowe's ''Edward II''\\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.1353/crt.0\\.0111\\|journal\\=Criticism\\|volume\\=51\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=385–399\\|doi\\=10\\.1353/crt.0\\.0111\\|issn\\=1536\\-0342}} In other words, Mortimer is desperately trying to get rid of people, Gaveston, Edward and Spencer(s), who trigger his homoerotic impulses. The method with which Edward II is assassinated, a hot poker through his anus, is a symbolic death of homophobia of both the state and Mortimer. How Edward II is tortured and killed in the sewer of his castle is symbolic to sodomy and homophobia.", "The barons, on the other hand, have a fear of sodomy being a threat to a heterosexual relationship between the queen and the king.", "" ]
Stage history and adaptations ----------------------------- According to [Andrew Gurr](/wiki/Andrew_Gurr "Andrew Gurr"), the first\-known performance of *Edward II* was in 1592 by the [Earl of Pembroke's Men](/wiki/Earl_of_Pembroke%27s_Men "Earl of Pembroke's Men"), possibly at the Theatre.[Gurr, Andrew](/wiki/Andrew_Gurr "Andrew Gurr"). *The Shakespearean Stage 1574\-1642*. Cambridge University Press, 2009 Roslyn Knutson has speculated on the original performance for *Edward II*. In her essay, "Marlowe, Company Ownership, and the Role of Edward II", she argues that *Edward II* was written for Edward Alleyn and Strange's Men; however, Pembroke's Men performed *Edward II* with [Richard Burbage](/wiki/Richard_Burbage "Richard Burbage") (the most prominent actor in [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare")'s playing company) as Edward.Knutson, Roslyn. "Marlowe, Company Ownership, and the Role of Edward II." *Medieval \& Renaissance England, Vol. 18\. (2005\)* Rosemont Publishing \& Printing Corp DBA Associate University Press, 2005\. pp. 37–46 Knutson uses the number of lines assigned to players, Marlowe's familiarity to the different play companies, and the role of Isabella to provide evidence for her argument. She concludes that Burbage's performance in *Edward II* influenced how Shakespeare designed roles for Burbage. The first [quarto](/wiki/Quarto "Quarto") of 1594 states that the play had been performed by the Earl of Pembroke's Men. According to [E. K. Chambers](/wiki/E._K._Chambers "E. K. Chambers"), *Edward II* was one of three plays sold to booksellers—along with *The Taming of a Shrew* and *The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York*—and was probably the only one of those three not worked on by Shakespeare.{{Cite book\|title\=The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. II\|last\=Chambers\|first\=E. K.\|author\-link\=E. K. Chambers\|location\=Oxford\|publisher\=Clarendon Press\|year\=1951\|pages\=128–129}} Mathew Martin argues that the Roger Barnes's 1612 version of *Edward II*—while traditionally seen as a corrupt publishing of the play—reveals how the play was received in Jacobean England and how the play was revised to draw attention to King James's controversial promotion of male favorites.Martin, Mathew. "Accidents Happen: Roger Barnes's 1612 Edition of Marlowe's 'Edward II'." *Early Theatre*, Vol.16\.No.1\., 2003\. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/43499695> The title page of the 1622 edition states that the play was performed by [Queen Anne's Men](/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Men "Queen Anne's Men") at the [Red Bull Theatre](/wiki/Red_Bull_Theatre "Red Bull Theatre"), showing that *Edward II* was still in the active repertory well into the seventeenth century.Chambers, Vol. 3, p. 425\. Since the twentieth century, the play has been revived several times, usually in such a way as to make explicit Edward's [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality "Homosexuality"). Marlowe's play was revived in November 1961 in a student performance at the [University of Nottingham](/wiki/University_of_Nottingham "University of Nottingham").Taken from the Nottingham University Dramatic Society programme A 1969 production directed by [Clifford Williams](/wiki/Clifford_Williams_%28actor%29 "Clifford Williams (actor)") for Theatre Toronto featured prominent Stratford Festival actors, including [William Hutt](/wiki/William_Hutt_%28actor%29 "William Hutt (actor)") as Edward II and [Richard Monette](/wiki/Richard_Monette "Richard Monette") as Gaveston.[Archives of the Royal Alexandra Theatre](https://www.mirvish.com/ticket-info/show-archives/edward-ii-1969) It was frequently revived in the 1970s. The [Prospect Theatre Company](/wiki/Prospect_Theatre_Company "Prospect Theatre Company")'s production of the play, starring [Ian McKellen](/wiki/Ian_McKellen "Ian McKellen") and [James Laurenson](/wiki/James_Laurenson "James Laurenson"), caused a sensation when it was broadcast by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") during the 1970s (as it included the first gay kiss transmitted on British television). In 1975 the play was performed on Broadway with [Norman Snow](/wiki/Norman_Snow "Norman Snow") as King Edward, [Patti LuPone](/wiki/Patti_LuPone "Patti LuPone") as Prince Edward, [David Schramm](/wiki/David_Schramm_%28actor%29 "David Schramm (actor)") as Kent, and [Peter Dvorsky](/wiki/Peter_Dvorsky_%28actor%29 "Peter Dvorsky (actor)") as Gaveston. In 1977, the 26\-episode [BBC](/wiki/BBC "BBC") [radio drama](/wiki/Radio_drama "Radio drama") *Vivat Rex* included an abridged version of the play as its first two episodes. [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt "John Hurt") portrayed Edward.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/radio4/entries/a2a97dec\-79e2\-3da4\-8379\-c8e2335fa5da\|title\=Radio 4Extra: Vivat Rex\|date\=2012\-04\-27\|website\=BBC\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2019\-07\-10}} In 1986, [Nicholas Hytner](/wiki/Nicholas_Hytner "Nicholas Hytner") directed a production at the [Royal Exchange, Manchester](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_Manchester "Royal Exchange, Manchester") with [Ian McDiarmid](/wiki/Ian_McDiarmid "Ian McDiarmid"), [Michael Grandage](/wiki/Michael_Grandage "Michael Grandage"), [Iain Glen](/wiki/Iain_Glen "Iain Glen") and [Duncan Bell](/wiki/Duncan_Bell_%28actor%29 "Duncan Bell (actor)").{{Cite thesis\|title\=A performance history of Christopher Marlowe's Edward II on the British stage and screen from 1903\-1991\|url\=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/13720\|date\=1998\|degree\=Thesis\|language\=en\-US\|first\=Dawn Michelle\|last\=Scovell}} Numerous other productions followed, starring actors such as [Simon Russell Beale](/wiki/Simon_Russell_Beale "Simon Russell Beale") and [Joseph Fiennes](/wiki/Joseph_Fiennes "Joseph Fiennes"). In 1991, the play was adapted into a [film](/wiki/Edward_II_%28film%29 "Edward II (film)") by [Derek Jarman](/wiki/Derek_Jarman "Derek Jarman") which used modern costumes and made overt reference to the [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights "Gay rights") movement and the [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots "Stonewall riots").{{Cite magazine\|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\-reviews/edward\-ii\-101463/\|title\=Edward II\|last\=Travers\|first\=Peter\|date\=20 March 1992\|magazine\=Rolling Stone}} In 1995 a [ballet adaptation](/wiki/Edward_II_%28ballet%29 "Edward II (ballet)") was created for [Stuttgart Ballet](/wiki/Stuttgart_Ballet "Stuttgart Ballet"). The [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.")'s [Shakespeare Theatre Company](/wiki/Shakespeare_Theatre_Company "Shakespeare Theatre Company") 2007 staging used mostly fascist\-era and jazz\-age costumes. The production strongly emphasized the gay relationship between Edward II and Gaveston and was one of two Marlowe works inaugurating the company's new [Sidney Harman Hall](/wiki/Sidney_Harman_Hall "Sidney Harman Hall").{{Cite web\|title\=Edward II 07\-08\|url\=https://www.shakespearetheatre.org/events/edward\-ii\-07\-08/\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-08\|website\=Shakespeare Theatre Company\|language\=en}} In 2011, EM\-LOU Productions staged the play at [The Rose Theatre](/wiki/The_Rose_Theatre "The Rose Theatre"), Bankside, returning it for the first time in 400 years to the space where it may have had its very first production. The production was directed by Peter Darney.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2019}} In October 2013, the [New National Theatre Tokyo](/wiki/New_National_Theatre_Tokyo "New National Theatre Tokyo") staged the play in Japanese, featuring Mori Shintaro as a director.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.nntt.jac.go.jp/english/play/e30000062\_play.html\|title\=Edward II\|website\=jac.go.jp}} In July 2016, an adaptation opened at [Malthouse Theatre](/wiki/Malthouse_Theatre "Malthouse Theatre"), Melbourne, Australia, directed by [Matthew Lutton](/wiki/Matthew_Lutton "Matthew Lutton") and written by Anthony Weigh.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2019}} In January 2019, An Other Theater Company in [Provo, Utah](/wiki/Provo%2C_Utah "Provo, Utah") staged the play for the first time in the state. The production was co\-directed by Jessamyn Svensson and Kailey Azure Green.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.heraldextra.com/entertainment/arts\-and\-theater/theater/an\-other\-theater\-company\-stages\-gay\-love\-story\-edward\-ii/article\_64325e8c\-56d7\-5149\-83f9\-3b2183fc3939\.html\|title\=An Other Theater Company stages gay love story 'Edward II'\|last\=Harris\|first\=Sarah\|date\=11 January 2019\|website\=The Daily Herald}} In December 2019, the play was once again revived by the Nottingham New Theatre at the University of Nottingham, 59 years after the first revival.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.skiddle.com/whats\-on/Nottingham/The\-Nottingham\-New\-Theatre/Edward\-II\-by\-Christopher\-Marlowe/13674527/ \|title\=''Edward II'' by Christopher Marlowe – The Nottingham New Theatre\|website\=www.skiddle.com}} ### Bertolt Brecht's adaptation The play was adapted by [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht "Bertolt Brecht") and [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger "Lion Feuchtwanger")"I wrote this play with Lion Feuchtwanger"; Dedication page from *Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England*, 1924\. in 1923 as *[The Life of Edward II of England](/wiki/The_Life_of_Edward_II_of_England "The Life of Edward II of England")* (*Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England*). The Brecht version, while acknowledging Marlowe's play as its source, uses Brecht's own words, ideas and structure, and is regarded as a separate work. The German premiere took place in 1924 under Brecht's direction at the [Munich Kammerspiele](/wiki/Munich_Kammerspiele "Munich Kammerspiele") with [Erwin Faber](/wiki/Erwin_Faber "Erwin Faber") and [Hans Schweikart](/wiki/Hans_Schweikart "Hans Schweikart") as Edward and Baldock; the New York premiere of Brecht's play took place in 1982, staged by W. Stuart McDowell by the [Riverside Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Riverside_Shakespeare_Company "Riverside Shakespeare Company"), sponsored by [Joseph Papp](/wiki/Joseph_Papp "Joseph Papp") and the [New York Shakespeare Festival](/wiki/New_York_Shakespeare_Festival "New York Shakespeare Festival") at [The Shakespeare Center](/wiki/The_Shakespeare_Center "The Shakespeare Center") on Manhattan's [Upper West Side](/wiki/Upper_West_Side "Upper West Side").McDowell, W. Stuart. "Acting Brecht: The Munich Years", *The Brecht Sourcebook*, Carol Martin, Henry Bial, editors (Routledge, 2000\).
[ "Stage history and adaptations\n-----------------------------", "According to [Andrew Gurr](/wiki/Andrew_Gurr \"Andrew Gurr\"), the first\\-known performance of *Edward II* was in 1592 by the [Earl of Pembroke's Men](/wiki/Earl_of_Pembroke%27s_Men \"Earl of Pembroke's Men\"), possibly at the Theatre.[Gurr, Andrew](/wiki/Andrew_Gurr \"Andrew Gurr\"). *The Shakespearean Stage 1574\\-1642*. Cambridge University Press, 2009 Roslyn Knutson has speculated on the original performance for *Edward II*. In her essay, \"Marlowe, Company Ownership, and the Role of Edward II\", she argues that *Edward II* was written for Edward Alleyn and Strange's Men; however, Pembroke's Men performed *Edward II* with [Richard Burbage](/wiki/Richard_Burbage \"Richard Burbage\") (the most prominent actor in [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\")'s playing company) as Edward.Knutson, Roslyn. \"Marlowe, Company Ownership, and the Role of Edward II.\" *Medieval \\& Renaissance England, Vol. 18\\. (2005\\)* Rosemont Publishing \\& Printing Corp DBA Associate University Press, 2005\\. pp. 37–46 Knutson uses the number of lines assigned to players, Marlowe's familiarity to the different play companies, and the role of Isabella to provide evidence for her argument. She concludes that Burbage's performance in *Edward II* influenced how Shakespeare designed roles for Burbage.", "The first [quarto](/wiki/Quarto \"Quarto\") of 1594 states that the play had been performed by the Earl of Pembroke's Men. According to [E. K. Chambers](/wiki/E._K._Chambers \"E. K. Chambers\"), *Edward II* was one of three plays sold to booksellers—along with *The Taming of a Shrew* and *The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York*—and was probably the only one of those three not worked on by Shakespeare.{{Cite book\\|title\\=The Elizabethan Stage. Vol. II\\|last\\=Chambers\\|first\\=E. K.\\|author\\-link\\=E. K. Chambers\\|location\\=Oxford\\|publisher\\=Clarendon Press\\|year\\=1951\\|pages\\=128–129}} Mathew Martin argues that the Roger Barnes's 1612 version of *Edward II*—while traditionally seen as a corrupt publishing of the play—reveals how the play was received in Jacobean England and how the play was revised to draw attention to King James's controversial promotion of male favorites.Martin, Mathew. \"Accidents Happen: Roger Barnes's 1612 Edition of Marlowe's 'Edward II'.\" *Early Theatre*, Vol.16\\.No.1\\., 2003\\. <https://www.jstor.org/stable/43499695> The title page of the 1622 edition states that the play was performed by [Queen Anne's Men](/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Men \"Queen Anne's Men\") at the [Red Bull Theatre](/wiki/Red_Bull_Theatre \"Red Bull Theatre\"), showing that *Edward II* was still in the active repertory well into the seventeenth century.Chambers, Vol. 3, p. 425\\.", "Since the twentieth century, the play has been revived several times, usually in such a way as to make explicit Edward's [homosexuality](/wiki/Homosexuality \"Homosexuality\").", "Marlowe's play was revived in November 1961 in a student performance at the [University of Nottingham](/wiki/University_of_Nottingham \"University of Nottingham\").Taken from the Nottingham University Dramatic Society programme A 1969 production directed by [Clifford Williams](/wiki/Clifford_Williams_%28actor%29 \"Clifford Williams (actor)\") for Theatre Toronto featured prominent Stratford Festival actors, including [William Hutt](/wiki/William_Hutt_%28actor%29 \"William Hutt (actor)\") as Edward II and [Richard Monette](/wiki/Richard_Monette \"Richard Monette\") as Gaveston.[Archives of the Royal Alexandra Theatre](https://www.mirvish.com/ticket-info/show-archives/edward-ii-1969)", "It was frequently revived in the 1970s. The [Prospect Theatre Company](/wiki/Prospect_Theatre_Company \"Prospect Theatre Company\")'s production of the play, starring [Ian McKellen](/wiki/Ian_McKellen \"Ian McKellen\") and [James Laurenson](/wiki/James_Laurenson \"James Laurenson\"), caused a sensation when it was broadcast by the [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") during the 1970s (as it included the first gay kiss transmitted on British television). In 1975 the play was performed on Broadway with [Norman Snow](/wiki/Norman_Snow \"Norman Snow\") as King Edward, [Patti LuPone](/wiki/Patti_LuPone \"Patti LuPone\") as Prince Edward, [David Schramm](/wiki/David_Schramm_%28actor%29 \"David Schramm (actor)\") as Kent, and [Peter Dvorsky](/wiki/Peter_Dvorsky_%28actor%29 \"Peter Dvorsky (actor)\") as Gaveston.", "In 1977, the 26\\-episode [BBC](/wiki/BBC \"BBC\") [radio drama](/wiki/Radio_drama \"Radio drama\") *Vivat Rex* included an abridged version of the play as its first two episodes. [John Hurt](/wiki/John_Hurt \"John Hurt\") portrayed Edward.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/radio4/entries/a2a97dec\\-79e2\\-3da4\\-8379\\-c8e2335fa5da\\|title\\=Radio 4Extra: Vivat Rex\\|date\\=2012\\-04\\-27\\|website\\=BBC\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-07\\-10}}", "In 1986, [Nicholas Hytner](/wiki/Nicholas_Hytner \"Nicholas Hytner\") directed a production at the [Royal Exchange, Manchester](/wiki/Royal_Exchange%2C_Manchester \"Royal Exchange, Manchester\") with [Ian McDiarmid](/wiki/Ian_McDiarmid \"Ian McDiarmid\"), [Michael Grandage](/wiki/Michael_Grandage \"Michael Grandage\"), [Iain Glen](/wiki/Iain_Glen \"Iain Glen\") and [Duncan Bell](/wiki/Duncan_Bell_%28actor%29 \"Duncan Bell (actor)\").{{Cite thesis\\|title\\=A performance history of Christopher Marlowe's Edward II on the British stage and screen from 1903\\-1991\\|url\\=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/13720\\|date\\=1998\\|degree\\=Thesis\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|first\\=Dawn Michelle\\|last\\=Scovell}}", "Numerous other productions followed, starring actors such as [Simon Russell Beale](/wiki/Simon_Russell_Beale \"Simon Russell Beale\") and [Joseph Fiennes](/wiki/Joseph_Fiennes \"Joseph Fiennes\").", "In 1991, the play was adapted into a [film](/wiki/Edward_II_%28film%29 \"Edward II (film)\") by [Derek Jarman](/wiki/Derek_Jarman \"Derek Jarman\") which used modern costumes and made overt reference to the [gay rights](/wiki/Gay_rights \"Gay rights\") movement and the [Stonewall riots](/wiki/Stonewall_riots \"Stonewall riots\").{{Cite magazine\\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/movies/movie\\-reviews/edward\\-ii\\-101463/\\|title\\=Edward II\\|last\\=Travers\\|first\\=Peter\\|date\\=20 March 1992\\|magazine\\=Rolling Stone}} In 1995 a [ballet adaptation](/wiki/Edward_II_%28ballet%29 \"Edward II (ballet)\") was created for [Stuttgart Ballet](/wiki/Stuttgart_Ballet \"Stuttgart Ballet\").", "The [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\")'s [Shakespeare Theatre Company](/wiki/Shakespeare_Theatre_Company \"Shakespeare Theatre Company\") 2007 staging used mostly fascist\\-era and jazz\\-age costumes. The production strongly emphasized the gay relationship between Edward II and Gaveston and was one of two Marlowe works inaugurating the company's new [Sidney Harman Hall](/wiki/Sidney_Harman_Hall \"Sidney Harman Hall\").{{Cite web\\|title\\=Edward II 07\\-08\\|url\\=https://www.shakespearetheatre.org/events/edward\\-ii\\-07\\-08/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-08\\|website\\=Shakespeare Theatre Company\\|language\\=en}}", "In 2011, EM\\-LOU Productions staged the play at [The Rose Theatre](/wiki/The_Rose_Theatre \"The Rose Theatre\"), Bankside, returning it for the first time in 400 years to the space where it may have had its very first production. The production was directed by Peter Darney.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2019}}", "In October 2013, the [New National Theatre Tokyo](/wiki/New_National_Theatre_Tokyo \"New National Theatre Tokyo\") staged the play in Japanese, featuring Mori Shintaro as a director.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.nntt.jac.go.jp/english/play/e30000062\\_play.html\\|title\\=Edward II\\|website\\=jac.go.jp}}", "In July 2016, an adaptation opened at [Malthouse Theatre](/wiki/Malthouse_Theatre \"Malthouse Theatre\"), Melbourne, Australia, directed by [Matthew Lutton](/wiki/Matthew_Lutton \"Matthew Lutton\") and written by Anthony Weigh.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2019}}", "In January 2019, An Other Theater Company in [Provo, Utah](/wiki/Provo%2C_Utah \"Provo, Utah\") staged the play for the first time in the state. The production was co\\-directed by Jessamyn Svensson and Kailey Azure Green.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.heraldextra.com/entertainment/arts\\-and\\-theater/theater/an\\-other\\-theater\\-company\\-stages\\-gay\\-love\\-story\\-edward\\-ii/article\\_64325e8c\\-56d7\\-5149\\-83f9\\-3b2183fc3939\\.html\\|title\\=An Other Theater Company stages gay love story 'Edward II'\\|last\\=Harris\\|first\\=Sarah\\|date\\=11 January 2019\\|website\\=The Daily Herald}}", "In December 2019, the play was once again revived by the Nottingham New Theatre at the University of Nottingham, 59 years after the first revival.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.skiddle.com/whats\\-on/Nottingham/The\\-Nottingham\\-New\\-Theatre/Edward\\-II\\-by\\-Christopher\\-Marlowe/13674527/ \\|title\\=''Edward II'' by Christopher Marlowe – The Nottingham New Theatre\\|website\\=www.skiddle.com}}", "### Bertolt Brecht's adaptation", "The play was adapted by [Bertolt Brecht](/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht \"Bertolt Brecht\") and [Lion Feuchtwanger](/wiki/Lion_Feuchtwanger \"Lion Feuchtwanger\")\"I wrote this play with Lion Feuchtwanger\"; Dedication page from *Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England*, 1924\\. in 1923 as *[The Life of Edward II of England](/wiki/The_Life_of_Edward_II_of_England \"The Life of Edward II of England\")* (*Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England*). The Brecht version, while acknowledging Marlowe's play as its source, uses Brecht's own words, ideas and structure, and is regarded as a separate work. The German premiere took place in 1924 under Brecht's direction at the [Munich Kammerspiele](/wiki/Munich_Kammerspiele \"Munich Kammerspiele\") with [Erwin Faber](/wiki/Erwin_Faber \"Erwin Faber\") and [Hans Schweikart](/wiki/Hans_Schweikart \"Hans Schweikart\") as Edward and Baldock; the New York premiere of Brecht's play took place in 1982, staged by W. Stuart McDowell by the [Riverside Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Riverside_Shakespeare_Company \"Riverside Shakespeare Company\"), sponsored by [Joseph Papp](/wiki/Joseph_Papp \"Joseph Papp\") and the [New York Shakespeare Festival](/wiki/New_York_Shakespeare_Festival \"New York Shakespeare Festival\") at [The Shakespeare Center](/wiki/The_Shakespeare_Center \"The Shakespeare Center\") on Manhattan's [Upper West Side](/wiki/Upper_West_Side \"Upper West Side\").McDowell, W. Stuart. \"Acting Brecht: The Munich Years\", *The Brecht Sourcebook*, Carol Martin, Henry Bial, editors (Routledge, 2000\\).", "" ]
Biography --------- She was born in Paris (10th arrondissement){{citation needed\|reason\=Current reference states "near Brussels"\| date\=October 2017}} on 12 October 1885 to a single mother. Raymonde was raised in [Frameries](/wiki/Frameries "Frameries") near [Mons](/wiki/Mons%2C_Belgium "Mons, Belgium") in Belgium. One day she sang on a school event and was encouraged to follow further training. She took courses at the Conservatoire in Mons and later in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"). On 14 August 1909 she married writer [Louis Thomas](/wiki/Louis_Thomas_%28writer%29 "Louis Thomas (writer)"). Settling in Paris, the young couple became involved with the inner circle around [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy "Claude Debussy"). Louis Thomas organised exclusive concerts where Raymonde sang, accompanied by pianist [Ennemond Trillat](/wiki/Ennemond_Trillat "Ennemond Trillat"). They did much to promote Debussy. Soon Raymonde Delaunois performed also outside Paris. She was the first to sing the [Songs of Bilitis](/wiki/Songs_of_Bilitis "Songs of Bilitis") in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels "Brussels"). She also made tours in Continental Europe. In [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") and [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest") she sang in opera houses, performing the leading roles in *[Mignon](/wiki/Mignon "Mignon")* and *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen "Carmen")*. Raymonde Delaunois never achieved the status of 'opera [diva](/wiki/Diva "Diva")’ and remained within the range of appreciated actresses, without reaching the top position. The female stars in her time were, at the Met, [Geraldine Farrar](/wiki/Geraldine_Farrar "Geraldine Farrar") (1882–1967\) and [Rosa Ponselle](/wiki/Rosa_Ponselle "Rosa Ponselle") (1897–1981\). At the end of 1926, her contract with the Met ended after twelve seasons, 32 roles and 315 performances. Delaunois returned to France, and appeared in title roles of operas like *Carmen*, *Mignon* and *[La fille de Madame Angot](/wiki/La_fille_de_Madame_Angot "La fille de Madame Angot")* ([Alexandre Charles Lecocq](/wiki/Alexandre_Charles_Lecocq "Alexandre Charles Lecocq")). She sang for the last time in public in 1943\. She continued to teach song and piano. Having always lived in Paris, she moved to a pensioners house in [Corbeil\-Essonnes](/wiki/Corbeil-Essonnes "Corbeil-Essonnes"), a suburb of Paris, in 1982 where she died two years later, on 30 June 1984\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "She was born in Paris (10th arrondissement){{citation needed\\|reason\\=Current reference states \"near Brussels\"\\| date\\=October 2017}} on 12 October 1885 to a single mother. Raymonde was raised in [Frameries](/wiki/Frameries \"Frameries\") near [Mons](/wiki/Mons%2C_Belgium \"Mons, Belgium\") in Belgium. One day she sang on a school event and was encouraged to follow further training. She took courses at the Conservatoire in Mons and later in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\").", "On 14 August 1909 she married writer [Louis Thomas](/wiki/Louis_Thomas_%28writer%29 \"Louis Thomas (writer)\"). Settling in Paris, the young couple became involved with the inner circle around [Claude Debussy](/wiki/Claude_Debussy \"Claude Debussy\"). Louis Thomas organised exclusive concerts where Raymonde sang, accompanied by pianist [Ennemond Trillat](/wiki/Ennemond_Trillat \"Ennemond Trillat\"). They did much to promote Debussy.", "Soon Raymonde Delaunois performed also outside Paris. She was the first to sing the [Songs of Bilitis](/wiki/Songs_of_Bilitis \"Songs of Bilitis\") in [Brussels](/wiki/Brussels \"Brussels\"). She also made tours in Continental Europe. In [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") and [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\") she sang in opera houses, performing the leading roles in *[Mignon](/wiki/Mignon \"Mignon\")* and *[Carmen](/wiki/Carmen \"Carmen\")*.", "Raymonde Delaunois never achieved the status of 'opera [diva](/wiki/Diva \"Diva\")’ and remained within the range of appreciated actresses, without reaching the top position. The female stars in her time were, at the Met, [Geraldine Farrar](/wiki/Geraldine_Farrar \"Geraldine Farrar\") (1882–1967\\) and [Rosa Ponselle](/wiki/Rosa_Ponselle \"Rosa Ponselle\") (1897–1981\\).", "At the end of 1926, her contract with the Met ended after twelve seasons, 32 roles and 315 performances. Delaunois returned to France, and appeared in title roles of operas like *Carmen*, *Mignon* and *[La fille de Madame Angot](/wiki/La_fille_de_Madame_Angot \"La fille de Madame Angot\")* ([Alexandre Charles Lecocq](/wiki/Alexandre_Charles_Lecocq \"Alexandre Charles Lecocq\")).", "She sang for the last time in public in 1943\\. She continued to teach song and piano.", "Having always lived in Paris, she moved to a pensioners house in [Corbeil\\-Essonnes](/wiki/Corbeil-Essonnes \"Corbeil-Essonnes\"), a suburb of Paris, in 1982 where she died two years later, on 30 June 1984\\.", "" ]
Plot ---- The game takes place in the future, during a time when Earth's [fossil fuels](/wiki/Fossil_fuel "Fossil fuel") have begun to dwindle. There is a massive war taking place all over the earth for control of these resources, as well as for territorial rights on the moon. The two warring governments, the Axis and Federation, have the ability to go into space and create giant [space stations](/wiki/Space_station "Space station") and [weapons of mass destruction](/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction "Weapons of mass destruction"). Jake is the game's protagonist. He is a soldier drafted into the Pacific States' Marine Corp and pilots a Federation [Assault Suit](/wiki/Mecha "Mecha"). In the prologue text he states he only fights because he is a soldier, not concerned with patriotism or politics. Survival for a soldier means defeating the enemy. The Suit has a humanoid shape, with arms, legs, a torso, and a head. It is equipped with a variety of weapons and other special accessories, giving it full land and minor air capabilities. Jake and his platoon, which operate from the warship Versis are tasked with destruction of Bildvorg, the most powerful mech of the Axis forces. The various missions in the game lead up to the completion of this objective. (It is piloted by Major Beldark, whom Jake meets first in mission 4 and would later meet Jake once before the final boss). Versis sends out 2 other suits, one is unnamed and another is named Apollo in stage 4, who is killed offscreen by one suit that is really fast (Beldark). Ironically in that mission the player saves an enemy suit entering the Earth's atmosphere, whereas Beldark kills Jake's ally Apollo soon after. Although *Cybernator* was released after *Target Earth*, Cybernator takes place a century before *Target Earth*. In *Assault Suits Valken 2*, Jake makes a cameo appearance as a 30\-year\-old veteran soldier who assists in battles as an NPC. The game has two endings. The bad ending can be acquired if the player fails any mission in the game, such as failing to stop Arc Nova from falling and/or allowing the enemy space shuttle to escape in the 5th mission. In this ending, the Versis is critically damaged and most of her crew are killed, including Crea (Jake's partner and superior), which leaves Jake devastated in the credits. The game over screen also states the player has not completed their mission. If the player succeeds in the side missions, the Versis survives and Jake returns to the carrier, the war is over and Jake and Crea embrace each other on the Versis' deck as the Cybernator suit falls into pieces.
[ "Plot\n----", "The game takes place in the future, during a time when Earth's [fossil fuels](/wiki/Fossil_fuel \"Fossil fuel\") have begun to dwindle. There is a massive war taking place all over the earth for control of these resources, as well as for territorial rights on the moon. The two warring governments, the Axis and Federation, have the ability to go into space and create giant [space stations](/wiki/Space_station \"Space station\") and [weapons of mass destruction](/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction \"Weapons of mass destruction\").", "Jake is the game's protagonist. He is a soldier drafted into the Pacific States' Marine Corp and pilots a Federation [Assault Suit](/wiki/Mecha \"Mecha\"). In the prologue text he states he only fights because he is a soldier, not concerned with patriotism or politics. Survival for a soldier means defeating the enemy.\nThe Suit has a humanoid shape, with arms, legs, a torso, and a head. It is equipped with a variety of weapons and other special accessories, giving it full land and minor air capabilities.", "Jake and his platoon, which operate from the warship Versis are tasked with destruction of Bildvorg, the most powerful mech of the Axis forces. The various missions in the game lead up to the completion of this objective. (It is piloted by Major Beldark, whom Jake meets first in mission 4 and would later meet Jake once before the final boss). Versis sends out 2 other suits, one is unnamed and another is named Apollo in stage 4, who is killed offscreen by one suit that is really fast (Beldark). Ironically in that mission the player saves an enemy suit entering the Earth's atmosphere, whereas Beldark kills Jake's ally Apollo soon after.", "Although *Cybernator* was released after *Target Earth*, Cybernator takes place a century before *Target Earth*.", "In *Assault Suits Valken 2*, Jake makes a cameo appearance as a 30\\-year\\-old veteran soldier who assists in battles as an NPC.", "The game has two endings. The bad ending can be acquired if the player fails any mission in the game, such as failing to stop Arc Nova from falling and/or allowing the enemy space shuttle to escape in the 5th mission. In this ending, the Versis is critically damaged and most of her crew are killed, including Crea (Jake's partner and superior), which leaves Jake devastated in the credits. The game over screen also states the player has not completed their mission.\nIf the player succeeds in the side missions, the Versis survives and Jake returns to the carrier, the war is over and Jake and Crea embrace each other on the Versis' deck as the Cybernator suit falls into pieces.", "" ]
History ------- The exploitation of the mineral resources of Queensland was recognised by political interests in Queensland as being closely linked with the development of a railway system from the period of the late 1860s and early 1870s. This connection between political decisions and economic development was further linked and with the decision taken in 1877 to construct mineral railways running from [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville "Townsville") to [Charters Towers](/wiki/Charters_Towers "Charters Towers") ([Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28Mt_Isa_line%29 "Great Northern Railway (Mt Isa line)")), [Bundaberg](/wiki/Bundaberg "Bundaberg") to [Mount Perry](/wiki/Mount_Perry%2C_Queensland "Mount Perry, Queensland") ([Mount Perry railway line](/wiki/Mount_Perry_railway_line "Mount Perry railway line")) and [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland "Maryborough, Queensland") to [Gympie](/wiki/Gympie "Gympie") ([North Coast railway line](/wiki/North_Coast_railway_line%2C_Queensland "North Coast railway line, Queensland")). The extension of the Southern \& Western Railway from [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Queensland "Warwick, Queensland") to [Stanthorpe](/wiki/Stanthorpe%2C_Queensland "Stanthorpe, Queensland") was approved along with extensions to [Roma](/wiki/Roma%2C_Queensland "Roma, Queensland") and [Emerald](/wiki/Emerald%2C_Queensland "Emerald, Queensland") on the same day in Parliament, 30 August 1877\. The decision to construct separate railway systems with no connection to other parts of the Queensland Railway system was to result in a proliferation of separate railways throughout Queensland, (up to eleven by 1891\). The system would not be unified until 1924 with the opening of the [North Coast Line](/wiki/North_Coast_railway_line%2C_Queensland "North Coast railway line, Queensland") between [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane "Brisbane") and [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns "Cairns"). The agitation for the construction of a railway from the town of Warwick to the mining centre of [Stanthorpe](/wiki/Stanthorpe "Stanthorpe") was a major political and social rallying point for the population of the southern tablelands. The booming tin mining area around Stanthorpe provided the impetus for the extension of the railway south from Warwick. The railway had opened to Warwick on 9 January 1871\. In 1873 a survey from Warwick to Stanthorpe was begun and the {{convert\|41\.5\|mi\|adj\=on}} route to Stanthorpe was mapped. However this survey included two costly tunnels\- one {{convert\|29\|chain}} in length to save a {{convert\|1\.75\|mi\|adj\=on}} detour and a {{convert\|13\|chain\|m\|adj\=mid\|\-long}} tunnel to save {{convert\|2\.5\|mi}}. The permanent survey was then pressed forward, but the line that was surveyed passed through the centre of Warwick, and as a result meant expensive earthworks in the centre of the town. A permanent survey was completed in 1876 to the {{convert\|85\|mi\|adj\=on}} mark, which was {{convert\|27\|mi}} from Warwick. On this survey there were several deviations made to shorten the overall distance of the line. In 1878 the working plans for the section from Warwick to Stanthorpe were finally prepared. Tenders were called for on the 1st and 2nd sections Warwick \- Stanthorpe at the end of January 1878\. Section one ran to a point {{convert\|20\|mi\|28\.19\|chain}} south of Warwick, whilst Section two ran {{convert\|20\|mi\|41\.60\|chain}} to Stanthorpe. Section 1 was awarded to J\&A Overend and Co. for {{A£\|178784}} and J. Garget on Section 2 for {{A£\|105983}} . Construction was described in the Commissioners report as follows: > *Section 2\- as 1st tenders were considered too high, fresh tenders were called and the contract given to Garget. Clearing of the right of way began in November 1878, as well as some cuttings were begun*. The Dalveen tunnel was constructed to pierce a spur of the [Silverwood Range](/wiki/Silverwood_Range "Silverwood Range"). It was one of the major works on the second contract of the line to Stanthorpe. By the end of 1879 it was noted that: > *The heading of No. 2 tunnel at 84 miles 20 chains was excavated to about one\-third of the total length, and a large number of bricks had been prepared in readiness for the lining.* Section Two of the contract did not involve the difficulties that were encountered on the works around the Cherry Gully tunnel. was a case where the going was much easier. In common with railway construction of the time a camp would have been situated nearby to act as labour base for its workings. On Section Two some 325 men were employed at this time. In 1880 Minister for Works, [John Macrossan](/wiki/John_Macrossan "John Macrossan") visited the railway works and made an inspection as far as Garget's Camp. The [Stanthorpe Border Post and Stannum Miner](/wiki/Stanthorpe_Border_Post_and_Stannum_Miner "Stanthorpe Border Post and Stannum Miner") reported on his visit: > *The construction camps were temporary townships, and were supplied with drinking establishments, sometimes a school, contractor stores even places of worship. Some of the hotels were recorded by local correspondents and give an idea of some of the places. Edmund Power had a drinking establishment on the Second Section at Telegraph Road crossing, and also John Commerford opened the North Australian Hotel, Main Camp, at the New Tunnel on the 2nd section.* Life in the camps could be a perilous affair at times, especially where hot tempers were concerned. A dispute over the return of the loan of a few shillings lead to the shooting of John O'Neil a sub\-contractor on Section Two. The individual who shot O'Neil, Felix was a Frenchman. The Stanthorpe Border Post noted that O'Neil died in agony nearly six hours after the shooting. Felix made no attempt to escape. Rather he was caught by O'Neil's mates, after Felix had a leisurely breakfast, and was preparing to ride to Stanthorpe. The Commissioner's Report for 1880 noted that the excavation and lining of No.2 tunnel had been completed and that only track laying remained to be done. On Section Two progress was much faster, and the Commissioners Report noted that only platelaying and Ballasting required completion. The line from Cherry Gully through to Stanthorpe was opened throughout on 1 May 1881, and was taken over by the railways on 1 November 1881\. It was noted that the tunnel (on Section Two) was a work to be proud of, perfectly straight, true curves of arch, bright red brick and pure whiteness of stone facing, the whole of the tunnel being on a 1 in 50 grade. The works were acknowledged as being of great credit to all concerned.
[ "History\n-------", "The exploitation of the mineral resources of Queensland was recognised by political interests in Queensland as being closely linked with the development of a railway system from the period of the late 1860s and early 1870s. This connection between political decisions and economic development was further linked and with the decision taken in 1877 to construct mineral railways running from [Townsville](/wiki/Townsville \"Townsville\") to [Charters Towers](/wiki/Charters_Towers \"Charters Towers\") ([Great Northern Railway](/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_%28Mt_Isa_line%29 \"Great Northern Railway (Mt Isa line)\")), [Bundaberg](/wiki/Bundaberg \"Bundaberg\") to [Mount Perry](/wiki/Mount_Perry%2C_Queensland \"Mount Perry, Queensland\") ([Mount Perry railway line](/wiki/Mount_Perry_railway_line \"Mount Perry railway line\")) and [Maryborough](/wiki/Maryborough%2C_Queensland \"Maryborough, Queensland\") to [Gympie](/wiki/Gympie \"Gympie\") ([North Coast railway line](/wiki/North_Coast_railway_line%2C_Queensland \"North Coast railway line, Queensland\")). The extension of the Southern \\& Western Railway from [Warwick](/wiki/Warwick%2C_Queensland \"Warwick, Queensland\") to [Stanthorpe](/wiki/Stanthorpe%2C_Queensland \"Stanthorpe, Queensland\") was approved along with extensions to [Roma](/wiki/Roma%2C_Queensland \"Roma, Queensland\") and [Emerald](/wiki/Emerald%2C_Queensland \"Emerald, Queensland\") on the same day in Parliament, 30 August 1877\\. The decision to construct separate railway systems with no connection to other parts of the Queensland Railway system was to result in a proliferation of separate railways throughout Queensland, (up to eleven by 1891\\). The system would not be unified until 1924 with the opening of the [North Coast Line](/wiki/North_Coast_railway_line%2C_Queensland \"North Coast railway line, Queensland\") between [Brisbane](/wiki/Brisbane \"Brisbane\") and [Cairns](/wiki/Cairns \"Cairns\").", "The agitation for the construction of a railway from the town of Warwick to the mining centre of [Stanthorpe](/wiki/Stanthorpe \"Stanthorpe\") was a major political and social rallying point for the population of the southern tablelands. The booming tin mining area around Stanthorpe provided the impetus for the extension of the railway south from Warwick. The railway had opened to Warwick on 9 January 1871\\. In 1873 a survey from Warwick to Stanthorpe was begun and the {{convert\\|41\\.5\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} route to Stanthorpe was mapped. However this survey included two costly tunnels\\- one {{convert\\|29\\|chain}} in length to save a {{convert\\|1\\.75\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} detour and a {{convert\\|13\\|chain\\|m\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-long}} tunnel to save {{convert\\|2\\.5\\|mi}}. The permanent survey was then pressed forward, but the line that was surveyed passed through the centre of Warwick, and as a result meant expensive earthworks in the centre of the town.", "A permanent survey was completed in 1876 to the {{convert\\|85\\|mi\\|adj\\=on}} mark, which was {{convert\\|27\\|mi}} from Warwick. On this survey there were several deviations made to shorten the overall distance of the line. In 1878 the working plans for the section from Warwick to Stanthorpe were finally prepared. Tenders were called for on the 1st and 2nd sections Warwick \\- Stanthorpe at the end of January 1878\\. Section one ran to a point {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|28\\.19\\|chain}} south of Warwick, whilst Section two ran {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|41\\.60\\|chain}} to Stanthorpe.", "Section 1 was awarded to J\\&A Overend and Co. for {{A£\\|178784}} and J. Garget on Section 2 for {{A£\\|105983}} . Construction was described in the Commissioners report as follows:", "> *Section 2\\- as 1st tenders were considered too high, fresh tenders were called and the contract given to Garget. Clearing of the right of way began in November 1878, as well as some cuttings were begun*.", "The Dalveen tunnel was constructed to pierce a spur of the [Silverwood Range](/wiki/Silverwood_Range \"Silverwood Range\"). It was one of the major works on the second contract of the line to Stanthorpe. By the end of 1879 it was noted that:", "> *The heading of No. 2 tunnel at 84 miles 20 chains was excavated to about one\\-third of the total length, and a large number of bricks had been prepared in readiness for the lining.*", "Section Two of the contract did not involve the difficulties that were encountered on the works around the Cherry Gully tunnel. was a case where the going was much easier. In common with railway construction of the time a camp would have been situated nearby to act as labour base for its workings. On Section Two some 325 men were employed at this time. In 1880 Minister for Works, [John Macrossan](/wiki/John_Macrossan \"John Macrossan\") visited the railway works and made an inspection as far as Garget's Camp. The [Stanthorpe Border Post and Stannum Miner](/wiki/Stanthorpe_Border_Post_and_Stannum_Miner \"Stanthorpe Border Post and Stannum Miner\") reported on his visit:", "> *The construction camps were temporary townships, and were supplied with drinking establishments, sometimes a school, contractor stores even places of worship. Some of the hotels were recorded by local correspondents and give an idea of some of the places. Edmund Power had a drinking establishment on the Second Section at Telegraph Road crossing, and also John Commerford opened the North Australian Hotel, Main Camp, at the New Tunnel on the 2nd section.*", "Life in the camps could be a perilous affair at times, especially where hot tempers were concerned. A dispute over the return of the loan of a few shillings lead to the shooting of John O'Neil a sub\\-contractor on Section Two. The individual who shot O'Neil, Felix was a Frenchman. The Stanthorpe Border Post noted that O'Neil died in agony nearly six hours after the shooting. Felix made no attempt to escape. Rather he was caught by O'Neil's mates, after Felix had a leisurely breakfast, and was preparing to ride to Stanthorpe.", "The Commissioner's Report for 1880 noted that the excavation and lining of No.2 tunnel had been completed and that only track laying remained to be done. On Section Two progress was much faster, and the Commissioners Report noted that only platelaying and Ballasting required completion. The line from Cherry Gully through to Stanthorpe was opened throughout on 1 May 1881, and was taken over by the railways on 1 November 1881\\. It was noted that the tunnel (on Section Two) was a work to be proud of, perfectly straight, true curves of arch, bright red brick and pure whiteness of stone facing, the whole of the tunnel being on a 1 in 50 grade. The works were acknowledged as being of great credit to all concerned.", "" ]
Distinctions in practice ------------------------ [Church governance](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity "Ecclesiastical polity") is generally organised in one of three main types: * [Episcopal polity](/wiki/Episcopal_polity "Episcopal polity"), in which churches are governed in a hierarchical fashion, with the role of elders being fulfilled by external bishops. It is common in [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican"), [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church "Eastern Orthodox Church"), [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist "Methodist"), some [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran"), and [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") churches, and was prevalent up to and after the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation "Reformation"). * [Presbyterian polity](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity "Presbyterian polity"), in which churches are governed on a denominational, geographical basis by committees of elders. * [Congregational polity](/wiki/Congregational_polity "Congregational polity"), in which each church is responsible for its own governance. Churches employing this method include [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), [Congregational](/wiki/Congregational_church "Congregational church"), some [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran"), and [Plymouth Brethren](/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren "Plymouth Brethren") churches. Some churches are led by a [pastor](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor"); some maintain a [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_%28church_governance%29 "Plurality (church governance)") of elders. ### Anglicans An ordained [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican "Anglican") minister is usually called a priest, holding the prenominal of Reverend if they are [Low church](/wiki/Low_church "Low church") or Sister or Father if they are [High church](/wiki/High_church "High church"). Lay preachers in the Anglican Communion are usually called [Pastors](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor"), especially Chaplains and other pastoral office holders, who are not ordained but engage with a congregation or workplace in an advisory capacity. The title "Elder" is usually given to those Anglicans ministers who are not vicars, but hold a learned role within or beyond a congregation, such as a Reader who assists a priest or a Pioneer Minister who seeks to engage with those who are outside the traditional [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion "Anglican Communion") structures. ### Baptists {{main\|Baptists\#Baptist beliefs and principles}} Historically, [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist") churches do not recognize elder as a separate office from those of pastor or deacon; it is commonly considered a synonym of deacon or pastor.[Fiddes, P. *A Leading Question*](http://www.baptist.org.uk/resources/resource_downloads/493.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722034329/http://www.baptist.org.uk/resources/resource\_downloads/493\.pdf \|date\=2011\-07\-22 }} London: Baptist Publications This is not universal in Baptist circles, however, and there are many Baptist churches which are elder\-led. Others have elder councils where pastoral functions are shared according to gifts, such as teaching, management and pastoral care. William H. Brackney, *Historical Dictionary of the Baptists*, Scarecrow Press, USA, 2009, p. 198 ### Christadelphianism {{unreferenced section\|date\=May 2014}} [Christadelphians](/wiki/Christadelphians "Christadelphians") do not appoint any form of clergy. Organisation is based on ecclesially accountable committees for [evangelism](/wiki/Evangelism "Evangelism"), youth and [Sunday School](/wiki/Sunday_School "Sunday School") work, [military service](/wiki/Military_service "Military service") issues, care of the elderly and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority and are wholly dependent upon support from within the church. Women are typically not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the [ecclesia](/wiki/wikt:Congregation "Congregation") when male believers are present, and do not sit on the main committees, however they do participate in other ecclesial and inter\-ecclesial committees. ### Churches of Christ {{main\|Churches of Christ\#Congregational autonomy and leadership}} Congregations referring to themselves as [Churches of Christ](/wiki/Churches_of_Christ "Churches of Christ") believe that local congregations should be led by a plurality of biblically qualified elders.Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN\|0\-7369\-1289\-4}}Howard, V.E. (1971\) *What Is the Church of Christ?* 4th Edition (Revised) Central Printers \& Publishers, West Monroe, Louisiana They base this on a conviction that congregations (and Christians in general) should attempt to follow the teachings of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament "New Testament") wherever humanly possible.This belief is shared with other religious organizations with roots in the [Restoration Movement](/wiki/Restoration_Movement "Restoration Movement"), such as the [Independent Christian Church](/wiki/Independent_Christian_Church "Independent Christian Church"). In accordance with the teachings of the bible the Churches of Christ teach and practice that only males may serve as elders (female elders are not recognized), and must meet Biblical qualifications (generally I Timothy 3:1\-7 and Titus 1:5\-9 are the Biblical texts used to determine if a male is qualified to serve as elder). In this regard, elders are accountable to each other and to God. The evangelist and the elders have the spiritual oversight of the congregation (e.g., withdrawing fellowship from a member who the elders consider to be wayward in doctrine or refuses to abide by the elders' counsel or decision in a matter) as well as administrative oversight (e.g., overseeing the congregation budget). The elders will be assisted by [deacons](/wiki/Deacons "Deacons") who, depending on the congregation, may have a specific area of non\-spiritual service (e.g., finance, building and grounds, benevolence); the deacons are in all matters subservient to the elders. An elder may also be qualified to serve as a deacon (and, in some cases, may have previously served as a deacon before becoming an elder). Depending on the congregation, the elders may rotate main preaching and teaching duties or appoint one or more male persons (who may or may not be elders) to serve as the [ministers](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 "Minister (Christianity)") for that congregation. If one person is assigned main preaching duties, he is never referred to as "Father" (based on Matthew 23:9, which states that the only Father a Christian has is in Heaven), nor is the individual referred to as "pastor" (due to belief that the one reference to "pastor" in Ephesians 4:11 is translated "shepherd" in all other cases, and in context either refers to Jesus Christ or to an elder; as stated above the person with main preaching duties may or may not be an elder) or "reverend" (due to belief that the one reference to this term in Psalm 111:9 refers to the reverence of God's name). Instead, common terms used are "evangelist", "preacher", "minister" (or "pulpit minister"; the latter may be used if the congregation has assistant or associate ministers over certain programs or functions), or "preaching elder" (if the person is also an elder). ### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints {{main\|Elder (Latter Day Saints)}} Elders are male members of [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints") who have the [Melchizedek Priesthood](/wiki/Melchizedek_Priesthood "Melchizedek Priesthood") and have been ordained to the office of elder, typically at the age of 18\.[History of Age Restrictions in Priesthood in the LDS Church](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/63753/history-of-the-age-restrictions-in-the-priesthood-in-the-lds-church), [Stack Exchange](/wiki/Stack_Exchange "Stack Exchange"), May 21, 2018, Retrieved Marc 28, 2020 Male [missionaries](/wiki/Missionary "Missionary") of the Church, [General Authorities](/wiki/General_Authority "General Authority") and [Area Authority Seventies](/wiki/Seventy_%28LDS_Church%29%23Third.2C_Fourth.2C_Fifth.2C_Sixth.2C_Seventh.2C_and_Eighth_Quorums_of_the_Seventy "Seventy (LDS Church)#Third.2C Fourth.2C Fifth.2C Sixth.2C Seventh.2C and Eighth Quorums of the Seventy") are honorarily titled "Elder" unless they have duties (such as those of a Branch President) entitling them to be called *President.* The duties of the ordained elders in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\-day Saints are defined in the book of [Doctrine and Covenants](/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants "Doctrine and Covenants"). Elder is the proper title given to all holders of the Melchizedek Priesthood. Thus an apostle is an elder in this sense, and it is proper to speak of members of the Quorum of the Twelve or the First Quorum of the Seventy by this title.[Doctrine and Covenants](/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants "Doctrine and Covenants") (D\&C) 20: 38; cf. 1 Pet. 5: 1; 2 Jn. 1: 1; 3 Jn. 1: 1{{full citation needed\|date\=November 2012}} ### Church of Scotland {{main\|Ministers and elders in the Church of Scotland}} Governance in the [Church of Scotland](/wiki/Church_of_Scotland "Church of Scotland") is based on [presbyterian polity](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity "Presbyterian polity"). There are several roles in the ministry including [ministers](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 "Minister (Christianity)") of Word and Sacrament, [chaplains](/wiki/Chaplains "Chaplains"), [deacons](/wiki/Deacons "Deacons") and readers. Elders are another role, which is voluntary and un\-salaried elders. They are ordained for life by the minister and [Kirk Session](/wiki/Kirk_Session "Kirk Session") of a [parish](/wiki/Parish "Parish"), and carry out [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral "Pastoral") and local church government duties under the guidance of the [minister](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 "Minister (Christianity)"). All elders are members of the Kirk session, and may train to chair the session, conduct funerals, preach and lead worship.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/ministry/ministryroles.htm \|title\=Church of Scotland website \|access\-date\=2010\-11\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121104451/http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/ministry/ministryroles.htm \|archive\-date\=2010\-11\-21 \|url\-status\=dead }} ### Congregationalism {{main\|Congregational church}} [Congregational churches](/wiki/Congregational_church "Congregational church") observe the office of elder. Early congregationalist standards held a fourfold view of ecclesiastical offices: pastor, teacher, ruling elder, and deacon.{{Cite book \|url\=http://archive.org/details/cambridgeplatfo00cong \|title\=The Cambridge platform of church discipline ... 1648 : and A Confession of faith .. \|date\=1850 \|publisher\=\[Boston : Perkins \& Whipple] \|others\=The Library of Congress}} In this view, pastor, techer, and ruling elder are all types of elder. Later exponents like [Henry Martyn Dexter](/wiki/Henry_Martyn_Dexter "Henry Martyn Dexter") advocated a twofold view of only elder and deacon, the pastor/teacher, elder, and overseer being different terms for the same office.{{Cite book \|last\=Dexter \|first\=Henry Martyn \|url\=http://archive.org/details/congregationalis00dextrich \|title\=Congregationalism: \|date\=1865 \|publisher\=Boston, Nichols and Noyes \|others\=University of California Libraries \|page\=67}} The primary officer is ordinarily called the "pastor" or "minister." Ordination and installation of officers is a local event, without the oversight of elders outside of the local church as in [presbyterianism](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity "Presbyterian polity"). Congregational churches generally form [committees](/wiki/Committee "Committee") and [boards](/wiki/Board_of_directors "Board of directors"), either entirely composed of elders and deacons or with non\-official members appointed by the congregation. ### Jehovah's Witnesses {{main\|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses\#Elders}} Among [Jehovah's Witnesses](/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses "Jehovah's Witnesses"), an [elder](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Elders "Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Elders") is a man appointed to teach the congregation. He is also called an "overseer" or "servant". Elders within each congregation work within a "body of elders", several of whom are assigned to oversee specific congregational tasks. Each body of elders has a coordinator (previously known as the presiding overseer), a secretary, and a service overseer. Witnesses consider the office of elder to be the same as that referred to in the Bible as "older man" ("[presbyter](/wiki/Presbyter "Presbyter")"), overseer ("[bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop")"), and shepherd ("[pastor](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor")") but do not use any of the terms as [titles](/wiki/Title "Title"). Representatives of the [Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses](/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses "Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses") select elders to be appointed as circuit overseers, (also referred to as traveling overseers). Each circuit overseer visits the [congregations](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Congregations "Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Congregations") in his jurisdiction twice each year. During his visit, local elders recommend members who may qualify for appointment as elders or [ministerial servants](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Ministerial_servants "Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Ministerial servants") (equivalent to [deacons](/wiki/Deacon "Deacon")), and appointments are decided by the circuit overseer.["Questions From Readers", *The Watch Tower*, pages 28,29](http://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/w20141115/questions-from-readers/) Congregation elders do not receive monetary compensation; traveling overseers receive a modest stipend. ### Lutheranism An Elder in the [Lutheran Church](/wiki/Lutheranism "Lutheranism") is a position of lay\-service, concerned with the temporal and administrative affair of the congregation. In many congregations, elders are also charged with oversight of the pastor but exercising only that oversight given to every Christian in the congregation.{{Cite web\|title\=Worship and Congregational Life \- Frequently Asked Questions \- The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod\|url\=https://www.lcms.org/about/beliefs/faqs/worship\-and\-congregational\-life\#elders\|access\-date\=2021\-09\-17\|website\=www.lcms.org}} They are also assigned to assist the pastor in the [sacraments](/wiki/Lutheran_sacraments "Lutheran sacraments") (the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Lutheran_Church "Eucharist in the Lutheran Church") and [Baptism](/wiki/Baptism "Baptism")). In the Eucharist, the Elder may assist in the distribution. In Baptism, the Elder may hold the [water](/wiki/Holy_water "Holy water") or assist the pastor in other ways. Generally, an elder is not permitted to [consecrate](/wiki/Consecration "Consecration") the bread and wine in the Eucharist, or perform [Holy Absolution](/wiki/Holy_Absolution "Holy Absolution"), as these acts are usually reserved for the pastor. An Elder helps brothers at each congregation. However, many within the confessional wing of Lutheranism, see the term "elder" being used in such a way an unfortunate effect of Reformed (and broader Protestant) influence on the Lutheran Church. Elder (or Presbyteros, in the Greek) serving as a synonym for "Pastor" or "Priest", not unlike how Lutheran teaching also recognizes "episkopos" (Greek, meaning overseer), or bishop to be yet another synonym. Historic Lutheranism recognized a single office of Word and Sacrament being established directly by Christ (technically two, counting the uniquely Lutheran vocation of laity); all distinctions within nomenclature and structural ranking were purely "jure humano" (of human make). Thus making a distinction between "pastor" and "elder" would seem pointless, and using the term "lay elder" would be oxymoronic. ### Methodism {{main\|Elder (Methodism)}} An *Elder* \- sometimes called a "Presbyter" \- is someone who has been [ordained](/wiki/Ordained "Ordained") by a [bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop") to the ministry of Word, [Sacrament](/wiki/Sacrament "Sacrament"), Order, and Service. Their responsibilities are to preach and teach, preside at the celebration of the sacraments, administer the church through pastoral guidance, and lead the congregations under their care in service ministry to the world.*[The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church](/wiki/The_Book_of_Discipline_of_the_United_Methodist_Church "The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church")*. Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 1984 The office of *Elder*, then, is what most people tend to think of as the [pastoral](/wiki/Pastor "Pastor"), [priestly](/wiki/Priest "Priest"), [clergy](/wiki/Clergy "Clergy") office within the church. Indeed, even a Methodist [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop") is still an Elder who has been elected and consecrated by the laying on of hands to the **office** of Bishop (Bishop being understood as an *office* within the Presbyterate, **not** an *order* or separate level of ordination). In some of the denominations within [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism "Methodism"), [ordination](/wiki/Ordination "Ordination") to the office of *Elder* is open to both women and men, while in others, such as the [Primitive Methodist Church](/wiki/Primitive_Methodist_Church "Primitive Methodist Church") and [Evangelical Wesleyan Church](/wiki/Evangelical_Wesleyan_Church "Evangelical Wesleyan Church"), it is only opened to men.{{cite book\|title\=The Discipline of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church \|year\=2015\|publisher\=\[\[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]]\|language\=en\|pages\=115}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.primitivemethodistchurch.org/Discipline\-2013\.pdf\|title\=Discipline of the Primitive Methodist Church in the United States of America\|publisher\=\[\[Primitive Methodist Church]]\|language\=en\|access\-date\=31 May 2017\|archive\-date\=7 August 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807023333/http://www.primitivemethodistchurch.org/Discipline\-2013\.pdf\|url\-status\=dead}} ### Plymouth Brethren {{main\|Plymouth Brethren\#No clergy}} One of the key distinctions of [Plymouth Brethren](/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren "Plymouth Brethren") churches is the total rejection of the concept of [clergy](/wiki/Clergy "Clergy").[Holmes, F. (1962\) Regarding Elders. *Precious Seed*, 13(1\)](http://www.preciousseed.org/view.php?id=2038&highlight_word=elders){{Dead link\|date\=August 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} In keeping with the doctrine of the [priesthood of all believers](/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers "Priesthood of all believers"), they view all Christians as being ordained by God to serve and therefore ministers. Leaders are chosen according to the qualifications found in {{Bibleref2\|1Tim\|3:1\-7}} and {{Bibleref2\|Titus\|1:6\-9}}, and appointed by the Holy Spirit. Plymouth Brethren churches tend to have multiple elders based on the plural use of the word in reference to New Testament churches. One branch of the Plymouth Brethren, the [Exclusive Brethren](/wiki/Exclusive_Brethren "Exclusive Brethren"), are so named for their practice of serving the Lord's Supper exclusively to those who are part of their own particular group, agreeing with them on various doctrinal positions.[BBC website](http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/exclusivebrethren_1.shtml) Most Exclusive Brethren groups believe the church to have been in ruins between the death of the apostles and their own time. Since no truly apostolic authority exists to appoint elders the church has none. Instead they recognize "leading brothers" who demonstrate maturity and leadership ability.{{citation needed\|date\=November 2010}} ### Presbyterianism {{main\|Presbyterian polity\#Elder}} Although practices in the [Presbyterian Church](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church "Presbyterian Church") vary internationally, typically the church recognises three offices within church polity: the [minister](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity%23Minister "Presbyterian polity#Minister") (alternately "teaching elder" or "pastor"), a bench of ruling elders, and [deacons](/wiki/Deacons "Deacons").{{Cite book \|url\=http://www.bpc.org/resources/books/miller/elder01\.html/ \|last\=Miller \|first\=Samuel \|date\=1831 \|title\=An Essay, on the Warrant, Nature and Duties of the Office of the Ruling Elder, in the Presbyterian Church \|publisher\=bpc.org \|chapter\=Chapter 1: Introductory \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619042433/http://www.bpc.org/resources/books/miller/elder01\.html \|archive\-date\=19 June 2008 \|url\-status\=dead \|access\-date\=6 December 2010 }} The elders are "ordained lay" people and form the [session](/wiki/Kirk_Session "Kirk Session"), which is a ruling council for their congregation. ### Rastafari {{unreferenced section\|date\=May 2014}} Members of the [Rastafari Movement](/wiki/Rastafari_Movement "Rastafari Movement") often refer to their experienced members as elders, such as [Joseph Hibbert](/wiki/Joseph_Hibbert "Joseph Hibbert"), [Vernon Carrington](/wiki/Vernon_Carrington "Vernon Carrington"), [Leonard Howell](/wiki/Leonard_Howell "Leonard Howell"), and [Mortimer Planno](/wiki/Mortimer_Planno "Mortimer Planno"). ### Radical Pietism The [Radical Pietistic](/wiki/Radical_Pietistic "Radical Pietistic") communities, such as the [Schwarzenau Brethren](/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren "Schwarzenau Brethren"), do not believe in the [swearing of oaths](/wiki/Oath%23Christian_tradition "Oath#Christian tradition") and also resolve problems at the congregational level under church councils presided by elders, rather than in civil courts. Members who sin openly are visited by the elders and encouraged to repent of their transgressions.{{cite book \|last1\=Kurian \|first1\=George Thomas \|last2\=Lamport \|first2\=Mark A. \|title\=\[\[Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States]] \|date\=2016 \|publisher\=Rowman \& Littlefield \|isbn\=9781442244320 \|language\=en}} ### Roman Catholic Church {{unreferenced section\|date\=May 2014}} Members of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church "Catholic Church") still use the Greek word [Presbyter](/wiki/Presbyter "Presbyter") (πρεσβύτερος, presbuteros: "elder", or "priest" in Christian usage) to refer to priests (priest is etymologically derived from the Greek presbyteros via the Latin presbyter). Collectively, however, their "college" is referred to as the "presbyterium" (meaning "council of elders"), "presbytery", or "presbyterate." The [presbyterium](/wiki/Presbyterium "Presbyterium") is most visible during the [ordination](/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church "Holy orders in the Catholic Church") of new priests and bishops and the [Mass of the Chrism](/wiki/Mass_of_the_Chrism "Mass of the Chrism") (the Mass occurring on [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday "Maundy Thursday")) where the blessing of the oils used in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, and Holy Orders takes place. They are also visible during other special liturgical functions such as the wake and burial of their bishop. ### Seventh\-day Adventist Church (SDA) "Elder" was the only honorific title used to distinguish church leadership during the formative years of the Seventh\-day Adventist Church.{{cite web \|last1\=White \|first1\=Ellen \|title\=Mrs. \|url\=https://egwwritings.org/?module\=writings\&params\=(search:'Elder',bookcode:'',filter:\[{'type':'folder','key':'4'},{'type':'folder','key':'1227'},{'type':'folder','key':'5'},{'type':'folder','key':'8'},{'type':'folder','key':'9'},{'type':'folder','key':'10'},{'type':'folder','key':'253'},{'type':'folder','key':'14'}]) \|website\=Ellen White Writings \|access\-date\=10 March 2019}} Mrs. White, as in, Elder and Mrs. James White, is how the church's prophet, Ellen G. White, was universally referred to up until the late 20th century. The term "Elder" applies to both local church elders and to ordained ministers of the gospel. SDA nomenclature has never used the terms, priest, reverend or clergy as honorific titles or as work titles. For convenience "Pastor" is now regularly used to distinguish ordained ministers of the gospel from ordained local elders. SDA ordained Ministers of the Gospel are paid employees of the Seventh\-day Adventist Church and they are required to also be Elders in the local church. Women can be ordained as local elders, but are not ordained as ministers of the Gospel. Women are commissioned as Pastors and are considered ministers of the Gospel. Men serving within the Adventist Church's organizational leadership, e.g. Local Conference/Union Conference/Division/General Conference offices are usually addressed as "Elder." But as an example; the current President of the General Conference, "Elder Ted Wilson" is sometimes addressed Pastor Ted Wilson. ### Shakerism {{unreferenced section\|date\=May 2014}} Among the [Shakers](/wiki/Shakers "Shakers"), noted for their acceptance of females in leading roles, Elders and Eldresses were leaders in specific areas. Two Elders and Eldresses headed the central Shaker ministry at the [Mount Lebanon Shaker Society](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Shaker_Society "Mount Lebanon Shaker Society") and dealt with both spiritual and temporal matters. Other pairs of elders and eldresses headed groups of Shaker communities, while others were spiritual leaders of smaller groups within the communities.
[ "Distinctions in practice\n------------------------", "[Church governance](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity \"Ecclesiastical polity\") is generally organised in one of three main types:\n* [Episcopal polity](/wiki/Episcopal_polity \"Episcopal polity\"), in which churches are governed in a hierarchical fashion, with the role of elders being fulfilled by external bishops. It is common in [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\"), [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church \"Eastern Orthodox Church\"), [Methodist](/wiki/Methodist \"Methodist\"), some [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\"), and [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") churches, and was prevalent up to and after the [Reformation](/wiki/Reformation \"Reformation\").\n* [Presbyterian polity](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity \"Presbyterian polity\"), in which churches are governed on a denominational, geographical basis by committees of elders.\n* [Congregational polity](/wiki/Congregational_polity \"Congregational polity\"), in which each church is responsible for its own governance. Churches employing this method include [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\"), [Congregational](/wiki/Congregational_church \"Congregational church\"), some [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\"), and [Plymouth Brethren](/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren \"Plymouth Brethren\") churches. Some churches are led by a [pastor](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\"); some maintain a [plurality](/wiki/Plurality_%28church_governance%29 \"Plurality (church governance)\") of elders.", "### Anglicans", "An ordained [Anglican](/wiki/Anglican \"Anglican\") minister is usually called a priest, holding the prenominal of Reverend if they are [Low church](/wiki/Low_church \"Low church\") or Sister or Father if they are [High church](/wiki/High_church \"High church\"). Lay preachers in the Anglican Communion are usually called [Pastors](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\"), especially Chaplains and other pastoral office holders, who are not ordained but engage with a congregation or workplace in an advisory capacity. The title \"Elder\" is usually given to those Anglicans ministers who are not vicars, but hold a learned role within or beyond a congregation, such as a Reader who assists a priest or a Pioneer Minister who seeks to engage with those who are outside the traditional [Anglican Communion](/wiki/Anglican_Communion \"Anglican Communion\") structures.", "### Baptists", "{{main\\|Baptists\\#Baptist beliefs and principles}}\nHistorically, [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\") churches do not recognize elder as a separate office from those of pastor or deacon; it is commonly considered a synonym of deacon or pastor.[Fiddes, P. *A Leading Question*](http://www.baptist.org.uk/resources/resource_downloads/493.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722034329/http://www.baptist.org.uk/resources/resource\\_downloads/493\\.pdf \\|date\\=2011\\-07\\-22 }} London: Baptist Publications This is not universal in Baptist circles, however, and there are many Baptist churches which are elder\\-led. Others have elder councils where pastoral functions are shared according to gifts, such as teaching, management and pastoral care. William H. Brackney, *Historical Dictionary of the Baptists*, Scarecrow Press, USA, 2009, p. 198", "### Christadelphianism", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2014}}\n[Christadelphians](/wiki/Christadelphians \"Christadelphians\") do not appoint any form of clergy. Organisation is based on ecclesially accountable committees for [evangelism](/wiki/Evangelism \"Evangelism\"), youth and [Sunday School](/wiki/Sunday_School \"Sunday School\") work, [military service](/wiki/Military_service \"Military service\") issues, care of the elderly and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority and are wholly dependent upon support from within the church. Women are typically not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the [ecclesia](/wiki/wikt:Congregation \"Congregation\") when male believers are present, and do not sit on the main committees, however they do participate in other ecclesial and inter\\-ecclesial committees.", "### Churches of Christ", "{{main\\|Churches of Christ\\#Congregational autonomy and leadership}}\nCongregations referring to themselves as [Churches of Christ](/wiki/Churches_of_Christ \"Churches of Christ\") believe that local congregations should be led by a plurality of biblically qualified elders.Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN\\|0\\-7369\\-1289\\-4}}Howard, V.E. (1971\\) *What Is the Church of Christ?* 4th Edition (Revised) Central Printers \\& Publishers, West Monroe, Louisiana They base this on a conviction that congregations (and Christians in general) should attempt to follow the teachings of the [New Testament](/wiki/New_Testament \"New Testament\") wherever humanly possible.This belief is shared with other religious organizations with roots in the [Restoration Movement](/wiki/Restoration_Movement \"Restoration Movement\"), such as the [Independent Christian Church](/wiki/Independent_Christian_Church \"Independent Christian Church\").\n In accordance with the teachings of the bible the Churches of Christ teach and practice that only males may serve as elders (female elders are not recognized), and must meet Biblical qualifications (generally I Timothy 3:1\\-7 and Titus 1:5\\-9 are the Biblical texts used to determine if a male is qualified to serve as elder).", "In this regard, elders are accountable to each other and to God. The evangelist and the elders have the spiritual oversight of the congregation (e.g., withdrawing fellowship from a member who the elders consider to be wayward in doctrine or refuses to abide by the elders' counsel or decision in a matter) as well as administrative oversight (e.g., overseeing the congregation budget).", "The elders will be assisted by [deacons](/wiki/Deacons \"Deacons\") who, depending on the congregation, may have a specific area of non\\-spiritual service (e.g., finance, building and grounds, benevolence); the deacons are in all matters subservient to the elders. An elder may also be qualified to serve as a deacon (and, in some cases, may have previously served as a deacon before becoming an elder).", "Depending on the congregation, the elders may rotate main preaching and teaching duties or appoint one or more male persons (who may or may not be elders) to serve as the [ministers](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 \"Minister (Christianity)\") for that congregation. If one person is assigned main preaching duties, he is never referred to as \"Father\" (based on Matthew 23:9, which states that the only Father a Christian has is in Heaven), nor is the individual referred to as \"pastor\" (due to belief that the one reference to \"pastor\" in Ephesians 4:11 is translated \"shepherd\" in all other cases, and in context either refers to Jesus Christ or to an elder; as stated above the person with main preaching duties may or may not be an elder) or \"reverend\" (due to belief that the one reference to this term in Psalm 111:9 refers to the reverence of God's name). Instead, common terms used are \"evangelist\", \"preacher\", \"minister\" (or \"pulpit minister\"; the latter may be used if the congregation has assistant or associate ministers over certain programs or functions), or \"preaching elder\" (if the person is also an elder).", "### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints", "{{main\\|Elder (Latter Day Saints)}}\nElders are male members of [the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints](/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\") who have the [Melchizedek Priesthood](/wiki/Melchizedek_Priesthood \"Melchizedek Priesthood\") and have been ordained to the office of elder, typically at the age of 18\\.[History of Age Restrictions in Priesthood in the LDS Church](https://christianity.stackexchange.com/questions/63753/history-of-the-age-restrictions-in-the-priesthood-in-the-lds-church), [Stack Exchange](/wiki/Stack_Exchange \"Stack Exchange\"), May 21, 2018, Retrieved Marc 28, 2020 Male [missionaries](/wiki/Missionary \"Missionary\") of the Church, [General Authorities](/wiki/General_Authority \"General Authority\") and [Area Authority Seventies](/wiki/Seventy_%28LDS_Church%29%23Third.2C_Fourth.2C_Fifth.2C_Sixth.2C_Seventh.2C_and_Eighth_Quorums_of_the_Seventy \"Seventy (LDS Church)#Third.2C Fourth.2C Fifth.2C Sixth.2C Seventh.2C and Eighth Quorums of the Seventy\") are honorarily titled \"Elder\" unless they have duties (such as those of a Branch President) entitling them to be called *President.*", "The duties of the ordained elders in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter\\-day Saints are defined in the book of [Doctrine and Covenants](/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants \"Doctrine and Covenants\"). Elder is the proper title given to all holders of the Melchizedek Priesthood. Thus an apostle is an elder in this sense, and it is proper to speak of members of the Quorum of the Twelve or the First Quorum of the Seventy by this title.[Doctrine and Covenants](/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants \"Doctrine and Covenants\") (D\\&C) 20: 38; cf. 1 Pet. 5: 1; 2 Jn. 1: 1; 3 Jn. 1: 1{{full citation needed\\|date\\=November 2012}}", "### Church of Scotland", "{{main\\|Ministers and elders in the Church of Scotland}}\nGovernance in the [Church of Scotland](/wiki/Church_of_Scotland \"Church of Scotland\") is based on [presbyterian polity](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity \"Presbyterian polity\"). There are several roles in the ministry including [ministers](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 \"Minister (Christianity)\") of Word and Sacrament, [chaplains](/wiki/Chaplains \"Chaplains\"), [deacons](/wiki/Deacons \"Deacons\") and readers. Elders are another role, which is voluntary and un\\-salaried elders. They are ordained for life by the minister and [Kirk Session](/wiki/Kirk_Session \"Kirk Session\") of a [parish](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\"), and carry out [pastoral](/wiki/Pastoral \"Pastoral\") and local church government duties under the guidance of the [minister](/wiki/Minister_%28Christianity%29 \"Minister (Christianity)\"). All elders are members of the Kirk session, and may train to chair the session, conduct funerals, preach and lead worship.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/ministry/ministryroles.htm \\|title\\=Church of Scotland website \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121104451/http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/ministry/ministryroles.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-11\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "### Congregationalism", "{{main\\|Congregational church}}\n[Congregational churches](/wiki/Congregational_church \"Congregational church\") observe the office of elder. Early congregationalist standards held a fourfold view of ecclesiastical offices: pastor, teacher, ruling elder, and deacon.{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/cambridgeplatfo00cong \\|title\\=The Cambridge platform of church discipline ... 1648 : and A Confession of faith .. \\|date\\=1850 \\|publisher\\=\\[Boston : Perkins \\& Whipple] \\|others\\=The Library of Congress}} In this view, pastor, techer, and ruling elder are all types of elder. Later exponents like [Henry Martyn Dexter](/wiki/Henry_Martyn_Dexter \"Henry Martyn Dexter\") advocated a twofold view of only elder and deacon, the pastor/teacher, elder, and overseer being different terms for the same office.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Dexter \\|first\\=Henry Martyn \\|url\\=http://archive.org/details/congregationalis00dextrich \\|title\\=Congregationalism: \\|date\\=1865 \\|publisher\\=Boston, Nichols and Noyes \\|others\\=University of California Libraries \\|page\\=67}} The primary officer is ordinarily called the \"pastor\" or \"minister.\" Ordination and installation of officers is a local event, without the oversight of elders outside of the local church as in [presbyterianism](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity \"Presbyterian polity\").", "Congregational churches generally form [committees](/wiki/Committee \"Committee\") and [boards](/wiki/Board_of_directors \"Board of directors\"), either entirely composed of elders and deacons or with non\\-official members appointed by the congregation.", "### Jehovah's Witnesses", "{{main\\|Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses\\#Elders}}\nAmong [Jehovah's Witnesses](/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses \"Jehovah's Witnesses\"), an [elder](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Elders \"Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Elders\") is a man appointed to teach the congregation. He is also called an \"overseer\" or \"servant\". Elders within each congregation work within a \"body of elders\", several of whom are assigned to oversee specific congregational tasks. Each body of elders has a coordinator (previously known as the presiding overseer), a secretary, and a service overseer. Witnesses consider the office of elder to be the same as that referred to in the Bible as \"older man\" (\"[presbyter](/wiki/Presbyter \"Presbyter\")\"), overseer (\"[bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\")\"), and shepherd (\"[pastor](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\")\") but do not use any of the terms as [titles](/wiki/Title \"Title\").", "Representatives of the [Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses](/wiki/Governing_Body_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses \"Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses\") select elders to be appointed as circuit overseers, (also referred to as traveling overseers). Each circuit overseer visits the [congregations](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Congregations \"Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Congregations\") in his jurisdiction twice each year. During his visit, local elders recommend members who may qualify for appointment as elders or [ministerial servants](/wiki/Organizational_structure_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses%23Ministerial_servants \"Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Ministerial servants\") (equivalent to [deacons](/wiki/Deacon \"Deacon\")), and appointments are decided by the circuit overseer.[\"Questions From Readers\", *The Watch Tower*, pages 28,29](http://www.jw.org/en/publications/magazines/w20141115/questions-from-readers/) Congregation elders do not receive monetary compensation; traveling overseers receive a modest stipend.", "### Lutheranism", "An Elder in the [Lutheran Church](/wiki/Lutheranism \"Lutheranism\") is a position of lay\\-service, concerned with the temporal and administrative affair of the congregation. In many congregations, elders are also charged with oversight of the pastor but exercising only that oversight given to every Christian in the congregation.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Worship and Congregational Life \\- Frequently Asked Questions \\- The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod\\|url\\=https://www.lcms.org/about/beliefs/faqs/worship\\-and\\-congregational\\-life\\#elders\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-09\\-17\\|website\\=www.lcms.org}} They are also assigned to assist the pastor in the [sacraments](/wiki/Lutheran_sacraments \"Lutheran sacraments\") (the [Eucharist](/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Lutheran_Church \"Eucharist in the Lutheran Church\") and [Baptism](/wiki/Baptism \"Baptism\")). In the Eucharist, the Elder may assist in the distribution. In Baptism, the Elder may hold the [water](/wiki/Holy_water \"Holy water\") or assist the pastor in other ways. Generally, an elder is not permitted to [consecrate](/wiki/Consecration \"Consecration\") the bread and wine in the Eucharist, or perform [Holy Absolution](/wiki/Holy_Absolution \"Holy Absolution\"), as these acts are usually reserved for the pastor. An Elder helps brothers at each congregation.", "However, many within the confessional wing of Lutheranism, see the term \"elder\" being used in such a way an unfortunate effect of Reformed (and broader Protestant) influence on the Lutheran Church. Elder (or Presbyteros, in the Greek) serving as a synonym for \"Pastor\" or \"Priest\", not unlike how Lutheran teaching also recognizes \"episkopos\" (Greek, meaning overseer), or bishop to be yet another synonym. Historic Lutheranism recognized a single office of Word and Sacrament being established directly by Christ (technically two, counting the uniquely Lutheran vocation of laity); all distinctions within nomenclature and structural ranking were purely \"jure humano\" (of human make). Thus making a distinction between \"pastor\" and \"elder\" would seem pointless, and using the term \"lay elder\" would be oxymoronic.", "### Methodism", "{{main\\|Elder (Methodism)}}\nAn *Elder* \\- sometimes called a \"Presbyter\" \\- is someone who has been [ordained](/wiki/Ordained \"Ordained\") by a [bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\") to the ministry of Word, [Sacrament](/wiki/Sacrament \"Sacrament\"), Order, and Service. Their responsibilities are to preach and teach, preside at the celebration of the sacraments, administer the church through pastoral guidance, and lead the congregations under their care in service ministry to the world.*[The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church](/wiki/The_Book_of_Discipline_of_the_United_Methodist_Church \"The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church\")*. Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 1984 The office of *Elder*, then, is what most people tend to think of as the [pastoral](/wiki/Pastor \"Pastor\"), [priestly](/wiki/Priest \"Priest\"), [clergy](/wiki/Clergy \"Clergy\") office within the church. Indeed, even a Methodist [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\") is still an Elder who has been elected and consecrated by the laying on of hands to the **office** of Bishop (Bishop being understood as an *office* within the Presbyterate, **not** an *order* or separate level of ordination). In some of the denominations within [Methodism](/wiki/Methodism \"Methodism\"), [ordination](/wiki/Ordination \"Ordination\") to the office of *Elder* is open to both women and men, while in others, such as the [Primitive Methodist Church](/wiki/Primitive_Methodist_Church \"Primitive Methodist Church\") and [Evangelical Wesleyan Church](/wiki/Evangelical_Wesleyan_Church \"Evangelical Wesleyan Church\"), it is only opened to men.{{cite book\\|title\\=The Discipline of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church \\|year\\=2015\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]]\\|language\\=en\\|pages\\=115}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.primitivemethodistchurch.org/Discipline\\-2013\\.pdf\\|title\\=Discipline of the Primitive Methodist Church in the United States of America\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Primitive Methodist Church]]\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=31 May 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=7 August 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807023333/http://www.primitivemethodistchurch.org/Discipline\\-2013\\.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "### Plymouth Brethren", "{{main\\|Plymouth Brethren\\#No clergy}}\nOne of the key distinctions of [Plymouth Brethren](/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren \"Plymouth Brethren\") churches is the total rejection of the concept of [clergy](/wiki/Clergy \"Clergy\").[Holmes, F. (1962\\) Regarding Elders. *Precious Seed*, 13(1\\)](http://www.preciousseed.org/view.php?id=2038&highlight_word=elders){{Dead link\\|date\\=August 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} In keeping with the doctrine of the [priesthood of all believers](/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers \"Priesthood of all believers\"), they view all Christians as being ordained by God to serve and therefore ministers. Leaders are chosen according to the qualifications found in {{Bibleref2\\|1Tim\\|3:1\\-7}} and {{Bibleref2\\|Titus\\|1:6\\-9}}, and appointed by the Holy Spirit. Plymouth Brethren churches tend to have multiple elders based on the plural use of the word in reference to New Testament churches.", "One branch of the Plymouth Brethren, the [Exclusive Brethren](/wiki/Exclusive_Brethren \"Exclusive Brethren\"), are so named for their practice of serving the Lord's Supper exclusively to those who are part of their own particular group, agreeing with them on various doctrinal positions.[BBC website](http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/exclusivebrethren_1.shtml) Most Exclusive Brethren groups believe the church to have been in ruins between the death of the apostles and their own time. Since no truly apostolic authority exists to appoint elders the church has none. Instead they recognize \"leading brothers\" who demonstrate maturity and leadership ability.{{citation needed\\|date\\=November 2010}}", "### Presbyterianism", "{{main\\|Presbyterian polity\\#Elder}}\nAlthough practices in the [Presbyterian Church](/wiki/Presbyterian_Church \"Presbyterian Church\") vary internationally, typically the church recognises three offices within church polity: the [minister](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity%23Minister \"Presbyterian polity#Minister\") (alternately \"teaching elder\" or \"pastor\"), a bench of ruling elders, and [deacons](/wiki/Deacons \"Deacons\").{{Cite book \\|url\\=http://www.bpc.org/resources/books/miller/elder01\\.html/ \\|last\\=Miller \\|first\\=Samuel \\|date\\=1831 \\|title\\=An Essay, on the Warrant, Nature and Duties of the Office of the Ruling Elder, in the Presbyterian Church \\|publisher\\=bpc.org \\|chapter\\=Chapter 1: Introductory \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619042433/http://www.bpc.org/resources/books/miller/elder01\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=19 June 2008 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|access\\-date\\=6 December 2010 }} The elders are \"ordained lay\" people and form the [session](/wiki/Kirk_Session \"Kirk Session\"), which is a ruling council for their congregation.", "### Rastafari", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2014}}\nMembers of the [Rastafari Movement](/wiki/Rastafari_Movement \"Rastafari Movement\") often refer to their experienced members as elders, such as [Joseph Hibbert](/wiki/Joseph_Hibbert \"Joseph Hibbert\"), [Vernon Carrington](/wiki/Vernon_Carrington \"Vernon Carrington\"), [Leonard Howell](/wiki/Leonard_Howell \"Leonard Howell\"), and [Mortimer Planno](/wiki/Mortimer_Planno \"Mortimer Planno\").", "### Radical Pietism", "The [Radical Pietistic](/wiki/Radical_Pietistic \"Radical Pietistic\") communities, such as the [Schwarzenau Brethren](/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren \"Schwarzenau Brethren\"), do not believe in the [swearing of oaths](/wiki/Oath%23Christian_tradition \"Oath#Christian tradition\") and also resolve problems at the congregational level under church councils presided by elders, rather than in civil courts. Members who sin openly are visited by the elders and encouraged to repent of their transgressions.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Kurian \\|first1\\=George Thomas \\|last2\\=Lamport \\|first2\\=Mark A. \\|title\\=\\[\\[Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States]] \\|date\\=2016 \\|publisher\\=Rowman \\& Littlefield \\|isbn\\=9781442244320 \\|language\\=en}}", "### Roman Catholic Church", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2014}}\nMembers of the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church \"Catholic Church\") still use the Greek word [Presbyter](/wiki/Presbyter \"Presbyter\") (πρεσβύτερος, presbuteros: \"elder\", or \"priest\" in Christian usage) to refer to priests (priest is etymologically derived from the Greek presbyteros via the Latin presbyter). Collectively, however, their \"college\" is referred to as the \"presbyterium\" (meaning \"council of elders\"), \"presbytery\", or \"presbyterate.\"", "The [presbyterium](/wiki/Presbyterium \"Presbyterium\") is most visible during the [ordination](/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church \"Holy orders in the Catholic Church\") of new priests and bishops and the [Mass of the Chrism](/wiki/Mass_of_the_Chrism \"Mass of the Chrism\") (the Mass occurring on [Maundy Thursday](/wiki/Maundy_Thursday \"Maundy Thursday\")) where the blessing of the oils used in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, Anointing of the Sick, and Holy Orders takes place. They are also visible during other special liturgical functions such as the wake and burial of their bishop.", "### Seventh\\-day Adventist Church (SDA)", "\"Elder\" was the only honorific title used to distinguish church leadership during the formative years of the Seventh\\-day Adventist Church.{{cite web \\|last1\\=White \\|first1\\=Ellen \\|title\\=Mrs. \\|url\\=https://egwwritings.org/?module\\=writings\\&params\\=(search:'Elder',bookcode:'',filter:\\[{'type':'folder','key':'4'},{'type':'folder','key':'1227'},{'type':'folder','key':'5'},{'type':'folder','key':'8'},{'type':'folder','key':'9'},{'type':'folder','key':'10'},{'type':'folder','key':'253'},{'type':'folder','key':'14'}]) \\|website\\=Ellen White Writings \\|access\\-date\\=10 March 2019}} Mrs. White, as in, Elder and Mrs. James White, is how the church's prophet, Ellen G. White, was universally referred to up until the late 20th century. The term \"Elder\" applies to both local church elders and to ordained ministers of the gospel. SDA nomenclature has never used the terms, priest, reverend or clergy as honorific titles or as work titles. For convenience \"Pastor\" is now regularly used to distinguish ordained ministers of the gospel from ordained local elders. SDA ordained Ministers of the Gospel are paid employees of the Seventh\\-day Adventist Church and they are required to also be Elders in the local church. Women can be ordained as local elders, but are not ordained as ministers of the Gospel. Women are commissioned as Pastors and are considered ministers of the Gospel. Men serving within the Adventist Church's organizational leadership, e.g. Local Conference/Union Conference/Division/General Conference offices are usually addressed as \"Elder.\" But as an example; the current President of the General Conference, \"Elder Ted Wilson\" is sometimes addressed Pastor Ted Wilson.", "### Shakerism", "{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=May 2014}}\nAmong the [Shakers](/wiki/Shakers \"Shakers\"), noted for their acceptance of females in leading roles, Elders and Eldresses were leaders in specific areas. Two Elders and Eldresses headed the central Shaker ministry at the [Mount Lebanon Shaker Society](/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Shaker_Society \"Mount Lebanon Shaker Society\") and dealt with both spiritual and temporal matters. Other pairs of elders and eldresses headed groups of Shaker communities, while others were spiritual leaders of smaller groups within the communities.", "" ]
Biography --------- Trowell was educated at [Reigate Grammar School](/wiki/Reigate_Grammar_School "Reigate Grammar School") and studied medicine at [St Thomas' Hospital](/wiki/St_Thomas%27_Hospital "St Thomas' Hospital"). In 1929, he joined the [Colonial Medical Service](/wiki/Colonial_Medical_Service "Colonial Medical Service") in Kenya. Based on his medical work in Kenya and Uganda (1929–1958\), he identified a condition known as [protein–energy malnutrition](/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition "Protein–energy malnutrition"). From 1935 until his retirement in 1959, he worked as a consultant physician and paediatrician at [Mulago Hospital and Medical School](/wiki/Makerere_University_School_of_Medicine "Makerere University School of Medicine") in Kampala, Uganda. Trowell was internationally acknowledged as an authority on [Kwashiorkor](/wiki/Kwashiorkor "Kwashiorkor"). He was the first to discover that [serum albumin](/wiki/Serum_albumin "Serum albumin") concentration in children with kwashiorkor was below normal which was used to support the hypothesis that a protein deficient diet was responsible for the condition.Heikens, G. T; Manary, M. (2009\). [*75 years of Kwashiorkor in Africa*](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717488/). *Malawi Medical Journal: The Journal of Medical Association of Malawi* 21 (3\): 96–98\. With his colleague [Denis P. Burkitt](/wiki/Denis_P._Burkitt "Denis P. Burkitt"), Trowell was influential in promoting dietary fiber.Cummings, John H; Engineer, Amanda. (2018\). [*Denis Burkitt and the origins of the dietary fibre hypothesis*](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/article/denis-burkitt-and-the-origins-of-the-dietary-fibre-hypothesis/1DA569CF06DB93A4FF2DA54629A5D566/core-reader). *Nutrition Research Reviews* 31 (1\): 1–15\. He developed the fiber hypothesis in a series of books and papers with Burkitt in the 1970s and 80s. Their research showed that diets low in fiber increase the risk of [coronary heart disease](/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease "Coronary heart disease"), diabetes, [obesity](/wiki/Obesity "Obesity") and large bowel conditions such as [colorectal cancer](/wiki/Colorectal_cancer "Colorectal cancer"), appendicitis and [diverticulosis](/wiki/Diverticulosis "Diverticulosis"). The *[British Medical Journal](/wiki/The_BMJ "The BMJ")* describes Trowell as "probably the first person to link diets deficient in fibre with obesity, diabetes and coronary heart disease."H. C. Trowell OBE, MD, FRCP. (1989\). *BMJ: British Medical Journal* 299 (6696\): 453\. After his retirement from medicine, he became an ordained minister in the [Anglican ministry](/wiki/Anglican_ministry "Anglican ministry").
[ "Biography\n---------", "Trowell was educated at [Reigate Grammar School](/wiki/Reigate_Grammar_School \"Reigate Grammar School\") and studied medicine at [St Thomas' Hospital](/wiki/St_Thomas%27_Hospital \"St Thomas' Hospital\"). In 1929, he joined the [Colonial Medical Service](/wiki/Colonial_Medical_Service \"Colonial Medical Service\") in Kenya.", "Based on his medical work in Kenya and Uganda (1929–1958\\), he identified a condition known as [protein–energy malnutrition](/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition \"Protein–energy malnutrition\"). From 1935 until his retirement in 1959, he worked as a consultant physician and paediatrician at [Mulago Hospital and Medical School](/wiki/Makerere_University_School_of_Medicine \"Makerere University School of Medicine\") in Kampala, Uganda.", "Trowell was internationally acknowledged as an authority on [Kwashiorkor](/wiki/Kwashiorkor \"Kwashiorkor\"). He was the first to discover that [serum albumin](/wiki/Serum_albumin \"Serum albumin\") concentration in children with kwashiorkor was below normal which was used to support the hypothesis that a protein deficient diet was responsible for the condition.Heikens, G. T; Manary, M. (2009\\). [*75 years of Kwashiorkor in Africa*](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3717488/). *Malawi Medical Journal: The Journal of Medical Association of Malawi* 21 (3\\): 96–98\\.", "With his colleague [Denis P. Burkitt](/wiki/Denis_P._Burkitt \"Denis P. Burkitt\"), Trowell was influential in promoting dietary fiber.Cummings, John H; Engineer, Amanda. (2018\\). [*Denis Burkitt and the origins of the dietary fibre hypothesis*](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nutrition-research-reviews/article/denis-burkitt-and-the-origins-of-the-dietary-fibre-hypothesis/1DA569CF06DB93A4FF2DA54629A5D566/core-reader). *Nutrition Research Reviews* 31 (1\\): 1–15\\. He developed the fiber hypothesis in a series of books and papers with Burkitt in the 1970s and 80s. Their research showed that diets low in fiber increase the risk of [coronary heart disease](/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease \"Coronary heart disease\"), diabetes, [obesity](/wiki/Obesity \"Obesity\") and large bowel conditions such as [colorectal cancer](/wiki/Colorectal_cancer \"Colorectal cancer\"), appendicitis and [diverticulosis](/wiki/Diverticulosis \"Diverticulosis\"). The *[British Medical Journal](/wiki/The_BMJ \"The BMJ\")* describes Trowell as \"probably the first person to link diets deficient in fibre with obesity, diabetes and coronary heart disease.\"H. C. Trowell OBE, MD, FRCP. (1989\\). *BMJ: British Medical Journal* 299 (6696\\): 453\\.", "After his retirement from medicine, he became an ordained minister in the [Anglican ministry](/wiki/Anglican_ministry \"Anglican ministry\").", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1880\= 111 \|1890\= 140 \|1900\= 262 \|1910\= 816 \|1920\= 1780 \|1930\= 2056 \|1940\= 2980 \|1950\= 2942 \|1960\= 3997 \|1970\= 4424 \|1980\= 4707 \|1990\= 4392 \|2000\= 4302 \|2010\= 4654 \|2020\= 4461 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2020 census | \+Farmville racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=1600000US3722820\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 24, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race Number Percentage | --- | | [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) 2,020 | 45\.28% | | [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic) 2,106 | 47\.21% | | [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)") 16 | 0\.36% | | [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)") 13 | 0\.29% | | [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") 140 | 3\.14% | | [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") 166 | 3\.72% | As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 4,461 people, 1,813 households, and 1,212 families residing in the town. ### 2014 As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2014, there were 5,012 people, 2,394 households, and 1,992 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|1,387\.4\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 2,010 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|648\.2\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 47\.37% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 50\.09% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.07% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.23% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 1\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.05% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.12% of the population. There were 1,839 households, out of which 26\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 22\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34\.6% were non\-families. 32\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.33 and the average family size was 2\.93\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 23\.9% under the age of 18, 7\.4% from 18 to 24, 23\.4% from 25 to 44, 26\.3% from 45 to 64, and 18\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 77\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 71\.6 males. The median income for a household in the town was $29,229, and the median income for a family was $38,918\. Males had a median income of $31,543 versus $21,968 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $20,582\. About 14\.6% of families and 20\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 32\.8% of those under age 18 and 23\.8% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 111\n\\|1890\\= 140\n\\|1900\\= 262\n\\|1910\\= 816\n\\|1920\\= 1780\n\\|1930\\= 2056\n\\|1940\\= 2980\n\\|1950\\= 2942\n\\|1960\\= 3997\n\\|1970\\= 4424\n\\|1980\\= 4707\n\\|1990\\= 4392\n\\|2000\\= 4302\n\\|2010\\= 4654\n\\|2020\\= 4461\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2020 census", "", "| \\+Farmville racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=1600000US3722820\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race", "Number", "Percentage", "| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)", "2,020 |\n 45\\.28% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)", "2,106 |\n 47\\.21% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\")", "16 |\n 0\\.36% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\")", "13 |\n 0\\.29% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")", "140 |\n 3\\.14% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")", "166 |\n 3\\.72% |", "As of the [2020 United States census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 4,461 people, 1,813 households, and 1,212 families residing in the town.", "### 2014", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2014, there were 5,012 people, 2,394 households, and 1,992 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|1,387\\.4\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 2,010 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|648\\.2\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 47\\.37% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 50\\.09% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.07% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.23% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.19% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.05% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.12% of the population.", "There were 1,839 households, out of which 26\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 22\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34\\.6% were non\\-families. 32\\.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.33 and the average family size was 2\\.93\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 23\\.9% under the age of 18, 7\\.4% from 18 to 24, 23\\.4% from 25 to 44, 26\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 18\\.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 77\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 71\\.6 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $29,229, and the median income for a family was $38,918\\. Males had a median income of $31,543 versus $21,968 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $20,582\\. About 14\\.6% of families and 20\\.6% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 32\\.8% of those under age 18 and 23\\.8% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|A MG EMU at Park Station with Ripon Building and Victoria Hall at the background (c: IRFCA)](/wiki/File:ParkTownHistorical.jpg "ParkTownHistorical.jpg") [thumb\|A MG EMU at Tirusulam (c: IRFCA)](/wiki/File:PIX032.jpg "PIX032.jpg") [left\|thumb\|320x320px\|[Chennai Central Railway Station](/wiki/Chennai_Central_railway_station "Chennai Central railway station"), one of the prime destinations of the Chennai Suburban Railway system](/wiki/File:Chennai_train_station.jpg "Chennai train station.jpg") [left\|thumb\|A suburban train arrives at Mambalam Railway Station.](/wiki/File:A_Suburban_train_arrives_at_Mambalam_Railway_Station.jpg "A Suburban train arrives at Mambalam Railway Station.jpg") Chennai has a fairly extensive suburban [electric multiple unit](/wiki/Electric_multiple_unit "Electric multiple unit") (EMU) service. It was in the 1920s that the then British government felt the necessity of connecting the northern part of the city, which was mainly commercial, with the chiefly residential southwestern parts. In 1928, work began on constructing two [meter gauge](/wiki/Meter_gauge "Meter gauge") (MG) lines connecting the harbour with the southern suburb of Tambaram to run services using [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotives "Steam locomotives"). In early 1930, however, the government decided to electrify the lines, including the mainline starting from [Egmore](/wiki/Chennai_Egmore "Chennai Egmore"). The plan to electrify railway lines in Madras was first initiated in 1923 by Sir Percy Rothera, an agent of the South Indian Railways. This was on account of the city's rapid expansion, with largely agricultural areas such as [Saidapet](/wiki/Saidapet "Saidapet"), [St. Thomas Mount](/wiki/St._Thomas_Mount "St. Thomas Mount") and [Tambaram](/wiki/Tambaram "Tambaram") developing into residential quarters. Plan to build a new line between Beach and Egmore and two lines between Egmore and Tambaram was announced as part of the suburban remodelling initiative of South Indian Railways. The rolling stock, consisting of rigid wooden\-bodied coaches, were built by [Metro\-Cammell](/wiki/Metro-Cammell "Metro-Cammell"). On 27 December 1930, the first consignment of 25 electric carriages from [England](/wiki/England "England") was received by the railway. The trains were painted in dull green with a black wheel base and featured wide sliding doors, a better\-designed seating arrangement, and thick glass fronts. The new carriages were parked in Tambaram station.{{cite news \| last \= Menon \| first \= Nitya \| title \= 83 years of electric suburban rail \| newspaper \= The Hindu \| location \= Chennai \| date \= 18 April 2014 \| url \= http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/83\-years\-of\-electric\-suburban\-rail/article5923173\.ece \| access\-date \= 18 Apr 2014 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140418091548/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/83\-years\-of\-electric\-suburban\-rail/article5923173\.ece \| archive\-date \= 18 April 2014 \| url\-status \= live }} By March 1931, the construction works were completed, and the first electrically operated rail service in Madras began on 2 April 1931 between Madras Beach and [Tambaram](/wiki/Tambaram_railway_station "Tambaram railway station"), which became the earliest metre gauge to be electrified in the country. It was launched by [Sir George Fredrick Stanley](/wiki/George_Fredrick_Stanley "George Fredrick Stanley"), the then governor of Madras, who at the opening ceremony was reported to have said that the new train services would transform "desolate south Madras into burgeoning garden cities". However, the suburban services were opened to the public only a month later on 11 May 1931\. The section was electrified on 15 November 1931, with the first MG EMU services running on 1\.5 kV DC.{{cite web \| title \= Electric Traction – I \| publisher \= IRFCA.org \| url \= http://irfca.org/faq/faq\-elec.html\#vol \| access\-date \= 17 November 2012 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20121105135017/http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\-elec.html\#vol \| archive\-date \= 5 November 2012 \| url\-status \= live }} The Madras Electricity Supply Corporation, which powered the railway lines, was aided by sub\-stations in Egmore and Meenambakkam. Soon, the number of trains shuttling passengers was increased to 45 a day, running every 10 minutes at peak hours, and every 30 minutes, otherwise. The running time between Madras Beach and Tambaram stations, which was 2 hours until then, was reduced to 49 minutes. The train service was made available from 4:00 in the morning up to 12:00 at night. In the same year, mainline DC locomotives (YCG) were introduced to haul freight from the port.{{cite web\|last\=Moro\|first\=Bharath\|url\=http://www.irfca.org/docs/chennai\-gc.html\|title\=Chennai Area Gauge Conversion\|publisher\=Irfca.org\|date\=May 2005\|access\-date\=13 November 2012\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028165446/http://irfca.org/docs/chennai\-gc.html\|archive\-date\=28 October 2012\|url\-status\=live}} The system had the [meter\-gauge](/wiki/Meter_gauge "Meter gauge") (MG) EMUs (YAU series) until the gauge conversion. Since then, the system has only the [broad\-gauge](/wiki/Broad-gauge "Broad-gauge") (BG) EMUs running.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\-metro.html\#mad \|title\=Metro – Urban – Suburban Systems \|publisher\=Irfca.org \|access\-date\=13 November 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104064610/http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\-metro.html\#mad \|archive\-date\=4 November 2012 \|url\-status\=live }} In the 1960s, the line from Madras Beach to [Villupuram](/wiki/Villupuram "Villupuram") was converted to 25 kV AC traction. This began with the conversion of the Madras Beach–Tambaram section on 15 January 1967\.{{cite web \| title \= IR Electrification Chronology up to 31\.03\.2004 \| work \= History of Electrification \| publisher \= IRFCA.org \| url \= http://irfca.org/docs/electrification\-history.html \| access\-date \= 17 November 2012 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20131019225702/http://irfca.org/docs/electrification\-history.html \| archive\-date \= 19 October 2013 \| url\-status \= live }} The rolling stock was changed to EMUs with motors and electricals from [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba "Toshiba") or [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi "Hitachi"). These were built by the Integral Coach Factory based in the city. Services too were extended to Chengleput with two daily services. In the late 1967, a Toshiba/Hitachi/[Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi "Mitsubishi") combine model YAM\-1 21904 locomotive was introduced, which became the first MG 25 kV AC locomotive. Work on additional MG track between Tambaram and Chengleput began in 1969 and was completed in January 1971\. In 1986 or 1987, suburban services to northern and western parts of the city began from the newly built Moore market terminal exclusively built for suburban services, which were earlier operating from the central station terminal (First BG Suburban Services in Chennai). With the growth in suburban traffic and the existing gauge lacking sufficient carrying capacity, the Indian Railway decided to convert the entire section between Beach and Tambaram, which by then had three MG lines, to BG in early 1991, with a 50:50 joint venture with the [state government](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu "Government of Tamil Nadu"). The first BG line was laid in the section in 1992 parallel to the existing MG lines. The work was completed in February 1993\. Of the three existing MG lines, two were exclusively used for suburban service and the third one was used for mainline express and passenger trains. The newly laid BG line started handling suburban trains supplementing the MG suburban lines. In 1998, further to the Chengleput–Villupuram–Tiruchirapalli gauge conversion project, the railway decided to convert one of the MG lines in the section between Tambaram and Chengleput. However, the decision was soon changed due to large\-scale protests by suburban commuters. This resulted in the conversion of the 'down' MG line (the easternmost line out of Tambaram) to BG, in addition to laying of a new parallel MG line. Within a year, work on the new BG was completed. By late 1999, there were two MG lines and one BG line between Tambaram and Chengleput, and the new BG line was electrified by late 2000\. The conversion of the mainline MG line between Egmore and Tambaram began in 2000, resulting in Tambaram station temporarily acting as terminal point for mainline express and passenger trains originally originating from and terminating at Egmore. This resulted in increase in traffic at Tambaram station, where two additional MG lines were built. In March 2001, the gauge conversion project in the Madras–Madurai section was completed and BG passenger services began, and the Beach–Tambaram section featured two MG and two BG lines. In December 2001, electrification work of the Chengleput–Villupuram BG line commenced. Gauge conversion work of two MG lines between Beach and Egmore began in December 2002 and was completed by February 2003\. This resulted in increased BG EMU services between Beach and Tambaram and the MG services from Tambaram terminating at Egmore. The spur MG lines in the Beach–Washermanpet section were dismantled. In February 2003, one of the MG lines between Tambaram and Chengalpet was taken up for conversion and was completed in December 2003, which was used for BG EMU services and by mainline express trains. This resulted in 2 BG lines and 1 MG line in the Tambaram–Chengleput section by the end of 2003\. The last MG EMU services between the {{convert\|30\|km\|adj\=on}} Egmore–Tambaram section were run on 1 July 2004, marking the end of the regular service of the YAM\-1 locomotives, and the gauge conversion work in this section began. All MG mainline trains were switched over to diesel traction. On 1 November 2004, with the completion of the gauge\-conversion work in this section, BG EMU services were inaugurated in the Beach\-Chengalpattu Section with the addition of 15 new rakes from [ICF](/wiki/Integral_Coach_Factory "Integral Coach Factory"). In September 2020, the conversion of the third meter\-gauge line between Singaperumal Koil and Guduvancherry on the Tambaram–Chengalpattu stretch to broad gauge was completed and opened for traffic.{{citation needed\|date\=February 2021}} In February 2021, with the opening of four lines between [Chennai Beach](/wiki/Chennai_Beach "Chennai Beach") and [Attipattu](/wiki/Attipattu "Attipattu") at a cost of {{INR}} 2\.9 billion, all the eight routes in the Chennai section have four lines each.{{cite web \| url \= https://www.railjournal.com/regions/asia/chennai\-metro\-inaugurates\-blue\-line\-extension/ \| title \= Chennai Metro inaugurates Blue Line extension \| last \= Cuenca \| first \= Oliver \| date \= 16 February 2021 \| website \= International Railway Journal \| publisher \= IRJ \| access\-date \= 18 February 2021 \| quote \= }}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|A MG EMU at Park Station with Ripon Building and Victoria Hall at the background (c: IRFCA)](/wiki/File:ParkTownHistorical.jpg \"ParkTownHistorical.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|A MG EMU at Tirusulam (c: IRFCA)](/wiki/File:PIX032.jpg \"PIX032.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|320x320px\\|[Chennai Central Railway Station](/wiki/Chennai_Central_railway_station \"Chennai Central railway station\"), one of the prime destinations of the Chennai Suburban Railway system](/wiki/File:Chennai_train_station.jpg \"Chennai train station.jpg\")\n[left\\|thumb\\|A suburban train arrives at Mambalam Railway Station.](/wiki/File:A_Suburban_train_arrives_at_Mambalam_Railway_Station.jpg \"A Suburban train arrives at Mambalam Railway Station.jpg\")", "Chennai has a fairly extensive suburban [electric multiple unit](/wiki/Electric_multiple_unit \"Electric multiple unit\") (EMU) service. It was in the 1920s that the then British government felt the necessity of connecting the northern part of the city, which was mainly commercial, with the chiefly residential southwestern parts. In 1928, work began on constructing two [meter gauge](/wiki/Meter_gauge \"Meter gauge\") (MG) lines connecting the harbour with the southern suburb of Tambaram to run services using [steam locomotives](/wiki/Steam_locomotives \"Steam locomotives\"). In early 1930, however, the government decided to electrify the lines, including the mainline starting from [Egmore](/wiki/Chennai_Egmore \"Chennai Egmore\"). The plan to electrify railway lines in Madras was first initiated in 1923 by Sir Percy Rothera, an agent of the South Indian Railways. This was on account of the city's rapid expansion, with largely agricultural areas such as [Saidapet](/wiki/Saidapet \"Saidapet\"), [St. Thomas Mount](/wiki/St._Thomas_Mount \"St. Thomas Mount\") and [Tambaram](/wiki/Tambaram \"Tambaram\") developing into residential quarters. Plan to build a new line between Beach and Egmore and two lines between Egmore and Tambaram was announced as part of the suburban remodelling initiative of South Indian Railways. The rolling stock, consisting of rigid wooden\\-bodied coaches, were built by [Metro\\-Cammell](/wiki/Metro-Cammell \"Metro-Cammell\"). On 27 December 1930, the first consignment of 25 electric carriages from [England](/wiki/England \"England\") was received by the railway. The trains were painted in dull green with a black wheel base and featured wide sliding doors, a better\\-designed seating arrangement, and thick glass fronts. The new carriages were parked in Tambaram station.{{cite news\n \\| last \\= Menon\n \\| first \\= Nitya\n \\| title \\= 83 years of electric suburban rail\n \\| newspaper \\= The Hindu\n \\| location \\= Chennai\n \\| date \\= 18 April 2014\n \\| url \\= http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/83\\-years\\-of\\-electric\\-suburban\\-rail/article5923173\\.ece\n \\| access\\-date \\= 18 Apr 2014\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140418091548/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/83\\-years\\-of\\-electric\\-suburban\\-rail/article5923173\\.ece\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 18 April 2014\n \\| url\\-status \\= live\n }} By March 1931, the construction works were completed, and the first electrically operated rail service in Madras began on 2 April 1931 between Madras Beach and [Tambaram](/wiki/Tambaram_railway_station \"Tambaram railway station\"), which became the earliest metre gauge to be electrified in the country. It was launched by [Sir George Fredrick Stanley](/wiki/George_Fredrick_Stanley \"George Fredrick Stanley\"), the then governor of Madras, who at the opening ceremony was reported to have said that the new train services would transform \"desolate south Madras into burgeoning garden cities\".", "However, the suburban services were opened to the public only a month later on 11 May 1931\\. The section was electrified on 15 November 1931, with the first MG EMU services running on 1\\.5 kV DC.{{cite web\n \\| title \\= Electric Traction – I\n \\| publisher \\= IRFCA.org\n \\| url \\= http://irfca.org/faq/faq\\-elec.html\\#vol\n \\| access\\-date \\= 17 November 2012\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20121105135017/http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\\-elec.html\\#vol\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 5 November 2012\n \\| url\\-status \\= live\n }} The Madras Electricity Supply Corporation, which powered the railway lines, was aided by sub\\-stations in Egmore and Meenambakkam. Soon, the number of trains shuttling passengers was increased to 45 a day, running every 10 minutes at peak hours, and every 30 minutes, otherwise. The running time between Madras Beach and Tambaram stations, which was 2 hours until then, was reduced to 49 minutes. The train service was made available from 4:00 in the morning up to 12:00 at night.", "In the same year, mainline DC locomotives (YCG) were introduced to haul freight from the port.{{cite web\\|last\\=Moro\\|first\\=Bharath\\|url\\=http://www.irfca.org/docs/chennai\\-gc.html\\|title\\=Chennai Area Gauge Conversion\\|publisher\\=Irfca.org\\|date\\=May 2005\\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2012\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028165446/http://irfca.org/docs/chennai\\-gc.html\\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2012\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The system had the [meter\\-gauge](/wiki/Meter_gauge \"Meter gauge\") (MG) EMUs (YAU series) until the gauge conversion. Since then, the system has only the [broad\\-gauge](/wiki/Broad-gauge \"Broad-gauge\") (BG) EMUs running.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\\-metro.html\\#mad \\|title\\=Metro – Urban – Suburban Systems \\|publisher\\=Irfca.org \\|access\\-date\\=13 November 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104064610/http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq\\-metro.html\\#mad \\|archive\\-date\\=4 November 2012 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In the 1960s, the line from Madras Beach to [Villupuram](/wiki/Villupuram \"Villupuram\") was converted to 25 kV AC traction. This began with the conversion of the Madras Beach–Tambaram section on 15 January 1967\\.{{cite web\n \\| title \\= IR Electrification Chronology up to 31\\.03\\.2004\n \\| work \\= History of Electrification\n \\| publisher \\= IRFCA.org\n \\| url \\= http://irfca.org/docs/electrification\\-history.html\n \\| access\\-date \\= 17 November 2012\n \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20131019225702/http://irfca.org/docs/electrification\\-history.html\n \\| archive\\-date \\= 19 October 2013\n \\| url\\-status \\= live\n }} The rolling stock was changed to EMUs with motors and electricals from [Toshiba](/wiki/Toshiba \"Toshiba\") or [Hitachi](/wiki/Hitachi \"Hitachi\"). These were built by the Integral Coach Factory based in the city. Services too were extended to Chengleput with two daily services. In the late 1967, a Toshiba/Hitachi/[Mitsubishi](/wiki/Mitsubishi \"Mitsubishi\") combine model YAM\\-1 21904 locomotive was introduced, which became the first MG 25 kV AC locomotive. Work on additional MG track between Tambaram and Chengleput began in 1969 and was completed in January 1971\\.", "In 1986 or 1987, suburban services to northern and western parts of the city began from the newly built Moore market terminal exclusively built for suburban services, which were earlier operating from the central station terminal (First BG Suburban Services in Chennai). With the growth in suburban traffic and the existing gauge lacking sufficient carrying capacity, the Indian Railway decided to convert the entire section between Beach and Tambaram, which by then had three MG lines, to BG in early 1991, with a 50:50 joint venture with the [state government](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu \"Government of Tamil Nadu\"). The first BG line was laid in the section in 1992 parallel to the existing MG lines. The work was completed in February 1993\\. Of the three existing MG lines, two were exclusively used for suburban service and the third one was used for mainline express and passenger trains. The newly laid BG line started handling suburban trains supplementing the MG suburban lines.", "In 1998, further to the Chengleput–Villupuram–Tiruchirapalli gauge conversion project, the railway decided to convert one of the MG lines in the section between Tambaram and Chengleput. However, the decision was soon changed due to large\\-scale protests by suburban commuters. This resulted in the conversion of the 'down' MG line (the easternmost line out of Tambaram) to BG, in addition to laying of a new parallel MG line. Within a year, work on the new BG was completed. By late 1999, there were two MG lines and one BG line between Tambaram and Chengleput, and the new BG line was electrified by late 2000\\. The conversion of the mainline MG line between Egmore and Tambaram began in 2000, resulting in Tambaram station temporarily acting as terminal point for mainline express and passenger trains originally originating from and terminating at Egmore. This resulted in increase in traffic at Tambaram station, where two additional MG lines were built. In March 2001, the gauge conversion project in the Madras–Madurai section was completed and BG passenger services began, and the Beach–Tambaram section featured two MG and two BG lines. In December 2001, electrification work of the Chengleput–Villupuram BG line commenced. Gauge conversion work of two MG lines between Beach and Egmore began in December 2002 and was completed by February 2003\\. This resulted in increased BG EMU services between Beach and Tambaram and the MG services from Tambaram terminating at Egmore. The spur MG lines in the Beach–Washermanpet section were dismantled.", "In February 2003, one of the MG lines between Tambaram and Chengalpet was taken up for conversion and was completed in December 2003, which was used for BG EMU services and by mainline express trains. This resulted in 2 BG lines and 1 MG line in the Tambaram–Chengleput section by the end of 2003\\. The last MG EMU services between the {{convert\\|30\\|km\\|adj\\=on}} Egmore–Tambaram section were run on 1 July 2004, marking the end of the regular service of the YAM\\-1 locomotives, and the gauge conversion work in this section began. All MG mainline trains were switched over to diesel traction.", "On 1 November 2004, with the completion of the gauge\\-conversion work in this section, BG EMU services were inaugurated in the Beach\\-Chengalpattu Section with the addition of 15 new rakes from [ICF](/wiki/Integral_Coach_Factory \"Integral Coach Factory\").", "In September 2020, the conversion of the third meter\\-gauge line between Singaperumal Koil and Guduvancherry on the Tambaram–Chengalpattu stretch to broad gauge was completed and opened for traffic.{{citation needed\\|date\\=February 2021}}", "In February 2021, with the opening of four lines between [Chennai Beach](/wiki/Chennai_Beach \"Chennai Beach\") and [Attipattu](/wiki/Attipattu \"Attipattu\") at a cost of {{INR}} 2\\.9 billion, all the eight routes in the Chennai section have four lines each.{{cite web\n \\| url \\= https://www.railjournal.com/regions/asia/chennai\\-metro\\-inaugurates\\-blue\\-line\\-extension/\n \\| title \\= Chennai Metro inaugurates Blue Line extension\n \\| last \\= Cuenca \n \\| first \\= Oliver \n \\| date \\= 16 February 2021\n \\| website \\= International Railway Journal\n \\| publisher \\= IRJ\n \\| access\\-date \\= 18 February 2021\n \\| quote \\= }}", "" ]